In the news today Some links for the lazy... URL_2 URL_0 URL_1 ","Another thing to consider is Egypt is a single city country for the most part. 1/5 of their citizens live in the metro area of Cairo, and 1/2 of their total population live in the Nile Delta area which is only 15k square miles. There just aren't a ton of people making use of a lot of the land they have so nothing is just being stumbled on, especially outside of the cities and tourist areas.","I do not think you realize how vast some deserts are or how much is buried under all that sand..."],"string":"[\n \"Sand dunes buried most of them. All the ancient Egyptians were dead by then and the area wasn't that populated, so people lost track of where they all were. Sometimes the wind blows the sand away, and poof, there is the top of a pyramid.\",\n \"The big, solid, well-built pyramids we tend to think of as pyramids were only built for a short period, probably because they were a big drain on the economy. For a while, later pharaohs who weren't as powerful but still wanted to emulate their predecessors resorted to piling up mounds of dirt and debris and then throwing a layer of bricks over that. Understandably, this didn't survive as well, and today it's not obvious what's the remains of one of these pyramids and what's a natural hill.\",\n \" > In the news today Some links for the lazy... URL_2 URL_0 URL_1 \",\n \"Another thing to consider is Egypt is a single city country for the most part. 1/5 of their citizens live in the metro area of Cairo, and 1/2 of their total population live in the Nile Delta area which is only 15k square miles. There just aren't a ton of people making use of a lot of the land they have so nothing is just being stumbled on, especially outside of the cities and tourist areas.\",\n \"I do not think you realize how vast some deserts are or how much is buried under all that sand...\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["believed that there was no prehistory, von Däniken put forward that there is nothing known about how, when, or why these pyramids were built.\nVon Däniken also claims that Egyptians built perfect pyramids from the beginning, but numerous pyramid precursors survive, showing the errors made, and corrected, by Egyptian architects while they were perfecting the technique. These include simple mastabas, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, and the so-called Bent Pyramid.\nIn his book, he says that there is no evidence of Egyptian workers at the pyramid site; however, archaeologists have found evidence of buildings where workers would have lived, with bakeries and","-34.14024495037302"],["round. As of 2008, some 135 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. At 481ft, it was the tallest building in the world until Lincoln Cathedral was finished in 1311 AD. The base is over 52,600 square metres (566,000 sq ft) in area. The Great Pyramid of Giza is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is the only one to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians covered the faces of pyramids with polished white limestone, containing great quantities of fossilized","-33.919547038654855"],["modern list of pyramids – now known as the Lepsius list of pyramids – in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. As of November 2008, 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.\nThe location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the \"Headless Pyramid\", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands after Lepsius's survey. It was found again only during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008.\nMany pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than","-33.91380976396613"],["of 1,000 feet (300 m), more than twice as high as any of the Egyptian pyramids, may have been exaggerated, because most of the Chinese mounds of that area are built relatively low. The location, reported 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Sian, is in an area of great archaeological importance, but few of the pyramids have ever been explored.\"\nSome of the pyramids of Xi'an are currently tourist attractions, such as for example the Han Yang Ling Mausoleum of the Western Han Dynasty, and several of them have museums attached to them.","-33.636408619995564"],["mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures.\nThe most recent pyramid to be discovered was that of Sesheshet at Saqqara, mother of the Sixth Dynasty pharaoh Teti, announced on 11 November 2008.\nAll of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid of Zawyet el-Amwat (or Zawyet el-Mayitin), are sited on the west bank of the Nile, and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below. Abu Rawash Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly","-33.584834840585245"],["because the pyramid was not completed.\nMud bricks were found at the base of the pyramid, which are not associated with the pyramid itself, but are interpreted as remnants of a construction ramp. Substructure The disposition of the substructures of the layer pyramid is extremely similar to that found in the Buried Pyramid of Sekhemket. Consequently, Mark Lehner and others suggest that the two pyramids must have been constructed very close in time.\nThe entrance to the subterranean structures lies on the east, a disposition which would be unparalleled until the construction of the pyramid of Senusret II, almost 1000 years later.","-33.25300832989524"],["Granaries, and they have it written thus in their chronicles. On the other hand, if they were tombs, they would not be empty inside, nor would they have entrances for going inside, nor are tombs ever made of such a large size and such a height—which is why it is not to be believed that they are tombs.\"\nDuring the 15th century opinion was more evenly split as to the nature of the Pyramids. An anonymous traveler in 1420 speaks of going \"to see the most marvelous fourteen granaries of Pharaoh, five or six miles distant from Cairo.\" ","-33.037925023094886"],["not use modern machinery, but conclude it is still unknown exactly how the Great Pyramid was built. As Dr. Craig Smith of the team points out:\nThe logistics of construction at the Giza site are staggering when you think that the ancient Egyptians had no pulleys, no wheels, and no iron tools. Yet, the dimensions of the pyramid are extremely accurate and the site was leveled within a fraction of an inch over the entire 13.1-acre base. This is comparable to the accuracy possible with modern construction methods and laser leveling. That's astounding. With their 'rudimentary tools,' the pyramid builders of","-32.79591664941108"],["pyramids. Hartwig Hausdorf speculated it was built by aliens, and Philip Coppens repeated this theory.\nDespite claims to the contrary, the existence of these pyramid-shaped tomb mounds was known by scientists in the West before the publicity caused by the story in 1947. Shortly after the New York Times story, Science News Letter (now Science News) published a short item saying: \"The Chinese pyramids of that region are built of mud and dirt and are more like mounds than the pyramids of Egypt, and the region is little travelled. American scientists who have been in the area suggest that the height","-32.771778656542665"],["was told was the tomb of Argives killed in a battle around 669/8 BC. Neither of these still survive and there is no evidence that they resembled Egyptian pyramids.\nThere are also at least two surviving pyramid-like structures still available to study, one at Hellenikon and the other at Ligourio/Ligurio, a village near the ancient theatre Epidaurus. These buildings were not constructed in the same manner as the pyramids in Egypt. They do have inwardly sloping walls but other than those there is no obvious resemblance to Egyptian pyramids. They had large central rooms (unlike Egyptian pyramids) and the Hellenikon structure","-32.64819685674229"],["of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. Egypt The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian — huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the world's largest constructions. They are shaped as a reference to the rays of the sun. Most pyramids had a polished, highly reflective white limestone surface, to give them a shining appearance when viewed from a distance. The capstone was usually made of hard stone – granite or basalt – and could be plated with gold, silver, or electrum and would also","-32.50937275722754"],["(121 ft). The pyramid was constructed with a mudbrick core and a limestone outer casing with its backing stones. These and the limestone casing were both quarried by stone robbers, which left the core unprotected. The core fared very badly with time and the pyramid now stands only one meter tall due to the its disintegration.\nA fragmented black granite pyramidion was discovered on the east side of the complex and has been restored by G. Jéquier. It is now on display at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The pyramidion is decorated by reliefs showing Khendjer making offerings and is inscribed with the","-32.35581655455462"],["through the renewed excavations of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago under the direction of S. Harvey to have actually formed the lowest courses of a brick pyramid, the last queen's pyramid to have been built in Egypt. Portions of the limestone pyramidion or capstone were discovered as well, demonstrating conclusively that this structure was pyramidal in form. Magnetic survey also revealed a brick enclosure some 70 by 90 meters in scale, a feature not detected by earlier archaeologists. These accordingly may now be identified as the features described in Ahmose's stela found within: a pyramid and an enclosure, built","-32.21344876725743"],["of the Great Pyramids.\nPopular culture leads people to believe that Pyramids are highly confusing, with many tunnels within the pyramid to create confusion for grave robbers. This is not true. The shafts of pyramids are quite simple, mostly leading directly to the tomb. The immense size of the pyramids attracted robbers to the wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed relatively soon after the tomb was sealed in some cases. There are sometimes additional tunnels, but these were used for the builders to understand how far they could dig the tomb into the crust of the","-32.19753319173833"],["discovered is new and larger than the known cavities, and we’ll continue in our scientific steps”.\nOther Egyptologists have welcomed the discovery. Yukinori Kawae told National Geographic “This is definitely the discovery of the century...There have been many hypotheses about the pyramid, but no one even imagined that such a big void is located above the Grand Gallery.”\nPeter der Manuelian, from Harvard University, said that “This is an exciting new discovery, and potentially a major contribution to our knowledge about the Great Pyramid.” Physicists reactions Lee Thompson, an expert in particle physics at the University of Sheffield (UK) told Science: \"The","-32.1089742075128"],["constructions of man and that the earliest of them are nearly 1,500 years older than the first of the pyramids of Egypt.\" The Neolithic henges of Avebury and Stonehenge are two of the largest and most famous megalithic monuments in the world. The structure is an annual calendar, but the reason for the massive size is unknown with any certainty, suggestions include agriculture, ceremonial use and interpreting the cosmos. With other nearby sites, including Silbury Hill, Beckhampton Avenue, and West Kennet Avenue, they form a UNESCO World Heritage Site called Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites.\nNumerous examples of Bronze Age","-32.08914390544305"],["notable fact about the pyramid at Abu Rawash is that the upper most part of the pyramid has seemingly disappeared, revealing the internal passage that runs down into the bedrock. Explanations to why this pyramid is missing its top vary. The second point of interest that this pyramid provides is that it is built on top of a hillock. The builders faced the colossal task of not only hauling megalith stones up a pyramid but also up a hillock. Detail Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying — which began in Roman","-32.04873019597653"],["Egyptian pyramids Historical development By the time of the Early Dynastic Period, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas.\nThe second historically-documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser. Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other, creating an edifice composed of a number of \"steps\" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Pyramid of Djoser, which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which","-32.04370361415931"],["closely, often entering the great Pyramid, rather than simply viewing them from a distance. The French traveler Greffin Affagart (Seigneur de Courteilles) visited the Pyramids in 1533 and noted that \"some call [them] the granaries of Pharaoh, but this is wrong because they are not hollow on the inside, rather they are sepulchers of some kings of Egypt.\" The French explorer and naturalist Pierre Belon of Mans, a careful observer, records in 1546 that the great Pyramid \"was the sepulcher of the King of Egypt.\" Another French explorer André Thevet, who visited three years later writes: \"The","-32.04025866033953"],["better-known pyramids at Teotihuacan. Inside the pyramid are some five miles (8 km) of tunnels excavated by archaeologists. Pyramid The pyramid consists of six superimposed structures, one for each ethnic group that dominated it. However, only three have been studied in any depth. The pyramid itself is just a small part of the greater archaeological zone of Cholula, which is estimated at 154 hectares (0.59 sq mi). Building of the pyramid began in the Preclassic Period and over time was built over six times to its final dimensions of 450 metres on each side at the base and 66 metres tall. This base,","-32.020227669898304"],["of earth fill. The current conical shape of the pyramid was once thought to represent nearby volcanoes or mountains, but recent work by Rebecca Gonzalez Lauck has shown that the pyramid was in fact a rectangular pyramid with stepped sides and inset corners, and the current shape is most likely due to 2500 years of erosion. The pyramid itself has never been excavated, but a magnetometer survey in 1967 found an anomaly high on the south side of the pyramid. Speculation ranges from a section of burned clay to a cache of buried offerings to a tomb. Complex B South","-31.941079995296604"],["Great Pyramid of Giza History and description Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as \"Cheops\") and was constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian Royal cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and the absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the","-31.90566924275845"],["means that less material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing down from above. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures.\nCivilizations in many parts of the world have built pyramids. The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. For thousands of years, the largest structures on Earth were pyramids—first the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and then the Great Pyramid of Khufu, both in Egypt—the latter is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still remaining. Mesopotamia The Mesopotamians built","-31.866156144278648"],["of ancient monuments and megalithic ruins such as the Giza pyramids of Egypt, Machu Picchu in Peru, or Baalbek in Lebanon, the Moai of Easter Island and Stonehenge of England. Supporters say that these stone structures could not have been built with the technical abilities and tools of the people of the time and further argue that many could not be duplicated even today. They suggest that the large size of the building stones, the precision with which they were laid, and the distances many were transported leaves the question open as to who constructed these sites.\nThese ideas are categorically","-31.84253043301578"],["Turin papyrus shows the plan of one such mine in Nubia.\nThe Egyptians are known for building pyramids centuries before the creation of modern tools. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the Egyptian pyramids were built using three of what is called the Six Simple Machines, from which all machines are based. These machines are the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is 481 feet (146.7 meters) high.\nEgyptian","-31.817294020009285"],["used this humorously as a name for the Egyptian monuments, possibly because, when seen from a distance, they resembled large cakes.\"\nAnother interesting etymological conundrum that may have some relevance here is the origin of the Arabic word for pyramid, haram (هرم). Years ago, when noting the identification of the Pyramids with granaries, Charles Clermont-Ganneau speculated: \"It is not impossible that this strange legend had originated in a kind of pun on ahrâm (أهرام), pyramids, and ahrà (أهراء), barns/granaries,\" noting that it is a \"word that does not appear to have Arabic ties and is perhaps simply the Latin horreum.\"","-31.812680937386176"],["was in Atlantis, while Grafton Elliot Smith claimed Egypt, writing: \"Small groups of people, moving mainly by sea, settled at certain places and there made rude imitations of the Egyptian monuments of the Pyramid Age.\" Ancient astronauts Several proponents of ancient astronauts claim that the Great Pyramid of Giza was constructed by extraterrestrial beings, or influenced by them (e.g., through their advanced technology). Proponents include Erich von Däniken, Robert Charroux, W. Raymond Drake, and Zecharia Sitchin. According to Erich Von Däniken, the Great Pyramid has advanced numerological properties which could not have been known to the ancient Egyptians and so must have","-31.81062024546918"],["who discovered the pyramid in 1843. Owing to the ruined state of the structure, it is known in Arabic as the \"Headless Pyramid\", a name that has been retained. The pyramid was lost under shifting sands in the early 20th century and its attribution to Menkauhor was consequently debated. Instead, it was proposed that the Headless Pyramid was that of Merikare, a structure dating to the First Intermediate Period and which has yet to be found. In 2008, the structure identified by Lepsius was rediscovered by a team of archaeologists under the direction of Zahi Hawass, and excavations at the","-31.807515227952535"],["that nature produces pyramidal shapes and suggested that the main formation seen today may have been a natural hill shaped into a pyramid by human efforts. He described his own results as inconclusive. The very same blocks were inspected by British archaeologist Anthony Harding shortly afterwards, who concluded they did not constitute evidence of pyramids.\nThe 2006 dig uncovered fractured conglomerate and sandstone plates, which are naturally occurring. Following a visit to the site, American geologist Robert Schoch concluded that these were common natural geological formations of little interest. He accused the workers of carving the hillside to make impressions","-31.779948614159366"],["as various pyramids and circular structures made out of massive, smooth blocks of stone that resembled hewn granite. Zalitzki said \"It's a really wonderful structure which really looks like it could have been a large urban centre. However, it would be totally irresponsible to say what it was before we have evidence.\"\nAfter studying the images, National Geographic senior editor John Echave said: \"They are interesting anomalies, but that's as much as anyone can say right now, but I'm no expert on sonar and until we are able to actually go down there and see, it will be difficult to characterize","-31.75450349757375"],["Al-Muqaddasi (d. 991), a great contemporary geographer, confirms the identification: \"Varying accounts have been given me about both structures [the two great pyramids], some saying that they are both talismans, others that they were the granaries of Joseph; others say no, rather, they are their burial grounds.\" Etymology There were additional reasons that may have made the notion of the Pyramids being granaries seem plausible to people in the past. First, there was the murky issue of the etymology of the word pyramid (Ancient Greek: πυραμίς, romanized: pyramis, lit. 'pyramid'). Writing in ca. 390 CE, the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus","-31.69404964194473"],["pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one)— the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.\nIts location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying, which began in Roman times, has left little apart from about 15 courses of","-31.667088262889592"],["point out that it would be surprising for a royal pyramid to have been completely destroyed less than 300 years after its construction, only to be re-used for simple rock-cut tombs. Additionally, he points to the unusual geographic position of the pyramid: Old Kingdom pyramids were commonly built on high grounds, while the pyramid Lepsius I lies on a flat plain. Thus, the dating of this monument to the late 3rd dynasty no longer seems tenable. Cultic step pyramids Several small step pyramids along the Nile river are also credited to Huni. Those small pyramids had a cultic function and","-31.603455719159683"],["Voyage to Atlantis: The Lost Empire, which aired June 10, 2001.\nDiscussing the Bosnian pyramid with Steven Novella, Feder stated that it does not make sense that Visočica is anything other than a natural formation. \"It's all about physical evidence... ancient pyramids don't build themselves.\" Feder claimed that pseudoarcheologists lack the training to do a professional job evaluating items they may find.\nFeder's book Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology addresses popular myths, by attempting to provide easily understood explanations for why some inaccuracies are perpetuated. In his book, Feder also attempts to delineate the differences between findings that are questionable from \"outright frauds.\"","-31.567001011688262"],["the country to Alexandria and the western sea ... They say that King Pharaoh caused the towers to be built during the lean years, and kept them full of corn. That is why they are called the Kassa Pharaonis. But I could find no entrance. Some say that they are the tombs of the old kings of Egypt.\"\nThere were also a number of travelers that saw difficulties with viewing the Pyramids as granaries. Anselmo Adorno traveled from Bruges in 1470 and gives a number of arguments against the prevailing view: \"Facing Babylon, beyond the Nile, towards","-31.54051611664545"],["few objects belonging to the foundation deposits have been found, but none of the finds bears any name. Hypogeum The hypogeum is remarkable for its size and complexity, and is the largest and most elaborate of all known pyramids dating from the late 12th and 13th dynasties. The passageway changes directions and level several times, and was planned to contain four portcullises, more than any other pyramid from that period. Entryway The pyramid entrance is on the east side. A long descending staircase passes through the alcove where the first portcullis was intended to be put. The corridor turns left and","-31.52176284834968"],["most influential civilizations in the world with its architectural monuments, which include the pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx—among the largest and most famous buildings in the world.\nThe most famous pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids—huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans. Pyramids functioned as tombs for pharaohs. In Ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as mer, literally \"place of ascendance.\" The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The base is over 13 acres (53,000 m²) in area. It","-31.47717427268799"],["of the kingdom's capital cities.\nAl-Aziz Uthman (1171–1198), the second Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt, tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after only damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure because the task proved too large. Pyramid symbolism The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance.","-31.46946307115286"],["in turn surrounded by 14 layers of mud bricks bonded with clay mortar and disposed almost vertically, with an inward inclination angle of 68°. Just as the inner-most stone casing of the pyramid core, each mud brick layer is 2.6 m (8.5 ft) thick.\nWhether the pyramid was finished or left unfinished is disputed among experts. The egyptologist Rainer Stadelmann believes that the pyramid was indeed finished, but others, such as Miroslav Verner, think that the building was left unfinished because of the pharaoh's premature death. In particular, no traces of outer cladding were found, which could hint that there never was one","-31.455087291411473"],["skill level of Egyptian design and engineering on a large scale. The Great Pyramid of Giza, which was probably completed c. 2580 BC, is the oldest of the Giza pyramids and the largest pyramid in the world, and is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign. Khafre ambitiously placed his pyramid next to his father’s. It is not as tall as his father's pyramid but he was able to give it the impression of appearing taller","-31.43668826933208"],["the construction of the Egyptian pyramids do little to point definitively to methods to lift the blocks; yet most Egyptologists refer to these accounts when discussing this portion of pyramid construction. Thales, according to the philosopher Hieronymus (3rd century BC) visited the Egyptian pyramids during the 7th century BC and by using the intercept theorem, also known as Thales's theorem, measured their height and thus their volume. The first historical accounts of the construction of these monuments came centuries after the era of pyramid construction, by Herodotus in the 5th century BC and Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC.","-31.414097290458812"],["his An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920) summed up the earliest of pseudoarcheological claims on the ancient Egyptian pyramids as follows:\n...in the 1880s, Ignatius Donnelly had suggested that the Great Pyramid had been built by the descendants of the Atlanteans. That idea was picked up in the 1920s by Manly Palmer Hall who went on to suggest that they were the focus of the ancient Egyptian wisdom schools. Edgar Cayce built upon Hall's speculations.\nIgnatius Donnelly and later proponents of the hyperdiffusionist view of history claimed that all pyramid structures across the world had a common origin. Donnelly claimed this common origin","-31.39438123429136"],["and as a result his report was extremely short and contained no information beyond what had already been reported by the French expedition.\nThe most recent attempt to locate the pyramid was undertaken in 1993 by the Polish Egyptologist Andrzej Ćwiek. By this time, however, Athribis had been almost entirely covered over by the modern city of Banha, the pyramid had been completely destroyed and its exact location could no longer be determined. Structure The dimensions of the pyramid were never exactly determined, so they can only be estimated from the information in the Description de l'Egypte. On the basis of","-31.30108421802288"],["Pyramid of Athribis Discovery and loss The structure was first noted by scholarship during Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition (1798-1801). No real investigation was undertaken, however, aside from an engraving of the pyramid and a map of the ruins of Athribis which includes the pyramid, both of which were first published in the Description de l’Égypte in 1822. After that, for a long time, the pyramid was forgotten.\nThe pyramid was first relocated in 1938 by a team from Liverpool University led by Alan Rowe. In the meanwhile the superstructure had been almost entirely destroyed. Time constraints prevented Rowe from undertaking close investigation","-31.28626604359306"],["and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles.\nThe southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid, is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be a \"true\" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state – but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone. As a true smooth-sided structure, the","-31.217299125786667"],["encased in a veneer of polished limestone. In several cases, later pyramids were built on top of natural hills to further reduce the volume of material needed in their construction. The materials and methods of construction used in the earliest pyramids have ensured their survival in a generally much better state of preservation than for the pyramid monuments of the later pharaohs. Building the pyramids from quarried stone blocks One of the major problems faced by the early pyramid builders was the need to move huge quantities of stone. The Twelfth Dynasty tomb of Djehutihotep has an illustration of 172","-31.214117115734552"],["and Edificio F (Building F). By the official end of the project in 1974, interest in the pyramid waned again as it could not be reconstructed in its entirety, like other major pyramids in Mexico. The project was abandoned, leaving only fragmentary knowledge about it.\nDespite the site's pre-Hispanic importance, this pyramid is relatively unknown and unstudied, especially in comparison to others in Mexico such as Teotihuacan, Chichen Itza and Monte Albán. There are a number of possible reasons for this. One is that its existence was not greatly elaborated in a publication by the Mexican government for the 1928 Congreso","-31.17007287252636"],["than a hillock of stone. \nNone of the excavations penetrated to the burial chamber due to high water levels, but much was learned about pyramid construction from the surrounding quarries, which contained one of the highest concentrations of ancient debris of any Egyptian archaeological site. Gautier and Jequier The pyramid was first explored by archaeologists Gautier and Jequier between 1894 and 1895. Metropolitan Museum of Art From 1906 to 1943, the pyramid was excavated by a team from the Metropolitan Museum of Art headed by Lythgoe, Mace and Ambrose Lansing. Dieter Arnold From 1984 to 1987, further excavation was","-31.12327897376963"],["cubic meters) is one of the largest pyramids in the world. When the large man-made platform that the temple is built upon (some 180,000 square meters) is included in calculations, La Danta is considered by some archeologists to be one of the most massive ancient structures in the world. Also the \"Los Monos\" complex is very large (48 meters high) although not as well known. Most of the structures were originally faced with cut stone which was then decorated with large stucco masks depicting the deities of Maya mythology. According to Carlos Morales-Aguilar, a Guatemalan archaeologist from Pantheon-Sorbonne University, the","-31.121996272213437"],["is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed for use on other structures over the millennia.\nThe Red Pyramid of Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone","-31.115745264003635"],["Great Pyramid) Complex C, “The Great Pyramid,” is the central building in the city layout, is constructed almost entirely out of clay, and is easily seen from far away. The structure is built on top of a closed-in platform—this is where Blom and La Farge discovered Altars 2 and 3, thereby discovering La Venta and the Olmec civilization. A carbon sample from a burned area of the Structure C-1’s surface resulted in the date of 394 ± 30 BCE.\nOne of the earliest pyramids known in Mesoamerica, the Great Pyramid is 110 ft (34 m) high and contains an estimated 100,000 cubic meters","-31.100675330573722"],["beautifully covered in white, but the top was said to be capped. The pyramid therefore already had no pyramidion anymore. He also thinks that the pyramid was built with ramps, which were removed during the finishing of the limestone shell. Diodorus estimates that the total number of workers was 300,000 and that the building works lasted for 20 years. Khufu in Arabic traditions In 642 A.D. the Arabs conquered Egypt. Upon arriving at the Giza pyramids, they searched for explanations as to who could have built these monuments. By this time, no inhabitant of Egypt was able to tell and no","-31.005345296114683"],["of approximately 2.5 metres (8.2 ft). The front (south) face of the pyramid was not straight, the angles of the southern corners were slightly greater than 90° with the facade of the pyramid extending out slightly to meet the access ramp. The excavator concluded that this was to create the illusion that the building was larger than its actual size. The pyramidal base originally stood between 9.7 and 9.8 metres (32 and 32 ft) high. The access ramp was 6.4 metres (21 ft) wide and originally faced in stone, as uncovered during the 1949 excavations by Pedro Armillas. However, after the excavations, the","-30.963013385160593"],["pyramid of Teti; the Headless Pyramid was a perfect candidate, also because there were no other pyramids of the Fifth Dynasty in its immediate vicinity. However, most scholars believed that the owner of the pyramid was Menkauhor instead, because the priests appointed for the funerary cult of this king were buried to a great extent in northern Saqqara.\nA systematic excavation of the substructure in 2008 under Zahi Hawass corroborated the assignment to the Fifth Dynasty on the basis of structure and materials that were typical of that era. Although no inscriptions with the name of a pharaoh were found, Hawass","-30.932103499486402"],["el-Mudir. The results of these excavations were not published.\nSystematic research was first undertaken in the 1990s by archaeologists of the National Museum of Scotland employing techniques like magnetometry and ground-penetrating radar. Before these excavations, the structure was thought to be an unfinished pyramid complex from the Third Dynasty. However, pottery shards in the filling of the walls were found to date to the late Second or beginning of the Third Dynasty which leads some Egyptologists to believe this is evidence the structure may have been constructed at the end of the Second Dynasty.\nThe builder of the structure has not yet","-30.932058645070356"],["any theory that seeks to explain only how the Great Pyramid was built\".\nHoudin has another hypothesis developed from his architectural model, one that could finally explain the internal \"Grand Gallery\" chamber that otherwise appears to have little purpose. He believes the gallery acted as a trolley chute/guide for counterbalance weights. It enabled the raising of the five 60-ton granite beams that roof the King's Chamber. Houdin and Brier and the Dassault team are already credited with proving for the first time that cracks in beams appeared during construction, were examined and tested at the time and declared relatively harmless. Limestone","-30.922769515535037"],["of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat. Looting Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid-building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Brier and Hobbs claim, \"all the pyramids were robbed\" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began. Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself \"is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom\", before","-30.905703850086866"],["Egyptian pyramid construction techniques Egyptian pyramid construction techniques are the controversial subject of many hypotheses. These techniques seem to have developed over time; later pyramids were not constructed in the same way as earlier ones. Most of the construction hypotheses are based on the belief that huge stones were carved from quarries with copper chisels, and these blocks were then dragged and lifted into position. Disagreements chiefly concern the methods used to move and place the stones.\nIn addition to the many unresolved arguments about the construction techniques, there have been disagreements as to the kind of workforce used. The Greeks,","-30.876112002060836"],["like Egypt's Great Pyramids, still stand today.\nAncient buildings such as the Egyptian pyramids, the Roman Colosseum, and the Parthenon face common preservation issues. The most prominent factors affecting these structures are the environment, pollution, and tourism.\nAs the Earth's climate patterns change, so too do the environmental conditions governing these buildings. For example, the Colosseum has already faced lightning, fire, and earthquakes. The changing climate increases the accumulation of salt crystals on the outside of monuments like the Colosseum and the Parthenon. This phenomenon increases the deterioration of these buildings.\nThe salt crystals further contribute to the black effect","-30.85075522695479"],["and calls attention to the obvious fact \"that this figure is most improper for such a purpose, a Pyramid being the least capacious of any regular mathematical body, the straitness and fewness of the rooms within (the rest of the building being one solid and intire fabric of stone) do utterly over-throw this conjecture.\" No longer could the notion be held credibly, though for over a millennium it had reigned supreme among European travelers. Egyptian granaries Ancient Egypt had one of the most successful and stable agricultural economies of the ancient world, and had both a system and facilities","-30.827648309461438"],["in fact pyramids, e.g. a tomb alleged to be the tomb of Amphion and Zethus near Thebes, a structure at Stylidha (Thessaly) which is just a long wall, etc. She also notes the possibility that the stones that were dated might have been recycled from earlier constructions. She also notes that earlier research from the 1930s, confirmed in the 1980s by Fracchia was ignored. She argues that they undertook their research using a novel and previously untested methodology in order to confirm a predetermined theory about the age of these structures.\nLiritzis responded in a journal article published in 2011, stating","-30.81760324777133"],["notion of granaries: \"On the other side of the Nile we saw many pyramids, which long ago the kings of Egypt had erected over their tombs, of which the common people say are the granaries or storehouses that were built there by Joseph in order to store grain. However, this is clearly false, for these pyramids are not hollow inside.\" Renaissance By the 16th century most visitors who left accounts argue against the notion that the pyramids were originally granaries constructed by the patriarch Joseph, if they mention it at all. Many of the visitors inspected the ruins rather","-30.817601772134367"],["but three pyramids. The first is called the Meidum pyramid, named for its location in Egypt. Snefru abandoned it after the outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber. Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur, and the Red Pyramid, at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during the building of 'The Great Pyramids' at Giza.\nSneferu was succeeded by his son,","-30.78776793007819"],["not a step pyramid like the other seven; secondly, the other seven pyramids are built of stone, while the Pyramid of Athribis was made of brick. On account of this last point in particular, Ćwiek criticised Swelim and Stadelmann's inclusion of this pyramid in that group. He further considered it unlikely that a brick structure would have survived in such good condition from the Old Kingdom until the beginning of the 19th century. In his opinion, therefore, it was probably a pyramid from the 13th Dynasty, if not the Late Period.","-30.769820955487376"],["his 1968 book Chariots of the Gods?, saying that the ancient Egyptians did not have the most advanced tools to actually build the pyramid, there is no evidence of workers, and there is too much 'intimate' knowledge about the Earth and its geography for the Egyptians to build the pyramid in that exact location. However, the technique of construction is well understood, the tools the Egyptians used are known, marks left in the quarries by those tools are still visible, and many examples of the tools are preserved in museums.\nVon Däniken claims that it would have taken the Egyptians too","-30.710411184772965"],["visible. Khufu decided to call his necropolis Akhet-Khufu (meaning \"horizon of Khufu\").\nThe Great Pyramid has a base measurement of ca. 750 x 750ft (≙ 230.4 x 230.4 m) and today a height of 455.2 ft (138.7 m). Once it had been 481 ft (147 m) high, but the pyramidion and the limestone casing are completely lost due to stone robbery. The lack of the casing allows a full view of the inner core of the pyramid. It was erected in small steps by more or less roughly hewn blocks of dark limestone. The casing was made of nearly white limestone. The outer surface of the","-30.67412180678366"],["that only the outer casing was constructed using high quality limestone.\nOwing to the poor condition of the monument, information regarding its dimensions and appearance contain a degree of imprecision. The pyramid had a base length of 78.5 m (258 ft; 149.8 cu) converging at 50° 30′ towards the apex 48 m (157 ft; 92 cu) high. The architects made a notable error in demarcating the base, causing the southeast corner of the pyramid to extend 1.58 m (5.2 ft) too far east. Consequently, the base is not square. A ditch was left in the north face of the pyramid during construction which allowed workers to build","-30.644902953354176"],["Priest of Memphis and son of Ramesses II, from the Nineteenth Dynasty indicates that the pyramid was in relatively good condition at this time, needing only minor improvements.\nThe pyramid is now destroyed, and original dimensions are estimates. The length of the base of the pyramid was 78.75 m (258 ft; 150 cu), converging towards the apex at ~53° giving the pyramid a peak 52.5 m (172 ft; 100 cu) high on completion. The remaining ruins leave a mound about 12 m (39 ft; 23 cu) tall, with a pit in its centre dug by stone robbers. Substructure A north chapel once stood over the entrance corridor on the north","-30.609109615863417"],[" As the Egyptian scholar Abu Ja'far al-Idrisi (d. 1251), the author of the oldest known extensive study of the Pyramids, puts it: \"The nation that built it lay destroyed, it has no successor to carry the truth of its stories from father to son, as sons of other nations carry from their fathers what they love and cherish among their stories.\" As a result, the oldest discussion of the Pyramids that has survived is from the Greek historian Herodotus, who visited them soon after 450 BCE. He describes \"the underground chambers on the hill whereon the pyramids stand,\"","-30.60641273199508"],["Joseph Davidovits Archaeological theories Davidovits asserts that the ancient Egyptians did not possess the tools or technology to carve and haul the huge (2.5 to 15 ton) limestone blocks that made up the Great Pyramid, conjecturing instead that the blocks were molded in-place by using a form of limestone concrete. According to his theory, a soft limestone with a high kaolinite content was quarried in the wadi on the south of the Giza plateau. It was then dissolved in large, Nile-fed pools until it became a watery slurry. Lime (found in the ash of ancient cooking fires) and natron (also","-30.581532304897564"],["marble and surrounded by a colonnade.\nDuring the 19th century, the remains of this structure were discovered by Flinders Petrie at the foot of the pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara in the Faiyum Oasis. The Classical accounts of various authors (Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, among others) are not entirely consistent, perhaps due to degradation of the structure during Classical times. In origin, the structure was likely a collection of funerary temples such as are commonly found near Egyptian pyramids.\nIn 1898, the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities described the structure as \"the largest of all the temples of Egypt,","-30.580088928267287"],["Merheleva Ridge Misidentification as pyramid and clarification Initial reports indicated that archaeologists had discovered a pyramidal structure.\nKlochko blamed the press: \"I'm not sure where the pyramid idea came from - the media got it wrong,\" says Klochko. \"We didn't find anything like an Egyptian pyramid. Though the site is on a hill. But it's interesting enough in its own right.\"","-30.575447601047927"],["be highly reflective. After 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians began building pyramids, until around 1700 BC. The first pyramid was erected during the Third Dynasty by the Pharaoh Djoser and his architect Imhotep. This step pyramid consisted of six stacked mastabas. The largest Egyptian pyramids are those at the Giza pyramid complex.\nThe age of the pyramids reached its zenith at Giza in 2575–2150 BC. Ancient Egyptian pyramids were in most cases placed west of the river Nile because the divine pharaoh's soul was meant to join with the sun during its descent before continuing with the sun in its eternal","-30.558361250863527"],["Materials The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the \"King's\" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Ancient Egyptians cut stone into rough blocks by hammering grooves into natural stone faces, inserting wooden wedges, then soaking these with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, breaking off workable chunks. Once the blocks were cut, they were","-30.543140442823642"],["of the narrow shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.\nAll Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which, as the site of the setting sun, was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology. Number and location of pyramids In 1842, Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first","-30.532461967704876"],["were often \"inscribed with royal titles and religious symbols\".\nVery few pyramidia have survived into modern times. Most of those that remain are made of polished black granite, inscribed with the name of the pyramid's owner. Four pyramidia – the world's largest collection – are housed in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Among them are the pyramidia from the so-called Black Pyramid of Amenemhat III at Dahshur and of the Pyramid of Khendjer at Saqqara.\nA badly damaged white Tura limestone pyramidion, thought to have been made for the Red Pyramid of Sneferu at Dahshur, has been reconstructed","-30.473992558105238"],["that material will be replaced because it was in poor conditions. In 2014, the Shaanxi Conservation Institute and the Wuhan University led a joint surveillance study on the site. Description The tomb is the largest of all tombs built during the Han Dynasty. It is also well known as \"Great White Pyramid\" since U.S. Army Air Corps pilot James Gaussman saw it as \"a white jewel-topped pyramid during a flight between India and China during World War II\" (see Chinese pyramids).\nIt is a trapezoidal tumulus built from rammed earth with a rectangular base which measures 222 by 217 metres (728","-30.470978384844784"],["the western side of the structure.\nA Czech archaeological team led by Miroslav Verner conducted the first intensive excavation between 2001 and 2004, in which the unusual character of the structure as a \"Double pyramid\" became clear. Both sections of the structure have a slightly rectangular base plan, oriented in a north-south direction with extremely steep sides, which make it impossible that the structure was ever a true pyramid. In the masonry, a relatively large number of building inscriptions and marks were found. These included the name of the structure, which can be translated as \"the two [pyramids] are watchful.\"\nDušan Magdolen","-30.452757583447237"],["by Alessandro Barsanti, who uncovered the vertical access shaft leading to the burial chamber. Barsanti, seeing that several corridors and chambers were seemingly unfinished and that all were completely devoid of artefacts, deemed that the pyramid had never been used. Shortly after, in 1910–1911, George Reisner and Clarence S. Fisher worked on the site, excavating the north and east exteriors of the pyramid as well as the cemeteries surrounding it. The dimensions of the pyramid as estimated by Barsanti, Reisner and Fisher differ greatly and even the numbers of subterranean galleries they report are in disagreement. Unfortunately, the pyramid lies","-30.449862126566586"],["Double Pyramid Exploration On his Egyptian expedition (1842-1845), the German archaeologist Karl Richard Lepsius located a small pyramid structure and included it in his list of pyramids as number XXV (25). Ludwig Borchardt classified it as a double mastaba in his research sixty years later, but he did not examine it any more closely.\nSince for a long time no intensive research was conducted, the structure was believed to be the pyramid of a queen of the 5th dynasty, similar to Lepsius XXIV directly to the north, although preliminary investigations appeared to indicate that the funerary temple was located, unusually, on","-30.439048422776978"],["1748.\nThe rather unusual design of this monument has long attracted visitors' notice. As Rev. A. Williamson, who visited the site in 1865, wrote:\nThe pyramid was not at all to be compared to the Egyptian ones for size, but of the same shape, and instantly reminded one of them. Anywhere but in China would we look for such structures. But this is another indication of the antiquity of the Chinese, and the oneness of the human race.\nThe tomb proper is only a few metres behind Shou Qiu. Shou Qiu was originally separate from Shaohao's tomb, but after the 12th century renovation","-30.39423039353278"],["pyramid site, 6 miles northeast of Jebel Barkal. It housed the tombs of 20 pharaohs and 54 queens. The pharaoh's pyramids range from 39.5 to 65 metres (130 to 213 ft) in height. The queen's pyramids are 9 to 17 metres (30 to 56 ft). The tombs were cut out of bedrock. The pharaoh's chamber contained three interconnecting chambers. The queen's contain two interconnecting chambers. Meroë The third Nubian Pyramid site Meroë is considered to be the largest archaeological site in the world. It contains more Nubian Pyramids than any other site.\nThe ancient Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions","-30.378611020201788"],["that rarely exceed 8 metres (26 ft) in width, resulting in tall, narrow structures inclined at approximately 70°. Most also have offering temple structures abutting their base with unique Kushite characteristics. By comparison, Egyptian pyramids of similar height generally had foundation footprints that were at least five times larger and were inclined at angles between 40–50°.\nThe tombs inside the pyramids of Nubia were plundered in ancient times. Wall reliefs preserved in the tomb chapels reveal that their royal occupants were mummified, covered with jewellery and laid to rest in wooden mummy cases. At the time of their exploration by archaeologists in","-30.348491701421153"],["attributed it to Menkauhor because he is the only pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty whose pyramid has not been identified. The pyramid The pyramid had a length of approximately 52 m (171 ft) and was probably aligned with the pyramid of Teti. Virtually nothing is left of the superstructure, hence its name. On the north side lies the entrance to the underground chamber system, which was sealed by two granite portcullises. A broken sarcophagus lid was found in the burial chamber.","-30.34209259186173"],["build royal pyramids was Ahmose, with later kings hiding their tombs in the hills, such as those in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor's West Bank. In Medinat Habu, or Deir el-Medina, smaller pyramids were built by individuals. Smaller pyramids with steeper sides were also built by the Nubians who ruled Egypt in the Late Period. Sudan While pyramids are associated with Egypt, the nation of Sudan has 220 extant pyramids, the most numerous in the world.Nubian pyramids were constructed (roughly 240 of them) at three sites in Sudan to serve as tombs for the kings and queens of","-30.335215998034982"],["seashells. Many of the facing stones have fallen or have been removed and used for construction in Cairo.\nMost pyramids are located near Cairo, with only one royal pyramid being located south of Cairo, at the Abydos temple complex. The pyramid at Abydos, Egypt were commissioned by Ahmose I who founded the 18th Dynasty and the New Kingdom. The building of pyramids began in the Third Dynasty with the reign of King Djoser. Early kings such as Snefru built several pyramids, with subsequent kings adding to the number of pyramids until the end of the Middle Kingdom.\nThe last king to","-30.33225272936511"],["More pyramids were constructed and for the longest time in Nubia than in Egypt. Nubia contains 223 pyramids. They were smaller than Egyptian pyramids. Nubian pyramids were for kings and queens. The general construction of Nubian pyramids consisted of steep walls, a chapel facing East, stairway facing East, and a chamber access via the stairway.\nEl-Kurru was the first major site. It is located 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south from Jebel Barkal. It was made of sandstone. It range from 10 to 30 metres (33 to 98 ft) in height. About 10 pharaohs and 14 queens were buried at El-Kurru.\nNuri was another important","-30.301340268015338"],["Giants' statues. Hypotheses on the necropolis appearance Due to the incompleteness of the excavations, it is not yet possible to determine the real appearance of the necropolis and grouping of the sculptures.\nSome scholars have cast doubts about the original pertinence of the latter to the necropolis, in that the only evidence in favour of this fact would be the spatial contiguity between the statues and the mortuary complex itself. This led others to hypothesize that the statues had been conceived as telamons to adorn a temple, close to the necropolis but dedicated to the Sardus Pater. According to this theory,","-30.26247051138489"],["typical of Ming Dynasty observation platforms and it would have been wholly logical for the Chinese to build observatories to determine precisely the location of the phenomenal riches they had discovered.\"\nWheeler argues that the claims of an extraordinary origin for the pyramid are unfounded, writing, \"The facts are (probably) that the Gympie \"Golden\" pyramid is actually an ordinary hill terraced by early Italian immigrants for viticulture that has been disfigured by erosion and the removal of stone from the retaining walls for use elsewhere ... As for all the supporting statements by the various authorities, all but a few unimportant","-30.232895403154544"],["example is perhaps problem 56 from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.\nThe most famous of all the pyramids of Egypt is the Great Pyramid of Giza built around 2,550 B.C.. Based on the surveys of this structure that have been carried out by Flinders Petrie and others, the slopes of the faces of this monument were a seked of 5 1/2, or 5 palms and 2 digits [see figure above] which equates to a slope of 51.84° from the horizontal, using the modern 360 degree system. This slope would probably have been accurately applied during construction by way of 'A frame' shaped wooden","-30.195231715199043"],["on top, more similar to the Mesopotamian ziggurat than the Egyptian pyramid.\nThe largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. Constructed from the 3rd century BC to the 9th century AD, this pyramid is considered the largest monument ever constructed anywhere in the world, and is still being excavated. The third largest pyramid in the world, the Pyramid of the Sun, at Teotihuacan is also located in Mexico. There is an unusual pyramid with a circular plan at the site of Cuicuilco, now inside Mexico City and mostly covered with lava from","-30.155474463057544"],["Pyramid of Khui History of research The ruined pyramid was first mentioned in a 1912 article of the fr:Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte by the Egyptian Egyptologist Ahmed Kamal. Later, between 1946 and 1948, the complex was explored by Raymond Weill. Due both to the ruined state of the structure and to the building's atypical architecture, Kamal believed it to be a huge mastaba while Weill thought it was a pyramid. Even today, in spite of the fact that the building is commonly considered to be a pyramid—and possibly a step pyramid—it is not possible to determine with","-30.138779136943413"],["Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining.\nWhile it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion is that they were designed as a type of \"resurrection machine.\"\nThe Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One","-30.116067503588056"],["Kakai, is believed to have been built originally as a step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then later transformed into a \"true\" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry. Saqqara Major pyramids located here include the Pyramid of Djoser – generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone – the Pyramid of Userkaf, the Pyramid of Teti and the Pyramid of Merikare, dating to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved","-30.074795937352974"],["the Meidum Pyramid in a downpour while the building was still under construction.\nFranck Monnier and others believe the pyramid not to have collapsed until the New Kingdom, but there are a number of facts contradicting this theory. The Meidum Pyramid seems never to have been completed. Beginning with Sneferu and to the 12th dynasty all pyramids had a valley temple, which is missing at Meidum. The mortuary temple, which was found under the rubble at the base of the pyramid, apparently never was finished. Walls were only partly polished. Two steles inside, usually bearing the names of the pharaoh, are","-30.054532694002773"],["site quickly established a Fifth Dynasty date as indicated by the construction techniques used in its making. Although the excavations failed to yield the name of the king who built the pyramid, Menkauhor was the last pharaoh of the dynasty whose pyramid remained undiscovered. Thus, proceeding by elimination, archeologists and egyptologists have formally recognized the Headless Pyramid as that of Menkauhor.\nThe pyramid is estimated to have been around 50–60 m (160–200 ft) at the base, so that the edifice would have stood 40–50 m (130–160 ft) high at the time of its construction, making it one of the smallest royal pyramids of the Old","-30.013608522436698"],["pseudoarchaeological ancient astronaut theory and Orion correlation theory are related claims that the Great Pyramid was constructed by the use of an advanced lost technology. Proponents of this theory often link this hypothetical advanced technology to extraterrestrials but also Atlanteans, Lemurians or a legendary lost race. Notable proponents include Christopher Dunn and David Hatcher Childress. Graham Hancock, in his book Fingerprints of the Gods, assigned the 'ground plan' of the three main Egyptian pyramids, in his theory of an advanced progenitor civilization which possessed advanced technology. Criticism In 1880, the renowned Egyptologist Flinders Petrie went to Egypt to perform new","-29.97869513788828"],["largest pyramids, the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Khafre, describing his findings in the Legatio while largely ignoring the smaller Pyramid of Menkaure. The ambassador later directed his attention towards the Great Pyramid's interior. Members of the expedition were instructed to enter the monument through a southeastern entrance, while Martyr and the chief guide observed from the outside. The visitors came across a \"vaulted, shell-shaped chamber\" where small tombs could be found. From this, Martyr was able to confirm the pyramids' funerary nature, discarding the notion that the monuments represented the biblical \"granaries of Joseph\", a common perception in","-29.954704472853336"],["Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years. Interior The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23\" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to","-29.95298671616183"],["of tunnels inside the pyramid, which began with two in 1931 to prove that the hill was an archeological find. Within, altars with offerings, floors, walls and buried human remains from around 900 AD were discovered. Today, only about 800 meters of these tunnels are open to the public, which have been made into well-lit, arched passages. Visitors enter on the north side, through the center of the pyramid and exit on the south side. There are few signs explaining the structures within, but in one section allows a view of main staircases of one of the pyramids, whose nine","-29.951018922627554"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"believed that there was no prehistory, von Däniken put forward that there is nothing known about how, when, or why these pyramids were built.\\nVon Däniken also claims that Egyptians built perfect pyramids from the beginning, but numerous pyramid precursors survive, showing the errors made, and corrected, by Egyptian architects while they were perfecting the technique. These include simple mastabas, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, and the so-called Bent Pyramid.\\nIn his book, he says that there is no evidence of Egyptian workers at the pyramid site; however, archaeologists have found evidence of buildings where workers would have lived, with bakeries and\",\n \"-34.14024495037302\"\n ],\n [\n \"round. As of 2008, some 135 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. At 481ft, it was the tallest building in the world until Lincoln Cathedral was finished in 1311 AD. The base is over 52,600 square metres (566,000 sq ft) in area. The Great Pyramid of Giza is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is the only one to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians covered the faces of pyramids with polished white limestone, containing great quantities of fossilized\",\n \"-33.919547038654855\"\n ],\n [\n \"modern list of pyramids – now known as the Lepsius list of pyramids – in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. As of November 2008, 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.\\nThe location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the \\\"Headless Pyramid\\\", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands after Lepsius's survey. It was found again only during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008.\\nMany pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than\",\n \"-33.91380976396613\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 1,000 feet (300 m), more than twice as high as any of the Egyptian pyramids, may have been exaggerated, because most of the Chinese mounds of that area are built relatively low. The location, reported 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Sian, is in an area of great archaeological importance, but few of the pyramids have ever been explored.\\\"\\nSome of the pyramids of Xi'an are currently tourist attractions, such as for example the Han Yang Ling Mausoleum of the Western Han Dynasty, and several of them have museums attached to them.\",\n \"-33.636408619995564\"\n ],\n [\n \"mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures.\\nThe most recent pyramid to be discovered was that of Sesheshet at Saqqara, mother of the Sixth Dynasty pharaoh Teti, announced on 11 November 2008.\\nAll of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid of Zawyet el-Amwat (or Zawyet el-Mayitin), are sited on the west bank of the Nile, and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below. Abu Rawash Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly\",\n \"-33.584834840585245\"\n ],\n [\n \"because the pyramid was not completed.\\nMud bricks were found at the base of the pyramid, which are not associated with the pyramid itself, but are interpreted as remnants of a construction ramp. Substructure The disposition of the substructures of the layer pyramid is extremely similar to that found in the Buried Pyramid of Sekhemket. Consequently, Mark Lehner and others suggest that the two pyramids must have been constructed very close in time.\\nThe entrance to the subterranean structures lies on the east, a disposition which would be unparalleled until the construction of the pyramid of Senusret II, almost 1000 years later.\",\n \"-33.25300832989524\"\n ],\n [\n \"Granaries, and they have it written thus in their chronicles. On the other hand, if they were tombs, they would not be empty inside, nor would they have entrances for going inside, nor are tombs ever made of such a large size and such a height—which is why it is not to be believed that they are tombs.\\\"\\nDuring the 15th century opinion was more evenly split as to the nature of the Pyramids. An anonymous traveler in 1420 speaks of going \\\"to see the most marvelous fourteen granaries of Pharaoh, five or six miles distant from Cairo.\\\" \",\n \"-33.037925023094886\"\n ],\n [\n \"not use modern machinery, but conclude it is still unknown exactly how the Great Pyramid was built. As Dr. Craig Smith of the team points out:\\nThe logistics of construction at the Giza site are staggering when you think that the ancient Egyptians had no pulleys, no wheels, and no iron tools. Yet, the dimensions of the pyramid are extremely accurate and the site was leveled within a fraction of an inch over the entire 13.1-acre base. This is comparable to the accuracy possible with modern construction methods and laser leveling. That's astounding. With their 'rudimentary tools,' the pyramid builders of\",\n \"-32.79591664941108\"\n ],\n [\n \"pyramids. Hartwig Hausdorf speculated it was built by aliens, and Philip Coppens repeated this theory.\\nDespite claims to the contrary, the existence of these pyramid-shaped tomb mounds was known by scientists in the West before the publicity caused by the story in 1947. Shortly after the New York Times story, Science News Letter (now Science News) published a short item saying: \\\"The Chinese pyramids of that region are built of mud and dirt and are more like mounds than the pyramids of Egypt, and the region is little travelled. American scientists who have been in the area suggest that the height\",\n \"-32.771778656542665\"\n ],\n [\n \"was told was the tomb of Argives killed in a battle around 669/8 BC. Neither of these still survive and there is no evidence that they resembled Egyptian pyramids.\\nThere are also at least two surviving pyramid-like structures still available to study, one at Hellenikon and the other at Ligourio/Ligurio, a village near the ancient theatre Epidaurus. These buildings were not constructed in the same manner as the pyramids in Egypt. They do have inwardly sloping walls but other than those there is no obvious resemblance to Egyptian pyramids. They had large central rooms (unlike Egyptian pyramids) and the Hellenikon structure\",\n \"-32.64819685674229\"\n ],\n [\n \"of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. Egypt The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian — huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the world's largest constructions. They are shaped as a reference to the rays of the sun. Most pyramids had a polished, highly reflective white limestone surface, to give them a shining appearance when viewed from a distance. The capstone was usually made of hard stone – granite or basalt – and could be plated with gold, silver, or electrum and would also\",\n \"-32.50937275722754\"\n ],\n [\n \"(121 ft). The pyramid was constructed with a mudbrick core and a limestone outer casing with its backing stones. These and the limestone casing were both quarried by stone robbers, which left the core unprotected. The core fared very badly with time and the pyramid now stands only one meter tall due to the its disintegration.\\nA fragmented black granite pyramidion was discovered on the east side of the complex and has been restored by G. Jéquier. It is now on display at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The pyramidion is decorated by reliefs showing Khendjer making offerings and is inscribed with the\",\n \"-32.35581655455462\"\n ],\n [\n \"through the renewed excavations of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago under the direction of S. Harvey to have actually formed the lowest courses of a brick pyramid, the last queen's pyramid to have been built in Egypt. Portions of the limestone pyramidion or capstone were discovered as well, demonstrating conclusively that this structure was pyramidal in form. Magnetic survey also revealed a brick enclosure some 70 by 90 meters in scale, a feature not detected by earlier archaeologists. These accordingly may now be identified as the features described in Ahmose's stela found within: a pyramid and an enclosure, built\",\n \"-32.21344876725743\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the Great Pyramids.\\nPopular culture leads people to believe that Pyramids are highly confusing, with many tunnels within the pyramid to create confusion for grave robbers. This is not true. The shafts of pyramids are quite simple, mostly leading directly to the tomb. The immense size of the pyramids attracted robbers to the wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed relatively soon after the tomb was sealed in some cases. There are sometimes additional tunnels, but these were used for the builders to understand how far they could dig the tomb into the crust of the\",\n \"-32.19753319173833\"\n ],\n [\n \"discovered is new and larger than the known cavities, and we’ll continue in our scientific steps”.\\nOther Egyptologists have welcomed the discovery. Yukinori Kawae told National Geographic “This is definitely the discovery of the century...There have been many hypotheses about the pyramid, but no one even imagined that such a big void is located above the Grand Gallery.”\\nPeter der Manuelian, from Harvard University, said that “This is an exciting new discovery, and potentially a major contribution to our knowledge about the Great Pyramid.” Physicists reactions Lee Thompson, an expert in particle physics at the University of Sheffield (UK) told Science: \\\"The\",\n \"-32.1089742075128\"\n ],\n [\n \"constructions of man and that the earliest of them are nearly 1,500 years older than the first of the pyramids of Egypt.\\\" The Neolithic henges of Avebury and Stonehenge are two of the largest and most famous megalithic monuments in the world. The structure is an annual calendar, but the reason for the massive size is unknown with any certainty, suggestions include agriculture, ceremonial use and interpreting the cosmos. With other nearby sites, including Silbury Hill, Beckhampton Avenue, and West Kennet Avenue, they form a UNESCO World Heritage Site called Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites.\\nNumerous examples of Bronze Age\",\n \"-32.08914390544305\"\n ],\n [\n \"notable fact about the pyramid at Abu Rawash is that the upper most part of the pyramid has seemingly disappeared, revealing the internal passage that runs down into the bedrock. Explanations to why this pyramid is missing its top vary. The second point of interest that this pyramid provides is that it is built on top of a hillock. The builders faced the colossal task of not only hauling megalith stones up a pyramid but also up a hillock. Detail Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying — which began in Roman\",\n \"-32.04873019597653\"\n ],\n [\n \"Egyptian pyramids Historical development By the time of the Early Dynastic Period, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas.\\nThe second historically-documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser. Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other, creating an edifice composed of a number of \\\"steps\\\" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Pyramid of Djoser, which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which\",\n \"-32.04370361415931\"\n ],\n [\n \"closely, often entering the great Pyramid, rather than simply viewing them from a distance. The French traveler Greffin Affagart (Seigneur de Courteilles) visited the Pyramids in 1533 and noted that \\\"some call [them] the granaries of Pharaoh, but this is wrong because they are not hollow on the inside, rather they are sepulchers of some kings of Egypt.\\\" The French explorer and naturalist Pierre Belon of Mans, a careful observer, records in 1546 that the great Pyramid \\\"was the sepulcher of the King of Egypt.\\\" Another French explorer André Thevet, who visited three years later writes: \\\"The\",\n \"-32.04025866033953\"\n ],\n [\n \"better-known pyramids at Teotihuacan. Inside the pyramid are some five miles (8 km) of tunnels excavated by archaeologists. Pyramid The pyramid consists of six superimposed structures, one for each ethnic group that dominated it. However, only three have been studied in any depth. The pyramid itself is just a small part of the greater archaeological zone of Cholula, which is estimated at 154 hectares (0.59 sq mi). Building of the pyramid began in the Preclassic Period and over time was built over six times to its final dimensions of 450 metres on each side at the base and 66 metres tall. This base,\",\n \"-32.020227669898304\"\n ],\n [\n \"of earth fill. The current conical shape of the pyramid was once thought to represent nearby volcanoes or mountains, but recent work by Rebecca Gonzalez Lauck has shown that the pyramid was in fact a rectangular pyramid with stepped sides and inset corners, and the current shape is most likely due to 2500 years of erosion. The pyramid itself has never been excavated, but a magnetometer survey in 1967 found an anomaly high on the south side of the pyramid. Speculation ranges from a section of burned clay to a cache of buried offerings to a tomb. Complex B South\",\n \"-31.941079995296604\"\n ],\n [\n \"Great Pyramid of Giza History and description Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as \\\"Cheops\\\") and was constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian Royal cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and the absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the\",\n \"-31.90566924275845\"\n ],\n [\n \"means that less material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing down from above. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures.\\nCivilizations in many parts of the world have built pyramids. The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. For thousands of years, the largest structures on Earth were pyramids—first the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and then the Great Pyramid of Khufu, both in Egypt—the latter is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still remaining. Mesopotamia The Mesopotamians built\",\n \"-31.866156144278648\"\n ],\n [\n \"of ancient monuments and megalithic ruins such as the Giza pyramids of Egypt, Machu Picchu in Peru, or Baalbek in Lebanon, the Moai of Easter Island and Stonehenge of England. Supporters say that these stone structures could not have been built with the technical abilities and tools of the people of the time and further argue that many could not be duplicated even today. They suggest that the large size of the building stones, the precision with which they were laid, and the distances many were transported leaves the question open as to who constructed these sites.\\nThese ideas are categorically\",\n \"-31.84253043301578\"\n ],\n [\n \"Turin papyrus shows the plan of one such mine in Nubia.\\nThe Egyptians are known for building pyramids centuries before the creation of modern tools. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the Egyptian pyramids were built using three of what is called the Six Simple Machines, from which all machines are based. These machines are the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is 481 feet (146.7 meters) high.\\nEgyptian\",\n \"-31.817294020009285\"\n ],\n [\n \"used this humorously as a name for the Egyptian monuments, possibly because, when seen from a distance, they resembled large cakes.\\\"\\nAnother interesting etymological conundrum that may have some relevance here is the origin of the Arabic word for pyramid, haram (هرم). Years ago, when noting the identification of the Pyramids with granaries, Charles Clermont-Ganneau speculated: \\\"It is not impossible that this strange legend had originated in a kind of pun on ahrâm (أهرام), pyramids, and ahrà (أهراء), barns/granaries,\\\" noting that it is a \\\"word that does not appear to have Arabic ties and is perhaps simply the Latin horreum.\\\"\",\n \"-31.812680937386176\"\n ],\n [\n \"was in Atlantis, while Grafton Elliot Smith claimed Egypt, writing: \\\"Small groups of people, moving mainly by sea, settled at certain places and there made rude imitations of the Egyptian monuments of the Pyramid Age.\\\" Ancient astronauts Several proponents of ancient astronauts claim that the Great Pyramid of Giza was constructed by extraterrestrial beings, or influenced by them (e.g., through their advanced technology). Proponents include Erich von Däniken, Robert Charroux, W. Raymond Drake, and Zecharia Sitchin. According to Erich Von Däniken, the Great Pyramid has advanced numerological properties which could not have been known to the ancient Egyptians and so must have\",\n \"-31.81062024546918\"\n ],\n [\n \"who discovered the pyramid in 1843. Owing to the ruined state of the structure, it is known in Arabic as the \\\"Headless Pyramid\\\", a name that has been retained. The pyramid was lost under shifting sands in the early 20th century and its attribution to Menkauhor was consequently debated. Instead, it was proposed that the Headless Pyramid was that of Merikare, a structure dating to the First Intermediate Period and which has yet to be found. In 2008, the structure identified by Lepsius was rediscovered by a team of archaeologists under the direction of Zahi Hawass, and excavations at the\",\n \"-31.807515227952535\"\n ],\n [\n \"that nature produces pyramidal shapes and suggested that the main formation seen today may have been a natural hill shaped into a pyramid by human efforts. He described his own results as inconclusive. The very same blocks were inspected by British archaeologist Anthony Harding shortly afterwards, who concluded they did not constitute evidence of pyramids.\\nThe 2006 dig uncovered fractured conglomerate and sandstone plates, which are naturally occurring. Following a visit to the site, American geologist Robert Schoch concluded that these were common natural geological formations of little interest. He accused the workers of carving the hillside to make impressions\",\n \"-31.779948614159366\"\n ],\n [\n \"as various pyramids and circular structures made out of massive, smooth blocks of stone that resembled hewn granite. Zalitzki said \\\"It's a really wonderful structure which really looks like it could have been a large urban centre. However, it would be totally irresponsible to say what it was before we have evidence.\\\"\\nAfter studying the images, National Geographic senior editor John Echave said: \\\"They are interesting anomalies, but that's as much as anyone can say right now, but I'm no expert on sonar and until we are able to actually go down there and see, it will be difficult to characterize\",\n \"-31.75450349757375\"\n ],\n [\n \"Al-Muqaddasi (d. 991), a great contemporary geographer, confirms the identification: \\\"Varying accounts have been given me about both structures [the two great pyramids], some saying that they are both talismans, others that they were the granaries of Joseph; others say no, rather, they are their burial grounds.\\\" Etymology There were additional reasons that may have made the notion of the Pyramids being granaries seem plausible to people in the past. First, there was the murky issue of the etymology of the word pyramid (Ancient Greek: πυραμίς, romanized: pyramis, lit. 'pyramid'). Writing in ca. 390 CE, the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus\",\n \"-31.69404964194473\"\n ],\n [\n \"pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one)— the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.\\nIts location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying, which began in Roman times, has left little apart from about 15 courses of\",\n \"-31.667088262889592\"\n ],\n [\n \"point out that it would be surprising for a royal pyramid to have been completely destroyed less than 300 years after its construction, only to be re-used for simple rock-cut tombs. Additionally, he points to the unusual geographic position of the pyramid: Old Kingdom pyramids were commonly built on high grounds, while the pyramid Lepsius I lies on a flat plain. Thus, the dating of this monument to the late 3rd dynasty no longer seems tenable. Cultic step pyramids Several small step pyramids along the Nile river are also credited to Huni. Those small pyramids had a cultic function and\",\n \"-31.603455719159683\"\n ],\n [\n \"Voyage to Atlantis: The Lost Empire, which aired June 10, 2001.\\nDiscussing the Bosnian pyramid with Steven Novella, Feder stated that it does not make sense that Visočica is anything other than a natural formation. \\\"It's all about physical evidence... ancient pyramids don't build themselves.\\\" Feder claimed that pseudoarcheologists lack the training to do a professional job evaluating items they may find.\\nFeder's book Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology addresses popular myths, by attempting to provide easily understood explanations for why some inaccuracies are perpetuated. In his book, Feder also attempts to delineate the differences between findings that are questionable from \\\"outright frauds.\\\"\",\n \"-31.567001011688262\"\n ],\n [\n \"the country to Alexandria and the western sea ... They say that King Pharaoh caused the towers to be built during the lean years, and kept them full of corn. That is why they are called the Kassa Pharaonis. But I could find no entrance. Some say that they are the tombs of the old kings of Egypt.\\\"\\nThere were also a number of travelers that saw difficulties with viewing the Pyramids as granaries. Anselmo Adorno traveled from Bruges in 1470 and gives a number of arguments against the prevailing view: \\\"Facing Babylon, beyond the Nile, towards\",\n \"-31.54051611664545\"\n ],\n [\n \"few objects belonging to the foundation deposits have been found, but none of the finds bears any name. Hypogeum The hypogeum is remarkable for its size and complexity, and is the largest and most elaborate of all known pyramids dating from the late 12th and 13th dynasties. The passageway changes directions and level several times, and was planned to contain four portcullises, more than any other pyramid from that period. Entryway The pyramid entrance is on the east side. A long descending staircase passes through the alcove where the first portcullis was intended to be put. The corridor turns left and\",\n \"-31.52176284834968\"\n ],\n [\n \"most influential civilizations in the world with its architectural monuments, which include the pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx—among the largest and most famous buildings in the world.\\nThe most famous pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids—huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans. Pyramids functioned as tombs for pharaohs. In Ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as mer, literally \\\"place of ascendance.\\\" The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The base is over 13 acres (53,000 m²) in area. It\",\n \"-31.47717427268799\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the kingdom's capital cities.\\nAl-Aziz Uthman (1171–1198), the second Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt, tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after only damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure because the task proved too large. Pyramid symbolism The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance.\",\n \"-31.46946307115286\"\n ],\n [\n \"in turn surrounded by 14 layers of mud bricks bonded with clay mortar and disposed almost vertically, with an inward inclination angle of 68°. Just as the inner-most stone casing of the pyramid core, each mud brick layer is 2.6 m (8.5 ft) thick.\\nWhether the pyramid was finished or left unfinished is disputed among experts. The egyptologist Rainer Stadelmann believes that the pyramid was indeed finished, but others, such as Miroslav Verner, think that the building was left unfinished because of the pharaoh's premature death. In particular, no traces of outer cladding were found, which could hint that there never was one\",\n \"-31.455087291411473\"\n ],\n [\n \"skill level of Egyptian design and engineering on a large scale. The Great Pyramid of Giza, which was probably completed c. 2580 BC, is the oldest of the Giza pyramids and the largest pyramid in the world, and is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign. Khafre ambitiously placed his pyramid next to his father’s. It is not as tall as his father's pyramid but he was able to give it the impression of appearing taller\",\n \"-31.43668826933208\"\n ],\n [\n \"the construction of the Egyptian pyramids do little to point definitively to methods to lift the blocks; yet most Egyptologists refer to these accounts when discussing this portion of pyramid construction. Thales, according to the philosopher Hieronymus (3rd century BC) visited the Egyptian pyramids during the 7th century BC and by using the intercept theorem, also known as Thales's theorem, measured their height and thus their volume. The first historical accounts of the construction of these monuments came centuries after the era of pyramid construction, by Herodotus in the 5th century BC and Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC.\",\n \"-31.414097290458812\"\n ],\n [\n \"his An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920) summed up the earliest of pseudoarcheological claims on the ancient Egyptian pyramids as follows:\\n...in the 1880s, Ignatius Donnelly had suggested that the Great Pyramid had been built by the descendants of the Atlanteans. That idea was picked up in the 1920s by Manly Palmer Hall who went on to suggest that they were the focus of the ancient Egyptian wisdom schools. Edgar Cayce built upon Hall's speculations.\\nIgnatius Donnelly and later proponents of the hyperdiffusionist view of history claimed that all pyramid structures across the world had a common origin. Donnelly claimed this common origin\",\n \"-31.39438123429136\"\n ],\n [\n \"and as a result his report was extremely short and contained no information beyond what had already been reported by the French expedition.\\nThe most recent attempt to locate the pyramid was undertaken in 1993 by the Polish Egyptologist Andrzej Ćwiek. By this time, however, Athribis had been almost entirely covered over by the modern city of Banha, the pyramid had been completely destroyed and its exact location could no longer be determined. Structure The dimensions of the pyramid were never exactly determined, so they can only be estimated from the information in the Description de l'Egypte. On the basis of\",\n \"-31.30108421802288\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pyramid of Athribis Discovery and loss The structure was first noted by scholarship during Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition (1798-1801). No real investigation was undertaken, however, aside from an engraving of the pyramid and a map of the ruins of Athribis which includes the pyramid, both of which were first published in the Description de l’Égypte in 1822. After that, for a long time, the pyramid was forgotten.\\nThe pyramid was first relocated in 1938 by a team from Liverpool University led by Alan Rowe. In the meanwhile the superstructure had been almost entirely destroyed. Time constraints prevented Rowe from undertaking close investigation\",\n \"-31.28626604359306\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles.\\nThe southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid, is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be a \\\"true\\\" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state – but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone. As a true smooth-sided structure, the\",\n \"-31.217299125786667\"\n ],\n [\n \"encased in a veneer of polished limestone. In several cases, later pyramids were built on top of natural hills to further reduce the volume of material needed in their construction. The materials and methods of construction used in the earliest pyramids have ensured their survival in a generally much better state of preservation than for the pyramid monuments of the later pharaohs. Building the pyramids from quarried stone blocks One of the major problems faced by the early pyramid builders was the need to move huge quantities of stone. The Twelfth Dynasty tomb of Djehutihotep has an illustration of 172\",\n \"-31.214117115734552\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Edificio F (Building F). By the official end of the project in 1974, interest in the pyramid waned again as it could not be reconstructed in its entirety, like other major pyramids in Mexico. The project was abandoned, leaving only fragmentary knowledge about it.\\nDespite the site's pre-Hispanic importance, this pyramid is relatively unknown and unstudied, especially in comparison to others in Mexico such as Teotihuacan, Chichen Itza and Monte Albán. There are a number of possible reasons for this. One is that its existence was not greatly elaborated in a publication by the Mexican government for the 1928 Congreso\",\n \"-31.17007287252636\"\n ],\n [\n \"than a hillock of stone. \\nNone of the excavations penetrated to the burial chamber due to high water levels, but much was learned about pyramid construction from the surrounding quarries, which contained one of the highest concentrations of ancient debris of any Egyptian archaeological site. Gautier and Jequier The pyramid was first explored by archaeologists Gautier and Jequier between 1894 and 1895. Metropolitan Museum of Art From 1906 to 1943, the pyramid was excavated by a team from the Metropolitan Museum of Art headed by Lythgoe, Mace and Ambrose Lansing. Dieter Arnold From 1984 to 1987, further excavation was\",\n \"-31.12327897376963\"\n ],\n [\n \"cubic meters) is one of the largest pyramids in the world. When the large man-made platform that the temple is built upon (some 180,000 square meters) is included in calculations, La Danta is considered by some archeologists to be one of the most massive ancient structures in the world. Also the \\\"Los Monos\\\" complex is very large (48 meters high) although not as well known. Most of the structures were originally faced with cut stone which was then decorated with large stucco masks depicting the deities of Maya mythology. According to Carlos Morales-Aguilar, a Guatemalan archaeologist from Pantheon-Sorbonne University, the\",\n \"-31.121996272213437\"\n ],\n [\n \"is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed for use on other structures over the millennia.\\nThe Red Pyramid of Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone\",\n \"-31.115745264003635\"\n ],\n [\n \"Great Pyramid) Complex C, “The Great Pyramid,” is the central building in the city layout, is constructed almost entirely out of clay, and is easily seen from far away. The structure is built on top of a closed-in platform—this is where Blom and La Farge discovered Altars 2 and 3, thereby discovering La Venta and the Olmec civilization. A carbon sample from a burned area of the Structure C-1’s surface resulted in the date of 394 ± 30 BCE.\\nOne of the earliest pyramids known in Mesoamerica, the Great Pyramid is 110 ft (34 m) high and contains an estimated 100,000 cubic meters\",\n \"-31.100675330573722\"\n ],\n [\n \"beautifully covered in white, but the top was said to be capped. The pyramid therefore already had no pyramidion anymore. He also thinks that the pyramid was built with ramps, which were removed during the finishing of the limestone shell. Diodorus estimates that the total number of workers was 300,000 and that the building works lasted for 20 years. Khufu in Arabic traditions In 642 A.D. the Arabs conquered Egypt. Upon arriving at the Giza pyramids, they searched for explanations as to who could have built these monuments. By this time, no inhabitant of Egypt was able to tell and no\",\n \"-31.005345296114683\"\n ],\n [\n \"of approximately 2.5 metres (8.2 ft). The front (south) face of the pyramid was not straight, the angles of the southern corners were slightly greater than 90° with the facade of the pyramid extending out slightly to meet the access ramp. The excavator concluded that this was to create the illusion that the building was larger than its actual size. The pyramidal base originally stood between 9.7 and 9.8 metres (32 and 32 ft) high. The access ramp was 6.4 metres (21 ft) wide and originally faced in stone, as uncovered during the 1949 excavations by Pedro Armillas. However, after the excavations, the\",\n \"-30.963013385160593\"\n ],\n [\n \"pyramid of Teti; the Headless Pyramid was a perfect candidate, also because there were no other pyramids of the Fifth Dynasty in its immediate vicinity. However, most scholars believed that the owner of the pyramid was Menkauhor instead, because the priests appointed for the funerary cult of this king were buried to a great extent in northern Saqqara.\\nA systematic excavation of the substructure in 2008 under Zahi Hawass corroborated the assignment to the Fifth Dynasty on the basis of structure and materials that were typical of that era. Although no inscriptions with the name of a pharaoh were found, Hawass\",\n \"-30.932103499486402\"\n ],\n [\n \"el-Mudir. The results of these excavations were not published.\\nSystematic research was first undertaken in the 1990s by archaeologists of the National Museum of Scotland employing techniques like magnetometry and ground-penetrating radar. Before these excavations, the structure was thought to be an unfinished pyramid complex from the Third Dynasty. However, pottery shards in the filling of the walls were found to date to the late Second or beginning of the Third Dynasty which leads some Egyptologists to believe this is evidence the structure may have been constructed at the end of the Second Dynasty.\\nThe builder of the structure has not yet\",\n \"-30.932058645070356\"\n ],\n [\n \"any theory that seeks to explain only how the Great Pyramid was built\\\".\\nHoudin has another hypothesis developed from his architectural model, one that could finally explain the internal \\\"Grand Gallery\\\" chamber that otherwise appears to have little purpose. He believes the gallery acted as a trolley chute/guide for counterbalance weights. It enabled the raising of the five 60-ton granite beams that roof the King's Chamber. Houdin and Brier and the Dassault team are already credited with proving for the first time that cracks in beams appeared during construction, were examined and tested at the time and declared relatively harmless. Limestone\",\n \"-30.922769515535037\"\n ],\n [\n \"of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat. Looting Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid-building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Brier and Hobbs claim, \\\"all the pyramids were robbed\\\" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began. Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself \\\"is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom\\\", before\",\n \"-30.905703850086866\"\n ],\n [\n \"Egyptian pyramid construction techniques Egyptian pyramid construction techniques are the controversial subject of many hypotheses. These techniques seem to have developed over time; later pyramids were not constructed in the same way as earlier ones. Most of the construction hypotheses are based on the belief that huge stones were carved from quarries with copper chisels, and these blocks were then dragged and lifted into position. Disagreements chiefly concern the methods used to move and place the stones.\\nIn addition to the many unresolved arguments about the construction techniques, there have been disagreements as to the kind of workforce used. The Greeks,\",\n \"-30.876112002060836\"\n ],\n [\n \"like Egypt's Great Pyramids, still stand today.\\nAncient buildings such as the Egyptian pyramids, the Roman Colosseum, and the Parthenon face common preservation issues. The most prominent factors affecting these structures are the environment, pollution, and tourism.\\nAs the Earth's climate patterns change, so too do the environmental conditions governing these buildings. For example, the Colosseum has already faced lightning, fire, and earthquakes. The changing climate increases the accumulation of salt crystals on the outside of monuments like the Colosseum and the Parthenon. This phenomenon increases the deterioration of these buildings.\\nThe salt crystals further contribute to the black effect\",\n \"-30.85075522695479\"\n ],\n [\n \"and calls attention to the obvious fact \\\"that this figure is most improper for such a purpose, a Pyramid being the least capacious of any regular mathematical body, the straitness and fewness of the rooms within (the rest of the building being one solid and intire fabric of stone) do utterly over-throw this conjecture.\\\" No longer could the notion be held credibly, though for over a millennium it had reigned supreme among European travelers. Egyptian granaries Ancient Egypt had one of the most successful and stable agricultural economies of the ancient world, and had both a system and facilities\",\n \"-30.827648309461438\"\n ],\n [\n \"in fact pyramids, e.g. a tomb alleged to be the tomb of Amphion and Zethus near Thebes, a structure at Stylidha (Thessaly) which is just a long wall, etc. She also notes the possibility that the stones that were dated might have been recycled from earlier constructions. She also notes that earlier research from the 1930s, confirmed in the 1980s by Fracchia was ignored. She argues that they undertook their research using a novel and previously untested methodology in order to confirm a predetermined theory about the age of these structures.\\nLiritzis responded in a journal article published in 2011, stating\",\n \"-30.81760324777133\"\n ],\n [\n \"notion of granaries: \\\"On the other side of the Nile we saw many pyramids, which long ago the kings of Egypt had erected over their tombs, of which the common people say are the granaries or storehouses that were built there by Joseph in order to store grain. However, this is clearly false, for these pyramids are not hollow inside.\\\" Renaissance By the 16th century most visitors who left accounts argue against the notion that the pyramids were originally granaries constructed by the patriarch Joseph, if they mention it at all. Many of the visitors inspected the ruins rather\",\n \"-30.817601772134367\"\n ],\n [\n \"but three pyramids. The first is called the Meidum pyramid, named for its location in Egypt. Snefru abandoned it after the outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber. Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur, and the Red Pyramid, at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during the building of 'The Great Pyramids' at Giza.\\nSneferu was succeeded by his son,\",\n \"-30.78776793007819\"\n ],\n [\n \"not a step pyramid like the other seven; secondly, the other seven pyramids are built of stone, while the Pyramid of Athribis was made of brick. On account of this last point in particular, Ćwiek criticised Swelim and Stadelmann's inclusion of this pyramid in that group. He further considered it unlikely that a brick structure would have survived in such good condition from the Old Kingdom until the beginning of the 19th century. In his opinion, therefore, it was probably a pyramid from the 13th Dynasty, if not the Late Period.\",\n \"-30.769820955487376\"\n ],\n [\n \"his 1968 book Chariots of the Gods?, saying that the ancient Egyptians did not have the most advanced tools to actually build the pyramid, there is no evidence of workers, and there is too much 'intimate' knowledge about the Earth and its geography for the Egyptians to build the pyramid in that exact location. However, the technique of construction is well understood, the tools the Egyptians used are known, marks left in the quarries by those tools are still visible, and many examples of the tools are preserved in museums.\\nVon Däniken claims that it would have taken the Egyptians too\",\n \"-30.710411184772965\"\n ],\n [\n \"visible. Khufu decided to call his necropolis Akhet-Khufu (meaning \\\"horizon of Khufu\\\").\\nThe Great Pyramid has a base measurement of ca. 750 x 750ft (≙ 230.4 x 230.4 m) and today a height of 455.2 ft (138.7 m). Once it had been 481 ft (147 m) high, but the pyramidion and the limestone casing are completely lost due to stone robbery. The lack of the casing allows a full view of the inner core of the pyramid. It was erected in small steps by more or less roughly hewn blocks of dark limestone. The casing was made of nearly white limestone. The outer surface of the\",\n \"-30.67412180678366\"\n ],\n [\n \"that only the outer casing was constructed using high quality limestone.\\nOwing to the poor condition of the monument, information regarding its dimensions and appearance contain a degree of imprecision. The pyramid had a base length of 78.5 m (258 ft; 149.8 cu) converging at 50° 30′ towards the apex 48 m (157 ft; 92 cu) high. The architects made a notable error in demarcating the base, causing the southeast corner of the pyramid to extend 1.58 m (5.2 ft) too far east. Consequently, the base is not square. A ditch was left in the north face of the pyramid during construction which allowed workers to build\",\n \"-30.644902953354176\"\n ],\n [\n \"Priest of Memphis and son of Ramesses II, from the Nineteenth Dynasty indicates that the pyramid was in relatively good condition at this time, needing only minor improvements.\\nThe pyramid is now destroyed, and original dimensions are estimates. The length of the base of the pyramid was 78.75 m (258 ft; 150 cu), converging towards the apex at ~53° giving the pyramid a peak 52.5 m (172 ft; 100 cu) high on completion. The remaining ruins leave a mound about 12 m (39 ft; 23 cu) tall, with a pit in its centre dug by stone robbers. Substructure A north chapel once stood over the entrance corridor on the north\",\n \"-30.609109615863417\"\n ],\n [\n \" As the Egyptian scholar Abu Ja'far al-Idrisi (d. 1251), the author of the oldest known extensive study of the Pyramids, puts it: \\\"The nation that built it lay destroyed, it has no successor to carry the truth of its stories from father to son, as sons of other nations carry from their fathers what they love and cherish among their stories.\\\" As a result, the oldest discussion of the Pyramids that has survived is from the Greek historian Herodotus, who visited them soon after 450 BCE. He describes \\\"the underground chambers on the hill whereon the pyramids stand,\\\"\",\n \"-30.60641273199508\"\n ],\n [\n \"Joseph Davidovits Archaeological theories Davidovits asserts that the ancient Egyptians did not possess the tools or technology to carve and haul the huge (2.5 to 15 ton) limestone blocks that made up the Great Pyramid, conjecturing instead that the blocks were molded in-place by using a form of limestone concrete. According to his theory, a soft limestone with a high kaolinite content was quarried in the wadi on the south of the Giza plateau. It was then dissolved in large, Nile-fed pools until it became a watery slurry. Lime (found in the ash of ancient cooking fires) and natron (also\",\n \"-30.581532304897564\"\n ],\n [\n \"marble and surrounded by a colonnade.\\nDuring the 19th century, the remains of this structure were discovered by Flinders Petrie at the foot of the pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara in the Faiyum Oasis. The Classical accounts of various authors (Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, among others) are not entirely consistent, perhaps due to degradation of the structure during Classical times. In origin, the structure was likely a collection of funerary temples such as are commonly found near Egyptian pyramids.\\nIn 1898, the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities described the structure as \\\"the largest of all the temples of Egypt,\",\n \"-30.580088928267287\"\n ],\n [\n \"Merheleva Ridge Misidentification as pyramid and clarification Initial reports indicated that archaeologists had discovered a pyramidal structure.\\nKlochko blamed the press: \\\"I'm not sure where the pyramid idea came from - the media got it wrong,\\\" says Klochko. \\\"We didn't find anything like an Egyptian pyramid. Though the site is on a hill. But it's interesting enough in its own right.\\\"\",\n \"-30.575447601047927\"\n ],\n [\n \"be highly reflective. After 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians began building pyramids, until around 1700 BC. The first pyramid was erected during the Third Dynasty by the Pharaoh Djoser and his architect Imhotep. This step pyramid consisted of six stacked mastabas. The largest Egyptian pyramids are those at the Giza pyramid complex.\\nThe age of the pyramids reached its zenith at Giza in 2575–2150 BC. Ancient Egyptian pyramids were in most cases placed west of the river Nile because the divine pharaoh's soul was meant to join with the sun during its descent before continuing with the sun in its eternal\",\n \"-30.558361250863527\"\n ],\n [\n \"Materials The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the \\\"King's\\\" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Ancient Egyptians cut stone into rough blocks by hammering grooves into natural stone faces, inserting wooden wedges, then soaking these with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, breaking off workable chunks. Once the blocks were cut, they were\",\n \"-30.543140442823642\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the narrow shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.\\nAll Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which, as the site of the setting sun, was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology. Number and location of pyramids In 1842, Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first\",\n \"-30.532461967704876\"\n ],\n [\n \"were often \\\"inscribed with royal titles and religious symbols\\\".\\nVery few pyramidia have survived into modern times. Most of those that remain are made of polished black granite, inscribed with the name of the pyramid's owner. Four pyramidia – the world's largest collection – are housed in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Among them are the pyramidia from the so-called Black Pyramid of Amenemhat III at Dahshur and of the Pyramid of Khendjer at Saqqara.\\nA badly damaged white Tura limestone pyramidion, thought to have been made for the Red Pyramid of Sneferu at Dahshur, has been reconstructed\",\n \"-30.473992558105238\"\n ],\n [\n \"that material will be replaced because it was in poor conditions. In 2014, the Shaanxi Conservation Institute and the Wuhan University led a joint surveillance study on the site. Description The tomb is the largest of all tombs built during the Han Dynasty. It is also well known as \\\"Great White Pyramid\\\" since U.S. Army Air Corps pilot James Gaussman saw it as \\\"a white jewel-topped pyramid during a flight between India and China during World War II\\\" (see Chinese pyramids).\\nIt is a trapezoidal tumulus built from rammed earth with a rectangular base which measures 222 by 217 metres (728\",\n \"-30.470978384844784\"\n ],\n [\n \"the western side of the structure.\\nA Czech archaeological team led by Miroslav Verner conducted the first intensive excavation between 2001 and 2004, in which the unusual character of the structure as a \\\"Double pyramid\\\" became clear. Both sections of the structure have a slightly rectangular base plan, oriented in a north-south direction with extremely steep sides, which make it impossible that the structure was ever a true pyramid. In the masonry, a relatively large number of building inscriptions and marks were found. These included the name of the structure, which can be translated as \\\"the two [pyramids] are watchful.\\\"\\nDušan Magdolen\",\n \"-30.452757583447237\"\n ],\n [\n \"by Alessandro Barsanti, who uncovered the vertical access shaft leading to the burial chamber. Barsanti, seeing that several corridors and chambers were seemingly unfinished and that all were completely devoid of artefacts, deemed that the pyramid had never been used. Shortly after, in 1910–1911, George Reisner and Clarence S. Fisher worked on the site, excavating the north and east exteriors of the pyramid as well as the cemeteries surrounding it. The dimensions of the pyramid as estimated by Barsanti, Reisner and Fisher differ greatly and even the numbers of subterranean galleries they report are in disagreement. Unfortunately, the pyramid lies\",\n \"-30.449862126566586\"\n ],\n [\n \"Double Pyramid Exploration On his Egyptian expedition (1842-1845), the German archaeologist Karl Richard Lepsius located a small pyramid structure and included it in his list of pyramids as number XXV (25). Ludwig Borchardt classified it as a double mastaba in his research sixty years later, but he did not examine it any more closely.\\nSince for a long time no intensive research was conducted, the structure was believed to be the pyramid of a queen of the 5th dynasty, similar to Lepsius XXIV directly to the north, although preliminary investigations appeared to indicate that the funerary temple was located, unusually, on\",\n \"-30.439048422776978\"\n ],\n [\n \"1748.\\nThe rather unusual design of this monument has long attracted visitors' notice. As Rev. A. Williamson, who visited the site in 1865, wrote:\\nThe pyramid was not at all to be compared to the Egyptian ones for size, but of the same shape, and instantly reminded one of them. Anywhere but in China would we look for such structures. But this is another indication of the antiquity of the Chinese, and the oneness of the human race.\\nThe tomb proper is only a few metres behind Shou Qiu. Shou Qiu was originally separate from Shaohao's tomb, but after the 12th century renovation\",\n \"-30.39423039353278\"\n ],\n [\n \"pyramid site, 6 miles northeast of Jebel Barkal. It housed the tombs of 20 pharaohs and 54 queens. The pharaoh's pyramids range from 39.5 to 65 metres (130 to 213 ft) in height. The queen's pyramids are 9 to 17 metres (30 to 56 ft). The tombs were cut out of bedrock. The pharaoh's chamber contained three interconnecting chambers. The queen's contain two interconnecting chambers. Meroë The third Nubian Pyramid site Meroë is considered to be the largest archaeological site in the world. It contains more Nubian Pyramids than any other site.\\nThe ancient Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions\",\n \"-30.378611020201788\"\n ],\n [\n \"that rarely exceed 8 metres (26 ft) in width, resulting in tall, narrow structures inclined at approximately 70°. Most also have offering temple structures abutting their base with unique Kushite characteristics. By comparison, Egyptian pyramids of similar height generally had foundation footprints that were at least five times larger and were inclined at angles between 40–50°.\\nThe tombs inside the pyramids of Nubia were plundered in ancient times. Wall reliefs preserved in the tomb chapels reveal that their royal occupants were mummified, covered with jewellery and laid to rest in wooden mummy cases. At the time of their exploration by archaeologists in\",\n \"-30.348491701421153\"\n ],\n [\n \"attributed it to Menkauhor because he is the only pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty whose pyramid has not been identified. The pyramid The pyramid had a length of approximately 52 m (171 ft) and was probably aligned with the pyramid of Teti. Virtually nothing is left of the superstructure, hence its name. On the north side lies the entrance to the underground chamber system, which was sealed by two granite portcullises. A broken sarcophagus lid was found in the burial chamber.\",\n \"-30.34209259186173\"\n ],\n [\n \"build royal pyramids was Ahmose, with later kings hiding their tombs in the hills, such as those in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor's West Bank. In Medinat Habu, or Deir el-Medina, smaller pyramids were built by individuals. Smaller pyramids with steeper sides were also built by the Nubians who ruled Egypt in the Late Period. Sudan While pyramids are associated with Egypt, the nation of Sudan has 220 extant pyramids, the most numerous in the world.Nubian pyramids were constructed (roughly 240 of them) at three sites in Sudan to serve as tombs for the kings and queens of\",\n \"-30.335215998034982\"\n ],\n [\n \"seashells. Many of the facing stones have fallen or have been removed and used for construction in Cairo.\\nMost pyramids are located near Cairo, with only one royal pyramid being located south of Cairo, at the Abydos temple complex. The pyramid at Abydos, Egypt were commissioned by Ahmose I who founded the 18th Dynasty and the New Kingdom. The building of pyramids began in the Third Dynasty with the reign of King Djoser. Early kings such as Snefru built several pyramids, with subsequent kings adding to the number of pyramids until the end of the Middle Kingdom.\\nThe last king to\",\n \"-30.33225272936511\"\n ],\n [\n \"More pyramids were constructed and for the longest time in Nubia than in Egypt. Nubia contains 223 pyramids. They were smaller than Egyptian pyramids. Nubian pyramids were for kings and queens. The general construction of Nubian pyramids consisted of steep walls, a chapel facing East, stairway facing East, and a chamber access via the stairway.\\nEl-Kurru was the first major site. It is located 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south from Jebel Barkal. It was made of sandstone. It range from 10 to 30 metres (33 to 98 ft) in height. About 10 pharaohs and 14 queens were buried at El-Kurru.\\nNuri was another important\",\n \"-30.301340268015338\"\n ],\n [\n \"Giants' statues. Hypotheses on the necropolis appearance Due to the incompleteness of the excavations, it is not yet possible to determine the real appearance of the necropolis and grouping of the sculptures.\\nSome scholars have cast doubts about the original pertinence of the latter to the necropolis, in that the only evidence in favour of this fact would be the spatial contiguity between the statues and the mortuary complex itself. This led others to hypothesize that the statues had been conceived as telamons to adorn a temple, close to the necropolis but dedicated to the Sardus Pater. According to this theory,\",\n \"-30.26247051138489\"\n ],\n [\n \"typical of Ming Dynasty observation platforms and it would have been wholly logical for the Chinese to build observatories to determine precisely the location of the phenomenal riches they had discovered.\\\"\\nWheeler argues that the claims of an extraordinary origin for the pyramid are unfounded, writing, \\\"The facts are (probably) that the Gympie \\\"Golden\\\" pyramid is actually an ordinary hill terraced by early Italian immigrants for viticulture that has been disfigured by erosion and the removal of stone from the retaining walls for use elsewhere ... As for all the supporting statements by the various authorities, all but a few unimportant\",\n \"-30.232895403154544\"\n ],\n [\n \"example is perhaps problem 56 from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.\\nThe most famous of all the pyramids of Egypt is the Great Pyramid of Giza built around 2,550 B.C.. Based on the surveys of this structure that have been carried out by Flinders Petrie and others, the slopes of the faces of this monument were a seked of 5 1/2, or 5 palms and 2 digits [see figure above] which equates to a slope of 51.84° from the horizontal, using the modern 360 degree system. This slope would probably have been accurately applied during construction by way of 'A frame' shaped wooden\",\n \"-30.195231715199043\"\n ],\n [\n \"on top, more similar to the Mesopotamian ziggurat than the Egyptian pyramid.\\nThe largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. Constructed from the 3rd century BC to the 9th century AD, this pyramid is considered the largest monument ever constructed anywhere in the world, and is still being excavated. The third largest pyramid in the world, the Pyramid of the Sun, at Teotihuacan is also located in Mexico. There is an unusual pyramid with a circular plan at the site of Cuicuilco, now inside Mexico City and mostly covered with lava from\",\n \"-30.155474463057544\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pyramid of Khui History of research The ruined pyramid was first mentioned in a 1912 article of the fr:Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte by the Egyptian Egyptologist Ahmed Kamal. Later, between 1946 and 1948, the complex was explored by Raymond Weill. Due both to the ruined state of the structure and to the building's atypical architecture, Kamal believed it to be a huge mastaba while Weill thought it was a pyramid. Even today, in spite of the fact that the building is commonly considered to be a pyramid—and possibly a step pyramid—it is not possible to determine with\",\n \"-30.138779136943413\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining.\\nWhile it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion is that they were designed as a type of \\\"resurrection machine.\\\"\\nThe Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One\",\n \"-30.116067503588056\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kakai, is believed to have been built originally as a step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then later transformed into a \\\"true\\\" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry. Saqqara Major pyramids located here include the Pyramid of Djoser – generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone – the Pyramid of Userkaf, the Pyramid of Teti and the Pyramid of Merikare, dating to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved\",\n \"-30.074795937352974\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Meidum Pyramid in a downpour while the building was still under construction.\\nFranck Monnier and others believe the pyramid not to have collapsed until the New Kingdom, but there are a number of facts contradicting this theory. The Meidum Pyramid seems never to have been completed. Beginning with Sneferu and to the 12th dynasty all pyramids had a valley temple, which is missing at Meidum. The mortuary temple, which was found under the rubble at the base of the pyramid, apparently never was finished. Walls were only partly polished. Two steles inside, usually bearing the names of the pharaoh, are\",\n \"-30.054532694002773\"\n ],\n [\n \"site quickly established a Fifth Dynasty date as indicated by the construction techniques used in its making. Although the excavations failed to yield the name of the king who built the pyramid, Menkauhor was the last pharaoh of the dynasty whose pyramid remained undiscovered. Thus, proceeding by elimination, archeologists and egyptologists have formally recognized the Headless Pyramid as that of Menkauhor.\\nThe pyramid is estimated to have been around 50–60 m (160–200 ft) at the base, so that the edifice would have stood 40–50 m (130–160 ft) high at the time of its construction, making it one of the smallest royal pyramids of the Old\",\n \"-30.013608522436698\"\n ],\n [\n \"pseudoarchaeological ancient astronaut theory and Orion correlation theory are related claims that the Great Pyramid was constructed by the use of an advanced lost technology. Proponents of this theory often link this hypothetical advanced technology to extraterrestrials but also Atlanteans, Lemurians or a legendary lost race. Notable proponents include Christopher Dunn and David Hatcher Childress. Graham Hancock, in his book Fingerprints of the Gods, assigned the 'ground plan' of the three main Egyptian pyramids, in his theory of an advanced progenitor civilization which possessed advanced technology. Criticism In 1880, the renowned Egyptologist Flinders Petrie went to Egypt to perform new\",\n \"-29.97869513788828\"\n ],\n [\n \"largest pyramids, the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Khafre, describing his findings in the Legatio while largely ignoring the smaller Pyramid of Menkaure. The ambassador later directed his attention towards the Great Pyramid's interior. Members of the expedition were instructed to enter the monument through a southeastern entrance, while Martyr and the chief guide observed from the outside. The visitors came across a \\\"vaulted, shell-shaped chamber\\\" where small tombs could be found. From this, Martyr was able to confirm the pyramids' funerary nature, discarding the notion that the monuments represented the biblical \\\"granaries of Joseph\\\", a common perception in\",\n \"-29.954704472853336\"\n ],\n [\n \"Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years. Interior The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23\\\" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to\",\n \"-29.95298671616183\"\n ],\n [\n \"of tunnels inside the pyramid, which began with two in 1931 to prove that the hill was an archeological find. Within, altars with offerings, floors, walls and buried human remains from around 900 AD were discovered. Today, only about 800 meters of these tunnels are open to the public, which have been made into well-lit, arched passages. Visitors enter on the north side, through the center of the pyramid and exit on the south side. There are few signs explaining the structures within, but in one section allows a view of main staircases of one of the pyramids, whose nine\",\n \"-29.951018922627554\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":275,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"32lc8q"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"With the number of deaths it causes each year, how are alcohol advertisements not illegal like cigarettes?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Because the alcohol industry is better at Public Relations management. Tobacco has become the public whipping boy and the slightest breath to defend tobacco will draw an insane firestorm of rabid mouth-foamers (despite whatever huge chunk of society is stupid enough to choose smoking). The fact that \"plain packaging\" - which really shows diseased eyeballs and rotting teeth and such -- can be mandated for cigs is a clear example. Try to push that on anything else bad, alcohol, whatever, and you'd see people freak out. Bashing tobacco is the media darling these days and there is no limit to how far you can push that.","While ads are allowed, you can't show someone drinking the product.","Alcohol is viewed as the only drug that can be taken in moderation, and its enjoyment by humans far predates tobacco.","Laws in a democracy aren't based on pure logic or the best public policy. Good policies often need majority support to be implemented. Only 18 percent of Americans smoke while 65 percent drink alcohol at least occasionally. Cigarettes have been losing in a downward cycle. The few smokers the easier it is to approve anti-smoking rules. As a result there are few smokers which in turn making it easier to put in place new restrictions. I wrote a piece about the long term political dynamics the legal marijuana industry faces will likely face that applies perfectly to the question you are asking. URL_0 ","First of all, advertising tobacco isn't entirely illegal; it's only illegal on TV, which children are likely to see. Similarly, it is unlawful to advertise alcohol on TV programs targeted to minors. So there are similarities, though obviously, restrictions on tobacco advertising are more strict. The why is a political matter. Tobacco, even in moderation, is a potent carcinogen; it causes cancer. Alcohol, in moderation, has documented health benefits. Although as a society, we limit alcohol consumption to adults, drinking is seen as a normal and non-harmful behavior, provided it's done responsibly, so as a society we haven't seen fit to limit its advertising as aggressively.","One of the reason could be also that alcohol most of the time is a \"social\" drug","Depends on the country. A lot of european countries completely or partially ban alcohol advertisement"],"string":"[\n \"Because the alcohol industry is better at Public Relations management. Tobacco has become the public whipping boy and the slightest breath to defend tobacco will draw an insane firestorm of rabid mouth-foamers (despite whatever huge chunk of society is stupid enough to choose smoking). The fact that \\\"plain packaging\\\" - which really shows diseased eyeballs and rotting teeth and such -- can be mandated for cigs is a clear example. Try to push that on anything else bad, alcohol, whatever, and you'd see people freak out. Bashing tobacco is the media darling these days and there is no limit to how far you can push that.\",\n \"While ads are allowed, you can't show someone drinking the product.\",\n \"Alcohol is viewed as the only drug that can be taken in moderation, and its enjoyment by humans far predates tobacco.\",\n \"Laws in a democracy aren't based on pure logic or the best public policy. Good policies often need majority support to be implemented. Only 18 percent of Americans smoke while 65 percent drink alcohol at least occasionally. Cigarettes have been losing in a downward cycle. The few smokers the easier it is to approve anti-smoking rules. As a result there are few smokers which in turn making it easier to put in place new restrictions. I wrote a piece about the long term political dynamics the legal marijuana industry faces will likely face that applies perfectly to the question you are asking. URL_0 \",\n \"First of all, advertising tobacco isn't entirely illegal; it's only illegal on TV, which children are likely to see. Similarly, it is unlawful to advertise alcohol on TV programs targeted to minors. So there are similarities, though obviously, restrictions on tobacco advertising are more strict. The why is a political matter. Tobacco, even in moderation, is a potent carcinogen; it causes cancer. Alcohol, in moderation, has documented health benefits. Although as a society, we limit alcohol consumption to adults, drinking is seen as a normal and non-harmful behavior, provided it's done responsibly, so as a society we haven't seen fit to limit its advertising as aggressively.\",\n \"One of the reason could be also that alcohol most of the time is a \\\"social\\\" drug\",\n \"Depends on the country. A lot of european countries completely or partially ban alcohol advertisement\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["a year: 480,000 from tobacco smoking-related illnesses and 80,000 from alcohol abuse. Together, tobacco and alcohol cause about 20% of all yearly deaths in the USA.\nIt is argued that inconsistency between the harm caused and the legal status of these common drugs undermines the declared motives of the law enforcement agencies to reduce harm by prohibition, for example of marijuana.\nIn February 2009, the UK government was accused by its most senior expert drugs adviser Professor David Nutt of making political decisions with regard to drug classification, for example in rejecting the scientific advice to downgrade ecstasy from a class A","-29.260214984067716"],["is only allowed after 10:00 pm. Europe In Russia, advertising alcohol products is banned from almost all media (including television and billboards) since January 2013. Before that, alcohol advertising was restricted from using images of people drinking since mid-2000s.\nIn Sweden, since 2010 advertisements are legal for wine and beer, but not on television and radio. Non-periodic magazines are allowed to advertise alcoholic beverages above 15%. These advertisements must contain warnings, but which are worded less strongly than the warnings on tobacco products - for example, \"Avoid drinking while pregnant,\" as opposed to \"smoking kills.\" These rules were introduced into the","-26.322899000981124"],["\"That illicit drugs are inherently harmful substances is attested by the very nomenclature of the 'harm reduction' movement.\" The U.S. government has argued that illegal drugs are \"far more deadly than alcohol\" saying \"although alcohol is used by seven times as many people as drugs, the number of deaths induced by those substances is not far apart. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), during 2000, there were 15,852 drug-induced deaths; only slightly less than the 18,539 alcohol-induced deaths.\" Ratios of the harms of illicit opiates to licit alcohol and tobacco in Australia are similar, with 2","-25.983778472203994"],["Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has suggested that illegal drugs are \"far more deadly than alcohol\", arguing that \"although alcohol is used by seven times as many people as drugs, the number of deaths induced by those substances is not far apart\", quoting figures from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), claiming \"during 2000, there were 15,852 drug-induced deaths; only slightly less than the 18,539 alcohol-induced deaths.\"\nThe DEA's use of such figures is questionable however. An article in the Journal of the American Medical Association gave the number deaths caused by alcohol in year 2000 as 85,000 – over","-25.35316297307145"],["Because cannabis is the most common drug, consuming of cannabis goes up to 66 percent than other drugs in the country. The death penalty is given to the people who grow cannabis, or a minimum fine of $550,000, based on the National Anti-Narcoticts (BNN) law.","-25.091037011356093"],["century, there was a period when gin was criminalized and whiskey wasn't, because gin is what poor people drink. Legal highs and prohibition In 2013 the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reported that there are 280 new legal drugs, known as legal highs, available in Europe. One of the best known, mephedrone, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2010. On November 24, 2010, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration announced it would use emergency powers to ban many synthetic cannabinoids within a month. An estimated 73 new psychoactive synthetic drugs appeared on the UK market in 2012.","-24.674841186468257"],["an accident and is often a separately defined felony punishable by jail, license suspension, fines or compulsory treatment. Long-term effects Alcohol is the main active ingredient of wine, beer and distilled spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount, however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or","-24.620485792285763"],["increase in accident risk associated with alcohol, as well as the high accident rate among young drivers, the increases in risk associated with the use of drugs are surprisingly small.\"\nA report from the University of Colorado, Montana State University, and the University of Oregon found that on average, states that have legalized medical cannabis had a decrease in traffic-related fatalities by 8–11%. The researchers hypothesized \"it’s just safer to drive under the influence of marijuana than it is drunk....Drunk drivers take more risk, they tend to go faster. They don’t realize how impaired they are. People who are","-24.289351101848297"],["Union and adopting the entire European Union law. \nAlcohol misuse costs the United Kingdom's National Health Service £3 billion per year. The cost to employers is 6.4 billion pounds sterling per year. These figures do not include the crime and social problems associated with alcohol misuse. The number of women regularly drinking alcohol has almost caught up with men.\nIn the United States, many people are arrested for drinking and driving. Also, people under the influence of alcohol commit a large portion of various violent crimes, including child abuse, homicide and suicide. In addition, people of minority groups are affected by","-24.075085833464982"],["100,000 individuals to 9.7 and within the first three months proceeding the Eighteenth Amendment, a half million dollars in bonded whiskey was stolen from government warehouses. The profits that could be made from selling and distributing alcohol were worth the risk of punishment from the government, which had a difficult time enforcing prohibition. There were over 900,000 cases of liquor shipped to the borders of U.S. cities. Criminal gangs and politicians saw the opportunity to make fortunes and began shipping larger quantities of alcohol to U.S. cities. The majority of the alcohol was imported from Canada, the Caribbean, and the","-24.013288535177708"],["a proxy for alcohol consumption estimated a decrease in consumption of 10–20%. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism studies show clear epidemiological evidence that \"overall cirrhosis mortality rates declined precipitously with the introduction of Prohibition,\" despite widespread flouting of the law.\nA 2017 study concluded that in six years from 1934 to 1939, \"an excess of 13,665 infant deaths ... could be attributable to the repeal of federal prohibition in 1933.\" Crime It is difficult to draw conclusions about Prohibition's impact on crime at the national level, as there were no uniform national statistics gathered about crime prior to 1930.","-23.627233937382698"],["vulnerable people, a warning can be given instead of a fine. Larger quantities (more than 100 g or 3.5 oz) generally results in a prison sentence. Driving under the influence of cannabis is illegal and all but the smallest amounts of THC in a blood sample results in a fine and loss of the driver's license (conditional or unconditional). Usage Despite its illegal status, a report by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2015) shows that slightly more than ¹⁄₃ of adult Danes have tried cannabis at some point in their life, which is above the European average where","-23.563397989724763"],["Ultimately, during prohibition use and abuse of alcohol ended up higher than before it started.\nThough there were significant increases in crimes involved in the production and distribution of illegal alcohol, there was an initial reduction in overall crime, mainly in types of crimes associated with the effects of alcohol consumption such as public drunkenness. Those who continued to use alcohol, tended to turn to organized criminal syndicates. Law enforcement wasn't strong enough to stop all liquor traffic; however, they used \"sting\" operations, such as Prohibition agent Eliot Ness famously using wiretapping to discern secret locations of breweries. The prisons became","-23.493020335183246"],["impact of alcohol (2010) A December 2010 article determined that alcohol had the worst medical and social effects compared to other recreational substances such as heroin and crack cocaine. The drugs marijuana, ecstasy, and LSD scored far lower in terms of related harms. The authors did not advocate alcohol prohibition, but they suggested that the government raise the price of alcohol until it was no longer widely available. Gavin Partington, spokesman of the Wine and Spirit Trade Association, responded to the report by saying that alcohol abuse affects \"a minority\" needing \"education, treatment and enforcement\". He also remarked that millions","-23.474472170579247"],["ban. In the 2010 elections, the liquor ban was a minimum two days; in the 2013 elections, there was a proposal that it be extended to five days. This was overturned by the Supreme Court.\nOther than election-related prohibition, alcohol is freely sold to anyone above the legal drinking age. Saudi Arabia The sale, consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Sri Lanka In 1955 Sri Lanka passed a law prohibiting adult women from buying alcohol. In January 2018, Finance Minister Mangala Samaraweera announced that the law would be amended, allowing women to","-23.414142916502897"],["alcohol is banned totally since 1975.\nIn September 2017, Facebook announced it would allow users to hide all alcohol advertisements. The move is debated within the UK, as Alcohol Research UK group welcomed the change, while the Alcohol Standards Authority said the UK already had some of the strictest rules in the world.\nIn November 2018, Ireland introduced a law banning alcohol advertisements near schools, children play areas, public transportation, and cinemas, as well as restricting visibility of alcohol products in stores. The legislation will take effect November 2019. Responsible drinking campaigns There have been various campaigns to help prevent alcoholism, under-age","-23.391476535820402"],["drinking causes the disorder. Alcohol misuse is associated with a number of mental health disorders and alcoholics have a very high suicide rate. A study of people hospitalised for suicide attempts found that those who were alcoholics were 75 times more likely to go on to successfully commit suicide than non-alcoholic suicide attempters. In the general alcoholic population the increased risk of suicide compared to the general public is 5-20 times greater. About 15 percent of alcoholics commit suicide. Abuse of other drugs is also associated with an increased risk of suicide. About 33 percent of suicides in the under","-23.236152226600097"],["research which suggests that alcohol is more harmful than all but the most \"dangerous\" drugs. When the level of harm associated with the other drugs includes harm that arises solely as a result of the drugs illegality rather than merely that danger which is associated with actually using the drugs, only heroin, cocaine, barbiturates and street methadone were shown to be more harmful than the legal drug alcohol.\nA 2002 DAWN report, for the USA records two possible drug-induced deaths where marijuana was the only drug found. Legal drugs however, have been the cause of more than half a million deaths","-23.19790212449152"],["Arguments for and against drug prohibition Drug laws are effective Supporters of prohibition claim that drug laws have a successful track record suppressing illicit drug use since they were introduced 100 years ago. The licit drug alcohol has current (last 12 months) user rates as high as 80–90% in populations over 14 years of age, and tobacco has historically had current use rates up to 60% of adult populations, yet the percentages currently using illicit drugs in OECD countries are generally below 1% of the population excepting cannabis where most are between 3% and 10%, with six countries between","-23.151805413421243"],["of alcohol are illegal in most jurisdictions when a person under the legal drinking age requests that a person above the legal age purchase alcohol for the underage person, and the straw purchaser knows or might reasonably assume based on the circumstances that the person is under the legal age. Tobacco and nicotine products As of October 2015, it is an offence to buy tobacco, cigarette papers (for the purpose of smoking tobacco) or e-cigarettes on behalf of under 18s in the United Kingdom. It was already an offence in Scotland. Mortgage loans The use of a straw person to","-23.10089243837865"],["29% of those who had never used cannabis cited the illegality of the substance as their reason for never using the drug, while 19% of those who had ceased use of cannabis cited its illegality as their reason.\nGil Kerlikowske, Director of the US ONDCP argues,\nControls and prohibitions help to keep prices higher, and higher prices help keep use rates relatively low, since drug use, especially among young people, is known to be sensitive to price. The relationship between pricing and rates of youth substance use is well-established with respect to alcohol and cigarette taxes. There is literature showing that increases","-23.097554786334513"],["of the sale of alcohol to visibly intoxicated persons or minors who subsequently cause death or injury to third parties (those not having a relationship to the business that sold the alcohol) as a result of alcohol-related car crashes and other accidents.\nThe laws are intended to protect the general public from the hazards of serving alcohol to minors and intoxicated patrons. Groups such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) have advocated for the enforcement and enactment of dram shop laws across the United States as well as in the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. The earliest dram shop","-23.094962043047417"],["and an illegal drug use increasing nineteen-fold. Colbert went on to say the ad was \"terrifying,\" adding, \"and that ad is no less terrifying just because there is no country called Scandinavia, none of the countries in Scandinavia passed gay marriage laws in 2004, and the statistics on suicide and drug use are made up.\"","-22.905605727690272"],["alcohol industry around the world has also campaigned to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels.","-22.84371350836591"],["did not have a history of drug abuse. Nearly 680,000 federal offender urine samples were tested for drugs in 1992. Consuming 12 beers over a weekend does not constitute excessive use of alcohol as a matter of law. Mental health treatment or examination Court-ordered mental health treatment as a condition of probation has been upheld when the case had taken an emotional toll on the defendant and the defendant said the conviction felt \"like the end of her life as she knows it\" or when the defendant has a history of major depression, refusal to take antidepressants, and dangerous conduct","-22.809111334820045"],["death through overdose because substitution or poor quality, although this potential for harm may be operationally indistinct from the potentials for harm associated with other noncriminal behaviors, such as driving a car while tired or over-consumption of healthy foods. Some argue that if drugs were available legally, they would be less harmful (see the drug policy of the Netherlands). When drugs are illegal, the price is higher, and maintaining the habit takes the money that would otherwise be spent on food, shelter, and clothing. The resultant neglect is a contributory factor to the addict's physical deterioration. In Australia, Walker (1991)","-22.805968531407416"],["owner or publisher of a media outlet.\nIn 1991, U.S. Surgeon General Antonia Novello criticized alcoholic beverage companies for \"unabashedly targeting teenagers\" with \"sexual imagery, cartoons, and rock and rap music\" in television and print ads. The Federal Trade Commission conducted an investigation in 2002 into possible targeting to those under the age of 21. However, this investigation and those of some scholars have not found evidence of such targeting. Concerns exist that irresponsible advertising practices or \"pushing the envelope\" with audience composition may lead to permanent legislation governing the advertising of beverage alcohol. Asia In Malaysia, alcohol advertising on radio","-22.70475895112031"],["United States, the smuggling of alcohol did not end with the repeal of prohibition. In the Appalachian United States, for example, the demand for moonshine was at an all-time high in the 1920s, but an era of rampant bootlegging in dry areas continued into the 1970s. Although the well-known bootleggers of the day may no longer be in business, bootlegging still exists, even if on a smaller scale. The state of Virginia has reported that it loses up to $20 million a year from illegal whiskey smuggling.\nThe Government of the United Kingdom fails to collect an estimated £900 million in","-22.68008329065924"],["the criminal did not make a sale. \n-Possession of 5000 grams/5 kilograms of opium/marijuana/cannabis/prescription drugs/industrial chemical drugs/hemp juice. The death penalty is commuted for first-time offenders when the amount is less than 20000 grams/20 kilograms and the criminal did not make a sale. \n-Armed smuggling of any narcotics, or being part of or the head of a narcotics smuggling gang (normally would receive a prison sentence prior to execution).\nUsually the first offense would be imprisonment, but the second or third offense would be death. The death penalty would be applied if the crimes are deemed to be at the level of \"mofsed-fel-arz\"","-22.60626136540668"],["of alcoholic beverage by driver or his/her crew in advance of, or while competing in any IMCA sanctioned program is strictly forbidden. Any driver showing evidence of alcohol consumption will be required to leave the premises immediately and may be subject to a fine of no less than $250. Use of illegal drugs at any time shall be cause for immediate, indefinite suspension and/or fine of no less than $250. Stock Car Brasil The Stock Car Brasil organisation has had a number of run-ins with doping offenders over the years. The Stock Car Brasil organisation is subjected to Brazilian Auto","-22.594807779663824"],["alcohol consumption by 2016. These products were often nearly pure alcohol that could be diluted to a rough approximation of vodka, and were frequently available at all hours via strategically placed vending machines. In the Irkutsk incident, the victims drank scented bath lotion that was mislabeled as containing drinkable ethanol.\nIn the aftermath of the poisoning, regulations on products being used as surrogate alcohols were tightened around the country. Politicians announced a temporary ban on non-food items with more than 25 percent alcohol, which was extended several times. Causes and event In the 2010s, Russia's economy suffered from a financial crisis,","-22.491037187093752"],["do not intervene in underage drinking. Although restrictions are nationwide and well-known, some salespersons violate the law at times. Minors themselves can never be prosecuted for alcohol consumption under age. Supermarkets and stores generally check minors for their identity card. The law is less thoroughly enforced in many bars and restaurants, but this can vary by location. Alcohol consumption in public Public parties are prohibited nationally on Good Friday, and regionally on other holidays such as All Saints' Day. Buying alcohol remains possible at these times. The government maintains the right to restrict or ban the sale of alcohol for","-22.413881524582393"],["mostly being bootleg alcohol. If care is not taken in the distillation process and the proper equipment is not used, harmful impurities such as fusel alcohols, lead from plumbing solder, and methanol can be concentrated to toxic levels. Several deaths have been reported in India and Pakistan due to consumption of non-factory made toxic liquor.","-22.411113773239776"],["of other illegal drugs for trafficking, and for acquiring weapons that are ultimately used to commit murders (causing a burgeoning in the homicide rates of many areas of the world, but particularly Latin America).\nSome studies show that the increased legalization of cannabis in the United States (beginning in 2012 with Washington Initiative 502 and Colorado Amendment 64) has led Mexican cartels to smuggle less cannabis in exchange for more heroin. Alcohol Alcohol, in the context of alcoholic beverages rather than denatured alcohol, is illegal in a number of Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, and this has resulted in a","-22.40650833064865"],["rum bottles\n— Justice Stevens, 44 Liquormart, 517 U.S. at 492\nBecause the advertisement implied that 44 Liquormart had low prices, the Rhode Island Liquor Control Administrator fined the store $400.00. After being assessed the fine, the petitioners brought the suit, alleging that the regulation was unconstitutional. The District Court found the regulation banning advertisements unconstitutional, because the state did not prove that the law directly advanced its interest in reducing alcohol consumption, and because the law's reach was unnecessarily extensive.\nThe First Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the lower court, ruling that an increase in alcohol advertisements would lead to an","-22.39533108350588"],["claimed several hundred lives. According to the Tamil Nadu police, though consumption of alcohol results in major crimes and collisions, total prohibition may lead to other potential issues like black market trade. The police have recommended stricter traffic laws and introduction of smart cards to record the crime history of the drivers electronically. The state police stated during 2012 that public awareness was created and the officers were educated to improve reaction time to emergencies.","-22.32605088003038"],["out in Lower Saxony, in 1327 cases (44%) alcohol was sold without age verification to underage persons. Hundreds of summary proceedings led to administrative fines ranging from 500 to 3000 euros. The standard rate for the illegal sale of one bottle of spirits is 1500 euros. Thus, alcohol trap purchases bring a return of around €2 million annually. Other German states, especially Schleswig-Holstein, are considering implementing the Lower Saxony model, but states like Berlin, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia and Baden-Württemberg object to it.\nViolation of restraints will involve prosecution for vendors who sell alcohol to underage persons and also for bystanders who","-22.311212383196107"],["consumption of alcohol in specific public areas where large scale festivities are due to take place and large crowds are expected. Yemen Alcohol is banned in Yemen. Czech Republic On 14 September 2012, the government of the Czech Republic banned all sales of liquor with more than 20% alcohol. From this date on it was illegal to sell such alcoholic beverages in shops, supermarkets, bars, restaurants, gas stations, e-shops etc. This measure was taken in response to the wave of methanol poisoning cases resulting in the deaths of 18 people in the Czech Republic. Since the beginning of the \"methanol","-22.220233271375037"],["supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this was Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:\n[T]he existing drug policies have failed in their intended goals of addressing the problems of crime, drug abuse, addiction, juvenile drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into this country and the internal sale and use of illegal","-22.177297134534456"],["prescriptions for whiskey in one day. It wasn’t tough for people to write—and fill—counterfeit subscriptions at pharmacies, either. Naturally, bootleggers bought prescription forms from crooked doctors and mounted widespread scams. In 1931, 400 pharmacists and 1,000 doctors were caught in a scam where doctors sold signed prescription forms to bootleggers. Just 12 doctors and 13 pharmacists were indicted, and the ones charged faced a one-time $50 fine. Selling alcohol through drugstores became so much of a lucrative open secret that it’s name-checked in works such as The Great Gatsby. Historians speculate that Charles R. Walgreen, of Walgreen’s fame, expanded from","-22.115831251911004"],["food stands on 12 September. On 14 September, the ban was extended to any sale of all alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content above 20% vol. On 20 September, export of such products was banned as well. The restrictions on liquor sales were lifted on 27 September 2012.\nThe police systematically checked shops where liquors were on sale. Led by police vice president Václav Kučera, a special police team called Metyl coordinated the investigations. On 24 September, the police announced that the source of the methanol-contaminated alcohol had been identified. Two main suspects were arrested: Rudolf Fian, a businessman from Karviná","-22.112959399120882"],["substances in excess of legitimate cigarettes. Illicit cigarettes seized in Canada and the United Kingdom were found to contain five times more cadmium, six times as much lead, 160% more tar, and 133% more carbon dioxide. Consumers are warned to take caution and avoid the temptation to save money by purchasing illegal cigarettes as it poses greater health risks compared to legal cigarettes. Australia The country's attempts to discourage smoking through higher taxes have instead fueled the illegal cigarette industry, leading to a $1.1 billion loss of taxes due to illegal cigarettes in 2012.\nIn May 2016, it is estimated that","-22.095736442541238"],["times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol abuse compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers, though the direction of causality remains unclear. Occasional binge drinkers (one or two times in past two weeks), were found to be four times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol abuse or dependence compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers. Societal and economic costs Alcohol abuse is associated with many accidents, fights, and offences, including criminal. Alcohol is responsible in the world for 1.8 million deaths and results in disability in approximately 58.3 million people. Approximately 40 percent of the 58.3 million people disabled through alcohol abuse","-22.043319294989487"],["to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age. Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments. Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the \"hard\" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.\nIn the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and","-22.03032561438158"],["industry with most new addicts.\nAnother method of evading restrictions is to sell less-regulated nicotine products instead of the ones for which advertising is more regulated. For instance, while TV ads of cigarettes are banned in the United States, similar TV ads of e-cigarettes are not.\nThe most effective media are usually banned first, meaning advertisers need to spend more money to addict the same number of people. Comprehensive bans can make it impossible to effectively substitute other forms of advertising, leading to actual falls in consumption. However, skillful use of allowed media can increase advertising exposure; the exposure of U.S. children","-22.02362053352408"],["all road fatalities in Europe are alcohol-related whereas about only 1,6% of all kilometres driven in Europe are driven by drivers with 0,5 g/l alcohol or more in their blood.\n— European Commiison, European Road safety Observatory\nLaws are also in place to protect citizens from the consequences incurred by drunk drivers.\nIn fact \"To help control the number of drunk driving episodes, states have lowered the blood alcohol content limit to .08%.\" In terms of American law driving under the influence or while intoxicated \"is never a defense to a crime or motor-vehicle infraction involving reckless behavior.\"\nWhen charged with this as a","-22.008812878630124"],["illicit drugs in Schedules I and II increased to a maximum of life imprisonment, the penalties for the possession of drugs in Schedule VIII (up to 30g of cannabis and 1g of hashish) decreased to a maximum six months imprisonment and/or a maximum fine of $1000.\nSince the enactment of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, various courts have struck down parts of the law and amendments have been passed by Parliament. In 2001, Canada became the first country in the world to legalize the use of cannabis for the terminally ill and three years later the Minister of Justice Irwin","-21.98090384486568"],["supermarkets and convenience stores such as NTUC FairPrice, Giant Hypermarket, Sheng Siong, Cold Storage and 7-Eleven from 10.30pm to 7am.\nThe condition of carriage of alcohol is prohibited even between 10.30pm and 7am on SMRT Trains and SBS Transit services. Slovakia In Slovakia, drinking alcoholic beverages in public is illegal in many cities South Korea In general, drinking in public is illegal if the drinker harms others while drinking in public. Harm is defined as using harsh language or stirring up loud noise while drinking or exercising bad drinking habits on others for no reason. Anyone reported or caught by city","-21.926197094318923"],["in 1983. In 1997 an estimated 513,200 DWI offenders were in prison or jail, down from 593,000 in 1990 and up from 270,100 in 1986. In the United States, DUI and alcohol-related collisions produce an estimated $45 billion in damages every year.\nIn some US and German studies BAC level 0.01-0.03% predicted a lower collision risk than BAC 0%, possibly due to extra caution, whereas BACs 0.08% or higher seem to be responsible for almost all extra accidents caused by alcohol. For a BAC of 0.15% the risk is 25-fold. Implied consent All U.S. states recognize \"implied consent\", pursuant to which","-21.916439878885285"],["liquor-free zone. Similarly, passengers of motor vehicles are allowed to consume alcohol as long as they are not in a liquor-free zone. Sale of alcohol to intoxicated persons is illegal. Under the Summary Offences Act 1981 it is an offence to drink alcohol in public transport, aeroplanes and taxis unless the vehicle is a licensed premises. Most commercial flights as well as many ferries and trains serve alcohol on board. Norway Drinking in public is illegal in Norway and subject to fines. In many cities the police will primarily react if the use of alcohol is causing trouble and","-21.889522401965223"],["individuals. As of 2014, alcohol warning labels are required in many countries, including Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, France, Guatemala, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, and the United States. Modern alcohol advertising promotes alcoholic beverages heavily “as though it was not a toxic substance”. The alcohol industry has tried to actively mislead the public about the risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption, in addition to campaigning to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels. Australia In Australia, \"Alcohol beverage makers must label their products with warning labels relating to the risks of drinking during pregnancy.\"","-21.871810937969713"],["of such person's blood, saliva, urine or any other bodily fluid administered within two (2) hours after the arrest of such person.\" A second offense will have longer sentencing as well as require an ignition interlock device that can only detect alcohol even if person is not a user of alcohol. \nNon-licensed making of hashish (including through the use of a simple grinder) or making brownies may include life imprisonment, however, licensed medical users can make and possess these products. Feral hemp research In 2018 Hempyre Genetics was hired to research strains of feral cannabis growing at undisclosed locations in","-21.849198279800476"],["place their last orders for alcohol, due to serving hour cutoff laws. In some countries, alcohol cannot be sold to a person who is already intoxicated. Alcohol laws in many countries prohibit drunk driving.\nIn some jurisdictions, alcoholic drinks are totally prohibited for reasons of religion (e.g., Islamic countries with sharia law) or for reasons of local option, public health, and morals (e.g., Prohibition in the United States from 1920 to 1933). In jurisdictions which enforce sharia law, the consumption of alcoholic drinks is an illegal offense, although such laws may exempt non-Muslims.","-21.71847520620213"],["pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine. While not objecting to some form of regulatory legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most Salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation. Alcohol and tobacco When questioned by Māori Party MP Tariana Turia, on why she was unwilling to take the same prohibitory line on smoking cigarettes and drinking alcohol as she took on BZP, Ms Dean said – \"Alcohol and tobacco have been with our society for many, many years.\" ","-21.700858221272938"],["was implemented in late 2007. A study by the University of Hamburg (Ahlfeldt and Maennig 2010) demonstrates, that the smoking ban had, if any, only short run impacts on bar and restaurant revenues. In the medium and long run no negative effect was measurable. The results suggest either, that the consumption in bars and restaurants is not affected by smoking bans in the long run, or, that negative revenue impacts by smokers are compensated by increasing revenues through non-smokers. Ignition safety An indirect public health problem posed by cigarettes is that of accidental fires, usually linked with consumption of alcohol.","-21.697916378820082"],["in one corner on the street, but one may not openly carry and consume a bottle of alcohol on the streets. Republic of Ireland The Republic of Ireland has no laws against public drinking, except that alcohol in a closed container cannot be consumed within 100 m (330 ft) of the off license where it was purchased. Some towns and cities have by-laws forbidding public drinking.\nThe sale of alcohol in stores or off-license is illegal between the hours of 10:00 PM and 10:30 AM with the exception of Sunday morning, when the sale of alcohol is forbidden until 12:30 PM. The sale","-21.68083832517732"],["used the same amount and half said they used less. Compared to previous surveys, more users purchased it from dealers, rather than the internet. The average price per gram was £16, compared to around £10 before the ban. The 2010 Mixmag survey of 2,500 nightclubbers found one quarter had used mephedrone in the previous month, the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal, and it was more likely to be cut with other substances. Of those who had already used mephedrone prior to the ban, 75% had continued to use it after the ban. Of the various drugs","-21.680422581266612"],["cannot be issued for \"self defense reasons\". Even other weapons, such as pepper sprays, are regulated. Carrying weapons, including guns and knives in public is not allowed. Alcohol and criminality The majority of criminals and victims of violent crime are under the influence of alcohol during the act. Statistics show that in homicides 61 to 75 percent, in attempted homicides 71 to 78 percent and in assaults 71 to 73 percent of the offenders have been under the influence of alcohol. During the last two decades the number of drunk offenders has increased. Roughly half of the crimes of theft","-21.675614206149476"],["decision to recreationally use illicit drugs is most commonly free, and with the knowledge that they may lead to an abundance of addictions.\" Health arguments for drug law reform There is evidence that many illicit drugs pose comparatively fewer health dangers than certain legal drugs. The health risks of MDMA (Ecstasy) have been exaggerated for instance, the risks from cannabis use also overstated, and health problems from the use of legal substances, particularly alcohol and tobacco, are greater, even than from cocaine use for example (occasional cocaine use does not typically lead to severe or even minor physical or social","-21.665915512188803"],["Cari was killed by a drunk driver. Significantly, zero tolerance laws were enacted which criminalized driving a vehicle with 0.01% or 0.02% BAC for drivers under 21. This is true even in Puerto Rico, despite maintaining a legal drinking age of 18. Recent research in the American Economic Review suggests that sanctions imposed at BAC thresholds are effective in reducing repeat drunk driving.\nOn May 14, 2013, the National Transportation Safety Board recommended that all 50 states lower the benchmark for determining when a driver is legally drunk from 0.08 blood-alcohol content to 0.05. The idea is part of an initiative","-21.65177497023251"],["were committed by intoxicated persons; and drunk drivers were responsible for 14,000 traffic deaths and 60,000 serious traffic injuries\". In 1995, about three quarters of those arrested for homicide were under the influence of alcohol, and 29% of respondents reported that children beaten within families were the victims of drunks and alcoholics.\nA 1997 report published in the Journal of Family Violence found that among male perpetrators of spousal homicide, 60–75% of offenders had been drinking prior to the incident. Suicide In 2008, suicide claimed 38,406 lives in Russia. With a rate of 27.1 suicides per 100,000 people, Russia has one","-21.623327677953057"],["of a shortage of police personnel. During the tenure of the department there were no incidents of alcohol poisoning in Gujarat. The revenue loss to Gujarat government because of the ban is estimated to be around Rs 30 Billion. Alcohol poisoning On 7 July 2009, ten people died in Behrampura after drinking spurious liquor. The liquor was brewed in the house of Arvind Solanki, who also died after consuming the liquor. The death toll rose to 43 next day and crossed 120 by 12 July. Two hundred seventy-six people were admitted in various hospitals with nearly 100 of them in","-21.616934611607576"],["suspension of the suspect's driver's license. Drinking age Missouri's drinking age has been 21 since 1945. That is, Missouri law prohibits minors from possessing or purchasing alcohol. Thus, when the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 came into effect on January 1, 1985, Missouri was in no danger of losing federal highway funds.\nA minor in possession (MIP) of alcohol or a business or person which furnishes alcohol to a minor is guilty of a misdemeanor, although for sellers there are numerous defenses and exceptions. Missouri is one of six states, however, with a unique exception which allows a","-21.610337503516348"],["such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents and dosage. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33% after labeling was mandated. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 is cited by drug policy reform advocates such as James P. Gray as a successful model for re-legalization of currently prohibited drugs by requiring accurate","-21.607697601197287"],["an estimated half of all suicides correlated with alcohol abuse. Russia's suicide rate has declined since the 1990s, alongside per capita alcohol consumption, despite the economic crises since then; therefore it is believed that alcohol consumption is more of a factor than economic conditions. Teenage suicides In 2012, the rate of teenage suicides in Russia was three times higher than the world average.","-21.58254238992231"],["drunk and disorderly in a public place, selling alcohol to a minor (under 18), threatening behaviour or language and \"behaviour likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to others\". Penalty notices can also be issued for minor shop thefts and minor criminal damage and in January 2009 the offence of possession of cannabis was added to the scheme. Recipients have 21 days to pay the notice or request a court hearing. If a penalty notice is not paid after 21 days then the outstanding amount is increased by 50% and if it is still unpaid the fine is","-21.5712919573416"],["a liquor store to deliver alcoholic beverages by car or van to a person's home. ABC regulations mandate that the alcoholic beverages being delivered are paid for in advance, that they are received by someone 21 or older, and that they take place when the licensed establishment is permitted to be open. Penalties for underage drinking The state underage drinking statute is a disorderly persons offense (misdemeanor), which upon conviction is punishable by up to 6 months in jail (rarely imposed), a $500–$1000 fine, and a mandatory 6-month suspension of the person's driver's license. The penalties are the same for","-21.565839898132253"],["as illegal alcohol, also due to the high incidence of alcohol poisoning.","-21.539988827542402"],["of alcohol, stricter regulation of alcohol advertising and the provision of brief Interventions. Brief Interventions for alcohol abuse reduce the incidence of unsafe sex, sexual violence, unplanned pregnancy and, likely, STD transmission. Information and education on social norms and the harms associated with alcohol abuse delivered via the internet or face-to-face has not been found to result in any meaningful benefit in changing harmful drinking behaviours in young people.\nAccording to European law, individuals who are suffering from alcohol abuse or other related problems cannot be given a license, or if in possession of a license cannot get it renewed. This","-21.50418162861024"],["in order to purchase illegal alcohol. This is promoted through prohibitive laws that ban people from purchasing alcohol on many days, and high taxes that make much alcohol legally expensive.\nDue to the monopoly on many narcotics, there are concerns that many government officials engage in corruption through the distribution of cannabis and opium by asking for kickbacks, albeit there is not illegality to the sale of cannabis through the Ministry of Health.","-21.499411428463645"],["nicotine products instead of the ones for which advertising is more regulated. For instance, while TV ads of cigarettes are banned in the United States, similar TV ads of e-cigarettes are not.\nThe most effective media are usually banned first, meaning advertisers need to spend more money to addict the same number of people. Comprehensive bans can make it impossible to effectively substitute other forms of advertising, leading to actual falls in consumption. However, skillful use of allowed media can increase advertising exposure; the exposure of U.S. children to nicotine advertising is increasing as of 2018.\nIn the US, sport and event","-21.477279510814697"],["the smoking rooms; cleaning and maintenance personnel may enter the room only one hour after it was last used for smoking.\nPopular French cigarette brands include Gauloises and Marlboro.\nThe possession, sale and use of cannabis (predominantly Moroccan hashish) is illegal in France. Since 1 March 1994, the penalties for cannabis use are from two months to a year and/or a fine, while possession, cultivation or trafficking of the drug can be punished much more severely, up to ten years. According to a 1992 survey by SOFRES, 4.7 million French people ages 12–44 have smoked cannabis at least once in their","-21.365912062785355"],["as opiates and cocaine\" and military delinquencies due to its use were \"negligible in number\" compared to alcohol. By other reports and research The 1933 report has been cited by other reports and research including the Surgeon General's 1988 Health Consequences of Smoking: Nicotine Addiction, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare's 1972 report to Congress, Licit and Illicit Drugs by Consumers Union (1972), medical studies on human appetite, and others. By legal defenses In 1964, Lowell Eggemeier's legal defense cited the 1933 government report, in the nation's first protest against what was called irrational drug control policy.","-21.348940947500523"],["is illegal to distribute alcoholic beverages for free, as well as serving a customer more than two beverages at a time. Practices designed to get customers to drink more, such as drinking games, are prohibited, as is the awarding of drinks as prizes. Place Sales of Alcohol were once only permitted from state-owned stores, but the laws establishing the stores were repealed in 1991 and the stores gradually closed. Privately owned stores now obtain licenses to operate as \"Agency Liquor Stores\". Establishments selling liquor may not be within 300 feet of an existing school or church ","-21.343636434054133"],["have taken a blood sample.\nDriving while consuming alcohol may be illegal within a jurisdiction. In some it is illegal for an open container of an alcoholic beverage to be in the passenger compartment of a motor vehicle or in some specific area of that compartment. There have been cases of drivers being convicted of a DUI when they were not observed driving after being proven in court they had been driving while under the influence.\nIn the case of an accident, car insurance may be automatically declared invalid for the intoxicated driver, i.e. the drunk driver is fully responsible for damages.","-21.33735766459722"],["for the product until the company disbanded due to prohibition. After Asher Guckenheimer's death the company changed hands several times, and the new owners in 1925 attempted to continue to sell the whiskey despite the prohibition. In 1925 the corporation and 13 of its workers were indicted on charges relating to conspiring to obtain the release of a large quantity of whiskey from bond to sell and deliver it unlawfully. The company was found guilty and the warehouse was sold to the Landau Brothers Contracting and Building Company. They owned the building until it was again sold to Paddington Associates","-21.335866120047285"],["the law caused significant public backlash, fuelled by gun rights lobbyists, and several shop owners offering such guns received death threats and stopped stocking them In 2014, 12 years after the law was passed, it was suggested the law be repealed if gun rights lobbyists agree not to resist the introduction of \"smart\" firearms.\nDrug prohibition can lead drug traffickers to prefer stronger, more dangerous substances, that can be more easily smuggled and distributed than other, less concentrated substances.\nTelevised drug prevention advertisements may lead to increased drug use.\nIncreasing usage of search engines, also including recent image search features, has contributed in","-21.323389913362917"],["to students underage and for those violating the advertising laws for tobacco products could be fined 500–10,000 EUR. On a store's fourth violation, its license is suspended for ten days, while after the fifth violation it is revoked permanently. Furthermore, the law includes that a driver may be fined up to 1,500 EUR for smoking with a minor (under 12 years of age) on board, regardless of who was smoking and it may be doubled if it is a public sector vehicle, such as a public bus. Drivers may have their licenses suspended for a month after each violation.\nHowever, these","-21.303037696750835"],["common). Within 24 hours of legalization, as much as 1.5 million barrels of 3.2% ABW beer was sold, causing some to predict a \"beer famine\". Soon thereafter, in December of the same year, the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution repealed prohibition in general, but left the production of alcoholic beverages heavily regulated by federal, state, and local authorities. Included in these regulations was the imposition of a three-tier distribution system, in which a manufacturer of alcoholic beverages must go through a wholesale distributor to sell its product, rather than selling to retailers directly. Post Prohibition Although the Twenty-first","-21.27455916166946"],["- under Regulation 28. Drinking age Although there's no legal drinking age is being set in Hong Kong, however, with the effect of the \"Dutiable Commodities (Amendment) Ordinance 2018\" (Cap. 109 Hong Kong Law) since November 30, 2018, sale or supply of alcohol / intoxicating liquor to minors (aged below 18) in the course of business is prohibited. The maximum fine for selling or supplying intoxicating liquor to a minor, or selling intoxicating liquor via vending machines, is HK$50,000 on summary conviction. Those who obstruct inspectors during enforcement are liable to a maximum fine of HK$10,000 on summary conviction.","-21.257461476547178"],["the Republic of Korea mandated tobacco manufactures to include warnings on cigarette packages. The violation against the smoke policy include a fine, which is less than 100 thousand won. Drinking alcohol According to the World Health Organization, South Koreans rank No. 28 in alcohol consumption over all (2015) and No. 22 in the OECD (2013). According to Euromonitor data, it is number 1 in hard-liquor consumption (2013). Age-standardized death rate of liver cirrhosis for male in South Korea is 20.6% of which 70.5% is attributed to alcohol. Prevalence of alcohol use disorders (including alcohol dependence and harmful use of alcohol)","-21.239653201948386"],["rejected or returned them.\n\nNicotine use is frequently shown in movies. While academics had long speculated that there was paid product placement, it was not until internal industry documents were released that there was hard evidence of such practices. The documents show that in the 1980s and 1990s, cigarettes were shown in return for ≤six-figure (US$) sponsorship deals. More money was paid for a star actor to be shown using nicotine. While this sponsorship is now banned in some countries, it is unclear whether the bans are effective, as such deals are generally not publicized or investigated.\nSmokers in movies are generally","-21.21745903987903"],["ban public drinking or the purchase of alcohol in certain areas or at certain times. \nPublic intoxication is illegal in France and an intoxicated person may be detained by the police or gendarmes and placed in a secure room (possibly a holding cell) until sober. The maximum fine is 150 euros. Germany The possession of open containers of alcohol and drinking in public (street, park etc.) is legal for people of the legal drinking age (16 for beer and wine; 18 for distilled spirits). Many cities forbid or restrict the consumption of alcohol in public transit or inside train stations.","-21.190927387506235"],["did not issue licenses, effectively banning the drugs.\nThe American judicial system did not initially accept drug prohibition. Prosecutors argued that possessing drugs was a tax violation, as no legal licenses to sell drugs were in existence; hence, a person possessing drugs must have purchased them from an unlicensed source. After some wrangling, this was accepted as federal jurisdiction under the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution. Alcohol prohibition The prohibition of alcohol commenced in Finland in 1919 and in the United States in 1920. Because alcohol was the most popular recreational drug in these countries, reactions to its prohibition","-21.166036709444597"],["in store for you one week later.\nSmith claimed to have downed the first legal drink in the United States once prohibition was repealed with the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution, and he wrote about the incident in Chapter VI of Life in a Putty Knife Factory. However, others also claimed to have taken the first Repeal drink; in New York City, Joe Weber of the comedy team Weber and Fields took the first legal drink with several reporters as his witnesses.","-21.16489720953541"],["have a great deal of problems from the use of alcohol so we should multiply that with marijuana\". Arguments against inconsistent drug laws Since alcohol prohibition ended and the War on Drugs began there has been much debate over the issue of consistency among legislators with regard to drug prohibition. Many anti-prohibition activists focus on the well-documented dangers of alcohol (such as alcoholism, cystisis, domestic violence, brain and liver damage). In addition to anecdotal evidence, they cite statistics to show more deaths caused by drunk driving under the influence of alcohol than by drivers under the influence of marijuana, and","-21.16175512832706"],["displayed prominently in stores. On April 1, 2008, smoking in a car with passengers under 19 inside became illegal. Minors are prohibited from possessing tobacco products. \nAs of 2015, 17.8% of Nova Scotia residents smoke. Ontario Ontario banned smoking in public spaces and workplaces in 1994 with the passing of the Tobacco Control Act and became the first province to outlaw the sale of tobacco in pharmacies. This was replaced with the Smoke Free Ontario Act in May 2006. In 2008, a ban on retail displays of tobacco was implemented. Since January 21, 2009, smoking is banned in all","-21.15552842989564"],["Kingdom Although the sale or consumption of commercial alcohol has never been prohibited by law in the United Kingdom, historically, various groups in the UK have campaigned for the prohibition of alcohol; including the Society of Friends (Quakers), The Methodist Church and other non-conformists, as well as temperance movements such as Band of Hope and temperance Chartist movements of the nineteenth century.\nFormed in 1853 and inspired by the Maine law in the United States, the United Kingdom Alliance aimed at promoting a similar law prohibiting the sale of alcohol in the UK. This hard-line group of prohibitionists was opposed by","-21.124824411293957"],["consent provision, thus making it illegal in all cases for a tavern or liquor store to sell alcohol to person under 18. In 1908, the penalties were increased so that a tavern keeper who served a minor could be jailed. Upon the start of Prohibition, New Jersey repealed its laws regarding the sale of alcohol to minors since the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited almost all liquor sales.\nUpon repeal of Prohibition and the passage of the Alcoholic Beverage Control Law, the ABC issued regulations that prohibited bars and liquor stores from selling alcohol to a person under","-21.100715542270336"],["people's mental development, their ability to concentrate in school, and their motivation and initiative to reach goals. And marijuana affects people of all ages: Harvard University researchers report that the risk of a heart attack is five times higher than usual in the hour after smoking marijuana.\n— US Drug Enforcement Administration (2003). \"Speaking Out Against Drug Legalization\"\nMany of the deaths from using cannabis, other than from car accidents while intoxicated or violence and aggression, are more likely to figure in the longer term, just as with tobacco, where both nicotine overdose and cannabis overdose are extremely rare or nonexistent. While","-21.05121230275836"],["Smoking in Sweden Smoking in Sweden is at a very low prevalence; only 11% of the total Swedish population (8% of men and 10% of women) smoked daily in 2016. Around another 10% smoke occasionally. Smoking has been banned in all bars and restaurants since May 2005. A majority of Swedes supported the introduction of the ban. Sweden was the only European country to achieve the WHO goal of less than 20% daily smoking prevalence among adults by year 2000. Sweden has a high level of use of smokeless tobacco, specifically a moist snuff product called 'snus', which some Swedes","-21.04126947990153"],["is placed.\nCurrently, the standard is that alcohol advertisements can only be placed in media where 70% of the audience is over the legal drinking age. Alcohol advertising's creative messages should not be designed to appeal to people under the age of 21, for example, using cartoon characters as spokespeople is discouraged. Advertising cannot promote brands based on alcohol content or its effects. Advertising must not encourage irresponsible drinking. Another issue in media placement is whether media vendors will accept alcohol advertising. The decision to accept an individual ad or a category of advertising is always at the discretion of the","-21.01774018188007"],["are disabled due to alcohol-related neuropsychiatric disorders. Alcohol abuse is highly associated with adolescent suicide. Adolescents who abuse alcohol are 17 times more likely to commit suicide than adolescents who don't drink. Additionally, alcohol abuse increases the risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with violent crimes, through specifics differ between particular countries and cultures. By country According to studies of present and former alcoholic drinkers in Canada, 20% of them are aware that their drinking has negatively impacted their lives in various vital areas including","-20.973971047089435"],["Production and Trade of Ethanol, Alcoholic and Ethanol-containing Products and about Restriction of Alcoholic Products Consumption (Drinking)\" forbids drinking in almost all public places (including entrance halls, staircases and elevators of living buildings) except bars, restaurants or other similar establishments where it is permitted to sell alcoholic products for immediate consumption. Singapore Drinking in public is legal in Singapore, however, consumption of alcohol in a public space or non-licensed premise is restricted from 10.30pm to 7am after the 2013 Little India riot. A permit will be required to consume alcohol during restricted hours in public places. Sales are prohibited from","-20.96317613561405"],["problems). Quality control According to a World Health Organisation report: \"As cannabis is an illegal drug its cultivation, harvesting and distribution are not subject to quality control mechanisms to ensure the reliability and safety of the product used by consumers. It is well recognised in developing countries, such as Kenya, that illicit alcohol production can result in the contamination with toxic by-products or adulterants that can kill or seriously affect the health of users. The same may be true of illicit drugs such as opiates, cocaine and amphetamine in developed societies.\"\nThe government cannot enforce quality control on products sold and","-20.959751353700995"],["a widespread criminal activity in Texas. The research found that 740 girls under age 18 were documented being marketed for sex during a 30-day period in Texas, of whom 712 of these girls were being marketed through Internet classified web sites and 28 were being marketed through escort services. More information concluded from the research is that there are more girls being trafficked for sex in Texas during one month than there are women killed in domestic violence with former or current husbands, intimate partners or boyfriends in Texas over an entire year. There are more girls being trafficked for","-20.917771497392096"],["transport of intoxicating beverages within the United States, as well as import and export. The Volstead Act, 1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5% and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not try.\nConsumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance, and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly ineffective, even if it did not","-20.91125378615834"],["dangerous than the opiates, amphetamines and barbiturates, and also less dangerous than alcohol. (…) An increasing number of people, mainly young, in all classes of society are experimenting with this drug, and substantial numbers use it regularly for social pleasure. There is no evidence that this activity is causing violent crime, or is producing in otherwise normal people conditions of dependence or psychosis requiring medical treatment (…) there are indications that (cannabis) may become a functional equivalent of alcohol.\"\nThe Advisory Committee appeared also to accept the principle of decriminalisation. The main proposal in the report was that \"possession of a","-20.90611506870482"],["dramatic drop in cigarette use among preteens since 1999. \"We didn't have to criminalize tobacco or create long prison sentences for cigarettes to achieve these amazing results,\" she said. \"The decrease was due to quality, comprehensive education at all grade levels about the health consequences of smoking and strict laws about sales to minors. This approach is working for tobacco.\" Massachusetts On May 16, 2007, Representatives Viriato deMacedo (R) and Daniel Webster (R) introduced House Bill 4434 to the Massachusetts State Legislature. If enacted, this legislation would have made Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A Class C controlled substances in that","-20.903057058574632"],["while \"over 80\" (over 80 milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood). In 1976, Parliament made the penalty the same as driving while impaired, created the offence of refusing to provide a breath sample (with the same penalties), and created laws allowing the police to use roadside screening devices. Both offences are now set out in the same section of the Criminal Code, section 253.\nAfter 1976, there were additional changes to the minimum penalties, and the introduction of new offences (impaired driving causing bodily harm and impaired driving causing death).\nBy 2008, drinking and driving cases made up","-20.88813774630762"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"a year: 480,000 from tobacco smoking-related illnesses and 80,000 from alcohol abuse. Together, tobacco and alcohol cause about 20% of all yearly deaths in the USA.\\nIt is argued that inconsistency between the harm caused and the legal status of these common drugs undermines the declared motives of the law enforcement agencies to reduce harm by prohibition, for example of marijuana.\\nIn February 2009, the UK government was accused by its most senior expert drugs adviser Professor David Nutt of making political decisions with regard to drug classification, for example in rejecting the scientific advice to downgrade ecstasy from a class A\",\n \"-29.260214984067716\"\n ],\n [\n \"is only allowed after 10:00 pm. Europe In Russia, advertising alcohol products is banned from almost all media (including television and billboards) since January 2013. Before that, alcohol advertising was restricted from using images of people drinking since mid-2000s.\\nIn Sweden, since 2010 advertisements are legal for wine and beer, but not on television and radio. Non-periodic magazines are allowed to advertise alcoholic beverages above 15%. These advertisements must contain warnings, but which are worded less strongly than the warnings on tobacco products - for example, \\\"Avoid drinking while pregnant,\\\" as opposed to \\\"smoking kills.\\\" These rules were introduced into the\",\n \"-26.322899000981124\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"That illicit drugs are inherently harmful substances is attested by the very nomenclature of the 'harm reduction' movement.\\\" The U.S. government has argued that illegal drugs are \\\"far more deadly than alcohol\\\" saying \\\"although alcohol is used by seven times as many people as drugs, the number of deaths induced by those substances is not far apart. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), during 2000, there were 15,852 drug-induced deaths; only slightly less than the 18,539 alcohol-induced deaths.\\\" Ratios of the harms of illicit opiates to licit alcohol and tobacco in Australia are similar, with 2\",\n \"-25.983778472203994\"\n ],\n [\n \"Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has suggested that illegal drugs are \\\"far more deadly than alcohol\\\", arguing that \\\"although alcohol is used by seven times as many people as drugs, the number of deaths induced by those substances is not far apart\\\", quoting figures from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), claiming \\\"during 2000, there were 15,852 drug-induced deaths; only slightly less than the 18,539 alcohol-induced deaths.\\\"\\nThe DEA's use of such figures is questionable however. An article in the Journal of the American Medical Association gave the number deaths caused by alcohol in year 2000 as 85,000 – over\",\n \"-25.35316297307145\"\n ],\n [\n \"Because cannabis is the most common drug, consuming of cannabis goes up to 66 percent than other drugs in the country. The death penalty is given to the people who grow cannabis, or a minimum fine of $550,000, based on the National Anti-Narcoticts (BNN) law.\",\n \"-25.091037011356093\"\n ],\n [\n \"century, there was a period when gin was criminalized and whiskey wasn't, because gin is what poor people drink. Legal highs and prohibition In 2013 the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reported that there are 280 new legal drugs, known as legal highs, available in Europe. One of the best known, mephedrone, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2010. On November 24, 2010, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration announced it would use emergency powers to ban many synthetic cannabinoids within a month. An estimated 73 new psychoactive synthetic drugs appeared on the UK market in 2012.\",\n \"-24.674841186468257\"\n ],\n [\n \"an accident and is often a separately defined felony punishable by jail, license suspension, fines or compulsory treatment. Long-term effects Alcohol is the main active ingredient of wine, beer and distilled spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount, however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or\",\n \"-24.620485792285763\"\n ],\n [\n \"increase in accident risk associated with alcohol, as well as the high accident rate among young drivers, the increases in risk associated with the use of drugs are surprisingly small.\\\"\\nA report from the University of Colorado, Montana State University, and the University of Oregon found that on average, states that have legalized medical cannabis had a decrease in traffic-related fatalities by 8–11%. The researchers hypothesized \\\"it’s just safer to drive under the influence of marijuana than it is drunk....Drunk drivers take more risk, they tend to go faster. They don’t realize how impaired they are. People who are\",\n \"-24.289351101848297\"\n ],\n [\n \"Union and adopting the entire European Union law. \\nAlcohol misuse costs the United Kingdom's National Health Service £3 billion per year. The cost to employers is 6.4 billion pounds sterling per year. These figures do not include the crime and social problems associated with alcohol misuse. The number of women regularly drinking alcohol has almost caught up with men.\\nIn the United States, many people are arrested for drinking and driving. Also, people under the influence of alcohol commit a large portion of various violent crimes, including child abuse, homicide and suicide. In addition, people of minority groups are affected by\",\n \"-24.075085833464982\"\n ],\n [\n \"100,000 individuals to 9.7 and within the first three months proceeding the Eighteenth Amendment, a half million dollars in bonded whiskey was stolen from government warehouses. The profits that could be made from selling and distributing alcohol were worth the risk of punishment from the government, which had a difficult time enforcing prohibition. There were over 900,000 cases of liquor shipped to the borders of U.S. cities. Criminal gangs and politicians saw the opportunity to make fortunes and began shipping larger quantities of alcohol to U.S. cities. The majority of the alcohol was imported from Canada, the Caribbean, and the\",\n \"-24.013288535177708\"\n ],\n [\n \"a proxy for alcohol consumption estimated a decrease in consumption of 10–20%. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism studies show clear epidemiological evidence that \\\"overall cirrhosis mortality rates declined precipitously with the introduction of Prohibition,\\\" despite widespread flouting of the law.\\nA 2017 study concluded that in six years from 1934 to 1939, \\\"an excess of 13,665 infant deaths ... could be attributable to the repeal of federal prohibition in 1933.\\\" Crime It is difficult to draw conclusions about Prohibition's impact on crime at the national level, as there were no uniform national statistics gathered about crime prior to 1930.\",\n \"-23.627233937382698\"\n ],\n [\n \"vulnerable people, a warning can be given instead of a fine. Larger quantities (more than 100 g or 3.5 oz) generally results in a prison sentence. Driving under the influence of cannabis is illegal and all but the smallest amounts of THC in a blood sample results in a fine and loss of the driver's license (conditional or unconditional). Usage Despite its illegal status, a report by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2015) shows that slightly more than ¹⁄₃ of adult Danes have tried cannabis at some point in their life, which is above the European average where\",\n \"-23.563397989724763\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ultimately, during prohibition use and abuse of alcohol ended up higher than before it started.\\nThough there were significant increases in crimes involved in the production and distribution of illegal alcohol, there was an initial reduction in overall crime, mainly in types of crimes associated with the effects of alcohol consumption such as public drunkenness. Those who continued to use alcohol, tended to turn to organized criminal syndicates. Law enforcement wasn't strong enough to stop all liquor traffic; however, they used \\\"sting\\\" operations, such as Prohibition agent Eliot Ness famously using wiretapping to discern secret locations of breweries. The prisons became\",\n \"-23.493020335183246\"\n ],\n [\n \"impact of alcohol (2010) A December 2010 article determined that alcohol had the worst medical and social effects compared to other recreational substances such as heroin and crack cocaine. The drugs marijuana, ecstasy, and LSD scored far lower in terms of related harms. The authors did not advocate alcohol prohibition, but they suggested that the government raise the price of alcohol until it was no longer widely available. Gavin Partington, spokesman of the Wine and Spirit Trade Association, responded to the report by saying that alcohol abuse affects \\\"a minority\\\" needing \\\"education, treatment and enforcement\\\". He also remarked that millions\",\n \"-23.474472170579247\"\n ],\n [\n \"ban. In the 2010 elections, the liquor ban was a minimum two days; in the 2013 elections, there was a proposal that it be extended to five days. This was overturned by the Supreme Court.\\nOther than election-related prohibition, alcohol is freely sold to anyone above the legal drinking age. Saudi Arabia The sale, consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Sri Lanka In 1955 Sri Lanka passed a law prohibiting adult women from buying alcohol. In January 2018, Finance Minister Mangala Samaraweera announced that the law would be amended, allowing women to\",\n \"-23.414142916502897\"\n ],\n [\n \"alcohol is banned totally since 1975.\\nIn September 2017, Facebook announced it would allow users to hide all alcohol advertisements. The move is debated within the UK, as Alcohol Research UK group welcomed the change, while the Alcohol Standards Authority said the UK already had some of the strictest rules in the world.\\nIn November 2018, Ireland introduced a law banning alcohol advertisements near schools, children play areas, public transportation, and cinemas, as well as restricting visibility of alcohol products in stores. The legislation will take effect November 2019. Responsible drinking campaigns There have been various campaigns to help prevent alcoholism, under-age\",\n \"-23.391476535820402\"\n ],\n [\n \"drinking causes the disorder. Alcohol misuse is associated with a number of mental health disorders and alcoholics have a very high suicide rate. A study of people hospitalised for suicide attempts found that those who were alcoholics were 75 times more likely to go on to successfully commit suicide than non-alcoholic suicide attempters. In the general alcoholic population the increased risk of suicide compared to the general public is 5-20 times greater. About 15 percent of alcoholics commit suicide. Abuse of other drugs is also associated with an increased risk of suicide. About 33 percent of suicides in the under\",\n \"-23.236152226600097\"\n ],\n [\n \"research which suggests that alcohol is more harmful than all but the most \\\"dangerous\\\" drugs. When the level of harm associated with the other drugs includes harm that arises solely as a result of the drugs illegality rather than merely that danger which is associated with actually using the drugs, only heroin, cocaine, barbiturates and street methadone were shown to be more harmful than the legal drug alcohol.\\nA 2002 DAWN report, for the USA records two possible drug-induced deaths where marijuana was the only drug found. Legal drugs however, have been the cause of more than half a million deaths\",\n \"-23.19790212449152\"\n ],\n [\n \"Arguments for and against drug prohibition Drug laws are effective Supporters of prohibition claim that drug laws have a successful track record suppressing illicit drug use since they were introduced 100 years ago. The licit drug alcohol has current (last 12 months) user rates as high as 80–90% in populations over 14 years of age, and tobacco has historically had current use rates up to 60% of adult populations, yet the percentages currently using illicit drugs in OECD countries are generally below 1% of the population excepting cannabis where most are between 3% and 10%, with six countries between\",\n \"-23.151805413421243\"\n ],\n [\n \"of alcohol are illegal in most jurisdictions when a person under the legal drinking age requests that a person above the legal age purchase alcohol for the underage person, and the straw purchaser knows or might reasonably assume based on the circumstances that the person is under the legal age. Tobacco and nicotine products As of October 2015, it is an offence to buy tobacco, cigarette papers (for the purpose of smoking tobacco) or e-cigarettes on behalf of under 18s in the United Kingdom. It was already an offence in Scotland. Mortgage loans The use of a straw person to\",\n \"-23.10089243837865\"\n ],\n [\n \"29% of those who had never used cannabis cited the illegality of the substance as their reason for never using the drug, while 19% of those who had ceased use of cannabis cited its illegality as their reason.\\nGil Kerlikowske, Director of the US ONDCP argues,\\nControls and prohibitions help to keep prices higher, and higher prices help keep use rates relatively low, since drug use, especially among young people, is known to be sensitive to price. The relationship between pricing and rates of youth substance use is well-established with respect to alcohol and cigarette taxes. There is literature showing that increases\",\n \"-23.097554786334513\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the sale of alcohol to visibly intoxicated persons or minors who subsequently cause death or injury to third parties (those not having a relationship to the business that sold the alcohol) as a result of alcohol-related car crashes and other accidents.\\nThe laws are intended to protect the general public from the hazards of serving alcohol to minors and intoxicated patrons. Groups such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) have advocated for the enforcement and enactment of dram shop laws across the United States as well as in the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. The earliest dram shop\",\n \"-23.094962043047417\"\n ],\n [\n \"and an illegal drug use increasing nineteen-fold. Colbert went on to say the ad was \\\"terrifying,\\\" adding, \\\"and that ad is no less terrifying just because there is no country called Scandinavia, none of the countries in Scandinavia passed gay marriage laws in 2004, and the statistics on suicide and drug use are made up.\\\"\",\n \"-22.905605727690272\"\n ],\n [\n \"alcohol industry around the world has also campaigned to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels.\",\n \"-22.84371350836591\"\n ],\n [\n \"did not have a history of drug abuse. Nearly 680,000 federal offender urine samples were tested for drugs in 1992. Consuming 12 beers over a weekend does not constitute excessive use of alcohol as a matter of law. Mental health treatment or examination Court-ordered mental health treatment as a condition of probation has been upheld when the case had taken an emotional toll on the defendant and the defendant said the conviction felt \\\"like the end of her life as she knows it\\\" or when the defendant has a history of major depression, refusal to take antidepressants, and dangerous conduct\",\n \"-22.809111334820045\"\n ],\n [\n \"death through overdose because substitution or poor quality, although this potential for harm may be operationally indistinct from the potentials for harm associated with other noncriminal behaviors, such as driving a car while tired or over-consumption of healthy foods. Some argue that if drugs were available legally, they would be less harmful (see the drug policy of the Netherlands). When drugs are illegal, the price is higher, and maintaining the habit takes the money that would otherwise be spent on food, shelter, and clothing. The resultant neglect is a contributory factor to the addict's physical deterioration. In Australia, Walker (1991)\",\n \"-22.805968531407416\"\n ],\n [\n \"owner or publisher of a media outlet.\\nIn 1991, U.S. Surgeon General Antonia Novello criticized alcoholic beverage companies for \\\"unabashedly targeting teenagers\\\" with \\\"sexual imagery, cartoons, and rock and rap music\\\" in television and print ads. The Federal Trade Commission conducted an investigation in 2002 into possible targeting to those under the age of 21. However, this investigation and those of some scholars have not found evidence of such targeting. Concerns exist that irresponsible advertising practices or \\\"pushing the envelope\\\" with audience composition may lead to permanent legislation governing the advertising of beverage alcohol. Asia In Malaysia, alcohol advertising on radio\",\n \"-22.70475895112031\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States, the smuggling of alcohol did not end with the repeal of prohibition. In the Appalachian United States, for example, the demand for moonshine was at an all-time high in the 1920s, but an era of rampant bootlegging in dry areas continued into the 1970s. Although the well-known bootleggers of the day may no longer be in business, bootlegging still exists, even if on a smaller scale. The state of Virginia has reported that it loses up to $20 million a year from illegal whiskey smuggling.\\nThe Government of the United Kingdom fails to collect an estimated £900 million in\",\n \"-22.68008329065924\"\n ],\n [\n \"the criminal did not make a sale. \\n-Possession of 5000 grams/5 kilograms of opium/marijuana/cannabis/prescription drugs/industrial chemical drugs/hemp juice. The death penalty is commuted for first-time offenders when the amount is less than 20000 grams/20 kilograms and the criminal did not make a sale. \\n-Armed smuggling of any narcotics, or being part of or the head of a narcotics smuggling gang (normally would receive a prison sentence prior to execution).\\nUsually the first offense would be imprisonment, but the second or third offense would be death. The death penalty would be applied if the crimes are deemed to be at the level of \\\"mofsed-fel-arz\\\"\",\n \"-22.60626136540668\"\n ],\n [\n \"of alcoholic beverage by driver or his/her crew in advance of, or while competing in any IMCA sanctioned program is strictly forbidden. Any driver showing evidence of alcohol consumption will be required to leave the premises immediately and may be subject to a fine of no less than $250. Use of illegal drugs at any time shall be cause for immediate, indefinite suspension and/or fine of no less than $250. Stock Car Brasil The Stock Car Brasil organisation has had a number of run-ins with doping offenders over the years. The Stock Car Brasil organisation is subjected to Brazilian Auto\",\n \"-22.594807779663824\"\n ],\n [\n \"alcohol consumption by 2016. These products were often nearly pure alcohol that could be diluted to a rough approximation of vodka, and were frequently available at all hours via strategically placed vending machines. In the Irkutsk incident, the victims drank scented bath lotion that was mislabeled as containing drinkable ethanol.\\nIn the aftermath of the poisoning, regulations on products being used as surrogate alcohols were tightened around the country. Politicians announced a temporary ban on non-food items with more than 25 percent alcohol, which was extended several times. Causes and event In the 2010s, Russia's economy suffered from a financial crisis,\",\n \"-22.491037187093752\"\n ],\n [\n \"do not intervene in underage drinking. Although restrictions are nationwide and well-known, some salespersons violate the law at times. Minors themselves can never be prosecuted for alcohol consumption under age. Supermarkets and stores generally check minors for their identity card. The law is less thoroughly enforced in many bars and restaurants, but this can vary by location. Alcohol consumption in public Public parties are prohibited nationally on Good Friday, and regionally on other holidays such as All Saints' Day. Buying alcohol remains possible at these times. The government maintains the right to restrict or ban the sale of alcohol for\",\n \"-22.413881524582393\"\n ],\n [\n \"mostly being bootleg alcohol. If care is not taken in the distillation process and the proper equipment is not used, harmful impurities such as fusel alcohols, lead from plumbing solder, and methanol can be concentrated to toxic levels. Several deaths have been reported in India and Pakistan due to consumption of non-factory made toxic liquor.\",\n \"-22.411113773239776\"\n ],\n [\n \"of other illegal drugs for trafficking, and for acquiring weapons that are ultimately used to commit murders (causing a burgeoning in the homicide rates of many areas of the world, but particularly Latin America).\\nSome studies show that the increased legalization of cannabis in the United States (beginning in 2012 with Washington Initiative 502 and Colorado Amendment 64) has led Mexican cartels to smuggle less cannabis in exchange for more heroin. Alcohol Alcohol, in the context of alcoholic beverages rather than denatured alcohol, is illegal in a number of Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, and this has resulted in a\",\n \"-22.40650833064865\"\n ],\n [\n \"rum bottles\\n— Justice Stevens, 44 Liquormart, 517 U.S. at 492\\nBecause the advertisement implied that 44 Liquormart had low prices, the Rhode Island Liquor Control Administrator fined the store $400.00. After being assessed the fine, the petitioners brought the suit, alleging that the regulation was unconstitutional. The District Court found the regulation banning advertisements unconstitutional, because the state did not prove that the law directly advanced its interest in reducing alcohol consumption, and because the law's reach was unnecessarily extensive.\\nThe First Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the lower court, ruling that an increase in alcohol advertisements would lead to an\",\n \"-22.39533108350588\"\n ],\n [\n \"claimed several hundred lives. According to the Tamil Nadu police, though consumption of alcohol results in major crimes and collisions, total prohibition may lead to other potential issues like black market trade. The police have recommended stricter traffic laws and introduction of smart cards to record the crime history of the drivers electronically. The state police stated during 2012 that public awareness was created and the officers were educated to improve reaction time to emergencies.\",\n \"-22.32605088003038\"\n ],\n [\n \"out in Lower Saxony, in 1327 cases (44%) alcohol was sold without age verification to underage persons. Hundreds of summary proceedings led to administrative fines ranging from 500 to 3000 euros. The standard rate for the illegal sale of one bottle of spirits is 1500 euros. Thus, alcohol trap purchases bring a return of around €2 million annually. Other German states, especially Schleswig-Holstein, are considering implementing the Lower Saxony model, but states like Berlin, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia and Baden-Württemberg object to it.\\nViolation of restraints will involve prosecution for vendors who sell alcohol to underage persons and also for bystanders who\",\n \"-22.311212383196107\"\n ],\n [\n \"consumption of alcohol in specific public areas where large scale festivities are due to take place and large crowds are expected. Yemen Alcohol is banned in Yemen. Czech Republic On 14 September 2012, the government of the Czech Republic banned all sales of liquor with more than 20% alcohol. From this date on it was illegal to sell such alcoholic beverages in shops, supermarkets, bars, restaurants, gas stations, e-shops etc. This measure was taken in response to the wave of methanol poisoning cases resulting in the deaths of 18 people in the Czech Republic. Since the beginning of the \\\"methanol\",\n \"-22.220233271375037\"\n ],\n [\n \"supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this was Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:\\n[T]he existing drug policies have failed in their intended goals of addressing the problems of crime, drug abuse, addiction, juvenile drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into this country and the internal sale and use of illegal\",\n \"-22.177297134534456\"\n ],\n [\n \"prescriptions for whiskey in one day. It wasn’t tough for people to write—and fill—counterfeit subscriptions at pharmacies, either. Naturally, bootleggers bought prescription forms from crooked doctors and mounted widespread scams. In 1931, 400 pharmacists and 1,000 doctors were caught in a scam where doctors sold signed prescription forms to bootleggers. Just 12 doctors and 13 pharmacists were indicted, and the ones charged faced a one-time $50 fine. Selling alcohol through drugstores became so much of a lucrative open secret that it’s name-checked in works such as The Great Gatsby. Historians speculate that Charles R. Walgreen, of Walgreen’s fame, expanded from\",\n \"-22.115831251911004\"\n ],\n [\n \"food stands on 12 September. On 14 September, the ban was extended to any sale of all alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content above 20% vol. On 20 September, export of such products was banned as well. The restrictions on liquor sales were lifted on 27 September 2012.\\nThe police systematically checked shops where liquors were on sale. Led by police vice president Václav Kučera, a special police team called Metyl coordinated the investigations. On 24 September, the police announced that the source of the methanol-contaminated alcohol had been identified. Two main suspects were arrested: Rudolf Fian, a businessman from Karviná\",\n \"-22.112959399120882\"\n ],\n [\n \"substances in excess of legitimate cigarettes. Illicit cigarettes seized in Canada and the United Kingdom were found to contain five times more cadmium, six times as much lead, 160% more tar, and 133% more carbon dioxide. Consumers are warned to take caution and avoid the temptation to save money by purchasing illegal cigarettes as it poses greater health risks compared to legal cigarettes. Australia The country's attempts to discourage smoking through higher taxes have instead fueled the illegal cigarette industry, leading to a $1.1 billion loss of taxes due to illegal cigarettes in 2012.\\nIn May 2016, it is estimated that\",\n \"-22.095736442541238\"\n ],\n [\n \"times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol abuse compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers, though the direction of causality remains unclear. Occasional binge drinkers (one or two times in past two weeks), were found to be four times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol abuse or dependence compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers. Societal and economic costs Alcohol abuse is associated with many accidents, fights, and offences, including criminal. Alcohol is responsible in the world for 1.8 million deaths and results in disability in approximately 58.3 million people. Approximately 40 percent of the 58.3 million people disabled through alcohol abuse\",\n \"-22.043319294989487\"\n ],\n [\n \"to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age. Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments. Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the \\\"hard\\\" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.\\nIn the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and\",\n \"-22.03032561438158\"\n ],\n [\n \"industry with most new addicts.\\nAnother method of evading restrictions is to sell less-regulated nicotine products instead of the ones for which advertising is more regulated. For instance, while TV ads of cigarettes are banned in the United States, similar TV ads of e-cigarettes are not.\\nThe most effective media are usually banned first, meaning advertisers need to spend more money to addict the same number of people. Comprehensive bans can make it impossible to effectively substitute other forms of advertising, leading to actual falls in consumption. However, skillful use of allowed media can increase advertising exposure; the exposure of U.S. children\",\n \"-22.02362053352408\"\n ],\n [\n \"all road fatalities in Europe are alcohol-related whereas about only 1,6% of all kilometres driven in Europe are driven by drivers with 0,5 g/l alcohol or more in their blood.\\n— European Commiison, European Road safety Observatory\\nLaws are also in place to protect citizens from the consequences incurred by drunk drivers.\\nIn fact \\\"To help control the number of drunk driving episodes, states have lowered the blood alcohol content limit to .08%.\\\" In terms of American law driving under the influence or while intoxicated \\\"is never a defense to a crime or motor-vehicle infraction involving reckless behavior.\\\"\\nWhen charged with this as a\",\n \"-22.008812878630124\"\n ],\n [\n \"illicit drugs in Schedules I and II increased to a maximum of life imprisonment, the penalties for the possession of drugs in Schedule VIII (up to 30g of cannabis and 1g of hashish) decreased to a maximum six months imprisonment and/or a maximum fine of $1000.\\nSince the enactment of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, various courts have struck down parts of the law and amendments have been passed by Parliament. In 2001, Canada became the first country in the world to legalize the use of cannabis for the terminally ill and three years later the Minister of Justice Irwin\",\n \"-21.98090384486568\"\n ],\n [\n \"supermarkets and convenience stores such as NTUC FairPrice, Giant Hypermarket, Sheng Siong, Cold Storage and 7-Eleven from 10.30pm to 7am.\\nThe condition of carriage of alcohol is prohibited even between 10.30pm and 7am on SMRT Trains and SBS Transit services. Slovakia In Slovakia, drinking alcoholic beverages in public is illegal in many cities South Korea In general, drinking in public is illegal if the drinker harms others while drinking in public. Harm is defined as using harsh language or stirring up loud noise while drinking or exercising bad drinking habits on others for no reason. Anyone reported or caught by city\",\n \"-21.926197094318923\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 1983. In 1997 an estimated 513,200 DWI offenders were in prison or jail, down from 593,000 in 1990 and up from 270,100 in 1986. In the United States, DUI and alcohol-related collisions produce an estimated $45 billion in damages every year.\\nIn some US and German studies BAC level 0.01-0.03% predicted a lower collision risk than BAC 0%, possibly due to extra caution, whereas BACs 0.08% or higher seem to be responsible for almost all extra accidents caused by alcohol. For a BAC of 0.15% the risk is 25-fold. Implied consent All U.S. states recognize \\\"implied consent\\\", pursuant to which\",\n \"-21.916439878885285\"\n ],\n [\n \"liquor-free zone. Similarly, passengers of motor vehicles are allowed to consume alcohol as long as they are not in a liquor-free zone. Sale of alcohol to intoxicated persons is illegal. Under the Summary Offences Act 1981 it is an offence to drink alcohol in public transport, aeroplanes and taxis unless the vehicle is a licensed premises. Most commercial flights as well as many ferries and trains serve alcohol on board. Norway Drinking in public is illegal in Norway and subject to fines. In many cities the police will primarily react if the use of alcohol is causing trouble and\",\n \"-21.889522401965223\"\n ],\n [\n \"individuals. As of 2014, alcohol warning labels are required in many countries, including Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, France, Guatemala, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, and the United States. Modern alcohol advertising promotes alcoholic beverages heavily “as though it was not a toxic substance”. The alcohol industry has tried to actively mislead the public about the risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption, in addition to campaigning to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels. Australia In Australia, \\\"Alcohol beverage makers must label their products with warning labels relating to the risks of drinking during pregnancy.\\\"\",\n \"-21.871810937969713\"\n ],\n [\n \"of such person's blood, saliva, urine or any other bodily fluid administered within two (2) hours after the arrest of such person.\\\" A second offense will have longer sentencing as well as require an ignition interlock device that can only detect alcohol even if person is not a user of alcohol. \\nNon-licensed making of hashish (including through the use of a simple grinder) or making brownies may include life imprisonment, however, licensed medical users can make and possess these products. Feral hemp research In 2018 Hempyre Genetics was hired to research strains of feral cannabis growing at undisclosed locations in\",\n \"-21.849198279800476\"\n ],\n [\n \"place their last orders for alcohol, due to serving hour cutoff laws. In some countries, alcohol cannot be sold to a person who is already intoxicated. Alcohol laws in many countries prohibit drunk driving.\\nIn some jurisdictions, alcoholic drinks are totally prohibited for reasons of religion (e.g., Islamic countries with sharia law) or for reasons of local option, public health, and morals (e.g., Prohibition in the United States from 1920 to 1933). In jurisdictions which enforce sharia law, the consumption of alcoholic drinks is an illegal offense, although such laws may exempt non-Muslims.\",\n \"-21.71847520620213\"\n ],\n [\n \"pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine. While not objecting to some form of regulatory legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most Salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation. Alcohol and tobacco When questioned by Māori Party MP Tariana Turia, on why she was unwilling to take the same prohibitory line on smoking cigarettes and drinking alcohol as she took on BZP, Ms Dean said – \\\"Alcohol and tobacco have been with our society for many, many years.\\\" \",\n \"-21.700858221272938\"\n ],\n [\n \"was implemented in late 2007. A study by the University of Hamburg (Ahlfeldt and Maennig 2010) demonstrates, that the smoking ban had, if any, only short run impacts on bar and restaurant revenues. In the medium and long run no negative effect was measurable. The results suggest either, that the consumption in bars and restaurants is not affected by smoking bans in the long run, or, that negative revenue impacts by smokers are compensated by increasing revenues through non-smokers. Ignition safety An indirect public health problem posed by cigarettes is that of accidental fires, usually linked with consumption of alcohol.\",\n \"-21.697916378820082\"\n ],\n [\n \"in one corner on the street, but one may not openly carry and consume a bottle of alcohol on the streets. Republic of Ireland The Republic of Ireland has no laws against public drinking, except that alcohol in a closed container cannot be consumed within 100 m (330 ft) of the off license where it was purchased. Some towns and cities have by-laws forbidding public drinking.\\nThe sale of alcohol in stores or off-license is illegal between the hours of 10:00 PM and 10:30 AM with the exception of Sunday morning, when the sale of alcohol is forbidden until 12:30 PM. The sale\",\n \"-21.68083832517732\"\n ],\n [\n \"used the same amount and half said they used less. Compared to previous surveys, more users purchased it from dealers, rather than the internet. The average price per gram was £16, compared to around £10 before the ban. The 2010 Mixmag survey of 2,500 nightclubbers found one quarter had used mephedrone in the previous month, the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal, and it was more likely to be cut with other substances. Of those who had already used mephedrone prior to the ban, 75% had continued to use it after the ban. Of the various drugs\",\n \"-21.680422581266612\"\n ],\n [\n \"cannot be issued for \\\"self defense reasons\\\". Even other weapons, such as pepper sprays, are regulated. Carrying weapons, including guns and knives in public is not allowed. Alcohol and criminality The majority of criminals and victims of violent crime are under the influence of alcohol during the act. Statistics show that in homicides 61 to 75 percent, in attempted homicides 71 to 78 percent and in assaults 71 to 73 percent of the offenders have been under the influence of alcohol. During the last two decades the number of drunk offenders has increased. Roughly half of the crimes of theft\",\n \"-21.675614206149476\"\n ],\n [\n \"decision to recreationally use illicit drugs is most commonly free, and with the knowledge that they may lead to an abundance of addictions.\\\" Health arguments for drug law reform There is evidence that many illicit drugs pose comparatively fewer health dangers than certain legal drugs. The health risks of MDMA (Ecstasy) have been exaggerated for instance, the risks from cannabis use also overstated, and health problems from the use of legal substances, particularly alcohol and tobacco, are greater, even than from cocaine use for example (occasional cocaine use does not typically lead to severe or even minor physical or social\",\n \"-21.665915512188803\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cari was killed by a drunk driver. Significantly, zero tolerance laws were enacted which criminalized driving a vehicle with 0.01% or 0.02% BAC for drivers under 21. This is true even in Puerto Rico, despite maintaining a legal drinking age of 18. Recent research in the American Economic Review suggests that sanctions imposed at BAC thresholds are effective in reducing repeat drunk driving.\\nOn May 14, 2013, the National Transportation Safety Board recommended that all 50 states lower the benchmark for determining when a driver is legally drunk from 0.08 blood-alcohol content to 0.05. The idea is part of an initiative\",\n \"-21.65177497023251\"\n ],\n [\n \"were committed by intoxicated persons; and drunk drivers were responsible for 14,000 traffic deaths and 60,000 serious traffic injuries\\\". In 1995, about three quarters of those arrested for homicide were under the influence of alcohol, and 29% of respondents reported that children beaten within families were the victims of drunks and alcoholics.\\nA 1997 report published in the Journal of Family Violence found that among male perpetrators of spousal homicide, 60–75% of offenders had been drinking prior to the incident. Suicide In 2008, suicide claimed 38,406 lives in Russia. With a rate of 27.1 suicides per 100,000 people, Russia has one\",\n \"-21.623327677953057\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a shortage of police personnel. During the tenure of the department there were no incidents of alcohol poisoning in Gujarat. The revenue loss to Gujarat government because of the ban is estimated to be around Rs 30 Billion. Alcohol poisoning On 7 July 2009, ten people died in Behrampura after drinking spurious liquor. The liquor was brewed in the house of Arvind Solanki, who also died after consuming the liquor. The death toll rose to 43 next day and crossed 120 by 12 July. Two hundred seventy-six people were admitted in various hospitals with nearly 100 of them in\",\n \"-21.616934611607576\"\n ],\n [\n \"suspension of the suspect's driver's license. Drinking age Missouri's drinking age has been 21 since 1945. That is, Missouri law prohibits minors from possessing or purchasing alcohol. Thus, when the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 came into effect on January 1, 1985, Missouri was in no danger of losing federal highway funds.\\nA minor in possession (MIP) of alcohol or a business or person which furnishes alcohol to a minor is guilty of a misdemeanor, although for sellers there are numerous defenses and exceptions. Missouri is one of six states, however, with a unique exception which allows a\",\n \"-21.610337503516348\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents and dosage. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33% after labeling was mandated. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 is cited by drug policy reform advocates such as James P. Gray as a successful model for re-legalization of currently prohibited drugs by requiring accurate\",\n \"-21.607697601197287\"\n ],\n [\n \"an estimated half of all suicides correlated with alcohol abuse. Russia's suicide rate has declined since the 1990s, alongside per capita alcohol consumption, despite the economic crises since then; therefore it is believed that alcohol consumption is more of a factor than economic conditions. Teenage suicides In 2012, the rate of teenage suicides in Russia was three times higher than the world average.\",\n \"-21.58254238992231\"\n ],\n [\n \"drunk and disorderly in a public place, selling alcohol to a minor (under 18), threatening behaviour or language and \\\"behaviour likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to others\\\". Penalty notices can also be issued for minor shop thefts and minor criminal damage and in January 2009 the offence of possession of cannabis was added to the scheme. Recipients have 21 days to pay the notice or request a court hearing. If a penalty notice is not paid after 21 days then the outstanding amount is increased by 50% and if it is still unpaid the fine is\",\n \"-21.5712919573416\"\n ],\n [\n \"a liquor store to deliver alcoholic beverages by car or van to a person's home. ABC regulations mandate that the alcoholic beverages being delivered are paid for in advance, that they are received by someone 21 or older, and that they take place when the licensed establishment is permitted to be open. Penalties for underage drinking The state underage drinking statute is a disorderly persons offense (misdemeanor), which upon conviction is punishable by up to 6 months in jail (rarely imposed), a $500–$1000 fine, and a mandatory 6-month suspension of the person's driver's license. The penalties are the same for\",\n \"-21.565839898132253\"\n ],\n [\n \"as illegal alcohol, also due to the high incidence of alcohol poisoning.\",\n \"-21.539988827542402\"\n ],\n [\n \"of alcohol, stricter regulation of alcohol advertising and the provision of brief Interventions. Brief Interventions for alcohol abuse reduce the incidence of unsafe sex, sexual violence, unplanned pregnancy and, likely, STD transmission. Information and education on social norms and the harms associated with alcohol abuse delivered via the internet or face-to-face has not been found to result in any meaningful benefit in changing harmful drinking behaviours in young people.\\nAccording to European law, individuals who are suffering from alcohol abuse or other related problems cannot be given a license, or if in possession of a license cannot get it renewed. This\",\n \"-21.50418162861024\"\n ],\n [\n \"in order to purchase illegal alcohol. This is promoted through prohibitive laws that ban people from purchasing alcohol on many days, and high taxes that make much alcohol legally expensive.\\nDue to the monopoly on many narcotics, there are concerns that many government officials engage in corruption through the distribution of cannabis and opium by asking for kickbacks, albeit there is not illegality to the sale of cannabis through the Ministry of Health.\",\n \"-21.499411428463645\"\n ],\n [\n \"nicotine products instead of the ones for which advertising is more regulated. For instance, while TV ads of cigarettes are banned in the United States, similar TV ads of e-cigarettes are not.\\nThe most effective media are usually banned first, meaning advertisers need to spend more money to addict the same number of people. Comprehensive bans can make it impossible to effectively substitute other forms of advertising, leading to actual falls in consumption. However, skillful use of allowed media can increase advertising exposure; the exposure of U.S. children to nicotine advertising is increasing as of 2018.\\nIn the US, sport and event\",\n \"-21.477279510814697\"\n ],\n [\n \"the smoking rooms; cleaning and maintenance personnel may enter the room only one hour after it was last used for smoking.\\nPopular French cigarette brands include Gauloises and Marlboro.\\nThe possession, sale and use of cannabis (predominantly Moroccan hashish) is illegal in France. Since 1 March 1994, the penalties for cannabis use are from two months to a year and/or a fine, while possession, cultivation or trafficking of the drug can be punished much more severely, up to ten years. According to a 1992 survey by SOFRES, 4.7 million French people ages 12–44 have smoked cannabis at least once in their\",\n \"-21.365912062785355\"\n ],\n [\n \"as opiates and cocaine\\\" and military delinquencies due to its use were \\\"negligible in number\\\" compared to alcohol. By other reports and research The 1933 report has been cited by other reports and research including the Surgeon General's 1988 Health Consequences of Smoking: Nicotine Addiction, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare's 1972 report to Congress, Licit and Illicit Drugs by Consumers Union (1972), medical studies on human appetite, and others. By legal defenses In 1964, Lowell Eggemeier's legal defense cited the 1933 government report, in the nation's first protest against what was called irrational drug control policy.\",\n \"-21.348940947500523\"\n ],\n [\n \"is illegal to distribute alcoholic beverages for free, as well as serving a customer more than two beverages at a time. Practices designed to get customers to drink more, such as drinking games, are prohibited, as is the awarding of drinks as prizes. Place Sales of Alcohol were once only permitted from state-owned stores, but the laws establishing the stores were repealed in 1991 and the stores gradually closed. Privately owned stores now obtain licenses to operate as \\\"Agency Liquor Stores\\\". Establishments selling liquor may not be within 300 feet of an existing school or church \",\n \"-21.343636434054133\"\n ],\n [\n \"have taken a blood sample.\\nDriving while consuming alcohol may be illegal within a jurisdiction. In some it is illegal for an open container of an alcoholic beverage to be in the passenger compartment of a motor vehicle or in some specific area of that compartment. There have been cases of drivers being convicted of a DUI when they were not observed driving after being proven in court they had been driving while under the influence.\\nIn the case of an accident, car insurance may be automatically declared invalid for the intoxicated driver, i.e. the drunk driver is fully responsible for damages.\",\n \"-21.33735766459722\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the product until the company disbanded due to prohibition. After Asher Guckenheimer's death the company changed hands several times, and the new owners in 1925 attempted to continue to sell the whiskey despite the prohibition. In 1925 the corporation and 13 of its workers were indicted on charges relating to conspiring to obtain the release of a large quantity of whiskey from bond to sell and deliver it unlawfully. The company was found guilty and the warehouse was sold to the Landau Brothers Contracting and Building Company. They owned the building until it was again sold to Paddington Associates\",\n \"-21.335866120047285\"\n ],\n [\n \"the law caused significant public backlash, fuelled by gun rights lobbyists, and several shop owners offering such guns received death threats and stopped stocking them In 2014, 12 years after the law was passed, it was suggested the law be repealed if gun rights lobbyists agree not to resist the introduction of \\\"smart\\\" firearms.\\nDrug prohibition can lead drug traffickers to prefer stronger, more dangerous substances, that can be more easily smuggled and distributed than other, less concentrated substances.\\nTelevised drug prevention advertisements may lead to increased drug use.\\nIncreasing usage of search engines, also including recent image search features, has contributed in\",\n \"-21.323389913362917\"\n ],\n [\n \"to students underage and for those violating the advertising laws for tobacco products could be fined 500–10,000 EUR. On a store's fourth violation, its license is suspended for ten days, while after the fifth violation it is revoked permanently. Furthermore, the law includes that a driver may be fined up to 1,500 EUR for smoking with a minor (under 12 years of age) on board, regardless of who was smoking and it may be doubled if it is a public sector vehicle, such as a public bus. Drivers may have their licenses suspended for a month after each violation.\\nHowever, these\",\n \"-21.303037696750835\"\n ],\n [\n \"common). Within 24 hours of legalization, as much as 1.5 million barrels of 3.2% ABW beer was sold, causing some to predict a \\\"beer famine\\\". Soon thereafter, in December of the same year, the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution repealed prohibition in general, but left the production of alcoholic beverages heavily regulated by federal, state, and local authorities. Included in these regulations was the imposition of a three-tier distribution system, in which a manufacturer of alcoholic beverages must go through a wholesale distributor to sell its product, rather than selling to retailers directly. Post Prohibition Although the Twenty-first\",\n \"-21.27455916166946\"\n ],\n [\n \"- under Regulation 28. Drinking age Although there's no legal drinking age is being set in Hong Kong, however, with the effect of the \\\"Dutiable Commodities (Amendment) Ordinance 2018\\\" (Cap. 109 Hong Kong Law) since November 30, 2018, sale or supply of alcohol / intoxicating liquor to minors (aged below 18) in the course of business is prohibited. The maximum fine for selling or supplying intoxicating liquor to a minor, or selling intoxicating liquor via vending machines, is HK$50,000 on summary conviction. Those who obstruct inspectors during enforcement are liable to a maximum fine of HK$10,000 on summary conviction.\",\n \"-21.257461476547178\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Republic of Korea mandated tobacco manufactures to include warnings on cigarette packages. The violation against the smoke policy include a fine, which is less than 100 thousand won. Drinking alcohol According to the World Health Organization, South Koreans rank No. 28 in alcohol consumption over all (2015) and No. 22 in the OECD (2013). According to Euromonitor data, it is number 1 in hard-liquor consumption (2013). Age-standardized death rate of liver cirrhosis for male in South Korea is 20.6% of which 70.5% is attributed to alcohol. Prevalence of alcohol use disorders (including alcohol dependence and harmful use of alcohol)\",\n \"-21.239653201948386\"\n ],\n [\n \"rejected or returned them.\\n\\nNicotine use is frequently shown in movies. While academics had long speculated that there was paid product placement, it was not until internal industry documents were released that there was hard evidence of such practices. The documents show that in the 1980s and 1990s, cigarettes were shown in return for ≤six-figure (US$) sponsorship deals. More money was paid for a star actor to be shown using nicotine. While this sponsorship is now banned in some countries, it is unclear whether the bans are effective, as such deals are generally not publicized or investigated.\\nSmokers in movies are generally\",\n \"-21.21745903987903\"\n ],\n [\n \"ban public drinking or the purchase of alcohol in certain areas or at certain times. \\nPublic intoxication is illegal in France and an intoxicated person may be detained by the police or gendarmes and placed in a secure room (possibly a holding cell) until sober. The maximum fine is 150 euros. Germany The possession of open containers of alcohol and drinking in public (street, park etc.) is legal for people of the legal drinking age (16 for beer and wine; 18 for distilled spirits). Many cities forbid or restrict the consumption of alcohol in public transit or inside train stations.\",\n \"-21.190927387506235\"\n ],\n [\n \"did not issue licenses, effectively banning the drugs.\\nThe American judicial system did not initially accept drug prohibition. Prosecutors argued that possessing drugs was a tax violation, as no legal licenses to sell drugs were in existence; hence, a person possessing drugs must have purchased them from an unlicensed source. After some wrangling, this was accepted as federal jurisdiction under the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution. Alcohol prohibition The prohibition of alcohol commenced in Finland in 1919 and in the United States in 1920. Because alcohol was the most popular recreational drug in these countries, reactions to its prohibition\",\n \"-21.166036709444597\"\n ],\n [\n \"in store for you one week later.\\nSmith claimed to have downed the first legal drink in the United States once prohibition was repealed with the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution, and he wrote about the incident in Chapter VI of Life in a Putty Knife Factory. However, others also claimed to have taken the first Repeal drink; in New York City, Joe Weber of the comedy team Weber and Fields took the first legal drink with several reporters as his witnesses.\",\n \"-21.16489720953541\"\n ],\n [\n \"have a great deal of problems from the use of alcohol so we should multiply that with marijuana\\\". Arguments against inconsistent drug laws Since alcohol prohibition ended and the War on Drugs began there has been much debate over the issue of consistency among legislators with regard to drug prohibition. Many anti-prohibition activists focus on the well-documented dangers of alcohol (such as alcoholism, cystisis, domestic violence, brain and liver damage). In addition to anecdotal evidence, they cite statistics to show more deaths caused by drunk driving under the influence of alcohol than by drivers under the influence of marijuana, and\",\n \"-21.16175512832706\"\n ],\n [\n \"displayed prominently in stores. On April 1, 2008, smoking in a car with passengers under 19 inside became illegal. Minors are prohibited from possessing tobacco products. \\nAs of 2015, 17.8% of Nova Scotia residents smoke. Ontario Ontario banned smoking in public spaces and workplaces in 1994 with the passing of the Tobacco Control Act and became the first province to outlaw the sale of tobacco in pharmacies. This was replaced with the Smoke Free Ontario Act in May 2006. In 2008, a ban on retail displays of tobacco was implemented. Since January 21, 2009, smoking is banned in all\",\n \"-21.15552842989564\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kingdom Although the sale or consumption of commercial alcohol has never been prohibited by law in the United Kingdom, historically, various groups in the UK have campaigned for the prohibition of alcohol; including the Society of Friends (Quakers), The Methodist Church and other non-conformists, as well as temperance movements such as Band of Hope and temperance Chartist movements of the nineteenth century.\\nFormed in 1853 and inspired by the Maine law in the United States, the United Kingdom Alliance aimed at promoting a similar law prohibiting the sale of alcohol in the UK. This hard-line group of prohibitionists was opposed by\",\n \"-21.124824411293957\"\n ],\n [\n \"consent provision, thus making it illegal in all cases for a tavern or liquor store to sell alcohol to person under 18. In 1908, the penalties were increased so that a tavern keeper who served a minor could be jailed. Upon the start of Prohibition, New Jersey repealed its laws regarding the sale of alcohol to minors since the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited almost all liquor sales.\\nUpon repeal of Prohibition and the passage of the Alcoholic Beverage Control Law, the ABC issued regulations that prohibited bars and liquor stores from selling alcohol to a person under\",\n \"-21.100715542270336\"\n ],\n [\n \"people's mental development, their ability to concentrate in school, and their motivation and initiative to reach goals. And marijuana affects people of all ages: Harvard University researchers report that the risk of a heart attack is five times higher than usual in the hour after smoking marijuana.\\n— US Drug Enforcement Administration (2003). \\\"Speaking Out Against Drug Legalization\\\"\\nMany of the deaths from using cannabis, other than from car accidents while intoxicated or violence and aggression, are more likely to figure in the longer term, just as with tobacco, where both nicotine overdose and cannabis overdose are extremely rare or nonexistent. While\",\n \"-21.05121230275836\"\n ],\n [\n \"Smoking in Sweden Smoking in Sweden is at a very low prevalence; only 11% of the total Swedish population (8% of men and 10% of women) smoked daily in 2016. Around another 10% smoke occasionally. Smoking has been banned in all bars and restaurants since May 2005. A majority of Swedes supported the introduction of the ban. Sweden was the only European country to achieve the WHO goal of less than 20% daily smoking prevalence among adults by year 2000. Sweden has a high level of use of smokeless tobacco, specifically a moist snuff product called 'snus', which some Swedes\",\n \"-21.04126947990153\"\n ],\n [\n \"is placed.\\nCurrently, the standard is that alcohol advertisements can only be placed in media where 70% of the audience is over the legal drinking age. Alcohol advertising's creative messages should not be designed to appeal to people under the age of 21, for example, using cartoon characters as spokespeople is discouraged. Advertising cannot promote brands based on alcohol content or its effects. Advertising must not encourage irresponsible drinking. Another issue in media placement is whether media vendors will accept alcohol advertising. The decision to accept an individual ad or a category of advertising is always at the discretion of the\",\n \"-21.01774018188007\"\n ],\n [\n \"are disabled due to alcohol-related neuropsychiatric disorders. Alcohol abuse is highly associated with adolescent suicide. Adolescents who abuse alcohol are 17 times more likely to commit suicide than adolescents who don't drink. Additionally, alcohol abuse increases the risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with violent crimes, through specifics differ between particular countries and cultures. By country According to studies of present and former alcoholic drinkers in Canada, 20% of them are aware that their drinking has negatively impacted their lives in various vital areas including\",\n \"-20.973971047089435\"\n ],\n [\n \"Production and Trade of Ethanol, Alcoholic and Ethanol-containing Products and about Restriction of Alcoholic Products Consumption (Drinking)\\\" forbids drinking in almost all public places (including entrance halls, staircases and elevators of living buildings) except bars, restaurants or other similar establishments where it is permitted to sell alcoholic products for immediate consumption. Singapore Drinking in public is legal in Singapore, however, consumption of alcohol in a public space or non-licensed premise is restricted from 10.30pm to 7am after the 2013 Little India riot. A permit will be required to consume alcohol during restricted hours in public places. Sales are prohibited from\",\n \"-20.96317613561405\"\n ],\n [\n \"problems). Quality control According to a World Health Organisation report: \\\"As cannabis is an illegal drug its cultivation, harvesting and distribution are not subject to quality control mechanisms to ensure the reliability and safety of the product used by consumers. It is well recognised in developing countries, such as Kenya, that illicit alcohol production can result in the contamination with toxic by-products or adulterants that can kill or seriously affect the health of users. The same may be true of illicit drugs such as opiates, cocaine and amphetamine in developed societies.\\\"\\nThe government cannot enforce quality control on products sold and\",\n \"-20.959751353700995\"\n ],\n [\n \"a widespread criminal activity in Texas. The research found that 740 girls under age 18 were documented being marketed for sex during a 30-day period in Texas, of whom 712 of these girls were being marketed through Internet classified web sites and 28 were being marketed through escort services. More information concluded from the research is that there are more girls being trafficked for sex in Texas during one month than there are women killed in domestic violence with former or current husbands, intimate partners or boyfriends in Texas over an entire year. There are more girls being trafficked for\",\n \"-20.917771497392096\"\n ],\n [\n \"transport of intoxicating beverages within the United States, as well as import and export. The Volstead Act, 1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5% and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not try.\\nConsumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance, and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly ineffective, even if it did not\",\n \"-20.91125378615834\"\n ],\n [\n \"dangerous than the opiates, amphetamines and barbiturates, and also less dangerous than alcohol. (…) An increasing number of people, mainly young, in all classes of society are experimenting with this drug, and substantial numbers use it regularly for social pleasure. There is no evidence that this activity is causing violent crime, or is producing in otherwise normal people conditions of dependence or psychosis requiring medical treatment (…) there are indications that (cannabis) may become a functional equivalent of alcohol.\\\"\\nThe Advisory Committee appeared also to accept the principle of decriminalisation. The main proposal in the report was that \\\"possession of a\",\n \"-20.90611506870482\"\n ],\n [\n \"dramatic drop in cigarette use among preteens since 1999. \\\"We didn't have to criminalize tobacco or create long prison sentences for cigarettes to achieve these amazing results,\\\" she said. \\\"The decrease was due to quality, comprehensive education at all grade levels about the health consequences of smoking and strict laws about sales to minors. This approach is working for tobacco.\\\" Massachusetts On May 16, 2007, Representatives Viriato deMacedo (R) and Daniel Webster (R) introduced House Bill 4434 to the Massachusetts State Legislature. If enacted, this legislation would have made Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A Class C controlled substances in that\",\n \"-20.903057058574632\"\n ],\n [\n \"while \\\"over 80\\\" (over 80 milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood). In 1976, Parliament made the penalty the same as driving while impaired, created the offence of refusing to provide a breath sample (with the same penalties), and created laws allowing the police to use roadside screening devices. Both offences are now set out in the same section of the Criminal Code, section 253.\\nAfter 1976, there were additional changes to the minimum penalties, and the introduction of new offences (impaired driving causing bodily harm and impaired driving causing death).\\nBy 2008, drinking and driving cases made up\",\n \"-20.88813774630762\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":276,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"57l4ga"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Is intelligence genetic? Are some people genetically predisposed to be better at things like math and arts?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Yes, and no. Intelligence isn't really something that exists by itself, its more a combination of curiosity, creativity, persistence, experience, memory, and calculation. Those are to different degrees innate or trained/learned skills. Regardless of how smart you are it's damn hard to learn something you find dreadfully boring, and extremely easy to learn something you find fascinating. Though you often need some pretty significant persistence in learning the boring stuff so you have the required foundation to understand the interesting stuff. As for genetics. Mental strength is a lot like physical strength. You aren't going to win a gold medal at the olympics without both innate talent and a ton of hard work and training. Yet a puny weakling can obtain significant strength through exercise and training.","I used to work in a lab that did learning, memory, & intelligence research. Ultimately, in humans, **approximately 50% of your mental capacity is determined by your level of general intelligence**, according to well-founded statistical analyses. Let me explain: **\"General intelligence\"** Intelligence is hard to define, but we do have some concrete evidence for what it is. The most important piece of evidence that there is such a thing as \"general intelligence\" is the fact that pretty much all types of mental abilities are correlated with each other. In other words, people who are really good at math tend *on average* to be really good at a lot of other things. This strongly implies that there is some kind of \"general factor\" that people can have more or less of. One very important thing to note is that \"general intelligence\" doesn't really directly give someone math skills, or computer programming skills, etcetera. Instead, you should think of general intelligence as giving someone an increased ability to learn those things. Someone who scores higher on the \"general factor\" will be able to learn calculus more easily, in less time, than others. In practice, this often results in people who can't learn calculus as easily simply not learning calculus, and this can make it look like \"person A can understand calculus but person B can't.\" In reality, it's usually not a matter of being able / not able to understand something. It's simply a matter of it costing less time and effort for some than others. It's just sadly very easy for people to become discouraged by things like this and deciding that they are not able at all. **\"multiple kinds of intelligence\"** There are also lower-level \"group factors,\" which represent the fact that certain \"groups\" of mental abilities correlate with each other especially strongly. For example, spatial reasoning skills might be one type of group factor. Generally speaking, the different \"group factors\" tend to correlate with the \"general factor.\" Someone who is more intelligent will usually have good spatial reasoning skills, as well as good ability to learn math, ability to learn music, ability to learn computer skills, and so on. But the group factors can vary somewhat independently from the general factor. So somebody who had high general intelligence CAN have poor spatial reasoning skills. Or someone with lower general intelligence CAN have high ability to learn math, or ability to learn languages, and so on. **Genetics** Studies on twins have helped demonstrate that there is a strong genetic component to intelligence. For example, some studies compare identical and non-identical twins. This makes a great control, because in either case the twins are born at the same time and raised in the same environment. But identical twins share all of their genes, whereas non-identical twins have approximately 50% of the same genes. So, if you give IQ tests to a bunch of twins, then if intelligence is highly genetic, identical twins should be more similar to each other than fraternal twins. But if intelligence is purely due to upbringing, socioeconomic status, etc., then fraternal twins should be just as similar to each other as identical twins. In fact, such studies have found that identical twins usually have similar IQ, and fraternal twins have IQs that are less closely matched. As far as we can tell, something like 50% of IQ (and a true IQ test is a pretty decent measure of general intelligence) is genetic. I am not aware of studies specifically addressing the genetic component of group factors. So I'm not sure how likely it is for a specific talent in one area to be heritable.","There is definitely a string genetic component to intelligence - see [Heritability of IQ] ( URL_0 ) for summaries of the research. The correlation varies with age but is roughly +0.5. IQ and intelligence are not exactly the same thing, but what we call \"intelligence\" is strongly correlated with IQ. There's also ongoing research in to the effects of upbringing, since we also know that children need good nutrition and intellectual stimulation at critical times if they are to reach their full potential."," > Is intelligence genetic? Define intelligence, but IQ certainly is. Early childhood education, diet etc of course also play a major role. > Are some people genetically predisposed to better at certain things like math vs art? We don't know, but a high IQ is correlated with success in all sorts of intellectual endeavors, mathy and artsy both. What gets really fun and controversial is when you get into large-population territory, for example, China, Mongolia and Japan score similarly on IQ test (around 105 average) despite vastly different standards of living. This of course implying it may be more about genetics than we care to admit, and these differences may be observable on a general level in groups larger than a family unit.","I know it is purely anecdotal but my two kids seem to have inherited math skills, like I did. My wife is a teacher in a district that focuses on reading first. All other subjects fall into place if reading is solid. As a result, our kids have only had reading training at home. We sometimes do math or science but the time ratio is close to 500:1 against reading. Our oldest, now 7, is excelling in math. It is too easy for him and they're now scrambling to bring in lessons from higher grades. He never talks or thinks about it, just \"gets it\". When my now 5 year old was 3, he would whisper answers to math questions that me and mom and the older kid would be talking about, like how much money we need or how much time left or days until type of stuff. He even knew a week out how many hours until he would wake up and be a 5 year old. At 4, his montessori school asked us if it would be alright if they tought him multiplication because their simple lessons of counting shapes and sorting stuff were not stimulating him. Then there is me. Grow up in small town. Not much emphasis on school. Didn't do well in school. I knew exactly how much effort was needed to pass and be as lazy as possible doing it. I never stood out in math. Fell asleep a lot. When I was leaving high school and taking the college entrance tests, i scored perfect in math on the ACT and the college math placement test. I also finished them in half the time as everyone else. My math teacher at the time was so upset by this that he was yelling. With math, I just \"got it\".","If anyone tells you that intelligence is not something that you get from birth then they are just bullshitting you. You ever wonder why some people can learn at an unbelievable rate and you struggle your ass off? How some people can pick up an instrument and be a god at it while you try for years and years and still are no where near their level. How some people can just start running and be marathon runners and you try every day to and could never come close? How long have you been trying to become a basketball god and try your hardest every day, and then someone comes along and within a few weeks are at a level that you can't even imagine being at? It is all in your genes. They were born with it and you was not. Not everyone gets to be a rockstar. Some people are born with that gift and most people are doomed to live in mediocrity. I'm sure that I will be downvoted for saying this, and I'm sure that everyone will say all kinds of things to try and go against it and prove it wrong, but the fact remains the same. Some people are on another level. A level that no matter how hard you try, you will never achieve. It's a fact of life. A hard fact to deal with, but a fact non-the-less.","There's evidence from studies of adopted children that it's largely genetic. Adopted children actually tend to be less successful in life, which is weird because adoption is expensive and adoptive parents are carefully screened. So adoptive parents should be providing better home lives on average because they need to be financially stable in order to afford the process and be able to demonstrate that they'll probably be successful parents in order to qualify. The conclusions reached by the study are that parents who give up children are, on average, doing so because they've been less successful at life and don't have the resources to care for a child. It seems that these traits get passed along to the child and this genetic component is more powerful than the child's environment. Intelligence and life skills seem to be largely genetic. Source: the book *Freakonomics* by Stephen Dubner and another author whose name eludes me.","There were studies done on both adopted kids and twin studies. I believe the results were that intelligence is about 60-70 % nature and 30-40% nurture. [here]( URL_0 ) is an example of one such study, showing that in adopted kids (at birth), the child's intelligence has a significantly stronger correlation with the biological mother than the adopting mother.","Mehlman has noted, “SNAP-25 is a gene increasingly associated with cognitive intelligence, and g genes are ones which code for a protein which increases the receptive rate which information can pass through a cell” (17). When these genes were altered in mice, some of these mice showed increased problem solving capabilities, as well as a considerably reduced amount of time navigating mazes, due to memory of the pathways. In particular rats were put in murky water they couldn't see through, and the genetically modified rats immediately swam for the hidden platform. While the rats who had solved this maze in the past, but had no genetic manipulation had to swim around for much longer to find the platform, they didn't go immediately to it. URL_0 "],"string":"[\n \"Yes, and no. Intelligence isn't really something that exists by itself, its more a combination of curiosity, creativity, persistence, experience, memory, and calculation. Those are to different degrees innate or trained/learned skills. Regardless of how smart you are it's damn hard to learn something you find dreadfully boring, and extremely easy to learn something you find fascinating. Though you often need some pretty significant persistence in learning the boring stuff so you have the required foundation to understand the interesting stuff. As for genetics. Mental strength is a lot like physical strength. You aren't going to win a gold medal at the olympics without both innate talent and a ton of hard work and training. Yet a puny weakling can obtain significant strength through exercise and training.\",\n \"I used to work in a lab that did learning, memory, & intelligence research. Ultimately, in humans, **approximately 50% of your mental capacity is determined by your level of general intelligence**, according to well-founded statistical analyses. Let me explain: **\\\"General intelligence\\\"** Intelligence is hard to define, but we do have some concrete evidence for what it is. The most important piece of evidence that there is such a thing as \\\"general intelligence\\\" is the fact that pretty much all types of mental abilities are correlated with each other. In other words, people who are really good at math tend *on average* to be really good at a lot of other things. This strongly implies that there is some kind of \\\"general factor\\\" that people can have more or less of. One very important thing to note is that \\\"general intelligence\\\" doesn't really directly give someone math skills, or computer programming skills, etcetera. Instead, you should think of general intelligence as giving someone an increased ability to learn those things. Someone who scores higher on the \\\"general factor\\\" will be able to learn calculus more easily, in less time, than others. In practice, this often results in people who can't learn calculus as easily simply not learning calculus, and this can make it look like \\\"person A can understand calculus but person B can't.\\\" In reality, it's usually not a matter of being able / not able to understand something. It's simply a matter of it costing less time and effort for some than others. It's just sadly very easy for people to become discouraged by things like this and deciding that they are not able at all. **\\\"multiple kinds of intelligence\\\"** There are also lower-level \\\"group factors,\\\" which represent the fact that certain \\\"groups\\\" of mental abilities correlate with each other especially strongly. For example, spatial reasoning skills might be one type of group factor. Generally speaking, the different \\\"group factors\\\" tend to correlate with the \\\"general factor.\\\" Someone who is more intelligent will usually have good spatial reasoning skills, as well as good ability to learn math, ability to learn music, ability to learn computer skills, and so on. But the group factors can vary somewhat independently from the general factor. So somebody who had high general intelligence CAN have poor spatial reasoning skills. Or someone with lower general intelligence CAN have high ability to learn math, or ability to learn languages, and so on. **Genetics** Studies on twins have helped demonstrate that there is a strong genetic component to intelligence. For example, some studies compare identical and non-identical twins. This makes a great control, because in either case the twins are born at the same time and raised in the same environment. But identical twins share all of their genes, whereas non-identical twins have approximately 50% of the same genes. So, if you give IQ tests to a bunch of twins, then if intelligence is highly genetic, identical twins should be more similar to each other than fraternal twins. But if intelligence is purely due to upbringing, socioeconomic status, etc., then fraternal twins should be just as similar to each other as identical twins. In fact, such studies have found that identical twins usually have similar IQ, and fraternal twins have IQs that are less closely matched. As far as we can tell, something like 50% of IQ (and a true IQ test is a pretty decent measure of general intelligence) is genetic. I am not aware of studies specifically addressing the genetic component of group factors. So I'm not sure how likely it is for a specific talent in one area to be heritable.\",\n \"There is definitely a string genetic component to intelligence - see [Heritability of IQ] ( URL_0 ) for summaries of the research. The correlation varies with age but is roughly +0.5. IQ and intelligence are not exactly the same thing, but what we call \\\"intelligence\\\" is strongly correlated with IQ. There's also ongoing research in to the effects of upbringing, since we also know that children need good nutrition and intellectual stimulation at critical times if they are to reach their full potential.\",\n \" > Is intelligence genetic? Define intelligence, but IQ certainly is. Early childhood education, diet etc of course also play a major role. > Are some people genetically predisposed to better at certain things like math vs art? We don't know, but a high IQ is correlated with success in all sorts of intellectual endeavors, mathy and artsy both. What gets really fun and controversial is when you get into large-population territory, for example, China, Mongolia and Japan score similarly on IQ test (around 105 average) despite vastly different standards of living. This of course implying it may be more about genetics than we care to admit, and these differences may be observable on a general level in groups larger than a family unit.\",\n \"I know it is purely anecdotal but my two kids seem to have inherited math skills, like I did. My wife is a teacher in a district that focuses on reading first. All other subjects fall into place if reading is solid. As a result, our kids have only had reading training at home. We sometimes do math or science but the time ratio is close to 500:1 against reading. Our oldest, now 7, is excelling in math. It is too easy for him and they're now scrambling to bring in lessons from higher grades. He never talks or thinks about it, just \\\"gets it\\\". When my now 5 year old was 3, he would whisper answers to math questions that me and mom and the older kid would be talking about, like how much money we need or how much time left or days until type of stuff. He even knew a week out how many hours until he would wake up and be a 5 year old. At 4, his montessori school asked us if it would be alright if they tought him multiplication because their simple lessons of counting shapes and sorting stuff were not stimulating him. Then there is me. Grow up in small town. Not much emphasis on school. Didn't do well in school. I knew exactly how much effort was needed to pass and be as lazy as possible doing it. I never stood out in math. Fell asleep a lot. When I was leaving high school and taking the college entrance tests, i scored perfect in math on the ACT and the college math placement test. I also finished them in half the time as everyone else. My math teacher at the time was so upset by this that he was yelling. With math, I just \\\"got it\\\".\",\n \"If anyone tells you that intelligence is not something that you get from birth then they are just bullshitting you. You ever wonder why some people can learn at an unbelievable rate and you struggle your ass off? How some people can pick up an instrument and be a god at it while you try for years and years and still are no where near their level. How some people can just start running and be marathon runners and you try every day to and could never come close? How long have you been trying to become a basketball god and try your hardest every day, and then someone comes along and within a few weeks are at a level that you can't even imagine being at? It is all in your genes. They were born with it and you was not. Not everyone gets to be a rockstar. Some people are born with that gift and most people are doomed to live in mediocrity. I'm sure that I will be downvoted for saying this, and I'm sure that everyone will say all kinds of things to try and go against it and prove it wrong, but the fact remains the same. Some people are on another level. A level that no matter how hard you try, you will never achieve. It's a fact of life. A hard fact to deal with, but a fact non-the-less.\",\n \"There's evidence from studies of adopted children that it's largely genetic. Adopted children actually tend to be less successful in life, which is weird because adoption is expensive and adoptive parents are carefully screened. So adoptive parents should be providing better home lives on average because they need to be financially stable in order to afford the process and be able to demonstrate that they'll probably be successful parents in order to qualify. The conclusions reached by the study are that parents who give up children are, on average, doing so because they've been less successful at life and don't have the resources to care for a child. It seems that these traits get passed along to the child and this genetic component is more powerful than the child's environment. Intelligence and life skills seem to be largely genetic. Source: the book *Freakonomics* by Stephen Dubner and another author whose name eludes me.\",\n \"There were studies done on both adopted kids and twin studies. I believe the results were that intelligence is about 60-70 % nature and 30-40% nurture. [here]( URL_0 ) is an example of one such study, showing that in adopted kids (at birth), the child's intelligence has a significantly stronger correlation with the biological mother than the adopting mother.\",\n \"Mehlman has noted, “SNAP-25 is a gene increasingly associated with cognitive intelligence, and g genes are ones which code for a protein which increases the receptive rate which information can pass through a cell” (17). When these genes were altered in mice, some of these mice showed increased problem solving capabilities, as well as a considerably reduced amount of time navigating mazes, due to memory of the pathways. In particular rats were put in murky water they couldn't see through, and the genetically modified rats immediately swam for the hidden platform. While the rats who had solved this maze in the past, but had no genetic manipulation had to swim around for much longer to find the platform, they didn't go immediately to it. URL_0 \"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["are many genes associated with genetic transmission of intelligence, but current theories of intelligence point to inheritance of intelligence from parents to be due to both genetic and environmental factors, especially as there is no concrete proof of the relationship between certain genes and intelligence.\nThe correlation between height and intelligence could also be confounded by how cultural and psychological factors affect the expression of intelligence. It is impossible to create a culture-free test for intelligence, as different societies value and cultivate different skill sets and ways of interpreting the world. For example, some cultures put more emphasis on hard work","-37.56031434619217"],["intelligent people are found to acquire new material quicker.\nIndividual intelligence can be used to predict plenty of life outcomes from school attainment and career success to health outcomes and even mortality. Whether collective intelligence is able to predict other outcomes besides group performance on mental tasks has still to be investigated. Potential connections to individual intelligence Gladwell (2008) showed that the relationship between individual IQ and success works only to a certain point and that additional IQ points over an estimate of IQ 120 do not translate into real life advantages. If a similar border exists for Group-IQ or if","-36.152293228526105"],["conclusions. \nAccording to Hunt, international studies of intelligence are important because they measure which populations possess the cognitive skills that are necessary in a post-industrial world. He also writes that genetics cannot be ruled out as a possible cause, but that education surely plays a major role, so one should not conclude that human capital in poor countries can never be improved. \"Average IQ values in various European countries\" The 1981 article \"Average IQ values in various European countries\" by Vinko Buj is the only international IQ study that over a short time period has compared IQs using the same","-35.93484937397989"],["to be the least intelligent is evidence of dysgenic fertility. He said there has been a genuine increase in phenotypic intelligence, but that this is caused by environmental factors and is masking a decline in genotypic intelligence.\nAccording to Lynn, those with greater educational achievement have fewer children, while children with lower IQs come from larger families, which he viewed as evidence that intelligence and fertility are negatively correlated. Lynn agreed with Lewis Terman's comment in 1922 that \"children of successful and cultivated parents test higher than children from wretched and ignorant homes for the simple reason that their heredity is","-35.80954517018108"],["certain genetic variants that contribute to an average lower intelligence. Such a hypothetical situation could hold without all Africans carrying the same genes or belonging to a single evolutionary lineage. According to Mackintosh, a biological basis for the gap thus cannot be ruled out on a priori grounds.\nIntelligence is a polygenic trait. This means that intelligence is under the influence of several genes, possibly several thousand. The effect of most individual genetic variants on intelligence is thought to be very small, well below 1% of the variance in g. Current studies using quantitative trait loci have yielded little success in","-35.758403083484154"],["than in general intelligence, some are gifted in mathematics and autism spectrum disorder has not prevented some adults from major accomplishments.\nThe questionnaire was tried on Cambridge University students and a group of 16 winners of the British Mathematical Olympiad to determine whether there was a link between a talent for mathematical and scientific disciplines and traits associated with the autism spectrum. Mathematics, physical sciences, and engineering students were found to score significantly higher, e.g., 21.8 on average for mathematicians and 21.4 for computer scientists. The average score for the British Mathematical Olympiad winners was 24.","-35.391780731973995"],["life choices. One study which tested this idea looked at the incidence of heritable and non-heritable cancers in individuals of differing levels of intelligence. They found that those of higher intelligence were less likely to suffer from cancer that was not heritable, that was based on lifestyle, thus supporting the evolutionary novelty theory. However this was only a preliminary study and only included the disease cancer, which has been found in previous studies to have an ambiguous relationship with intelligence. Disease and injury prevention Having higher intelligence scores may mean that individuals are better at preventing disease and injury. Their","-35.334071756878984"],["and general intelligence, stating \"there is still almost no replicated evidence concerning the individual genes, which have variants that contribute to intelligence differences\". In 2001, a review in the Journal of Black Psychology refuted eight major premises on which the hereditarian view regarding race and intelligence is based.\nA 2005 literature review article by Sternberg, Grigorenko and Kidd stated that no gene has been shown to be linked to intelligence, \"so attempts to provide a compelling genetic link of race to intelligence are not feasible at this time\". Hunt (2010, p. 447) and Mackintosh (2011, p. 344) concurred, both scholars noting that while","-35.207036875071935"],["and mortality. The study was constructed to better identify if there are any shared phenotypic and genetic influences from height and intelligence in determining health outcomes and mortality. Definition of intelligence Human intelligence can be measured according to an extensive number of tests and criteria, ranging from academic, social, and emotional fields. There is no clear definition for what \"intelligence\" is in humans. There are several theories that define different categories of intelligence and associate traits, instead of a single general ability. In most of the studies, intelligence quotient (IQ) tests were used to measure a subject's mental age,","-35.0876870174543"],["abilities, such as the capacities to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use language, and to learn. There are several ways to more specifically define intelligence. In some cases, intelligence may include traits such as creativity, personality, character, knowledge, or wisdom. However, some psychologists prefer not to include these traits in the definition of intelligence.\nA widely researched index or classification of intelligence among scientists is intelligence quotient (IQ). IQ is a summary index, calculated by testing individuals' abilities in a variety of tasks and producing a composite score to represent overall ability, e.g.,","-35.0462384755956"],["than being clever, making it difficult to accurately test and compare the intelligence of different groups within a population.\nThere is evidence that intellectual development is influenced by the expectations placed on an individual. In an experiment involving elementary school children, researchers found that when teachers believe students are above average intellect, these students tend to do better in school and receive higher IQ scores than students who are perceived as average or below average intellect, regardless of the actual competence of the students. This self-fulfilling prophecy caused by expectations is known as the Pygmalion effect, and it may play","-34.90254236830515"],["importance of genetic or environmental factors on the development of a given trait, nor does it convey the extent to which that trait is genetically determined. Arguments in support of a genetic explanation of racial differences in IQ are sometimes fallacious. For instance, hereditarians have sometimes cited the failure of known environmental factors to account for such differences, or the high heritability of intelligence within races, as evidence that racial differences in IQ are genetic.\nPsychometricians have found that intelligence is substantially heritable within populations, with 30–50% of variance in IQ scores in early childhood being attributable to genetic factors in","-34.7815908939956"],["on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence, multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality traits are also important,","-34.755222469349974"],["the capacity for intelligence is inherited, those with exceptional intelligence also need exceptional schooling. Terman wrote that \"[bright children] are rarely given tasks which call forth their best ability, and as a result they run the risk of falling into lifelong habits of submaximum efficiency\". In other words, nature (heredity) plays a large role in determining intelligence, but nurture (the environment) is also important in fostering the innate intellectual ability. By his own admission, there was nothing in his own ancestry that would have led anyone to predict him to have an intellectual career. Legacy From 1957 until 2018,","-34.74761056303396"],["intelligence. Data, not surprisingly, in the actual social context, indicates that there is an association between race, gender, class and IQ scores. This is not a revelation. But, mainstream science on intelligence views it as an \"unfortunate\" biological destiny!\" Belkhir et al. also accused the signatories of the editorial of reviving the \"pseudo-scientific inquiry\" of biological determinism.\nIn a 2001 article in Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Ian J. Deary noted that the Wall Street Journal \"... is an odd place for such a document, and readers might view the signatories as one-sided, largely committed to the psychometrics-based intelligence research they were","-34.689773099977174"],["Fertility and intelligence The relationship between fertility and intelligence has been investigated in many demographic studies. There is evidence that, on a population level, intelligence is negatively correlated with fertility rate and positively correlated with survival rate of offspring. The combined net effect of these two conflicting forces on ultimate population intelligence is not well studied and is unclear. It is theorized that if an inverse correlation of IQ with fertility rate were stronger than the correlation of IQ with survival rate (and if heritable factors involved in IQ were consistently expressed in populations with different fertility rates), assuming this","-34.52751755021745"],["older. Malnutrition and diseases Certain single-gene metabolic disorders can severely affect intelligence. Phenylketonuria is an example, with publications demonstrating the capacity of phenylketonuria to produce a reduction of 10 IQ points on average. Meta-analyses have found that environmental factors, such as iodine deficiency, can result in large reductions in average IQ; iodine deficiency has been shown to produce a reduction of 12.5 IQ points on average. Heritability and socioeconomic status The APA report \"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\" (1995) also stated that: \n\"We should note, however, that low-income and non-white families are poorly represented in existing adoption studies as well as","-34.45711499729077"],["they now also give scores for many more narrow abilities. Lack of empirical evidence According to a 2006 study many of Gardner's \"intelligences\" correlate with the g factor, supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence. According to the study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involved a blend of g, of cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some cases, of non-cognitive abilities or of personality characteristics.\nThe Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation has tested hundreds of thousands of people to determine their \"aptitudes\" (\"intelligences\"), such as manual dexterity, musical ability, spatial visualization, and memory for numbers. ","-34.396733347133704"],["that supports some of the human brain's most distinctive cognitive abilities. Consequently, individual intelligence within the human species might be modulated by the degree of cortical convolution.\nAn analysis published in 2019 found the contours of 677 kids' brain had a genetic correlation of almost 1 between IQ and surface area of the supramarginal gyrus on the left side of the brain. Neural efficiency The neural efficiency hypothesis postulates that more intelligent individuals display less activation in the brain during cognitive tasks, as measured by Glucose metabolism. A small sample of participants (N=8) displayed negative correlations between intelligence and absolute regional","-34.211311070772354"],["the over 17,000 human genes are thought to have an effect on the development and functionality of the brain. While a number of individual genes have been reported to be associated with IQ, none have a strong effect. Deary and colleagues (2009) reported that no finding of a strong single gene effect on IQ has been replicated. Recent findings of gene associations with normally varying intelligence differences in adults continue to show weak effects for any one gene; likewise in children, but see. Gene-environment interaction David Rowe reported an interaction of genetic effects with socioeconomic status, such that the heritability","-34.05824996611045"],["which can be paired with photographs to identify the individual.\nIt is becoming more accepted that a neurobiological basis for intelligence exists (at least for reasoning and problem-solving). The success of these intelligence studies present ethical issues. A large concern for the general population is the issue of race and intelligence. While little variation has been found between racial groups, the public perception of intelligence studies has been negatively impacted by concerns of racism. It is important to consider the consequences of studies that investigate intelligence differences in population-groups (racial or ethnic) and if it is ethical to conduct these studies.","-34.03083169271122"],["better health. This theory provides a theoretical background for evidence found that supports the idea that intelligence is related to mortality through health behaviours such as wearing a seatbelt or quitting smoking.\nEvolutionary novelty theory emphasises the role of behaviour in the link between mortality and intelligence whereas system integrity emphasis the role of genes. Thus system integrity predicts that individuals of higher intelligence will be better protected from diseases that are caused primarily by genetics whereas evolutionary adaptive theory suggests that individuals of higher intelligence will be better protected from diseases that are less heritable and are caused by poor","-34.0164674795451"],["the growth of new connections between neurons, and the selective elimination of such connection, called \"dendritic pruning\". Genetic factors of intelligence Humans have varying degrees of neuroplasticity due to their genetic makeups, which affects their ability to adapt to conditions in their environments and effectively learn from experiences. The degree to which intelligence test scores can be linked to genetic heritability increases with age. There is presently no explanation for this puzzling result, but flaws in the testing methods are suspected. A study of Dutch twins concludes that intelligence of 5 year olds is 26% heritable, while the test","-33.98198246852553"],["question.\nDevelopmental genetic analysis examines the effects of genes over the course of a human lifespan. Early studies of intelligence, which mostly examined young children, found that heritability measured 40–50%. Subsequent developmental genetic analyses found that variance attributable to additive environmental effects is less apparent in older individuals, with estimated heritability of IQ increasing in adulthood.\nMultivariate genetic analysis examines the genetic contribution to several traits that vary together. For example, multivariate genetic analysis has demonstrated that the genetic determinants of all specific cognitive abilities (e.g., memory, spatial reasoning, processing speed) overlap greatly, such that the genes associated with any specific cognitive","-33.948869746564014"],["analyzed Thurstone's data, discovering that those scored high in one category often did well in the others. This finding gives support that there is an underlying factor influencing them, namely g.\nHoward Gardner suggested in his theory of multiple intelligences that intelligence is formed out of multiple abilities. He recognized eight intelligences: linguistic, musical, spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist. He also considered the possibility of a ninth intelligent ability, existential intelligence. Gardner proposed that individuals who excelled in one ability would lack in another. Instead, his results showed that each of his eight intelligences correlate positively with each other.","-33.91244726086734"],["admitted that the selection (or rejection) of a candidate's intelligence is reminiscent more of an artistic judgment than of a scientific assessment.\nGenerally, linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities are called intelligence, but artistic, musical, athletic, etc. abilities are not. Gardner argues this causes the former to be needlessly aggrandized. Certain critics are wary of this widening of the definition, saying that it ignores \"the connotation of intelligence ... [which] has always connoted the kind of thinking skills that makes one successful in school.\"\nGardner writes \"I balk at the unwarranted assumption that certain human abilities can be arbitrarily singled out as intelligence while others","-33.7600035573123"],["intelligence, very little is truly known about how these factors go about shaping intelligence. Additionally, they stated that the genetic hypothesis (as used in the Bell Curve) does not explain the intelligence test score differences between racial groups. Boykin also collaborated on studies combining culture and education, two such studies were “In search of cultural themes and their expressions in the dynamics of classroom life” (2005) and “Culture in the sanctioned classroom practices of elementary school teachers serving low-income African American students” (2006). Culture In addition to combining culture and education in his studies, Boykin also studies culture on its","-33.74450514576529"],["mean by intelligence is general cognitive functioning (g) as assessed in the psychometric tradition of a general factor derived from a battery of diverse cognitive ability tests.\"\nHarrington (1997) gives a point-by-point analysis of the conclusions of the letter. He points out that the validity of tests is claimed as a property of the tests, rather than how or where they are used. He queried the claims about there being no cultural bias; and that intelligence was a key factor determining fitness in human evolution, something that he argued was inconsistent with the claims on heritability, if the geneticist's version of","-33.54224922854337"],["as \"feeble-minded\"; whereas, in the initial sentence of the study, Goddard said the study subjects were atypical members of their ethnic groups, who had been selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Countering Gould, Davis further explained that Goddard proposed that the low IQs of the sub-normally intelligent men and women who took the cognitive-ability test likely derived from their social environments rather than from their respective genetic inheritances, and concluded that \"we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence, and, if rightly brought up, will be good citizens\".\nIn his review, psychologist John B. Carroll said","-33.32447773421882"],["Race and intelligence The connection between race and intelligence has been a subject of debate in both popular science and academic research since the inception of IQ testing in the early 20th century. There remains some debate as to whether and to what extent differences in intelligence test scores reflect environmental factors as opposed to genetic ones, as well as to the definitions of what \"race\" and \"intelligence\" are, and whether they can be objectively defined. Currently, there is no non-circumstantial evidence that these differences in test scores have a genetic component, although some researchers believe that the existing","-33.273138114884205"],["we can be confident that none of the experts cited here actually believes that genes play no role in individual differences in IQ, but their positions are represented as such by newspapers that divide the world into hereditarians and environmentalists, and often fail to clarify for their readers that the argument is over the degree of genetic influence, not its existence or exclusive control. Because newspaper journalists either cannot or do not want to understand this distinction, readers will not either.\nNews reports made mistakes of the same proportion when reporting the expert view on the contribution of genetics to","-33.22607578005409"],["Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism). It was determined that Big Five traits have complex etiology with both genetics and outside factors influencing these traits. \nSome of her work has examined genetic influences on general intelligence, often referred to as g. Her research validates the psychological construct of a higher-level g factor that is not closely associated with any specific test, but rather reflects shared variance across multiple mental ability tests.","-33.134175559476716"],["multi-generational studies that would take a very long time in humans.\nOne such aspect of intelligence well suited for a non-human model is the experimental study of genetic aspects of g. Mice are currently being considered as a potential model due to their widespread availability, detailed knowledge of their genome, and the ease with which strains can be bred to exhibit individual differences in cognitive ability. Neuroscience Non-human models can also be used in neuroscience for neuroanatomical studies investigating intelligence and the influence of g on the neurological level. Rats have been used in experimental manipulations of intelligence using chemicals administered","-32.95750196292647"],["for what results in a persons intelligence basically boils down to the genetics of the subject in question and the environment they were raised in. Education as Causal of Intelligence There is substantial evidence to suggest that education influences intelligence. One study took advantage of the school system in Germany to investigate the relationship between education and intelligence. The children in the sample were required to be 6 years old before they started the school year on April 1, so it was possible to compare children who were of a similar chronological age, but had a year's difference in schooling.","-32.92983959166668"],["can be analyzed over time within an individual longitudinally (e.g. intelligence is stable over a lifetime, due to the same genetic influences – childhood genetically correlates with old age), or across studies or populations or ethnic groups/races, or across diagnoses, allowing discovery of whether different genes influence a trait over a lifetime (typically, they do not), whether different genes influence a trait in different populations due to differing local environments, whether there is disease heterogeneity across times or places or sex (particularly in psychiatric diagnoses there is uncertainty whether 1 country's 'autism' or 'schizophrenia' is the same as another's","-32.883968727401225"],["Human intelligence Relevance of IQ tests In psychology, human intelligence is commonly assessed by IQ scores, determined by IQ tests. However, there are critics of IQ who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores, or the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.\nOn the other hand, Linda S. Gottfredson (2006) has argued that the results of thousands of studies support the importance of IQ for school and job performance (see","-32.874670919802156"],["and ability to acquire knowledge as the most important elements.\nThe study found that psychologists were in agreement about the heritability of intelligence in that almost all (94%) felt that it played a substantial role but there was disagreement regarding accuracy with half of those that felt qualified to reply in this section agreed that there was not enough evidence to estimate heritability accurately. The 214 who thought there was enough evidence gave an average estimate of .596 for the US white population and .57 for the US black population.\nThe study also revealed that the majority (55%) of surveyed experts","-32.85166022818885"],["scores. Several scores correlate well with general intelligence. One such scale is R, the total number of responses; this reveals the questionable side-effect that more intelligent people tend to be elevated on many pathology scales, since many scales do not correct for high R: if a subject gives twice as many responses overall, it is more likely that some of these will seem \"pathological\". Also correlated with intelligence are the scales for Organizational Activity, Complexity, Form Quality, and Human Figure responses.\nThe same source reports that validity has also been shown for detecting such conditions as schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders;","-32.805283322610194"],["had postulated in 1987 that \"IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence\". By 2009, however, Flynn felt that the IQ test score changes are real. He suggests that our fast-changing world has faced successive generations with new cognitive challenges that have considerably stimulated intellectual ability. \"Our brains as presently constructed probably have much excess capacity ready to be used if needed. That was certainly the case in 1900.\" Flynn notes that \"Our ancestors in 1900 were not mentally retarded. Their intelligence was anchored in everyday reality. We differ from","-32.80315803915437"],["strength, metabolic syndrome and genetic correlation may be further potential markers of system integrity which by definition should explain a large part of or nullify the relationship between intelligence and mortality.\nAn opposing theory to the system integrity theory is the evolutionary novelty theory which suggests that those with higher intelligence are better equipped to deal with evolutionary novel events. It is proposed that intelligence evolved to tackle evolutionarily novel situations and that those with a higher IQ are better able to process when such a novel situation is dangerous or a health hazard and thus are likely to be in","-32.78057550646918"],["that national IQ data are primarily (not wholly) a function of innate ability, which in turn is at least partly generated by genes. There are many assumptions of cause–effect in here, and some of them involve substantial leaps of faith.\"\nPsychologist J. Philippe Rushton, president of the Pioneer Fund that has been a long time funder of research by Lynn, reviewed the book in 2006 for Personality and Individual Differences. Rushton wrote that the book extends and answers criticisms against the earlier work in several ways, and believed that the methods were accurate.\nEvolutionary biologist Satoshi Kanazawa claimed in 2008 to have","-32.77928856034123"],["normally distributed in the general population.\nIntelligence tests are widely used in educational, business, and military settings because of their efficacy in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income. Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance. General","-32.72831828150811"],["and other issues. However, the sheer volume of consortium-based data makes analysis difficult. Most studies also focus on one gene. In actuality, many genes and interactions between them likely contribute to individual differences in personality, behaviour and health. As social scientists often work with many variables, determining the number of affected genes also poses methodological challenges. More collaboration between medical researchers, geneticists and social scientists has been advocated to increase knowledge in this field of study.\nLimited access to human brain tissue poses a challenge to conducting human research. Not yet knowing if epigenetic changes in the blood and","-32.64918331525405"],["an independent sample confirmed these results, reporting a heritability estimate of 47%. These findings are compatible with the view that a large number of genes, each with only a small effect, contribute to differences in intelligence. Between-group heritability Although IQ differences between individuals are shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that mean group-level disparities (between-group differences) in IQ necessarily have a genetic basis. The Flynn effect is one example where there is a large difference between groups (past and present) with little or no genetic difference. An analogy, attributed to Richard Lewontin, illustrates this point:\nSuppose","-32.59810389755148"],["Though the specific number of s factors are unknown, a few have been relatively accepted: mechanical, spatial, logical, and arithmetical.\nRising interest in the debate on the structure of intelligence prompted Spearman to elaborate and argue for his hypothesis. He claimed that g was not made up of one single ability, but rather two genetically influenced, unique abilities working together. He called these abilities \"eductive\" and \"reproductive\". He suggested that future understanding of the interaction between these two different abilities would drastically change how individual differences and cognition are understood in psychology, possibly creating the basis for wisdom. Intelligence testing Many","-32.59603255346883"],["that the subjects of the study were not typical members of their groups but were selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Davis has further noted that Goddard argued that the low IQs of the test subjects were more likely due to environmental rather than genetic factors, and that Goddard concluded that \"we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence and if rightly brought up will be good citizens\". In 1996 the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs stated that IQ tests were not discriminatory towards any ethnic/racial groups.\nIn his book The Mismeasure of Man,","-32.577077643742086"],["intelligence most often used in the relevant studies include measures of fluid ability (Gf) and crystallized ability (Gc); that differ in their trajectory of development in individuals. The 'investment theory' by Cattell states that the individual differences observed in the procurement of skills and knowledge (Gc) are partially attributed to the 'investment' of Gf, thus suggesting the involvement of fluid intelligence in every aspect of the learning process. It is essential to highlight that the investment theory suggests that personality traits affect 'actual' ability, and not scores on an IQ test. In association, Hebb's theory of intelligence suggested a bifurcation","-32.56763879113714"],["scientific standing as on their supposed political implications\".\nThe task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They stated that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by both genetics and environment.\nThe report stated that a number of biological factors, including malnutrition, exposure to toxic substances, and various prenatal and perinatal stressors, result in lowered psychometric intelligence under at least some conditions. The task force agrees that large","-32.54697597344057"],["Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. It is used to predict educational outcomes and other variables of interest.\nOthers have attempted to measure intelligence indirectly by looking at individuals' or group's educational attainment, although this risks bias from other demographic factors, such as age, income, gender and cultural background, all of which can affect educational attainment.\nDissatisfaction with traditional IQ tests has led to the development of alternative theories. In 1983, Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, which broadens the conventional definition of intelligence, to include logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences.\nHe chose not to include spiritual intelligence","-32.498876104538795"],["personality is predictive of both types of performance. A separate study, however, found slightly different results, concluding that overall personality is more predictive of typical performance, while intelligence is still the best predictor of maximum performance. Honesty Many organizations give tests to potential employees during the interview process to determine their job knowledge, overall intelligence, or honesty, and use these to predict how the employee will perform if hired. Research has touched on how maximum performance can be predicted by these tests. For example, one tool is the integrity test, which is a test that attempts","-32.47798004928336"],["environment with a set of useful skills including reasoning and understanding patterns and relationships. He believed individuals highly developed in one intellectual ability tended to be highly developed at other intellectual abilities. A more intelligent individual was thought to be able to more easily \"accommodate\" experiences into existing cognitive structures to develop structures more compatible with environmental stimuli.\nIn general, intelligence is thought to be attributed to both genetic and environmental factors, but the extent to which each plays a key role is highly disputed. Studies of identical and non-identical twins raised separately and together show a strong","-32.44622362566588"],["even been found to hold for gifted children, those with an intelligence over 135. A 15-point increase in intelligence was associated with a decreased risk of mortality of 32%. This relationship was present until an intelligence score of 163 at which point there was no further advantage of a higher intelligence on mortality risk.\nA meta-analysis of the relationship between intelligence and mortality found that there was a 24% increase in mortality for a 1SD (15 point) drop in IQ score. This meta-analysis also concluded that the association between intelligence and mortality was similar for men and women despite sex differences","-32.41092683711031"],["genetic heredity. He cites the Burt Affair, about the oft-cited twin studies, by Cyril Burt (1883–1971), wherein Burt claimed that human intelligence is highly heritable. IQ, g, statistical correlation, and heritability As an evolutionary biologist and historian of science, Gould accepted biological variability (the premise of the transmission of intelligence via genetic heredity), but opposed biological determinism, which posits that genes determine a definitive, unalterable social destiny for each man and each woman in life and society. The Mismeasure of Man is an analysis of statistical correlation, the mathematics applied by psychologists to establish the validity of IQ tests, and","-32.385928561445326"],["satisfactory description of human intelligence. It also drives home the point that the \"g-loading\" so strongly emphasized by Murray and Herrnstein measures only agreement among tests—not predictive power for socioeconomic outcomes. By the same token, one could also argue that the authors have biased their empirical analysis against the conclusions they obtain by disregarding the test with the greatest predictive power.\nJanet Currie and Duncan Thomas presented evidence suggesting AFQT scores are likely better markers for family background than \"intelligence\" in a 1999 study:\nHerrnstein and Murray report that conditional on maternal \"intelligence\" (AFQT scores), child test scores are little affected by","-32.3846394838547"],["Synthetic giftedness is seen in creativity, intuition, and a study of the arts. People with synthetic giftedness are not often seen with the highest IQ's because there are not currently any tests that can sufficiently measure these attributes, but synthetic giftedness is especially useful in creating new ideas to create and solve new problems. Sternberg also associated another one of his students, \"Barbara\", to the synthetic giftedness. Barbara did not perform as well as Alice on the tests taken to get into school, but was recommended to Yale University based on her exceptional creative and intuitive skills. Barbara was later","-32.37290644655877"],["Therefore, genes are not perfect predictors of future health; individuals with both the high risk form of the gene and those without are all candidates to get the disease. Multiple factors in the environment, particular smoking, diet and exercise, infection, and pollution; play important roles and can be more important than genetic make-up. This makes the results and risks determined by predictive medicine more difficult to quantify. Furthermore, the potential false positives or false negatives that may arise from a predictive genetic screen can cause substantial unnecessary strain on the individual.\nTargeting medication to people who are genetically","-32.34038270989549"],["group intelligence, such as a composition out of several equally important but independent factors as found in individual personality research.\nBesides, this scientific idea also aims to explore the causes affecting collective intelligence, such as group size, collaboration tools or group members' interpersonal skills. The MIT Center for Collective Intelligence, for instance, announced the detection of The Genome of Collective Intelligence as one of its main goals aiming to develop a taxonomy of organizational building blocks, or genes, that can be combined and recombined to harness the intelligence of crowds. Causes Individual intelligence is shown to be genetically and environmentally influenced.","-32.30561892213882"],["rating a person's intelligence. A pioneer of psychometrics and the application of statistical methods to the study of human diversity and the study of inheritance of human traits, he believed that intelligence was largely a product of heredity (by which he did not mean genes, although he did develop several pre-Mendelian theories of particulate inheritance). He hypothesized that there should exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as reflexes, muscle grip, and head size. He set up the first mental testing centre in the world in 1882 and he published \"Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development\"","-32.29666348549654"],["intelligence is a multidimensional and multidirectional construct characterized by plasticity and interindividual variability. Intellectual development throughout the lifespan is characterized by decline as well as stability and improvement. Mechanics of intelligence, the basic architecture of information processing, decreases with age. Pragmatic intelligence, knowledge acquired through culture and experience, remains relatively stable with age.\nThe psychometric approach assesses intelligence based on scores on standardized tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Stanford Binet for children. The Cognitive Structural approach measures intelligence by assessing the ways people conceptualize and solve problems, rather than by test scores. Developmental trends","-32.28199924204091"],["giftedness may be present in areas other than the typical intellectual realm. The concept of multiple intelligences (MI) makes the field aware of additional potential strengths and proposes a variety of curricular methods. Gardner argued that there are eight intelligences, or different areas in which people assimilate or learn about the world around them: interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, naturalistic, and spatial-visual.\nThe most common criticism of Gardner's MI theory is \"the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct\". Others consider the theory not to be","-32.23208931400586"],["David James, professor of social sciences at Cardiff and editor of the British Journal of Sociology of Education, says \"it's great to dwell on the fact that intelligence is not fundamentally genetic and unchangeable\", but he believes the limitations of mindset outweigh its uses. \"It individualises the failure—'they couldn't change the way they think, so that's why they failed'.\" James notes that a study in 2013 showed no statistically significant effect of mindset theory.\nIn July 2019, a large randomized controlled trial of growth mindset training by the Education Endowment Foundation involving 101 schools and 5018 pupils across England found that","-32.224207673047204"],["also the work of Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). She says that IQ also predicts or correlates with numerous other life outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-g intelligences is lacking or very poor. Triarchic theory of intelligence Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability. The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence. Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not","-32.22280640466488"],["statistical evidence and dubious presumptions seem misguided at best and quite dangerous if taken seriously. It is therefore difficult to find much to recommend in this book.\"\nLynn's 2006 Race Differences in Intelligence is the largest review of the global cognitive ability data. The book organises the data by ten population groups and (in the 2015 edition) covers over 500 published articles.\nLynn's meta-analysis lists the average IQ scores of East Asians (105), Europeans (99), the Inuit (91), Southeast Asians and indigenous peoples of the Americas each (87), Pacific Islanders (85), Middle Easterners (including South Asians and North Africans) (84), East and","-32.18257812282536"],["comprehension. In biology In the study of biology – particularly genetics and neuroscience – predictability relates to the prediction of biological developments and behaviors based on inherited genes and past experiences.\nSignificant debate exists in the scientific community over whether or not a person's behavior is completely predictable based on their genetics. Studies such as the one in Israel, which showed that judges were more likely to give a lighter sentence if they had eaten more recently. In addition to cases like this, it has been proven that individuals smell better to someone with complementary immunity genes, leading to more physical","-32.18180859347558"],["humans, it became of relevance to outmaneuver other members of the group seeking leadership or acceptance, by means of more advanced social skills. A more social and communicative person would be more easily selected. Intelligence dependent on brain size Human intelligence is developed to an extreme level that is not necessarily adaptive in an evolutionary sense. Firstly, larger-headed babies are more difficult to give birth to and large brains are costly in terms of nutrient and oxygen requirements. Thus the direct adaptive benefit of human intelligence is questionable at least in modern societies, while it is difficult to study in","-32.1770976963453"],["After further analysis, Gardner found that logic, spatial abilities, language, and mathematics are all linked in some way, giving support for an underlying g factor that is prominent in almost all intelligence in general.\nRobert Sternberg agreed with Gardner that there were multiple intelligences, but he narrowed his scope to just three in his triarchic theory of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. He classified analytical intelligence as problem-solving skills in tests and academics. Creative intelligence is considered how people react adaptively in new situations, or create novel ideas. Practical intelligence is defined as the everyday logic used when multiple solutions or","-32.17060077437782"],["further allow them to recognize when they are most likely to observe either type of performance. Intelligence Since all individuals in a maximum performance situation are expected to have similarly high levels of motivation, the differences in their performance should be primarily based on the differing ability of each person. Following these thoughts, researchers have hypothesized that intelligence would be predictive of maximum performance. A few studies have supported this thought, finding that intelligence is more highly related with maximum performance than it is typical performance. Personality Researchers have hypothesized that typical performance would be predicted by personality","-32.14620540520991"],["Impact of health on intelligence Health can affect intelligence in various ways. Conversely, intelligence can affect health. Health effects on intelligence have been described as being among the most important factors in the origins of human group differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood–brain barrier of the child is less effective. Such impairment may sometimes be permanent, sometimes be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth.\nDeveloped nations have implemented several health","-32.12558396437089"],["and the like\". Celia's contextual intelligence allowed her to use these skills to her best advantage. \nSternberg also acknowledges that an individual is not restricted to having excellence in only one of these three intelligences. Many people may possess an integration of all three and have high levels of all three intelligences.\nPractical intelligence is also a topic covered by Malcolm Gladwell in his book Outliers: The Story of Success. Criticism Psychologist Linda Gottfredson criticises the unempirical nature of triarchic theory. Further, she argues it is absurd to assert that traditional intelligence tests are not measuring practical intelligence, given","-32.09190452247276"],["intelligence factor) were replaced with a model that tested several types of intelligence, it would change results less than one might expect. Therefore, according to Jensen and Davis, the results of standardized tests of cognitive ability would continue to correlate with the results of other such standardized tests, and that the intellectual achievement gap between black and white people would remain.\nPsychologist J. Philippe Rushton accused Gould of \"scholarly malfeasance\" for misrepresenting and for ignoring contemporary scientific research pertinent to the subject of his book, and for attacking dead hypotheses and methods of research. He faulted The Mismeasure of Man because","-32.07845328678377"],["Mithen believes that it is related to the evolution of language. Language may be the most complex cognitive task we undertake.[citation needed] Language is directly related to social intelligence because it is primarily used to mediate social relationships.\nSocial intelligence was a critical factor in brain growth. Social and cognitive complexity co-evolve. Differences from intelligence Nicholas Humphrey points to a difference between intelligence being measured by IQ tests and social intelligence. Some autistic children are extremely intelligent because they have well developed skills of observing and memorizing information, however they have low social intelligence. Similarly, chimpanzees are very adept at observation","-32.07446314355184"],["in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income.[19] Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance.[1][20]","-32.07309770466236"],["Malleability of intelligence Malleability of intelligence describes the processes by which intelligence can increase or decrease over time and is not static. These changes may come as a result of genetics, pharmacological factors, psychological factors, behavior, or environmental conditions. Malleable intelligence may refer to changes in cognitive skills, memory, reasoning, or muscle memory related motor skills. \nIn general, the majority changes in human intelligence occurs at either the onset of development, during the critical period, or during old age (see Neuroplasticity).\nCharles Spearman, who coined the general intelligence factor \"g\", described intelligence as one's ability to adapt to his","-32.04254263605981"],["who achieve a great deal of academic success early on might be most likely to believe their intelligence is fixed because they so frequently have been praised regarding their intelligence. They may have faced fewer opportunities for setbacks and do not have much experience persisting through errors. Longitudinal research shows that individuals who endorse entity beliefs experience decreasing self-esteem throughout their college years, while individuals who endorse incremental beliefs experience an increase. Development Implicit theories of intelligence develop at an early age and are subtly influenced by parents and educators and the type of praise they give for successful work.","-32.03479280631291"],["cognitive abilities may equip them with a better propensity for understanding the injury and health risks of certain behaviours and actions.\nFatal and non-fatal accidental injury have been associated with lower intelligence. This may be because individuals of higher intelligence are more likely to take precautions such as wearing seat belts, helmets etc. as they are aware of the risks.\nFurther there is evidence that more intelligent people behave in a healthier way.\nPeople with higher IQ test scores tend to be less likely to smoke or drink alcohol heavily. They also eat better diets, and they are more physically active. So they","-32.027402056439314"],["intelligence can be as follows: The more mentally efficient (that is, the faster and more focused on goal), capable (that is, the more information one can hold in mind at a given moment), foresighted (that is, the more clearly one can specify his goals and plan how to achieve them), and flexible (that is, the more one can introduce variations in the concepts and mental operations one already possesses) a person is, the more intelligent (both in regard to other individuals and in regard to a general developmental hierarchy) this person is.\nDifferences between persons in IQ or in the rate","-32.0147725455754"],["\"which allows us to be able to teach successfully to other people\". In the same interview, he explicitly refused some other suggested intelligences like humour, cooking and sexual intelligence. Critical reception Gardner argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, but that there are only very weak correlations among them. For example, the theory postulates that a child who learns to multiply easily is not necessarily more intelligent than a child who has more difficulty on this task. The child who takes more time to master multiplication may best learn to multiply through a different approach, may excel","-31.985337521502515"],["factors which could potentially affect performance. These factors include health, wealth, biological differences, and education. Group differences The study of human intelligence is one of the most controversial topics in psychology. It remains unclear whether group differences in intelligence test scores are caused by heritable factors or by \"other correlated demographic variables such as socioeconomic status, education level, and motivation.\"\nHunt and Carlson outlined four contemporary positions on differences in IQ based on race or ethnicity. The first is that these reflect real differences in average group intelligence, which is caused by a combination of environmental factors and heritable differences in","-31.97903817993938"],["a quarter of this predictive power. Psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great many factors that influence social outcomes.\nIn a meta-analysis, Strenze (2006) reviewed much of the literature and estimated the correlation between IQ and income to be about 0.23.\nSome studies claim that IQ only accounts for (explains) a sixth of the variation in income because many studies are based on young adults, many of whom have not yet reached their peak earning capacity, or even their education. On pg 568 of The g Factor, Arthur Jensen claims that although the correlation between IQ and income averages a","-31.960202021495206"],["suggests that even practising geneticists will gain a sense of wonder from the \"hidden secrets\" in the book.\nThe biologist Jerry Coyne, writing in the London Review of Books, criticises Genome as \"at once instructive and infuriating. For each nugget of science, Ridley also includes an error or misrepresentation. Some of these derive from poor scholarship: others from his political agenda.\" For example, Coyne mentions Ridley's incorrect claim that \"half of your IQ is inherited\"; that Ridley assumes that the marker used by Robert Plomin, IGF2R, is the purported \"intelligence gene\" that it marks; and that social influences on behaviour [always]","-31.932426617408055"],["exactly matched his chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985).\nBinet was forthright about the limitations of his scale. He stressed the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures. Binet also stressed that intellectual development progressed at variable rates and could be influenced by the environment; therefore, intelligence was not based solely on genetics, was malleable rather than fixed, and could only be found in children with comparable backgrounds (Siegler, 1992). Given Binet's stance that intelligence testing was subject to variability and was not generalizable, it is important to look at the","-31.91350784864335"],["Gregory Cochran Human evolution In opposition to what he sees as the conventional wisdom that civilization has been a static environment which imposed stabilizing selection on humans, Cochran, along with like-minded anthropologists such as John D. Hawks, contends that haplotype and other data indicate the selection of genes has been strongest since the advent of farming and civilization.\nThrough his work on human evolution, Cochran has been associated since the 1990s with the human biodiversity (“HBD”) milieu, Ashkenazi intelligence Cochran and co-authors Jason Hardy and Henry Harpending suggest that the high average IQ of Ashkenazi Jews may be attributed to natural","-31.91311357592349"],["study on educational attainment found that Jews, Christians, religiously unaffiliated persons, and Buddhists have, on average, higher levels of education than the global average. Numerous factors affect both educational attainment and religiosity. Intelligence The definitions of intelligence are controversial since at least 70 definitions have been found among diverse fields of research. Some groups of psychologists have suggested the following definitions: \nFrom \"Mainstream Science on Intelligence\" (1994), an op-ed statement in the Wall Street Journal signed by fifty-two researchers (out of 131 total invited to sign). \nA very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason,","-31.896721433353378"],["neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape, and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features that may affect IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose metabolic rate. Health Health is important in understanding differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant","-31.8953324794129"],["change would be slow, especially relative to rates of cultural change.\nSelective breeding, nootropics, NSI-189, MAO-I's, epigenetic modulation, and genetic engineering could improve human intelligence more rapidly. Bostrom writes that if we come to understand the genetic component of intelligence, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis could be used to select for embryos with as much as 4 points of IQ gain (if one embryo is selected out of two), or with larger gains (e.g., up to 24.3 IQ points gained if one embryo is selected out of 1000). If this process is iterated over many generations, the gains could be an order of","-31.858812719758134"],["as the genetic position, holds that IQ is determined by hereditary factors - about 80 percent of the variability of intelligence while 20 percent is attributed to environmental factors. The gap, therefore, was associated with race. Jensenism was as one of the most notable theories to have emerged from this sector. It was based on Arthur Jensen's 1969 article that talked about the failure of compensatory education. He cited several evidence that demonstrated how IQ is inherited. For instance, he said that if one looks at studies of adopted children, \"you find that their intelligence relates more closely to their","-31.852378636402136"],["S. Coleman, however, argues that Preston and Campbell's model depends on assumptions which are unlikely to be true.\nThe general increase in IQ test scores, the Flynn effect, has been argued to be evidence against dysgenic arguments. Geneticist Steve Connor wrote that Lynn, writing in Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern Populations, \"misunderstood modern ideas of genetics.\" \"A flaw in his argument of genetic deterioration in intelligence was the widely accepted fact that intelligence as measured by IQ tests has actually increased over the past 50 years.\" If the genes causing IQ have been adversely affected, IQ scores should reasonably be expected","-31.842827269254485"],["controversial. Race and intelligence in United States of America The 1996 Task Force investigation on Intelligence sponsored by the American Psychological Association concluded that there are significant variations in IQ across races. The problem of determining the causes underlying this variation relates to the question of the contributions of \"nature and nurture\" to IQ. Psychologists such as Alan S. Kaufman and Nathan Brody and statisticians such as Bernie Devlin argue that there are insufficient data to conclude that this is because of genetic influences. A review article published in 2012 by leading scholars on human intelligence concluded, after reviewing the","-31.839095378767524"],["correlation with other variables such as educational and nutritional levels. Since brain development requires a very high proportion of all the body's energy in newborns and children, the researchers argue that fighting infection reduces children's IQ potential. The Eppig research may help to explain the Flynn effect, the rise in intelligence noted in rich countries. They also tested other hypotheses as well, including genetic explanations, concluding that infectious disease was \"the best predictor\". Christopher Hassall and Thomas Sherratt repeated the analysis, and concluded \"that infectious disease may be the only really important predictor of average national IQ\".\nIn order to mitigate","-31.800810634296795"],["develop intelligence and to help people reach vocational and avocational goals that are appropriate to their particular spectrum of intelligence. People who are helped to do so, [he] believe[s], feel more engaged and competent and therefore more inclined to serve the society in a constructive way.\"\nGardner contends that IQ tests focus mostly on logical and linguistic intelligence. Upon doing well on these tests, the chances of attending a prestigious college or university increase, which in turn creates contributing members of society. While many students function well in this environment, there are those who do not. Gardner's theory argues that students","-31.78317554583191"],["very large differences in the very high IQ ranges. A decline in average psychometric intelligence of only a few points will mean a much smaller population of gifted individuals.\nMore rigorous studies carried out on Americans alive after the Second World War returned different results suggesting a slight positive correlation with respect to intelligence. The findings from these investigations were consistent enough for Osborn and Bajema, writing as late as 1972, to conclude that fertility patterns were eugenic, and that \"the reproductive trend toward an increase in the frequency of genes associated with higher IQ... will probably continue in the foreseeable","-31.739919754105358"],["It is important to know that (C), (IC), and (EC) can facilitate but can also hinder the learning and training of becoming talented. The learning/practice is the moderator. It is through the interactions, both environmental and intrapersonal that influence the process of learning and practice along with/without chance that natural abilities are transformed into talents. Multiple intelligences theory Multiple intelligences has been associated with giftedness or overachievement of some developmental areas (Colangelo, 2003). Multiple intelligences has been described as an attitude towards learning, instead of techniques or strategies (Cason, 2001).\nHoward Gardner proposed in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1983/1994) that intellectual","-31.70272513330565"],["Analogously, collective intelligence research aims to explore reasons why certain groups perform more intelligent than other groups given that c is just moderately correlated with the intelligence of individual group members. According to Woolley et al.'s results, neither team cohesion nor motivation or satisfaction is correlated with c. However, they claim that three factors were found as significant correlates: the variance in the number of speaking turns, group members' average social sensitivity and the proportion of females. All three had similar predictive power for c, but only social sensitivity was statistically significant (b=0.33, P=0.05).\nThe number speaking turns indicates that \"groups","-31.638971927881357"],["and crystallized intelligence, as well as his 16 Personality Factors theory of personality. Cattell was a strong advocate of factor analysis and psychometrics. He believed that all theory should be derived from research, which supports the continued use of empirical observation and objective testing to study human intelligence. Applications in psychology Factor analysis is used to identify \"factors\" that explain a variety of results on different tests. For example, intelligence research found that people who get a high score on a test of verbal ability are also good on other tests that require verbal abilities. Researchers explained this by using","-31.632174984173616"],["and apply knowledge to work. Cognitive ability is a consistent and nearly universal predictor of future job performance. But cognitive ability information is not enough – some technical geniuses, for example, can’t work with managers, peers, or end users. Some gifted employees cannot deliver projects on time. Personality helps explain why some employees don’t perform well, even when they possess technical skills.\nPersonality is the unique set of characteristics that is reflected in patterns of individual behavior. Personality and its effects on work success have been studied for more than 85 years. Because personality is relatively consistent over","-31.61254215336521"],["the first studies into the subject were carried out on individuals living before the advent of IQ testing, in the late 19th century, by looking at the fertility of men listed in Who's Who, these individuals being presumably of high intelligence. These men, taken as a whole, had few children, implying a correlation.\nNobel Prize–winning physicist William Shockley controversially argued from the mid-1960s through the 1980s that \"the future of the population was threatened because people with low IQs had more children than those with high IQs.\"\nIn 1963, Weyl and Possony asserted that comparatively small differences in average intelligence can become","-31.610078660181898"],["concluded that there must be one central factor that influences our cognitive abilities. Spearman termed this general intelligence g. Structure of intelligence debate Due to the controversy of the structure of intelligence, other psychologists also published their relevant research. Other than Charles Spearman, three others developed a hypothesis regarding the structure of intelligence. L. L. Thurstone tested subjects on 56 different abilities; from his data he established seven primary mental abilities relating to intelligence. He categorized them as: spatial ability, numerical ability, word fluency, memory, perceptual speed, verbal comprehension, and inductive reasoning. Other researchers, interested in this new research study,","-31.608053249772638"],["the heritability of intelligence. For example, to establish the validity of the proposition that IQ is supported by a general intelligence factor (g factor), the answers to several tests of cognitive ability must positively correlate; thus, for the g factor to be a heritable trait, the IQ-test scores of close-relation respondents must correlate more than the IQ-test scores of distant-relation respondents. However, correlation does not imply causation; for example, Gould said that the measures of the changes, over time, in \"my age, the population of México, the price of Swiss cheese, my pet turtle’s weight, and the average distance between","-31.59888084170234"],["on the understanding that their identity would remain unknown in the published report. This was due, claim the authors, to fears of suffering the same kind of castigation experienced by Jensen for publicly expressing views on the correlation between race and intelligence which are privately held in the wider academic community.\nSnyderman and Rothman stated that media reports often either erroneously reported that most experts believe that the genetic contribution to IQ is absolute (~100% heritability) or that most experts believe that genetics plays no role at all (~0% heritability). As they wrote:\nWith the possible exception of Leon Kamin,","-31.571185252476425"],["research even though it was without scientific value and probably directly faked: They wanted to believe that IQ is hereditary and considered uncritically empirical claims supporting this view. This paper thus demonstrates how critical reading (and the opposite) may be related to beliefs as well as to interests and power structures.","-31.54524178817519"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"are many genes associated with genetic transmission of intelligence, but current theories of intelligence point to inheritance of intelligence from parents to be due to both genetic and environmental factors, especially as there is no concrete proof of the relationship between certain genes and intelligence.\\nThe correlation between height and intelligence could also be confounded by how cultural and psychological factors affect the expression of intelligence. It is impossible to create a culture-free test for intelligence, as different societies value and cultivate different skill sets and ways of interpreting the world. For example, some cultures put more emphasis on hard work\",\n \"-37.56031434619217\"\n ],\n [\n \"intelligent people are found to acquire new material quicker.\\nIndividual intelligence can be used to predict plenty of life outcomes from school attainment and career success to health outcomes and even mortality. Whether collective intelligence is able to predict other outcomes besides group performance on mental tasks has still to be investigated. Potential connections to individual intelligence Gladwell (2008) showed that the relationship between individual IQ and success works only to a certain point and that additional IQ points over an estimate of IQ 120 do not translate into real life advantages. If a similar border exists for Group-IQ or if\",\n \"-36.152293228526105\"\n ],\n [\n \"conclusions. \\nAccording to Hunt, international studies of intelligence are important because they measure which populations possess the cognitive skills that are necessary in a post-industrial world. He also writes that genetics cannot be ruled out as a possible cause, but that education surely plays a major role, so one should not conclude that human capital in poor countries can never be improved. \\\"Average IQ values in various European countries\\\" The 1981 article \\\"Average IQ values in various European countries\\\" by Vinko Buj is the only international IQ study that over a short time period has compared IQs using the same\",\n \"-35.93484937397989\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be the least intelligent is evidence of dysgenic fertility. He said there has been a genuine increase in phenotypic intelligence, but that this is caused by environmental factors and is masking a decline in genotypic intelligence.\\nAccording to Lynn, those with greater educational achievement have fewer children, while children with lower IQs come from larger families, which he viewed as evidence that intelligence and fertility are negatively correlated. Lynn agreed with Lewis Terman's comment in 1922 that \\\"children of successful and cultivated parents test higher than children from wretched and ignorant homes for the simple reason that their heredity is\",\n \"-35.80954517018108\"\n ],\n [\n \"certain genetic variants that contribute to an average lower intelligence. Such a hypothetical situation could hold without all Africans carrying the same genes or belonging to a single evolutionary lineage. According to Mackintosh, a biological basis for the gap thus cannot be ruled out on a priori grounds.\\nIntelligence is a polygenic trait. This means that intelligence is under the influence of several genes, possibly several thousand. The effect of most individual genetic variants on intelligence is thought to be very small, well below 1% of the variance in g. Current studies using quantitative trait loci have yielded little success in\",\n \"-35.758403083484154\"\n ],\n [\n \"than in general intelligence, some are gifted in mathematics and autism spectrum disorder has not prevented some adults from major accomplishments.\\nThe questionnaire was tried on Cambridge University students and a group of 16 winners of the British Mathematical Olympiad to determine whether there was a link between a talent for mathematical and scientific disciplines and traits associated with the autism spectrum. Mathematics, physical sciences, and engineering students were found to score significantly higher, e.g., 21.8 on average for mathematicians and 21.4 for computer scientists. The average score for the British Mathematical Olympiad winners was 24.\",\n \"-35.391780731973995\"\n ],\n [\n \"life choices. One study which tested this idea looked at the incidence of heritable and non-heritable cancers in individuals of differing levels of intelligence. They found that those of higher intelligence were less likely to suffer from cancer that was not heritable, that was based on lifestyle, thus supporting the evolutionary novelty theory. However this was only a preliminary study and only included the disease cancer, which has been found in previous studies to have an ambiguous relationship with intelligence. Disease and injury prevention Having higher intelligence scores may mean that individuals are better at preventing disease and injury. Their\",\n \"-35.334071756878984\"\n ],\n [\n \"and general intelligence, stating \\\"there is still almost no replicated evidence concerning the individual genes, which have variants that contribute to intelligence differences\\\". In 2001, a review in the Journal of Black Psychology refuted eight major premises on which the hereditarian view regarding race and intelligence is based.\\nA 2005 literature review article by Sternberg, Grigorenko and Kidd stated that no gene has been shown to be linked to intelligence, \\\"so attempts to provide a compelling genetic link of race to intelligence are not feasible at this time\\\". Hunt (2010, p. 447) and Mackintosh (2011, p. 344) concurred, both scholars noting that while\",\n \"-35.207036875071935\"\n ],\n [\n \"and mortality. The study was constructed to better identify if there are any shared phenotypic and genetic influences from height and intelligence in determining health outcomes and mortality. Definition of intelligence Human intelligence can be measured according to an extensive number of tests and criteria, ranging from academic, social, and emotional fields. There is no clear definition for what \\\"intelligence\\\" is in humans. There are several theories that define different categories of intelligence and associate traits, instead of a single general ability. In most of the studies, intelligence quotient (IQ) tests were used to measure a subject's mental age,\",\n \"-35.0876870174543\"\n ],\n [\n \"abilities, such as the capacities to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use language, and to learn. There are several ways to more specifically define intelligence. In some cases, intelligence may include traits such as creativity, personality, character, knowledge, or wisdom. However, some psychologists prefer not to include these traits in the definition of intelligence.\\nA widely researched index or classification of intelligence among scientists is intelligence quotient (IQ). IQ is a summary index, calculated by testing individuals' abilities in a variety of tasks and producing a composite score to represent overall ability, e.g.,\",\n \"-35.0462384755956\"\n ],\n [\n \"than being clever, making it difficult to accurately test and compare the intelligence of different groups within a population.\\nThere is evidence that intellectual development is influenced by the expectations placed on an individual. In an experiment involving elementary school children, researchers found that when teachers believe students are above average intellect, these students tend to do better in school and receive higher IQ scores than students who are perceived as average or below average intellect, regardless of the actual competence of the students. This self-fulfilling prophecy caused by expectations is known as the Pygmalion effect, and it may play\",\n \"-34.90254236830515\"\n ],\n [\n \"importance of genetic or environmental factors on the development of a given trait, nor does it convey the extent to which that trait is genetically determined. Arguments in support of a genetic explanation of racial differences in IQ are sometimes fallacious. For instance, hereditarians have sometimes cited the failure of known environmental factors to account for such differences, or the high heritability of intelligence within races, as evidence that racial differences in IQ are genetic.\\nPsychometricians have found that intelligence is substantially heritable within populations, with 30–50% of variance in IQ scores in early childhood being attributable to genetic factors in\",\n \"-34.7815908939956\"\n ],\n [\n \"on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence, multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality traits are also important,\",\n \"-34.755222469349974\"\n ],\n [\n \"the capacity for intelligence is inherited, those with exceptional intelligence also need exceptional schooling. Terman wrote that \\\"[bright children] are rarely given tasks which call forth their best ability, and as a result they run the risk of falling into lifelong habits of submaximum efficiency\\\". In other words, nature (heredity) plays a large role in determining intelligence, but nurture (the environment) is also important in fostering the innate intellectual ability. By his own admission, there was nothing in his own ancestry that would have led anyone to predict him to have an intellectual career. Legacy From 1957 until 2018,\",\n \"-34.74761056303396\"\n ],\n [\n \"intelligence. Data, not surprisingly, in the actual social context, indicates that there is an association between race, gender, class and IQ scores. This is not a revelation. But, mainstream science on intelligence views it as an \\\"unfortunate\\\" biological destiny!\\\" Belkhir et al. also accused the signatories of the editorial of reviving the \\\"pseudo-scientific inquiry\\\" of biological determinism.\\nIn a 2001 article in Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Ian J. Deary noted that the Wall Street Journal \\\"... is an odd place for such a document, and readers might view the signatories as one-sided, largely committed to the psychometrics-based intelligence research they were\",\n \"-34.689773099977174\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fertility and intelligence The relationship between fertility and intelligence has been investigated in many demographic studies. There is evidence that, on a population level, intelligence is negatively correlated with fertility rate and positively correlated with survival rate of offspring. The combined net effect of these two conflicting forces on ultimate population intelligence is not well studied and is unclear. It is theorized that if an inverse correlation of IQ with fertility rate were stronger than the correlation of IQ with survival rate (and if heritable factors involved in IQ were consistently expressed in populations with different fertility rates), assuming this\",\n \"-34.52751755021745\"\n ],\n [\n \"older. Malnutrition and diseases Certain single-gene metabolic disorders can severely affect intelligence. Phenylketonuria is an example, with publications demonstrating the capacity of phenylketonuria to produce a reduction of 10 IQ points on average. Meta-analyses have found that environmental factors, such as iodine deficiency, can result in large reductions in average IQ; iodine deficiency has been shown to produce a reduction of 12.5 IQ points on average. Heritability and socioeconomic status The APA report \\\"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\\\" (1995) also stated that: \\n\\\"We should note, however, that low-income and non-white families are poorly represented in existing adoption studies as well as\",\n \"-34.45711499729077\"\n ],\n [\n \"they now also give scores for many more narrow abilities. Lack of empirical evidence According to a 2006 study many of Gardner's \\\"intelligences\\\" correlate with the g factor, supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence. According to the study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involved a blend of g, of cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some cases, of non-cognitive abilities or of personality characteristics.\\nThe Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation has tested hundreds of thousands of people to determine their \\\"aptitudes\\\" (\\\"intelligences\\\"), such as manual dexterity, musical ability, spatial visualization, and memory for numbers. \",\n \"-34.396733347133704\"\n ],\n [\n \"that supports some of the human brain's most distinctive cognitive abilities. Consequently, individual intelligence within the human species might be modulated by the degree of cortical convolution.\\nAn analysis published in 2019 found the contours of 677 kids' brain had a genetic correlation of almost 1 between IQ and surface area of the supramarginal gyrus on the left side of the brain. Neural efficiency The neural efficiency hypothesis postulates that more intelligent individuals display less activation in the brain during cognitive tasks, as measured by Glucose metabolism. A small sample of participants (N=8) displayed negative correlations between intelligence and absolute regional\",\n \"-34.211311070772354\"\n ],\n [\n \"the over 17,000 human genes are thought to have an effect on the development and functionality of the brain. While a number of individual genes have been reported to be associated with IQ, none have a strong effect. Deary and colleagues (2009) reported that no finding of a strong single gene effect on IQ has been replicated. Recent findings of gene associations with normally varying intelligence differences in adults continue to show weak effects for any one gene; likewise in children, but see. Gene-environment interaction David Rowe reported an interaction of genetic effects with socioeconomic status, such that the heritability\",\n \"-34.05824996611045\"\n ],\n [\n \"which can be paired with photographs to identify the individual.\\nIt is becoming more accepted that a neurobiological basis for intelligence exists (at least for reasoning and problem-solving). The success of these intelligence studies present ethical issues. A large concern for the general population is the issue of race and intelligence. While little variation has been found between racial groups, the public perception of intelligence studies has been negatively impacted by concerns of racism. It is important to consider the consequences of studies that investigate intelligence differences in population-groups (racial or ethnic) and if it is ethical to conduct these studies.\",\n \"-34.03083169271122\"\n ],\n [\n \"better health. This theory provides a theoretical background for evidence found that supports the idea that intelligence is related to mortality through health behaviours such as wearing a seatbelt or quitting smoking.\\nEvolutionary novelty theory emphasises the role of behaviour in the link between mortality and intelligence whereas system integrity emphasis the role of genes. Thus system integrity predicts that individuals of higher intelligence will be better protected from diseases that are caused primarily by genetics whereas evolutionary adaptive theory suggests that individuals of higher intelligence will be better protected from diseases that are less heritable and are caused by poor\",\n \"-34.0164674795451\"\n ],\n [\n \"the growth of new connections between neurons, and the selective elimination of such connection, called \\\"dendritic pruning\\\". Genetic factors of intelligence Humans have varying degrees of neuroplasticity due to their genetic makeups, which affects their ability to adapt to conditions in their environments and effectively learn from experiences. The degree to which intelligence test scores can be linked to genetic heritability increases with age. There is presently no explanation for this puzzling result, but flaws in the testing methods are suspected. A study of Dutch twins concludes that intelligence of 5 year olds is 26% heritable, while the test\",\n \"-33.98198246852553\"\n ],\n [\n \"question.\\nDevelopmental genetic analysis examines the effects of genes over the course of a human lifespan. Early studies of intelligence, which mostly examined young children, found that heritability measured 40–50%. Subsequent developmental genetic analyses found that variance attributable to additive environmental effects is less apparent in older individuals, with estimated heritability of IQ increasing in adulthood.\\nMultivariate genetic analysis examines the genetic contribution to several traits that vary together. For example, multivariate genetic analysis has demonstrated that the genetic determinants of all specific cognitive abilities (e.g., memory, spatial reasoning, processing speed) overlap greatly, such that the genes associated with any specific cognitive\",\n \"-33.948869746564014\"\n ],\n [\n \"analyzed Thurstone's data, discovering that those scored high in one category often did well in the others. This finding gives support that there is an underlying factor influencing them, namely g.\\nHoward Gardner suggested in his theory of multiple intelligences that intelligence is formed out of multiple abilities. He recognized eight intelligences: linguistic, musical, spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist. He also considered the possibility of a ninth intelligent ability, existential intelligence. Gardner proposed that individuals who excelled in one ability would lack in another. Instead, his results showed that each of his eight intelligences correlate positively with each other.\",\n \"-33.91244726086734\"\n ],\n [\n \"admitted that the selection (or rejection) of a candidate's intelligence is reminiscent more of an artistic judgment than of a scientific assessment.\\nGenerally, linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities are called intelligence, but artistic, musical, athletic, etc. abilities are not. Gardner argues this causes the former to be needlessly aggrandized. Certain critics are wary of this widening of the definition, saying that it ignores \\\"the connotation of intelligence ... [which] has always connoted the kind of thinking skills that makes one successful in school.\\\"\\nGardner writes \\\"I balk at the unwarranted assumption that certain human abilities can be arbitrarily singled out as intelligence while others\",\n \"-33.7600035573123\"\n ],\n [\n \"intelligence, very little is truly known about how these factors go about shaping intelligence. Additionally, they stated that the genetic hypothesis (as used in the Bell Curve) does not explain the intelligence test score differences between racial groups. Boykin also collaborated on studies combining culture and education, two such studies were “In search of cultural themes and their expressions in the dynamics of classroom life” (2005) and “Culture in the sanctioned classroom practices of elementary school teachers serving low-income African American students” (2006). Culture In addition to combining culture and education in his studies, Boykin also studies culture on its\",\n \"-33.74450514576529\"\n ],\n [\n \"mean by intelligence is general cognitive functioning (g) as assessed in the psychometric tradition of a general factor derived from a battery of diverse cognitive ability tests.\\\"\\nHarrington (1997) gives a point-by-point analysis of the conclusions of the letter. He points out that the validity of tests is claimed as a property of the tests, rather than how or where they are used. He queried the claims about there being no cultural bias; and that intelligence was a key factor determining fitness in human evolution, something that he argued was inconsistent with the claims on heritability, if the geneticist's version of\",\n \"-33.54224922854337\"\n ],\n [\n \"as \\\"feeble-minded\\\"; whereas, in the initial sentence of the study, Goddard said the study subjects were atypical members of their ethnic groups, who had been selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Countering Gould, Davis further explained that Goddard proposed that the low IQs of the sub-normally intelligent men and women who took the cognitive-ability test likely derived from their social environments rather than from their respective genetic inheritances, and concluded that \\\"we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence, and, if rightly brought up, will be good citizens\\\".\\nIn his review, psychologist John B. Carroll said\",\n \"-33.32447773421882\"\n ],\n [\n \"Race and intelligence The connection between race and intelligence has been a subject of debate in both popular science and academic research since the inception of IQ testing in the early 20th century. There remains some debate as to whether and to what extent differences in intelligence test scores reflect environmental factors as opposed to genetic ones, as well as to the definitions of what \\\"race\\\" and \\\"intelligence\\\" are, and whether they can be objectively defined. Currently, there is no non-circumstantial evidence that these differences in test scores have a genetic component, although some researchers believe that the existing\",\n \"-33.273138114884205\"\n ],\n [\n \"we can be confident that none of the experts cited here actually believes that genes play no role in individual differences in IQ, but their positions are represented as such by newspapers that divide the world into hereditarians and environmentalists, and often fail to clarify for their readers that the argument is over the degree of genetic influence, not its existence or exclusive control. Because newspaper journalists either cannot or do not want to understand this distinction, readers will not either.\\nNews reports made mistakes of the same proportion when reporting the expert view on the contribution of genetics to\",\n \"-33.22607578005409\"\n ],\n [\n \"Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism). It was determined that Big Five traits have complex etiology with both genetics and outside factors influencing these traits. \\nSome of her work has examined genetic influences on general intelligence, often referred to as g. Her research validates the psychological construct of a higher-level g factor that is not closely associated with any specific test, but rather reflects shared variance across multiple mental ability tests.\",\n \"-33.134175559476716\"\n ],\n [\n \"multi-generational studies that would take a very long time in humans.\\nOne such aspect of intelligence well suited for a non-human model is the experimental study of genetic aspects of g. Mice are currently being considered as a potential model due to their widespread availability, detailed knowledge of their genome, and the ease with which strains can be bred to exhibit individual differences in cognitive ability. Neuroscience Non-human models can also be used in neuroscience for neuroanatomical studies investigating intelligence and the influence of g on the neurological level. Rats have been used in experimental manipulations of intelligence using chemicals administered\",\n \"-32.95750196292647\"\n ],\n [\n \"for what results in a persons intelligence basically boils down to the genetics of the subject in question and the environment they were raised in. Education as Causal of Intelligence There is substantial evidence to suggest that education influences intelligence. One study took advantage of the school system in Germany to investigate the relationship between education and intelligence. The children in the sample were required to be 6 years old before they started the school year on April 1, so it was possible to compare children who were of a similar chronological age, but had a year's difference in schooling.\",\n \"-32.92983959166668\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be analyzed over time within an individual longitudinally (e.g. intelligence is stable over a lifetime, due to the same genetic influences – childhood genetically correlates with old age), or across studies or populations or ethnic groups/races, or across diagnoses, allowing discovery of whether different genes influence a trait over a lifetime (typically, they do not), whether different genes influence a trait in different populations due to differing local environments, whether there is disease heterogeneity across times or places or sex (particularly in psychiatric diagnoses there is uncertainty whether 1 country's 'autism' or 'schizophrenia' is the same as another's\",\n \"-32.883968727401225\"\n ],\n [\n \"Human intelligence Relevance of IQ tests In psychology, human intelligence is commonly assessed by IQ scores, determined by IQ tests. However, there are critics of IQ who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores, or the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.\\nOn the other hand, Linda S. Gottfredson (2006) has argued that the results of thousands of studies support the importance of IQ for school and job performance (see\",\n \"-32.874670919802156\"\n ],\n [\n \"and ability to acquire knowledge as the most important elements.\\nThe study found that psychologists were in agreement about the heritability of intelligence in that almost all (94%) felt that it played a substantial role but there was disagreement regarding accuracy with half of those that felt qualified to reply in this section agreed that there was not enough evidence to estimate heritability accurately. The 214 who thought there was enough evidence gave an average estimate of .596 for the US white population and .57 for the US black population.\\nThe study also revealed that the majority (55%) of surveyed experts\",\n \"-32.85166022818885\"\n ],\n [\n \"scores. Several scores correlate well with general intelligence. One such scale is R, the total number of responses; this reveals the questionable side-effect that more intelligent people tend to be elevated on many pathology scales, since many scales do not correct for high R: if a subject gives twice as many responses overall, it is more likely that some of these will seem \\\"pathological\\\". Also correlated with intelligence are the scales for Organizational Activity, Complexity, Form Quality, and Human Figure responses.\\nThe same source reports that validity has also been shown for detecting such conditions as schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders;\",\n \"-32.805283322610194\"\n ],\n [\n \"had postulated in 1987 that \\\"IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence\\\". By 2009, however, Flynn felt that the IQ test score changes are real. He suggests that our fast-changing world has faced successive generations with new cognitive challenges that have considerably stimulated intellectual ability. \\\"Our brains as presently constructed probably have much excess capacity ready to be used if needed. That was certainly the case in 1900.\\\" Flynn notes that \\\"Our ancestors in 1900 were not mentally retarded. Their intelligence was anchored in everyday reality. We differ from\",\n \"-32.80315803915437\"\n ],\n [\n \"strength, metabolic syndrome and genetic correlation may be further potential markers of system integrity which by definition should explain a large part of or nullify the relationship between intelligence and mortality.\\nAn opposing theory to the system integrity theory is the evolutionary novelty theory which suggests that those with higher intelligence are better equipped to deal with evolutionary novel events. It is proposed that intelligence evolved to tackle evolutionarily novel situations and that those with a higher IQ are better able to process when such a novel situation is dangerous or a health hazard and thus are likely to be in\",\n \"-32.78057550646918\"\n ],\n [\n \"that national IQ data are primarily (not wholly) a function of innate ability, which in turn is at least partly generated by genes. There are many assumptions of cause–effect in here, and some of them involve substantial leaps of faith.\\\"\\nPsychologist J. Philippe Rushton, president of the Pioneer Fund that has been a long time funder of research by Lynn, reviewed the book in 2006 for Personality and Individual Differences. Rushton wrote that the book extends and answers criticisms against the earlier work in several ways, and believed that the methods were accurate.\\nEvolutionary biologist Satoshi Kanazawa claimed in 2008 to have\",\n \"-32.77928856034123\"\n ],\n [\n \"normally distributed in the general population.\\nIntelligence tests are widely used in educational, business, and military settings because of their efficacy in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income. Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance. General\",\n \"-32.72831828150811\"\n ],\n [\n \"and other issues. However, the sheer volume of consortium-based data makes analysis difficult. Most studies also focus on one gene. In actuality, many genes and interactions between them likely contribute to individual differences in personality, behaviour and health. As social scientists often work with many variables, determining the number of affected genes also poses methodological challenges. More collaboration between medical researchers, geneticists and social scientists has been advocated to increase knowledge in this field of study.\\nLimited access to human brain tissue poses a challenge to conducting human research. Not yet knowing if epigenetic changes in the blood and\",\n \"-32.64918331525405\"\n ],\n [\n \"an independent sample confirmed these results, reporting a heritability estimate of 47%. These findings are compatible with the view that a large number of genes, each with only a small effect, contribute to differences in intelligence. Between-group heritability Although IQ differences between individuals are shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that mean group-level disparities (between-group differences) in IQ necessarily have a genetic basis. The Flynn effect is one example where there is a large difference between groups (past and present) with little or no genetic difference. An analogy, attributed to Richard Lewontin, illustrates this point:\\nSuppose\",\n \"-32.59810389755148\"\n ],\n [\n \"Though the specific number of s factors are unknown, a few have been relatively accepted: mechanical, spatial, logical, and arithmetical.\\nRising interest in the debate on the structure of intelligence prompted Spearman to elaborate and argue for his hypothesis. He claimed that g was not made up of one single ability, but rather two genetically influenced, unique abilities working together. He called these abilities \\\"eductive\\\" and \\\"reproductive\\\". He suggested that future understanding of the interaction between these two different abilities would drastically change how individual differences and cognition are understood in psychology, possibly creating the basis for wisdom. Intelligence testing Many\",\n \"-32.59603255346883\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the subjects of the study were not typical members of their groups but were selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Davis has further noted that Goddard argued that the low IQs of the test subjects were more likely due to environmental rather than genetic factors, and that Goddard concluded that \\\"we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence and if rightly brought up will be good citizens\\\". In 1996 the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs stated that IQ tests were not discriminatory towards any ethnic/racial groups.\\nIn his book The Mismeasure of Man,\",\n \"-32.577077643742086\"\n ],\n [\n \"intelligence most often used in the relevant studies include measures of fluid ability (Gf) and crystallized ability (Gc); that differ in their trajectory of development in individuals. The 'investment theory' by Cattell states that the individual differences observed in the procurement of skills and knowledge (Gc) are partially attributed to the 'investment' of Gf, thus suggesting the involvement of fluid intelligence in every aspect of the learning process. It is essential to highlight that the investment theory suggests that personality traits affect 'actual' ability, and not scores on an IQ test. In association, Hebb's theory of intelligence suggested a bifurcation\",\n \"-32.56763879113714\"\n ],\n [\n \"scientific standing as on their supposed political implications\\\".\\nThe task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They stated that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by both genetics and environment.\\nThe report stated that a number of biological factors, including malnutrition, exposure to toxic substances, and various prenatal and perinatal stressors, result in lowered psychometric intelligence under at least some conditions. The task force agrees that large\",\n \"-32.54697597344057\"\n ],\n [\n \"Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. It is used to predict educational outcomes and other variables of interest.\\nOthers have attempted to measure intelligence indirectly by looking at individuals' or group's educational attainment, although this risks bias from other demographic factors, such as age, income, gender and cultural background, all of which can affect educational attainment.\\nDissatisfaction with traditional IQ tests has led to the development of alternative theories. In 1983, Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, which broadens the conventional definition of intelligence, to include logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences.\\nHe chose not to include spiritual intelligence\",\n \"-32.498876104538795\"\n ],\n [\n \"personality is predictive of both types of performance. A separate study, however, found slightly different results, concluding that overall personality is more predictive of typical performance, while intelligence is still the best predictor of maximum performance. Honesty Many organizations give tests to potential employees during the interview process to determine their job knowledge, overall intelligence, or honesty, and use these to predict how the employee will perform if hired. Research has touched on how maximum performance can be predicted by these tests. For example, one tool is the integrity test, which is a test that attempts\",\n \"-32.47798004928336\"\n ],\n [\n \"environment with a set of useful skills including reasoning and understanding patterns and relationships. He believed individuals highly developed in one intellectual ability tended to be highly developed at other intellectual abilities. A more intelligent individual was thought to be able to more easily \\\"accommodate\\\" experiences into existing cognitive structures to develop structures more compatible with environmental stimuli.\\nIn general, intelligence is thought to be attributed to both genetic and environmental factors, but the extent to which each plays a key role is highly disputed. Studies of identical and non-identical twins raised separately and together show a strong\",\n \"-32.44622362566588\"\n ],\n [\n \"even been found to hold for gifted children, those with an intelligence over 135. A 15-point increase in intelligence was associated with a decreased risk of mortality of 32%. This relationship was present until an intelligence score of 163 at which point there was no further advantage of a higher intelligence on mortality risk.\\nA meta-analysis of the relationship between intelligence and mortality found that there was a 24% increase in mortality for a 1SD (15 point) drop in IQ score. This meta-analysis also concluded that the association between intelligence and mortality was similar for men and women despite sex differences\",\n \"-32.41092683711031\"\n ],\n [\n \"genetic heredity. He cites the Burt Affair, about the oft-cited twin studies, by Cyril Burt (1883–1971), wherein Burt claimed that human intelligence is highly heritable. IQ, g, statistical correlation, and heritability As an evolutionary biologist and historian of science, Gould accepted biological variability (the premise of the transmission of intelligence via genetic heredity), but opposed biological determinism, which posits that genes determine a definitive, unalterable social destiny for each man and each woman in life and society. The Mismeasure of Man is an analysis of statistical correlation, the mathematics applied by psychologists to establish the validity of IQ tests, and\",\n \"-32.385928561445326\"\n ],\n [\n \"satisfactory description of human intelligence. It also drives home the point that the \\\"g-loading\\\" so strongly emphasized by Murray and Herrnstein measures only agreement among tests—not predictive power for socioeconomic outcomes. By the same token, one could also argue that the authors have biased their empirical analysis against the conclusions they obtain by disregarding the test with the greatest predictive power.\\nJanet Currie and Duncan Thomas presented evidence suggesting AFQT scores are likely better markers for family background than \\\"intelligence\\\" in a 1999 study:\\nHerrnstein and Murray report that conditional on maternal \\\"intelligence\\\" (AFQT scores), child test scores are little affected by\",\n \"-32.3846394838547\"\n ],\n [\n \"Synthetic giftedness is seen in creativity, intuition, and a study of the arts. People with synthetic giftedness are not often seen with the highest IQ's because there are not currently any tests that can sufficiently measure these attributes, but synthetic giftedness is especially useful in creating new ideas to create and solve new problems. Sternberg also associated another one of his students, \\\"Barbara\\\", to the synthetic giftedness. Barbara did not perform as well as Alice on the tests taken to get into school, but was recommended to Yale University based on her exceptional creative and intuitive skills. Barbara was later\",\n \"-32.37290644655877\"\n ],\n [\n \"Therefore, genes are not perfect predictors of future health; individuals with both the high risk form of the gene and those without are all candidates to get the disease. Multiple factors in the environment, particular smoking, diet and exercise, infection, and pollution; play important roles and can be more important than genetic make-up. This makes the results and risks determined by predictive medicine more difficult to quantify. Furthermore, the potential false positives or false negatives that may arise from a predictive genetic screen can cause substantial unnecessary strain on the individual.\\nTargeting medication to people who are genetically\",\n \"-32.34038270989549\"\n ],\n [\n \"group intelligence, such as a composition out of several equally important but independent factors as found in individual personality research.\\nBesides, this scientific idea also aims to explore the causes affecting collective intelligence, such as group size, collaboration tools or group members' interpersonal skills. The MIT Center for Collective Intelligence, for instance, announced the detection of The Genome of Collective Intelligence as one of its main goals aiming to develop a taxonomy of organizational building blocks, or genes, that can be combined and recombined to harness the intelligence of crowds. Causes Individual intelligence is shown to be genetically and environmentally influenced.\",\n \"-32.30561892213882\"\n ],\n [\n \"rating a person's intelligence. A pioneer of psychometrics and the application of statistical methods to the study of human diversity and the study of inheritance of human traits, he believed that intelligence was largely a product of heredity (by which he did not mean genes, although he did develop several pre-Mendelian theories of particulate inheritance). He hypothesized that there should exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as reflexes, muscle grip, and head size. He set up the first mental testing centre in the world in 1882 and he published \\\"Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development\\\"\",\n \"-32.29666348549654\"\n ],\n [\n \"intelligence is a multidimensional and multidirectional construct characterized by plasticity and interindividual variability. Intellectual development throughout the lifespan is characterized by decline as well as stability and improvement. Mechanics of intelligence, the basic architecture of information processing, decreases with age. Pragmatic intelligence, knowledge acquired through culture and experience, remains relatively stable with age.\\nThe psychometric approach assesses intelligence based on scores on standardized tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Stanford Binet for children. The Cognitive Structural approach measures intelligence by assessing the ways people conceptualize and solve problems, rather than by test scores. Developmental trends\",\n \"-32.28199924204091\"\n ],\n [\n \"giftedness may be present in areas other than the typical intellectual realm. The concept of multiple intelligences (MI) makes the field aware of additional potential strengths and proposes a variety of curricular methods. Gardner argued that there are eight intelligences, or different areas in which people assimilate or learn about the world around them: interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, naturalistic, and spatial-visual.\\nThe most common criticism of Gardner's MI theory is \\\"the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct\\\". Others consider the theory not to be\",\n \"-32.23208931400586\"\n ],\n [\n \"David James, professor of social sciences at Cardiff and editor of the British Journal of Sociology of Education, says \\\"it's great to dwell on the fact that intelligence is not fundamentally genetic and unchangeable\\\", but he believes the limitations of mindset outweigh its uses. \\\"It individualises the failure—'they couldn't change the way they think, so that's why they failed'.\\\" James notes that a study in 2013 showed no statistically significant effect of mindset theory.\\nIn July 2019, a large randomized controlled trial of growth mindset training by the Education Endowment Foundation involving 101 schools and 5018 pupils across England found that\",\n \"-32.224207673047204\"\n ],\n [\n \"also the work of Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). She says that IQ also predicts or correlates with numerous other life outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-g intelligences is lacking or very poor. Triarchic theory of intelligence Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability. The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence. Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not\",\n \"-32.22280640466488\"\n ],\n [\n \"statistical evidence and dubious presumptions seem misguided at best and quite dangerous if taken seriously. It is therefore difficult to find much to recommend in this book.\\\"\\nLynn's 2006 Race Differences in Intelligence is the largest review of the global cognitive ability data. The book organises the data by ten population groups and (in the 2015 edition) covers over 500 published articles.\\nLynn's meta-analysis lists the average IQ scores of East Asians (105), Europeans (99), the Inuit (91), Southeast Asians and indigenous peoples of the Americas each (87), Pacific Islanders (85), Middle Easterners (including South Asians and North Africans) (84), East and\",\n \"-32.18257812282536\"\n ],\n [\n \"comprehension. In biology In the study of biology – particularly genetics and neuroscience – predictability relates to the prediction of biological developments and behaviors based on inherited genes and past experiences.\\nSignificant debate exists in the scientific community over whether or not a person's behavior is completely predictable based on their genetics. Studies such as the one in Israel, which showed that judges were more likely to give a lighter sentence if they had eaten more recently. In addition to cases like this, it has been proven that individuals smell better to someone with complementary immunity genes, leading to more physical\",\n \"-32.18180859347558\"\n ],\n [\n \"humans, it became of relevance to outmaneuver other members of the group seeking leadership or acceptance, by means of more advanced social skills. A more social and communicative person would be more easily selected. Intelligence dependent on brain size Human intelligence is developed to an extreme level that is not necessarily adaptive in an evolutionary sense. Firstly, larger-headed babies are more difficult to give birth to and large brains are costly in terms of nutrient and oxygen requirements. Thus the direct adaptive benefit of human intelligence is questionable at least in modern societies, while it is difficult to study in\",\n \"-32.1770976963453\"\n ],\n [\n \"After further analysis, Gardner found that logic, spatial abilities, language, and mathematics are all linked in some way, giving support for an underlying g factor that is prominent in almost all intelligence in general.\\nRobert Sternberg agreed with Gardner that there were multiple intelligences, but he narrowed his scope to just three in his triarchic theory of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. He classified analytical intelligence as problem-solving skills in tests and academics. Creative intelligence is considered how people react adaptively in new situations, or create novel ideas. Practical intelligence is defined as the everyday logic used when multiple solutions or\",\n \"-32.17060077437782\"\n ],\n [\n \"further allow them to recognize when they are most likely to observe either type of performance. Intelligence Since all individuals in a maximum performance situation are expected to have similarly high levels of motivation, the differences in their performance should be primarily based on the differing ability of each person. Following these thoughts, researchers have hypothesized that intelligence would be predictive of maximum performance. A few studies have supported this thought, finding that intelligence is more highly related with maximum performance than it is typical performance. Personality Researchers have hypothesized that typical performance would be predicted by personality\",\n \"-32.14620540520991\"\n ],\n [\n \"Impact of health on intelligence Health can affect intelligence in various ways. Conversely, intelligence can affect health. Health effects on intelligence have been described as being among the most important factors in the origins of human group differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood–brain barrier of the child is less effective. Such impairment may sometimes be permanent, sometimes be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth.\\nDeveloped nations have implemented several health\",\n \"-32.12558396437089\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the like\\\". Celia's contextual intelligence allowed her to use these skills to her best advantage. \\nSternberg also acknowledges that an individual is not restricted to having excellence in only one of these three intelligences. Many people may possess an integration of all three and have high levels of all three intelligences.\\nPractical intelligence is also a topic covered by Malcolm Gladwell in his book Outliers: The Story of Success. Criticism Psychologist Linda Gottfredson criticises the unempirical nature of triarchic theory. Further, she argues it is absurd to assert that traditional intelligence tests are not measuring practical intelligence, given\",\n \"-32.09190452247276\"\n ],\n [\n \"intelligence factor) were replaced with a model that tested several types of intelligence, it would change results less than one might expect. Therefore, according to Jensen and Davis, the results of standardized tests of cognitive ability would continue to correlate with the results of other such standardized tests, and that the intellectual achievement gap between black and white people would remain.\\nPsychologist J. Philippe Rushton accused Gould of \\\"scholarly malfeasance\\\" for misrepresenting and for ignoring contemporary scientific research pertinent to the subject of his book, and for attacking dead hypotheses and methods of research. He faulted The Mismeasure of Man because\",\n \"-32.07845328678377\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mithen believes that it is related to the evolution of language. Language may be the most complex cognitive task we undertake.[citation needed] Language is directly related to social intelligence because it is primarily used to mediate social relationships.\\nSocial intelligence was a critical factor in brain growth. Social and cognitive complexity co-evolve. Differences from intelligence Nicholas Humphrey points to a difference between intelligence being measured by IQ tests and social intelligence. Some autistic children are extremely intelligent because they have well developed skills of observing and memorizing information, however they have low social intelligence. Similarly, chimpanzees are very adept at observation\",\n \"-32.07446314355184\"\n ],\n [\n \"in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income.[19] Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance.[1][20]\",\n \"-32.07309770466236\"\n ],\n [\n \"Malleability of intelligence Malleability of intelligence describes the processes by which intelligence can increase or decrease over time and is not static. These changes may come as a result of genetics, pharmacological factors, psychological factors, behavior, or environmental conditions. Malleable intelligence may refer to changes in cognitive skills, memory, reasoning, or muscle memory related motor skills. \\nIn general, the majority changes in human intelligence occurs at either the onset of development, during the critical period, or during old age (see Neuroplasticity).\\nCharles Spearman, who coined the general intelligence factor \\\"g\\\", described intelligence as one's ability to adapt to his\",\n \"-32.04254263605981\"\n ],\n [\n \"who achieve a great deal of academic success early on might be most likely to believe their intelligence is fixed because they so frequently have been praised regarding their intelligence. They may have faced fewer opportunities for setbacks and do not have much experience persisting through errors. Longitudinal research shows that individuals who endorse entity beliefs experience decreasing self-esteem throughout their college years, while individuals who endorse incremental beliefs experience an increase. Development Implicit theories of intelligence develop at an early age and are subtly influenced by parents and educators and the type of praise they give for successful work.\",\n \"-32.03479280631291\"\n ],\n [\n \"cognitive abilities may equip them with a better propensity for understanding the injury and health risks of certain behaviours and actions.\\nFatal and non-fatal accidental injury have been associated with lower intelligence. This may be because individuals of higher intelligence are more likely to take precautions such as wearing seat belts, helmets etc. as they are aware of the risks.\\nFurther there is evidence that more intelligent people behave in a healthier way.\\nPeople with higher IQ test scores tend to be less likely to smoke or drink alcohol heavily. They also eat better diets, and they are more physically active. So they\",\n \"-32.027402056439314\"\n ],\n [\n \"intelligence can be as follows: The more mentally efficient (that is, the faster and more focused on goal), capable (that is, the more information one can hold in mind at a given moment), foresighted (that is, the more clearly one can specify his goals and plan how to achieve them), and flexible (that is, the more one can introduce variations in the concepts and mental operations one already possesses) a person is, the more intelligent (both in regard to other individuals and in regard to a general developmental hierarchy) this person is.\\nDifferences between persons in IQ or in the rate\",\n \"-32.0147725455754\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"which allows us to be able to teach successfully to other people\\\". In the same interview, he explicitly refused some other suggested intelligences like humour, cooking and sexual intelligence. Critical reception Gardner argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, but that there are only very weak correlations among them. For example, the theory postulates that a child who learns to multiply easily is not necessarily more intelligent than a child who has more difficulty on this task. The child who takes more time to master multiplication may best learn to multiply through a different approach, may excel\",\n \"-31.985337521502515\"\n ],\n [\n \"factors which could potentially affect performance. These factors include health, wealth, biological differences, and education. Group differences The study of human intelligence is one of the most controversial topics in psychology. It remains unclear whether group differences in intelligence test scores are caused by heritable factors or by \\\"other correlated demographic variables such as socioeconomic status, education level, and motivation.\\\"\\nHunt and Carlson outlined four contemporary positions on differences in IQ based on race or ethnicity. The first is that these reflect real differences in average group intelligence, which is caused by a combination of environmental factors and heritable differences in\",\n \"-31.97903817993938\"\n ],\n [\n \"a quarter of this predictive power. Psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great many factors that influence social outcomes.\\nIn a meta-analysis, Strenze (2006) reviewed much of the literature and estimated the correlation between IQ and income to be about 0.23.\\nSome studies claim that IQ only accounts for (explains) a sixth of the variation in income because many studies are based on young adults, many of whom have not yet reached their peak earning capacity, or even their education. On pg 568 of The g Factor, Arthur Jensen claims that although the correlation between IQ and income averages a\",\n \"-31.960202021495206\"\n ],\n [\n \"suggests that even practising geneticists will gain a sense of wonder from the \\\"hidden secrets\\\" in the book.\\nThe biologist Jerry Coyne, writing in the London Review of Books, criticises Genome as \\\"at once instructive and infuriating. For each nugget of science, Ridley also includes an error or misrepresentation. Some of these derive from poor scholarship: others from his political agenda.\\\" For example, Coyne mentions Ridley's incorrect claim that \\\"half of your IQ is inherited\\\"; that Ridley assumes that the marker used by Robert Plomin, IGF2R, is the purported \\\"intelligence gene\\\" that it marks; and that social influences on behaviour [always]\",\n \"-31.932426617408055\"\n ],\n [\n \"exactly matched his chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985).\\nBinet was forthright about the limitations of his scale. He stressed the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures. Binet also stressed that intellectual development progressed at variable rates and could be influenced by the environment; therefore, intelligence was not based solely on genetics, was malleable rather than fixed, and could only be found in children with comparable backgrounds (Siegler, 1992). Given Binet's stance that intelligence testing was subject to variability and was not generalizable, it is important to look at the\",\n \"-31.91350784864335\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gregory Cochran Human evolution In opposition to what he sees as the conventional wisdom that civilization has been a static environment which imposed stabilizing selection on humans, Cochran, along with like-minded anthropologists such as John D. Hawks, contends that haplotype and other data indicate the selection of genes has been strongest since the advent of farming and civilization.\\nThrough his work on human evolution, Cochran has been associated since the 1990s with the human biodiversity (“HBD”) milieu, Ashkenazi intelligence Cochran and co-authors Jason Hardy and Henry Harpending suggest that the high average IQ of Ashkenazi Jews may be attributed to natural\",\n \"-31.91311357592349\"\n ],\n [\n \"study on educational attainment found that Jews, Christians, religiously unaffiliated persons, and Buddhists have, on average, higher levels of education than the global average. Numerous factors affect both educational attainment and religiosity. Intelligence The definitions of intelligence are controversial since at least 70 definitions have been found among diverse fields of research. Some groups of psychologists have suggested the following definitions: \\nFrom \\\"Mainstream Science on Intelligence\\\" (1994), an op-ed statement in the Wall Street Journal signed by fifty-two researchers (out of 131 total invited to sign). \\nA very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason,\",\n \"-31.896721433353378\"\n ],\n [\n \"neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape, and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features that may affect IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose metabolic rate. Health Health is important in understanding differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant\",\n \"-31.8953324794129\"\n ],\n [\n \"change would be slow, especially relative to rates of cultural change.\\nSelective breeding, nootropics, NSI-189, MAO-I's, epigenetic modulation, and genetic engineering could improve human intelligence more rapidly. Bostrom writes that if we come to understand the genetic component of intelligence, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis could be used to select for embryos with as much as 4 points of IQ gain (if one embryo is selected out of two), or with larger gains (e.g., up to 24.3 IQ points gained if one embryo is selected out of 1000). If this process is iterated over many generations, the gains could be an order of\",\n \"-31.858812719758134\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the genetic position, holds that IQ is determined by hereditary factors - about 80 percent of the variability of intelligence while 20 percent is attributed to environmental factors. The gap, therefore, was associated with race. Jensenism was as one of the most notable theories to have emerged from this sector. It was based on Arthur Jensen's 1969 article that talked about the failure of compensatory education. He cited several evidence that demonstrated how IQ is inherited. For instance, he said that if one looks at studies of adopted children, \\\"you find that their intelligence relates more closely to their\",\n \"-31.852378636402136\"\n ],\n [\n \"S. Coleman, however, argues that Preston and Campbell's model depends on assumptions which are unlikely to be true.\\nThe general increase in IQ test scores, the Flynn effect, has been argued to be evidence against dysgenic arguments. Geneticist Steve Connor wrote that Lynn, writing in Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern Populations, \\\"misunderstood modern ideas of genetics.\\\" \\\"A flaw in his argument of genetic deterioration in intelligence was the widely accepted fact that intelligence as measured by IQ tests has actually increased over the past 50 years.\\\" If the genes causing IQ have been adversely affected, IQ scores should reasonably be expected\",\n \"-31.842827269254485\"\n ],\n [\n \"controversial. Race and intelligence in United States of America The 1996 Task Force investigation on Intelligence sponsored by the American Psychological Association concluded that there are significant variations in IQ across races. The problem of determining the causes underlying this variation relates to the question of the contributions of \\\"nature and nurture\\\" to IQ. Psychologists such as Alan S. Kaufman and Nathan Brody and statisticians such as Bernie Devlin argue that there are insufficient data to conclude that this is because of genetic influences. A review article published in 2012 by leading scholars on human intelligence concluded, after reviewing the\",\n \"-31.839095378767524\"\n ],\n [\n \"correlation with other variables such as educational and nutritional levels. Since brain development requires a very high proportion of all the body's energy in newborns and children, the researchers argue that fighting infection reduces children's IQ potential. The Eppig research may help to explain the Flynn effect, the rise in intelligence noted in rich countries. They also tested other hypotheses as well, including genetic explanations, concluding that infectious disease was \\\"the best predictor\\\". Christopher Hassall and Thomas Sherratt repeated the analysis, and concluded \\\"that infectious disease may be the only really important predictor of average national IQ\\\".\\nIn order to mitigate\",\n \"-31.800810634296795\"\n ],\n [\n \"develop intelligence and to help people reach vocational and avocational goals that are appropriate to their particular spectrum of intelligence. People who are helped to do so, [he] believe[s], feel more engaged and competent and therefore more inclined to serve the society in a constructive way.\\\"\\nGardner contends that IQ tests focus mostly on logical and linguistic intelligence. Upon doing well on these tests, the chances of attending a prestigious college or university increase, which in turn creates contributing members of society. While many students function well in this environment, there are those who do not. Gardner's theory argues that students\",\n \"-31.78317554583191\"\n ],\n [\n \"very large differences in the very high IQ ranges. A decline in average psychometric intelligence of only a few points will mean a much smaller population of gifted individuals.\\nMore rigorous studies carried out on Americans alive after the Second World War returned different results suggesting a slight positive correlation with respect to intelligence. The findings from these investigations were consistent enough for Osborn and Bajema, writing as late as 1972, to conclude that fertility patterns were eugenic, and that \\\"the reproductive trend toward an increase in the frequency of genes associated with higher IQ... will probably continue in the foreseeable\",\n \"-31.739919754105358\"\n ],\n [\n \"It is important to know that (C), (IC), and (EC) can facilitate but can also hinder the learning and training of becoming talented. The learning/practice is the moderator. It is through the interactions, both environmental and intrapersonal that influence the process of learning and practice along with/without chance that natural abilities are transformed into talents. Multiple intelligences theory Multiple intelligences has been associated with giftedness or overachievement of some developmental areas (Colangelo, 2003). Multiple intelligences has been described as an attitude towards learning, instead of techniques or strategies (Cason, 2001).\\nHoward Gardner proposed in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1983/1994) that intellectual\",\n \"-31.70272513330565\"\n ],\n [\n \"Analogously, collective intelligence research aims to explore reasons why certain groups perform more intelligent than other groups given that c is just moderately correlated with the intelligence of individual group members. According to Woolley et al.'s results, neither team cohesion nor motivation or satisfaction is correlated with c. However, they claim that three factors were found as significant correlates: the variance in the number of speaking turns, group members' average social sensitivity and the proportion of females. All three had similar predictive power for c, but only social sensitivity was statistically significant (b=0.33, P=0.05).\\nThe number speaking turns indicates that \\\"groups\",\n \"-31.638971927881357\"\n ],\n [\n \"and crystallized intelligence, as well as his 16 Personality Factors theory of personality. Cattell was a strong advocate of factor analysis and psychometrics. He believed that all theory should be derived from research, which supports the continued use of empirical observation and objective testing to study human intelligence. Applications in psychology Factor analysis is used to identify \\\"factors\\\" that explain a variety of results on different tests. For example, intelligence research found that people who get a high score on a test of verbal ability are also good on other tests that require verbal abilities. Researchers explained this by using\",\n \"-31.632174984173616\"\n ],\n [\n \"and apply knowledge to work. Cognitive ability is a consistent and nearly universal predictor of future job performance. But cognitive ability information is not enough – some technical geniuses, for example, can’t work with managers, peers, or end users. Some gifted employees cannot deliver projects on time. Personality helps explain why some employees don’t perform well, even when they possess technical skills.\\nPersonality is the unique set of characteristics that is reflected in patterns of individual behavior. Personality and its effects on work success have been studied for more than 85 years. Because personality is relatively consistent over\",\n \"-31.61254215336521\"\n ],\n [\n \"the first studies into the subject were carried out on individuals living before the advent of IQ testing, in the late 19th century, by looking at the fertility of men listed in Who's Who, these individuals being presumably of high intelligence. These men, taken as a whole, had few children, implying a correlation.\\nNobel Prize–winning physicist William Shockley controversially argued from the mid-1960s through the 1980s that \\\"the future of the population was threatened because people with low IQs had more children than those with high IQs.\\\"\\nIn 1963, Weyl and Possony asserted that comparatively small differences in average intelligence can become\",\n \"-31.610078660181898\"\n ],\n [\n \"concluded that there must be one central factor that influences our cognitive abilities. Spearman termed this general intelligence g. Structure of intelligence debate Due to the controversy of the structure of intelligence, other psychologists also published their relevant research. Other than Charles Spearman, three others developed a hypothesis regarding the structure of intelligence. L. L. Thurstone tested subjects on 56 different abilities; from his data he established seven primary mental abilities relating to intelligence. He categorized them as: spatial ability, numerical ability, word fluency, memory, perceptual speed, verbal comprehension, and inductive reasoning. Other researchers, interested in this new research study,\",\n \"-31.608053249772638\"\n ],\n [\n \"the heritability of intelligence. For example, to establish the validity of the proposition that IQ is supported by a general intelligence factor (g factor), the answers to several tests of cognitive ability must positively correlate; thus, for the g factor to be a heritable trait, the IQ-test scores of close-relation respondents must correlate more than the IQ-test scores of distant-relation respondents. However, correlation does not imply causation; for example, Gould said that the measures of the changes, over time, in \\\"my age, the population of México, the price of Swiss cheese, my pet turtle’s weight, and the average distance between\",\n \"-31.59888084170234\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the understanding that their identity would remain unknown in the published report. This was due, claim the authors, to fears of suffering the same kind of castigation experienced by Jensen for publicly expressing views on the correlation between race and intelligence which are privately held in the wider academic community.\\nSnyderman and Rothman stated that media reports often either erroneously reported that most experts believe that the genetic contribution to IQ is absolute (~100% heritability) or that most experts believe that genetics plays no role at all (~0% heritability). As they wrote:\\nWith the possible exception of Leon Kamin,\",\n \"-31.571185252476425\"\n ],\n [\n \"research even though it was without scientific value and probably directly faked: They wanted to believe that IQ is hereditary and considered uncritically empirical claims supporting this view. This paper thus demonstrates how critical reading (and the opposite) may be related to beliefs as well as to interests and power structures.\",\n \"-31.54524178817519\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":277,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2a6qme"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Do Astronauts at the ISS get \"private\" time?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["They have private bathrooms and while the station isn't big there are not constantly people around every square inch of it. However I don't think they get special jerk-off time they can probably find private time in the bathroom or in their bunk. Of course it is space so you have to take extra precautions for anything that might go flying off and float around.","I sailed across the Pacific with my old man once. Just the two of us. Not a sexy time. But trust me, you find a way. It gets unbearable after a while.","I don't think I would stay sane after 6 months. I have the romantic/sexual life of a particularly impotent snail, and *I* would have a need to bed the first human being I make eye-contact with after landing. On to the question, I assume they would have a way of 'relieving' themselves every so often. It just might not be talked about much in public outreach, due to America's fear of penises.","I don't think this is an appropriate conversation for 5 year olds. But on a more serious note, IIRC there was post a while back about whether anyone has had sex in space and it seemed that the general consensus was that there was at least one married couple on the ISS at the same time that probably did.","Apparently your penis is smaller in space when erect because of the blood flow or something.","\"In space, no one can hear you scream.\"","Now I'm thinking about this. Do they bring their porno magazine stash or a HDD full of porn? I've been in the military on deployments, the imagination can only take you so far.","The book \"Packing for Mars\" explained that the astronauts have various moments of free time and an understanding to spend some of that time \"alone\", but dedicated time is not to be specifically allotted because if they have to schedule it then it goes in the official flight log which is available in public records and they didn't want to list \"jerk off time\" In addition, if it goes in the flight log then they have to do tests to account for it which means timing the astronauts during their \"sessions \" on earth.","This was asked in an astronaut's AMA a while back. I believe the answer he gave was (and I'm summarizing here) that the space station is big and the inhabitants can find an out of the way place for 'private' time.","The two pump chump skill requires intense mental focus. I'd hope there would be a formal whack hour or signal as to allow for a distraction-less self-rape."],"string":"[\n \"They have private bathrooms and while the station isn't big there are not constantly people around every square inch of it. However I don't think they get special jerk-off time they can probably find private time in the bathroom or in their bunk. Of course it is space so you have to take extra precautions for anything that might go flying off and float around.\",\n \"I sailed across the Pacific with my old man once. Just the two of us. Not a sexy time. But trust me, you find a way. It gets unbearable after a while.\",\n \"I don't think I would stay sane after 6 months. I have the romantic/sexual life of a particularly impotent snail, and *I* would have a need to bed the first human being I make eye-contact with after landing. On to the question, I assume they would have a way of 'relieving' themselves every so often. It just might not be talked about much in public outreach, due to America's fear of penises.\",\n \"I don't think this is an appropriate conversation for 5 year olds. But on a more serious note, IIRC there was post a while back about whether anyone has had sex in space and it seemed that the general consensus was that there was at least one married couple on the ISS at the same time that probably did.\",\n \"Apparently your penis is smaller in space when erect because of the blood flow or something.\",\n \"\\\"In space, no one can hear you scream.\\\"\",\n \"Now I'm thinking about this. Do they bring their porno magazine stash or a HDD full of porn? I've been in the military on deployments, the imagination can only take you so far.\",\n \"The book \\\"Packing for Mars\\\" explained that the astronauts have various moments of free time and an understanding to spend some of that time \\\"alone\\\", but dedicated time is not to be specifically allotted because if they have to schedule it then it goes in the official flight log which is available in public records and they didn't want to list \\\"jerk off time\\\" In addition, if it goes in the flight log then they have to do tests to account for it which means timing the astronauts during their \\\"sessions \\\" on earth.\",\n \"This was asked in an astronaut's AMA a while back. I believe the answer he gave was (and I'm summarizing here) that the space station is big and the inhabitants can find an out of the way place for 'private' time.\",\n \"The two pump chump skill requires intense mental focus. I'd hope there would be a formal whack hour or signal as to allow for a distraction-less self-rape.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["During a 6½ month stay aboard the Space Station, the crew of three (two American astronauts and one Russian cosmonaut) performed flight tests of the station hardware, conducted internal and external maintenance tasks, and developed the capability of the station to support the addition of science experiments. The crew spent 196 days in space establishing a U.S. space flight endurance record for Carl Walz and crewmate Dan Bursch. Wearing the Russian Orlan space suit, Walz logged 11 hours and 52 minutes of EVA time in two separate spacewalks. The Expedition 4 crew returned to Earth aboard STS-111, with Endeavour landing","-31.049258900409768"],["conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.\nThe time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly follows the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of","-30.854754679672624"],["7, 2001. During a 6½ month stay aboard the Space Station, the Expedition 4 crew of three (two American astronauts and one Russian cosmonaut) performed flight tests of the station hardware, conducted internal and external maintenance tasks, and developed the capability of the station to support the addition of science experiments. The crew spent 196 days in space establishing a U.S. space flight endurance record for Dan Bursch and crew mate Carl Walz. Wearing the Russian Orlan spacesuit, Bursch logged 11 hours and 48 minutes of EVA time in two separate spacewalks. The Expedition-Four crew returned to Earth aboard STS-111,","-30.718672470398815"],["human body. This doubled the length of time that anyone had been in space and stood as the longest spaceflight duration record for five years.\nThis 14-day mission required NASA to solve some of the problems of long-duration space flight, such as stowage of waste (the crew had practiced stuffing waste paper behind their seats before the flight). Timing their workday to match that of the prime shift ground crews, both men worked and slept at the same time. Gemini 7 conducted twenty experiments, the most of any Gemini mission, including studies of nutrition in space. The astronauts also evaluated a","-30.51453831746585"],["a half-day off from their busy schedule operating the many microgravity experiments on the mission. Due to the long duration of the mission, each crew member received two half-days off during the 14-day mission.\nThe other astronauts spent the first half of the day working with the Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment, or MODE, and a model of a truss structure which was under consideration for use on a future space station. The truss model, set up to float free in the middeck, was analyzed to determine its behavior in weightlessness.\nAround the clock, experiments with the U.S. Microgravity Payload-2, the Office of","-30.491803969552166"],["logged a total of 119 hours and 41 minutes in space.\nHe used to tell people that for the first couple of years at NASA, his main job was carrying John Young's helmet bag. This he said as a joke, but it was also \"sorta true\" because he was assigned to accompany the veteran astronaut on many T-38 flights. Spaceflight experience McCulley was the Pilot on mission STS-34. The crew aboard Shuttle Orbiter Atlantis launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on October 18, 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on October 23, 1989. During the mission crew members","-30.39753992587066"],["a quiet, motion- free environment to produce the best possible data.\nOn Thursday, 28 October 1993, after enjoying a half a day off, the astronauts aboard Columbia continued to collect scientific data on how humans and animals adapt to the absence of Earth's gravity.\nPayload Commander Rhea Seddon sent down a special message to her husband, Astronaut Office Chief Robert L. Gibson when she surpassed his total of 632 hours, 56 minutes in space. \"He's still a really good guy, I still love him a lot, but I've got more hours in space than he does, so there!\" she teased. Seddon","-30.023977337348697"],["Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment. It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads. During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and color temperatures adjusted. Food On","-30.018480465458197"],["Detachment 3, Air Force Flight Test Center. NASA experience Selected by NASA in January 1990, Walz is a veteran of four space flights, and has logged 231 days in space. He was a mission specialist on STS-51 (1993), was the Orbiter flight engineer (MS-2) on STS-65 (1994), was a mission specialist on STS-79 (1996), and served as flight engineer on ISS Expedition 4 (2001–2002). Carl Walz and fellow astronaut Dan Bursch currently hold the U.S. space flight endurance record of 196 days in space. Space flight experience STS-51 Discovery (September 12–22, 1993). During the mission, the five-member crew deployed the","-29.954702227951202"],["the crew members reported that their life in space was not as difficult as they expected prior to launch, despite a 20% increase in interpersonal problems during the second half of the missions. It was recommended that future crew members be allowed to control their individual schedules as much as possible. On-orbit and post-spaceflight psychiatric issues A number of psychiatric problems have been reported during on-orbit space missions. Most common are adjustment reactions to the novelty of being in space, with symptoms generally including transient anxiety or depression. Psychosomatic reactions also have occurred, where anxiety and other emotional states","-29.938396418698176"],["video. In the meantime, the rest of the shuttle crew completed more equipment transfers from Endeavour and the Johannes Kepler ATV to the ISS.\nWorking from the mid-deck of Endeavour, Andrew Feustel, who participated in the first three spacewalks of the mission, was the EVA 4 choreographer. Astronaut Steven Swanson was the spacewalk CAPCOM from the station flight control room in Houston. During Flight Day 12, Mike Fincke achieved a milestone, becoming the U.S. astronaut with the most time in space, more than 377 days. He surpassed the time in space of astronaut Peggy Whitson. 28 May (Flight Day 13) Flight","-29.937086701669614"],["with NASA are called astronauts. He has said that if the distinction has to be made, he would rather be called \"private astronaut\" than \"tourist\". Dennis Tito has asked to be known as an \"independent researcher\", and Mark Shuttleworth described himself as a \"pioneer of commercial space travel\". Gregory Olsen prefers \"private researcher\", and Anousheh Ansari prefers the term \"private space explorer\". Other space enthusiasts object to the term on similar grounds. Rick Tumlinson of the Space Frontier Foundation, for example, has said: \"I hate the word tourist, and I always will ... 'Tourist' is somebody in a flowered shirt","-29.92809222069991"],["as EV-1, EV-2, EV-3 and EV-4 (assigned to mission specialists for each mission, if applicable). Camp-out procedure For EVAs from the International Space Station, NASA employed a camp-out procedure to reduce the risk of decompression sickness. This was first tested by the Expedition 12 crew. During a camp out, astronauts sleep overnight in the airlock prior to an EVA, lowering the air pressure to 10.2 psi (70 kPa), compared to the normal station pressure of 14.7 psi (101 kPa). Spending a night at the lower air pressure helps flush nitrogen from the body, thereby preventing \"the bends\". More recently astronauts have been using the","-29.794036366780347"],["in space than they do on the ground. NASA is researching two areas which may provide the keys to a better night's sleep, as improved sleep decreases fatigue and increases daytime productivity. A variety of methods for combating this phenomenon are constantly under discussion. Duration of space travel A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks represent a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. While Skylab's three crews remained in space 1, 2, and 3 months respectively, long-term crews on Salyut 6,","-29.75772032662917"],["has logged over 646 hours in space. He was the last member of his astronaut class - the 1978 NASA Group 8 - to fly into space.\nPrior to the first flight of the Space Shuttle, he provided astronaut support in Orbiter engineering development and testing. He was a T-38 chase pilot for the second and third Shuttle flights and support crewman for the first operational Shuttle flight, STS-5. Covey also served as Mission Control spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) for Shuttle Missions STS-5, 6, 61-B, 61-C, and 51-L (it was his voice that said the now infamous words, \"Challenger, go at throttle","-29.70604065898806"],["of diversity and tolerance. This does not mean that it is perfectly harmonious. Astronauts experience the same frustrations and interpersonal quarrels as their Earth-based counterparts.\nA typical day on the station might start with wakeup at 6:00 am inside a private soundproof booth in the crew quarters. Astronauts would probably find their sleeping bags in an upright position tied to the wall, because orientation does not matter in space. The astronaut's thighs would be lifted about 50 degrees off the vertical. This is the neutral body posture in weightlessness – it would be excessively tiring to","-29.380607504539512"],["time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days. Terminology In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Dr. Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred \"cosmonaut\", on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos (near space), while the \"astro\" prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA","-29.37345498203831"],["ISS year-long mission History In November 2012, NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), and their international partners selected two veteran spacefarers for a one-year mission aboard the International Space Station in 2015. The mission included collecting scientific data important to future human exploration of the Solar System. Kelly and Korniyenko already had a connection; Kelly was a backup crew member for the station's Expedition 23/24 crews, where Korniyenko served as a flight engineer.\nThe goal aboard the orbiting laboratory was to understand better how the human body reacts and adapts to the harsh environment of space. Data from the mission","-29.343622863398195"],["to go on the International Space Station, with the use of SpaceX's Crew Dragon spacecraft and Boeing's Starliner spacecraft for public astronauts, which is planned to be priced at 35,000 USD per day for one astronaut. Terminology Many private space travelers have objected to the term \"space tourist\", often pointing out that their role went beyond that of an observer, since they also carried out scientific experiments in the course of their journey. Richard Garriott additionally emphasized that his training was identical to the requirements of non-Russian Soyuz crew members, and that teachers and other non-professional astronauts chosen to fly","-29.253694560316944"],["conducted a fly-by of the ISS, so pictures could be taken. Saying goodbye to the ISS and its crew, commander Kelly said \"We wish them the best with their expedition and we hope we left them a better, more capable space station than when we arrived. Sayonara.\"\nAfterwards the crew of Discovery conducted the late inspection of the shuttle's Thermal Protection System that was unable to be performed as usual on Flight Day 2, due to the size of the Kibo Pressurized Module. 12 June (Flight day 13) Flight day 13 was a rare off-duty day. The only major projects were","-29.229344892788504"],["and has logged over 259 hours in space, including over 14 EVA hours. Space flight experience STS-110 Atlantis (April 8–19, 2002) was the 13th Space Shuttle mission to visit the International Space Station. Mission milestones included: the delivery and installation of the SO (S-Zero) Truss; the first time the station's robotic arm was used to maneuver spacewalkers around the station; and the first time that all of a shuttle crew's spacewalks were based from the station's Quest Airlock. Morin performed 2 EVAs totaling 14 hours and 9 minutes. The crew prepared the station for future spacewalks and spent a week","-29.20971977848967"],["of the practical aspects of remaining in space longer will be the requirement to maintain crew member health and performance. During STS-50, crew members conducted biological tests as part of the EDO Medical Project. Crew members monitored their blood pressure and heart rate and took samples of the cabin atmosphere during the flight. They also evaluated the Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP) device as a countermeasure to the normal reduction of body fluids that takes place in space. If the beneficial effects of the LBNP could last for 24 hours, it would improve crew member performance on reentry and landing.","-29.144522479891748"],["crew then worked to undertake some further detailed inspection of the orbiter and unloaded the P5 truss segment from the payload bay, handing it off successfully from the shuttle robotic arm to the station arm. The astronauts scheduled for Day 4's EVA, Robert Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang, ended their day by entering the airlock for a \"campout\" sleep session to prepare for the EVA by purging their bodies of nitrogen in a lower-pressure environment. Such a practice is common in order for the astronauts to avoid getting decompression sickness. 12 December (Flight day 4 – EVA #1) Flight day 4","-28.9818577310848"],["the Space Shuttle mission.\nThe station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two 'sleep stations' in the Zvezda and four more installed in Harmony. The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing. A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop.","-28.963170967532278"],["astronaut is most able to understand the situation in the spacecraft and pass information in the clearest way.\nFor long-duration missions there is more than one CAPCOM, each assigned to a different shift team. After control of U.S. spaceflights moved to the Johnson Space Center in the early 1960s, each CAPCOM used the radio call-sign Houston. When non-astronauts are communicating directly with the spacecraft, CAPCOM acts as the communications controller.\nAs of 2011, due to the shrinking size of the astronaut corps at the end of the Shuttle program, fewer astronauts are available to perform CAPCOM duties, so non-astronauts from the space","-28.912426062372106"],["(ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US crewed spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz. The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late","-28.88067188003879"],["four space flights, Dr. Newman has logged over 43 days in space, including six spacewalks totaling 43 hours and 13 minutes. If Dr Newman could do it all over again, he really wishes he could fly on an ISS Expedition like fellow astronaut classmate Dan Bursch.\nEffective December 1, 2002, Newman served as NASA’s Director, Human Space Flight Programs, Russia. As NASA’s lead representative to the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (Rosaviakosmos) and its contractors, his role is to continue oversight of all human space flight operations, logistics, and technical functions, including NASA’s mission operations in Korolev and crew training at","-28.87801474274238"],["completed 26 hours and 12 minutes of spacewalking time, bringing his total EVA time to 48 hours and 37 minutes. This places him 11th all time on the list of spacewalkers. Boeing Crew Flight Test On January 22nd, NASA announced that Fincke would fly on Boeing CST-100 Starliner’s Crew Flight Test currently scheduled for late 2019. The Starliner’s Crew Flight Test will be the first time that the new spacecraft, which is being developed and built by Boeing as part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program, is launched into space with humans on board. Fincke took the place of astronaut Eric","-28.816729175394357"],["CSA astronaut Jeremy Hansen. Prior to the NEEMO 19 mission Stevenin was quoted as saying that \"It is a privilege to be part of the crew with three astronauts. I am looking forward to take part in this outstanding project to test future concepts for space operations as well as evaluating spacewalk tools, techniques and man–machine interfaces for future space exploration beyond the International Space Station.\" Personal life Stevenin is a certified PADI \"Open Water Scuba diving & Nitrox Instructor\" and an Emergency First Response (CPR/First Aid/AED) Instructor and has logged more than 400 dives.\nHe has a private pilot licence","-28.814885205405517"],["EVA from the shuttle, the cabin pressure was reduced from 14.7 to 10.2 psi (101 to 70 kPa) for 24 hours, after which an astronaut had to pre-breathe for 45 minutes. For EVAs on board the ISS, the astronaut must pre-breathe for about four hours. Manufacturer The EMU hardware and accessories (PLSS, helmet, communications cap, and locking rings for the helmet and gloves), is manufactured by Hamilton Standard (now the Hamilton Sundstrand division of Collins Aerospace) out of Windsor Locks, Connecticut, while the suit's soft components (the arms of the HUT and the entire LTU) are produced by ILC Dover (a former","-28.789447837989428"],["flights for all of the world's first private space explorers. The first three participants paid in excess of $20 million (USD) each for their 10-day visit to the ISS.\nRussia halted orbital space tourism in 2010 due to the increase in the International Space Station crew size, using the seats for expedition crews that would previously have been sold to paying spaceflight participants. Orbital tourist flights were set to resume in 2015 but the one planned was postponed indefinitely and none have occurred since 2009.\nOn June 7, 2019, NASA announced that starting in 2020, the organization aims to start allowing private astronauts","-28.77007481024998"],["mission is underway, the rooms are staffed around the clock, usually in three shifts.\nJSC handles most of the planning and training of the US astronaut corps and houses training facilities such as the Sonny Carter Training Facility and the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, a critical component in training astronauts for spacewalks. The Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory provides a controlled neutral buoyancy environment—a very large pool containing about 6.2 million US gallons (23,000 m³) of water where astronauts train to practice extra-vehicular activity tasks while simulating zero-g conditions. The facility provides preflight training in becoming familiar with crew activities and with the dynamics","-28.75613343418445"],["Altman has logged over 40 days in space. Altman retired from NASA in September 2010 to join ASRC Federal Research and Technology Solutions in Greenbelt, Maryland. Spaceflights STS-90 Neurolab (April 17 to May 3, 1998). During the 16-day Spacelab flight the seven person crew aboard Space Shuttle Columbia served as both experiment subjects and operators for 26 individual life science experiments focusing on the effects of microgravity on the brain and nervous system.\nSTS-106 Atlantis (September 8–20, 2000). During the 12-day mission, the crew successfully prepared the International Space Station for the arrival of the first permanent crew. Additionally, he handflew","-28.7267241783793"],["by Jeff Williams. In early April 2017, her mission was extended by an additional 3 months at the International Space Station. On September 3, she returned in a previously vacant seat on the Soyuz capsule accompanied by NASA's Jack Fischer and Fyodor Yurchikhin of Roscosmos.\nIn January 2017, Whitson performed her seventh EVA. along with Expedition 50 commander Shane Kimbrough. During the EVA, they installed three new adapter plates and hooked up electrical connectors preparing the way to replace the ISS batteries. The EVA lasted 6 hours and 32 minutes. Whitson now holds the record for the oldest female spacewalker, and","-28.65499531832029"],["only by military flight crews and astronauts for protection during high-altitude and space operations. It is also used by flight test crews involved with certifying aircraft, and may also be used for high-altitude parachute jumps.\nAstronauts aboard the International Space Station preparing for extra-vehicular activity (EVA) \"camp out\" at low atmospheric pressure, 10.2 psi (0.70 bar), spending eight sleeping hours in the Quest airlock chamber before their spacewalk. During the EVA they breathe 100% oxygen in their spacesuits, which operate at 4.3 psi (0.30 bar), although research has examined the possibility of using 100% O₂ at 9.5 psi (0.66 bar) in the suits to lessen the pressure","-28.63650141693688"],["The suits for the ISS were modified to provide greater mobility, to afford better tactile capabilities of the glove, and to provide an increased operational life. As of Feb. 2011, a total of 104 EVAs on the ISS had occurred, for greater than 650 total hours in space. Mark III The Mark III (MKIII) is an experimental suit that was designed by ILC for use on the space station. The suit is a combination of hard and soft elements, designed for pressurization to 8.3 psi. Shuttle suits are pressurized to 4.3 psi, and astronauts are required to","-28.628298144070868"],["transport agency of the Department of Defense\". Space available travel is defined as \"travel aboard DoD owned or controlled aircraft and occurs when aircraft are not fully booked with passengers traveling under orders\".\nIt is a privilege offered to United States Uniformed Services members. Retired members are given the privilege in recognition of their career and because they are eligible for recall to active duty. The criteria for extending the privilege to other categories of passengers is their support to the mission being performed by Uniformed Services members and to the enhancement of active duty Service members' quality of life. Guidelines","-28.60725845948582"],["opposed space tourism on principle; from the beginning of the ISS expeditions, NASA stated it was not interested in accommodating paying guests. The Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science of the House of Representatives held in June 2001 revealed the shifting attitude of NASA towards paying space tourists wanting to travel to the ISS in its statement on the hearing's purpose: \n\"Review the issues and opportunities for flying nonprofessional astronauts in space, the appropriate government role for supporting the nascent space tourism industry, use of the Shuttle and Space Station for Tourism, safety and training criteria for space","-28.596706139142043"],["Facility at the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. The NBL is a large indoor pool of water, the largest in the world, in which astronauts may perform simulated EVA tasks in preparation for space missions. The NBL contains full-sized mock-ups of the Space Shuttle cargo bay, flight payloads, and the International Space Station (ISS).\nThe principle of neutral buoyancy is used to simulate the weightless environment of space. The suited astronauts are lowered into the pool using an overhead crane and their weight is adjusted by support divers so that they experience no buoyant force and no rotational moment","-28.522495146382425"],["up to two years and resized on-orbit to fit various crew members. The ISS EMUs also have increased battery capacity, the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER), improved cameras and radios, and a new caution and warning system. Another feature incorporated into the ISS suits is an additional battery to power heaters built into the glove, allowing astronauts to keep their hands warm during nighttime passages on each 95-minute orbit.\nCurrently, the ISS EMUs and the Russian Orlan suits are used by crews of all nationalities on the International Space Station. The two EMUs are stored within the Quest Joint Airlock.","-28.46066516729843"],["Gemini 7 having stayed in space for 14 days, and Soyuz 11 for a month). The twelfth day in space for the crew was one of the quietest. As on all Apollo lunar flights, on the return trip there was little left to do, with the main objectives already accomplished.\nThe crew undertook another light flash experiment, this time keeping the cabin lights on to see if this affected the visibility. They found that they were less visible.\nMission Control ran over the stowage of items in the cabin. It was extremely important that stowed items were placed such that the spacecraft's","-28.452038027196977"],["affected navigational systems. Astronauts enjoyed soft drinks, cookies and other snacks during their intense hours-long training session, leading planetarium employees to create the code name \"cookie time\" to refer to the training sessions. Occasionally, word of the sessions leaked out and noted clothing designer and Chapel Hill native Alexander Julian recalls meeting Mercury Astronauts during a visit to the planetarium while in junior high.\nThe first astronaut to train at Morehead, in March 1964, was Neil Armstrong. Armstrong visited again only months before the 1969 launch of Apollo 11, spending a total of 20 days at Morehead over","-28.429007767364965"],["the International Space Station crew be a space veteran (not be on a first flight).\nThe 84-day stay of the Skylab 4 mission was a human spaceflight record that was not exceeded for over two decades by a NASA astronaut. The 96-day Soviet Salyut 6 EO-1 mission broke Skylab 4's record in 1978. Controversies Sources including David Hitt's Homesteading Space and Atlas Obscura dispute that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control.","-28.382474574747903"],["400 Days (film) Plot Four astronauts—Captain Theo Cooper (Routh), Dr. Emily McTier (Lotz), Bug Kieslowski (Feldman), and Cole Dvorak (Cook)—begin a 400-day-long simulation on Earth intended to study the long-term effects of space travel.\nAs their time underground grinds on, the crew begins to deal with extreme psychological effects like paranoia and hallucination. The team settles deeper into their separate spaces, until a disheveled man finds his way into their simulated space ship. After his escape, the crew decides to exit and explore the surface world, which they discover is now dark, windy, desolate, forbidding, and covered with dust.\nAfter a long","-28.34987859785906"],["wrapping up a 167-day stay aboard the Space Station.\nOn Expedition 47, Williams surpassed Scott Kelly (astronaut)'s record of 520 cumulative days in space which was set when he returned from space on March 1, 2016; Williams beat this record with 534 cumulative days.\nWilliams also flew aboard the Soyuz TMA-8 mission, replacing Expedition 12 astronaut William S. McArthur. He was previously in orbit as the Expedition 13 Flight Engineer and Science Officer aboard the International Space Station. He returned to Earth on September 28, 2006.\nOn August 24, 2006, a taped message made by him to be played at an official","-28.30990758547705"],["space outpost in history and marked the start of onboard scientific research at the ISS. A veteran of four space flights, Jones has logged over 52 days (1,272 hours) in space, including 3 space walks totaling over 19 hours.\nSince leaving NASA in 2001, Jones has worked as a planetary scientist and consultant in space operations. He is a senior research scientist at the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, engaged in planning robotic and astronaut expeditions to deep space and the near-Earth asteroids. He is also an author and speaker, with four adult, non-fiction works to his credit.","-28.29696161664515"],["of missions, the training to prepare astronauts will likely include training as doctors, scientists, engineers, technicians, pilots, and geologists. In addition there will be a focus on the psychological aspects of long-duration missions where crew is largely isolated.\nCurrently a six-month mission to the ISS requires up to five years of astronaut training. This level of training is to be expected and likely to be expanded upon for future space exploration missions. It may also include in-flight training aspects. It may be possible that the ISS will be used as a long-duration astronaut training facility in the future.\nA powerful tool for","-28.258742747217184"],["working through their post-sleep activities, Altman, Johnson and McArthur performed a check-out of the flight control surfaces, performed a reaction control system hot-fire, and went through communications checks with managers on the ground. The rest of the crew worked to stow away items that were used during the mission. The crew held a deorbit preparations briefing with the ground teams, and Altman and Johnson worked with the simulator on board to run through a series of landing simulations.\nIn the afternoon, the crew became the first shuttle crew to ever testify live from orbit in a United States Senate hearing. Barbara","-28.192066670715576"],["with the piece of space debris.\nTransferring expedition crews\nBy 14 March, the expedition crews had completed the change over, but until the shuttle undocked, Shepherd officially remained commander of the station. The morning of the 14th the astronauts' wake-up call was the song \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\" by The Clash, at the request of Shepherd's wife. Shepherd, a former Navy SEAL, said during the change over ceremony: \"May the good will, spirit and sense of mission we had enjoyed on board endure. Sail her well.\" The commander of Discovery, Jim Wetherbee, said \"For Captain Shepherd and his crew,","-28.183504453212663"],["with three cameras around his neck.\" Russian cosmonaut Maksim Surayev told the press in 2009 not to describe Guy Laliberté as a tourist: \"It's become fashionable to speak of space tourists. He is not a tourist but a participant in the mission.\"\n\"Spaceflight participant\" is the official term used by NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency to distinguish between private space travelers and career astronauts. Tito, Shuttleworth, Olsen, Ansari, and Simonyi were designated as such during their respective space flights. NASA also lists Christa McAuliffe as a spaceflight participant (although she did not pay a fee), apparently due to her","-28.181666049698833"],["contains a parachute, life raft, survival gear, and a 30-minute supply of breathing oxygen and a water tank.\nBecause of the helmet design, which rested on the astronaut's shoulders and allowed them to move their head around freely, astronauts were now required to wear a communications cap similar to those worn by Apollo astronauts, and because they were white (later changed to brown), the suit resembled the Vostok pressure suit worn by Yuri Gagarin. The suits were designed to withstand pressures up to 40,000 feet (12 kilometers), and immersion in the ocean for up to 24 hours at 5 °C (40 °F).\nBecause of","-28.160296364090755"],["July 2005, NASA announced that STS-114 would be extended for one day, so that Discovery's crew could help the ISS crew maintain the station while the shuttle fleet was grounded. The extra day was also used to move more items from the shuttle to the ISS, as uncertainty mounted during the mission as to when a shuttle would next visit the station. The orbiter's arrival also gave the nearly 200-ton space station a free altitude boost of about 4,000 feet (1,220 m). The station loses about 100 feet (30 m) of altitude a day.\nThe shuttle hatch was closed the night","-28.15383225763435"],["a huge honor to break a record like this, but it is an honor for me back to be representing all the folks at NASA'.\nOn May 12, 2017, Whitson performed her ninth career EVA with Jack Fischer. After a short delay due to leaking equipment, they replaced an avionics box on the starboard truss called an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC), a storage platform. The duration was 4 hours and 13 minutes, and it was the 200th EVA to be performed on the ISS.\nOn May 23, 2017, Whitson performed her tenth career EVA with Fischer. They replaced a backup multiplexer-demultiplexer (MDM)","-28.149495101450157"],["details the health of each astronaut both for Mission Control and for the astronauts), ORBIT (the piloting software), and Engineering, which is used to control the habitat's engineering systems. During the Mission each of these programs is run on a dedicated computer, but BIOCOM shares a computer with mission records and logs. Every room is outfitted with CAPCOM (CAPsule COMmunicator), telephone lines that allows the astronauts to communicate with Mission Control. Contents of the rooms The Control Room contains a television with a camera feed to Mission Control, so as to enable two-way visual communication in the event of a","-28.146806597207615"],["a deal with the astronauts that they would not hide information from her, and she would not betray their confidence, unless, she thought it may jeopardize them or the mission. She was the only nurse assigned to the Astronauts. O'Hara became close to the astronauts and their families. Before every launch she performed the pre-flight physicals including height, weight, temperatures, blood pressure measurements. The astronauts would not agree to let anyone else but O'Hara draw blood before launch.\nO'Hara also helped set up the portable hospital at the Grand Bahama Island to support post flight examination and, if needed, treat injured","-28.13846050473512"],["Precourt was chief of the Astronaut Corps, responsible for the mission preparation activities of all space shuttle and future International Space Station crews and their support personnel. From November 2002 until his 2004 retirement from NASA, Precourt served as the deputy manager for the International Space Station, responsible for the day-to-day management of ISS operations, on orbit assembly and the interfaces with NASA contractors and the International Partners.\nA veteran of four space flights, he has logged over 932 hours in space. He served as a mission specialist on STS-55 (April 26 to May 6, 1993), was the pilot on","-28.092801873177677"],["day for the crews of Discovery and the ISS after the previous days' activities. Spacewalkers Bob Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang enjoyed some R&R, while the rest of the crew performed cleanup and preparatory tasks for Flight day 8's planned EVA #3. The traditional joint photo session and joint news conference were held by the crews. During this event Swedish first time astronaut Christer Fuglesang was interviewed by Crown Princess Victoria and also set a 20-second Frisbee world record in space, broadcast live on Swedish TV4.\nIn an attempt to free a stuck solar panel, Thomas Reiter exercised vigorously on a machine","-28.07368495722403"],["day. Before the scheduled bedtime the entire crew conducted another EVA procedures review for the third and final EVA of the mission. 17 February (Flight Day 10: Spacewalk 3) On flight day 10, astronauts Bob Behnken and Nick Patrick completed the third and final spacewalk of the STS-130 mission. Their tasks included hooking up heater and data cables for PMA-3, removing thermal covers and launch locks on Cupola, and installing handrails on Tranquility and a video cable for another base to be installed on the Russian segment of the ISS. Bob Behnken also connected the second ammonia cooling loop and","-28.057314947031045"],["used during STS-132. During the installation of the old ATA in Discovery's payload bay, the spacewalkers had some problems securing a bolt on the ATA to the LMC. The spacewalk took 6 hours and 24 minutes, bringing the total EVA time to 20 hours and 19 minutes. While the EVA was going on, commander Alan Poindexter and mission specialist Naoko Yamazaki continued transferring items from the MPLM to the ISS. Transfer is more than seventy-five percent complete. 14 April (Flight Day 10 – Final transfers/off duty) The crew of STS-131 continued with transfer activities on the morning of flight day","-28.055909478174726"],["(SARJ), the ground team in Mission Control informed Whitson that she had become the female astronaut with the most cumulative EVA time in NASA history, as well as the most EVAs, with her fifth EVA. Three hours and 37 minutes into the spacewalk, Whitson surpassed NASA astronaut Sunita Williams with a total time at that point of 29 hours and 18 minutes. At the completion of Whitson's fifth EVA, the 100th in support of ISS assembly and maintenance, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 32 hours, and 36 minutes, which placed her in 20th place for total EVA time. STS-122 STS-122","-28.050007437246677"],["time that two female mission commanders were in orbit at the same time.\nShe has logged over 924 hours (over 38 days) in space. Spaceflight experience STS-92 Discovery (October 11–24, 2000) was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida and returned to land at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the 13-day flight, the seven member crew attached the Z1 Truss and Pressurized Mating Adapter 3 to the International Space Station using Discovery’s robotic arm and performed four space walks to configure these elements. This expansion of the ISS opened the door for future assembly missions and prepared the","-28.027389218823373"],["one of the quietest places on the ISS, as it was isolated from the rest of the station. Because of this, the crew used it as sleeping quarters, and also as a place to perform personal hygiene activities. Yi So-yeon also used it as laboratory space where she performed nanotechnology experiments. End of mission On 5 September 2008, Jules Verne undocked and manoeuvred to an orbital position 5 km below the ISS. It remained in that orbit until the night of 29 September. At 10:00:27 UTC, Jules Verne started its first de-orbit burn of 6 minutes, followed by a second burn of 15 minutes at","-27.983236139683868"],["spacecraft have been considered by ISS for EVA work, to avoid having to go through the decompression needed to use the lower-pressure space suits. NASA developed a body-shaped single person spacecraft called FlexCraft, with the idea of allowing more and shorter EVA. The spacecraft would be at the same atmospheric pressure as the ISS, thus removing the medical stress and time needed to decompress and compress, and the danger of the bends. A single-person spacecraft could also enhance protection against micrometeoriod impacts and radiation from cosmic rays.\nThe Personal Rescue Enclosure was developed for the Space Shuttle. On the ISS the","-27.982179196906145"],["3) by astronauts Satcher and Bresnik. For identification, Satcher wore an all-white spacesuit while Bresnik wore a spacesuit with broken red stripes. Atlantis Mission Specialist Foreman, the intravehicular crew member for EVA 3 choreographed the activities and coordinated communications between the spacewalkers and Mission Control. Astronauts Melvin and Wilmore operated the station's robotic Canadarm2.\nThe spacewalk started just over an hour later than planned due to Satcher reinserting a valve that became detached in his spacesuit drink bag. The bag is contained in the spacesuit and allows spacewalkers to sip water throughout their activity.\nWorking ahead of schedule most of time,","-27.855674202164664"],["module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Rusty Schweickart during Apollo 9.\nThe cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew's checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo 8 crew used a 2-kilogram (4.4 lb) camera that broadcast in black-and-white only, using a Vidicon tube. The camera had two lenses, a very wide-angle (160°) lens, and a telephoto (9°) lens.\nDuring this first broadcast, the","-27.805422865092623"],["looking out at the window.\nSpaceflight history author David Hitt disputed that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control in a book written along with former astronauts Owen K. Garriott and Joseph P. Kerwin. Effects At the time, only the crew of Skylab 3 had spent six weeks in space. It was unknown what had happened psychologically. NASA carefully worked with crew's requests, reducing their workload for the next six weeks. The incident took NASA into an unknown realm of concern in the selection of astronauts, still a question as humanity considers human missions to Mars or returning to the","-27.76578160162444"],["Space Agency astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti delivered the ISO recordings to the ISS during her space expedition record for longest single space flight by a woman (199 days 16 hours) and for the longest uninterrupted spaceflight of a European astronaut.","-27.74044848655467"],["Astronauts Day Astronauts Day is an American holiday, dedicated to NASA astronauts and their achievements. It is a \"floating\" holiday, observed on the last Friday of January. Overview This date was chosen to commemorate a number of space-related disasters which took place around this time, including the 27 January 1968 deaths of Command Pilot Virgil Grissom, Senior Pilot Edward Higgins White, and Pilot Roger Chaffee aboard Apollo I, and disasters involving the Space Shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986, and the Space Shuttle Columbia on 1 February 2003.\nObservants of this holiday are asked to light a candle in their window,","-27.73682522638228"],["telephone and radio failure. Astronauts are encouraged to become familiar with sign language, an endeavour in which they are aided by an instructive chart on the wall of the Control Room. The Interlock is the largest room of the habitat and it connects to every other room. It serves as a kitchen, containing a refrigerator, a microwave, and a full complement of cupboards and cutlery, and also contains a television and camera feed that monitors activity in the airlock and hotlab. The Longhouse is where the astronauts sleep during the mission. It contains 3 wooden bunk beds, providing 1 bed","-27.729708970629872"],["of two Space Shuttle missions and pilot of two others, Henricks became the first person to log over 1,000 hours as a Space Shuttle pilot/commander. Tom Henricks left government service in November 1997 to pursue a career in business. He held the position of President of McGraw-Hill's Aviation Week, based in New York City until his departure in 2010 to pursue other opportunities. Space flight experience STS-44 Atlantis launched the night of November 24, 1991. The primary mission objective was the deployment of a Defense Support Program (DSP) satellite with an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) rocket booster. The mission","-27.71961074351566"],["from the landing site.\nThe crew should have started their sleep period, but due to the delays now had to finish housekeeping chores. Mainly these centered around turning back on the SIM instruments which had been turned off during the rendezvous and docking and orientating the spacecraft for their proper use. Just before the sleep period, Deke Slayton, who was effectively the astronauts' boss, radioed the crew and told them to take a Seconal sedative. The crew decided against this.\nDoctors on the ground had become worried when they saw that Scott's and Irwin's EKG had developed a bigeminy rhythm. Caused by","-27.71692030512895"],["with them in space. Collins picked David Scott in the number one position. Crew assignments After this basic training, the third group were assigned specializations. Collins received his first choice: pressure suits and extravehicular activities (EVAs, also known as spacewalks). His job was to monitor development and act as a liaison between the Astronaut Office and contractors. He was disturbed by the secretive planning of Ed White's EVA on Gemini 4, because he was not involved despite being the person with the greatest knowledge of the subject.\nIn late June 1965, Collins received his first crew assignment: the backup pilot for","-27.712289327464532"],["To prepare for long-term (months) microgravity research aboard Space Station Freedom, scientists and NASA need practical experience in managing progressively longer times for their experiments. The Space Shuttle usually provides a week to ten days of microgravity. Thanks to the Extended Duration Orbiter kit, the Space Shuttle orbiter Columbia remained in orbit for almost 14 days and future missions with Columbia could last as long as a month. The kit consists of extra hydrogen and oxygen tanks for power production, extra nitrogen tanks for the cabin atmosphere, and an improved regeneration system for removing carbon dioxide from the cabin air.\nOne","-27.664027753595292"],["has served as a Crew Support Astronaut for Expedition 2. STS-108 Tani flew on STS-108 in 2001, and logged over 11 days in space, including over 4 EVA hours in one space walk. STS-108 Endeavour (December 5–17, 2001) was the 12th shuttle flight to visit the International Space Station. During the mission, Tani served as Mission Specialist 2. Endeavour's crew delivered the Expedition 4 crew to the station, and returned the Expedition 3 crew. The crew transferred over three tons of supplies, logistics and science experiments from the Raffaello Multi-Purpose Logistics Module to the station. Tani performed a spacewalk to","-27.659394860106318"],["Soyuz TMA-9 Crew notes Daisuke Enomoto was originally scheduled to be the spaceflight participant, but on 21 August 2006, he was determined to be unfit for the flight due to medical reasons, and replaced by Anousheh Ansari, his back-up crew member. Mission highlights Soyuz TMA-9, known within the International Space Station program as ISS Soyuz 13, was the 32nd manned flight to the ISS. It is of note because for three days, from 18–21 September 2006, it marked the first time since before the Columbia accident that twelve humans have been in space simultaneously; three aboard the International Space Station","-27.657326741171346"],["told them they were hired because the government forced NASA to, \"but we don't have a job for you, not any of you\". He offered to accept their resignations, and promised ground assignments if they did not quit, but warned them to not \"fool\" themselves that they would fly in space. Consequently, the men named themselves the \"XS-11\", or \"Excess Eleven\".\nAssignments for the group were further delayed by the requirement to complete a full year of Air Force Undergraduate Pilot Training to become qualified as jet pilots like the Group 4 scientists before them; however, unlike the previous scientist-astronaut group,","-27.65499537213327"],["EVA procedure review for the fourth and final spacewalk of STS-134. Astronauts Mike Fincke and Greg Chamitoff spent the night in the Quest Airlock with the air pressure reduced to 10.2 Psi, so as to avoid decompression sickness during their spacewalk. The crew and flight controllers on the ground opted not to use the In-suit Light Exercise (ISLE) protocol that was tested during EVA 3 earlier in the mission, opting instead to go with the standard campout protocol, since it was discovered that ISLE used more carbon-dioxide scrubbing capability. They wanted to save this capability, since a CO₂ sensor in","-27.651896875791863"],["Space flight participant Space flight participant (Russian: участник космического полёта, romanized: uchastnik kosmicheskogo polyota) is the term used by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for people who travel into space, but who are not professional astronauts.\nWhile the term gained new prominence with the rise of space tourism, it has also been used for participants in programs like NASA's Teacher in Space and astronauts designated by inter-government agreements like the Angkasawan program and the Korean Astronaut Program.\nOther terms used for space travelers who are not career","-27.62831412230662"],["personal inspection of the equipment bay area. He logged 301 hours and 51 minutes in space, 1 hour and 6 minutes of which were spent in extravehicular activity. He holds the record of most time spent in lunar orbit: six days and four hours (148 hours).\nEvans was later backup Command Module Pilot for the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission.\nEvans retired from the U.S. Navy as Captain on April 30, 1976, with 21 years of service, and remained active as a NASA astronaut involved in the development of NASA's Space Shuttle program. He served as a member of the operations","-27.625845643680805"],["NASA experiments performed on the ISS. Thomas retired from NASA in July 2007 in order to pursue private interests. Space flight experience STS-65 Columbia (July 8, 1994 – July 23, 1994) set a new flight duration record for the Space Shuttle program. The mission flew the second International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2). During the 15-day flight the crew conducted more than 80 experiments focusing on materials and life sciences research in microgravity. The mission was accomplished in 236 orbits of the Earth, traveling 6.1 million miles in 353 hours and 55 minutes.\nSTS-70 Discovery (July 13, 1995 – July 22, 1995). During","-27.623339062753075"],["7 crew with just two members was delivered to the ISS on Soyuz TMA-2. The Space Shuttle was expected to be grounded for up to two years. Ongoing logistical support for the ISS would have to be carried out by Soyuz and Progress flights until the Space Shuttle returned to flight.\nThe sixth crew of the International Space Station returned to Earth just after 10 p.m. EDT on 3 May 2003, the first time U.S. astronauts landed in a Russian Soyuz spacecraft, though a U.S. space tourist, Dennis Tito, had done so in 2001.\nRussian Mission Control reported at approximately 2:45 a.m. on","-27.61634496742954"],["is now tied with the record for total spacewalks by a woman (seven), along with Sunita Williams. After completion of the seventh EVA, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 46 hours, 18 minutes, which placed her in 13th place for total EVA time.\nOn April 24, 2017, Whitson officially broke the record for longest amount of time spent in space by any NASA astronaut. As a result, she received a televised phone call from the Oval Office from US President Donald Trump, the President's daughter Ivanka, and fellow astronaut Kathleen Rubins. When interviewed on that day she declared 'It is actually","-27.604404959834937"],["There are rules and guidelines which apply to such travel. Uniformed personnel may only travel Space-A while on leave or pass for the full duration of their Space-A trip, and Space-A travel cannot be used in conjunction with travel required by the service. Space A travel may not be used for personal financial gain or in connection with business enterprises or employment. Other nations' laws and policies, as well as U.S. foreign policy, may limit the ability to travel using Space-A.\nAside from members of the United States Marine Corps, travelers do not have to be in uniform for their flights.","-27.59700448172589"],["would sleep in the station's airlock as part of the pre-EVA campout procedure. 20 November (Flight day 7) On the tenth anniversary of the International Space Station, Stefanyshyn-Piper and Kimbrough successfully conducted the mission's second spacewalk. The EVA was 6 hours and 45 minutes in duration, and all tasks were accomplished without complications. Two crew equipment carts were relocated in preparation for the arrival of the final set of solar arrays, the station's robotic arm was lubricated, and the work on the starboard SARJ continued. Inside the station, crewmembers continued to transfer cargo from Leonardo to the station, items to","-27.536049129703315"],["Capitol Rotunda in 2011. During the ceremony, NASA administrator Charles Bolden said, \"Those of us who have had the privilege to fly in space followed the trail they forged.\"\nThe Apollo 11 crew were awarded the Collier Trophy in 1969. The National Aeronautic Association president awarded a duplicate trophy to Collins and Aldrin at a ceremony. The crew was awarded the 1969 General Thomas D. White USAF Space Trophy. The National Space Club named the crew the winners of the 1970 Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy, awarded annually for the greatest achievement in spaceflight. They received the international Harmon Trophy for","-27.532062486552604"],["logged more than 5,500 hours flying time. NASA experience Grabe became a NASA astronaut in August 1981. He has served as a chief verification pilot for STS-3 and STS-4 entry guidance, navigation and control simulation testing; as the Deputy Manager for Operations Integration, Space Shuttle Program Office; and subsequently as the Chief of Training within the Astronaut Office. A veteran of four space flights, Grabe served as Pilot on STS-51-J (October 3–7, 1985) and STS-30 (May 4–8, 1989), and was the mission commander on STS-42 (January 22–30, 1992) and STS-57 (June 21 to July 1, 1993).\nGrabe has logged over 627","-27.514994745113654"],["months. Astronauts will receive an orientation on the major spacefaring nations, their space agencies, and all major manned and unmanned space programs. Training in this phase also looks into applicable laws and policies of the space sector. Technical (including engineering, astrodynamics, propulsion, orbital mechanics, etc.) and scientific (including human physiology, biology, earth observation, and astronomy) basics are introduced, to ensure that all new astronauts have the required base level of knowledge. Training is done on ISS operations and facilities, including an introduction to all major operating systems on board the ISS that are required for its functionality as a","-27.51263261398708"],["crew to alert them that the managers had decided to make a 24-hour delay to EVA-1, originally scheduled for Flight Day 4, and that Stanley Love would replace Hans Schlegel for EVA-1 on Monday. During the post-MMT briefing, Mission Management Chairman John Shannon explained there was a \"crew medical issue\", but it would not impact the mission objectives. For reasons of medical privacy, Shannon said NASA can not disclose which crewmember is affected, and no details would be given as to the nature of the issue, but Shannon said it was not something to be concerned about. Unconfirmed news reports","-27.500489128628033"],["the crew's return to Earth, creating a one-star observation system that would allow astronauts to determine their location with accuracy. In a 2010 interview, Johnson recalled, \"Everybody was concerned about them getting there. We were concerned about them getting back.\" Later in her career, Johnson worked on the Space Shuttle program, the Earth Resources Satellite, and on plans for a mission to Mars. Personal life In 1939, Katherine (then Coleman) married James Francis Goble. They had three daughters: Constance, Joylette, and Katherine. In 1953, she and James moved their family to Newport News to pursue a new job opportunity. In","-27.499522173533478"],["Station. The astronauts use a colour-coded ultrasound machine and make calls to Moynihan using a VoIP phone. During a sixth-month mission, one of the astronauts, who suffered with a history of knee injury, developed a persistent pain. This was assessed using ultrasound, where images were live streamed back to the planet Earth.\nShe took part in the BBC documentary Women with the Right Stuff and the book Promised the Moon. She appeared in the Channel 4 documentary, Live from Space. She is affiliated with San Jacinto Methodist Hospital.","-27.49768620667055"],["different mission activities. It is vital that astronauts are familiar with their assigned experiments in order to complete them in a timely manner, with as little intervention from the ground as possible.\nFor missions to the ISS, each astronaut is required to become proficient at one hundred or more experiments. During training, the scientists responsible for the experiments do not have direct contact with the astronauts who will be carrying them out. Instead, scientists instruct trainers who in turn prepare the astronauts for carrying out the experiment. Much of this training is done at the European Astronaut Center.\nFor human experiments, the","-27.481139770932714"],["Two 6.5 hour spacewalks were conducted by three astronauts to test hardware and tools to be used in the assembly of the International Space Station starting in late 1998. EVA-1 on flight day five consisted of Crewmembers Leroy Chiao (EV1) and Dan Barry (EV2). After taking a few minutes to acclimate themselves in the payload bay, first-time spacewalkers Chiao and Barry attached a portable work platform to the end of the robot arm, operated by Pilot Brent Jett and Mission Specialist Koichi Wakata. Jett used the arm to grapple various pieces of hardware designed to hold large modular components, mimicking","-27.479349244140394"],["Human Research Facility at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas. Meir coordinated and supported human space life science experiments that were performed by astronauts on Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) missions. These experiments included physiological studies (bone loss, muscle control/atrophy, lung function, etc.) to determine if any bodily processes were altered in the spaceflight environment. Meir guided these experiments through the necessary review cycles, developed procedures that the astronauts would use on-orbit, trained crew members, and provided ground support in the Mission Control Center while the astronauts were performing the experiments on the shuttle or","-27.463512056951004"],["38-minute EVA to a close .\nA final scheduled task, an inspection of bolts on one of two Strela hand-operated cranes on the docking compartment, was postponed to a future EVA. Conclusion This mission was the longest expedition to the ISS thus far. Also, the Soyuz capsule was the oldest one ever used. López-Alegría, already the U.S. recordholder for spacewalks, now also holds the record for longest spaceflight by a NASA astronaut.","-27.424848617483804"],["spaceflight has so far been human-piloted, with the first autonomous human-carrying spacecraft under design starting in 2015.\nRussia and China have human spaceflight capability with the Soyuz program and Shenzhou program. In the United States, SpaceShipTwo reached the edge of space in 2018; this was the first crewed spaceflight from the US since the Space Shuttle retired in 2011. Currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use Soyuz vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The United States is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to ISS and low Earth orbit, as","-27.420268021767697"],["second most experienced spacewalker overall, behind Russia's Anatoly Solovyev. On April 2, 2007, López-Alegría set the record for the longest space mission of any American astronaut. When he landed on April 21, his time in space on a single mission was 215 days. (The longest space mission on record is that of Valeriy Polyakov, who spent 437 days aboard the Russian space station Mir in 1994 and 1995.) After NASA López-Alegría retired from NASA on March 12, 2012 and served as the President of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation through the end of 2014.\nLópez-Alegría is an independent consultant to traditional and","-27.380987486887534"],["of the astronauts engaged in the EASE/ACCESS work, as well as other scenes of interest.\n\"This is probably not the preferred way of building a space station,\" Ross said later of EASE. The astronauts reported that the most difficult part of the spacewalks was torquing their own masses while holding the EASE beams. The ACCESS worked well, while EASE required too much free floating. The astronauts judged that performing six-hour spacewalks every other day over a five or six-day period was feasible, and recommended glove changes to reduce hand fatigue. Ross said in the Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) debrief that the crew","-27.36678674086579"],["over 461 hours in space including over 19 EVA hours in 3 space walks. Following STS-97, Noriega trained as the backup commander for ISS Expedition 6 and later as a member of the crew of STS-121. In July 2004, Noriega was replaced by Piers Sellers on the crew of STS-121 due to a temporary medical condition. While awaiting future flight assignment Noriega served as Chief, Exploration Systems Engineering Division, Engineering Directorate, Johnson Space Center. In January 2005, Noriega retired from the NASA Astronaut Corps, but continues to serve as the Manager, Advanced Projects Office, Constellation Program, Johnson Space Center. Spaceflight","-27.36580799332478"],["station is operated and controlled by Roscosmos and provides Russia with the right to nearly one-half of the crew time for the ISS. The allocation of remaining crew time (three to four crew members of the total permanent crew of six) and hardware within the other sections of the station is as follows: Columbus: 51% for the ESA, 46.7% for NASA, and 2.3% for CSA. Kibō: 51% for the JAXA, 46.7% for NASA, and 2.3% for CSA. Destiny: 97.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA. Crew time, electrical power and rights to purchase supporting services (such as data upload and","-27.34959324315787"],["had logged more than 3,000 hours of flight time when NASA selected him for astronaut training in December 1994. He was one of 19 candidates selected from a pool of 2,962 applicants. NASA Anderson reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995. He completed a year of training and evaluation, and was qualified for flight crew assignment as a mission specialist. Anderson was initially assigned technical duties in the Flight Support Branch of the Astronaut Office, but went on to log more than 593 hours in space aboard two Space Shuttle missions. Endeavour STS-89 Endeavour (January 22–31, 1998). Anderson","-27.339738286460488"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"During a 6½ month stay aboard the Space Station, the crew of three (two American astronauts and one Russian cosmonaut) performed flight tests of the station hardware, conducted internal and external maintenance tasks, and developed the capability of the station to support the addition of science experiments. The crew spent 196 days in space establishing a U.S. space flight endurance record for Carl Walz and crewmate Dan Bursch. Wearing the Russian Orlan space suit, Walz logged 11 hours and 52 minutes of EVA time in two separate spacewalks. The Expedition 4 crew returned to Earth aboard STS-111, with Endeavour landing\",\n \"-31.049258900409768\"\n ],\n [\n \"conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.\\nThe time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly follows the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of\",\n \"-30.854754679672624\"\n ],\n [\n \"7, 2001. During a 6½ month stay aboard the Space Station, the Expedition 4 crew of three (two American astronauts and one Russian cosmonaut) performed flight tests of the station hardware, conducted internal and external maintenance tasks, and developed the capability of the station to support the addition of science experiments. The crew spent 196 days in space establishing a U.S. space flight endurance record for Dan Bursch and crew mate Carl Walz. Wearing the Russian Orlan spacesuit, Bursch logged 11 hours and 48 minutes of EVA time in two separate spacewalks. The Expedition-Four crew returned to Earth aboard STS-111,\",\n \"-30.718672470398815\"\n ],\n [\n \"human body. This doubled the length of time that anyone had been in space and stood as the longest spaceflight duration record for five years.\\nThis 14-day mission required NASA to solve some of the problems of long-duration space flight, such as stowage of waste (the crew had practiced stuffing waste paper behind their seats before the flight). Timing their workday to match that of the prime shift ground crews, both men worked and slept at the same time. Gemini 7 conducted twenty experiments, the most of any Gemini mission, including studies of nutrition in space. The astronauts also evaluated a\",\n \"-30.51453831746585\"\n ],\n [\n \"a half-day off from their busy schedule operating the many microgravity experiments on the mission. Due to the long duration of the mission, each crew member received two half-days off during the 14-day mission.\\nThe other astronauts spent the first half of the day working with the Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment, or MODE, and a model of a truss structure which was under consideration for use on a future space station. The truss model, set up to float free in the middeck, was analyzed to determine its behavior in weightlessness.\\nAround the clock, experiments with the U.S. Microgravity Payload-2, the Office of\",\n \"-30.491803969552166\"\n ],\n [\n \"logged a total of 119 hours and 41 minutes in space.\\nHe used to tell people that for the first couple of years at NASA, his main job was carrying John Young's helmet bag. This he said as a joke, but it was also \\\"sorta true\\\" because he was assigned to accompany the veteran astronaut on many T-38 flights. Spaceflight experience McCulley was the Pilot on mission STS-34. The crew aboard Shuttle Orbiter Atlantis launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on October 18, 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on October 23, 1989. During the mission crew members\",\n \"-30.39753992587066\"\n ],\n [\n \"a quiet, motion- free environment to produce the best possible data.\\nOn Thursday, 28 October 1993, after enjoying a half a day off, the astronauts aboard Columbia continued to collect scientific data on how humans and animals adapt to the absence of Earth's gravity.\\nPayload Commander Rhea Seddon sent down a special message to her husband, Astronaut Office Chief Robert L. Gibson when she surpassed his total of 632 hours, 56 minutes in space. \\\"He's still a really good guy, I still love him a lot, but I've got more hours in space than he does, so there!\\\" she teased. Seddon\",\n \"-30.023977337348697\"\n ],\n [\n \"Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment. It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads. During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and color temperatures adjusted. Food On\",\n \"-30.018480465458197\"\n ],\n [\n \"Detachment 3, Air Force Flight Test Center. NASA experience Selected by NASA in January 1990, Walz is a veteran of four space flights, and has logged 231 days in space. He was a mission specialist on STS-51 (1993), was the Orbiter flight engineer (MS-2) on STS-65 (1994), was a mission specialist on STS-79 (1996), and served as flight engineer on ISS Expedition 4 (2001–2002). Carl Walz and fellow astronaut Dan Bursch currently hold the U.S. space flight endurance record of 196 days in space. Space flight experience STS-51 Discovery (September 12–22, 1993). During the mission, the five-member crew deployed the\",\n \"-29.954702227951202\"\n ],\n [\n \"the crew members reported that their life in space was not as difficult as they expected prior to launch, despite a 20% increase in interpersonal problems during the second half of the missions. It was recommended that future crew members be allowed to control their individual schedules as much as possible. On-orbit and post-spaceflight psychiatric issues A number of psychiatric problems have been reported during on-orbit space missions. Most common are adjustment reactions to the novelty of being in space, with symptoms generally including transient anxiety or depression. Psychosomatic reactions also have occurred, where anxiety and other emotional states\",\n \"-29.938396418698176\"\n ],\n [\n \"video. In the meantime, the rest of the shuttle crew completed more equipment transfers from Endeavour and the Johannes Kepler ATV to the ISS.\\nWorking from the mid-deck of Endeavour, Andrew Feustel, who participated in the first three spacewalks of the mission, was the EVA 4 choreographer. Astronaut Steven Swanson was the spacewalk CAPCOM from the station flight control room in Houston. During Flight Day 12, Mike Fincke achieved a milestone, becoming the U.S. astronaut with the most time in space, more than 377 days. He surpassed the time in space of astronaut Peggy Whitson. 28 May (Flight Day 13) Flight\",\n \"-29.937086701669614\"\n ],\n [\n \"with NASA are called astronauts. He has said that if the distinction has to be made, he would rather be called \\\"private astronaut\\\" than \\\"tourist\\\". Dennis Tito has asked to be known as an \\\"independent researcher\\\", and Mark Shuttleworth described himself as a \\\"pioneer of commercial space travel\\\". Gregory Olsen prefers \\\"private researcher\\\", and Anousheh Ansari prefers the term \\\"private space explorer\\\". Other space enthusiasts object to the term on similar grounds. Rick Tumlinson of the Space Frontier Foundation, for example, has said: \\\"I hate the word tourist, and I always will ... 'Tourist' is somebody in a flowered shirt\",\n \"-29.92809222069991\"\n ],\n [\n \"as EV-1, EV-2, EV-3 and EV-4 (assigned to mission specialists for each mission, if applicable). Camp-out procedure For EVAs from the International Space Station, NASA employed a camp-out procedure to reduce the risk of decompression sickness. This was first tested by the Expedition 12 crew. During a camp out, astronauts sleep overnight in the airlock prior to an EVA, lowering the air pressure to 10.2 psi (70 kPa), compared to the normal station pressure of 14.7 psi (101 kPa). Spending a night at the lower air pressure helps flush nitrogen from the body, thereby preventing \\\"the bends\\\". More recently astronauts have been using the\",\n \"-29.794036366780347\"\n ],\n [\n \"in space than they do on the ground. NASA is researching two areas which may provide the keys to a better night's sleep, as improved sleep decreases fatigue and increases daytime productivity. A variety of methods for combating this phenomenon are constantly under discussion. Duration of space travel A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks represent a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. While Skylab's three crews remained in space 1, 2, and 3 months respectively, long-term crews on Salyut 6,\",\n \"-29.75772032662917\"\n ],\n [\n \"has logged over 646 hours in space. He was the last member of his astronaut class - the 1978 NASA Group 8 - to fly into space.\\nPrior to the first flight of the Space Shuttle, he provided astronaut support in Orbiter engineering development and testing. He was a T-38 chase pilot for the second and third Shuttle flights and support crewman for the first operational Shuttle flight, STS-5. Covey also served as Mission Control spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) for Shuttle Missions STS-5, 6, 61-B, 61-C, and 51-L (it was his voice that said the now infamous words, \\\"Challenger, go at throttle\",\n \"-29.70604065898806\"\n ],\n [\n \"of diversity and tolerance. This does not mean that it is perfectly harmonious. Astronauts experience the same frustrations and interpersonal quarrels as their Earth-based counterparts.\\nA typical day on the station might start with wakeup at 6:00 am inside a private soundproof booth in the crew quarters. Astronauts would probably find their sleeping bags in an upright position tied to the wall, because orientation does not matter in space. The astronaut's thighs would be lifted about 50 degrees off the vertical. This is the neutral body posture in weightlessness – it would be excessively tiring to\",\n \"-29.380607504539512\"\n ],\n [\n \"time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days. Terminology In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Dr. Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred \\\"cosmonaut\\\", on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos (near space), while the \\\"astro\\\" prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA\",\n \"-29.37345498203831\"\n ],\n [\n \"ISS year-long mission History In November 2012, NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), and their international partners selected two veteran spacefarers for a one-year mission aboard the International Space Station in 2015. The mission included collecting scientific data important to future human exploration of the Solar System. Kelly and Korniyenko already had a connection; Kelly was a backup crew member for the station's Expedition 23/24 crews, where Korniyenko served as a flight engineer.\\nThe goal aboard the orbiting laboratory was to understand better how the human body reacts and adapts to the harsh environment of space. Data from the mission\",\n \"-29.343622863398195\"\n ],\n [\n \"to go on the International Space Station, with the use of SpaceX's Crew Dragon spacecraft and Boeing's Starliner spacecraft for public astronauts, which is planned to be priced at 35,000 USD per day for one astronaut. Terminology Many private space travelers have objected to the term \\\"space tourist\\\", often pointing out that their role went beyond that of an observer, since they also carried out scientific experiments in the course of their journey. Richard Garriott additionally emphasized that his training was identical to the requirements of non-Russian Soyuz crew members, and that teachers and other non-professional astronauts chosen to fly\",\n \"-29.253694560316944\"\n ],\n [\n \"conducted a fly-by of the ISS, so pictures could be taken. Saying goodbye to the ISS and its crew, commander Kelly said \\\"We wish them the best with their expedition and we hope we left them a better, more capable space station than when we arrived. Sayonara.\\\"\\nAfterwards the crew of Discovery conducted the late inspection of the shuttle's Thermal Protection System that was unable to be performed as usual on Flight Day 2, due to the size of the Kibo Pressurized Module. 12 June (Flight day 13) Flight day 13 was a rare off-duty day. The only major projects were\",\n \"-29.229344892788504\"\n ],\n [\n \"and has logged over 259 hours in space, including over 14 EVA hours. Space flight experience STS-110 Atlantis (April 8–19, 2002) was the 13th Space Shuttle mission to visit the International Space Station. Mission milestones included: the delivery and installation of the SO (S-Zero) Truss; the first time the station's robotic arm was used to maneuver spacewalkers around the station; and the first time that all of a shuttle crew's spacewalks were based from the station's Quest Airlock. Morin performed 2 EVAs totaling 14 hours and 9 minutes. The crew prepared the station for future spacewalks and spent a week\",\n \"-29.20971977848967\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the practical aspects of remaining in space longer will be the requirement to maintain crew member health and performance. During STS-50, crew members conducted biological tests as part of the EDO Medical Project. Crew members monitored their blood pressure and heart rate and took samples of the cabin atmosphere during the flight. They also evaluated the Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP) device as a countermeasure to the normal reduction of body fluids that takes place in space. If the beneficial effects of the LBNP could last for 24 hours, it would improve crew member performance on reentry and landing.\",\n \"-29.144522479891748\"\n ],\n [\n \"crew then worked to undertake some further detailed inspection of the orbiter and unloaded the P5 truss segment from the payload bay, handing it off successfully from the shuttle robotic arm to the station arm. The astronauts scheduled for Day 4's EVA, Robert Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang, ended their day by entering the airlock for a \\\"campout\\\" sleep session to prepare for the EVA by purging their bodies of nitrogen in a lower-pressure environment. Such a practice is common in order for the astronauts to avoid getting decompression sickness. 12 December (Flight day 4 – EVA #1) Flight day 4\",\n \"-28.9818577310848\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Space Shuttle mission.\\nThe station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two 'sleep stations' in the Zvezda and four more installed in Harmony. The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing. A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop.\",\n \"-28.963170967532278\"\n ],\n [\n \"astronaut is most able to understand the situation in the spacecraft and pass information in the clearest way.\\nFor long-duration missions there is more than one CAPCOM, each assigned to a different shift team. After control of U.S. spaceflights moved to the Johnson Space Center in the early 1960s, each CAPCOM used the radio call-sign Houston. When non-astronauts are communicating directly with the spacecraft, CAPCOM acts as the communications controller.\\nAs of 2011, due to the shrinking size of the astronaut corps at the end of the Shuttle program, fewer astronauts are available to perform CAPCOM duties, so non-astronauts from the space\",\n \"-28.912426062372106\"\n ],\n [\n \"(ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US crewed spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz. The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late\",\n \"-28.88067188003879\"\n ],\n [\n \"four space flights, Dr. Newman has logged over 43 days in space, including six spacewalks totaling 43 hours and 13 minutes. If Dr Newman could do it all over again, he really wishes he could fly on an ISS Expedition like fellow astronaut classmate Dan Bursch.\\nEffective December 1, 2002, Newman served as NASA’s Director, Human Space Flight Programs, Russia. As NASA’s lead representative to the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (Rosaviakosmos) and its contractors, his role is to continue oversight of all human space flight operations, logistics, and technical functions, including NASA’s mission operations in Korolev and crew training at\",\n \"-28.87801474274238\"\n ],\n [\n \"completed 26 hours and 12 minutes of spacewalking time, bringing his total EVA time to 48 hours and 37 minutes. This places him 11th all time on the list of spacewalkers. Boeing Crew Flight Test On January 22nd, NASA announced that Fincke would fly on Boeing CST-100 Starliner’s Crew Flight Test currently scheduled for late 2019. The Starliner’s Crew Flight Test will be the first time that the new spacecraft, which is being developed and built by Boeing as part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program, is launched into space with humans on board. Fincke took the place of astronaut Eric\",\n \"-28.816729175394357\"\n ],\n [\n \"CSA astronaut Jeremy Hansen. Prior to the NEEMO 19 mission Stevenin was quoted as saying that \\\"It is a privilege to be part of the crew with three astronauts. I am looking forward to take part in this outstanding project to test future concepts for space operations as well as evaluating spacewalk tools, techniques and man–machine interfaces for future space exploration beyond the International Space Station.\\\" Personal life Stevenin is a certified PADI \\\"Open Water Scuba diving & Nitrox Instructor\\\" and an Emergency First Response (CPR/First Aid/AED) Instructor and has logged more than 400 dives.\\nHe has a private pilot licence\",\n \"-28.814885205405517\"\n ],\n [\n \"EVA from the shuttle, the cabin pressure was reduced from 14.7 to 10.2 psi (101 to 70 kPa) for 24 hours, after which an astronaut had to pre-breathe for 45 minutes. For EVAs on board the ISS, the astronaut must pre-breathe for about four hours. Manufacturer The EMU hardware and accessories (PLSS, helmet, communications cap, and locking rings for the helmet and gloves), is manufactured by Hamilton Standard (now the Hamilton Sundstrand division of Collins Aerospace) out of Windsor Locks, Connecticut, while the suit's soft components (the arms of the HUT and the entire LTU) are produced by ILC Dover (a former\",\n \"-28.789447837989428\"\n ],\n [\n \"flights for all of the world's first private space explorers. The first three participants paid in excess of $20 million (USD) each for their 10-day visit to the ISS.\\nRussia halted orbital space tourism in 2010 due to the increase in the International Space Station crew size, using the seats for expedition crews that would previously have been sold to paying spaceflight participants. Orbital tourist flights were set to resume in 2015 but the one planned was postponed indefinitely and none have occurred since 2009.\\nOn June 7, 2019, NASA announced that starting in 2020, the organization aims to start allowing private astronauts\",\n \"-28.77007481024998\"\n ],\n [\n \"mission is underway, the rooms are staffed around the clock, usually in three shifts.\\nJSC handles most of the planning and training of the US astronaut corps and houses training facilities such as the Sonny Carter Training Facility and the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, a critical component in training astronauts for spacewalks. The Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory provides a controlled neutral buoyancy environment—a very large pool containing about 6.2 million US gallons (23,000 m³) of water where astronauts train to practice extra-vehicular activity tasks while simulating zero-g conditions. The facility provides preflight training in becoming familiar with crew activities and with the dynamics\",\n \"-28.75613343418445\"\n ],\n [\n \"Altman has logged over 40 days in space. Altman retired from NASA in September 2010 to join ASRC Federal Research and Technology Solutions in Greenbelt, Maryland. Spaceflights STS-90 Neurolab (April 17 to May 3, 1998). During the 16-day Spacelab flight the seven person crew aboard Space Shuttle Columbia served as both experiment subjects and operators for 26 individual life science experiments focusing on the effects of microgravity on the brain and nervous system.\\nSTS-106 Atlantis (September 8–20, 2000). During the 12-day mission, the crew successfully prepared the International Space Station for the arrival of the first permanent crew. Additionally, he handflew\",\n \"-28.7267241783793\"\n ],\n [\n \"by Jeff Williams. In early April 2017, her mission was extended by an additional 3 months at the International Space Station. On September 3, she returned in a previously vacant seat on the Soyuz capsule accompanied by NASA's Jack Fischer and Fyodor Yurchikhin of Roscosmos.\\nIn January 2017, Whitson performed her seventh EVA. along with Expedition 50 commander Shane Kimbrough. During the EVA, they installed three new adapter plates and hooked up electrical connectors preparing the way to replace the ISS batteries. The EVA lasted 6 hours and 32 minutes. Whitson now holds the record for the oldest female spacewalker, and\",\n \"-28.65499531832029\"\n ],\n [\n \"only by military flight crews and astronauts for protection during high-altitude and space operations. It is also used by flight test crews involved with certifying aircraft, and may also be used for high-altitude parachute jumps.\\nAstronauts aboard the International Space Station preparing for extra-vehicular activity (EVA) \\\"camp out\\\" at low atmospheric pressure, 10.2 psi (0.70 bar), spending eight sleeping hours in the Quest airlock chamber before their spacewalk. During the EVA they breathe 100% oxygen in their spacesuits, which operate at 4.3 psi (0.30 bar), although research has examined the possibility of using 100% O₂ at 9.5 psi (0.66 bar) in the suits to lessen the pressure\",\n \"-28.63650141693688\"\n ],\n [\n \"The suits for the ISS were modified to provide greater mobility, to afford better tactile capabilities of the glove, and to provide an increased operational life. As of Feb. 2011, a total of 104 EVAs on the ISS had occurred, for greater than 650 total hours in space. Mark III The Mark III (MKIII) is an experimental suit that was designed by ILC for use on the space station. The suit is a combination of hard and soft elements, designed for pressurization to 8.3 psi. Shuttle suits are pressurized to 4.3 psi, and astronauts are required to\",\n \"-28.628298144070868\"\n ],\n [\n \"transport agency of the Department of Defense\\\". Space available travel is defined as \\\"travel aboard DoD owned or controlled aircraft and occurs when aircraft are not fully booked with passengers traveling under orders\\\".\\nIt is a privilege offered to United States Uniformed Services members. Retired members are given the privilege in recognition of their career and because they are eligible for recall to active duty. The criteria for extending the privilege to other categories of passengers is their support to the mission being performed by Uniformed Services members and to the enhancement of active duty Service members' quality of life. Guidelines\",\n \"-28.60725845948582\"\n ],\n [\n \"opposed space tourism on principle; from the beginning of the ISS expeditions, NASA stated it was not interested in accommodating paying guests. The Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science of the House of Representatives held in June 2001 revealed the shifting attitude of NASA towards paying space tourists wanting to travel to the ISS in its statement on the hearing's purpose: \\n\\\"Review the issues and opportunities for flying nonprofessional astronauts in space, the appropriate government role for supporting the nascent space tourism industry, use of the Shuttle and Space Station for Tourism, safety and training criteria for space\",\n \"-28.596706139142043\"\n ],\n [\n \"Facility at the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. The NBL is a large indoor pool of water, the largest in the world, in which astronauts may perform simulated EVA tasks in preparation for space missions. The NBL contains full-sized mock-ups of the Space Shuttle cargo bay, flight payloads, and the International Space Station (ISS).\\nThe principle of neutral buoyancy is used to simulate the weightless environment of space. The suited astronauts are lowered into the pool using an overhead crane and their weight is adjusted by support divers so that they experience no buoyant force and no rotational moment\",\n \"-28.522495146382425\"\n ],\n [\n \"up to two years and resized on-orbit to fit various crew members. The ISS EMUs also have increased battery capacity, the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER), improved cameras and radios, and a new caution and warning system. Another feature incorporated into the ISS suits is an additional battery to power heaters built into the glove, allowing astronauts to keep their hands warm during nighttime passages on each 95-minute orbit.\\nCurrently, the ISS EMUs and the Russian Orlan suits are used by crews of all nationalities on the International Space Station. The two EMUs are stored within the Quest Joint Airlock.\",\n \"-28.46066516729843\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gemini 7 having stayed in space for 14 days, and Soyuz 11 for a month). The twelfth day in space for the crew was one of the quietest. As on all Apollo lunar flights, on the return trip there was little left to do, with the main objectives already accomplished.\\nThe crew undertook another light flash experiment, this time keeping the cabin lights on to see if this affected the visibility. They found that they were less visible.\\nMission Control ran over the stowage of items in the cabin. It was extremely important that stowed items were placed such that the spacecraft's\",\n \"-28.452038027196977\"\n ],\n [\n \"affected navigational systems. Astronauts enjoyed soft drinks, cookies and other snacks during their intense hours-long training session, leading planetarium employees to create the code name \\\"cookie time\\\" to refer to the training sessions. Occasionally, word of the sessions leaked out and noted clothing designer and Chapel Hill native Alexander Julian recalls meeting Mercury Astronauts during a visit to the planetarium while in junior high.\\nThe first astronaut to train at Morehead, in March 1964, was Neil Armstrong. Armstrong visited again only months before the 1969 launch of Apollo 11, spending a total of 20 days at Morehead over\",\n \"-28.429007767364965\"\n ],\n [\n \"the International Space Station crew be a space veteran (not be on a first flight).\\nThe 84-day stay of the Skylab 4 mission was a human spaceflight record that was not exceeded for over two decades by a NASA astronaut. The 96-day Soviet Salyut 6 EO-1 mission broke Skylab 4's record in 1978. Controversies Sources including David Hitt's Homesteading Space and Atlas Obscura dispute that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control.\",\n \"-28.382474574747903\"\n ],\n [\n \"400 Days (film) Plot Four astronauts—Captain Theo Cooper (Routh), Dr. Emily McTier (Lotz), Bug Kieslowski (Feldman), and Cole Dvorak (Cook)—begin a 400-day-long simulation on Earth intended to study the long-term effects of space travel.\\nAs their time underground grinds on, the crew begins to deal with extreme psychological effects like paranoia and hallucination. The team settles deeper into their separate spaces, until a disheveled man finds his way into their simulated space ship. After his escape, the crew decides to exit and explore the surface world, which they discover is now dark, windy, desolate, forbidding, and covered with dust.\\nAfter a long\",\n \"-28.34987859785906\"\n ],\n [\n \"wrapping up a 167-day stay aboard the Space Station.\\nOn Expedition 47, Williams surpassed Scott Kelly (astronaut)'s record of 520 cumulative days in space which was set when he returned from space on March 1, 2016; Williams beat this record with 534 cumulative days.\\nWilliams also flew aboard the Soyuz TMA-8 mission, replacing Expedition 12 astronaut William S. McArthur. He was previously in orbit as the Expedition 13 Flight Engineer and Science Officer aboard the International Space Station. He returned to Earth on September 28, 2006.\\nOn August 24, 2006, a taped message made by him to be played at an official\",\n \"-28.30990758547705\"\n ],\n [\n \"space outpost in history and marked the start of onboard scientific research at the ISS. A veteran of four space flights, Jones has logged over 52 days (1,272 hours) in space, including 3 space walks totaling over 19 hours.\\nSince leaving NASA in 2001, Jones has worked as a planetary scientist and consultant in space operations. He is a senior research scientist at the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, engaged in planning robotic and astronaut expeditions to deep space and the near-Earth asteroids. He is also an author and speaker, with four adult, non-fiction works to his credit.\",\n \"-28.29696161664515\"\n ],\n [\n \"of missions, the training to prepare astronauts will likely include training as doctors, scientists, engineers, technicians, pilots, and geologists. In addition there will be a focus on the psychological aspects of long-duration missions where crew is largely isolated.\\nCurrently a six-month mission to the ISS requires up to five years of astronaut training. This level of training is to be expected and likely to be expanded upon for future space exploration missions. It may also include in-flight training aspects. It may be possible that the ISS will be used as a long-duration astronaut training facility in the future.\\nA powerful tool for\",\n \"-28.258742747217184\"\n ],\n [\n \"working through their post-sleep activities, Altman, Johnson and McArthur performed a check-out of the flight control surfaces, performed a reaction control system hot-fire, and went through communications checks with managers on the ground. The rest of the crew worked to stow away items that were used during the mission. The crew held a deorbit preparations briefing with the ground teams, and Altman and Johnson worked with the simulator on board to run through a series of landing simulations.\\nIn the afternoon, the crew became the first shuttle crew to ever testify live from orbit in a United States Senate hearing. Barbara\",\n \"-28.192066670715576\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the piece of space debris.\\nTransferring expedition crews\\nBy 14 March, the expedition crews had completed the change over, but until the shuttle undocked, Shepherd officially remained commander of the station. The morning of the 14th the astronauts' wake-up call was the song \\\"Should I Stay or Should I Go\\\" by The Clash, at the request of Shepherd's wife. Shepherd, a former Navy SEAL, said during the change over ceremony: \\\"May the good will, spirit and sense of mission we had enjoyed on board endure. Sail her well.\\\" The commander of Discovery, Jim Wetherbee, said \\\"For Captain Shepherd and his crew,\",\n \"-28.183504453212663\"\n ],\n [\n \"with three cameras around his neck.\\\" Russian cosmonaut Maksim Surayev told the press in 2009 not to describe Guy Laliberté as a tourist: \\\"It's become fashionable to speak of space tourists. He is not a tourist but a participant in the mission.\\\"\\n\\\"Spaceflight participant\\\" is the official term used by NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency to distinguish between private space travelers and career astronauts. Tito, Shuttleworth, Olsen, Ansari, and Simonyi were designated as such during their respective space flights. NASA also lists Christa McAuliffe as a spaceflight participant (although she did not pay a fee), apparently due to her\",\n \"-28.181666049698833\"\n ],\n [\n \"contains a parachute, life raft, survival gear, and a 30-minute supply of breathing oxygen and a water tank.\\nBecause of the helmet design, which rested on the astronaut's shoulders and allowed them to move their head around freely, astronauts were now required to wear a communications cap similar to those worn by Apollo astronauts, and because they were white (later changed to brown), the suit resembled the Vostok pressure suit worn by Yuri Gagarin. The suits were designed to withstand pressures up to 40,000 feet (12 kilometers), and immersion in the ocean for up to 24 hours at 5 °C (40 °F).\\nBecause of\",\n \"-28.160296364090755\"\n ],\n [\n \"July 2005, NASA announced that STS-114 would be extended for one day, so that Discovery's crew could help the ISS crew maintain the station while the shuttle fleet was grounded. The extra day was also used to move more items from the shuttle to the ISS, as uncertainty mounted during the mission as to when a shuttle would next visit the station. The orbiter's arrival also gave the nearly 200-ton space station a free altitude boost of about 4,000 feet (1,220 m). The station loses about 100 feet (30 m) of altitude a day.\\nThe shuttle hatch was closed the night\",\n \"-28.15383225763435\"\n ],\n [\n \"a huge honor to break a record like this, but it is an honor for me back to be representing all the folks at NASA'.\\nOn May 12, 2017, Whitson performed her ninth career EVA with Jack Fischer. After a short delay due to leaking equipment, they replaced an avionics box on the starboard truss called an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC), a storage platform. The duration was 4 hours and 13 minutes, and it was the 200th EVA to be performed on the ISS.\\nOn May 23, 2017, Whitson performed her tenth career EVA with Fischer. They replaced a backup multiplexer-demultiplexer (MDM)\",\n \"-28.149495101450157\"\n ],\n [\n \"details the health of each astronaut both for Mission Control and for the astronauts), ORBIT (the piloting software), and Engineering, which is used to control the habitat's engineering systems. During the Mission each of these programs is run on a dedicated computer, but BIOCOM shares a computer with mission records and logs. Every room is outfitted with CAPCOM (CAPsule COMmunicator), telephone lines that allows the astronauts to communicate with Mission Control. Contents of the rooms The Control Room contains a television with a camera feed to Mission Control, so as to enable two-way visual communication in the event of a\",\n \"-28.146806597207615\"\n ],\n [\n \"a deal with the astronauts that they would not hide information from her, and she would not betray their confidence, unless, she thought it may jeopardize them or the mission. She was the only nurse assigned to the Astronauts. O'Hara became close to the astronauts and their families. Before every launch she performed the pre-flight physicals including height, weight, temperatures, blood pressure measurements. The astronauts would not agree to let anyone else but O'Hara draw blood before launch.\\nO'Hara also helped set up the portable hospital at the Grand Bahama Island to support post flight examination and, if needed, treat injured\",\n \"-28.13846050473512\"\n ],\n [\n \"Precourt was chief of the Astronaut Corps, responsible for the mission preparation activities of all space shuttle and future International Space Station crews and their support personnel. From November 2002 until his 2004 retirement from NASA, Precourt served as the deputy manager for the International Space Station, responsible for the day-to-day management of ISS operations, on orbit assembly and the interfaces with NASA contractors and the International Partners.\\nA veteran of four space flights, he has logged over 932 hours in space. He served as a mission specialist on STS-55 (April 26 to May 6, 1993), was the pilot on\",\n \"-28.092801873177677\"\n ],\n [\n \"day for the crews of Discovery and the ISS after the previous days' activities. Spacewalkers Bob Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang enjoyed some R&R, while the rest of the crew performed cleanup and preparatory tasks for Flight day 8's planned EVA #3. The traditional joint photo session and joint news conference were held by the crews. During this event Swedish first time astronaut Christer Fuglesang was interviewed by Crown Princess Victoria and also set a 20-second Frisbee world record in space, broadcast live on Swedish TV4.\\nIn an attempt to free a stuck solar panel, Thomas Reiter exercised vigorously on a machine\",\n \"-28.07368495722403\"\n ],\n [\n \"day. Before the scheduled bedtime the entire crew conducted another EVA procedures review for the third and final EVA of the mission. 17 February (Flight Day 10: Spacewalk 3) On flight day 10, astronauts Bob Behnken and Nick Patrick completed the third and final spacewalk of the STS-130 mission. Their tasks included hooking up heater and data cables for PMA-3, removing thermal covers and launch locks on Cupola, and installing handrails on Tranquility and a video cable for another base to be installed on the Russian segment of the ISS. Bob Behnken also connected the second ammonia cooling loop and\",\n \"-28.057314947031045\"\n ],\n [\n \"used during STS-132. During the installation of the old ATA in Discovery's payload bay, the spacewalkers had some problems securing a bolt on the ATA to the LMC. The spacewalk took 6 hours and 24 minutes, bringing the total EVA time to 20 hours and 19 minutes. While the EVA was going on, commander Alan Poindexter and mission specialist Naoko Yamazaki continued transferring items from the MPLM to the ISS. Transfer is more than seventy-five percent complete. 14 April (Flight Day 10 – Final transfers/off duty) The crew of STS-131 continued with transfer activities on the morning of flight day\",\n \"-28.055909478174726\"\n ],\n [\n \"(SARJ), the ground team in Mission Control informed Whitson that she had become the female astronaut with the most cumulative EVA time in NASA history, as well as the most EVAs, with her fifth EVA. Three hours and 37 minutes into the spacewalk, Whitson surpassed NASA astronaut Sunita Williams with a total time at that point of 29 hours and 18 minutes. At the completion of Whitson's fifth EVA, the 100th in support of ISS assembly and maintenance, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 32 hours, and 36 minutes, which placed her in 20th place for total EVA time. STS-122 STS-122\",\n \"-28.050007437246677\"\n ],\n [\n \"time that two female mission commanders were in orbit at the same time.\\nShe has logged over 924 hours (over 38 days) in space. Spaceflight experience STS-92 Discovery (October 11–24, 2000) was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida and returned to land at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the 13-day flight, the seven member crew attached the Z1 Truss and Pressurized Mating Adapter 3 to the International Space Station using Discovery’s robotic arm and performed four space walks to configure these elements. This expansion of the ISS opened the door for future assembly missions and prepared the\",\n \"-28.027389218823373\"\n ],\n [\n \"one of the quietest places on the ISS, as it was isolated from the rest of the station. Because of this, the crew used it as sleeping quarters, and also as a place to perform personal hygiene activities. Yi So-yeon also used it as laboratory space where she performed nanotechnology experiments. End of mission On 5 September 2008, Jules Verne undocked and manoeuvred to an orbital position 5 km below the ISS. It remained in that orbit until the night of 29 September. At 10:00:27 UTC, Jules Verne started its first de-orbit burn of 6 minutes, followed by a second burn of 15 minutes at\",\n \"-27.983236139683868\"\n ],\n [\n \"spacecraft have been considered by ISS for EVA work, to avoid having to go through the decompression needed to use the lower-pressure space suits. NASA developed a body-shaped single person spacecraft called FlexCraft, with the idea of allowing more and shorter EVA. The spacecraft would be at the same atmospheric pressure as the ISS, thus removing the medical stress and time needed to decompress and compress, and the danger of the bends. A single-person spacecraft could also enhance protection against micrometeoriod impacts and radiation from cosmic rays.\\nThe Personal Rescue Enclosure was developed for the Space Shuttle. On the ISS the\",\n \"-27.982179196906145\"\n ],\n [\n \"3) by astronauts Satcher and Bresnik. For identification, Satcher wore an all-white spacesuit while Bresnik wore a spacesuit with broken red stripes. Atlantis Mission Specialist Foreman, the intravehicular crew member for EVA 3 choreographed the activities and coordinated communications between the spacewalkers and Mission Control. Astronauts Melvin and Wilmore operated the station's robotic Canadarm2.\\nThe spacewalk started just over an hour later than planned due to Satcher reinserting a valve that became detached in his spacesuit drink bag. The bag is contained in the spacesuit and allows spacewalkers to sip water throughout their activity.\\nWorking ahead of schedule most of time,\",\n \"-27.855674202164664\"\n ],\n [\n \"module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Rusty Schweickart during Apollo 9.\\nThe cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew's checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo 8 crew used a 2-kilogram (4.4 lb) camera that broadcast in black-and-white only, using a Vidicon tube. The camera had two lenses, a very wide-angle (160°) lens, and a telephoto (9°) lens.\\nDuring this first broadcast, the\",\n \"-27.805422865092623\"\n ],\n [\n \"looking out at the window.\\nSpaceflight history author David Hitt disputed that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control in a book written along with former astronauts Owen K. Garriott and Joseph P. Kerwin. Effects At the time, only the crew of Skylab 3 had spent six weeks in space. It was unknown what had happened psychologically. NASA carefully worked with crew's requests, reducing their workload for the next six weeks. The incident took NASA into an unknown realm of concern in the selection of astronauts, still a question as humanity considers human missions to Mars or returning to the\",\n \"-27.76578160162444\"\n ],\n [\n \"Space Agency astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti delivered the ISO recordings to the ISS during her space expedition record for longest single space flight by a woman (199 days 16 hours) and for the longest uninterrupted spaceflight of a European astronaut.\",\n \"-27.74044848655467\"\n ],\n [\n \"Astronauts Day Astronauts Day is an American holiday, dedicated to NASA astronauts and their achievements. It is a \\\"floating\\\" holiday, observed on the last Friday of January. Overview This date was chosen to commemorate a number of space-related disasters which took place around this time, including the 27 January 1968 deaths of Command Pilot Virgil Grissom, Senior Pilot Edward Higgins White, and Pilot Roger Chaffee aboard Apollo I, and disasters involving the Space Shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986, and the Space Shuttle Columbia on 1 February 2003.\\nObservants of this holiday are asked to light a candle in their window,\",\n \"-27.73682522638228\"\n ],\n [\n \"telephone and radio failure. Astronauts are encouraged to become familiar with sign language, an endeavour in which they are aided by an instructive chart on the wall of the Control Room. The Interlock is the largest room of the habitat and it connects to every other room. It serves as a kitchen, containing a refrigerator, a microwave, and a full complement of cupboards and cutlery, and also contains a television and camera feed that monitors activity in the airlock and hotlab. The Longhouse is where the astronauts sleep during the mission. It contains 3 wooden bunk beds, providing 1 bed\",\n \"-27.729708970629872\"\n ],\n [\n \"of two Space Shuttle missions and pilot of two others, Henricks became the first person to log over 1,000 hours as a Space Shuttle pilot/commander. Tom Henricks left government service in November 1997 to pursue a career in business. He held the position of President of McGraw-Hill's Aviation Week, based in New York City until his departure in 2010 to pursue other opportunities. Space flight experience STS-44 Atlantis launched the night of November 24, 1991. The primary mission objective was the deployment of a Defense Support Program (DSP) satellite with an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) rocket booster. The mission\",\n \"-27.71961074351566\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the landing site.\\nThe crew should have started their sleep period, but due to the delays now had to finish housekeeping chores. Mainly these centered around turning back on the SIM instruments which had been turned off during the rendezvous and docking and orientating the spacecraft for their proper use. Just before the sleep period, Deke Slayton, who was effectively the astronauts' boss, radioed the crew and told them to take a Seconal sedative. The crew decided against this.\\nDoctors on the ground had become worried when they saw that Scott's and Irwin's EKG had developed a bigeminy rhythm. Caused by\",\n \"-27.71692030512895\"\n ],\n [\n \"with them in space. Collins picked David Scott in the number one position. Crew assignments After this basic training, the third group were assigned specializations. Collins received his first choice: pressure suits and extravehicular activities (EVAs, also known as spacewalks). His job was to monitor development and act as a liaison between the Astronaut Office and contractors. He was disturbed by the secretive planning of Ed White's EVA on Gemini 4, because he was not involved despite being the person with the greatest knowledge of the subject.\\nIn late June 1965, Collins received his first crew assignment: the backup pilot for\",\n \"-27.712289327464532\"\n ],\n [\n \"To prepare for long-term (months) microgravity research aboard Space Station Freedom, scientists and NASA need practical experience in managing progressively longer times for their experiments. The Space Shuttle usually provides a week to ten days of microgravity. Thanks to the Extended Duration Orbiter kit, the Space Shuttle orbiter Columbia remained in orbit for almost 14 days and future missions with Columbia could last as long as a month. The kit consists of extra hydrogen and oxygen tanks for power production, extra nitrogen tanks for the cabin atmosphere, and an improved regeneration system for removing carbon dioxide from the cabin air.\\nOne\",\n \"-27.664027753595292\"\n ],\n [\n \"has served as a Crew Support Astronaut for Expedition 2. STS-108 Tani flew on STS-108 in 2001, and logged over 11 days in space, including over 4 EVA hours in one space walk. STS-108 Endeavour (December 5–17, 2001) was the 12th shuttle flight to visit the International Space Station. During the mission, Tani served as Mission Specialist 2. Endeavour's crew delivered the Expedition 4 crew to the station, and returned the Expedition 3 crew. The crew transferred over three tons of supplies, logistics and science experiments from the Raffaello Multi-Purpose Logistics Module to the station. Tani performed a spacewalk to\",\n \"-27.659394860106318\"\n ],\n [\n \"Soyuz TMA-9 Crew notes Daisuke Enomoto was originally scheduled to be the spaceflight participant, but on 21 August 2006, he was determined to be unfit for the flight due to medical reasons, and replaced by Anousheh Ansari, his back-up crew member. Mission highlights Soyuz TMA-9, known within the International Space Station program as ISS Soyuz 13, was the 32nd manned flight to the ISS. It is of note because for three days, from 18–21 September 2006, it marked the first time since before the Columbia accident that twelve humans have been in space simultaneously; three aboard the International Space Station\",\n \"-27.657326741171346\"\n ],\n [\n \"told them they were hired because the government forced NASA to, \\\"but we don't have a job for you, not any of you\\\". He offered to accept their resignations, and promised ground assignments if they did not quit, but warned them to not \\\"fool\\\" themselves that they would fly in space. Consequently, the men named themselves the \\\"XS-11\\\", or \\\"Excess Eleven\\\".\\nAssignments for the group were further delayed by the requirement to complete a full year of Air Force Undergraduate Pilot Training to become qualified as jet pilots like the Group 4 scientists before them; however, unlike the previous scientist-astronaut group,\",\n \"-27.65499537213327\"\n ],\n [\n \"EVA procedure review for the fourth and final spacewalk of STS-134. Astronauts Mike Fincke and Greg Chamitoff spent the night in the Quest Airlock with the air pressure reduced to 10.2 Psi, so as to avoid decompression sickness during their spacewalk. The crew and flight controllers on the ground opted not to use the In-suit Light Exercise (ISLE) protocol that was tested during EVA 3 earlier in the mission, opting instead to go with the standard campout protocol, since it was discovered that ISLE used more carbon-dioxide scrubbing capability. They wanted to save this capability, since a CO₂ sensor in\",\n \"-27.651896875791863\"\n ],\n [\n \"Space flight participant Space flight participant (Russian: участник космического полёта, romanized: uchastnik kosmicheskogo polyota) is the term used by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for people who travel into space, but who are not professional astronauts.\\nWhile the term gained new prominence with the rise of space tourism, it has also been used for participants in programs like NASA's Teacher in Space and astronauts designated by inter-government agreements like the Angkasawan program and the Korean Astronaut Program.\\nOther terms used for space travelers who are not career\",\n \"-27.62831412230662\"\n ],\n [\n \"personal inspection of the equipment bay area. He logged 301 hours and 51 minutes in space, 1 hour and 6 minutes of which were spent in extravehicular activity. He holds the record of most time spent in lunar orbit: six days and four hours (148 hours).\\nEvans was later backup Command Module Pilot for the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission.\\nEvans retired from the U.S. Navy as Captain on April 30, 1976, with 21 years of service, and remained active as a NASA astronaut involved in the development of NASA's Space Shuttle program. He served as a member of the operations\",\n \"-27.625845643680805\"\n ],\n [\n \"NASA experiments performed on the ISS. Thomas retired from NASA in July 2007 in order to pursue private interests. Space flight experience STS-65 Columbia (July 8, 1994 – July 23, 1994) set a new flight duration record for the Space Shuttle program. The mission flew the second International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2). During the 15-day flight the crew conducted more than 80 experiments focusing on materials and life sciences research in microgravity. The mission was accomplished in 236 orbits of the Earth, traveling 6.1 million miles in 353 hours and 55 minutes.\\nSTS-70 Discovery (July 13, 1995 – July 22, 1995). During\",\n \"-27.623339062753075\"\n ],\n [\n \"7 crew with just two members was delivered to the ISS on Soyuz TMA-2. The Space Shuttle was expected to be grounded for up to two years. Ongoing logistical support for the ISS would have to be carried out by Soyuz and Progress flights until the Space Shuttle returned to flight.\\nThe sixth crew of the International Space Station returned to Earth just after 10 p.m. EDT on 3 May 2003, the first time U.S. astronauts landed in a Russian Soyuz spacecraft, though a U.S. space tourist, Dennis Tito, had done so in 2001.\\nRussian Mission Control reported at approximately 2:45 a.m. on\",\n \"-27.61634496742954\"\n ],\n [\n \"is now tied with the record for total spacewalks by a woman (seven), along with Sunita Williams. After completion of the seventh EVA, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 46 hours, 18 minutes, which placed her in 13th place for total EVA time.\\nOn April 24, 2017, Whitson officially broke the record for longest amount of time spent in space by any NASA astronaut. As a result, she received a televised phone call from the Oval Office from US President Donald Trump, the President's daughter Ivanka, and fellow astronaut Kathleen Rubins. When interviewed on that day she declared 'It is actually\",\n \"-27.604404959834937\"\n ],\n [\n \"There are rules and guidelines which apply to such travel. Uniformed personnel may only travel Space-A while on leave or pass for the full duration of their Space-A trip, and Space-A travel cannot be used in conjunction with travel required by the service. Space A travel may not be used for personal financial gain or in connection with business enterprises or employment. Other nations' laws and policies, as well as U.S. foreign policy, may limit the ability to travel using Space-A.\\nAside from members of the United States Marine Corps, travelers do not have to be in uniform for their flights.\",\n \"-27.59700448172589\"\n ],\n [\n \"would sleep in the station's airlock as part of the pre-EVA campout procedure. 20 November (Flight day 7) On the tenth anniversary of the International Space Station, Stefanyshyn-Piper and Kimbrough successfully conducted the mission's second spacewalk. The EVA was 6 hours and 45 minutes in duration, and all tasks were accomplished without complications. Two crew equipment carts were relocated in preparation for the arrival of the final set of solar arrays, the station's robotic arm was lubricated, and the work on the starboard SARJ continued. Inside the station, crewmembers continued to transfer cargo from Leonardo to the station, items to\",\n \"-27.536049129703315\"\n ],\n [\n \"Capitol Rotunda in 2011. During the ceremony, NASA administrator Charles Bolden said, \\\"Those of us who have had the privilege to fly in space followed the trail they forged.\\\"\\nThe Apollo 11 crew were awarded the Collier Trophy in 1969. The National Aeronautic Association president awarded a duplicate trophy to Collins and Aldrin at a ceremony. The crew was awarded the 1969 General Thomas D. White USAF Space Trophy. The National Space Club named the crew the winners of the 1970 Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy, awarded annually for the greatest achievement in spaceflight. They received the international Harmon Trophy for\",\n \"-27.532062486552604\"\n ],\n [\n \"logged more than 5,500 hours flying time. NASA experience Grabe became a NASA astronaut in August 1981. He has served as a chief verification pilot for STS-3 and STS-4 entry guidance, navigation and control simulation testing; as the Deputy Manager for Operations Integration, Space Shuttle Program Office; and subsequently as the Chief of Training within the Astronaut Office. A veteran of four space flights, Grabe served as Pilot on STS-51-J (October 3–7, 1985) and STS-30 (May 4–8, 1989), and was the mission commander on STS-42 (January 22–30, 1992) and STS-57 (June 21 to July 1, 1993).\\nGrabe has logged over 627\",\n \"-27.514994745113654\"\n ],\n [\n \"months. Astronauts will receive an orientation on the major spacefaring nations, their space agencies, and all major manned and unmanned space programs. Training in this phase also looks into applicable laws and policies of the space sector. Technical (including engineering, astrodynamics, propulsion, orbital mechanics, etc.) and scientific (including human physiology, biology, earth observation, and astronomy) basics are introduced, to ensure that all new astronauts have the required base level of knowledge. Training is done on ISS operations and facilities, including an introduction to all major operating systems on board the ISS that are required for its functionality as a\",\n \"-27.51263261398708\"\n ],\n [\n \"crew to alert them that the managers had decided to make a 24-hour delay to EVA-1, originally scheduled for Flight Day 4, and that Stanley Love would replace Hans Schlegel for EVA-1 on Monday. During the post-MMT briefing, Mission Management Chairman John Shannon explained there was a \\\"crew medical issue\\\", but it would not impact the mission objectives. For reasons of medical privacy, Shannon said NASA can not disclose which crewmember is affected, and no details would be given as to the nature of the issue, but Shannon said it was not something to be concerned about. Unconfirmed news reports\",\n \"-27.500489128628033\"\n ],\n [\n \"the crew's return to Earth, creating a one-star observation system that would allow astronauts to determine their location with accuracy. In a 2010 interview, Johnson recalled, \\\"Everybody was concerned about them getting there. We were concerned about them getting back.\\\" Later in her career, Johnson worked on the Space Shuttle program, the Earth Resources Satellite, and on plans for a mission to Mars. Personal life In 1939, Katherine (then Coleman) married James Francis Goble. They had three daughters: Constance, Joylette, and Katherine. In 1953, she and James moved their family to Newport News to pursue a new job opportunity. In\",\n \"-27.499522173533478\"\n ],\n [\n \"Station. The astronauts use a colour-coded ultrasound machine and make calls to Moynihan using a VoIP phone. During a sixth-month mission, one of the astronauts, who suffered with a history of knee injury, developed a persistent pain. This was assessed using ultrasound, where images were live streamed back to the planet Earth.\\nShe took part in the BBC documentary Women with the Right Stuff and the book Promised the Moon. She appeared in the Channel 4 documentary, Live from Space. She is affiliated with San Jacinto Methodist Hospital.\",\n \"-27.49768620667055\"\n ],\n [\n \"different mission activities. It is vital that astronauts are familiar with their assigned experiments in order to complete them in a timely manner, with as little intervention from the ground as possible.\\nFor missions to the ISS, each astronaut is required to become proficient at one hundred or more experiments. During training, the scientists responsible for the experiments do not have direct contact with the astronauts who will be carrying them out. Instead, scientists instruct trainers who in turn prepare the astronauts for carrying out the experiment. Much of this training is done at the European Astronaut Center.\\nFor human experiments, the\",\n \"-27.481139770932714\"\n ],\n [\n \"Two 6.5 hour spacewalks were conducted by three astronauts to test hardware and tools to be used in the assembly of the International Space Station starting in late 1998. EVA-1 on flight day five consisted of Crewmembers Leroy Chiao (EV1) and Dan Barry (EV2). After taking a few minutes to acclimate themselves in the payload bay, first-time spacewalkers Chiao and Barry attached a portable work platform to the end of the robot arm, operated by Pilot Brent Jett and Mission Specialist Koichi Wakata. Jett used the arm to grapple various pieces of hardware designed to hold large modular components, mimicking\",\n \"-27.479349244140394\"\n ],\n [\n \"Human Research Facility at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas. Meir coordinated and supported human space life science experiments that were performed by astronauts on Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) missions. These experiments included physiological studies (bone loss, muscle control/atrophy, lung function, etc.) to determine if any bodily processes were altered in the spaceflight environment. Meir guided these experiments through the necessary review cycles, developed procedures that the astronauts would use on-orbit, trained crew members, and provided ground support in the Mission Control Center while the astronauts were performing the experiments on the shuttle or\",\n \"-27.463512056951004\"\n ],\n [\n \"38-minute EVA to a close .\\nA final scheduled task, an inspection of bolts on one of two Strela hand-operated cranes on the docking compartment, was postponed to a future EVA. Conclusion This mission was the longest expedition to the ISS thus far. Also, the Soyuz capsule was the oldest one ever used. López-Alegría, already the U.S. recordholder for spacewalks, now also holds the record for longest spaceflight by a NASA astronaut.\",\n \"-27.424848617483804\"\n ],\n [\n \"spaceflight has so far been human-piloted, with the first autonomous human-carrying spacecraft under design starting in 2015.\\nRussia and China have human spaceflight capability with the Soyuz program and Shenzhou program. In the United States, SpaceShipTwo reached the edge of space in 2018; this was the first crewed spaceflight from the US since the Space Shuttle retired in 2011. Currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use Soyuz vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The United States is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to ISS and low Earth orbit, as\",\n \"-27.420268021767697\"\n ],\n [\n \"second most experienced spacewalker overall, behind Russia's Anatoly Solovyev. On April 2, 2007, López-Alegría set the record for the longest space mission of any American astronaut. When he landed on April 21, his time in space on a single mission was 215 days. (The longest space mission on record is that of Valeriy Polyakov, who spent 437 days aboard the Russian space station Mir in 1994 and 1995.) After NASA López-Alegría retired from NASA on March 12, 2012 and served as the President of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation through the end of 2014.\\nLópez-Alegría is an independent consultant to traditional and\",\n \"-27.380987486887534\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the astronauts engaged in the EASE/ACCESS work, as well as other scenes of interest.\\n\\\"This is probably not the preferred way of building a space station,\\\" Ross said later of EASE. The astronauts reported that the most difficult part of the spacewalks was torquing their own masses while holding the EASE beams. The ACCESS worked well, while EASE required too much free floating. The astronauts judged that performing six-hour spacewalks every other day over a five or six-day period was feasible, and recommended glove changes to reduce hand fatigue. Ross said in the Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) debrief that the crew\",\n \"-27.36678674086579\"\n ],\n [\n \"over 461 hours in space including over 19 EVA hours in 3 space walks. Following STS-97, Noriega trained as the backup commander for ISS Expedition 6 and later as a member of the crew of STS-121. In July 2004, Noriega was replaced by Piers Sellers on the crew of STS-121 due to a temporary medical condition. While awaiting future flight assignment Noriega served as Chief, Exploration Systems Engineering Division, Engineering Directorate, Johnson Space Center. In January 2005, Noriega retired from the NASA Astronaut Corps, but continues to serve as the Manager, Advanced Projects Office, Constellation Program, Johnson Space Center. Spaceflight\",\n \"-27.36580799332478\"\n ],\n [\n \"station is operated and controlled by Roscosmos and provides Russia with the right to nearly one-half of the crew time for the ISS. The allocation of remaining crew time (three to four crew members of the total permanent crew of six) and hardware within the other sections of the station is as follows: Columbus: 51% for the ESA, 46.7% for NASA, and 2.3% for CSA. Kibō: 51% for the JAXA, 46.7% for NASA, and 2.3% for CSA. Destiny: 97.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA. Crew time, electrical power and rights to purchase supporting services (such as data upload and\",\n \"-27.34959324315787\"\n ],\n [\n \"had logged more than 3,000 hours of flight time when NASA selected him for astronaut training in December 1994. He was one of 19 candidates selected from a pool of 2,962 applicants. NASA Anderson reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995. He completed a year of training and evaluation, and was qualified for flight crew assignment as a mission specialist. Anderson was initially assigned technical duties in the Flight Support Branch of the Astronaut Office, but went on to log more than 593 hours in space aboard two Space Shuttle missions. Endeavour STS-89 Endeavour (January 22–31, 1998). Anderson\",\n \"-27.339738286460488\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":278,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2vqb3g"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why did the Germans put those barricades on the beaches for the D-Day strikes? Wouldn't it have been better to have left the beach with as little cover as possible for the allied troops landing?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["It prevented the Allies from landing tanks on the beach and advancing upon the gun positions.","One name for those is \"Czech hedgehogs\" (there may be others). They're obstacles and their purpose was to impede, stop, or damage tanks, landing craft or other watercraft/vehicles that were coming ashore. Their design makes it very difficult to go over them. If your enemy gets \"hung up\" on one, it makes them easy targets, and also prevents them from getting to you. [more info]( URL_0 )","An important thing to note is that the landings occured at low tide. IIRC, the germans expected them to land at high tide, because that would mean the troops had less open ground on the beach to cover once they got off the landing craft. At high tide many of those obstacles would have been underwater and would have torn up the landing craft. Some of them were also tipped with mines to straight up blow the boats up.","Pretty sure they were to prevent the rapid deployment of tanks.","To keep tanks and other motorized vehicles from rolling off of the boats. They give you as much cover area as a 2x4","There were also many under water, or hidden by tides. They came in [all shapes and sizes]( URL_0 ) They deterred boats and large vehicles from using the beach easily, one of many layers of protection to delay large equipment (like bulldozers and tanks) and establishing a beachhead. Past these obstacles were walls, trenches, barbed wire, concrete pillboxes, machine gun nests, and a variety of huge artillery guns miles away, all with their crosshairs on the beaches. When the [Atlantic Wall]( URL_1 ) was built, the Germans plan was to basically stall the enemy on the beaches until nearby planes, artillery, tanks and other reinforcements could help. When the Allies finally attacked on D-Day, they had lots of planning, the element of surprise, bombing from air and ships, and thousands of paratroopers dropped across the French countryside to cause trouble and prevent German reinforcements from helping."],"string":"[\n \"It prevented the Allies from landing tanks on the beach and advancing upon the gun positions.\",\n \"One name for those is \\\"Czech hedgehogs\\\" (there may be others). They're obstacles and their purpose was to impede, stop, or damage tanks, landing craft or other watercraft/vehicles that were coming ashore. Their design makes it very difficult to go over them. If your enemy gets \\\"hung up\\\" on one, it makes them easy targets, and also prevents them from getting to you. [more info]( URL_0 )\",\n \"An important thing to note is that the landings occured at low tide. IIRC, the germans expected them to land at high tide, because that would mean the troops had less open ground on the beach to cover once they got off the landing craft. At high tide many of those obstacles would have been underwater and would have torn up the landing craft. Some of them were also tipped with mines to straight up blow the boats up.\",\n \"Pretty sure they were to prevent the rapid deployment of tanks.\",\n \"To keep tanks and other motorized vehicles from rolling off of the boats. They give you as much cover area as a 2x4\",\n \"There were also many under water, or hidden by tides. They came in [all shapes and sizes]( URL_0 ) They deterred boats and large vehicles from using the beach easily, one of many layers of protection to delay large equipment (like bulldozers and tanks) and establishing a beachhead. Past these obstacles were walls, trenches, barbed wire, concrete pillboxes, machine gun nests, and a variety of huge artillery guns miles away, all with their crosshairs on the beaches. When the [Atlantic Wall]( URL_1 ) was built, the Germans plan was to basically stall the enemy on the beaches until nearby planes, artillery, tanks and other reinforcements could help. When the Allies finally attacked on D-Day, they had lots of planning, the element of surprise, bombing from air and ships, and thousands of paratroopers dropped across the French countryside to cause trouble and prevent German reinforcements from helping.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["to hit the beach defences. The Germans had 570 aircraft stationed in Normandy and the Low Countries on D-Day, and another 964 in Germany.\nMinesweepers began clearing channels for the invasion fleet shortly after midnight and finished just after dawn without encountering the enemy. The Western Task Force included the battleships Arkansas, Nevada, and Texas, plus eight cruisers, 28 destroyers, and one monitor. The Eastern Task Force included the battleships Ramillies and Warspite and the monitor Roberts, twelve cruisers, and thirty-seven destroyers. Naval bombardment of areas behind the beach commenced at 05:45, while it was still dark, with the gunners switching","-37.541810512775555"],["and antitank obstacles were planted on the beaches, and underwater obstacles and naval mines were placed in waters just offshore. The intent was to destroy the Allied landing craft before they could unload on the beaches. D-Day By the time of the Allied invasion, the Germans had laid almost six million mines in Northern France. More gun emplacements and minefields extended inland along roads leading away from the beaches. In likely landing spots for gliders and parachutists, the Germans emplanted slanted poles with sharpened tops, which the troops called Rommelspargel (\"Rommel's Asparagus\"). Low-lying river and estuarine areas were intentionally flooded.","-36.22275253053522"],["counter-attacks before the arrival of sufficient forces in the beachhead could be accomplished. To slow or eliminate the enemy's ability to organise and launch counter-attacks during this critical period, airborne operations were used to seize key objectives such as bridges, road crossings, and terrain features, particularly on the eastern and western flanks of the landing areas. The airborne landings some distance behind the beaches were also intended to ease the egress of the amphibious forces off the beaches, and in some cases to neutralise German coastal defence batteries and more quickly expand the area of the beachhead.\nThe US 82nd and","-36.022531777387485"],["attacks on ships offshore, and the beach and boardwalk closed at 9:00 p.m. to make it easier for military personnel to patrol against landings by enemy agents and saboteurs. Many personnel of the various armed forces were billeted in the town or based nearby, German prisoners of war were held in the area, a radar station was built nearby to the west, and the United States Army built a gunnery control tower south of town to support the Coast Artillery guns at Fort Miles on Cape Henlopen. Patrol dogs intended for use along the entire United States East Coast were trained","-35.797774784849025"],["would spend less time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high-tide mark. Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry. On Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled. Given the Allied air supremacy (4,029 Allied aircraft assigned to operations in Normandy plus 5,514 aircraft assigned to bombing and defence, versus 570 Luftwaffe planes stationed in France and the Low Countries), booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's asparagus) were set up in meadows and fields to deter airborne","-35.670405480545014"],["way into the beach due to their draught. Also some of the tasks that had been assigned were impractical or had not been rehearsed—the wire intended for use as a road block was too heavy to carry from the beach—and intelligence relating to German dispositions upon the island was at best outdated or completely wrong. The commandos also found they were burdened with equipment that was not of use, including steel helmets, gaiters and an excess of ammunition. Largely this was the result of the haste with which the operation had been conceived and then put together, but it was","-35.26955292606726"],["the shores of Normandy. Blockhouses had token defense, but were excellent in making counterattacks. Certain blockhouses also had the ability to fire out to sea, allowing the German player to eliminate allied reinforcements for the next turn. Conversely, naval bombardment (represented by a naval bombardment phase in D-Day) allowed the safe removal of blockhouses from play. Battleship Battleships are the most expensive units in Axis & Allies, but have unparalleled attack and defense capabilities. Originally the same as other units in the fact that a single hit destroyed the unit (making it an expensive proposition), a","-35.14064792339923"],["five landing beaches, due to its rough terrain and bluffs overlooking the beach, which had been well fortified by its German defenders of the 352nd Infantry Division. The 116th Infantry was assigned four sectors of the beach; Easy Green, Dog Red, Dog White, and Dog Green. Soldiers of the 29th Infantry Division boarded a large number of attack transports for the D-Day invasion, among them landing craft, landing ship, tank, and landing ship, infantry ships and other vessels such as the SS Empire Javelin, USS Charles Carroll, and USS Buncombe County.\nAs the ships were traveling to the beach, the heavy seas, combined","-35.09753599703254"],["the Germans had constructed a network of trenches, gun pits, mortar pits, and machine gun nests. Barbed wire surrounded these positions and lined the beach. The beachfront itself, being generally flat and exposed, was guarded by a few scattered bunkers, with machine gun and sniper posts in some of the holiday homes and tourist facilities lining the shore. To reinforce the defences, six strongpoints had been constructed, each with at least eight 5 cm Pak 38 50mm anti-tank guns, four 75mm guns, and one 88mm gun. One of the strongpoints (codenamed Cod by the British), faced directly on to Queen","-35.032040182792116"],["the beach had failed to do so, however, and another brief fire-fight was required to eliminate the Germans guarding the beach. The raiding force was then picked up by a small number of landing craft and transferred to several Motor Gun Boats which brought them back to Britain. The raid was entirely successful. The airborne troops suffered only a few casualties, and the pieces of the radar they brought back, along with a German radar technician, allowed British scientists to understand German advances in radar and to create counter-measures to neutralise those advances. Norway Operation Freshman was the first British","-34.78380383551121"],["and deal with various anti-tank emplacements and bunkers. Once past the beach, the Allied troops would have faced minefields, barbed wire, flooded areas and ditches while still under fire from the artillery, and now from the sechsschartentürme. Luckily for Allied soldiers, Allied High Command decided that the invasion of Normandy would bypass the Channel Islands.","-34.66177727066679"],["patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 28 September 1944. Today the long dismantled airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.","-34.344423578411806"],["beach defences, take prisoners and destroy a searchlight battery. Defences were found to be light and/or abandoned as they advanced and only three Germans were encountered at close quarters who withdrew immediately. The official report recorded, \"no determined opposition\". A fighting patrol of 12 men sent to destroy the searchlights reached their objective but had to retire before pressing home their attack due to lack of time remaining signalled by the re-call rocket.\nOn 19 August 1942, the Dieppe raid a major landing took place at the French coastal town of Dieppe. The main force was provided by the 2nd Canadian","-34.32678020116873"],["strongpoint near the beach as well as pillboxes and machine gun nests on the top of the cliff overlooking the beach. The beach was not land mined and had only sporadic barbed-wire defences, but it was patrolled regularly; a mobile reserve of infantry was believed to be available at one hour's notice and stationed some distance inland.\nBased on this information, Frost decided to divide the company into five groups of forty men for the raid, each named after a famous Royal Navy admiral: 'Nelson', 'Jellicoe', 'Hardy', 'Drake' and 'Rodney'. 'Nelson' would clear and secure German positions defending the evacuation beach,","-34.2116244349163"],["by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies. Some of the opening bombardment was off-target or not concentrated enough to have any impact, but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches. Indecisiveness and an overly complicated command structure on the part of the German high command were also factors in the Allied success. War memorials and tourism At Omaha Beach, parts of the Mulberry harbour are still visible, and a few of the beach obstacles","-34.1945947217755"],["could not be used to support the Allied advance. Allied bombers breached the dykes on 3 October at Westkapelle, Flushing and Veere, flooding the island, leaving only a few dry areas around its perimeter and greatly restricting the Germans’ freedom of movement.\nThe 4th Special Service Brigade formed the seaborne element of the attack while British and Canadian infantry attacked overland from the mainland. This time the commandos came ashore in Landing Vehicle Tracked, (also known as Buffaloes), which had already proven their worth in the Pacific campaign. 41 Commando was tasked with assaulting the town of Westkapelle and then to","-34.19145845004823"],["storm the beaches of Normandy. Island assault In one joint training mission with the Army, Navy and Air Force, they simulated a takeover of the island. In preparing to do so they acted as if the island was held by German troops and they needed to infiltrate the island and capture it. To make things as realistic as possible the beaches were covered with barbed wire, beach obstacles and demolitions were planted on the beaches and also further inland. The demolitions were set up to replicate naval gunfire support, artillery and land mines. Along with these obstacles the 75th Composite","-34.070833194049555"],["front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 38 September 1944. Today the long dismantled airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.","-34.03361703432165"],["some landings went to the wrong beaches, this was immaterial because of the extremely low level of French opposition. All the coastal batteries had been neutralized by French resistance, and one French commander openly welcomed the landing Allies. The only fighting took place in the port of Algiers, where in Operation Terminal, two British destroyers attempted to land a party of U.S. Army Rangers directly onto the dock, in order to prevent the French destroying the port facilities and scuttling their ships. Heavy artillery fire prevented one destroyer from landing, but the other was able to disembark 250 Rangers before","-34.03092255251249"],["beaches. The sector chosen for the assault was the 1.8 miles (2.9 km) wide 'White' and 'Red' beaches of 'Queen' sector, as shallow reefs blocked access to the other sectors. Two infantry battalions supported by DD tanks would lead the assault followed up by the commandos and the rest of the division; the landing was due to start at 07:25 hours; the division would be the last assault division to land. German On 23 March 1942, Führer Directive Number 40 called for the official creation of the Atlantic Wall - a line of concrete gun emplacements, machine-gun nests, minefields and beach","-34.00659815908875"],["skirt fitted to the hulls of ships, and energised by a special electric current which countered the threat from these mines securing the future of the north Atlantic convoys on which Britain's war effort depended.\nIn 1944 France was occupied by the Nazis, the Allied Forces hatched a plan to attack the Germans on French soil. D-Day would not have been possible, due to the rough seas if it wasn't for one major element, the Mulberry Harbour.\nOne of the major challenges facing the D-Day landings was to secure a European port for the delivery of essential supplies, but instead of capturing","-33.91769890068099"],["6th Airlanding Brigade overflew their positions, on their way to reinforce the Orne bridgehead in Operation Mallard, the Germans, believing they were about to be cut off, retired.\nThe Luftwaffe was particularly weak in this sector, but tried to support the attack with a few of the rare daylight appearances it made on D-Day. Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle, commanding Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleet 3) was responsible for the air defense of Normandy and ordered all available forces to attack the beachhead. Junkers Ju 88s from Kampfgeschwader 54 (KG 54: Bomber Wing 54) attacked British positions with Butterfly Bombs. III./KG 54 struck Lion-sur-Mer","-33.91104458970949"],["World War II, the beaches of the Île de Ré were fortified by German forces with bunkers, in order to block a possible seaward invasion. Many of the bunkers are still visible, in a more or less derelict state. Several scenes of the 1962 movie The Longest Day were filmed on the beaches of the island. Connection to the mainland In 1987, a two-point-nine-kilometre (1.8 mi) bridge was built to connect the island to the mainland. Previously, the island was connected through roll-on roll-off ferries (called \"bacs\"), which could accommodate vehicles and passengers. In peak summer time periods, the waiting time","-33.91042630182346"],["and the beaches. The turret also guards two roads leading to the interior of the island.\nThere were several of these bunkers lining the headland of St. Ouen's bay and overlooking the low-lying areas beneath. Their locations permitted the bunkers to achieve interlocking fields of fire. Anti-tank ditches, barbed wire, mines and excellent camouflage complemented the bunkers, creating a formidable defensive position. In order to land there, the Allied landing craft would first have had to run the gantlet of artillery fire from the cliffs above to arrive on the beach. The troops would then have to scale an antitank wall","-33.77479057959863"],["to pre-assigned targets on the beach as soon as it was light enough to see, at 05:50. Since troops were scheduled to land at Utah and Omaha starting at 06:30 (an hour earlier than the British beaches), these areas received only about 40 minutes of naval bombardment before the assault troops began to land on the shore. Airborne operations The success of the amphibious landings depended on the establishment of a secure lodgement from which to expand the beachhead to allow the buildup of a well-supplied force capable of breaking out. The amphibious forces were especially vulnerable to strong enemy","-33.74832579033682"],["between the beachhead and Valognes, clear the area of the drop zones to the unit boundary at Les Forges, and link up with the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division.\nGerman forces opposing the operation included the 3rd Battalion, 1058th Grenadier Regiment (91st Air Landing Division) in the vicinity of Saint Come-du-Mont, the 919th Grenadier Regiment (709th Infantry Division) behind Utah Beach, the 191st Artillery Regiment (105mm mountain howitzer, 91st AL Div), and the 6th Parachute Regiment, sent to Carentan during D-Day. Mission description Albany was the first of two parachute missions, with \"Mission Boston\" following it by one hour to drop the","-33.73486099625006"],["time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high water mark. Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry. On Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled. The Allied air offensive over Germany had crippled the Luftwaffe and established air supremacy over western Europe, so Rommel knew he could not expect effective air support. The Luftwaffe could muster only 815 aircraft over Normandy in comparison to the Allies' 9,543. Rommel arranged for booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's","-33.59752432879759"],["3 to 4 days later. Operation Wild Oats was another plan made before the invasion, for XXX Corps and the 1st Airborne Division to cut off a possible German retirement westwards from Caen. The landings were to be supported by the bombardment of the inland defences by Allied strategic bombers, naval bombardment ships and the beaches to be \"drenched\" by rocket and field gun fire from landing craft. D-Day, 6 June The naval bombardment and bombing by the Allied air forces failed to have the destructive effect on German beach defences hoped for and in many places Allied infantry, engineers","-33.50850328383967"],["platoon in the anti-tank company, 116th Infantry Regiment of the 29th Infantry Division in the Allies' D-Day landings on Omaha Beach in Nazi-occupied Normandy, France. After landing in the second wave of the amphibious assault, Ferguson and his platoon, as well as the survivors from the first wave, were pinned down on the beach by heavy rifle, machine gun and artillery fire from the German defenders, and their advance was blocked by extensive barbed wire and other enemy obstacles. Ferguson rose under fire, cleared a passage through the enemy obstacles with a Bangalore torpedo, and was gravely wounded","-33.483606062829494"],["achieved during training; instead, all six landing craft landed at the same time, with the covering troops in the landing craft opening fire on German soldiers gathering at the top of the cliff.\nThis deviation from the original evacuation plan and the enemy fire caused considerable confusion on the beach; some of the landing craft left the beach over-crowded, whilst others left half-empty. However, the radar equipment, German prisoners and all but six of the raiding force were embarked and transferred to motor gunboats for transport back to Britain. On the return journey, Frost learned that the naval force had received","-33.453769034007564"],["attack on the dry dock behind enemy lines was an attempt to neutralise the ability of the German battleship Tirpitz to attack Atlantic supply lines to Britain as the dry dock at St. Nazaire was the only dock on the Atlantic coast of occupied France large enough to accommodate the Tirptiz and, as base, would allow the German battleship to attack British shipping supply lines. The 1952 film Gift Horse starring Trevor Howard was based on the true story of the raid on St. Nazaire.\n David Paton was to see action again when on D-Day, 6 June 1944, he landed","-33.40584938254324"],["as successful as the beach landings, with only 104 dead, 24 of which were caused by glider accidents and 18 by parachute accidents. German counterattacks French sabotage by the FFI, together with the Allied bombing, severed German communication lines, causing initial confusion among the troops. German field commanders were not able to communicate with Army Group G's headquarters. Despite the hampered communications, German commanders acted independently to put measures in effect to counter the Allied invasion. Directly facing the brunt of the Allied landings was the German LXII Corps at Draguignan, commanded by Ferdinand Neuling. Allied paratroopers interrupted his communication lines","-33.33548185694963"],["waves of infantry that reached an invasion beach would be acutely vulnerable without the support of tanks. However, if landing craft were used to carry those tanks, they themselves would be vulnerable to German heavy guns. The loss of too many landing craft would slow the movement of reinforcements from ships offshore and the invasion beaches would be choked with disabled and sunken landing craft. By giving tanks the ability to float, they could be launched from landing craft offshore and make their own way onto the beach. Canal Defence Light The Canal Defence Light (CDL) was a British secret","-33.306198825797765"],["Normandy, patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 7 September 1944. Today the airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.","-33.27693033433752"],["add to their troubles, the area round the airfield they had to protect was too rocky to permit digging in, and there was no time to build blast walls before the enemy was upon them. The air attacks were so severe that casualties inflicted on the British paratroopers forced them to be withdrawn on 25 September. German landings - Operation \"Polar Bear\" On 1 October 1943, a concentration of shipping was observed in the ports of Crete, and early on the following morning a convoy steaming in a north-north-easterly direction south-east of Melos was sighted by British aircraft. Urgent supplies","-33.23704032410751"],["in action. Most of the shore batteries and positions remained in Axis hands. Force A Force E, a group of commandos from the submarine HMS Taku failed to set up beacons on the shore to guide the main British force, due to the bad sea conditions. The garrison had been reinforced and the destroyers HMS Sikh and Zulu bringing in the seaborne troops landed them on the wrong beach, far to the west of the intended landing place. The British destroyer Sikh, which led the landing attempt, was hit by Italian 152 mm (6-inch) shore batteries and German 88 mm anti-tank guns, while","-33.17437601007987"],["enhanced fortifications along the Atlantic Wall, with special emphasis on the most likely invasion front, which stretched from the Netherlands to Cherbourg. Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion, so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore. In addition to concrete gun emplacements at strategic points along the coast, he ordered wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks. Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so","-33.165179037023336"],["out until about 10:00 a.m. but by 10:30 a.m. the British and Canadian divisions had landed fifteen infantry battalions, five Commando units, seven armoured regiments, two Royal Marine armoured support regiments, nine field artillery regiments and two engineer regiments, on a beachhead only 5 mi (8.0 km) wide. By noon the follow-up brigades were ashore and had inched through traffic jams at the beach exits under severe bombardment from German artillery, to begin the advance inland.\nThe German reply was slower than the Allies expected, because the decision to land on 6 June caught the German commanders unprepared. By morning, reports received by","-32.945880854851566"],["The invasion fleet then headed south toward Normandy and navigated the German minefield, through which minesweepers had cleared channels; not a single Omaha Beach vessel was lost. D-Day At 03:00 on 6 June 1944, Texas and the British cruiser Glasgow entered the Omaha Western fire support lane and arrived at her initial firing position 12,000 yards (11,000 m) offshore near Pointe du Hoc at 04:41, as part of a combined total US-British flotilla of 702 ships, including seven battleships and five heavy cruisers.\nThe initial bombardment commenced at 05:50, against the site of six 15-centimetre (6 in) guns, atop Pointe du Hoc. When","-32.93444580025971"],["Bay.\nEarly in 1944 a coast ban, from The Wash to Cornwall, had come into force and visitors were only allowed in if possessing appropriate permits: this was to ensure absolute security surrounded the preparation of Operation Overlord and the D-Day landings. Torquay played a vital role in the landings, more than 23,000 men of the American 4th Infantry Division departed from Torquay for Utah Beach during Overlord.\nThe visiting restrictions were lifted in early July soon after the beach-head in Normandy had been established following the D-Day landings, and the American and Commonwealth troops billeted in the town had departed for","-32.892176947323605"],["beach and ignited when the Australian ground troops made their assaults. The group attacked the beach while naval underwater demolition teams operated offshore without losing a man. The attacks were so effective that the Australian Seventh Division was able to come ashore without enemy opposition. Cold War Reactivated as a Strategic Air Command Convair B-36 Peacemaker bombardment squadron in 1953. Engaged in worldwide training missions with the B-36 until 1956 when re-equipped with the jet Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. Deployed to Western Pacific during the Vietnam War and flew conventional Arc Light bombardment missions over enemy military and","-32.89109970431309"],["end of the Allied landing zone and at the same time limiting the Allies' potential to break out of the beachhead. Thus control of the bridges at Manoir de la Fière and Chef-du-Pont was seen as vital. The Merderet was assigned to the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division as Mission Boston, scheduled for 5 hours before the amphibious landings on D-Day. Cloud cover and German fire caused the landings to be dispersed; the paratroopers took the strategic town of Sainte-Mère-Église but failed in their original mission to clear the west bank of the Merderet on D-Day and blow the bridge over","-32.88752241835755"],["left (northern) flank, to join the 6th Airborne Division at the Orne crossings.\nThe unsettled weather that lulled the German commanders also pushed the tide in quicker and further than expected, which covered obstacles and reduced the beaches to a strip about 11 yd (10 m) from the water's edge to the sea wall, delaying the landing of follow-on forces and Sword was reduced to only 15 yd (14 m) instead of the usual 150 yd (140 m) of beach. Fire from unsuppressed German machine-gun nests swept the beach as the British advanced to capture the beachfront resorts and villas. A German strongpoint at La Brèche held","-32.87604448173079"],["to RAF squadrons equipped with Hawker Typhoon fighter-bombers also attacked German vehicles and positions in direct support of the Allied ground troops throughout the month. No. 456 Squadron, which was one of four night fighter squadrons assigned to protect the beachhead, frequently met German aircraft and shot down twelve of them in the week after the landing. Australian fighter ace Flight Lieutenant Nicky Barr, who had escaped from German custody in Italy during 1943, also briefly served in an air support control unit in Normandy. Barr landed at Omaha Beach on 9 June, but returned to the UK three days later","-32.870051439036615"],["D-Day landings. Some 30 senior officers, each with a staff vehicle and radio also took part in a top secret deception exercise to convince the Germans that a major sea assault was being prepared but could not be launched until at least September 1944.\nThe centre closed in June 1946 and the site is now occupied by a caravan park.","-32.84539221774321"],["patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 7 September 1944. Today the airfield consists of agricultural fields, likely located to the east of the commune, as a large section of land appears to have an outline of an airfield by its field shapes.","-32.83087953651557"],["landing zone to quickly seize the high ground overlooking the beaches. Parallel to the invasion, several commando units were to take control of the islands off the coast.\nThe Allied plan consisted of a three-division landing of US forces led by Major General Lucian Truscott to secure a bridgehead on the first day. Their flanks were to be protected by French, American and Canadian commando units. Within 24 hours, 50,000–60,000 troops and 6,500 vehicles were to be disembarked. The airborne landings would concentrate in an area near Draguignan and Le Muy, with the aim of taking these towns to prevent German","-32.80276645103004"],["maximum disruption of air defenses when heavy bomber groups returning from bombardment raids. Destroyed many enemy aircraft on the ground; destroyed support buildings; barracks and enemy aircraft on the ground.\nAfter D-Day invasion of Europe, engaged in tactical air support of Allied ground forces, carrying out bombardment attacks against enemy strong points, structures and targets of opportunity when making sweeps of enemy rear areas. Moved from England to Advanced Landing Grounds in France and further eastward as ground forces advanced across continent; engaging enemy targets during the Western Allied invasion of Germany in early 1945. Continued","-32.79852988192579"],["or not such a landing was feasible, the Dieppe raid was to be undertaken by the 4th and 6th Brigades, with additional naval, air, and infantry support. Significant elements of the 5th Brigade were also involved.\nOn 19 August 1942, while British commando units attacked bunker positions on the outskirts of Dieppe, forces of the 2nd Division landed on four beaches. The easternmost, Blue Beach, which was situated at the foot of a sheer cliff, presented the most difficulties; the Royal Regiment of Canada, with a company of the Black Watch, was held at bay by two platoons of German defenders.","-32.77723826485453"],["the beach have been removed and relocated to near the parking area at Birubi Point in Anna Bay while most from the southern end of the beach may be found outside Fort Wallace in Stockton. Some of the tank traps remain submerged and pose a hazard to swimmers.\nDuring World War II the beach was used as a military bombing range and Air Force pilots used to regularly drop unused bombs on the beach before landing at RAAF Base Williamtown. To this day it is occasionally possible to see exposed bombs in the sand.\nStockton Beach is less than 3.5 km (2.2 mi) from","-32.72926748421742"],["the beaches and created \"a 'devil's garden' of beach obstacles ... deployed in rows between 12–17 ft (3.7–5.2 m) above the low-tide mark\". Strongpoints of machine-gun positions, antitank and anti-personnel artillery and bunkers were located every 1,000 yards (910 m), manned by several platoons with mortars. Minefields were deployed surrounding these strongpoints, and additional defences were present in the Courseulles harbour.\nThe Calvados beaches of Normandy were defended by the 716th Static and 352nd Infantry divisions, with the Canadian landing zone defended by elements of the 716th. It was formed mostly from soldiers under 18 or over 35, comprising 7,771 combat troops in six","-32.727993171080016"],["for Allied crossings at the Strait of Dover (see Operation Fortitude), where the senior German staff had always assumed that the invasion would begin.\nSet-piece scenes include the parachute drop into Sainte-Mère-Église, the advance inshore from the Normandy beaches, the U.S. Ranger Assault Group's assault on the Pointe du Hoc, the attack on Ouistreham by Free French Forces, and the strafing of the beaches by two lone Luftwaffe pilots. The film concludes with a montage showing various Allied units consolidating their beachheads before they advance inland by crossing France to eventually reach Germany. Development French producer Raoul Lévy signed a deal","-32.67916898935073"],["Troop A (4th), and SGT John S. Zanders and CPL Melvin F. Kinzie of Troop B (24th) swam ashore armed only with knives to mark the beaches for the landing craft. They became the first seaborne American soldiers to land in France on D-Day. When the invasion began, the troops rapidly captured the islands with no resistance; the Germans had evacuated, but 19 men were killed or wounded due to enemy mines. On 7 June, just south of Utah Beach, a platoon of Troop B, 4th Squadron, linked up with elements of the 82nd Airborne and managed to ambush a","-32.61966421012767"],["Stratford upon Avon, and troops participated in Operation Fortitude, the British-designed and led D-Day deceptions of a landing force designated for the Pas-de-Calais.\nSome troops went to Normandy two weeks after D-Day, where they simulated a fake Mulberry harbour at night with lights which attempted to draw German artillery from the real ones. After this the entire unit assisted in tying up the German defenders of Brest by simulating a larger force than was actually encircling them.\nAs the Allied armies moved east, so did the 23rd, and it eventually was based within Luxembourg, from where it engaged in deceptions of crossings","-32.59457581146853"],["the order for the three detachments to withdraw to the evacuation beach; it became apparent, however, that the beach had not been secured by the under-strength 'Nelson' detachment when a German machine gun opened fire on the airborne troops, severely wounding the company sergeant major. Frost ordered 'Rodney' and the available men of 'Nelson' to clear the defences, whilst he led the other three detachments back to the villa, which had been reoccupied by enemy troops.\nThe villa was soon cleared of enemy troops once more, and when Frost returned to the beach, he found that the machine-gun nest had been","-32.55436185465078"],["Lucian Truscott, landed at Torre di Gaffe, red beach, and Mollarella and Poliscia, green beaches in the west, and Cassibile in the east, with British and Canadian forces in the east and Americans toward the west. This constituted the largest amphibious operation of World War II in terms of size of the landing zone and the number of divisions put ashore on the first day. The Italian defensive plan did not contemplate a pitched battle on the beaches and so the landings themselves were somewhat anti-climactic.\nMore trouble was experienced from the difficult weather conditions (especially on the southern beaches) and","-32.54602463240735"],["the RAF to shield the fleet from the long-range battery at Le Havre. Allied losses to mines included the American destroyer USS Corry off Utah and submarine chaser USS PC-1261, a 173-foot patrol craft. In addition, many landing craft were lost. Bombardment Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with more than 2,200 British, Canadian, and US bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland. The coastal bombing attack was largely ineffective at Omaha, because low cloud cover made the assigned targets difficult to see. Concerned about inflicting casualties on their own troops, many bombers delayed their attacks too long and failed","-32.49791973363608"],["emplacements with infantry strong points along the French coastline. The older gun emplacements based on First World War designs were being replaced by stronger designs with overhead cover to offer protection from air attack. The area of Normandy targeted by Operation Aquatint had yet to receive any concrete gun emplacements but there was a network of coastal artillery batteries able to provide interlocking arcs of fire. German infantry carried out foot patrols in the areas between the batteries. Battle The mission had previously been attempted over the night of 11/12 September 1942, but had to be cancelled after the MTB","-32.49406290799379"],["used per skill type, the weather, equipment inventory and quality, level of supervision, employee absences, staffing levels, deaths and problems experienced all had to be filed with the OT. British attacks Throughout most of 1942–43, the Atlantic Wall remained a relaxed front for the Axis troops manning it, with only two large-scale British attacks. Operation Chariot, launched near St Nazaire in March 1942, successfully destroyed German pumping machinery for, and severely damaged, the Normandie dry dock and installations. The second attack was the Dieppe Raid, launched near the French port of Dieppe in August 1942 to test the German defences","-32.47372302264557"],["against Norway, Denmark, the southern part of western France, and the French Mediterranean coast\", adding that he expected the Allies to subsequently attack in force across the Straits of Dover.\nThey maintained the pretense of FUSAG and other forces threatening Pas de Calais for some considerable time after D-Day, possibly even as late as September 1944. This was vital to the success of the Allied plan, since it forced the Germans to keep most of their reserves bottled up waiting for an attack on Calais that never came, thereby allowing the Allies to maintain and build upon their marginal foothold in","-32.449912279553246"],["Even the battalion left to defend the beaches was virtually unscathed. During the assault, the island's defenders exercised unusual firing discipline to avoid giving away their positions. The bombardment managed only to destroy Japan's aircraft on the island, as well as the buildings surrounding the airfield. The Japanese remained in their fortified positions, ready to attack the American landing troops. Landing U.S. Marines landed on Peleliu at 08:32, on September 15, the 1st Marines to the north on White Beach 1 and 2 and the 5th and 7th Marines to the center and south on Orange Beach 1, 2, and","-32.392645026760874"],["its assault brigade and 6 Beach Group with its follow-up brigade. Four LCTs, each loaded with 200 tonnes (200 long tons) of high priority stores were beached and rapidly unloaded into temporary dumps near the beaches. These had been intended for use on D-Day only but the intended beach maintenance area had not been captured and was not ready to receive stores until 9 June.\nAlthough it was captured intact on D-Day, the small port of Ouistreham could not be used due to German shellfire from around Caen. There were some attacks by E-boats and a German air raid on 8","-32.37866030447185"],["1943 they built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on the southeast of England. Despite heavy preparations for defence against an amphibious assault, the Allied invasion took place well to the west in Normandy on D-Day. Calais was very heavily bombed and shelled in a successful effort to disrupt German communications and persuade them that the Allies would target the Pas-de-Calais for invasion (rather than Normandy). The town, by then largely in ruins, was laid siege to liberated by General Daniel Spry's 3rd Canadian Infantry Division between 25 September and 1 October 1944. On 27 February","-32.37478656799067"],["The 3rd Infantry Division landed on the left at Alpha Beach (Cavalaire-sur-Mer), the 45th Infantry Division landed in the centre at Delta Beach (Le Muy, Saint-Tropez) and the 36th Infantry Division landed on the right at Camel Beach (Saint-Raphaël).\nThe landings were overwhelmingly successful. On Delta and Alpha beaches, German resistance was low. The Osttruppen surrendered quickly, and the biggest threats to the Allies were the mines. A single German gun and a mortar position were silenced by destroyer fire. The Allied units in this sector were able to secure a bridgehead and quickly linked up with the paratroopers, capturing Saint-Tropez","-32.37166140732006"],["manner. Communications problems exacerbated the difficulties caused by Allied air and naval firepower. Local commanders also seemed incapable of the task of fighting an aggressive defense on the beach, as Rommel had envisioned.\nThe German High Command remained fixated on the Calais area, and von Rundstedt was not permitted to commit the armoured reserve. When it was finally released late in the day, its chance of success was greatly reduced. Overall, despite considerable Allied material superiority, the Germans kept the Allies bottled up in a small beachhead for nearly two months, aided immeasurably by terrain factors.\nAlthough there were several known disputes","-32.34165385609958"],["practice, the sea defense zones became well tested when the Allies invaded western Europe, in particular at the battle of Normandy. Sea Defense zone forces also fought fiercely to avoid losing Germany's submarine bases in France, in one case holding out for several months under Allied siege before surrendering.","-32.333970175590366"],["beachhead during January and February 1944.\nIn July 1944, the squadron moved again to Corsica to take part in the pending Operation Dragoon, the invasion of Southern France. This invasion occurred in August, and the 415th again flew night patrols covering the beachheads. After the Allied ground forces established beachheads, the squadron moved into Southern France, where it supported the U.S 7th Army and the French 1st Army with night interception and anti-night-intruder sorties. The pilots also patrolled the lines at St. Die, and it dropped flares to light up targets for the artillery. Through April 1945, the squadron flew patrols","-32.32661560131237"],["had deliberately breached the dykes around the island and had turned it into a massive lagoon, rimmed by broken dykes. The Germans had installed defences on the dykes to virtually turn them into a continuous fortification bristling with guns of every calibre. The British Marines placed great reliance on Weasel and Buffalo amphibious landing craft. The Royal Marine Commandos were to seize the shoulders of the gap in the dyke and then to fan out north and south to roll up the remainder of the German defences by linking up with the southern thrust. The RAF provided air support and","-32.31116375197598"],["near Port en Bessin in Normandy. The mission was to collect information about the surrounding area, and take a German guard prisoner. After the mission and on their way back to the beach to rejoin the Motor Torpedo Boat which had dropped them off, the SSRF commandos were fired on by a German patrol with machine guns and hand grenades. They attempted to swim out to the MTB which by now had also been discovered and was under fire and, unable to locate it in the darkness, were forced to swim back to the beach.\nHayes came ashore beside Asnieres-en-Bessin and","-32.300569919578265"],["in small domestic shelters. Largely for political reasons most of his recommendations were never adopted, although some wealthy Londoners were able to build concrete shelters according to his design.\nArup played a significant part in the design of the Mulberry temporary harbours used during the D-Day landings.\nThe Mulberry Harbour was a type of temporary harbour developed to offload cargo on the beaches during the Allied invasion of Normandy. The sections for two prefabricated or artificial military harbours were taken with the invading army from Britain across the English Channel and assembled off the coast of Normandy as part of the D-Day","-32.29824980736885"],["the aerial and naval bombardment of German coastal defences and artillery sites. The landing was to be concentrated on Queen Red and Queen White in front of Hermanville-sur-Mer, other approaches having proven impassable due to shoals. At 0725, the first units set off for the beach. These were the amphibious DD tanks of the 13th/18th Hussars; they were followed closely by the 8th Infantry Brigade, and by Royal Engineers in AVREs and the various odd-looking, specialized vehicles that had been nicknamed 'Hobart's funnies'. The engineers set to work clearing mines and obstacles under a steady hail of small arms fire","-32.2880042536126"],["Head Cliffs of Martha's Vineyard in order to simulate live gunfire and bombing rounds. The soldiers who landed on the beach would then have to move up and clear the woods and take control of the beach. These missions were created to simulate the planned landings on the beaches of Normandy during D-Day. If the troops were unable to complete these missions they would not be allowed to ship out and take part in the storming of the beaches in Normandy.\nAnother practice mission that the U.S. Army did to prepare for storming the beaches was practicing climbing the","-32.286881887266645"],["and Le Muy. The most serious fighting was on Camel Beach near the town of Saint-Raphaël. This beach was defended by several well-emplaced coastal guns, as well as flak batteries. Through heavy German fire, the Allies attempted to land at the shore. However, at sector Red of the Camel Beach landing zone, the Allies were not able to succeed. A bombing run of 90 Allied B-24 bombers was called in against a German strongpoint here. Even with the assistance of naval fire, the Allies were not able to bring the landing ships close to the shore. They decided to avoid Camel Red","-32.28159660273377"],["bridge, while another set a tyre dump on fire and blew up the breeches of a number of naval guns. Due to the delays during the landings and the need to depart while it was still dark, time ran out and the commandos were forced to withdraw. On the way back, an officer was shot when he failed to respond correctly when challenged by a sentry; while 67 men, not knowing that there were no assault craft at their beach due to the earlier error, were left behind and later captured.\nDespite the lack of tangible success the raid was not","-32.247588445898145"],["to be released into shallow pits on the beach and ignited when the Australian ground troops made their assaults. The group attacked the beach while naval underwater demolition teams operated offshore without losing a man. The attacks were so effective that the Australian Seventh Division was able to come ashore without enemy opposition. The group continued to support Australian forces in Borneo after this mission, augmented by the B-25s of the 38th Bombardment Group of Fifth Air Force.\nThe group's final combat action of World War II was attacking isolated Japanese units on Luzon during July and August 1945.","-32.24424319251557"],["to simulate landing craft approaching, firing salvos of rockets and dropping dummies overboard to give the impression of troops wading ashore.\nIn the south, the main invasion force was approaching the island when, at 03:38, a signal flare was fired and the Germans opened fire on the landing craft. The Royal Navy Commandos of Able 1 and Oboe 3 Commando with Able 2 in reserve landed at 03:50. They approached the beach toward their objective: the heavily armed German flak ship Köln, which was berthed at Marina di Campo and had a commanding view of both beaches.\nThis made its capture or destruction vital to","-32.197905275941594"],["linked with a front line 10 to 16 kilometres (6 to 10 mi) from the beaches; none of these objectives were achieved. The five beachheads were not connected until 12 June, by which time the Allies held a front around 97 kilometres (60 mi) long and 24 kilometres (15 mi) deep. Caen, a major objective, was still in German hands at the end of D-Day and would not be completely captured until 21 July. The Germans had ordered French civilians other than those deemed essential to the war effort to leave potential combat zones in Normandy. Civilian casualties on D-Day and D+1 are","-32.182063077692874"],["fire from the cliffs above. Problems clearing the beach of obstructions led to the beachmaster calling a halt to further landings of vehicles at 08:30. A group of destroyers arrived around this time to offer supporting artillery fire. Exit from Omaha was possible only via five gullies, and by late morning barely six hundred men had reached the higher ground. By noon, as the artillery fire took its toll and the Germans started to run out of ammunition, the Americans were able to clear some lanes on the beaches. They also started clearing the draws of enemy defences so that","-32.055104968414526"],["put ashore by Landing Craft Tank vessels, along with the supporting engineers. Some problems were anticipated and allowed for: waterproofing of the hulls, canvas carpets to aid the tanks crossing the shingle beach, engineer teams to demolish obstacles and a few of the tanks were fitted with flame-throwers.\nIn the event, the German defences were stronger than expected. The shingle \"chert\" of the beach was also a problem: according to history professor Hugh Henry, the German defenders had previously considered it impassable to tanks. Only the 30 Churchills in the first two waves of 10 LCTs made the beach, landing under","-32.00786868529394"],["War Two During World War II, the Germans and Italians strengthened the island's fortifications as part of the Atlantic Wall. The Italian contingent was made up of two officers and just over one hundred sailors, included in the Divisione Atlantica of the Repubblica Sociale Italiana. The Normandy campaign in the summer of 1944 saw the German-Italian garrison heavily bombarded by land artillery, naval artillery, and air strikes. Guns on the island contributed to the defense of St. Malo. The island's three-hundred-man garrison eventually surrendered to elements of the U.S. 83rd Infantry Division on 2 September 1944. Post-war","-32.00147327597915"],["Ouistreham, and the Orne and Caen Canal bridges.\nB Troop took up its coast defence position at Ouistreham on D+2, where it came under enemy artillery fire, suffering some casualties and damage. As part of the coast defence role, Gun Control Radar sets were used to plot Parachute mines being dropped by German aircraft in the anchorage (though the AA guns were forbidden to engage them for fear of causing casualties among the shipping). Given the low intensity of air attacks, HAA guns in the bridgehead were sometimes made available to fire on ground targets for bombardment, counter-battery and anti-tank shoots.","-32.001250092405826"],["the morning, Germans in fortified resistance nests directed a withering fire on to flights of LCAs touching down on the beach, which added to the troubles of the assault units. At approximately 09:50, approaching the shore side town of Asnelles, five of the LCAs transporting No.47 Royal Marine Commando ashore blew up mines or were wrecked on beach obstacles with the loss of more than a fifth of the Commando before they reached the beach. Juno Beach On Juno Beach, RCN, RN, and RM flotillas employed 142 LCAs and experienced some difficulty getting the units of the 3rd Canadian Infantry","-31.950747220078483"],["1941 by the German Wehrmacht as a school for anti-aircraft personnel. The barracks were meant to look like a small village, in order not to be bombed by the allied or British bombers, which it never was.\nJust near the barracks of Nymindegab lay the Atlantic Wall, stretching from Nordkap in Norway to the Pyrenees by the Spanish border. Because of this bunkers lay along the coast as a constant reminder of WW2. Among these the Tirpitz-position (in German: Batterie Vogelsnest), which was being built (but never finished) in order to protect the port of Esbjerg.\nFollowing the Second World War it","-31.93394542625174"],["bases. The German Air Force used Harvey Barracks for an airport and they would flood the landing strip there when Allied forces would fly overhead. Below Harvey Barracks were multiple levels of hangars which still contain some German World War II aircraft. The hangars were booby-trapped by the retreating Germans close to the end of World War II. Tunnels were said to have been constructed by the Germans from the airfield out to the nearest highway, so that aircraft could be launched off the road to intercept allied planes. Because of the danger involved, no one had been inside the","-31.905110850231722"],["and troop carriers to clear any remaining German bunkers and snipers. The NCDU teams (designated Demolitions Gap-Assault teams) would come in with the second wave and work at low tide to clear the obstacles. Their mission was to open sixteen 50-foot (15 m) wide corridors for the landing at each of the U.S. landing zones (Omaha Beach and Utah Beach). Unfortunately, the plans could not be executed as laid out. The preparatory air and naval bombardment was ineffective, leaving many German guns in position to fire on the attackers. Also, tidal conditions caused many of the NCDU teams to land prematurely","-31.903535045916215"],["to D-Day, German raids on coastal areas were expected and Torquay's took place on 29 May when some 20 planes are believed to have been in Torbay laying mines. Some carried bombs and these were dropped around the Harbour, in Chelston and elsewhere. Nos 4 and 5 Park Crescent were destroyed but the worst affected property was \"Bay Court Hotel\" where rescuers dug for days for survivors. This was the last recorded raid during the war in Torquay, but throughout the past four years the air attacks had resulted in well over 700 'air raid alerts' being sounded in the","-31.897433856269345"],["operations against targets on the Continent, strafed targets of opportunity, and flew fighter-bomber, counter-air, and area-patrol missions. Engaged primarily in B-17/B-24 escort activities and fighter sweeps until the Normandy invasion in June 1944.\nPatrolled the beachhead during the invasion. Strafed and dive-bombed troops, bridges, locomotives, railway cars, barges, vehicles, airfields, gun emplacements, flak towers, ammunition dumps, power stations, and radar sites while on escort or fighter-bomber missions as the Allies drove across France during the summer and fall of 1944. The unit flew area patrols to support the breakthrough at Saint-Lô in July and the airborne attack on the Netherlands in","-31.87550377950538"],["front line troops, holding a sector of the Allied front line, badly depleted after the withdrawal of forces for the D-Day landings in Normandy, nipping around in their jeeps to fool the Germans into believing that they were opposed by much larger units.\nSeveral operations used DUKWs or small landing craft called RCLs (manned by 7 Royal Engineers who became known as \"Popski’s Private Navy\") to sail up the Adriatic and get behind the German front line, escorted by the Royal Navy’s Coastal Forces.\nThroughout the bitter winter weather and fighting of 1944 and 1945 PPA undertook their operations ahead of regular","-31.873851206852123"],["perimeter, although it was able to stop German attacks by mid-morning thanks to heavy naval fire from a British cruiser off the shore of Sicily. By dusk 3rd Parachute Battalion to the north had been forced to retreat after suffering heavy casualties and facing repeated German assaults, and the surviving paratroopers began moving towards 2nd Parachute Battalion's positions; at the same time, Lonsdale managed to make contact with M4 Sherman tanks from 44th Royal Tank Regiment, part of the British 4th Armoured Brigade, who had advanced from the British beachheads. As the 3rd Parachute Battalion troops reached his company's positions,","-31.87051262613386"],["June 6, 1944, Peregory landed with the 116th at Omaha Beach as part of the Normandy Invasion, also known as D-Day. His unit was among the first wave of troops to assault the beach but despite fierce enemy resistance that included heavy shelling and machine gun fire, his unit made its way to the town of Grandcampe, by June 8.\nWhile his unit advanced on the German defenses, the leading elements of his unit began receiving fire from German forces. The Germans were firmly entrenched on high ground overlooking the town and were able to inflict severe damage to allied forces","-31.866534616739955"],["during this time. \nThe fighter planes flew support missions during the Allied invasion of Normandy, patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied armies, the airfield was used as a resupply and casualty evacuation airfield, before being closed on 5 September 1944. The land was returned to agricultural use. Current use Today there is little or no physical evidence of the airfield's existence, with the land","-31.858794351486722"],["the Luftwaffe bomber wing Kampfgeschwader 54 made several attacks on the British beachheads on D-Day.\nThe Eighth Air Force attacked various tactical targets in France on 15 June. To counter this attack, Jagdfliegerführer 5 dispatched the German fighters at dawn. Priller and his wingman, Unteroffizier Heinz Wodarczyk, joined II. Gruppe, heading for the area west of Caen and encountered the USAAF heavy bombers just as they were crossing the French coast. Avoiding the escort fighters, Priller attacked the first combat box of about twenty B-24 bombers from the front. Priller shot down a B-24 from the 492nd Bomb Group flying in","-31.84895972837694"],["of the South Hams that they were all to be evacuated from the area by 20 December 1943. Although nobody was told the reason, it was because The War Office had chosen to use Slapton Sands to rehearse the D-Day landings, as the beach at Slapton is very similar to the beach at Normandy which had been chosen for the landings. Ultimately, 749 American soldiers lost their lives at Slapton Sands in April, 1944 in a German attack during the exercises.\nToday, East Allington is a thriving village, with some new housing. It has a church, primary school, village hall, public","-31.846766149101313"],["river, but was delayed by rough seas on the proposed landing beach. This gave the Vichy French defenders enough time to destroy the bridge. When the commandos eventually landed in daylight, in three separate places, the initial landing was almost unopposed due to the defenders being in combat against the Australian troops, subsequently in the fighting they took heavy casualties, among them Pedder, who was killed in an assault on the French barracks. He was succeeded in command by Geoffrey Keyes, whose party was ultimately able to secure the crossing by getting over the river in canvas boats with the","-31.78388493019156"],["du Hoc which commanded the Omaha landing beaches. After escorting minesweepers to the beach area on the night of 5 and 6 June, she commenced pre-arranged fire on Pointe du Hoc at 05:48, 6 June. As the Rangers landed, she broke up enemy units attempting to oppose them from the top of the cliff.\nAlthough the rangers found that the battery's guns had been removed before the landings, German resistance was stiff, and Satterlee provided gunfire support for the rest of the day. Satterlee remained off the Normandy beaches for the next forty days, and then joined the invasion force which","-31.773827141645597"],["Sicily the 17th moved to England to train and prepare for D-Day. Normandy On 9 June 1944, D-day plus 3, along with other battalions, the 17th battalion landed on Utah Beach in Normandy as a part of the Normandy landings and Operation Overlord. They cleared lanes for landing craft by destroying the mine-bearing steel structures that the Germans had implanted in the intertidal zone. They bulldozed roads up the narrow draws through the cliffs lining the beaches. 17th Armored Engineer Battalion were issued new camouflage uniforms for D-Day. These uniforms are the same one used by US Marine Corps in","-31.75636468763696"],["in several attacks on E-boats operating near Normandy as well as German shipping travelling through the English Channel. No. 460 Squadron and Australians in other Bomber Command units also participated in raids on E-Boat bases at Le Havre and Boulogne on the nights of 14/15 June and 15/16 June respectively. July and August By July the Allied armies were having difficulty advancing against the German forces in Normandy. In an attempt to create a breakthrough, the Allied air commanders decided to use heavy bombers to attack German positions. The first of these attacks was made on 7 July by 467 Bomber","-31.742215979262255"],["Invasion of Normandy Planning Allied forces rehearsed their D-Day roles for months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the English coast, 749 U.S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger.\nIn the months leading up to the invasion, the Allied forces conducted a deception operation, Operation Fortitude, aimed at misleading the Germans with respect to the date and place of the invasion.\nThere were several leaks prior to or on D-Day. Through the Cicero affair, the Germans obtained documents containing references to Overlord, but these documents lacked","-31.73067777446704"],["LCVPs carrying the French division beached right on time to be met by heavy machine gun and 88 mm (3.46 in) fire. By 07:00, the German defences in the hills above Kodak Amber beach had forced the incoming landing craft to lay smoke and withdraw. The heavy defensive fire forced the follow-up waves of landing craft to divert to Kodak Green beach, which caused some congestion on the beachhead. Delays and German gunfire kept some landing craft off shore until 14:00.\nThe Royal Navy Commandos—unaware of the diversion to the other beach—had to wait some hours before the French cleared the village and","-31.727961529773893"],["further asserted that dropping behind the island's beaches and overcoming its defences was not a suitable mission for the airborne troops, as they were only lightly armed and vulnerable to the 'friendly fire' of the planned Allied naval bombardment. In the revised blueprint for the airborne divisions, a reinforced regimental combat team (the 505th Parachute Infantry, under Colonel James M. Gavin, with the 3rd Battalion of the 504th PIR and numerous other units attached) from Major General Ridgway's U.S. 82nd Airborne Division would be dropped by parachute north-east of the port of Gela to block the movement of Axis reserves","-31.715512968192343"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"to hit the beach defences. The Germans had 570 aircraft stationed in Normandy and the Low Countries on D-Day, and another 964 in Germany.\\nMinesweepers began clearing channels for the invasion fleet shortly after midnight and finished just after dawn without encountering the enemy. The Western Task Force included the battleships Arkansas, Nevada, and Texas, plus eight cruisers, 28 destroyers, and one monitor. The Eastern Task Force included the battleships Ramillies and Warspite and the monitor Roberts, twelve cruisers, and thirty-seven destroyers. Naval bombardment of areas behind the beach commenced at 05:45, while it was still dark, with the gunners switching\",\n \"-37.541810512775555\"\n ],\n [\n \"and antitank obstacles were planted on the beaches, and underwater obstacles and naval mines were placed in waters just offshore. The intent was to destroy the Allied landing craft before they could unload on the beaches. D-Day By the time of the Allied invasion, the Germans had laid almost six million mines in Northern France. More gun emplacements and minefields extended inland along roads leading away from the beaches. In likely landing spots for gliders and parachutists, the Germans emplanted slanted poles with sharpened tops, which the troops called Rommelspargel (\\\"Rommel's Asparagus\\\"). Low-lying river and estuarine areas were intentionally flooded.\",\n \"-36.22275253053522\"\n ],\n [\n \"counter-attacks before the arrival of sufficient forces in the beachhead could be accomplished. To slow or eliminate the enemy's ability to organise and launch counter-attacks during this critical period, airborne operations were used to seize key objectives such as bridges, road crossings, and terrain features, particularly on the eastern and western flanks of the landing areas. The airborne landings some distance behind the beaches were also intended to ease the egress of the amphibious forces off the beaches, and in some cases to neutralise German coastal defence batteries and more quickly expand the area of the beachhead.\\nThe US 82nd and\",\n \"-36.022531777387485\"\n ],\n [\n \"attacks on ships offshore, and the beach and boardwalk closed at 9:00 p.m. to make it easier for military personnel to patrol against landings by enemy agents and saboteurs. Many personnel of the various armed forces were billeted in the town or based nearby, German prisoners of war were held in the area, a radar station was built nearby to the west, and the United States Army built a gunnery control tower south of town to support the Coast Artillery guns at Fort Miles on Cape Henlopen. Patrol dogs intended for use along the entire United States East Coast were trained\",\n \"-35.797774784849025\"\n ],\n [\n \"would spend less time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high-tide mark. Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry. On Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled. Given the Allied air supremacy (4,029 Allied aircraft assigned to operations in Normandy plus 5,514 aircraft assigned to bombing and defence, versus 570 Luftwaffe planes stationed in France and the Low Countries), booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's asparagus) were set up in meadows and fields to deter airborne\",\n \"-35.670405480545014\"\n ],\n [\n \"way into the beach due to their draught. Also some of the tasks that had been assigned were impractical or had not been rehearsed—the wire intended for use as a road block was too heavy to carry from the beach—and intelligence relating to German dispositions upon the island was at best outdated or completely wrong. The commandos also found they were burdened with equipment that was not of use, including steel helmets, gaiters and an excess of ammunition. Largely this was the result of the haste with which the operation had been conceived and then put together, but it was\",\n \"-35.26955292606726\"\n ],\n [\n \"the shores of Normandy. Blockhouses had token defense, but were excellent in making counterattacks. Certain blockhouses also had the ability to fire out to sea, allowing the German player to eliminate allied reinforcements for the next turn. Conversely, naval bombardment (represented by a naval bombardment phase in D-Day) allowed the safe removal of blockhouses from play. Battleship Battleships are the most expensive units in Axis & Allies, but have unparalleled attack and defense capabilities. Originally the same as other units in the fact that a single hit destroyed the unit (making it an expensive proposition), a\",\n \"-35.14064792339923\"\n ],\n [\n \"five landing beaches, due to its rough terrain and bluffs overlooking the beach, which had been well fortified by its German defenders of the 352nd Infantry Division. The 116th Infantry was assigned four sectors of the beach; Easy Green, Dog Red, Dog White, and Dog Green. Soldiers of the 29th Infantry Division boarded a large number of attack transports for the D-Day invasion, among them landing craft, landing ship, tank, and landing ship, infantry ships and other vessels such as the SS Empire Javelin, USS Charles Carroll, and USS Buncombe County.\\nAs the ships were traveling to the beach, the heavy seas, combined\",\n \"-35.09753599703254\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Germans had constructed a network of trenches, gun pits, mortar pits, and machine gun nests. Barbed wire surrounded these positions and lined the beach. The beachfront itself, being generally flat and exposed, was guarded by a few scattered bunkers, with machine gun and sniper posts in some of the holiday homes and tourist facilities lining the shore. To reinforce the defences, six strongpoints had been constructed, each with at least eight 5 cm Pak 38 50mm anti-tank guns, four 75mm guns, and one 88mm gun. One of the strongpoints (codenamed Cod by the British), faced directly on to Queen\",\n \"-35.032040182792116\"\n ],\n [\n \"the beach had failed to do so, however, and another brief fire-fight was required to eliminate the Germans guarding the beach. The raiding force was then picked up by a small number of landing craft and transferred to several Motor Gun Boats which brought them back to Britain. The raid was entirely successful. The airborne troops suffered only a few casualties, and the pieces of the radar they brought back, along with a German radar technician, allowed British scientists to understand German advances in radar and to create counter-measures to neutralise those advances. Norway Operation Freshman was the first British\",\n \"-34.78380383551121\"\n ],\n [\n \"and deal with various anti-tank emplacements and bunkers. Once past the beach, the Allied troops would have faced minefields, barbed wire, flooded areas and ditches while still under fire from the artillery, and now from the sechsschartentürme. Luckily for Allied soldiers, Allied High Command decided that the invasion of Normandy would bypass the Channel Islands.\",\n \"-34.66177727066679\"\n ],\n [\n \"patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 28 September 1944. Today the long dismantled airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.\",\n \"-34.344423578411806\"\n ],\n [\n \"beach defences, take prisoners and destroy a searchlight battery. Defences were found to be light and/or abandoned as they advanced and only three Germans were encountered at close quarters who withdrew immediately. The official report recorded, \\\"no determined opposition\\\". A fighting patrol of 12 men sent to destroy the searchlights reached their objective but had to retire before pressing home their attack due to lack of time remaining signalled by the re-call rocket.\\nOn 19 August 1942, the Dieppe raid a major landing took place at the French coastal town of Dieppe. The main force was provided by the 2nd Canadian\",\n \"-34.32678020116873\"\n ],\n [\n \"strongpoint near the beach as well as pillboxes and machine gun nests on the top of the cliff overlooking the beach. The beach was not land mined and had only sporadic barbed-wire defences, but it was patrolled regularly; a mobile reserve of infantry was believed to be available at one hour's notice and stationed some distance inland.\\nBased on this information, Frost decided to divide the company into five groups of forty men for the raid, each named after a famous Royal Navy admiral: 'Nelson', 'Jellicoe', 'Hardy', 'Drake' and 'Rodney'. 'Nelson' would clear and secure German positions defending the evacuation beach,\",\n \"-34.2116244349163\"\n ],\n [\n \"by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies. Some of the opening bombardment was off-target or not concentrated enough to have any impact, but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches. Indecisiveness and an overly complicated command structure on the part of the German high command were also factors in the Allied success. War memorials and tourism At Omaha Beach, parts of the Mulberry harbour are still visible, and a few of the beach obstacles\",\n \"-34.1945947217755\"\n ],\n [\n \"could not be used to support the Allied advance. Allied bombers breached the dykes on 3 October at Westkapelle, Flushing and Veere, flooding the island, leaving only a few dry areas around its perimeter and greatly restricting the Germans’ freedom of movement.\\nThe 4th Special Service Brigade formed the seaborne element of the attack while British and Canadian infantry attacked overland from the mainland. This time the commandos came ashore in Landing Vehicle Tracked, (also known as Buffaloes), which had already proven their worth in the Pacific campaign. 41 Commando was tasked with assaulting the town of Westkapelle and then to\",\n \"-34.19145845004823\"\n ],\n [\n \"storm the beaches of Normandy. Island assault In one joint training mission with the Army, Navy and Air Force, they simulated a takeover of the island. In preparing to do so they acted as if the island was held by German troops and they needed to infiltrate the island and capture it. To make things as realistic as possible the beaches were covered with barbed wire, beach obstacles and demolitions were planted on the beaches and also further inland. The demolitions were set up to replicate naval gunfire support, artillery and land mines. Along with these obstacles the 75th Composite\",\n \"-34.070833194049555\"\n ],\n [\n \"front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 38 September 1944. Today the long dismantled airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.\",\n \"-34.03361703432165\"\n ],\n [\n \"some landings went to the wrong beaches, this was immaterial because of the extremely low level of French opposition. All the coastal batteries had been neutralized by French resistance, and one French commander openly welcomed the landing Allies. The only fighting took place in the port of Algiers, where in Operation Terminal, two British destroyers attempted to land a party of U.S. Army Rangers directly onto the dock, in order to prevent the French destroying the port facilities and scuttling their ships. Heavy artillery fire prevented one destroyer from landing, but the other was able to disembark 250 Rangers before\",\n \"-34.03092255251249\"\n ],\n [\n \"beaches. The sector chosen for the assault was the 1.8 miles (2.9 km) wide 'White' and 'Red' beaches of 'Queen' sector, as shallow reefs blocked access to the other sectors. Two infantry battalions supported by DD tanks would lead the assault followed up by the commandos and the rest of the division; the landing was due to start at 07:25 hours; the division would be the last assault division to land. German On 23 March 1942, Führer Directive Number 40 called for the official creation of the Atlantic Wall - a line of concrete gun emplacements, machine-gun nests, minefields and beach\",\n \"-34.00659815908875\"\n ],\n [\n \"skirt fitted to the hulls of ships, and energised by a special electric current which countered the threat from these mines securing the future of the north Atlantic convoys on which Britain's war effort depended.\\nIn 1944 France was occupied by the Nazis, the Allied Forces hatched a plan to attack the Germans on French soil. D-Day would not have been possible, due to the rough seas if it wasn't for one major element, the Mulberry Harbour.\\nOne of the major challenges facing the D-Day landings was to secure a European port for the delivery of essential supplies, but instead of capturing\",\n \"-33.91769890068099\"\n ],\n [\n \"6th Airlanding Brigade overflew their positions, on their way to reinforce the Orne bridgehead in Operation Mallard, the Germans, believing they were about to be cut off, retired.\\nThe Luftwaffe was particularly weak in this sector, but tried to support the attack with a few of the rare daylight appearances it made on D-Day. Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle, commanding Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleet 3) was responsible for the air defense of Normandy and ordered all available forces to attack the beachhead. Junkers Ju 88s from Kampfgeschwader 54 (KG 54: Bomber Wing 54) attacked British positions with Butterfly Bombs. III./KG 54 struck Lion-sur-Mer\",\n \"-33.91104458970949\"\n ],\n [\n \"World War II, the beaches of the Île de Ré were fortified by German forces with bunkers, in order to block a possible seaward invasion. Many of the bunkers are still visible, in a more or less derelict state. Several scenes of the 1962 movie The Longest Day were filmed on the beaches of the island. Connection to the mainland In 1987, a two-point-nine-kilometre (1.8 mi) bridge was built to connect the island to the mainland. Previously, the island was connected through roll-on roll-off ferries (called \\\"bacs\\\"), which could accommodate vehicles and passengers. In peak summer time periods, the waiting time\",\n \"-33.91042630182346\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the beaches. The turret also guards two roads leading to the interior of the island.\\nThere were several of these bunkers lining the headland of St. Ouen's bay and overlooking the low-lying areas beneath. Their locations permitted the bunkers to achieve interlocking fields of fire. Anti-tank ditches, barbed wire, mines and excellent camouflage complemented the bunkers, creating a formidable defensive position. In order to land there, the Allied landing craft would first have had to run the gantlet of artillery fire from the cliffs above to arrive on the beach. The troops would then have to scale an antitank wall\",\n \"-33.77479057959863\"\n ],\n [\n \"to pre-assigned targets on the beach as soon as it was light enough to see, at 05:50. Since troops were scheduled to land at Utah and Omaha starting at 06:30 (an hour earlier than the British beaches), these areas received only about 40 minutes of naval bombardment before the assault troops began to land on the shore. Airborne operations The success of the amphibious landings depended on the establishment of a secure lodgement from which to expand the beachhead to allow the buildup of a well-supplied force capable of breaking out. The amphibious forces were especially vulnerable to strong enemy\",\n \"-33.74832579033682\"\n ],\n [\n \"between the beachhead and Valognes, clear the area of the drop zones to the unit boundary at Les Forges, and link up with the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division.\\nGerman forces opposing the operation included the 3rd Battalion, 1058th Grenadier Regiment (91st Air Landing Division) in the vicinity of Saint Come-du-Mont, the 919th Grenadier Regiment (709th Infantry Division) behind Utah Beach, the 191st Artillery Regiment (105mm mountain howitzer, 91st AL Div), and the 6th Parachute Regiment, sent to Carentan during D-Day. Mission description Albany was the first of two parachute missions, with \\\"Mission Boston\\\" following it by one hour to drop the\",\n \"-33.73486099625006\"\n ],\n [\n \"time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high water mark. Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry. On Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled. The Allied air offensive over Germany had crippled the Luftwaffe and established air supremacy over western Europe, so Rommel knew he could not expect effective air support. The Luftwaffe could muster only 815 aircraft over Normandy in comparison to the Allies' 9,543. Rommel arranged for booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's\",\n \"-33.59752432879759\"\n ],\n [\n \"3 to 4 days later. Operation Wild Oats was another plan made before the invasion, for XXX Corps and the 1st Airborne Division to cut off a possible German retirement westwards from Caen. The landings were to be supported by the bombardment of the inland defences by Allied strategic bombers, naval bombardment ships and the beaches to be \\\"drenched\\\" by rocket and field gun fire from landing craft. D-Day, 6 June The naval bombardment and bombing by the Allied air forces failed to have the destructive effect on German beach defences hoped for and in many places Allied infantry, engineers\",\n \"-33.50850328383967\"\n ],\n [\n \"platoon in the anti-tank company, 116th Infantry Regiment of the 29th Infantry Division in the Allies' D-Day landings on Omaha Beach in Nazi-occupied Normandy, France. After landing in the second wave of the amphibious assault, Ferguson and his platoon, as well as the survivors from the first wave, were pinned down on the beach by heavy rifle, machine gun and artillery fire from the German defenders, and their advance was blocked by extensive barbed wire and other enemy obstacles. Ferguson rose under fire, cleared a passage through the enemy obstacles with a Bangalore torpedo, and was gravely wounded\",\n \"-33.483606062829494\"\n ],\n [\n \"achieved during training; instead, all six landing craft landed at the same time, with the covering troops in the landing craft opening fire on German soldiers gathering at the top of the cliff.\\nThis deviation from the original evacuation plan and the enemy fire caused considerable confusion on the beach; some of the landing craft left the beach over-crowded, whilst others left half-empty. However, the radar equipment, German prisoners and all but six of the raiding force were embarked and transferred to motor gunboats for transport back to Britain. On the return journey, Frost learned that the naval force had received\",\n \"-33.453769034007564\"\n ],\n [\n \"attack on the dry dock behind enemy lines was an attempt to neutralise the ability of the German battleship Tirpitz to attack Atlantic supply lines to Britain as the dry dock at St. Nazaire was the only dock on the Atlantic coast of occupied France large enough to accommodate the Tirptiz and, as base, would allow the German battleship to attack British shipping supply lines. The 1952 film Gift Horse starring Trevor Howard was based on the true story of the raid on St. Nazaire.\\n David Paton was to see action again when on D-Day, 6 June 1944, he landed\",\n \"-33.40584938254324\"\n ],\n [\n \"as successful as the beach landings, with only 104 dead, 24 of which were caused by glider accidents and 18 by parachute accidents. German counterattacks French sabotage by the FFI, together with the Allied bombing, severed German communication lines, causing initial confusion among the troops. German field commanders were not able to communicate with Army Group G's headquarters. Despite the hampered communications, German commanders acted independently to put measures in effect to counter the Allied invasion. Directly facing the brunt of the Allied landings was the German LXII Corps at Draguignan, commanded by Ferdinand Neuling. Allied paratroopers interrupted his communication lines\",\n \"-33.33548185694963\"\n ],\n [\n \"waves of infantry that reached an invasion beach would be acutely vulnerable without the support of tanks. However, if landing craft were used to carry those tanks, they themselves would be vulnerable to German heavy guns. The loss of too many landing craft would slow the movement of reinforcements from ships offshore and the invasion beaches would be choked with disabled and sunken landing craft. By giving tanks the ability to float, they could be launched from landing craft offshore and make their own way onto the beach. Canal Defence Light The Canal Defence Light (CDL) was a British secret\",\n \"-33.306198825797765\"\n ],\n [\n \"Normandy, patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 7 September 1944. Today the airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.\",\n \"-33.27693033433752\"\n ],\n [\n \"add to their troubles, the area round the airfield they had to protect was too rocky to permit digging in, and there was no time to build blast walls before the enemy was upon them. The air attacks were so severe that casualties inflicted on the British paratroopers forced them to be withdrawn on 25 September. German landings - Operation \\\"Polar Bear\\\" On 1 October 1943, a concentration of shipping was observed in the ports of Crete, and early on the following morning a convoy steaming in a north-north-easterly direction south-east of Melos was sighted by British aircraft. Urgent supplies\",\n \"-33.23704032410751\"\n ],\n [\n \"in action. Most of the shore batteries and positions remained in Axis hands. Force A Force E, a group of commandos from the submarine HMS Taku failed to set up beacons on the shore to guide the main British force, due to the bad sea conditions. The garrison had been reinforced and the destroyers HMS Sikh and Zulu bringing in the seaborne troops landed them on the wrong beach, far to the west of the intended landing place. The British destroyer Sikh, which led the landing attempt, was hit by Italian 152 mm (6-inch) shore batteries and German 88 mm anti-tank guns, while\",\n \"-33.17437601007987\"\n ],\n [\n \"enhanced fortifications along the Atlantic Wall, with special emphasis on the most likely invasion front, which stretched from the Netherlands to Cherbourg. Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion, so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore. In addition to concrete gun emplacements at strategic points along the coast, he ordered wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks. Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so\",\n \"-33.165179037023336\"\n ],\n [\n \"out until about 10:00 a.m. but by 10:30 a.m. the British and Canadian divisions had landed fifteen infantry battalions, five Commando units, seven armoured regiments, two Royal Marine armoured support regiments, nine field artillery regiments and two engineer regiments, on a beachhead only 5 mi (8.0 km) wide. By noon the follow-up brigades were ashore and had inched through traffic jams at the beach exits under severe bombardment from German artillery, to begin the advance inland.\\nThe German reply was slower than the Allies expected, because the decision to land on 6 June caught the German commanders unprepared. By morning, reports received by\",\n \"-32.945880854851566\"\n ],\n [\n \"The invasion fleet then headed south toward Normandy and navigated the German minefield, through which minesweepers had cleared channels; not a single Omaha Beach vessel was lost. D-Day At 03:00 on 6 June 1944, Texas and the British cruiser Glasgow entered the Omaha Western fire support lane and arrived at her initial firing position 12,000 yards (11,000 m) offshore near Pointe du Hoc at 04:41, as part of a combined total US-British flotilla of 702 ships, including seven battleships and five heavy cruisers.\\nThe initial bombardment commenced at 05:50, against the site of six 15-centimetre (6 in) guns, atop Pointe du Hoc. When\",\n \"-32.93444580025971\"\n ],\n [\n \"Bay.\\nEarly in 1944 a coast ban, from The Wash to Cornwall, had come into force and visitors were only allowed in if possessing appropriate permits: this was to ensure absolute security surrounded the preparation of Operation Overlord and the D-Day landings. Torquay played a vital role in the landings, more than 23,000 men of the American 4th Infantry Division departed from Torquay for Utah Beach during Overlord.\\nThe visiting restrictions were lifted in early July soon after the beach-head in Normandy had been established following the D-Day landings, and the American and Commonwealth troops billeted in the town had departed for\",\n \"-32.892176947323605\"\n ],\n [\n \"beach and ignited when the Australian ground troops made their assaults. The group attacked the beach while naval underwater demolition teams operated offshore without losing a man. The attacks were so effective that the Australian Seventh Division was able to come ashore without enemy opposition. Cold War Reactivated as a Strategic Air Command Convair B-36 Peacemaker bombardment squadron in 1953. Engaged in worldwide training missions with the B-36 until 1956 when re-equipped with the jet Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. Deployed to Western Pacific during the Vietnam War and flew conventional Arc Light bombardment missions over enemy military and\",\n \"-32.89109970431309\"\n ],\n [\n \"end of the Allied landing zone and at the same time limiting the Allies' potential to break out of the beachhead. Thus control of the bridges at Manoir de la Fière and Chef-du-Pont was seen as vital. The Merderet was assigned to the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division as Mission Boston, scheduled for 5 hours before the amphibious landings on D-Day. Cloud cover and German fire caused the landings to be dispersed; the paratroopers took the strategic town of Sainte-Mère-Église but failed in their original mission to clear the west bank of the Merderet on D-Day and blow the bridge over\",\n \"-32.88752241835755\"\n ],\n [\n \"left (northern) flank, to join the 6th Airborne Division at the Orne crossings.\\nThe unsettled weather that lulled the German commanders also pushed the tide in quicker and further than expected, which covered obstacles and reduced the beaches to a strip about 11 yd (10 m) from the water's edge to the sea wall, delaying the landing of follow-on forces and Sword was reduced to only 15 yd (14 m) instead of the usual 150 yd (140 m) of beach. Fire from unsuppressed German machine-gun nests swept the beach as the British advanced to capture the beachfront resorts and villas. A German strongpoint at La Brèche held\",\n \"-32.87604448173079\"\n ],\n [\n \"to RAF squadrons equipped with Hawker Typhoon fighter-bombers also attacked German vehicles and positions in direct support of the Allied ground troops throughout the month. No. 456 Squadron, which was one of four night fighter squadrons assigned to protect the beachhead, frequently met German aircraft and shot down twelve of them in the week after the landing. Australian fighter ace Flight Lieutenant Nicky Barr, who had escaped from German custody in Italy during 1943, also briefly served in an air support control unit in Normandy. Barr landed at Omaha Beach on 9 June, but returned to the UK three days later\",\n \"-32.870051439036615\"\n ],\n [\n \"D-Day landings. Some 30 senior officers, each with a staff vehicle and radio also took part in a top secret deception exercise to convince the Germans that a major sea assault was being prepared but could not be launched until at least September 1944.\\nThe centre closed in June 1946 and the site is now occupied by a caravan park.\",\n \"-32.84539221774321\"\n ],\n [\n \"patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 7 September 1944. Today the airfield consists of agricultural fields, likely located to the east of the commune, as a large section of land appears to have an outline of an airfield by its field shapes.\",\n \"-32.83087953651557\"\n ],\n [\n \"landing zone to quickly seize the high ground overlooking the beaches. Parallel to the invasion, several commando units were to take control of the islands off the coast.\\nThe Allied plan consisted of a three-division landing of US forces led by Major General Lucian Truscott to secure a bridgehead on the first day. Their flanks were to be protected by French, American and Canadian commando units. Within 24 hours, 50,000–60,000 troops and 6,500 vehicles were to be disembarked. The airborne landings would concentrate in an area near Draguignan and Le Muy, with the aim of taking these towns to prevent German\",\n \"-32.80276645103004\"\n ],\n [\n \"maximum disruption of air defenses when heavy bomber groups returning from bombardment raids. Destroyed many enemy aircraft on the ground; destroyed support buildings; barracks and enemy aircraft on the ground.\\nAfter D-Day invasion of Europe, engaged in tactical air support of Allied ground forces, carrying out bombardment attacks against enemy strong points, structures and targets of opportunity when making sweeps of enemy rear areas. Moved from England to Advanced Landing Grounds in France and further eastward as ground forces advanced across continent; engaging enemy targets during the Western Allied invasion of Germany in early 1945. Continued\",\n \"-32.79852988192579\"\n ],\n [\n \"or not such a landing was feasible, the Dieppe raid was to be undertaken by the 4th and 6th Brigades, with additional naval, air, and infantry support. Significant elements of the 5th Brigade were also involved.\\nOn 19 August 1942, while British commando units attacked bunker positions on the outskirts of Dieppe, forces of the 2nd Division landed on four beaches. The easternmost, Blue Beach, which was situated at the foot of a sheer cliff, presented the most difficulties; the Royal Regiment of Canada, with a company of the Black Watch, was held at bay by two platoons of German defenders.\",\n \"-32.77723826485453\"\n ],\n [\n \"the beach have been removed and relocated to near the parking area at Birubi Point in Anna Bay while most from the southern end of the beach may be found outside Fort Wallace in Stockton. Some of the tank traps remain submerged and pose a hazard to swimmers.\\nDuring World War II the beach was used as a military bombing range and Air Force pilots used to regularly drop unused bombs on the beach before landing at RAAF Base Williamtown. To this day it is occasionally possible to see exposed bombs in the sand.\\nStockton Beach is less than 3.5 km (2.2 mi) from\",\n \"-32.72926748421742\"\n ],\n [\n \"the beaches and created \\\"a 'devil's garden' of beach obstacles ... deployed in rows between 12–17 ft (3.7–5.2 m) above the low-tide mark\\\". Strongpoints of machine-gun positions, antitank and anti-personnel artillery and bunkers were located every 1,000 yards (910 m), manned by several platoons with mortars. Minefields were deployed surrounding these strongpoints, and additional defences were present in the Courseulles harbour.\\nThe Calvados beaches of Normandy were defended by the 716th Static and 352nd Infantry divisions, with the Canadian landing zone defended by elements of the 716th. It was formed mostly from soldiers under 18 or over 35, comprising 7,771 combat troops in six\",\n \"-32.727993171080016\"\n ],\n [\n \"for Allied crossings at the Strait of Dover (see Operation Fortitude), where the senior German staff had always assumed that the invasion would begin.\\nSet-piece scenes include the parachute drop into Sainte-Mère-Église, the advance inshore from the Normandy beaches, the U.S. Ranger Assault Group's assault on the Pointe du Hoc, the attack on Ouistreham by Free French Forces, and the strafing of the beaches by two lone Luftwaffe pilots. The film concludes with a montage showing various Allied units consolidating their beachheads before they advance inland by crossing France to eventually reach Germany. Development French producer Raoul Lévy signed a deal\",\n \"-32.67916898935073\"\n ],\n [\n \"Troop A (4th), and SGT John S. Zanders and CPL Melvin F. Kinzie of Troop B (24th) swam ashore armed only with knives to mark the beaches for the landing craft. They became the first seaborne American soldiers to land in France on D-Day. When the invasion began, the troops rapidly captured the islands with no resistance; the Germans had evacuated, but 19 men were killed or wounded due to enemy mines. On 7 June, just south of Utah Beach, a platoon of Troop B, 4th Squadron, linked up with elements of the 82nd Airborne and managed to ambush a\",\n \"-32.61966421012767\"\n ],\n [\n \"Stratford upon Avon, and troops participated in Operation Fortitude, the British-designed and led D-Day deceptions of a landing force designated for the Pas-de-Calais.\\nSome troops went to Normandy two weeks after D-Day, where they simulated a fake Mulberry harbour at night with lights which attempted to draw German artillery from the real ones. After this the entire unit assisted in tying up the German defenders of Brest by simulating a larger force than was actually encircling them.\\nAs the Allied armies moved east, so did the 23rd, and it eventually was based within Luxembourg, from where it engaged in deceptions of crossings\",\n \"-32.59457581146853\"\n ],\n [\n \"the order for the three detachments to withdraw to the evacuation beach; it became apparent, however, that the beach had not been secured by the under-strength 'Nelson' detachment when a German machine gun opened fire on the airborne troops, severely wounding the company sergeant major. Frost ordered 'Rodney' and the available men of 'Nelson' to clear the defences, whilst he led the other three detachments back to the villa, which had been reoccupied by enemy troops.\\nThe villa was soon cleared of enemy troops once more, and when Frost returned to the beach, he found that the machine-gun nest had been\",\n \"-32.55436185465078\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lucian Truscott, landed at Torre di Gaffe, red beach, and Mollarella and Poliscia, green beaches in the west, and Cassibile in the east, with British and Canadian forces in the east and Americans toward the west. This constituted the largest amphibious operation of World War II in terms of size of the landing zone and the number of divisions put ashore on the first day. The Italian defensive plan did not contemplate a pitched battle on the beaches and so the landings themselves were somewhat anti-climactic.\\nMore trouble was experienced from the difficult weather conditions (especially on the southern beaches) and\",\n \"-32.54602463240735\"\n ],\n [\n \"the RAF to shield the fleet from the long-range battery at Le Havre. Allied losses to mines included the American destroyer USS Corry off Utah and submarine chaser USS PC-1261, a 173-foot patrol craft. In addition, many landing craft were lost. Bombardment Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with more than 2,200 British, Canadian, and US bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland. The coastal bombing attack was largely ineffective at Omaha, because low cloud cover made the assigned targets difficult to see. Concerned about inflicting casualties on their own troops, many bombers delayed their attacks too long and failed\",\n \"-32.49791973363608\"\n ],\n [\n \"emplacements with infantry strong points along the French coastline. The older gun emplacements based on First World War designs were being replaced by stronger designs with overhead cover to offer protection from air attack. The area of Normandy targeted by Operation Aquatint had yet to receive any concrete gun emplacements but there was a network of coastal artillery batteries able to provide interlocking arcs of fire. German infantry carried out foot patrols in the areas between the batteries. Battle The mission had previously been attempted over the night of 11/12 September 1942, but had to be cancelled after the MTB\",\n \"-32.49406290799379\"\n ],\n [\n \"used per skill type, the weather, equipment inventory and quality, level of supervision, employee absences, staffing levels, deaths and problems experienced all had to be filed with the OT. British attacks Throughout most of 1942–43, the Atlantic Wall remained a relaxed front for the Axis troops manning it, with only two large-scale British attacks. Operation Chariot, launched near St Nazaire in March 1942, successfully destroyed German pumping machinery for, and severely damaged, the Normandie dry dock and installations. The second attack was the Dieppe Raid, launched near the French port of Dieppe in August 1942 to test the German defences\",\n \"-32.47372302264557\"\n ],\n [\n \"against Norway, Denmark, the southern part of western France, and the French Mediterranean coast\\\", adding that he expected the Allies to subsequently attack in force across the Straits of Dover.\\nThey maintained the pretense of FUSAG and other forces threatening Pas de Calais for some considerable time after D-Day, possibly even as late as September 1944. This was vital to the success of the Allied plan, since it forced the Germans to keep most of their reserves bottled up waiting for an attack on Calais that never came, thereby allowing the Allies to maintain and build upon their marginal foothold in\",\n \"-32.449912279553246\"\n ],\n [\n \"Even the battalion left to defend the beaches was virtually unscathed. During the assault, the island's defenders exercised unusual firing discipline to avoid giving away their positions. The bombardment managed only to destroy Japan's aircraft on the island, as well as the buildings surrounding the airfield. The Japanese remained in their fortified positions, ready to attack the American landing troops. Landing U.S. Marines landed on Peleliu at 08:32, on September 15, the 1st Marines to the north on White Beach 1 and 2 and the 5th and 7th Marines to the center and south on Orange Beach 1, 2, and\",\n \"-32.392645026760874\"\n ],\n [\n \"its assault brigade and 6 Beach Group with its follow-up brigade. Four LCTs, each loaded with 200 tonnes (200 long tons) of high priority stores were beached and rapidly unloaded into temporary dumps near the beaches. These had been intended for use on D-Day only but the intended beach maintenance area had not been captured and was not ready to receive stores until 9 June.\\nAlthough it was captured intact on D-Day, the small port of Ouistreham could not be used due to German shellfire from around Caen. There were some attacks by E-boats and a German air raid on 8\",\n \"-32.37866030447185\"\n ],\n [\n \"1943 they built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on the southeast of England. Despite heavy preparations for defence against an amphibious assault, the Allied invasion took place well to the west in Normandy on D-Day. Calais was very heavily bombed and shelled in a successful effort to disrupt German communications and persuade them that the Allies would target the Pas-de-Calais for invasion (rather than Normandy). The town, by then largely in ruins, was laid siege to liberated by General Daniel Spry's 3rd Canadian Infantry Division between 25 September and 1 October 1944. On 27 February\",\n \"-32.37478656799067\"\n ],\n [\n \"The 3rd Infantry Division landed on the left at Alpha Beach (Cavalaire-sur-Mer), the 45th Infantry Division landed in the centre at Delta Beach (Le Muy, Saint-Tropez) and the 36th Infantry Division landed on the right at Camel Beach (Saint-Raphaël).\\nThe landings were overwhelmingly successful. On Delta and Alpha beaches, German resistance was low. The Osttruppen surrendered quickly, and the biggest threats to the Allies were the mines. A single German gun and a mortar position were silenced by destroyer fire. The Allied units in this sector were able to secure a bridgehead and quickly linked up with the paratroopers, capturing Saint-Tropez\",\n \"-32.37166140732006\"\n ],\n [\n \"manner. Communications problems exacerbated the difficulties caused by Allied air and naval firepower. Local commanders also seemed incapable of the task of fighting an aggressive defense on the beach, as Rommel had envisioned.\\nThe German High Command remained fixated on the Calais area, and von Rundstedt was not permitted to commit the armoured reserve. When it was finally released late in the day, its chance of success was greatly reduced. Overall, despite considerable Allied material superiority, the Germans kept the Allies bottled up in a small beachhead for nearly two months, aided immeasurably by terrain factors.\\nAlthough there were several known disputes\",\n \"-32.34165385609958\"\n ],\n [\n \"practice, the sea defense zones became well tested when the Allies invaded western Europe, in particular at the battle of Normandy. Sea Defense zone forces also fought fiercely to avoid losing Germany's submarine bases in France, in one case holding out for several months under Allied siege before surrendering.\",\n \"-32.333970175590366\"\n ],\n [\n \"beachhead during January and February 1944.\\nIn July 1944, the squadron moved again to Corsica to take part in the pending Operation Dragoon, the invasion of Southern France. This invasion occurred in August, and the 415th again flew night patrols covering the beachheads. After the Allied ground forces established beachheads, the squadron moved into Southern France, where it supported the U.S 7th Army and the French 1st Army with night interception and anti-night-intruder sorties. The pilots also patrolled the lines at St. Die, and it dropped flares to light up targets for the artillery. Through April 1945, the squadron flew patrols\",\n \"-32.32661560131237\"\n ],\n [\n \"had deliberately breached the dykes around the island and had turned it into a massive lagoon, rimmed by broken dykes. The Germans had installed defences on the dykes to virtually turn them into a continuous fortification bristling with guns of every calibre. The British Marines placed great reliance on Weasel and Buffalo amphibious landing craft. The Royal Marine Commandos were to seize the shoulders of the gap in the dyke and then to fan out north and south to roll up the remainder of the German defences by linking up with the southern thrust. The RAF provided air support and\",\n \"-32.31116375197598\"\n ],\n [\n \"near Port en Bessin in Normandy. The mission was to collect information about the surrounding area, and take a German guard prisoner. After the mission and on their way back to the beach to rejoin the Motor Torpedo Boat which had dropped them off, the SSRF commandos were fired on by a German patrol with machine guns and hand grenades. They attempted to swim out to the MTB which by now had also been discovered and was under fire and, unable to locate it in the darkness, were forced to swim back to the beach.\\nHayes came ashore beside Asnieres-en-Bessin and\",\n \"-32.300569919578265\"\n ],\n [\n \"in small domestic shelters. Largely for political reasons most of his recommendations were never adopted, although some wealthy Londoners were able to build concrete shelters according to his design.\\nArup played a significant part in the design of the Mulberry temporary harbours used during the D-Day landings.\\nThe Mulberry Harbour was a type of temporary harbour developed to offload cargo on the beaches during the Allied invasion of Normandy. The sections for two prefabricated or artificial military harbours were taken with the invading army from Britain across the English Channel and assembled off the coast of Normandy as part of the D-Day\",\n \"-32.29824980736885\"\n ],\n [\n \"the aerial and naval bombardment of German coastal defences and artillery sites. The landing was to be concentrated on Queen Red and Queen White in front of Hermanville-sur-Mer, other approaches having proven impassable due to shoals. At 0725, the first units set off for the beach. These were the amphibious DD tanks of the 13th/18th Hussars; they were followed closely by the 8th Infantry Brigade, and by Royal Engineers in AVREs and the various odd-looking, specialized vehicles that had been nicknamed 'Hobart's funnies'. The engineers set to work clearing mines and obstacles under a steady hail of small arms fire\",\n \"-32.2880042536126\"\n ],\n [\n \"Head Cliffs of Martha's Vineyard in order to simulate live gunfire and bombing rounds. The soldiers who landed on the beach would then have to move up and clear the woods and take control of the beach. These missions were created to simulate the planned landings on the beaches of Normandy during D-Day. If the troops were unable to complete these missions they would not be allowed to ship out and take part in the storming of the beaches in Normandy.\\nAnother practice mission that the U.S. Army did to prepare for storming the beaches was practicing climbing the\",\n \"-32.286881887266645\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Le Muy. The most serious fighting was on Camel Beach near the town of Saint-Raphaël. This beach was defended by several well-emplaced coastal guns, as well as flak batteries. Through heavy German fire, the Allies attempted to land at the shore. However, at sector Red of the Camel Beach landing zone, the Allies were not able to succeed. A bombing run of 90 Allied B-24 bombers was called in against a German strongpoint here. Even with the assistance of naval fire, the Allies were not able to bring the landing ships close to the shore. They decided to avoid Camel Red\",\n \"-32.28159660273377\"\n ],\n [\n \"bridge, while another set a tyre dump on fire and blew up the breeches of a number of naval guns. Due to the delays during the landings and the need to depart while it was still dark, time ran out and the commandos were forced to withdraw. On the way back, an officer was shot when he failed to respond correctly when challenged by a sentry; while 67 men, not knowing that there were no assault craft at their beach due to the earlier error, were left behind and later captured.\\nDespite the lack of tangible success the raid was not\",\n \"-32.247588445898145\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be released into shallow pits on the beach and ignited when the Australian ground troops made their assaults. The group attacked the beach while naval underwater demolition teams operated offshore without losing a man. The attacks were so effective that the Australian Seventh Division was able to come ashore without enemy opposition. The group continued to support Australian forces in Borneo after this mission, augmented by the B-25s of the 38th Bombardment Group of Fifth Air Force.\\nThe group's final combat action of World War II was attacking isolated Japanese units on Luzon during July and August 1945.\",\n \"-32.24424319251557\"\n ],\n [\n \"to simulate landing craft approaching, firing salvos of rockets and dropping dummies overboard to give the impression of troops wading ashore.\\nIn the south, the main invasion force was approaching the island when, at 03:38, a signal flare was fired and the Germans opened fire on the landing craft. The Royal Navy Commandos of Able 1 and Oboe 3 Commando with Able 2 in reserve landed at 03:50. They approached the beach toward their objective: the heavily armed German flak ship Köln, which was berthed at Marina di Campo and had a commanding view of both beaches.\\nThis made its capture or destruction vital to\",\n \"-32.197905275941594\"\n ],\n [\n \"linked with a front line 10 to 16 kilometres (6 to 10 mi) from the beaches; none of these objectives were achieved. The five beachheads were not connected until 12 June, by which time the Allies held a front around 97 kilometres (60 mi) long and 24 kilometres (15 mi) deep. Caen, a major objective, was still in German hands at the end of D-Day and would not be completely captured until 21 July. The Germans had ordered French civilians other than those deemed essential to the war effort to leave potential combat zones in Normandy. Civilian casualties on D-Day and D+1 are\",\n \"-32.182063077692874\"\n ],\n [\n \"fire from the cliffs above. Problems clearing the beach of obstructions led to the beachmaster calling a halt to further landings of vehicles at 08:30. A group of destroyers arrived around this time to offer supporting artillery fire. Exit from Omaha was possible only via five gullies, and by late morning barely six hundred men had reached the higher ground. By noon, as the artillery fire took its toll and the Germans started to run out of ammunition, the Americans were able to clear some lanes on the beaches. They also started clearing the draws of enemy defences so that\",\n \"-32.055104968414526\"\n ],\n [\n \"put ashore by Landing Craft Tank vessels, along with the supporting engineers. Some problems were anticipated and allowed for: waterproofing of the hulls, canvas carpets to aid the tanks crossing the shingle beach, engineer teams to demolish obstacles and a few of the tanks were fitted with flame-throwers.\\nIn the event, the German defences were stronger than expected. The shingle \\\"chert\\\" of the beach was also a problem: according to history professor Hugh Henry, the German defenders had previously considered it impassable to tanks. Only the 30 Churchills in the first two waves of 10 LCTs made the beach, landing under\",\n \"-32.00786868529394\"\n ],\n [\n \"War Two During World War II, the Germans and Italians strengthened the island's fortifications as part of the Atlantic Wall. The Italian contingent was made up of two officers and just over one hundred sailors, included in the Divisione Atlantica of the Repubblica Sociale Italiana. The Normandy campaign in the summer of 1944 saw the German-Italian garrison heavily bombarded by land artillery, naval artillery, and air strikes. Guns on the island contributed to the defense of St. Malo. The island's three-hundred-man garrison eventually surrendered to elements of the U.S. 83rd Infantry Division on 2 September 1944. Post-war\",\n \"-32.00147327597915\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ouistreham, and the Orne and Caen Canal bridges.\\nB Troop took up its coast defence position at Ouistreham on D+2, where it came under enemy artillery fire, suffering some casualties and damage. As part of the coast defence role, Gun Control Radar sets were used to plot Parachute mines being dropped by German aircraft in the anchorage (though the AA guns were forbidden to engage them for fear of causing casualties among the shipping). Given the low intensity of air attacks, HAA guns in the bridgehead were sometimes made available to fire on ground targets for bombardment, counter-battery and anti-tank shoots.\",\n \"-32.001250092405826\"\n ],\n [\n \"the morning, Germans in fortified resistance nests directed a withering fire on to flights of LCAs touching down on the beach, which added to the troubles of the assault units. At approximately 09:50, approaching the shore side town of Asnelles, five of the LCAs transporting No.47 Royal Marine Commando ashore blew up mines or were wrecked on beach obstacles with the loss of more than a fifth of the Commando before they reached the beach. Juno Beach On Juno Beach, RCN, RN, and RM flotillas employed 142 LCAs and experienced some difficulty getting the units of the 3rd Canadian Infantry\",\n \"-31.950747220078483\"\n ],\n [\n \"1941 by the German Wehrmacht as a school for anti-aircraft personnel. The barracks were meant to look like a small village, in order not to be bombed by the allied or British bombers, which it never was.\\nJust near the barracks of Nymindegab lay the Atlantic Wall, stretching from Nordkap in Norway to the Pyrenees by the Spanish border. Because of this bunkers lay along the coast as a constant reminder of WW2. Among these the Tirpitz-position (in German: Batterie Vogelsnest), which was being built (but never finished) in order to protect the port of Esbjerg.\\nFollowing the Second World War it\",\n \"-31.93394542625174\"\n ],\n [\n \"bases. The German Air Force used Harvey Barracks for an airport and they would flood the landing strip there when Allied forces would fly overhead. Below Harvey Barracks were multiple levels of hangars which still contain some German World War II aircraft. The hangars were booby-trapped by the retreating Germans close to the end of World War II. Tunnels were said to have been constructed by the Germans from the airfield out to the nearest highway, so that aircraft could be launched off the road to intercept allied planes. Because of the danger involved, no one had been inside the\",\n \"-31.905110850231722\"\n ],\n [\n \"and troop carriers to clear any remaining German bunkers and snipers. The NCDU teams (designated Demolitions Gap-Assault teams) would come in with the second wave and work at low tide to clear the obstacles. Their mission was to open sixteen 50-foot (15 m) wide corridors for the landing at each of the U.S. landing zones (Omaha Beach and Utah Beach). Unfortunately, the plans could not be executed as laid out. The preparatory air and naval bombardment was ineffective, leaving many German guns in position to fire on the attackers. Also, tidal conditions caused many of the NCDU teams to land prematurely\",\n \"-31.903535045916215\"\n ],\n [\n \"to D-Day, German raids on coastal areas were expected and Torquay's took place on 29 May when some 20 planes are believed to have been in Torbay laying mines. Some carried bombs and these were dropped around the Harbour, in Chelston and elsewhere. Nos 4 and 5 Park Crescent were destroyed but the worst affected property was \\\"Bay Court Hotel\\\" where rescuers dug for days for survivors. This was the last recorded raid during the war in Torquay, but throughout the past four years the air attacks had resulted in well over 700 'air raid alerts' being sounded in the\",\n \"-31.897433856269345\"\n ],\n [\n \"operations against targets on the Continent, strafed targets of opportunity, and flew fighter-bomber, counter-air, and area-patrol missions. Engaged primarily in B-17/B-24 escort activities and fighter sweeps until the Normandy invasion in June 1944.\\nPatrolled the beachhead during the invasion. Strafed and dive-bombed troops, bridges, locomotives, railway cars, barges, vehicles, airfields, gun emplacements, flak towers, ammunition dumps, power stations, and radar sites while on escort or fighter-bomber missions as the Allies drove across France during the summer and fall of 1944. The unit flew area patrols to support the breakthrough at Saint-Lô in July and the airborne attack on the Netherlands in\",\n \"-31.87550377950538\"\n ],\n [\n \"front line troops, holding a sector of the Allied front line, badly depleted after the withdrawal of forces for the D-Day landings in Normandy, nipping around in their jeeps to fool the Germans into believing that they were opposed by much larger units.\\nSeveral operations used DUKWs or small landing craft called RCLs (manned by 7 Royal Engineers who became known as \\\"Popski’s Private Navy\\\") to sail up the Adriatic and get behind the German front line, escorted by the Royal Navy’s Coastal Forces.\\nThroughout the bitter winter weather and fighting of 1944 and 1945 PPA undertook their operations ahead of regular\",\n \"-31.873851206852123\"\n ],\n [\n \"perimeter, although it was able to stop German attacks by mid-morning thanks to heavy naval fire from a British cruiser off the shore of Sicily. By dusk 3rd Parachute Battalion to the north had been forced to retreat after suffering heavy casualties and facing repeated German assaults, and the surviving paratroopers began moving towards 2nd Parachute Battalion's positions; at the same time, Lonsdale managed to make contact with M4 Sherman tanks from 44th Royal Tank Regiment, part of the British 4th Armoured Brigade, who had advanced from the British beachheads. As the 3rd Parachute Battalion troops reached his company's positions,\",\n \"-31.87051262613386\"\n ],\n [\n \"June 6, 1944, Peregory landed with the 116th at Omaha Beach as part of the Normandy Invasion, also known as D-Day. His unit was among the first wave of troops to assault the beach but despite fierce enemy resistance that included heavy shelling and machine gun fire, his unit made its way to the town of Grandcampe, by June 8.\\nWhile his unit advanced on the German defenses, the leading elements of his unit began receiving fire from German forces. The Germans were firmly entrenched on high ground overlooking the town and were able to inflict severe damage to allied forces\",\n \"-31.866534616739955\"\n ],\n [\n \"during this time. \\nThe fighter planes flew support missions during the Allied invasion of Normandy, patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied armies, the airfield was used as a resupply and casualty evacuation airfield, before being closed on 5 September 1944. The land was returned to agricultural use. Current use Today there is little or no physical evidence of the airfield's existence, with the land\",\n \"-31.858794351486722\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Luftwaffe bomber wing Kampfgeschwader 54 made several attacks on the British beachheads on D-Day.\\nThe Eighth Air Force attacked various tactical targets in France on 15 June. To counter this attack, Jagdfliegerführer 5 dispatched the German fighters at dawn. Priller and his wingman, Unteroffizier Heinz Wodarczyk, joined II. Gruppe, heading for the area west of Caen and encountered the USAAF heavy bombers just as they were crossing the French coast. Avoiding the escort fighters, Priller attacked the first combat box of about twenty B-24 bombers from the front. Priller shot down a B-24 from the 492nd Bomb Group flying in\",\n \"-31.84895972837694\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the South Hams that they were all to be evacuated from the area by 20 December 1943. Although nobody was told the reason, it was because The War Office had chosen to use Slapton Sands to rehearse the D-Day landings, as the beach at Slapton is very similar to the beach at Normandy which had been chosen for the landings. Ultimately, 749 American soldiers lost their lives at Slapton Sands in April, 1944 in a German attack during the exercises.\\nToday, East Allington is a thriving village, with some new housing. It has a church, primary school, village hall, public\",\n \"-31.846766149101313\"\n ],\n [\n \"river, but was delayed by rough seas on the proposed landing beach. This gave the Vichy French defenders enough time to destroy the bridge. When the commandos eventually landed in daylight, in three separate places, the initial landing was almost unopposed due to the defenders being in combat against the Australian troops, subsequently in the fighting they took heavy casualties, among them Pedder, who was killed in an assault on the French barracks. He was succeeded in command by Geoffrey Keyes, whose party was ultimately able to secure the crossing by getting over the river in canvas boats with the\",\n \"-31.78388493019156\"\n ],\n [\n \"du Hoc which commanded the Omaha landing beaches. After escorting minesweepers to the beach area on the night of 5 and 6 June, she commenced pre-arranged fire on Pointe du Hoc at 05:48, 6 June. As the Rangers landed, she broke up enemy units attempting to oppose them from the top of the cliff.\\nAlthough the rangers found that the battery's guns had been removed before the landings, German resistance was stiff, and Satterlee provided gunfire support for the rest of the day. Satterlee remained off the Normandy beaches for the next forty days, and then joined the invasion force which\",\n \"-31.773827141645597\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sicily the 17th moved to England to train and prepare for D-Day. Normandy On 9 June 1944, D-day plus 3, along with other battalions, the 17th battalion landed on Utah Beach in Normandy as a part of the Normandy landings and Operation Overlord. They cleared lanes for landing craft by destroying the mine-bearing steel structures that the Germans had implanted in the intertidal zone. They bulldozed roads up the narrow draws through the cliffs lining the beaches. 17th Armored Engineer Battalion were issued new camouflage uniforms for D-Day. These uniforms are the same one used by US Marine Corps in\",\n \"-31.75636468763696\"\n ],\n [\n \"in several attacks on E-boats operating near Normandy as well as German shipping travelling through the English Channel. No. 460 Squadron and Australians in other Bomber Command units also participated in raids on E-Boat bases at Le Havre and Boulogne on the nights of 14/15 June and 15/16 June respectively. July and August By July the Allied armies were having difficulty advancing against the German forces in Normandy. In an attempt to create a breakthrough, the Allied air commanders decided to use heavy bombers to attack German positions. The first of these attacks was made on 7 July by 467 Bomber\",\n \"-31.742215979262255\"\n ],\n [\n \"Invasion of Normandy Planning Allied forces rehearsed their D-Day roles for months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the English coast, 749 U.S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger.\\nIn the months leading up to the invasion, the Allied forces conducted a deception operation, Operation Fortitude, aimed at misleading the Germans with respect to the date and place of the invasion.\\nThere were several leaks prior to or on D-Day. Through the Cicero affair, the Germans obtained documents containing references to Overlord, but these documents lacked\",\n \"-31.73067777446704\"\n ],\n [\n \"LCVPs carrying the French division beached right on time to be met by heavy machine gun and 88 mm (3.46 in) fire. By 07:00, the German defences in the hills above Kodak Amber beach had forced the incoming landing craft to lay smoke and withdraw. The heavy defensive fire forced the follow-up waves of landing craft to divert to Kodak Green beach, which caused some congestion on the beachhead. Delays and German gunfire kept some landing craft off shore until 14:00.\\nThe Royal Navy Commandos—unaware of the diversion to the other beach—had to wait some hours before the French cleared the village and\",\n \"-31.727961529773893\"\n ],\n [\n \"further asserted that dropping behind the island's beaches and overcoming its defences was not a suitable mission for the airborne troops, as they were only lightly armed and vulnerable to the 'friendly fire' of the planned Allied naval bombardment. In the revised blueprint for the airborne divisions, a reinforced regimental combat team (the 505th Parachute Infantry, under Colonel James M. Gavin, with the 3rd Battalion of the 504th PIR and numerous other units attached) from Major General Ridgway's U.S. 82nd Airborne Division would be dropped by parachute north-east of the port of Gela to block the movement of Axis reserves\",\n \"-31.715512968192343\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":279,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2zxsjo"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If I have 'high blood pressure', why can't I just cut myself a little to reduce the pressure?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["It is not the amount of volume. It is the pressures inside your blood vessels...and therefore your organs. Blood letting would not cure hypertension. It might lower your blood pressure do to hypovolemia (loss of volume) for a period of time, but when your body recovers you will still have hypertension. And those damaging pressures on your organs, kidneys and brain specifically.","It'd kind of be like cutting the hose when someone has it bent so water can't go through easy.","High blood pressure is bad because your blood vessels get narrower so you need a higher blood pressure to push the blood, with its oxygen, to the places its need to get to (organs/muscles). The higher pressure is created by your heart having to work harder. Because it has to work harder all the time, unlike in exercise where it works hard and then gets to rest and recover, it becomes dilated and stops pumping properly. A bad heart = a bad situation. Say you let some blood out, all that means is your organs aren't getting the blood they need. So your heart will work even harder (more beats per minute) to make sure your organs are ok.","Assuming you are a generally healthy person, you could lose about a third of your blood volume before your body would be unable to maintain pressures. You would have to bleed yourself for 1-2 liters of blood. Needless to say, this is not part of the standard treatment for hypertension.","The pressure in your body has to be adequate to ensure perfusion of blood to your organs; that is to say, to ensure they receive enough blood to oxygenate everything sufficiently. The pressure in your body is monitored and controlled by a bunch of processes so that perfusion is maintained no matter what happens to you. One way this happens is by baroreceptors (\"baro\" = \"pressure\") in places like your carotid artery and your heart, which are able to tell how much the vessel is being stretched. Sudden change in blood pressure signals the baroreceptors, which signal the brain, which decides what to do to fix the perceived problem. When your pressure drops too low, as in the event of a hemorrhage / bleeding out (like when you cut yourself), your baroreceptors sense the lessened stretch and activate your sympathetic nervous system, which you might know as the \"fight or flight\" nervous system. This causes your blood vessels to constrict, which increases your blood pressure. (According to Poiseuille's Law, decreasing the radius of your blood vessels by half increases the pressure by a factor of 16, so it doesn't take a lot.) You might ask why your blood pressure is so high in the first place if these mechanisms are supposed to keep it at a reasonable level. There are countless possible reasons, such as (1) your baroreceptors getting used to higher blood pressure and reaching a higher \"set-point\" that the brain doesn't think it has to compensate for, or (2) your blood vessels getting stiffer due to old age or plaques due to bad lifestyle habits, thus reducing the ability of them to stretch and activate the baroreceptors.","Okay! So, hypertension also known as high blood pressure can be thought of like this. You have this vast network of highways in your body: interstates (large vessels), highways (medium vessels), and city roads (small vessels). The cars on this highway system (red and white blood cells, platelets, various proteins, and so on) all ride this highway system in a vary harmonious way (not many asshats on the road). There is also space in between the cars (water) that has to be accounted for. For the most part, things stay well balanced, if there are potholes (a leaky vessel), it is repaired quickly with a quick patch (platelet plug), and slight fender benders are repaired without ever showing signs of a problem. High blood pressure can be seen as all the roads, highways, and interstates getting smaller, or the amount of space being taken up on the road is getting larger. You have to adjust one, or both, in order to fix the larger problem of the congested traffic. By bleeding out you can reduce the number cars on the road and the space that was in between each car to help alleviate the strain on the highway system, but those cars are necessary to bring home all the bacon (oxygen) to all corners of the nation (the tissues of your body). Your body will just call for more taxes (increase in bone marrow production and collection of free water through the gut and kidney) to produce more cars and fix the space between each car and the problem starts all over again. You gotta either pass legislation to either expand the road systems (as one type of hypertensive pill = ACE inhibitor) or decrease the space between each car (another hypertensive pill = diuretic [causes you to pee more to get rid of some water]). Some times is a combination of both; a bipartisan bill so to speak. Hope this helps. Fun fact though: approximately 90% of the cases of hypertension have no known cause.","Think of it as an old house with calcified pipes. It's not the flow of water (blood), but the pipes (veins, arteries, etc.) that can cause a catastrophic problem. And whatever's in the water could be contributing to the blockage in the pipes (your diet, lifestyle, genetics)."],"string":"[\n \"It is not the amount of volume. It is the pressures inside your blood vessels...and therefore your organs. Blood letting would not cure hypertension. It might lower your blood pressure do to hypovolemia (loss of volume) for a period of time, but when your body recovers you will still have hypertension. And those damaging pressures on your organs, kidneys and brain specifically.\",\n \"It'd kind of be like cutting the hose when someone has it bent so water can't go through easy.\",\n \"High blood pressure is bad because your blood vessels get narrower so you need a higher blood pressure to push the blood, with its oxygen, to the places its need to get to (organs/muscles). The higher pressure is created by your heart having to work harder. Because it has to work harder all the time, unlike in exercise where it works hard and then gets to rest and recover, it becomes dilated and stops pumping properly. A bad heart = a bad situation. Say you let some blood out, all that means is your organs aren't getting the blood they need. So your heart will work even harder (more beats per minute) to make sure your organs are ok.\",\n \"Assuming you are a generally healthy person, you could lose about a third of your blood volume before your body would be unable to maintain pressures. You would have to bleed yourself for 1-2 liters of blood. Needless to say, this is not part of the standard treatment for hypertension.\",\n \"The pressure in your body has to be adequate to ensure perfusion of blood to your organs; that is to say, to ensure they receive enough blood to oxygenate everything sufficiently. The pressure in your body is monitored and controlled by a bunch of processes so that perfusion is maintained no matter what happens to you. One way this happens is by baroreceptors (\\\"baro\\\" = \\\"pressure\\\") in places like your carotid artery and your heart, which are able to tell how much the vessel is being stretched. Sudden change in blood pressure signals the baroreceptors, which signal the brain, which decides what to do to fix the perceived problem. When your pressure drops too low, as in the event of a hemorrhage / bleeding out (like when you cut yourself), your baroreceptors sense the lessened stretch and activate your sympathetic nervous system, which you might know as the \\\"fight or flight\\\" nervous system. This causes your blood vessels to constrict, which increases your blood pressure. (According to Poiseuille's Law, decreasing the radius of your blood vessels by half increases the pressure by a factor of 16, so it doesn't take a lot.) You might ask why your blood pressure is so high in the first place if these mechanisms are supposed to keep it at a reasonable level. There are countless possible reasons, such as (1) your baroreceptors getting used to higher blood pressure and reaching a higher \\\"set-point\\\" that the brain doesn't think it has to compensate for, or (2) your blood vessels getting stiffer due to old age or plaques due to bad lifestyle habits, thus reducing the ability of them to stretch and activate the baroreceptors.\",\n \"Okay! So, hypertension also known as high blood pressure can be thought of like this. You have this vast network of highways in your body: interstates (large vessels), highways (medium vessels), and city roads (small vessels). The cars on this highway system (red and white blood cells, platelets, various proteins, and so on) all ride this highway system in a vary harmonious way (not many asshats on the road). There is also space in between the cars (water) that has to be accounted for. For the most part, things stay well balanced, if there are potholes (a leaky vessel), it is repaired quickly with a quick patch (platelet plug), and slight fender benders are repaired without ever showing signs of a problem. High blood pressure can be seen as all the roads, highways, and interstates getting smaller, or the amount of space being taken up on the road is getting larger. You have to adjust one, or both, in order to fix the larger problem of the congested traffic. By bleeding out you can reduce the number cars on the road and the space that was in between each car to help alleviate the strain on the highway system, but those cars are necessary to bring home all the bacon (oxygen) to all corners of the nation (the tissues of your body). Your body will just call for more taxes (increase in bone marrow production and collection of free water through the gut and kidney) to produce more cars and fix the space between each car and the problem starts all over again. You gotta either pass legislation to either expand the road systems (as one type of hypertensive pill = ACE inhibitor) or decrease the space between each car (another hypertensive pill = diuretic [causes you to pee more to get rid of some water]). Some times is a combination of both; a bipartisan bill so to speak. Hope this helps. Fun fact though: approximately 90% of the cases of hypertension have no known cause.\",\n \"Think of it as an old house with calcified pipes. It's not the flow of water (blood), but the pipes (veins, arteries, etc.) that can cause a catastrophic problem. And whatever's in the water could be contributing to the blockage in the pipes (your diet, lifestyle, genetics).\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Target blood pressure Various expert groups have produced guidelines regarding how low the blood pressure target should be when a person is treated for hypertension. These groups recommend a target below the range 140–160 / 90–100 mmHg for the general population. Cochrane reviews recommend similar targets for subgroups such as people with diabetes and people with prior cardiovascular disease.\nMany expert groups recommend a slightly higher target of 150/90","-31.155016856331713"],["pressure drastically.\nThe decrease in blood pressure shows a combination of short- and long-lasting effects. The early, acute onset took five minutes, and the effect could last for 120 minutes or longer. In addition, calciseptine had only a small effect on the heart rhythm, changing it only slightly. Furthermore, it can also relax the trachea rings in the lungs. These effects can be explained by the relaxing activity of calciseptine on various smooth muscle cells. The inhibitory effect of calciseptine results in a decreased or total disappearance of electric activity in these cells. The total inhibitory effect depends on the tissue:","-30.575519811653066"],["process, it can increase the pressure as much as 2 mb.","-29.689539230839728"],["control it. Adequate management of hypertension can be hampered by inadequacies in the diagnosis, treatment, or control of high blood pressure. Health care providers face many obstacles to achieving blood pressure control, including resistance to taking multiple medications to reach blood pressure goals. People also face the challenges of adhering to medicine schedules and making lifestyle changes. Nonetheless, the achievement of blood pressure goals is possible, and most importantly, lowering blood pressure significantly reduces the risk of death due to heart disease and stroke, the development of other debilitating conditions, and the cost associated with advanced medical care. Research A","-29.453898551641032"],["with high blood pressure are typically advised to avoid products containing it. Because this medication is a sympathomimetic amine without beta-adrenergic activity, it does not increase contractility force and output of the cardiac muscle. It may increase blood pressure resulting in a slow heart rate through stimulation of vascular (likely carotid) baroreceptors. A common side effect during IV administration is reflex bradycardia. The low concentration eye drops do not cause blood pressure changes and the changes with the higher dose drops do not last long. Other Prostatic hyperplasia can also be worsened by use, and chronic use can lead","-29.3715545283776"],["lowering blood pressure, but the largest reductions in blood pressure were obtained by eating a combination of these two (i.e., a lower-salt version of the DASH diet). The effect of this combination at a sodium level of 1,500 mg/day was an average blood pressure reduction of 8.9/4.5 mm Hg (systolic/diastolic). The hypertensive subjects experienced an average reduction of 11.5/5.7 mm Hg. The DASH-sodium results indicate that low sodium levels correlated with the largest reductions in blood pressure for participants at both pre-hypertensive and hypertensive levels, with the hypertensive participants showing the greatest reductions in blood pressure overall. OmniHeart and OmniCarb Following the publication","-29.26130783627741"],["pressure is common and can change the blood pressure reading by up to 10 mmHg, which can lead to misdiagnosis and misclassification of hypertension. Correct blood pressure measurement technique involves several steps. Proper blood pressure measurement requires the person whose blood pressure is being measured to sit quietly for at least five minutes which is then followed by application of a properly fitted blood pressure cuff to a bare upper arm. The person should be seated with their back supported, feet flat on the floor, and with their legs uncrossed. The person whose blood pressure is being measured should avoid","-28.77493544591016"],["pressure is always seen as an immense clinical challenge, affecting large segments of the population. In patients with systemic hypertension under therapy, the blood pressure should not be lowered too rigorously. NTG might be the only severe (= sight-threatening) disease caused in numerous cases by a too low blood pressure. Both magnesium and low dose calcium channel blockers have been employed in the treatment of some NTG patients. There are therapeutic approaches to underlying conditions like Flammer syndrome. A change in nutrition like the intake of sodium-rich foods has been tried as has the oral administration of low-dosed steroids. Lifestyle","-28.629983513616025"],["Pressure overload Pressure overload refers to the pathological state of cardiac muscle in which it has to contract while experiencing an excessive afterload. Pressure overload may affect any of the four chambers of the heart, though the term is most commonly applied to one of the two ventricles. Chronic pressure overload leads to concentric hypertrophy of the cardiac muscle, which can in turn lead to heart failure, myocardial ischaemia or, in extreme cases, outflow obstruction. Causes Any obstruction to the outflow of one of the chambers of the heart can lead to pressure overload. Signs and symptoms A forceful apex","-28.61141870962456"],["know that even mild elevations in blood pressure can be detrimental to health. Studies have shown that diabetics with even a slight elevation in blood pressure have 2-3 times the risk of heart disease compared to individuals without diabetes.\nBlood pressure readings do vary but experts recommend that blood pressure should not range above 140/80. Secondly, high blood pressure is a silent disease and thus it is vital for all diabetics to regularly check their blood pressure or have it checked at a doctor's office on a regular basis. The American Diabetes Association recommends that all diabetics get their blood pressure","-28.596377575478982"],["for each of these may benefit adults with high blood pressure. While weight loss diets reduce body weight and blood pressure, it is unclear if they reduce negative outcomes.\nSome programs aimed to reduce psychological stress such as biofeedback or transcendental meditation may be reasonable add-ons to other treatment to reduce hypertension. However several techniques, namely yoga, relaxation and other forms of meditation do not appear to reduce blood pressure, and there are major methodological limitations with many studies of stress reduction techniques.\nThere is no clear evidence that the modest reduction in blood pressure with stress reduction techniques results in prevention","-28.56528519897256"],["positioning of the electrode. History Despite modern medications against high blood pressure, only around half of people with hypertension in England, USA and Canada have blood pressure at or below target levels.\nIn many cases the situation can be resolved with increases in antihypertensive medication. However in about 10% of patients, blood pressure is still above target (140/90mm Hg) despite at least 3 anti-hypertensives, a status known as resistant hypertension.\nSome patients prefer not to be prescribed progressively greater number of medications, because of side effects or the difficulty managing a complex medication regime. Despite the greater invasiveness, they may prefer the","-28.56522873134236"],["high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, and chronic kidney disease.\nLifestyle factors can increase the risk of hypertension. These include excess salt in the diet, excess body weight, smoking, and alcohol. Hypertension can also be caused by other diseases, or as a side-effect of drugs.\nBlood pressure is expressed by two measurements, the systolic and diastolic pressures, which are the maximum and minimum pressures, respectively. Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100–140 millimeters mercury (mmHg) systolic and 60–90 mmHg diastolic. High blood pressure","-28.470855155756"],["is defined as high blood pressure that remains above a target level, in spite of being prescribed three or more antihypertensive drugs simultaneously with different mechanisms of action. Failing to take the prescribed drugs, is an important cause of resistant hypertension. Resistant hypertension may also result from chronically high activity of the autonomic nervous system, an effect known as \"neurogenic hypertension\". Electrical therapies that stimulate the baroreflex are being studied as an option for lowering blood pressure in people in this situation. Adults As of 2014, approximately one billion adults or ~22% of the population of the world have hypertension.","-28.403433557861717"],["Hypotension Causes Low blood pressure can be caused by low blood volume, hormonal changes, widening of blood vessels, medicine side effects, anemia, heart problems or endocrine problems.\nReduced blood volume, hypovolemia, is the most common cause of hypotension. This can result from hemorrhage; insufficient fluid intake, as in starvation; or excessive fluid losses from diarrhea or vomiting. Hypovolemia is often induced by excessive use of diuretics. Low blood pressure may also be attributed to heat stroke. The body may have enough fluid but does not retain electrolytes. Absence of perspiration, light headedness and dark coloured urine are also indicators.\nOther medications can","-28.39733564724611"],["in the long term.\nDenervating these receptors 'fools' the body into thinking that it has too low blood volume and initiates mechanisms that retain fluid and so push up the blood pressure to a higher level than it would otherwise have. Baroreceptor dysfunction Baroreceptors are integral to the body's function: Pressure changes in the blood vessels would not be detected as quickly in the absence of baroreceptors. When baroreceptors are not working, blood pressure continues to increase, but, within an hour, the blood pressure returns to normal as other blood pressure regulatory systems take over.\nBaroreceptors can also become oversensitive in some","-28.33116851961313"],["to a blood pressure of 130/80 mm Hg or higher in adults. This is a severe problem for the heart and can cause many other complications. In a study of 120 coarctation repair recipients done in Groningen, The Netherlands, twenty-nine patients (25%) experienced hypertension in the later years of life due to the repair. While hypertension has many different factors that lead to this stage of blood pressure, people who have had a coarctation repair — regardless of the age at which the operation was performed — are at much higher risk than the general public of hypertension later in","-28.296405287692323"],["output and blood pressure. Higher doses also cause vasoconstriction that further increases blood pressure.\nWhile some effects result from stimulation of dopamine receptors, the prominent cardiovascular effects result from dopamine acting at α₁, β₁, and β₂ adrenergic receptors.","-28.244181341433432"],["to control weight and blood pressure, and also discusses the role of emotional awareness and self-image in heart health. Steinbaum describes methods for integrating diet, exercise, sleep, and lifestyle.\nIn 2014, Rodale Inc. published Lowering Your Blood Pressure Naturally: Drop Pounds and Slash Your Blood Pressure in 6 Weeks Without Drugs, which Steinbaum co-authored with Sarí Harrar.","-28.222600872184557"],["Management of hypertension Hypertension is managed using lifestyle modification and antihypertensive medications. Hypertension is usually treated to achieve a blood pressure of below 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg. According to one 2003 review, reduction of the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischaemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Blood pressure target For most people, recommendations are to reduce blood pressure to less than or equal to somewhere between 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg. Attempting to achieve lower levels have not been shown to","-28.148705523839453"],["heart failure. These conditions may cause low blood pressure because they prevent the body from being able to circulate enough blood.\nExcessive vasodilation, or insufficient constriction of the resistance blood vessels (mostly arterioles), causes hypotension. This can be due to decreased sympathetic nervous system output or to increased parasympathetic activity occurring as a consequence of injury to the brain or spinal cord or of dysautonomia, an intrinsic abnormality in autonomic system functioning. Excessive vasodilation can also result from sepsis, acidosis, or medications, such as nitrate preparations, calcium channel blockers, or AT1 receptor antagonists (Angiotensin II acts on AT1 receptors).","-28.14588844263926"],["higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\nThe lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh can occasionally be damaged during laparoscopic hernia repair, or scarring from the operation can lead to meralgia paraesthetica. Diagnosis Diagnosis is largely based on patient description and relevant","-28.01123858320352"],["reduced. This then helps the blood vessels to relax and expand back to a normal healthy state, so blood pressure is lowered. Clinical trials Several human trials aimed to evaluate the effect of lactotripeptides on blood pressure. Some trials show a blood pressure-lowering effect of lactotripeptides in people with mild to moderate hypertension, however others see no effect from these peptides. A recent systematic review of the literature found no confirmed ACE-inhibitor effects in humans, as well as no conclusive evidence for lactotripeptides as a successful intervention; the meta-analysis cited heterogeneity in methodology and lack of inclusion of recent larger","-27.999427996015584"],["greater amount of force to permit them to accommodate the volume of blood ejected from the heart (stroke volume). This increased force requirement equates to an increase in pulse pressure. The increase in pulse pressure may result in increased damage to blood vessels in target organs such as the brain or kidneys. This effect may be exaggerated if the increase in arterial stiffness results in reduced wave reflection and more propagation of the pulsatile pressure into the microcirculation.\nAn increase in arterial stiffness also increases the load on the heart, since it has to perform more work to maintain the","-27.946897705125593"],["vessels and arteries which leads to low blood pressure.","-27.933096609194763"],["blood pressure would create a decrease in stroke volume that would compromise circulation to peripheral and visceral tissues.\nSustained myocardial stretch activates tension dependent Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers, bringing Na⁺ ions into the sarcolemma.\nThis increase in Na⁺ in the sarcolemma reduces the Na⁺ gradient exploited by sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) and stops them from working effectively.\nCa²⁺ ions accumulate inside the sarcolemma as a result and are uptaken by sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) pumps.\nCalcium induced calcium release (CICR) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is increased upon stimulation of the cardiac myocyte by an action potential.\nThis leads to an increase in the force of contraction of the","-27.89448062493466"],["pressure rating could be indicated as \"Maximum Pressure,\" or \"Inflate to . . . \" and will usually give a range (for example, 90-120 psi, or 35-60 psi). Inflating to the lower number in the pressure range will increase traction and make the ride more comfortable. Inflating to the higher number will make the ride more efficient and will decrease the chances of getting a flat tire but a firmer ride must be expected. Pressure output The maximum pressure, or how much air the pump can force into a tire, is an important consideration. The pump needs to match or","-27.793828721885802"],["However, in general, symptomatic relief from pressure overload will not be achieved immediately, but will involve a delayed response following the atrophy of the hypertrophied heart muscle.","-27.65626182802953"],["wedge pressure, and therefore, is probably a reflection of an increased central blood volume. In the absence of isolated right ventricular failure, seen in some patients with right ventricular infarction, a positive abdominojugular test suggests a pulmonary artery wedge pressure of 15 mm Hg or greater.","-27.635682940715924"],["to continue. The 54-year-old curler said his doctor had prescribed a medication on the banned substances list.\nAnother concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of \"boosting\". Athletes can artificially increase their blood pressure, often by self-harming, which has been shown to improve performance by up to 15%. This is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly, and using high-pressure compression stockings. The injury is painless","-27.630906391103053"],["expectancy. Decreasing the systolic blood pressure to less than 140 mmHg is associated with a lower risk of death and better outcomes. Intensive blood pressure management (less than 130/80 mmHg) as opposed to standard blood pressure management (less than 140-160 mmHg systolic to 85–100 mmHg diastolic) results in a slight decrease in stroke risk but no effect on overall risk of death.\nIntensive blood sugar lowering (HbA1c<6%) as opposed to standard blood sugar lowering (HbA1c of 7–7.9%) does not appear to change mortality. The goal of treatment is typically an HbA1c of 7 to 8% or a fasting glucose of less than 7.2 mmol/L","-27.525815077708103"],["Hypertensive heart disease Prevention Because there are no symptoms with high blood pressure, people can have the condition without knowing it. Diagnosing high blood pressure early can help prevent heart disease, stroke, eye problems, and chronic kidney disease.\nThe risk of cardiovascular disease and death can be reduced by lifestyle modifications, including dietary advice, promotion of weight loss and regular aerobic exercise, moderation of alcohol intake and cessation of smoking. Drug treatment may also be needed to control the hypertension and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, manage the heart failure, or control cardiac arrhythmias. Patients with hypertensive heart disease should","-27.50137391584576"],["down the swelling. If the swelling appears to have increased to a dangerous level, surgery may be needed to relieve pressure on the brain. The formation of an abscess also calls for surgery as it will be necessary to drain the abscess.","-27.490970184793696"],["than a few years unless appropriately treated.\nIn the past, most attention was paid to diastolic pressure; but nowadays it is recognized that both high systolic pressure and high pulse pressure (the numerical difference between systolic and diastolic pressures) are also risk factors. In some cases, it appears that a decrease in excessive diastolic pressure can actually increase risk, due probably to the increased difference between systolic and diastolic pressures (see the article on pulse pressure). If systolic blood pressure is elevated (>140 mmHg) with a normal diastolic blood pressure (<90 mmHg), it is called \"isolated systolic hypertension\" and may present a","-27.482138905092143"],["turn decreases the sympathetic outflow resulting in reduced norepinephrine and thus blood pressure. When the blood pressure is low, baroreceptor firing is reduced and this in turn results in augmented sympathetic outflow and increased norepinephrine release on the heart and blood vessels, increasing blood pressure. Effect on heart rate The baroreflex may be responsible for a part of the low-frequency component of heart rate variability, the so-called Mayer waves, at 0.1 Hz. High blood pressure The baroreflex can be used to treat resistant hypertension. This Stimulation is provided by a pacemaker-like device. While the devices appears to lower blood pressure evidence","-27.41470428899629"],["in blood pressure. This increase in blood pressure under stressful conditions ensures that muscles receive the oxygen that they need to be active and respond accordingly. If these stressful conditions remain elevated, muscles will become fatigued, resulting in hypertension and in extreme cases can result in death. Thyroxine axis The third physiological response results in the release of thyrotropic hormone-release factor (TRF) which results in the release of thyrotropic hormone (TTH). TTH stimulates the release of thyroxine and triiodothyronine from the thyroid. This results in an increased basal metabolic rate (BMR). This effect is not as immediate as","-27.352613739436492"],["lower pressure in order to pass blood through the low-resistance, high compliance circulation of the lungs. The lungs are able to accomplish this low-resistance circulation largely due to the fact that the length of the pulmonary circulation is smaller, and because much of the circuitry is in parallel rather than in series. \nIf a significant anatomic defect (i.e. a hole or breach) exists between the two sides of the heart, a shunt will occur, causing blood to flow down the normal pressure gradient from the left side to the right side. The amount of blood shunted is proportional to the","-27.280957283335738"],["This behavior facilitates a much greater increase in stroke volume and cardiac output at a lower mean arterial pressure and enables much greater aerobic capacity and physical performance. The diastolic drop reflects a much greater fall in total peripheral resistance of the muscle arterioles in response to the exercise (a greater proportion of red versus white muscle tissue). Individuals with larger BMIs due to increased muscle mass (body builders) have also been shown to have lower diastolic pressures and larger pulse pressures. Relationship to heart disease Recent work suggests that a high pulse pressure is an important risk factor for","-27.25650854181731"],["measure of blood pressure is taken from a noninvasive instrument called a sphygmomanometer. \"A survey showed that 96% of primary care physicians habitually use a cuff size too small,\" adding to the difficulty in making an informed diagnosis. For such reasons, white coat hypertension cannot be diagnosed with a standard clinical visit. It can be reduced (but not eliminated) with automated blood pressure measurements over 15 to 20 minutes in a quiet part of the office or clinic.\nPatients with white coat hypertension do not exhibit the signs indicative of trepidation and their increased blood pressure is often not accompanied","-27.252805384581734"],["the tissues to be maintained at a lower head of pressure by making people more sensitive to their own insulin.","-27.239019308894058"],["increased pressure (usually caused by inflammation) occurs within a compartment.","-27.230491533802706"],["The amount of pressure on the tissue is based on the size of the area of the contact: the smaller the point of pressure, the greater effect it will have on the tissue. The position of instruments can cause damage to the body if pressure is not relieved periodically.\nThe patient's own health is also considered. Respiratory and circulatory disorders, blood pressure, the patient's weight, old age, and body temperature may affect a patient's potential for pressure. Other forces that may damage the body are the folding of the tissue, called shear, friction from the tissue rubbing against other tissue, and","-27.16213310582316"],["normal blood pressure to drop that much. All we should care about is blood pressure in the small subset that had high blood pressure. But they don’t present that.\" Writing for The Incidental Economist, Aaron Carroll and Austin Frakt, a health economist and researcher, argued that the study \"shows that some things improved for people who got Medicaid. For others, changes weren't statistically significant, which isn't the same thing as certainty of no effect. For still others, the jury is still out. But it didn't show that Medicaid harms people, or that the ACA is a failure, or that anything","-27.077545371372253"],["pain at the front of the knee due to overuse can be managed with a combination of RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation), anti-inflammatory medications, and physiotherapy.\nUsually chondromalacia develops without swelling or bruising and most individuals benefit from rest and adherence to an appropriate physical therapy program. Allowing inflammation to subside while avoiding irritating activities for several weeks is followed by a gradual resumption. Cross-training activities such as swimming – using strokes other than the breaststroke – can help to maintain general fitness and body composition. This is beneficial until a physical therapy program emphasizing strengthening and flexibility of the","-27.07746164863056"],["High pressure receptors High pressure receptors are the baroreceptors found within the aortic arch and carotid sinus. They are only sensitive to blood pressures above 60 mmHg.\nWhen these receptors are activated they elicit a depressor response; which decreases the heart rate and causes a general vasodilation. An increase in arterial blood pressure reflexly elicits an increase in vagal neuronal activity to the heart (i.e. the resulting decreased heart rate).\nThe afferent nerves from the baroreceptors are called buffer nerves.","-27.028988293604925"],["past, physicians were very aggressive with fluid resuscitation (giving fluids such as normal saline or lactated Ringer's through the vein) to try to bring the blood pressure to normal values. Recent studies have found that there is some benefit to allowing specific patients to experience some degree of hypotension in certain settings. This concept does not exclude therapy by means of i.v. fluid, inotropes or vasopressors, the only restriction is to avoid completely normalizing blood pressure in a context where blood loss may be enhanced. When a person starts to bleed (big or small) the body starts a natural coagulation","-27.009460748460697"],["positive for steroids in 2002. He had won two gold medals in the alpine events but was stripped of his medals. One concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of boosting blood pressure, known as autonomic dysreflexia. The increase in blood pressure can improve performance by 15% and is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly and using high-pressured compression stockings. The injury is painless","-26.95549270574702"],["large volume of blood under low pressure to enhance cardiac output.","-26.9533494298812"],["pressure may help in immobilization but also is thought to reduce the tendency of the fluid to leak out of vessels by increasing the back-pressure on those fluid sources.\nFollowing masculinising chest reconstruction (double mastectomy) in trans men or breast augmentation, surgeons often recommend binding the chest for several weeks to minimize the risk of seromas.","-26.916269499401096"],["the increased pressure is transmitted to the pulmonary vasculature, and the resultant hydrostatic pressure favors extravasation of fluid into the lung parenchyma, causing pulmonary edema. On the right side of the heart, the increased pressure is transmitted to the systemic venous circulation and systemic capillary beds, favoring extravasation of fluid into the tissues of target organs and extremities, resulting in dependent peripheral edema. Diastolic dysfunction Heart failure caused by diastolic dysfunction is generally described as the backward failure of the ventricle to adequately relax and typically denotes a stiffer ventricular wall. The \"stiffness\" and contractility of the ventricular walls in","-26.91070185333956"],["or labetalol in which blood pressure is increased unintentionally (such as with cough and cold medications). Finally, there may also be some alpha/beta blocker drug interactions that can worsen previous heart failure.","-26.872411793359788"],["blood pressure and elicits venous vasoconstriction to decrease venous compliance. Decreased venous compliance also results from an intrinsic myogenic increase in venous smooth muscle tone in response to the elevated pressure in the veins of the lower body. Other compensatory mechanisms include the veno-arteriolar axon reflex, the 'skeletal muscle pump' and 'respiratory pump'. Together these mechanisms normally stabilize blood pressure within a minute or less. If these compensatory mechanisms fail and arterial pressure and blood flow decrease beyond a certain point, the perfusion of the brain becomes critically compromised (i.e., the blood supply is not sufficient), causing lightheadedness,","-26.870438742509577"],["part of aging. In fact, it was felt by the medical community that high blood pressure was a good thing, because it improved circulation. Even so, there was no reliable way to lower high blood pressure until the 1940s. But Freis's studies, first published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1954 then later expanded in the 1960s, showed that hypertension actually increased the likelihood of stroke and heart attack. The 1960s study lasted five years (1964-1969), and was designed to determine whether treatment of hypertension would help prevent death and injury from complications due to stroke, kidney damage,","-26.835603314684704"],["as the hydrostatic pressure of the blood passing through the branches of the pulmonary artery in order to reach the apical and basal areas of the lungs, acting synergistically with the pressure developed by the right ventricle. Thus at the apex of the lung the resulting pressure can be insufficient for developing a flow (which can be sustained only by the negative pressure generated by venous flow towards the left atrium) or even for preventing the collapse of the vascular structures surrounding the alveoli, while the base of the lung shows an intense flow due to the higher pressure.","-26.833463101123925"],["Low pressure receptors Low pressure receptors are baroreceptors located in large systemic veins, in the pulmonary arteries, in the walls of the atria, and ventricles of the heart.[2] They are also called volume receptors. These receptors respond to changes in the wall tension, which is proportional to the filling state of the low pressure side of circulation (below 60mmHg). Thus, low pressure baroreceptors are involved with the regulation of blood volume. The blood volume determines the mean pressure throughout the system, in particular in the venous side where most of the blood is held. Increasing stretch of the","-26.810832550923806"],["to maintain the blood pressure which may be done using intravenous fluids and vasopressors. Vasopressors used include phenylephrine, dopamine, or norepinephrine. Mean arterial blood pressure is measured and kept at 85 to 90 mmHg for seven days after injury. The treatment for shock from blood loss is different from that for neurogenic shock, and could harm people with the latter type, so it is necessary to determine why someone is in shock. However it is also possible for both causes to exist at the same time. Another important aspect of care is prevention of insufficient oxygen in the bloodstream, which","-26.734324000339257"],["cuff pressure is monitored carefully in order to avoid complications from over-inflation, many of which can be traced to excessive cuff pressure restricting the blood supply to the tracheal mucosa. A 2000 Spanish study of bedside percutaneous tracheotomy reported overall complication rates of 10–15% and procedural mortality of 0%, which is comparable to those of other series reported in the literature from the Netherlands and the United States.\nInability to secure the airway, with subsequent failure of oxygenation and ventilation is a life-threatening complication which if not immediately corrected leads to decreased oxygen content, brain damage, cardiovascular collapse, and death. When","-26.71656619470741"],["reduction. Sympathetic inhibition leads to a drop in peripheral resistance, while parasympathetic activation leads to a depressed heart rate (reflex bradycardia) and contractility. The combined effects will dramatically decrease blood pressure.\nIn a similar manner, sympathetic activation with parasympathetic inhibition allows the baroreflex to elevate blood pressure. Set point and tonic activation Baroreceptor firing has an inhibitory effect on sympathetic outflow. The sympathetic neurons fire at different rates which determines the release of norepinephrine onto cardiovascular targets. Norepinephrine constricts blood vessels to increase blood pressure. When baroreceptors are stretched (due to an increased blood pressure) their firing rate increases which in","-26.70803442336546"],["cardiac muscle to try and increase stroke volume and cardiac output to maintain tissue perfusion.\nOn the other hand, it has been proposed that the Anrep effect may be a spurious effect resulting from the recovery of the myocardium from a transient ischemia arising from the abrupt increase in blood pressure.","-26.693520541884936"],["pressure Divers must avoid injuries caused by changes in pressure. The weight of the water column above the diver causes an increase in pressure in proportion to depth, in the same way that the weight of the column of atmospheric air above the surface causes a pressure of 101.3 kPa (14.7 pounds-force per square inch) at sea level. This variation of pressure with depth will cause compressible materials and gas filled spaces to tend to change volume, which can cause the surrounding material or tissues to be stressed, with the risk of injury if the stress gets too high. Pressure","-26.676034045027336"],["be transformed into pressure, because the elastic components of the arterial wall are not linear and the smooth muscles also consist of non-elastic parts.. \nThe goal is to unload the arterial wall in order to linearize this phenomenon with a counter pressure as high as the pressure inside the artery. Blood volume is kept constant by applying this corresponding pressure from the outside. The continuously changing outside pressure that is needed to keep the arterial blood volume constant directly corresponds to the arterial pressure. It is an instantaneous, continuous measure for arterial blood pressure, which is the basic principle of","-26.659953478403622"],["increases the resistance to blood flow and so the pressure within the system rises. Molecular pathology The molecular mechanism of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is not known yet, but it is believed that the endothelial dysfunction results in a decrease in the synthesis of endothelium-derived vasodilators such as nitric oxide and prostacyclin. Moreover, there is a stimulation of the synthesis of vasoconstrictors such as thromboxane and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). These results in a severe vasoconstriction and vascular smooth muscle and adventitial hypertrophy characteristic of patients with PAH. Nitric oxide-soluble guanylate cyclase pathway In normal conditions, the vascular","-26.623466402001213"],["blood pressure by forcing the heart to pump harder and faster, and by squeezing or constricting small blood vessels in the arms and legs. These compensatory mechanisms can be recognised by a rapid resting heart rate and cool fingers and toes.\nIf the blood within the pleural cavity is not removed, it will eventually clot. This clot tends to stick the parietal and visceral pleura together and has the potential to lead to scarring within the pleura, which if extensive leads to the condition known as a fibrothorax. Following the initial loss of blood, a small hemothorax may irritate the pleura,","-26.616287415585248"],["than 250 million people. As the momentum picks up year after year, the WHL is confident that almost all the estimated 1.5 billion people affected by elevated blood pressure can be reached. Economics High blood pressure is the most common chronic medical problem prompting visits to primary health care providers in USA. The American Heart Association estimated the direct and indirect costs of high blood pressure in 2010 as $76.6 billion. In the US 80% of people with hypertension are aware of their condition, 71% take some antihypertensive medication, but only 48% of people aware that they have hypertension adequately","-26.57880240297527"],["in initial studies did not increase blood pressure. In 2017, its development was abandoned by Merck. The other was Eli Lilly's evacetrapib, which failed in Phase 3 trials.","-26.53919343785674"],["progressively, but intense sports may increase the risk of developing AF, as seen in athletes. It is due to a remodeling of cardiac tissue, and an increase in vagal tone, which shortens the effective refractory period (ERP) favoring re-entries from the pulmonary veins. High blood pressure According to the CHARGE Consortium both systolic and diastolic blood pressure are predictors of the risk of AF. Systolic blood pressure values close to normal limit the increase in the risk associated with AF. Diastolic dysfunction is also associated with AF, which increased pressure, left atrial volume, size, and left ventricular hypertrophy, characteristic of","-26.41015610397153"],["eye. It is not entirely clear how it protects the eye from the raised pressure, but it may be the result of either diversion of the CSF into the orbit or the creation of an area of scar tissue that lowers the pressure. The effects on the intracranial pressure itself are more modest. Moreover, the procedure may lead to significant complications, including blindness in 1–2%. The procedure is therefore recommended mainly in those who have limited headache symptoms but significant papilledema or threatened vision, or in those who have undergone unsuccessful treatment with a shunt or have a contraindication for","-26.29097686294699"],["of cardiovascular disease.\nSeveral exercise regimes—including isometric resistance exercise, aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, and device-guided breathing—may be useful in reducing blood pressure. Medications Several classes of medications, collectively referred to as antihypertensive medications, are available for treating hypertension. Use should take into account the person's cardiovascular risk (including risk of myocardial infarction and stroke) as well as blood pressure readings, in order to gain a more accurate picture of the person's risks.\nThe best first-line medication is disputed, but the Cochrane collaboration, World Health Organization and the United States guidelines support low-dose thiazide-based diuretic as first-line treatment. The UK guidelines emphasise calcium","-26.27041301663121"],["be a useful initial emergency treatment of severely elevated pressure.\nThe depolarising muscle relaxant succinylcholine, which is used in anaesthesia, transiently increases IOP by around 10 mmHg for a few minutes. This is significant for example if the patient requires anaesthesia for a trauma and has sustained an eye (globe) perforation. The mechanism is not clear but it is thought to involve contraction of tonic myofibrils and transient dilation of choroidal blood vessels. Ketamine also increases IOP. Significance Ocular hypertension is the most important risk factor for glaucoma.\nIntraocular pressure has been measured as a secondary outcome in a systematic","-26.22137511378969"],["stretch due to the increased blood pressure, the cardiac center responds by increasing sympathetic stimulation and inhibiting parasympathetic stimulation to increase heart rate. The opposite is also true. Chemoreceptors present in the carotid body or adjacent to the aorta in an aortic body respond to the blood's oxygen, carbon dioxide levels. Low oxygen or high carbon dioxide will stimulate firing of the receptors.\nExercise and fitness levels, age, body temperature, basal metabolic rate, and even a person's emotional state can all affect the heart rate. High levels of the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones can increase the heart rate. The","-26.191116037152824"],["Pulse pressure Low (Narrow) Pulse Pressure A pulse pressure is considered abnormally low if it is less than 25% of the systolic value. The most common cause of a low (narrow) pulse pressure is a drop in left ventricular stroke volume.\nIn trauma, a low or narrow pulse pressure suggests significant blood loss (insufficient preload leading to reduced cardiac output).\nIf the pulse pressure is extremely low, i.e. 25 mmHg or less, the cause may be low stroke volume, as in Congestive Heart Failure and/or cardiogenic shock.\nA narrow pulse pressure is also caused by aortic valve stenosis and cardiac tamponade. High values","-26.150177965289913"],["total limb occlusion pressure is just one example of efforts to account for the above factors and provide an individualised approach to prescribing BFR training that is relatively quick and inexpensive. While the relationship between BFR pressure and the underlying tissue compression during exercise is not yet fully understood, BFR training using 40%–80% of limb occlusion pressure is safe and effective when supervised by experienced practitioners ; therefore, lower pressures may provide less risk without the need for higher pressure. Adaptations Historically, heavy exercise loads of approximately 70% of an individual's one repetition maximum (1RM) have been deemed necessary to","-26.07151010906091"],["postural hypotension, the tendency for blood pressure to decrease on standing due to gravity. \nThe system relies on specialized neurons, known as baroreceptors chiefly in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses to monitor changes in blood pressure and relay them to the medulla oblongata. Baroreceptors are stretch receptors and respond to the pressure induced stretching of the blood vessel in which they are found. Baroreflex induced changes in blood pressure are mediated by both branches of the autonomic nervous system: the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves. Baroreceptors are active even at normal blood pressures so that their activity informs the brain","-26.061404341337038"],["in a pulse (blood pressure) weaker than expected and triggers normal homeostatic mechanisms that try to compensate by constricting arteries and increasing heart rate (the turbulence onset part of HRT). This is accomplished by the brain reflexively withdrawing the parasympathetic nerve signals and increasing the sympathetic nerve signals it sends to the heart. The compensatory constriction of the arteries and increased heart rate frequently cause blood pressure to overshoot normal values (overcompensates), and activate the baroreflex in reverse. This time, the brain reinstates parasympathetic nerve signals and decreases sympathetic nerve signals, which cause the heart rate to slow","-26.051454853150062"],["are opposed by high positive airway pressures pushing back and this does not place undue stress on the thin blood vessel walls. During inspiration, the high positive pressures in the pulmonary blood vessels pushing out are met by negative pressures distending the blood vessel and placing increased stress on the walls.\nStudies in vitro show that significant disruption of the pulmonary capillaries occurs at pressures of approximately 80 mmHg. In vivo, significant EIPH occurs above a mean pulmonary artery pressure of around 80–95 mmHg. On the basis of this theory, any factor or disease that would increase pulmonary vascular pressures (e.g.","-26.046351981756743"],["blood pressure. Some evidence suggests that people with certain circulatory problems, such as varicose veins, may benefit from the consumption of EPA and DHA, which may stimulate blood circulation and increase the breakdown of fibrin, a protein involved in blood clotting and scar formation.\nOmega−3 fatty acids reduce blood triglyceride levels but do not significantly change the level of LDL cholesterol or HDL cholesterol in the blood. The American Heart Association position (2011) is that borderline elevated triglycerides, defined as 150–199 mg/dL, can be lowered by 0.5-1.0 grams of EPA and DHA per day; high triglycerides 200–499 mg/dL benefit from 1-2 g/day; and","-25.983202971779974"],["pressure reduction may exceed the rate at which gas can be eliminated by diffusion and perfusion, and if the concentration gets too high, it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues. When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceed the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension from the bubble - liquid interface, the bubbles will grow, and this growth can cause damage to tissues. Symptoms caused by this damage are known as Decompression sickness.\nThe actual rates of diffusion and perfusion, and the solubility of gases in specific tissues is","-25.973445313982666"],["an immediate gravitational pooling of about 500 to 1000ml of blood to the lower extremities, splanchnic and pulmonary circulations. The decrease in venous return to the heart reduces cardiac output and eventually causes a drop in blood pressure. Baroreceptors in the carotid and aortic arteries sense this decrease in blood pressure and activate the sympathetic nervous system which leads to increased heart rate, systemic vasoconstriction, and increased cardiac muscle contractility all of which eventually increase blood pressure. In a healthy individual, this sympathetic activation causes a physiological increase in heart rate by 10 to 20 bpm, diastolic blood pressure by","-25.961808767722687"],["(the flow of blood pumped by the heart) through the vascular resistance, usually termed total peripheral resistance by physicians and researchers. An increase in the media to lumenal diameter ratio has been observed in hypertensive arterioles (arteriolosclerosis) as the vascular wall thickens and/or lumenal diameter decreases.\nThe up and down fluctuation of the arterial blood pressure is due to the pulsatile nature of the cardiac output and determined by the interaction of the stroke volume versus the volume and elasticity of the major arteries.\nThe decreased velocity of flow in the capillaries increases the blood pressure, due to Bernoulli's principle. This induces","-25.952717512613162"],["Ocular hypertension Pathophysiology The pressure within the eye is maintained by the balance between the fluid that enters the eye through the ciliary body and the fluid that exits the eye through the trabecular meshwork.\n==Diagnosis==We can diagnose increase in intraocular pressure with the help of tonometry\nNormal intraocular press is 10_21mmhg Treatment Ocular hypertension is treated with either medications or laser. Medications that lower intraocular pressure work by decreasing aqueous humor production and/or increasing aqueous humor outflow. Laser trabeculoplasty works by increasing outflow. The cannabinoids found in cannabis sativa and indica (marijuana) have been shown to reduce intraocular pressure, by","-25.934246621414786"],["blood pressure. This can be treated with inotropic agents or by intra-aortic balloon pump, but this is regarded as temporary treatment while the underlying cause is addressed.","-25.9253856104624"],["in pulse pressure with age is attributed to increased stiffness of the arteries. An age-related rise in blood pressure is not considered healthy and is not observed in some isolated unacculturated communities. Pulmonary pressure Normally, the pressure in the pulmonary artery is about 15 mmHg at rest.\nIncreased blood pressure in the capillaries of the lung causes pulmonary hypertension, leading to interstitial edema if the pressure increases to above 20 mmHg, and to pulmonary edema at pressures above 25 mmHg. Mean systemic pressure If the heart is stopped, blood pressure falls, but it does not fall to zero. The remaining pressure measured after cessation","-25.91759187812204"],["preload, and therefore increasing cardiac output, (as per the Law of Laplace) so that systolic blood pressure increases and a stronger pulse pressure can be palpated.","-25.907197360698774"],["the length of the muscle fibers, and resulting tension, altered the systolic pressure.","-25.876959038316272"],["mean blood pressure in a range of 16.1mmHg. Neufeld et al reported standard deviations for both systolic and diastolic readings were roughly 3.5 to 5.5 mm Hg. In general standard deviation for the diastolic pressure would be greater because of the difficulty in judging when the sounds disappear. White-coat hypertension For some patients, blood pressure measurements taken in a doctor's office may not correctly characterize their typical blood pressure. In up to 25% of patients, the office measurement is higher than their typical blood pressure. This type of error is","-25.87051892267482"],["Association on alternative approaches to lowering blood pressure concluded that MBSR was not recommended in clinical practice to lower blood pressure. MBSR can have a beneficial effect helping with the depression and psychological distress associated with chronic illness.\nPreliminary evidence suggests efficacy of mindfulness meditation in the treatment of substance use disorders; however, further study is required. MBSR might be beneficial for people with fibromyalgia: there is no evidence of long-term benefit but low-quality evidence of a small short-term benefit.\nIn 2010, a meta-analysis was conducted by Hoffman and colleagues exploring the efficacy of MBSR and similarly structured programs for adults with","-25.868881332920864"],["pressure in the thoracic cavity engendered by the sudden dip in plasma viscosity. Globules of lipid polymers also produce a significant shear strain on capillaries, causing the skin to pale and the tongue to swell.\nHowever, many patients claim to feel full of energy and stamina after undergoing therapy. Medical scientists are quick to point out this side effect is likely the result of rapid lipolysis, as free fatty acids are freed from glycerol, and forcibly diffused into blood and muscle fiber due to artificially elevated blood pressure.","-25.858311796444468"],["reduce blood pressure, but only if the use of ACE inhibitors, angiotensin-II receptor blockers, calcium channel blockers, or thazide diuretics (in full dose or in combinations) have not been efficacious. Drug interactions As with any drug, there are drug interactions that can occur with alpha blockers. For instance, alpha blockers that are used for the reduction of blood pressure, such as phenoxybenzamine or phentolamine can have synergy with other drugs that affect smooth muscle, blood vessels, or drugs used for erectile dysfunction (i.e. sildenafil, tamsulosin, etc.). This stimulates exaggerated hypotension.\nAlternative alpha blockers, such as prazosin, tamsulosin, doxazosin, or terazosin can","-25.853032274520956"],["have the side effect of increasing blood pressure and may even suppress the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs. Pain and anti-inflammatory drugs like Indomethacin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and piroxicam would retain water in the systemic circulation, raising the blood pressure. Other types of medications like antidepressant, hormone and caffeine would also increase blood pressure. Signs and symptoms It is often asymptomatic in the early stages of blood vessel disorder. When the disease develops, a variety of signs can be observed in different body parts. For instance, patients may have pale skin, cold hands and feet, and numb fingertips. These are mainly","-25.80776892565393"],["of other physiological consequences mediated by this class of drug. Notably, a reduction in blood pressure can be facilitated by a variety of mechanisms, including reduced cardiac contractility and dilation of the vasculature. This drop in blood pressure may activate a reflexive increase in heartrate, due to a baroreceptor-mediated feedback mechanism. Some anesthetics, however, disrupt this reflex.\nPatients under general anesthesia are at greater risk of developing hypothermia, as the aforementioned vasodilation increases the heat lost via peripheral blood flow. By and large, these drugs reduce the internal body temperature threshold at which autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms are triggered in response to","-25.799795790109783"],["to the retina, concussions from falling when unconscious, stroke, seizures, permanent brain damage, coma, and even death.\nSome argue that when pressure is applied to the carotid artery, the baroreceptors send a signal to the brain via the glossopharyngeal nerve and the heart via the vagus nerve. This signal tells the heart to reduce volume of blood per heartbeat, typically up to one-third, in order to further relieve high pressure. There is a slight chance of the rate dropping to zero, or flatline (asystole). However, there are several studies that showed choking out will result in a few seconds of flat","-25.79232548933942"],["stimulate RBC production, and hemoglobin and oxygen content restored to normal. Arterial blood pressure The brain can regulate blood flow over a range of blood pressure values by vasoconstriction and vasodilation of the arteries.\nHigh pressure receptors called baroreceptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinus (at the beginning of the internal carotid artery) monitor the arterial blood pressure. Rising pressure is detected when the walls of the arteries stretch due to an increase in blood volume. This causes heart muscle cells to secrete the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) into the blood. This acts on the kidneys","-25.790580290020443"],["tissue. A simple example of a mild pressure sore may be experienced by healthy individuals while sitting in the same position for extended periods of time: the dull ache experienced is indicative of impeded blood flow to affected areas. Within 2 hours, this shortage of blood supply, called ischemia, may lead to tissue damage and cell death. The sore will initially start as a red, painful area. The other process of pressure ulcer development is seen when pressure is high enough to damage the cell membrane of muscle cells. The muscle cells die as a result and skin fed through","-25.779179936565924"],["that the force of contraction is directly proportional to the initial length of muscle fiber, meaning a ventricle will contract more forcefully, the more it is stretched.\nAfterload, or how much pressure the heart must generate to eject blood at systole, is influenced by vascular resistance. It can be influenced by narrowing of the heart valves (stenosis) or contraction or relaxation of the peripheral blood vessels.\nThe strength of heart muscle contractions controls the stroke volume. This can be influenced positively or negatively by agents termed inotropes. These agents can be a result of changes within the body, or be given as","-25.75455626216717"],["heart disease. A meta-analysis in 2000, which combined the results of several studies of 8,000 elderly patients in all, found that a 10 mm Hg increase in pulse pressure increased the risk of major cardiovascular complications and mortality by nearly 20%. Heightened pulse pressure is also a risk factor for the development of atrial fibrillation. The authors of the meta-analysis suggest that this helps to explain the apparent increase in risk sometimes associated with low diastolic pressure, and warn that some medications for high blood pressure may actually increase the pulse pressure and the risk of heart disease. Self measurement Pulse","-25.73507101670839"],["or blocking small blood vessels, shutting off blood supply to the downstream side, and resulting in hypoxia of those tissues.\nThis effect is called decompression sickness or 'the bends', and must be avoided by reducing the pressure on the body slowly while ascending and allowing the inert gases dissolved in the tissues to be eliminated while still in solution. This process is known as \"off-gassing\", and is done by restricting the ascent (decompression) rate to one where the level of supersaturation is not sufficient for bubbles to form or grow. This is done by controlling the speed of ascent and","-25.710598973790184"],["formulation is usually added initially, while continuing oral medications. Doses of insulin are then increased to effect. Blood pressure Since cardiovascular disease is a serious complication associated with diabetes, some have recommended blood pressure levels below 130/80 mmHg. However, evidence supports less than or equal to somewhere between 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg; the only additional benefit found for blood pressure targets beneath this range was an isolated decrease in stroke risk, and this was accompanied by an increased risk of other serious adverse events. A 2016 review found potential harm to treating lower than 140 mmHg. Among medications that lower blood pressure,","-25.686541679664515"],["NSAIDs (Motrin/Ibuprofen) and steroids can cause hypertension. Other medications include extrogens (such as those found in oral contraceptives with high estrogenic activity), certain antidepressants (such as venlafaxine), buspirone, carbamazepine, bromocriptine, clozapine, and cyclosporine.\nHigh blood pressure that is associated with the sudden withdrawal of various antihypertensive medications is called rebound hypertension. The increases in blood pressure may result in blood pressures greater than when the medication was initiated. Depending on the severity of the increase in blood pressure, rebound hypertension may result in a hypertensive emergency. Rebound hypertension is avoided by gradually reducing the dose (also known as \"dose tapering\"),","-25.677780048717977"],["with elevated blood pressure. Depression was also linked to hypertension.\nA 2018 review found that any alcohol increased blood pressure in males while over one or two drinks increased the risk in females. Pathophysiology In most people with established essential hypertension, increased resistance to blood flow (total peripheral resistance) accounts for the high pressure while cardiac output remains normal. There is evidence that some younger people with prehypertension or 'borderline hypertension' have high cardiac output, an elevated heart rate and normal peripheral resistance, termed hyperkinetic borderline hypertension. These individuals develop the typical features of established essential hypertension in later life as","-25.62194122830988"],["vascular smooth muscle, restricting blood flow and so increases blood pressure. Diagnosis Hypertension is diagnosed on the basis of a persistently high resting blood pressure. The American Heart Association recommends at least three resting measurements on at least two separate health care visits. The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends ambulatory blood pressure monitoring to confirm the diagnosis of hypertension if a clinic blood pressure is 140/90 mmHg or higher. Measurement technique For an accurate diagnosis of hypertension to be made, it is essential for proper blood pressure measurement technique to be used. Improper measurement of blood","-25.609492928459076"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Target blood pressure Various expert groups have produced guidelines regarding how low the blood pressure target should be when a person is treated for hypertension. These groups recommend a target below the range 140–160 / 90–100 mmHg for the general population. Cochrane reviews recommend similar targets for subgroups such as people with diabetes and people with prior cardiovascular disease.\\nMany expert groups recommend a slightly higher target of 150/90\",\n \"-31.155016856331713\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressure drastically.\\nThe decrease in blood pressure shows a combination of short- and long-lasting effects. The early, acute onset took five minutes, and the effect could last for 120 minutes or longer. In addition, calciseptine had only a small effect on the heart rhythm, changing it only slightly. Furthermore, it can also relax the trachea rings in the lungs. These effects can be explained by the relaxing activity of calciseptine on various smooth muscle cells. The inhibitory effect of calciseptine results in a decreased or total disappearance of electric activity in these cells. The total inhibitory effect depends on the tissue:\",\n \"-30.575519811653066\"\n ],\n [\n \"process, it can increase the pressure as much as 2 mb.\",\n \"-29.689539230839728\"\n ],\n [\n \"control it. Adequate management of hypertension can be hampered by inadequacies in the diagnosis, treatment, or control of high blood pressure. Health care providers face many obstacles to achieving blood pressure control, including resistance to taking multiple medications to reach blood pressure goals. People also face the challenges of adhering to medicine schedules and making lifestyle changes. Nonetheless, the achievement of blood pressure goals is possible, and most importantly, lowering blood pressure significantly reduces the risk of death due to heart disease and stroke, the development of other debilitating conditions, and the cost associated with advanced medical care. Research A\",\n \"-29.453898551641032\"\n ],\n [\n \"with high blood pressure are typically advised to avoid products containing it. Because this medication is a sympathomimetic amine without beta-adrenergic activity, it does not increase contractility force and output of the cardiac muscle. It may increase blood pressure resulting in a slow heart rate through stimulation of vascular (likely carotid) baroreceptors. A common side effect during IV administration is reflex bradycardia. The low concentration eye drops do not cause blood pressure changes and the changes with the higher dose drops do not last long. Other Prostatic hyperplasia can also be worsened by use, and chronic use can lead\",\n \"-29.3715545283776\"\n ],\n [\n \"lowering blood pressure, but the largest reductions in blood pressure were obtained by eating a combination of these two (i.e., a lower-salt version of the DASH diet). The effect of this combination at a sodium level of 1,500 mg/day was an average blood pressure reduction of 8.9/4.5 mm Hg (systolic/diastolic). The hypertensive subjects experienced an average reduction of 11.5/5.7 mm Hg. The DASH-sodium results indicate that low sodium levels correlated with the largest reductions in blood pressure for participants at both pre-hypertensive and hypertensive levels, with the hypertensive participants showing the greatest reductions in blood pressure overall. OmniHeart and OmniCarb Following the publication\",\n \"-29.26130783627741\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressure is common and can change the blood pressure reading by up to 10 mmHg, which can lead to misdiagnosis and misclassification of hypertension. Correct blood pressure measurement technique involves several steps. Proper blood pressure measurement requires the person whose blood pressure is being measured to sit quietly for at least five minutes which is then followed by application of a properly fitted blood pressure cuff to a bare upper arm. The person should be seated with their back supported, feet flat on the floor, and with their legs uncrossed. The person whose blood pressure is being measured should avoid\",\n \"-28.77493544591016\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressure is always seen as an immense clinical challenge, affecting large segments of the population. In patients with systemic hypertension under therapy, the blood pressure should not be lowered too rigorously. NTG might be the only severe (= sight-threatening) disease caused in numerous cases by a too low blood pressure. Both magnesium and low dose calcium channel blockers have been employed in the treatment of some NTG patients. There are therapeutic approaches to underlying conditions like Flammer syndrome. A change in nutrition like the intake of sodium-rich foods has been tried as has the oral administration of low-dosed steroids. Lifestyle\",\n \"-28.629983513616025\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pressure overload Pressure overload refers to the pathological state of cardiac muscle in which it has to contract while experiencing an excessive afterload. Pressure overload may affect any of the four chambers of the heart, though the term is most commonly applied to one of the two ventricles. Chronic pressure overload leads to concentric hypertrophy of the cardiac muscle, which can in turn lead to heart failure, myocardial ischaemia or, in extreme cases, outflow obstruction. Causes Any obstruction to the outflow of one of the chambers of the heart can lead to pressure overload. Signs and symptoms A forceful apex\",\n \"-28.61141870962456\"\n ],\n [\n \"know that even mild elevations in blood pressure can be detrimental to health. Studies have shown that diabetics with even a slight elevation in blood pressure have 2-3 times the risk of heart disease compared to individuals without diabetes.\\nBlood pressure readings do vary but experts recommend that blood pressure should not range above 140/80. Secondly, high blood pressure is a silent disease and thus it is vital for all diabetics to regularly check their blood pressure or have it checked at a doctor's office on a regular basis. The American Diabetes Association recommends that all diabetics get their blood pressure\",\n \"-28.596377575478982\"\n ],\n [\n \"for each of these may benefit adults with high blood pressure. While weight loss diets reduce body weight and blood pressure, it is unclear if they reduce negative outcomes.\\nSome programs aimed to reduce psychological stress such as biofeedback or transcendental meditation may be reasonable add-ons to other treatment to reduce hypertension. However several techniques, namely yoga, relaxation and other forms of meditation do not appear to reduce blood pressure, and there are major methodological limitations with many studies of stress reduction techniques.\\nThere is no clear evidence that the modest reduction in blood pressure with stress reduction techniques results in prevention\",\n \"-28.56528519897256\"\n ],\n [\n \"positioning of the electrode. History Despite modern medications against high blood pressure, only around half of people with hypertension in England, USA and Canada have blood pressure at or below target levels.\\nIn many cases the situation can be resolved with increases in antihypertensive medication. However in about 10% of patients, blood pressure is still above target (140/90mm Hg) despite at least 3 anti-hypertensives, a status known as resistant hypertension.\\nSome patients prefer not to be prescribed progressively greater number of medications, because of side effects or the difficulty managing a complex medication regime. Despite the greater invasiveness, they may prefer the\",\n \"-28.56522873134236\"\n ],\n [\n \"high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, and chronic kidney disease.\\nLifestyle factors can increase the risk of hypertension. These include excess salt in the diet, excess body weight, smoking, and alcohol. Hypertension can also be caused by other diseases, or as a side-effect of drugs.\\nBlood pressure is expressed by two measurements, the systolic and diastolic pressures, which are the maximum and minimum pressures, respectively. Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100–140 millimeters mercury (mmHg) systolic and 60–90 mmHg diastolic. High blood pressure\",\n \"-28.470855155756\"\n ],\n [\n \"is defined as high blood pressure that remains above a target level, in spite of being prescribed three or more antihypertensive drugs simultaneously with different mechanisms of action. Failing to take the prescribed drugs, is an important cause of resistant hypertension. Resistant hypertension may also result from chronically high activity of the autonomic nervous system, an effect known as \\\"neurogenic hypertension\\\". Electrical therapies that stimulate the baroreflex are being studied as an option for lowering blood pressure in people in this situation. Adults As of 2014, approximately one billion adults or ~22% of the population of the world have hypertension.\",\n \"-28.403433557861717\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hypotension Causes Low blood pressure can be caused by low blood volume, hormonal changes, widening of blood vessels, medicine side effects, anemia, heart problems or endocrine problems.\\nReduced blood volume, hypovolemia, is the most common cause of hypotension. This can result from hemorrhage; insufficient fluid intake, as in starvation; or excessive fluid losses from diarrhea or vomiting. Hypovolemia is often induced by excessive use of diuretics. Low blood pressure may also be attributed to heat stroke. The body may have enough fluid but does not retain electrolytes. Absence of perspiration, light headedness and dark coloured urine are also indicators.\\nOther medications can\",\n \"-28.39733564724611\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the long term.\\nDenervating these receptors 'fools' the body into thinking that it has too low blood volume and initiates mechanisms that retain fluid and so push up the blood pressure to a higher level than it would otherwise have. Baroreceptor dysfunction Baroreceptors are integral to the body's function: Pressure changes in the blood vessels would not be detected as quickly in the absence of baroreceptors. When baroreceptors are not working, blood pressure continues to increase, but, within an hour, the blood pressure returns to normal as other blood pressure regulatory systems take over.\\nBaroreceptors can also become oversensitive in some\",\n \"-28.33116851961313\"\n ],\n [\n \"to a blood pressure of 130/80 mm Hg or higher in adults. This is a severe problem for the heart and can cause many other complications. In a study of 120 coarctation repair recipients done in Groningen, The Netherlands, twenty-nine patients (25%) experienced hypertension in the later years of life due to the repair. While hypertension has many different factors that lead to this stage of blood pressure, people who have had a coarctation repair — regardless of the age at which the operation was performed — are at much higher risk than the general public of hypertension later in\",\n \"-28.296405287692323\"\n ],\n [\n \"output and blood pressure. Higher doses also cause vasoconstriction that further increases blood pressure.\\nWhile some effects result from stimulation of dopamine receptors, the prominent cardiovascular effects result from dopamine acting at α₁, β₁, and β₂ adrenergic receptors.\",\n \"-28.244181341433432\"\n ],\n [\n \"to control weight and blood pressure, and also discusses the role of emotional awareness and self-image in heart health. Steinbaum describes methods for integrating diet, exercise, sleep, and lifestyle.\\nIn 2014, Rodale Inc. published Lowering Your Blood Pressure Naturally: Drop Pounds and Slash Your Blood Pressure in 6 Weeks Without Drugs, which Steinbaum co-authored with Sarí Harrar.\",\n \"-28.222600872184557\"\n ],\n [\n \"Management of hypertension Hypertension is managed using lifestyle modification and antihypertensive medications. Hypertension is usually treated to achieve a blood pressure of below 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg. According to one 2003 review, reduction of the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischaemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Blood pressure target For most people, recommendations are to reduce blood pressure to less than or equal to somewhere between 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg. Attempting to achieve lower levels have not been shown to\",\n \"-28.148705523839453\"\n ],\n [\n \"heart failure. These conditions may cause low blood pressure because they prevent the body from being able to circulate enough blood.\\nExcessive vasodilation, or insufficient constriction of the resistance blood vessels (mostly arterioles), causes hypotension. This can be due to decreased sympathetic nervous system output or to increased parasympathetic activity occurring as a consequence of injury to the brain or spinal cord or of dysautonomia, an intrinsic abnormality in autonomic system functioning. Excessive vasodilation can also result from sepsis, acidosis, or medications, such as nitrate preparations, calcium channel blockers, or AT1 receptor antagonists (Angiotensin II acts on AT1 receptors).\",\n \"-28.14588844263926\"\n ],\n [\n \"higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\\nThe lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh can occasionally be damaged during laparoscopic hernia repair, or scarring from the operation can lead to meralgia paraesthetica. Diagnosis Diagnosis is largely based on patient description and relevant\",\n \"-28.01123858320352\"\n ],\n [\n \"reduced. This then helps the blood vessels to relax and expand back to a normal healthy state, so blood pressure is lowered. Clinical trials Several human trials aimed to evaluate the effect of lactotripeptides on blood pressure. Some trials show a blood pressure-lowering effect of lactotripeptides in people with mild to moderate hypertension, however others see no effect from these peptides. A recent systematic review of the literature found no confirmed ACE-inhibitor effects in humans, as well as no conclusive evidence for lactotripeptides as a successful intervention; the meta-analysis cited heterogeneity in methodology and lack of inclusion of recent larger\",\n \"-27.999427996015584\"\n ],\n [\n \"greater amount of force to permit them to accommodate the volume of blood ejected from the heart (stroke volume). This increased force requirement equates to an increase in pulse pressure. The increase in pulse pressure may result in increased damage to blood vessels in target organs such as the brain or kidneys. This effect may be exaggerated if the increase in arterial stiffness results in reduced wave reflection and more propagation of the pulsatile pressure into the microcirculation.\\nAn increase in arterial stiffness also increases the load on the heart, since it has to perform more work to maintain the\",\n \"-27.946897705125593\"\n ],\n [\n \"vessels and arteries which leads to low blood pressure.\",\n \"-27.933096609194763\"\n ],\n [\n \"blood pressure would create a decrease in stroke volume that would compromise circulation to peripheral and visceral tissues.\\nSustained myocardial stretch activates tension dependent Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers, bringing Na⁺ ions into the sarcolemma.\\nThis increase in Na⁺ in the sarcolemma reduces the Na⁺ gradient exploited by sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) and stops them from working effectively.\\nCa²⁺ ions accumulate inside the sarcolemma as a result and are uptaken by sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) pumps.\\nCalcium induced calcium release (CICR) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is increased upon stimulation of the cardiac myocyte by an action potential.\\nThis leads to an increase in the force of contraction of the\",\n \"-27.89448062493466\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressure rating could be indicated as \\\"Maximum Pressure,\\\" or \\\"Inflate to . . . \\\" and will usually give a range (for example, 90-120 psi, or 35-60 psi). Inflating to the lower number in the pressure range will increase traction and make the ride more comfortable. Inflating to the higher number will make the ride more efficient and will decrease the chances of getting a flat tire but a firmer ride must be expected. Pressure output The maximum pressure, or how much air the pump can force into a tire, is an important consideration. The pump needs to match or\",\n \"-27.793828721885802\"\n ],\n [\n \"However, in general, symptomatic relief from pressure overload will not be achieved immediately, but will involve a delayed response following the atrophy of the hypertrophied heart muscle.\",\n \"-27.65626182802953\"\n ],\n [\n \"wedge pressure, and therefore, is probably a reflection of an increased central blood volume. In the absence of isolated right ventricular failure, seen in some patients with right ventricular infarction, a positive abdominojugular test suggests a pulmonary artery wedge pressure of 15 mm Hg or greater.\",\n \"-27.635682940715924\"\n ],\n [\n \"to continue. The 54-year-old curler said his doctor had prescribed a medication on the banned substances list.\\nAnother concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of \\\"boosting\\\". Athletes can artificially increase their blood pressure, often by self-harming, which has been shown to improve performance by up to 15%. This is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly, and using high-pressure compression stockings. The injury is painless\",\n \"-27.630906391103053\"\n ],\n [\n \"expectancy. Decreasing the systolic blood pressure to less than 140 mmHg is associated with a lower risk of death and better outcomes. Intensive blood pressure management (less than 130/80 mmHg) as opposed to standard blood pressure management (less than 140-160 mmHg systolic to 85–100 mmHg diastolic) results in a slight decrease in stroke risk but no effect on overall risk of death.\\nIntensive blood sugar lowering (HbA1c<6%) as opposed to standard blood sugar lowering (HbA1c of 7–7.9%) does not appear to change mortality. The goal of treatment is typically an HbA1c of 7 to 8% or a fasting glucose of less than 7.2 mmol/L\",\n \"-27.525815077708103\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hypertensive heart disease Prevention Because there are no symptoms with high blood pressure, people can have the condition without knowing it. Diagnosing high blood pressure early can help prevent heart disease, stroke, eye problems, and chronic kidney disease.\\nThe risk of cardiovascular disease and death can be reduced by lifestyle modifications, including dietary advice, promotion of weight loss and regular aerobic exercise, moderation of alcohol intake and cessation of smoking. Drug treatment may also be needed to control the hypertension and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, manage the heart failure, or control cardiac arrhythmias. Patients with hypertensive heart disease should\",\n \"-27.50137391584576\"\n ],\n [\n \"down the swelling. If the swelling appears to have increased to a dangerous level, surgery may be needed to relieve pressure on the brain. The formation of an abscess also calls for surgery as it will be necessary to drain the abscess.\",\n \"-27.490970184793696\"\n ],\n [\n \"than a few years unless appropriately treated.\\nIn the past, most attention was paid to diastolic pressure; but nowadays it is recognized that both high systolic pressure and high pulse pressure (the numerical difference between systolic and diastolic pressures) are also risk factors. In some cases, it appears that a decrease in excessive diastolic pressure can actually increase risk, due probably to the increased difference between systolic and diastolic pressures (see the article on pulse pressure). If systolic blood pressure is elevated (>140 mmHg) with a normal diastolic blood pressure (<90 mmHg), it is called \\\"isolated systolic hypertension\\\" and may present a\",\n \"-27.482138905092143\"\n ],\n [\n \"turn decreases the sympathetic outflow resulting in reduced norepinephrine and thus blood pressure. When the blood pressure is low, baroreceptor firing is reduced and this in turn results in augmented sympathetic outflow and increased norepinephrine release on the heart and blood vessels, increasing blood pressure. Effect on heart rate The baroreflex may be responsible for a part of the low-frequency component of heart rate variability, the so-called Mayer waves, at 0.1 Hz. High blood pressure The baroreflex can be used to treat resistant hypertension. This Stimulation is provided by a pacemaker-like device. While the devices appears to lower blood pressure evidence\",\n \"-27.41470428899629\"\n ],\n [\n \"in blood pressure. This increase in blood pressure under stressful conditions ensures that muscles receive the oxygen that they need to be active and respond accordingly. If these stressful conditions remain elevated, muscles will become fatigued, resulting in hypertension and in extreme cases can result in death. Thyroxine axis The third physiological response results in the release of thyrotropic hormone-release factor (TRF) which results in the release of thyrotropic hormone (TTH). TTH stimulates the release of thyroxine and triiodothyronine from the thyroid. This results in an increased basal metabolic rate (BMR). This effect is not as immediate as\",\n \"-27.352613739436492\"\n ],\n [\n \"lower pressure in order to pass blood through the low-resistance, high compliance circulation of the lungs. The lungs are able to accomplish this low-resistance circulation largely due to the fact that the length of the pulmonary circulation is smaller, and because much of the circuitry is in parallel rather than in series. \\nIf a significant anatomic defect (i.e. a hole or breach) exists between the two sides of the heart, a shunt will occur, causing blood to flow down the normal pressure gradient from the left side to the right side. The amount of blood shunted is proportional to the\",\n \"-27.280957283335738\"\n ],\n [\n \"This behavior facilitates a much greater increase in stroke volume and cardiac output at a lower mean arterial pressure and enables much greater aerobic capacity and physical performance. The diastolic drop reflects a much greater fall in total peripheral resistance of the muscle arterioles in response to the exercise (a greater proportion of red versus white muscle tissue). Individuals with larger BMIs due to increased muscle mass (body builders) have also been shown to have lower diastolic pressures and larger pulse pressures. Relationship to heart disease Recent work suggests that a high pulse pressure is an important risk factor for\",\n \"-27.25650854181731\"\n ],\n [\n \"measure of blood pressure is taken from a noninvasive instrument called a sphygmomanometer. \\\"A survey showed that 96% of primary care physicians habitually use a cuff size too small,\\\" adding to the difficulty in making an informed diagnosis. For such reasons, white coat hypertension cannot be diagnosed with a standard clinical visit. It can be reduced (but not eliminated) with automated blood pressure measurements over 15 to 20 minutes in a quiet part of the office or clinic.\\nPatients with white coat hypertension do not exhibit the signs indicative of trepidation and their increased blood pressure is often not accompanied\",\n \"-27.252805384581734\"\n ],\n [\n \"the tissues to be maintained at a lower head of pressure by making people more sensitive to their own insulin.\",\n \"-27.239019308894058\"\n ],\n [\n \"increased pressure (usually caused by inflammation) occurs within a compartment.\",\n \"-27.230491533802706\"\n ],\n [\n \"The amount of pressure on the tissue is based on the size of the area of the contact: the smaller the point of pressure, the greater effect it will have on the tissue. The position of instruments can cause damage to the body if pressure is not relieved periodically.\\nThe patient's own health is also considered. Respiratory and circulatory disorders, blood pressure, the patient's weight, old age, and body temperature may affect a patient's potential for pressure. Other forces that may damage the body are the folding of the tissue, called shear, friction from the tissue rubbing against other tissue, and\",\n \"-27.16213310582316\"\n ],\n [\n \"normal blood pressure to drop that much. All we should care about is blood pressure in the small subset that had high blood pressure. But they don’t present that.\\\" Writing for The Incidental Economist, Aaron Carroll and Austin Frakt, a health economist and researcher, argued that the study \\\"shows that some things improved for people who got Medicaid. For others, changes weren't statistically significant, which isn't the same thing as certainty of no effect. For still others, the jury is still out. But it didn't show that Medicaid harms people, or that the ACA is a failure, or that anything\",\n \"-27.077545371372253\"\n ],\n [\n \"pain at the front of the knee due to overuse can be managed with a combination of RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation), anti-inflammatory medications, and physiotherapy.\\nUsually chondromalacia develops without swelling or bruising and most individuals benefit from rest and adherence to an appropriate physical therapy program. Allowing inflammation to subside while avoiding irritating activities for several weeks is followed by a gradual resumption. Cross-training activities such as swimming – using strokes other than the breaststroke – can help to maintain general fitness and body composition. This is beneficial until a physical therapy program emphasizing strengthening and flexibility of the\",\n \"-27.07746164863056\"\n ],\n [\n \"High pressure receptors High pressure receptors are the baroreceptors found within the aortic arch and carotid sinus. They are only sensitive to blood pressures above 60 mmHg.\\nWhen these receptors are activated they elicit a depressor response; which decreases the heart rate and causes a general vasodilation. An increase in arterial blood pressure reflexly elicits an increase in vagal neuronal activity to the heart (i.e. the resulting decreased heart rate).\\nThe afferent nerves from the baroreceptors are called buffer nerves.\",\n \"-27.028988293604925\"\n ],\n [\n \"past, physicians were very aggressive with fluid resuscitation (giving fluids such as normal saline or lactated Ringer's through the vein) to try to bring the blood pressure to normal values. Recent studies have found that there is some benefit to allowing specific patients to experience some degree of hypotension in certain settings. This concept does not exclude therapy by means of i.v. fluid, inotropes or vasopressors, the only restriction is to avoid completely normalizing blood pressure in a context where blood loss may be enhanced. When a person starts to bleed (big or small) the body starts a natural coagulation\",\n \"-27.009460748460697\"\n ],\n [\n \"positive for steroids in 2002. He had won two gold medals in the alpine events but was stripped of his medals. One concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of boosting blood pressure, known as autonomic dysreflexia. The increase in blood pressure can improve performance by 15% and is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly and using high-pressured compression stockings. The injury is painless\",\n \"-26.95549270574702\"\n ],\n [\n \"large volume of blood under low pressure to enhance cardiac output.\",\n \"-26.9533494298812\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressure may help in immobilization but also is thought to reduce the tendency of the fluid to leak out of vessels by increasing the back-pressure on those fluid sources.\\nFollowing masculinising chest reconstruction (double mastectomy) in trans men or breast augmentation, surgeons often recommend binding the chest for several weeks to minimize the risk of seromas.\",\n \"-26.916269499401096\"\n ],\n [\n \"the increased pressure is transmitted to the pulmonary vasculature, and the resultant hydrostatic pressure favors extravasation of fluid into the lung parenchyma, causing pulmonary edema. On the right side of the heart, the increased pressure is transmitted to the systemic venous circulation and systemic capillary beds, favoring extravasation of fluid into the tissues of target organs and extremities, resulting in dependent peripheral edema. Diastolic dysfunction Heart failure caused by diastolic dysfunction is generally described as the backward failure of the ventricle to adequately relax and typically denotes a stiffer ventricular wall. The \\\"stiffness\\\" and contractility of the ventricular walls in\",\n \"-26.91070185333956\"\n ],\n [\n \"or labetalol in which blood pressure is increased unintentionally (such as with cough and cold medications). Finally, there may also be some alpha/beta blocker drug interactions that can worsen previous heart failure.\",\n \"-26.872411793359788\"\n ],\n [\n \"blood pressure and elicits venous vasoconstriction to decrease venous compliance. Decreased venous compliance also results from an intrinsic myogenic increase in venous smooth muscle tone in response to the elevated pressure in the veins of the lower body. Other compensatory mechanisms include the veno-arteriolar axon reflex, the 'skeletal muscle pump' and 'respiratory pump'. Together these mechanisms normally stabilize blood pressure within a minute or less. If these compensatory mechanisms fail and arterial pressure and blood flow decrease beyond a certain point, the perfusion of the brain becomes critically compromised (i.e., the blood supply is not sufficient), causing lightheadedness,\",\n \"-26.870438742509577\"\n ],\n [\n \"part of aging. In fact, it was felt by the medical community that high blood pressure was a good thing, because it improved circulation. Even so, there was no reliable way to lower high blood pressure until the 1940s. But Freis's studies, first published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1954 then later expanded in the 1960s, showed that hypertension actually increased the likelihood of stroke and heart attack. The 1960s study lasted five years (1964-1969), and was designed to determine whether treatment of hypertension would help prevent death and injury from complications due to stroke, kidney damage,\",\n \"-26.835603314684704\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the hydrostatic pressure of the blood passing through the branches of the pulmonary artery in order to reach the apical and basal areas of the lungs, acting synergistically with the pressure developed by the right ventricle. Thus at the apex of the lung the resulting pressure can be insufficient for developing a flow (which can be sustained only by the negative pressure generated by venous flow towards the left atrium) or even for preventing the collapse of the vascular structures surrounding the alveoli, while the base of the lung shows an intense flow due to the higher pressure.\",\n \"-26.833463101123925\"\n ],\n [\n \"Low pressure receptors Low pressure receptors are baroreceptors located in large systemic veins, in the pulmonary arteries, in the walls of the atria, and ventricles of the heart.[2] They are also called volume receptors. These receptors respond to changes in the wall tension, which is proportional to the filling state of the low pressure side of circulation (below 60mmHg). Thus, low pressure baroreceptors are involved with the regulation of blood volume. The blood volume determines the mean pressure throughout the system, in particular in the venous side where most of the blood is held. Increasing stretch of the\",\n \"-26.810832550923806\"\n ],\n [\n \"to maintain the blood pressure which may be done using intravenous fluids and vasopressors. Vasopressors used include phenylephrine, dopamine, or norepinephrine. Mean arterial blood pressure is measured and kept at 85 to 90 mmHg for seven days after injury. The treatment for shock from blood loss is different from that for neurogenic shock, and could harm people with the latter type, so it is necessary to determine why someone is in shock. However it is also possible for both causes to exist at the same time. Another important aspect of care is prevention of insufficient oxygen in the bloodstream, which\",\n \"-26.734324000339257\"\n ],\n [\n \"cuff pressure is monitored carefully in order to avoid complications from over-inflation, many of which can be traced to excessive cuff pressure restricting the blood supply to the tracheal mucosa. A 2000 Spanish study of bedside percutaneous tracheotomy reported overall complication rates of 10–15% and procedural mortality of 0%, which is comparable to those of other series reported in the literature from the Netherlands and the United States.\\nInability to secure the airway, with subsequent failure of oxygenation and ventilation is a life-threatening complication which if not immediately corrected leads to decreased oxygen content, brain damage, cardiovascular collapse, and death. When\",\n \"-26.71656619470741\"\n ],\n [\n \"reduction. Sympathetic inhibition leads to a drop in peripheral resistance, while parasympathetic activation leads to a depressed heart rate (reflex bradycardia) and contractility. The combined effects will dramatically decrease blood pressure.\\nIn a similar manner, sympathetic activation with parasympathetic inhibition allows the baroreflex to elevate blood pressure. Set point and tonic activation Baroreceptor firing has an inhibitory effect on sympathetic outflow. The sympathetic neurons fire at different rates which determines the release of norepinephrine onto cardiovascular targets. Norepinephrine constricts blood vessels to increase blood pressure. When baroreceptors are stretched (due to an increased blood pressure) their firing rate increases which in\",\n \"-26.70803442336546\"\n ],\n [\n \"cardiac muscle to try and increase stroke volume and cardiac output to maintain tissue perfusion.\\nOn the other hand, it has been proposed that the Anrep effect may be a spurious effect resulting from the recovery of the myocardium from a transient ischemia arising from the abrupt increase in blood pressure.\",\n \"-26.693520541884936\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressure Divers must avoid injuries caused by changes in pressure. The weight of the water column above the diver causes an increase in pressure in proportion to depth, in the same way that the weight of the column of atmospheric air above the surface causes a pressure of 101.3 kPa (14.7 pounds-force per square inch) at sea level. This variation of pressure with depth will cause compressible materials and gas filled spaces to tend to change volume, which can cause the surrounding material or tissues to be stressed, with the risk of injury if the stress gets too high. Pressure\",\n \"-26.676034045027336\"\n ],\n [\n \"be transformed into pressure, because the elastic components of the arterial wall are not linear and the smooth muscles also consist of non-elastic parts.. \\nThe goal is to unload the arterial wall in order to linearize this phenomenon with a counter pressure as high as the pressure inside the artery. Blood volume is kept constant by applying this corresponding pressure from the outside. The continuously changing outside pressure that is needed to keep the arterial blood volume constant directly corresponds to the arterial pressure. It is an instantaneous, continuous measure for arterial blood pressure, which is the basic principle of\",\n \"-26.659953478403622\"\n ],\n [\n \"increases the resistance to blood flow and so the pressure within the system rises. Molecular pathology The molecular mechanism of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is not known yet, but it is believed that the endothelial dysfunction results in a decrease in the synthesis of endothelium-derived vasodilators such as nitric oxide and prostacyclin. Moreover, there is a stimulation of the synthesis of vasoconstrictors such as thromboxane and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). These results in a severe vasoconstriction and vascular smooth muscle and adventitial hypertrophy characteristic of patients with PAH. Nitric oxide-soluble guanylate cyclase pathway In normal conditions, the vascular\",\n \"-26.623466402001213\"\n ],\n [\n \"blood pressure by forcing the heart to pump harder and faster, and by squeezing or constricting small blood vessels in the arms and legs. These compensatory mechanisms can be recognised by a rapid resting heart rate and cool fingers and toes.\\nIf the blood within the pleural cavity is not removed, it will eventually clot. This clot tends to stick the parietal and visceral pleura together and has the potential to lead to scarring within the pleura, which if extensive leads to the condition known as a fibrothorax. Following the initial loss of blood, a small hemothorax may irritate the pleura,\",\n \"-26.616287415585248\"\n ],\n [\n \"than 250 million people. As the momentum picks up year after year, the WHL is confident that almost all the estimated 1.5 billion people affected by elevated blood pressure can be reached. Economics High blood pressure is the most common chronic medical problem prompting visits to primary health care providers in USA. The American Heart Association estimated the direct and indirect costs of high blood pressure in 2010 as $76.6 billion. In the US 80% of people with hypertension are aware of their condition, 71% take some antihypertensive medication, but only 48% of people aware that they have hypertension adequately\",\n \"-26.57880240297527\"\n ],\n [\n \"in initial studies did not increase blood pressure. In 2017, its development was abandoned by Merck. The other was Eli Lilly's evacetrapib, which failed in Phase 3 trials.\",\n \"-26.53919343785674\"\n ],\n [\n \"progressively, but intense sports may increase the risk of developing AF, as seen in athletes. It is due to a remodeling of cardiac tissue, and an increase in vagal tone, which shortens the effective refractory period (ERP) favoring re-entries from the pulmonary veins. High blood pressure According to the CHARGE Consortium both systolic and diastolic blood pressure are predictors of the risk of AF. Systolic blood pressure values close to normal limit the increase in the risk associated with AF. Diastolic dysfunction is also associated with AF, which increased pressure, left atrial volume, size, and left ventricular hypertrophy, characteristic of\",\n \"-26.41015610397153\"\n ],\n [\n \"eye. It is not entirely clear how it protects the eye from the raised pressure, but it may be the result of either diversion of the CSF into the orbit or the creation of an area of scar tissue that lowers the pressure. The effects on the intracranial pressure itself are more modest. Moreover, the procedure may lead to significant complications, including blindness in 1–2%. The procedure is therefore recommended mainly in those who have limited headache symptoms but significant papilledema or threatened vision, or in those who have undergone unsuccessful treatment with a shunt or have a contraindication for\",\n \"-26.29097686294699\"\n ],\n [\n \"of cardiovascular disease.\\nSeveral exercise regimes—including isometric resistance exercise, aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, and device-guided breathing—may be useful in reducing blood pressure. Medications Several classes of medications, collectively referred to as antihypertensive medications, are available for treating hypertension. Use should take into account the person's cardiovascular risk (including risk of myocardial infarction and stroke) as well as blood pressure readings, in order to gain a more accurate picture of the person's risks.\\nThe best first-line medication is disputed, but the Cochrane collaboration, World Health Organization and the United States guidelines support low-dose thiazide-based diuretic as first-line treatment. The UK guidelines emphasise calcium\",\n \"-26.27041301663121\"\n ],\n [\n \"be a useful initial emergency treatment of severely elevated pressure.\\nThe depolarising muscle relaxant succinylcholine, which is used in anaesthesia, transiently increases IOP by around 10 mmHg for a few minutes. This is significant for example if the patient requires anaesthesia for a trauma and has sustained an eye (globe) perforation. The mechanism is not clear but it is thought to involve contraction of tonic myofibrils and transient dilation of choroidal blood vessels. Ketamine also increases IOP. Significance Ocular hypertension is the most important risk factor for glaucoma.\\nIntraocular pressure has been measured as a secondary outcome in a systematic\",\n \"-26.22137511378969\"\n ],\n [\n \"stretch due to the increased blood pressure, the cardiac center responds by increasing sympathetic stimulation and inhibiting parasympathetic stimulation to increase heart rate. The opposite is also true. Chemoreceptors present in the carotid body or adjacent to the aorta in an aortic body respond to the blood's oxygen, carbon dioxide levels. Low oxygen or high carbon dioxide will stimulate firing of the receptors.\\nExercise and fitness levels, age, body temperature, basal metabolic rate, and even a person's emotional state can all affect the heart rate. High levels of the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones can increase the heart rate. The\",\n \"-26.191116037152824\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pulse pressure Low (Narrow) Pulse Pressure A pulse pressure is considered abnormally low if it is less than 25% of the systolic value. The most common cause of a low (narrow) pulse pressure is a drop in left ventricular stroke volume.\\nIn trauma, a low or narrow pulse pressure suggests significant blood loss (insufficient preload leading to reduced cardiac output).\\nIf the pulse pressure is extremely low, i.e. 25 mmHg or less, the cause may be low stroke volume, as in Congestive Heart Failure and/or cardiogenic shock.\\nA narrow pulse pressure is also caused by aortic valve stenosis and cardiac tamponade. High values\",\n \"-26.150177965289913\"\n ],\n [\n \"total limb occlusion pressure is just one example of efforts to account for the above factors and provide an individualised approach to prescribing BFR training that is relatively quick and inexpensive. While the relationship between BFR pressure and the underlying tissue compression during exercise is not yet fully understood, BFR training using 40%–80% of limb occlusion pressure is safe and effective when supervised by experienced practitioners ; therefore, lower pressures may provide less risk without the need for higher pressure. Adaptations Historically, heavy exercise loads of approximately 70% of an individual's one repetition maximum (1RM) have been deemed necessary to\",\n \"-26.07151010906091\"\n ],\n [\n \"postural hypotension, the tendency for blood pressure to decrease on standing due to gravity. \\nThe system relies on specialized neurons, known as baroreceptors chiefly in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses to monitor changes in blood pressure and relay them to the medulla oblongata. Baroreceptors are stretch receptors and respond to the pressure induced stretching of the blood vessel in which they are found. Baroreflex induced changes in blood pressure are mediated by both branches of the autonomic nervous system: the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves. Baroreceptors are active even at normal blood pressures so that their activity informs the brain\",\n \"-26.061404341337038\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a pulse (blood pressure) weaker than expected and triggers normal homeostatic mechanisms that try to compensate by constricting arteries and increasing heart rate (the turbulence onset part of HRT). This is accomplished by the brain reflexively withdrawing the parasympathetic nerve signals and increasing the sympathetic nerve signals it sends to the heart. The compensatory constriction of the arteries and increased heart rate frequently cause blood pressure to overshoot normal values (overcompensates), and activate the baroreflex in reverse. This time, the brain reinstates parasympathetic nerve signals and decreases sympathetic nerve signals, which cause the heart rate to slow\",\n \"-26.051454853150062\"\n ],\n [\n \"are opposed by high positive airway pressures pushing back and this does not place undue stress on the thin blood vessel walls. During inspiration, the high positive pressures in the pulmonary blood vessels pushing out are met by negative pressures distending the blood vessel and placing increased stress on the walls.\\nStudies in vitro show that significant disruption of the pulmonary capillaries occurs at pressures of approximately 80 mmHg. In vivo, significant EIPH occurs above a mean pulmonary artery pressure of around 80–95 mmHg. On the basis of this theory, any factor or disease that would increase pulmonary vascular pressures (e.g.\",\n \"-26.046351981756743\"\n ],\n [\n \"blood pressure. Some evidence suggests that people with certain circulatory problems, such as varicose veins, may benefit from the consumption of EPA and DHA, which may stimulate blood circulation and increase the breakdown of fibrin, a protein involved in blood clotting and scar formation.\\nOmega−3 fatty acids reduce blood triglyceride levels but do not significantly change the level of LDL cholesterol or HDL cholesterol in the blood. The American Heart Association position (2011) is that borderline elevated triglycerides, defined as 150–199 mg/dL, can be lowered by 0.5-1.0 grams of EPA and DHA per day; high triglycerides 200–499 mg/dL benefit from 1-2 g/day; and\",\n \"-25.983202971779974\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressure reduction may exceed the rate at which gas can be eliminated by diffusion and perfusion, and if the concentration gets too high, it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues. When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceed the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension from the bubble - liquid interface, the bubbles will grow, and this growth can cause damage to tissues. Symptoms caused by this damage are known as Decompression sickness.\\nThe actual rates of diffusion and perfusion, and the solubility of gases in specific tissues is\",\n \"-25.973445313982666\"\n ],\n [\n \"an immediate gravitational pooling of about 500 to 1000ml of blood to the lower extremities, splanchnic and pulmonary circulations. The decrease in venous return to the heart reduces cardiac output and eventually causes a drop in blood pressure. Baroreceptors in the carotid and aortic arteries sense this decrease in blood pressure and activate the sympathetic nervous system which leads to increased heart rate, systemic vasoconstriction, and increased cardiac muscle contractility all of which eventually increase blood pressure. In a healthy individual, this sympathetic activation causes a physiological increase in heart rate by 10 to 20 bpm, diastolic blood pressure by\",\n \"-25.961808767722687\"\n ],\n [\n \"(the flow of blood pumped by the heart) through the vascular resistance, usually termed total peripheral resistance by physicians and researchers. An increase in the media to lumenal diameter ratio has been observed in hypertensive arterioles (arteriolosclerosis) as the vascular wall thickens and/or lumenal diameter decreases.\\nThe up and down fluctuation of the arterial blood pressure is due to the pulsatile nature of the cardiac output and determined by the interaction of the stroke volume versus the volume and elasticity of the major arteries.\\nThe decreased velocity of flow in the capillaries increases the blood pressure, due to Bernoulli's principle. This induces\",\n \"-25.952717512613162\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ocular hypertension Pathophysiology The pressure within the eye is maintained by the balance between the fluid that enters the eye through the ciliary body and the fluid that exits the eye through the trabecular meshwork.\\n==Diagnosis==We can diagnose increase in intraocular pressure with the help of tonometry\\nNormal intraocular press is 10_21mmhg Treatment Ocular hypertension is treated with either medications or laser. Medications that lower intraocular pressure work by decreasing aqueous humor production and/or increasing aqueous humor outflow. Laser trabeculoplasty works by increasing outflow. The cannabinoids found in cannabis sativa and indica (marijuana) have been shown to reduce intraocular pressure, by\",\n \"-25.934246621414786\"\n ],\n [\n \"blood pressure. This can be treated with inotropic agents or by intra-aortic balloon pump, but this is regarded as temporary treatment while the underlying cause is addressed.\",\n \"-25.9253856104624\"\n ],\n [\n \"in pulse pressure with age is attributed to increased stiffness of the arteries. An age-related rise in blood pressure is not considered healthy and is not observed in some isolated unacculturated communities. Pulmonary pressure Normally, the pressure in the pulmonary artery is about 15 mmHg at rest.\\nIncreased blood pressure in the capillaries of the lung causes pulmonary hypertension, leading to interstitial edema if the pressure increases to above 20 mmHg, and to pulmonary edema at pressures above 25 mmHg. Mean systemic pressure If the heart is stopped, blood pressure falls, but it does not fall to zero. The remaining pressure measured after cessation\",\n \"-25.91759187812204\"\n ],\n [\n \"preload, and therefore increasing cardiac output, (as per the Law of Laplace) so that systolic blood pressure increases and a stronger pulse pressure can be palpated.\",\n \"-25.907197360698774\"\n ],\n [\n \"the length of the muscle fibers, and resulting tension, altered the systolic pressure.\",\n \"-25.876959038316272\"\n ],\n [\n \"mean blood pressure in a range of 16.1mmHg. Neufeld et al reported standard deviations for both systolic and diastolic readings were roughly 3.5 to 5.5 mm Hg. In general standard deviation for the diastolic pressure would be greater because of the difficulty in judging when the sounds disappear. White-coat hypertension For some patients, blood pressure measurements taken in a doctor's office may not correctly characterize their typical blood pressure. In up to 25% of patients, the office measurement is higher than their typical blood pressure. This type of error is\",\n \"-25.87051892267482\"\n ],\n [\n \"Association on alternative approaches to lowering blood pressure concluded that MBSR was not recommended in clinical practice to lower blood pressure. MBSR can have a beneficial effect helping with the depression and psychological distress associated with chronic illness.\\nPreliminary evidence suggests efficacy of mindfulness meditation in the treatment of substance use disorders; however, further study is required. MBSR might be beneficial for people with fibromyalgia: there is no evidence of long-term benefit but low-quality evidence of a small short-term benefit.\\nIn 2010, a meta-analysis was conducted by Hoffman and colleagues exploring the efficacy of MBSR and similarly structured programs for adults with\",\n \"-25.868881332920864\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressure in the thoracic cavity engendered by the sudden dip in plasma viscosity. Globules of lipid polymers also produce a significant shear strain on capillaries, causing the skin to pale and the tongue to swell.\\nHowever, many patients claim to feel full of energy and stamina after undergoing therapy. Medical scientists are quick to point out this side effect is likely the result of rapid lipolysis, as free fatty acids are freed from glycerol, and forcibly diffused into blood and muscle fiber due to artificially elevated blood pressure.\",\n \"-25.858311796444468\"\n ],\n [\n \"reduce blood pressure, but only if the use of ACE inhibitors, angiotensin-II receptor blockers, calcium channel blockers, or thazide diuretics (in full dose or in combinations) have not been efficacious. Drug interactions As with any drug, there are drug interactions that can occur with alpha blockers. For instance, alpha blockers that are used for the reduction of blood pressure, such as phenoxybenzamine or phentolamine can have synergy with other drugs that affect smooth muscle, blood vessels, or drugs used for erectile dysfunction (i.e. sildenafil, tamsulosin, etc.). This stimulates exaggerated hypotension.\\nAlternative alpha blockers, such as prazosin, tamsulosin, doxazosin, or terazosin can\",\n \"-25.853032274520956\"\n ],\n [\n \"have the side effect of increasing blood pressure and may even suppress the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs. Pain and anti-inflammatory drugs like Indomethacin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and piroxicam would retain water in the systemic circulation, raising the blood pressure. Other types of medications like antidepressant, hormone and caffeine would also increase blood pressure. Signs and symptoms It is often asymptomatic in the early stages of blood vessel disorder. When the disease develops, a variety of signs can be observed in different body parts. For instance, patients may have pale skin, cold hands and feet, and numb fingertips. These are mainly\",\n \"-25.80776892565393\"\n ],\n [\n \"of other physiological consequences mediated by this class of drug. Notably, a reduction in blood pressure can be facilitated by a variety of mechanisms, including reduced cardiac contractility and dilation of the vasculature. This drop in blood pressure may activate a reflexive increase in heartrate, due to a baroreceptor-mediated feedback mechanism. Some anesthetics, however, disrupt this reflex.\\nPatients under general anesthesia are at greater risk of developing hypothermia, as the aforementioned vasodilation increases the heat lost via peripheral blood flow. By and large, these drugs reduce the internal body temperature threshold at which autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms are triggered in response to\",\n \"-25.799795790109783\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the retina, concussions from falling when unconscious, stroke, seizures, permanent brain damage, coma, and even death.\\nSome argue that when pressure is applied to the carotid artery, the baroreceptors send a signal to the brain via the glossopharyngeal nerve and the heart via the vagus nerve. This signal tells the heart to reduce volume of blood per heartbeat, typically up to one-third, in order to further relieve high pressure. There is a slight chance of the rate dropping to zero, or flatline (asystole). However, there are several studies that showed choking out will result in a few seconds of flat\",\n \"-25.79232548933942\"\n ],\n [\n \"stimulate RBC production, and hemoglobin and oxygen content restored to normal. Arterial blood pressure The brain can regulate blood flow over a range of blood pressure values by vasoconstriction and vasodilation of the arteries.\\nHigh pressure receptors called baroreceptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinus (at the beginning of the internal carotid artery) monitor the arterial blood pressure. Rising pressure is detected when the walls of the arteries stretch due to an increase in blood volume. This causes heart muscle cells to secrete the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) into the blood. This acts on the kidneys\",\n \"-25.790580290020443\"\n ],\n [\n \"tissue. A simple example of a mild pressure sore may be experienced by healthy individuals while sitting in the same position for extended periods of time: the dull ache experienced is indicative of impeded blood flow to affected areas. Within 2 hours, this shortage of blood supply, called ischemia, may lead to tissue damage and cell death. The sore will initially start as a red, painful area. The other process of pressure ulcer development is seen when pressure is high enough to damage the cell membrane of muscle cells. The muscle cells die as a result and skin fed through\",\n \"-25.779179936565924\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the force of contraction is directly proportional to the initial length of muscle fiber, meaning a ventricle will contract more forcefully, the more it is stretched.\\nAfterload, or how much pressure the heart must generate to eject blood at systole, is influenced by vascular resistance. It can be influenced by narrowing of the heart valves (stenosis) or contraction or relaxation of the peripheral blood vessels.\\nThe strength of heart muscle contractions controls the stroke volume. This can be influenced positively or negatively by agents termed inotropes. These agents can be a result of changes within the body, or be given as\",\n \"-25.75455626216717\"\n ],\n [\n \"heart disease. A meta-analysis in 2000, which combined the results of several studies of 8,000 elderly patients in all, found that a 10 mm Hg increase in pulse pressure increased the risk of major cardiovascular complications and mortality by nearly 20%. Heightened pulse pressure is also a risk factor for the development of atrial fibrillation. The authors of the meta-analysis suggest that this helps to explain the apparent increase in risk sometimes associated with low diastolic pressure, and warn that some medications for high blood pressure may actually increase the pulse pressure and the risk of heart disease. Self measurement Pulse\",\n \"-25.73507101670839\"\n ],\n [\n \"or blocking small blood vessels, shutting off blood supply to the downstream side, and resulting in hypoxia of those tissues.\\nThis effect is called decompression sickness or 'the bends', and must be avoided by reducing the pressure on the body slowly while ascending and allowing the inert gases dissolved in the tissues to be eliminated while still in solution. This process is known as \\\"off-gassing\\\", and is done by restricting the ascent (decompression) rate to one where the level of supersaturation is not sufficient for bubbles to form or grow. This is done by controlling the speed of ascent and\",\n \"-25.710598973790184\"\n ],\n [\n \"formulation is usually added initially, while continuing oral medications. Doses of insulin are then increased to effect. Blood pressure Since cardiovascular disease is a serious complication associated with diabetes, some have recommended blood pressure levels below 130/80 mmHg. However, evidence supports less than or equal to somewhere between 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg; the only additional benefit found for blood pressure targets beneath this range was an isolated decrease in stroke risk, and this was accompanied by an increased risk of other serious adverse events. A 2016 review found potential harm to treating lower than 140 mmHg. Among medications that lower blood pressure,\",\n \"-25.686541679664515\"\n ],\n [\n \"NSAIDs (Motrin/Ibuprofen) and steroids can cause hypertension. Other medications include extrogens (such as those found in oral contraceptives with high estrogenic activity), certain antidepressants (such as venlafaxine), buspirone, carbamazepine, bromocriptine, clozapine, and cyclosporine.\\nHigh blood pressure that is associated with the sudden withdrawal of various antihypertensive medications is called rebound hypertension. The increases in blood pressure may result in blood pressures greater than when the medication was initiated. Depending on the severity of the increase in blood pressure, rebound hypertension may result in a hypertensive emergency. Rebound hypertension is avoided by gradually reducing the dose (also known as \\\"dose tapering\\\"),\",\n \"-25.677780048717977\"\n ],\n [\n \"with elevated blood pressure. Depression was also linked to hypertension.\\nA 2018 review found that any alcohol increased blood pressure in males while over one or two drinks increased the risk in females. Pathophysiology In most people with established essential hypertension, increased resistance to blood flow (total peripheral resistance) accounts for the high pressure while cardiac output remains normal. There is evidence that some younger people with prehypertension or 'borderline hypertension' have high cardiac output, an elevated heart rate and normal peripheral resistance, termed hyperkinetic borderline hypertension. These individuals develop the typical features of established essential hypertension in later life as\",\n \"-25.62194122830988\"\n ],\n [\n \"vascular smooth muscle, restricting blood flow and so increases blood pressure. Diagnosis Hypertension is diagnosed on the basis of a persistently high resting blood pressure. The American Heart Association recommends at least three resting measurements on at least two separate health care visits. The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends ambulatory blood pressure monitoring to confirm the diagnosis of hypertension if a clinic blood pressure is 140/90 mmHg or higher. Measurement technique For an accurate diagnosis of hypertension to be made, it is essential for proper blood pressure measurement technique to be used. Improper measurement of blood\",\n \"-25.609492928459076\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":280,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"4unzrb"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why are humans diurnal?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Our eyes do not operate well in low light. Our hunting skills are sight based. So over-all going hunting in anything but daylight means we're more likely to be the prey, then the hunter. We weren't the top predator back when we were evolving, we used progressively better tools to drag our way up the list.","Everyone else on here is not actually answering the question, rather the symptoms of being diurnal (Rods/cones in the eyes, etc) Our primate ancestor was a nocturnal prosimian (think an eye-eye, very small primate). As we evolved, got bigger, and brains started to develop, it became easier to compete for resources with other daytime animals. Before being out during the day meant certain death: predatory birds, lions, bears, etc..... as we got bigger, became easier to move and be active in daytime (way harder for an eagle to pick up a chimp than a mouse lemur). Why is being diurnal more beneficial? Think hunting, fishing, social groups, etc. being able to see and move in the day makes all of these more \"evolved\" activities possible. Most nocturnal animals (esp nocturnal primates) are solitary foragers, very small, etc. Why is size beneficial? Because of metabolic rate. Bigger animals have more efficient metabolism, can digest food more easily. Why did apes evolve to be bigger while there are some still nocturnal prosimians? This question stumps a lot of evolutionary biologists, but the idea is that some prosimians 50 million years ago (or whatever timeline) were in better positions for resources with less competition and were able to \"become\" larger/diurnal. Hopefully that is ELI5","Usually a question about why an organism evolved in a certain way can be answered as simply as, it worked best. Organisms that have to compete in their environment (niche) may have been able to take advantage of daytime or night-time activity, whether it meant finding prey and resources easier, or not becoming the prey. It is almost arbitrary whether we are, because we could just have easily evolved the other way if there were selective pressures. Other features such as our eyes' sensitivity to light and a diurnal rhythm evolved from these pressures as well.","In a nutshell we are visual animals. We have some of the best eyes in the animal kingdom, we have 3 cone types that descriminate between Red, Blue, and Green, and our brains can use that to create a wide range of colors. Our visual acuity is also excellent. Some animals, like Raptors, have better visual acuity at distance, and there is the mantis shrimp that has a dozen different cone cell types, but overall humans have excellent vision and rely heavily on the sense of sight. Our eyes work OK in the dark of night, but we lose alot of our advantages, especially our ability to discriminate between colors/wavelengths of light. Humans are capable of operating at night if need be, but our eyes just aren't that finely adapted to it - they work, but they aren't a superpower like our day time vision is (compared to other animals)."],"string":"[\n \"Our eyes do not operate well in low light. Our hunting skills are sight based. So over-all going hunting in anything but daylight means we're more likely to be the prey, then the hunter. We weren't the top predator back when we were evolving, we used progressively better tools to drag our way up the list.\",\n \"Everyone else on here is not actually answering the question, rather the symptoms of being diurnal (Rods/cones in the eyes, etc) Our primate ancestor was a nocturnal prosimian (think an eye-eye, very small primate). As we evolved, got bigger, and brains started to develop, it became easier to compete for resources with other daytime animals. Before being out during the day meant certain death: predatory birds, lions, bears, etc..... as we got bigger, became easier to move and be active in daytime (way harder for an eagle to pick up a chimp than a mouse lemur). Why is being diurnal more beneficial? Think hunting, fishing, social groups, etc. being able to see and move in the day makes all of these more \\\"evolved\\\" activities possible. Most nocturnal animals (esp nocturnal primates) are solitary foragers, very small, etc. Why is size beneficial? Because of metabolic rate. Bigger animals have more efficient metabolism, can digest food more easily. Why did apes evolve to be bigger while there are some still nocturnal prosimians? This question stumps a lot of evolutionary biologists, but the idea is that some prosimians 50 million years ago (or whatever timeline) were in better positions for resources with less competition and were able to \\\"become\\\" larger/diurnal. Hopefully that is ELI5\",\n \"Usually a question about why an organism evolved in a certain way can be answered as simply as, it worked best. Organisms that have to compete in their environment (niche) may have been able to take advantage of daytime or night-time activity, whether it meant finding prey and resources easier, or not becoming the prey. It is almost arbitrary whether we are, because we could just have easily evolved the other way if there were selective pressures. Other features such as our eyes' sensitivity to light and a diurnal rhythm evolved from these pressures as well.\",\n \"In a nutshell we are visual animals. We have some of the best eyes in the animal kingdom, we have 3 cone types that descriminate between Red, Blue, and Green, and our brains can use that to create a wide range of colors. Our visual acuity is also excellent. Some animals, like Raptors, have better visual acuity at distance, and there is the mantis shrimp that has a dozen different cone cell types, but overall humans have excellent vision and rely heavily on the sense of sight. Our eyes work OK in the dark of night, but we lose alot of our advantages, especially our ability to discriminate between colors/wavelengths of light. Humans are capable of operating at night if need be, but our eyes just aren't that finely adapted to it - they work, but they aren't a superpower like our day time vision is (compared to other animals).\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["were forced to be more active in the day to find food. Other environmental influences Diurnality has shown to be an evolutionary trait in many animal species, with diurnality mostly reappearing in many lineages. Other environmental factors like ambient temperature, food availability, and predation risk can all influence whether an animal will evolve to be diurnal, or if their effects are strong enough, then mask over their circadian rhythm, changing their activity patterns to becoming diurnal. All three factors often involve one another, and animals need to be able to find a balance between them if they are to survive","-33.76140208682045"],["or have periods of rest during the night time. Commonly classified diurnal animals include mammals, birds, and reptiles. Most primates are diurnal. Scientifically classifying diurnality within animals can be a challenge, apart from the obvious increased activity levels during the day time light. Evolution of diurnality Initially, most animals were diurnal, but adaptations that allowed some animals to become nocturnal is what helped contribute to the success of many, especially mammals. This evolutionary movement to nocturnality allowed them to better avoid predators and gain resources with less competition from other animals. This did come with some adaptations that mammals live","-33.347851035694475"],["are diurnal during the late spring and early fall, and become crepuscular during the heat of summer. Many insects and some birds also alter their times of activity. Some animals, like ground squirrels and marmots, have one or more periods of estivation, a summer hibernation that allows them to avoid the hottest and driest periods.\nSeveral animals are unique to Craters of the Moon and the surrounding area. Subspecies of Great Basin pocket mouse, American pika, yellow-pine chipmunk, and yellow-bellied marmot are found nowhere else. Lava tube beetles and many other cave animals are found only in the lava tubes of","-31.12711039406713"],["and thrive.\nAmbient temperature has been shown to affect and even convert nocturnal animals to diurnality as it is a way for them to conserve metabolic energy. Nocturnal animals are often energetically challenged due to being most active in the nighttime when ambient temperatures are lower than through the day, and so they lose a lot of energy in the form of body heat. According to the circadian thermos-energetics (CTE) hypothesis, animals that are expending more energy than they are taking in (through food and sleep) will be more active in the light cycle, meaning they will be more active in","-30.871165729826316"],["activity are naturally reversed through habit and not from outside interference – experience their highest temperature during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period of rest (day). Those diurnal temperatures can be reversed by reversing their daily routine.\nIn essence, the temperature curve of diurnal birds is similar to that of man and other homoeothermal animals, except that the maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also, the curves obtained from rabbits, guinea pigs, and dogs were quite similar to those from man. These observations indicate that body temperature is partially","-30.8390724491328"],["the day. This has been shown in studies done on small nocturnal mice in a laboratory setting. When they were placed under a combination of enough cold and hunger stress, they converted to diurnality through temporal niche switching, which was expected. Another similar study that involved energetically challenging small mammals showed that diurnality is most beneficial when the animal has a sheltered location to rest in, reducing heat loss. Both studies concluded that nocturnal mammals do change their activity patterns to be more diurnal when energetically stressed (due to heat loss and limited food availability), but only when predation is","-30.618843278673012"],["night.\nClimate-change and the change in global temperatures has led to an increasing amount of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. This adaptive measure allows species to avoid the heat of the day, without having to leave that particular habitat. Human disturbances The exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had a major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. The causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas: light pollution and spatial disturbance. Light pollution Light pollution is a major","-30.417992838614737"],["tend to stay awake at night, have higher melatonin at night just like diurnal mammals do. And, although removing the pineal gland in many animals abolishes melatonin rhythms, it does not stop circadian rhythms altogether—though it may alter them and weaken their responsiveness to light cues. Cortisol levels in diurnal animals typically rise throughout the night, peak in the awakening hours, and diminish during the day. In diurnal animals, sleepiness increases during the night. Rodents A study conducted by Datta indirectly supports the idea that memory benefits from sleep. A box was constructed wherein a single rat could move freely","-30.368175826617517"],["energy, though this theory is not fully adequate as it only decreases metabolism by about 5–10%. Additionally it is observed that mammals require sleep even during the hypometabolic state of hibernation, in which circumstance it is actually a net loss of energy as the animal returns from hypothermia to euthermia in order to sleep.\nNocturnal animals have higher body temperatures, greater activity, rising serotonin, and diminishing cortisol during the night—the inverse of diurnal animals. Nocturnal and diurnal animals both have increased electrical activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and corresponding secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland, at night. Nocturnal mammals, which","-29.602952197164996"],["synchronized with the earth's daily light-dark cycle. Thus, many animals are active during the day, others are active at night, still others near dawn and dusk. Though one might think that these \"circadian rhythms\" are controlled simply by the presence or absence of light, nearly every animal that has been studied has been shown to have a \"biological clock\" that yields cycles of activity even when the animal is in constant illumination or darkness. Circadian rhythms are so automatic and fundamental to living things – they occur even in plants – that they are usually discussed separately from cognitive processes,","-29.531589577090926"],["is diminished during the winter months in response to the reduction in available food, the reduction of sunlight (especially for diurnal animals) and the difficulties of surviving in cold weather. Hibernation is an extreme example, but even species that do not hibernate often exhibit changes in behavior during the winter. Presumably, food was scarce during most of human prehistory, and a tendency toward low mood during the winter months would have been adaptive by reducing the need for calorie intake. The preponderance of women with SAD suggests that the response may also somehow regulate reproduction.\nVarious proximate causes have been proposed.","-29.48268547574662"],["conserve energy. Variations due to circadian rhythms In humans, a diurnal variation has been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity, lowest at 11 p.m. to 3 a.m. and peaking at 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monkeys also have a well-marked and regular diurnal variation of body temperature that follows periods of rest and activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; nocturnal monkeys reach their highest body temperature at night and lowest during the day. Sutherland Simpson and J.J. Galbraith observed that all nocturnal animals and birds – whose periods of rest and","-29.152050235163188"],["Nocturnality Origins While it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, there is a leading hypothesis out in the evolutionary biology community. Known as the \"bottleneck theory\", it postulates that millions of years ago in the Mesozoic era, many ancestors of modern-day mammals evolved nocturnal characteristics in order to avoid contact with the numerous diurnal predators. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal","-28.986625525110867"],["and nocturnality occurred several times within primate lineages, with switching to diurnality being the most common transitions.\nStill today, diurnality seems to be reappearing in many lineages of other animals, including small rodent mammals like the Nile grass rat and golden mantle squirrel and reptiles. More specifically, geckos, which have thought to be naturally nocturnal have shown many transitions to diurnality, with about 430 species of geckos now showing diurnal activity. With so many diurnal species recorded, comparative analysis studies using newer lineages of gecko species have been done to study the evolution of diurnality. With about 20 transitions counted for","-28.743338257547293"],["Crepuscular animal Etymology and usage The word crepuscular derives from the Latin crepusculum (\"twilight\"). Its sense accordingly differs from diurnal and nocturnal behavior, which respectively peak during hours of daylight and darkness. The distinction is not absolute however, because crepuscular animals may also be active on a bright moonlit night or on a dull day. Some animals casually described as nocturnal are in fact crepuscular.\nSpecial classes of crepuscular behaviour include matutinal (or \"matinal\") and vespertine, denoting species active only in the dawn or only in the dusk, respectively. Those that are active during both morning and evening twilight are said","-28.430798763321945"],["are called crepuscular. The subdued morning and evening light helps make them less visible to predators, but is bright enough to allow them to locate food. Some animals are crepuscular mainly because their prey is. Crepuscular animals in the area include mule deer, coyotes, porcupines, mountain cottontails, jackrabbits, and many songbirds.\nSome desert animals are diurnal, or primarily active during the day. These include ground squirrels, marmots, chipmunks, lizards, snakes, hawks, and eagles.\nMany animals have a specific temperature range where they are active, meaning the times they are active vary with the seasons. Snakes and lizards hibernate during the winter months,","-28.278783386806026"],["typically diurnal species have even become crepuscular or nocturnal as a result of light pollution and general human disturbance. Reproduction There have been documented effects of light pollution on reproductive cycles and factors in different species. It can affect mate choice, migration to breeding grounds, and nest site selection. In male green frogs, artificial light causes a decrease in mate calls, and continued to move around instead of waiting for a potential mate to arrive. This hurts the overall fitness of the species, which is concerning considering the overall decrease in amphibian populations.\nPredation\nSome nocturnal predator-prey relationships are interrupted by artificial","-27.99643979119719"],["and diurnal in activity. In tropical areas, most are nocturnal and are attracted to light.","-27.82961798075121"],["human interaction from a young age, though they avoid people in the wild. Maras may even change their habits from coming out in day to becoming nocturnal, simply to avoid social interaction.","-27.73399833869189"],["definitions of being strictly nocturnal, diurnal, or crepuscular, often by factors that include the availability of food, predation pressure, and variable ambient temperature. As a result, many species, particularly among primates, may be classified as cathemeral.\nAlternative patterns of cathemeral activity have been observed in specific lemurs. Seasonal cathemerality has been described for the mongoose lemur (Eulemur mongoz) as activity that shifts from being predominantly diurnal to being predominantly nocturnal over a yearly cycle. The Common brown lemurs (E. fulvus fulvus) have been observed as seasonally shifting from diurnal activity to cathemerality. Etymology In the original manuscript for his paper,","-27.678126289974898"],["generally diurnal, resting in the hot part of the day and being active morning and afternoon. In areas where humans have encroached on the territory of a herd, they may turn nocturnal. Some species are also migratory, moving with food and water availability. Evolutionary history Modern species of Bos are thought to have evolved from a single ancestor, the aurochs (B. primigenius). This particular species survived until the early 17th century when it was hunted to extinction as the last aurochs, a female, died in Poland.","-27.667187699466012"],["in their cycle, even when they are not about to ovulate.\nHumans have menstrual cycles rather than estrous cycles. They, unlike most other species, have concealed ovulation, a lack of obvious external signs to signal estral receptivity at ovulation (i.e., the ability to become pregnant). There are, however, subtle signs to which human males may favorably respond, including changes in a woman's scent and facial appearance. Some research also suggests that women tend to have more sexual thoughts and are more prone to sexual activity right before ovulation. Animals with estrous cycles often have unmistakable outward displays of receptivity, ranging","-27.591043768450618"],["the gecko lineages, it shows the significance of diurnality. Strong environmental influences like climate change, predation risk, and competition for resources are all contributing factors. Using the example of geckos, it is thought that species like Mediodactylus amictopholis that live at higher altitudes have switched to diurnality to help gain more heat through the day, and therefore conserve more energy, especially when colder seasonal temperatures hit. Light Light is one of the most defining environmental factors that determines an animal’s activity pattern. Photoperiod or a light dark cycle is determined by the geographical location, with day time being associated with","-27.568844689296384"],["nocturnal primate species. This provides further evidence to support the hypothesis that nocturnality is a derived trait in the family Aotidae. \nAs the ancestor of Aotidae was likely diurnal, selective and environmental pressures must have been exerted on the members of this family which subsequently resulted in the alteration of their circadian rhythm to adapt to fill empty niches. Being active in the night rather than during the day time, gave Aotus access to better food sources, provided protection from predators, reduced interspecific competition and provided an escape from the harsh environmental conditions of their habitat. To begin, resting during","-27.522803832718637"],["This new rhythm can furthermore adapt to seasonal changes in day length, as with any other diurnal species. \n\nHowever, it is clear that the species has not completely evolved to be diurnal. In a lab setting where no other species is present, Acomys russatus immediately adopts nocturnal activity patterns with no transient phase, suggesting that its diurnal behavior is only an adaptation that is made when necessary. Furthermore, it has been found that the Golden Spiny Mouse’s eyes have not evolved to fit a diurnal lifestyle, but rather match the normal pattern of a nocturnal animal. This finding, along with","-27.51007252931595"],["wide range of conductance values. This allows animals to release heat during their activity period, when they have higher basal metabolism, as well as conserve heat during their rest period, when they have lower basal metabolism. In birds, the circadian rhythm in conductance results mostly from circadian rates of evaporative heat loss. In mammals, the conductance oscillates with circadian rhythms in the body's heat resistance and blood flow rate.\nFollowing up on his temperature studies, he found that a mammalian species can entrain to a temperature cycle, but that temperature is a weak Zeitgeber compared to a light-dark cycle.\nAschoff described masking","-27.422817682730965"],["mammals, they spend most of their life in old growth temperate rain forests in the high canopy. They are a non-migrating species and typically stay near areas in which they were born. They are active all year, even in the winter, because they do not hibernate. During cold weather in the winter, they huddle together to conserve heat. Groups as large as ten individuals have been documented. They are nocturnal with greatest activity right before dawn and right after dusk. They rest in dens during inactive times. They have a strong olfactory sense","-27.278588499611942"],["causes of nocturnality are linked to the environmental effects on circadian rhythm. While diurnal species are stimulated by the appearance of the sun, in nocturnal species, activity is highly impacted by the degree of moon light available. The presence of a new moon has correlated with inhibition of activity in night monkeys who exhibit lower levels of activity with decreasing levels of moon light. Therefore the lunar cycle has a significant influence on the foraging and a nocturnal behaviors of night monkey species. Pair-bonded social animals (social monogamy) Night monkeys are socially monogamous—they form a bond and mate with one","-27.20348340109922"],["Warm-blooded The variety of thermoregulation types A large proportion of the creatures traditionally called \"warm-blooded\", like birds and mammals, fit all three of these categories (i.e., they are endothermic, homeothermic, and tachymetabolic). However, over the past 30 years, studies in the field of animal thermophysiology have revealed many species belonging to these two groups that do not fit all these criteria. For example, many bats and small birds are poikilothermic and bradymetabolic when they sleep for the night (or, in nocturnal species, for the day). For these creatures, the term heterothermy was coined.\nFurther studies on animals that","-27.18894119952165"],["diurnal when temperature is high, but become more nocturnal if temperature plummets. At high latitudes, captive burbot, sculpin and brown bullhead are nocturnal in summer but become diurnal under the short photoperiod of the Arctic winter. In captivity, white sucker Catostomus commersonii are diurnal when living in a shoal but nocturnal when living alone.","-27.144171450752765"],["of all ages by 50%; this is thought to be related to simulation of moonlight.\nHumans can have a propensity to be morning people or evening people; these behavioral preferences are called chronotypes for which there are various assessment questionnaires and biological marker correlations.\nIn the second half of 20th century, substantial contributions and formalizations have been made by Europeans such as Jürgen Aschoff and Colin Pittendrigh, who pursued different but complementary views on the phenomenon of entrainment of the circadian system by light (parametric, continuous, tonic, gradual vs. nonparametric, discrete, phasic, instantaneous, respectively).\nThere is also a food-entrainable biological clock, which is","-26.94466458025272"],["made as far back as the 2nd century by the ancient Greek physician, Aretaeus of Cappadocia, who said, \"Lethargics are to be laid in the light and exposed to the rays of the sun, for the disease is gloom.\" Also, some studies have found weaker electrical activity in the retinas of depressed people, which gave the individuals studied poor visual contrast, meaning that they saw the world in grayer hues. The naturally weak daylight during winter at extreme latitudes can cause seasonal affective disorder, although a percentage of people experience SAD during summer. A solarium or other source of","-26.9109468699462"],["can react to social cues and gestures from humans. Behaviour Dingoes tend to be nocturnal in warmer regions, but less so in cooler areas. Their main period of activity is around dusk and dawn. The periods of activity are short (often less than 1 hour) with short times of resting. Dingoes have two kinds of movement: a searching movement (apparently associated with hunting) and an exploratory movement (probably for contact and communication with other dogs). According to studies in Queensland, the wild dogs (dingo hybrids) there move freely at night through urban areas and cross streets and seem to get","-26.834219585347455"],["of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration, and other biological activities. In addition, photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of","-26.75884120541741"],["the two chronotypes or diurnality and nocturnality in animal behavior. In several countries, especially in Scandinavia, early birds are called A-people and night owls are called B-people. Etymology The term is derived from the primarily nocturnal habits of the owl. Most owls sleep during the day and hunt for food at night. Characteristics Usually, people who are night owls stay awake past midnight, and extreme night owls may stay awake until just before or even after dawn. Night owls tend to feel most energetic just before they go to sleep at night. \nSome night owls have a preference or habit","-26.694897729583317"],["for cellular excitation via calcium influx and thus favors LTP. What else may be involved The circadian rhythm taking hold is responsible for the feeling of fatigue. Our body naturally starts to shut down, around the time that the sun starts to take its dip into the horizon. The primary chemical for this happening is melatonin, so it would seem natural to wonder if melatonin has some effect on learning and memory formation as well. Every animal that sleeps also exhibits some bodily concentration of melatonin. When studying the effects of sleepiness on fish, it was found that any significant","-26.598318357602693"],["lots of ambient light, and night time being associated with little ambient light. Light is one of the strongest influences of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is part of the hypothalamus in the brain that controls the circadian rhythm in most animals. This is what determines whether an animal is diurnal or not. The SCN uses visual information like light to start a cascade of hormones that are released and work on many physiological and behavioural functions.\nLight can produce powerful masking effects on an animal’s circadian rhythm, meaning that it can “mask” or influence the internal clock, changing the activity","-26.53331527908449"],["of environmental light change have shown to have an effect on the activity of mammals. An observational study done on the activity of nocturnal owl monkeys in the Gran Chaco in South America showed that increased amounts of moonlight at night increased their activity levels through the night, which led to a decrease of daytime activity. Meaning that for this species, ambient moonlight is negatively correlated with diurnal activity. This is also connected with the foraging behaviours of the monkeys, as when there were nights of little to no moonlight, it affected the monkey’s ability to forage efficiently, so they","-26.42301810978097"],["that they are descended from ectothermic ancestors, but have taken to periodic endothermy for reproductive reasons, so that the young can develop more quickly. Supporters of this theory argue that males hibernate earlier than females because they finish their contribution to reproduction first, and they awake earlier to undergo spermatogenesis in preparation for mating, while females and young lag in their annual cycle. During the hibernation period, the animals stay in entirely covered shelter.\nShort-beaked echidnas can live anywhere with a good supply of food, and regularly feast on ants and termites. They are believed to locate food by smell, using","-26.422844535178797"],["those active during the night are nocturnal, and animals active at sporadic times during both night and day are cathemeral. \nPlants that open their flowers during the daytime are described as diurnal, while those that bloom during nighttime are nocturnal. The timing of flower opening is often related to the time at which preferred pollinators are foraging. For example, sunflowers open during the day to attract bees, whereas the night-blooming cereus opens at night to attract large sphinx moths. In animals Many types of animals are classified as being diurnal, meaning they are active during the day time and inactive","-26.320449122489663"],["longevity probably helps them outlast years of low snowpack that cause poor breeding conditions, and thus low metamorphic recruitment. They are largely diurnal in contrast to the majority of anurans, probably owing to the cold mountain temperatures. Aligning their activities with diel peaks in warmth allows them to absorb solar energy to catch and biosynthesize food. The high level of melanism in eggs and tadpoles (and possibly in adult females), as well as the tendency for tadpoles to congregate in the warm shallows, probably serves the same purpose. Similarly, the selection of shallow breeding sites by adults, and shallow water","-26.274525131477276"],["cycle, one experiences reduced attentiveness. During the high points, it is difficult to sleep soundly. The cycle is anchored in part by ambient lighting (darkness causes a person's body to release the hormone melatonin, which induces sleep), and by a person's imposed pattern of regular sleeping and waking times. The influence of the day-night cycle is never fully displaced (standard artificial lighting is not strong enough to inhibit the release of melatonin), and the performance of night shift workers usually suffers. Circadian rhythms are persistent, and can only be shifted by one to two hours forward or backward per day. Changing","-26.210150861981674"],["after adverse conditions have arisen. This is commonly found in areas with an unpredictable climate. While very sudden changes in conditions may lead to a high mortality rate among animals relying on consequential dormancy, its use can be advantageous, as organisms remain active longer and are therefore able to make greater use of available resources. Hibernation Hibernation is a mechanism used by many mammals to reduce energy expenditure and survive food shortage over the winter. Hibernation may be predictive or consequential. An animal prepares for hibernation by building up a thick layer of body fat during late summer","-26.126160811516456"],["year. The male is the primary caregiver, and the mother carries the infant for only the first week or so of its life. This is believed to have developed because it increases the survival of the infant and reduces the metabolic costs on the female. Adults will occasionally be evicted from the group by same-sex individuals, either kin or outsiders. Nocturnality The family Aotidae is the only family of nocturnal species within the suborder Anthropoidea. While the order primates is divided into prosimians; many of which are nocturnal, the anthropoids possess very few nocturnal species and therefore it is highly","-26.102975142304786"],["further deep-time evolutionary pressure may have been lions' habit of eating people on moonless nights. When early Pleistocene hominids in Africa were attempting to survive by robbing big cats of their kills, according to some evolutionary scientists, it may have been adaptive to restrict overnight journeys—including sexual liaisons—to times when there was a moon in the sky. Media attention The question of whether those who live together do in fact synchronize their menstrual cycles has also received attention in the popular media. Traditional myth and ritual The idea that menstruation is – or ideally ought to be – in harmony","-26.09196023485856"],["complaints among the elderly, and poor sleep can be linked to a wide variety of problems including increased cardiovascular problems, disruption of endocrine functions, decline of immune functions, stability problems, and poor cognition. Studies have shown that when the elderly are exposed to high circadian light levels during the day and dim circadian levels at night, their sleep duration and efficiency has significantly improved. Depression The elderly frequently cite depression as a notable ailment. Many researchers have linked the depression to seasonal affective disorder (SAD), and seasonal mood variations have been linked to lack of light. (SAD is","-26.023666873632465"],["sleep or something like it occurs in all land mammals as well as in birds. The primary criteria used to identify REM are the change in electrical activity, measured by EEG, and loss of muscle tone, interspersed with bouts of twitching in phasic REM. The amount of REM sleep and cycling varies among animals; predators experience more REM sleep than prey. Larger animals also tend to stay in REM for longer, possibly because higher thermal inertia of their brains and bodies allows them to tolerate longer suspension of thermoregulation. The period (full cycle of REM and non-REM) lasts for about","-26.002004211652093"],["very precariously, sought to play it safe by not risking a failed crop, given that not all experiments introduced by outsiders had been successful. Animals It is common for animals (even those like hummingbirds that have high energy needs) to forage for food until satiated, and then spend most of their time doing nothing, or at least nothing in particular. They seek to \"satisfice\" their needs rather than obtaining an optimal diet or habitat. Even diurnal animals, which have a limited amount of daylight in which to accomplish their tasks, follow this pattern. Social activity comes in a distant third","-25.98977079166798"],["Darwin wrote about this in relation to wild horse and cattle. Humming as contact calls Joseph Jordania suggested that human humming could have played a function of contact calls in early human ancestors. According to his suggestion, humans find it distressing to be in full silence (which is a sign of danger for them), and this is why humans who are alone sometimes hum, whistle, talk to themselves, or listen to TV or radio during other activities. Birds Birds use contact calls in flight to establish location and to keep aware of each other's presence while flying and feeding. ","-25.98529517633142"],["Sleep in non-human animals Sleep in non-human animals refers to a behavioral and physiological state characterized by altered consciousness, reduced responsiveness to external stimuli, and homeostatic regulation. Sleep is observed in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and some fish, and, in some form, in insects and even in simpler animals such as nematodes. The internal circadian clock promotes sleep at night for diurnal organisms (such as humans) and in the day for nocturnal organisms (such as rodents). Sleep patterns vary widely among species. It appears to be a requirement for all mammals and most other animals. Invertebrates Sleep as a phenomenon","-25.920151100785006"],["an argument for the necessity of sleep. It appears that no animal has developed an ability to go without sleep altogether. Hibernation Animals that hibernate are in a state of torpor, differing from sleep. Hibernation markedly reduces the need for sleep, but does not remove it. Some hibernating animals end their hibernation a couple of times during the winter so that they can sleep. Hibernating animals waking up from hibernation often go into rebound sleep because of lack of sleep during the hibernation period. They are definitely well-rested and are conserving energy during hibernation, but need sleep for something","-25.894572574776248"],["connection between human emotion and animal emotion is so strong, humans have descended from the animal kingdom. How Long Do Animals Feel Grief? One of the questions that can be asked aside from do animals grieve is how long do they grieve for or if these animals show signs of mourning. Anthropologist Barbra J King mentions how animals might sleep less or change their ways in their daily life styles. These animals might also end up staying close to their companion's corpse for a long time as well (Safina, 2015). Something we know is that emotions in a human can","-25.887459846631828"],["most conspicuous during dusk and dawn, and if anything these birds are nocturnal rather than diurnal, preferring to retreat to sheltered areas in daytime. They feed actively during the day, however, if hungry or provisioning young. Shore-living individuals adapt to the rhythm of the tides. They mainly eat small fish, frogs and aquatic arthropods, but may take any invertebrate or vertebrate prey they can catch, including such animals like leeches and mice. Green herons are intolerant of other birds – including conspecifics – when feeding and are not seen to forage in groups. They typically stand still on shore or","-25.658145664492622"],["is naturally nocturnal, but will become diurnal when sharing a habitat with its congener, another spiny mouse species, Acomys cahirinus. Since the two species share food sources, competition does not allow for both of them to be active at the same time in the same habitat. Because of its tolerance for higher temperatures and significantly greater ability to conserve water by concentrating its urine, A. russatus is the species that is better suited to become day-active to eliminate this competition. When this occurs, there is a true switch in circadian rhythm that affects body systems such as metabolism and excretion.","-25.6369963849138"],["they start and end periods of activity earlier, shifting them into daylight hours, and may become diurnal. Diurnal giant anteaters have been observed at Serra da Canastra. Nocturnality in anteaters may be a response to human disturbances.\nGiant anteaters typically rest in dense brush, but may use tall grass on cooler days. They carve a shallow cavity in the ground for resting. The animal sleeps curled up with its bushy tail folded over its body. The tail serves both to conserve body heat and as camouflage. One anteater was recorded sleeping with its tail stretched out on a sunny morning with","-25.635553580021224"],["remained untouched by migrations and population expansions into that area. Genetic adaptations Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to stand a wide range of environmental temperatures in various ways. A 1958 study comparing cold adaptation in the desert-dwelling Pitjantjatjara people compared with a group of white people showed that the cooling adaptation of the Aboriginal group differed from that of the white people, and that they were able to sleep more soundly through a cold desert night. A 2014 Cambridge University study found that a beneficial mutation in two genes which regulate thyroxine, a hormone involved in regulating body metabolism, helps","-25.631074708304368"],["Estrous cycle The estrous cycle or oestrus cycle (derived from Latin oestrus \"frenzy\", originally from Greek οἶστρος oîstros \"gadfly\") is the recurring physiological changes that are induced by reproductive hormones in most mammalian therian females. Estrous cycles start after sexual maturity in females and are interrupted by anestrous phases or by pregnancies. Typically, estrous cycles continue until death. Some animals may display bloody vaginal discharge, often mistaken for menstruation. Differences from the menstrual cycle Mammals share the same reproductive system, including the regulatory hypothalamic system that produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone in pulses, the pituitary gland that secretes follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing","-25.626171468262328"],["influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep","-25.588948454358615"],["animal, they appear to be active both day and night, and are not territorial. They are timid, and flee at the sight of humans.","-25.55781878984999"],["species of damselfish, smallmouth bass and largemouth bass, and the brown bullhead. Some diurnal species, like the tautog Tautoga onitis, become active day and night during migration. In the Mozambique tilapia, sleep has been observed in adults, but not in juveniles.\nSome species may be variable in the phasing of their daily activity/inactivity periods, and thus presumably of their sleep. Within the same laboratory populations of goldfish, some individuals may be spontaneously diurnal while others are nocturnal. Goldfish can also be diurnal if food is more available by day, or nocturnal if food is available at night. Salmon are mostly","-25.55415415542666"],["the day, though they rest during the hottest hours around noon. The night is mainly spent resting. Dromedaries form cohesive groups of about 20 individuals, which consist of several females led by a dominant male. Females may also lead in turns. Some males either form bachelor groups or roam alone. Herds may congregate to form associations of hundreds of camels during migrations at the time of natural disasters. The males of the herd prevent female members from interacting with bachelor males by standing or walking between them and sometimes driving the bachelor males away. In Australia, short-term home ranges of","-25.544695313146804"],["hormone, and the ovary itself that releases sex hormones including estrogens and progesterone.\nHowever, species vary significantly in the detailed functioning. One difference is that animals that have estrous cycles resorb the endometrium if conception does not occur during that cycle. Animals that have menstrual cycles shed the endometrium through menstruation instead. Another difference is sexual activity. In species with estrous cycles, females are generally only sexually active during the estrus (oestrus) phase of their cycle . This is also referred to as being \"in heat\". In contrast, females of species with menstrual cycles can be sexually active at any time","-25.541809645539615"],["a rate limiting factor in reproduction, especially in animals with multiple litters, and that in pregnancy and lactation increased secretion of a quintet of steroid and peptide hormones caused a large increase of salt appetite.\nHis wide-ranging area of study – the instincts – is where many major discoveries were made. The primordial emotions – hunger for air, food hunger, thirst, pain, sexual desire, specific mineral appetites such as for salt or phosphate, search for temperature compatible environment or sleep after deprivation etc., are the subjective element of the instincts. They embody, when fully active, an imperious goal directed intention, which","-25.503300761862192"],["of horses and other large herd animals is that it is usually affected by the seasons. The number of hours daily that light enters the eye of the animal affects the brain, which governs the release of certain precursors and hormones. When daylight hours are few, these animals \"shut down\", become anestrous, and do not become fertile. As the days grow longer, the longer periods of daylight cause the hormones that activate the breeding cycle to be released. As it happens, this benefits these animals in that, given a gestation period of about eleven months, it prevents them from having","-25.460725873010233"],["in primates.\nVasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide histidine isoleucine help to regulate prolactin secretion in humans, but the functions of these hormones in birds can be quite different.\nProlactin follows diurnal and ovulatory cycles. Prolactin levels peak during REM sleep and in the early morning. Many mammals experience a seasonal cycle.\nDuring pregnancy, high circulating concentrations of estrogen and progesterone increase prolactin levels by 10- to 20-fold. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit the stimulatory effects of prolactin on milk production. The abrupt drop of estrogen and progesterone levels following delivery allow prolactin—which temporarily remains high—to induce lactation.\nSucking on the nipple offsets the fall in","-25.426125589190633"],["Aestivation Physiology Organisms that aestivate appear to be in a fairly \"light\" state of dormancy, as their physiological state can be rapidly reversed, and the organism can quickly return to a normal state. A study done on Otala lactea, a snail native to parts of Europe and Northern Africa, shows that they can wake from their dormant state within ten minutes of being introduced to a wetter environment.\nThe primary physiological and biochemical concerns for an aestivating animal are to conserve energy, retain water in the body, ration the use of stored energy, handle the nitrogenous end products, and stabilize bodily","-25.41789251624141"],["and autumn that will provide it with energy during the dormant period. During hibernation, the animal undergoes many physiological changes, including decreased heart rate (by as much as 95%) and decreased body temperature. In addition to shivering, some hibernating animals also produce body heat by non-shivering thermogenesis to avoid freezing. Non-shivering thermogenesis is a regulated process in which the proton gradient generated by electron transport in mitochondria is used to produce heat instead of ATP in brown adipose tissue. Animals that hibernate include bats, ground squirrels and other rodents, mouse lemurs, the European hedgehog and other insectivores, monotremes and","-25.37746613298077"],["makes them homeothermic when active, and poikilothermic when at rest. This phenomenon has been termed 'daily torpor' and was intensively studied in the Djungarian hamster. During the hibernation season, this animal shows strongly reduced metabolism each day during the rest phase while it reverts to endothermic metabolism during its active phase, leading to normal euthermic body temperatures (around 38 °C).\nLarger mammals (e.g. ground squirrels) and bats show multi-day torpor bouts during hibernation (up to several weeks) in winter. During these multi-day torpor bouts, body temperature drops to ~1 °C above ambient temperature and metabolism may drop to about 1% of the","-25.294843114883406"],["images become blurred. Humans, like their primate relatives, do not possess a tapetum lucidum and therefore were predisposed to be a diurnal species.\nDespite the fact that the resolution of human day vision is far superior to that of night vision, human night vision provides many advantages. Like many predatory animals humans can use their night vision to prey upon and ambush other animals without their awareness. Furthermore, in the event of an emergency situation occurring at night humans can increase their chances of survival if they are able to perceive their surroundings and get to safety. ","-25.265675819129683"],["essential regulator of biological timing in more natural settings\". Obesity and diabetes Obesity and diabetes are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignment of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light–dark cycle) might play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.\nShift work or chronic jet lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in the body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes. In humans, shift work that favors irregular eating","-25.255227462854236"],["unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection. In cold or barren countries no animals can live to the age of maturity, but those who have strong constitutions; the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities.\n Sebright said females went to \"the most vigorous males\", and \"the strongest individuals of both sexes, by driving away the weakest, will enjoy the best food, and the most favourable positions, for themselves and their offspring.\" After reading the pamphlet, Darwin commented \"excellent observations of sickly offspring being cut off so that not propagated by nature. –","-25.229013662261423"],["Nocturnal bottleneck The nocturnal bottleneck hypothesis is a hypothesis to explain several mammalian traits. In 1942, Gordon Lynn Walls described this concept which states that placental mammals were mainly or even exclusively nocturnal through most of their evolutionary story, starting with their origin 225 million years ago, and only ending with the demise of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. While some mammal groups have later evolved to fill diurnal niches, the approximately 160 million years spent as nocturnal animals has left a lasting legacy on basal anatomy and physiology, and most mammals are still nocturnal. Evolution of mammals Mammals","-25.224126991815865"],["are primarily diurnal. Many species, however, fly at night, and then may be attracted to artificial lights. Mantises in the family Liturgusidae collected at night have been shown to be predominately males; this is probably true for most mantises. Nocturnal flight is especially important to males in locating less-mobile females by detecting their pheromones. Flying at night exposes mantises to fewer bird predators than diurnal flight would. Many mantises also have an auditory thoracic organ that helps them avoid bats by detecting their echolocation calls and responding evasively. Diet and predation Mantises are generalist predators of arthropods. The majority","-25.21959722795873"],["species and subspecies are diurnal, hypothesized as a response to a lack of predators.\nDiurnal taxa include a subspecies of the black-eared flying fox (Pteropus melanotus natalis), the Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger), the Caroline flying fox (Pteropus molossinus), a subspecies of Pteropus pelagicus (P. p. insularis), and the Seychelles fruit bat (Pteropus seychellensis). Roosting A 1992 summary of forty-one megabat genera noted that twenty-nine are tree-roosting genera. A further eleven genera roost in caves, and the remaining six genera roost in other kinds of sites (human structures, mines, and crevices, for example). Tree-roosting species can be solitary or highly colonial,","-25.183813417796046"],["an estrous cycle, yet only ten primates species, four bats species, the elephant shrew, and the spiny mouse have a menstrual cycle. The relatedness of these groups suggests that four distinct evolutionary events have caused menstruation to arise.\nRecent reviews suggest that menstruation itself is not an evolved, adaptive trait. Rather, it is an inherent consequence of spontaneous decidualization evolving as a derived trait from non-spontaneous decidualization. Spontaneous decidualization allows for more maternal control in the maternal-fetal conflict by increasing selectivity over the implanted embryo.\nAll female placental mammals have a uterine lining that builds up when the animal is fertile, but","-25.165118601871654"],["well.\nThe only other mammal species known to hibernate within snow is the polar bear. Reproduction and life history Females are strongly philopatric, meaning that they likely stay in their natal ranges.\nTherefore, females in a given area are closely related, influencing the social structure of colonies.\nFemales give birth in the summer to an offspring called a pup.\nPups are weaned in the summer, and some reach sexual maturity in their first autumn.\nIt is a relatively short-lived species for a bat, with maximum age recorded as 4 and 4.5 years for males and females, respectively. Parasites and disease The Ussuri tube-nosed bat is","-25.13501929186168"],["slept normally. This suggests that the sleep which follows deprivation is compensatorily deeper.\nIn 2016, a study report the existence of REM- and NREM-like sleep stages in the Australian dragon Pogona vitticeps. Amphibians have periods of inactivity but show high vigilance (receptivity to potentially threatening stimuli) in this state. Birds There are significant similarities between sleep in birds and sleep in mammals, which is one of the reasons for the idea that sleep in higher animals with its division into REM and NREM sleep has evolved together with warm-bloodedness. Birds compensate for sleep loss in a manner similar to mammals, by","-25.073135568614816"],["a nocturnal phase in which complex colour vision was lost. Being that these pro-mammals were nocturnal they increased their sensitivity in low luminescence settings and reduced their photopic system from tetrachromatic to dichromatic. The shift to a nocturnal lifestyle would demand more rod photoreceptors to absorb the blue light emitted by the moon during the night. It can be extrapolated that the high ratio of rods to cones present in modern human eyes was retained even after the shift from nocturnal back to diurnal.\nIt is believed that the emergence of trichromacy in primates occurred approximately 55 million","-25.024758457089774"],["these other species may even den together, as most of their relatives are nocturnal. Dens may be found anywhere sheltered from the elements: in crevices between rocks, in hollow logs, and the like. Reproduction A male's range will include the ranges of several females, and scent cues inform him when the female is in heat. The gestation period is believed to be 60 to 70 days, and most pregnancies result in one to three (usually two) young. The male does not help care for them. Unusually, for a solitary species, in the Kalahari the males are philopatric whereas the females","-25.00919952034019"],["activity. The age-related decline in immune function is also related to decreasing vitamin D levels in the elderly. As people age, two things happen that negatively affect their vitamin D levels. First, they stay indoors more due to decreased activity levels. This means that they get less sun and therefore produce less cholecalciferol via UVB radiation. Second, as a person ages the skin becomes less adept at producing vitamin D. Sleep and rest The immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and sleep deprivation is detrimental to immune function. Complex feedback loops involving cytokines, such as interleukin-1 and tumor","-24.978231509274337"],["issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. Species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to the change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. Many diurnal species see the benefit of a \"longer day\", allowing for a longer hunting period, which is detrminental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them. Orientation Light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are","-24.97754786827136"],["the range can occur at nearly any time of night or day, with bears who dwell in areas with more extensive human contact being more likely to be fully nocturnal. Furthermore, yearling and newly independent bears are more likely to be active diurnally and many adult bears in low-disturbance areas are largely crepuscular. In summer through autumn, a brown bear can double its weight from the spring, gaining up to 180 kg (400 lb) of fat, on which it relies to make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic. Although they are not full hibernators and can be woken easily, both","-24.954870521789417"],["animals being most active in the mornings and evenings while the young are active most of the day. Winter hibernation lasts for about six and a half to eight and a half months. The date of emergence depends on spring conditions and may vary by up to twenty five days. The diet consists of the green parts of plants, roots, bulbs, grass seed, cereals and other agricultural crops. Reproduction takes place in the summer with pregnancy lasting approximately 23 days and the brood size averaging seven to eight young. These grow rapidly and are fully grown in two and a","-24.923985435183567"],["and they like to reside close to stony mountains and hills. In appearance and habits they closely resemble the unrelated rock hyrax of Africa (an example of convergent evolution). They usually shelter in crevices. They are reportedly seen at day and night, but are most active at dawn or dusk. Animals most active at this time are known as crepuscular. Behavior Studies show that there is a direct link between the retina and the mediodorsal nucleus, a large nucleus in the thalamus, which may provide the rock cavy with strong emotional learning, visual recognition, and object-reward association memory. This may","-24.8709026107681"],["of 7 years or more in age are females, with males rarely surviving past 5 years of age. Reasons for higher mortality in males may include loss of weight during the breeding season due to the high energetic demands of defending a territory followed by energetically costly migration.\nA variety of animals prey on hummingbirds given the opportunity. Due to their small size, hummingbirds are vulnerable even to passerine birds and other animals which generally feed on insects. On the other hand, only very swift predators can capture them and a free-flying adult hummingbird is too nimble for most predators. Chief","-24.859712413162924"],["interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.\nIn evolutionary terms, the ovulatory shift hypothesis posits that female humans exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their menstrual cycle, as a means to ensure that they attract a high quality mate to copulate with during their most fertile time. Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's overt behaviours, influencing the way a woman presents herself to others during stages of her menstrual cycle, in attempt to attract high quality mates the","-24.846961489703972"],["summarized that the differences came from personal breaks and unproductive activities at the workplace. Another, larger study found that afternoon declines in productivity were greater during longer work shifts.\nIt is important to note, however, that not all humans share identical circadian rhythms. One study across Italy and Spain had students fill out a questionnaire, then ranked them on a \"morningness–eveningness\" scale. The results were a fairly standard bell curve. Levels of alertness over the course of the day had a significant correlation with scores on the questionnaire. All categories of participants—evening types, morning types, and intermediate types—had high levels of","-24.835442961659282"],["all diurnal herd animals and grazers preferring a grassland environment. In the Wilton Base Marker and overlying units, the faunal remains are primarily of nocturnal, non-herding animals that generally prefer a more vegetated environment. This change is thought to represent and correspond to a decrease in grassland and increase in scrub and brush that began in the terminal Pleistocene and continued into the Holocene. It is unknown whether this environmental change occurred as a result of human activity, but it is thought to be a natural occurrence that may have been reinforced by human activity.\nThe principal conclusion of the “Prehistory","-24.81277719134232"],["sun to warm their body or to provide comfort. It has been suggested that early mammals. which may have been small and nocturnal, may have basked to rapidly warm their bodies based on observations made on a nocturnal marsupial, Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis. Insects Many insects require the morning sun to come out of nocturnal torpor and become active. In the higher latitudes, many insects have black on their wings or body to enhance their heat acquisition. This trend for increased darkness in higher latitudes is especially well marked in the Lepidoptera although the trend may be more general and unrelated to","-24.811861323658377"],["or migrate too early. The feeding behavior of insects, bats, sea turtles, fish, replies reflect alterations by artificial light. Sea turtles mistake the glow of electric lights for the shimmer of the ocean, leading them to flock outside of their nest into hazardous areas.\nHuman circadian rhythm and sleep patterns:\nExposure to light during traditional sleeping hours have are\ndocumented to cause disruptions in the circadian rhythm that regulate human\nsleep cycles. Biologists have noted a decrease in the amount of melatonin, a natural hormone that regulates the Circadian rhythm, in humans that are exposed to light pollution of the night sky. In order","-24.7909070836904"],["study found evidence that genetics account for approximately half of the measurable differences in loneliness among adults, which was similar to the heritability estimates found previously in children. These genes operate in a similar manner in males and females. The study found no common environmental contributions to adult loneliness. Feeling lonely vs. being socially isolated There is a clear distinction between feeling lonely and being socially isolated (for example, a loner). In particular, one way of thinking about loneliness is as a discrepancy between one's necessary and achieved levels of social interaction, while solitude is simply the lack of contact","-24.782300573140674"],["tropical and subtropical animals). Some animals (opportunistic breeders) breed dependent upon other conditions in their environment aside from time of year. Mammals Mating seasons are often associated with changes to herd or group structure, and behavioural changes, including territorialism amongst individuals. These may be annual (e.g. wolves), biannual (e.g. dogs) or more frequently (e.g. horses). During these periods, females of most mammalian species are more mentally and physically receptive to sexual advances, a period scientifically described as estrous but commonly described as being \"in season\" or \"in heat\". Sexual behaviour may occur outside estrus, and such acts as do","-24.73919768354972"],["whether menstrual synchrony occurred in a semi-free-ranging population of mandrills of 10-group years. They reported that mandrills do not synchronize their menstrual cycles and concluded that cycle synchrony does not occur in non-human primates. Lions Oestrus synchrony has been reported of female lions living under natural conditions in the wild.","-24.69564999535214"],["for example, which are sown in the fall and germinate before the frost, become dormant during the winter and actually require a few weeks of cold before they are able to flower. Animals Winter rest in an animal is different from true hibernation, since the metabolism is not reduced drastically. The body temperature is not significantly lowered, however the heart rate is reduced. This means that animals like the raccoon can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts. Other animals that winter rest are badgers and brown bears.","-24.688975536380894"],["same, and some produce only blue or green light.\nA reduction in exposure to sunlight during winter months and the shift in times or sunrise and sunset can affect a person's Circadian rhythm/internal clock, serotonin levels and melatonin levels. Symptoms of SAD may be more pronounced in women (75% of SAD cases), in younger adults (18-30), those with depression or a family history of depression, and it also more common in those who live more than 30 degrees north or south of the equator. Independent verification The non-profit Lighting Research Center, a group of utility companies, experts and government agencies,","-24.68877041435917"],["when they are in a good mood on a sunny day rather than in a bad mood on a rainy day. However, if the interviewer mentions the weather before they ask the life satisfaction question, this mood effect disappears because people accurately attribute their current mood to the weather rather than their life satisfaction.\nIn other work from the feelings-as-information perspective, Schwarz suggests that metacognitive experiences, such as the feeling of ease or difficulty in recalling or processing information, can exert significant influence on judgments. In other words, people tend to make judgments based on this interpretation of their subjective feelings","-24.631089231348597"],["the dark. Water conservation Another reason for nocturnality is avoiding the heat of the day. This is especially true in arid biomes like deserts, where nocturnal behavior prevents creatures from losing precious water during the hot, dry daytime. This is an adaptation that enhances osmoregulation. One of the reasons that (cathemeral) lions prefer to hunt at night is to conserve water.\nMany plant species native to arid biomes have adapted so that their flowers only open at night when the sun's intense heat cannot wither and destroy their moist, delicate blossoms. These flowers are pollinated by bats, another creature of the","-24.58098310721107"],["marsupials. Although hibernation is almost exclusively seen in mammals, some birds, such as the common poorwill, may hibernate. Diapause Diapause is a predictive strategy that is predetermined by an animal's genotype. Diapause is common in insects, allowing them to suspend development between autumn and spring, and in mammals such as the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, the only ungulate with embryonic diapause), in which a delay in attachment of the embryo to the uterine lining ensures that offspring are born in spring, when conditions are most favorable. Aestivation Aestivation, also spelled estivation, is an example of consequential dormancy in","-24.579631249245722"],["to be less active overall. Females' home ranges are also smaller than those of males. Males had a mean annual home range of 113 ha (280 acres), and females of 72 ha (180 acres). While males have larger home ranges in all seasons, the differences between males' and females' territories are most significant during the winter. Their home ranges are slightly larger during the spring because they are more active, not only nocturnally, but in seeking a mate. Because of their increased activity, they require more energy and are more active to acquire the necessary sustenance.\nBoth male and females scent mark in","-24.574874020530842"],["humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun. For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotle's Meteorology (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion. Origin of humankind Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life, and that humans came from other animals in waters. He claimed that animals sprang out of the sea long ago, born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and animals would be able to break it. As","-24.559664855943993"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"were forced to be more active in the day to find food. Other environmental influences Diurnality has shown to be an evolutionary trait in many animal species, with diurnality mostly reappearing in many lineages. Other environmental factors like ambient temperature, food availability, and predation risk can all influence whether an animal will evolve to be diurnal, or if their effects are strong enough, then mask over their circadian rhythm, changing their activity patterns to becoming diurnal. All three factors often involve one another, and animals need to be able to find a balance between them if they are to survive\",\n \"-33.76140208682045\"\n ],\n [\n \"or have periods of rest during the night time. Commonly classified diurnal animals include mammals, birds, and reptiles. Most primates are diurnal. Scientifically classifying diurnality within animals can be a challenge, apart from the obvious increased activity levels during the day time light. Evolution of diurnality Initially, most animals were diurnal, but adaptations that allowed some animals to become nocturnal is what helped contribute to the success of many, especially mammals. This evolutionary movement to nocturnality allowed them to better avoid predators and gain resources with less competition from other animals. This did come with some adaptations that mammals live\",\n \"-33.347851035694475\"\n ],\n [\n \"are diurnal during the late spring and early fall, and become crepuscular during the heat of summer. Many insects and some birds also alter their times of activity. Some animals, like ground squirrels and marmots, have one or more periods of estivation, a summer hibernation that allows them to avoid the hottest and driest periods.\\nSeveral animals are unique to Craters of the Moon and the surrounding area. Subspecies of Great Basin pocket mouse, American pika, yellow-pine chipmunk, and yellow-bellied marmot are found nowhere else. Lava tube beetles and many other cave animals are found only in the lava tubes of\",\n \"-31.12711039406713\"\n ],\n [\n \"and thrive.\\nAmbient temperature has been shown to affect and even convert nocturnal animals to diurnality as it is a way for them to conserve metabolic energy. Nocturnal animals are often energetically challenged due to being most active in the nighttime when ambient temperatures are lower than through the day, and so they lose a lot of energy in the form of body heat. According to the circadian thermos-energetics (CTE) hypothesis, animals that are expending more energy than they are taking in (through food and sleep) will be more active in the light cycle, meaning they will be more active in\",\n \"-30.871165729826316\"\n ],\n [\n \"activity are naturally reversed through habit and not from outside interference – experience their highest temperature during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period of rest (day). Those diurnal temperatures can be reversed by reversing their daily routine.\\nIn essence, the temperature curve of diurnal birds is similar to that of man and other homoeothermal animals, except that the maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also, the curves obtained from rabbits, guinea pigs, and dogs were quite similar to those from man. These observations indicate that body temperature is partially\",\n \"-30.8390724491328\"\n ],\n [\n \"the day. This has been shown in studies done on small nocturnal mice in a laboratory setting. When they were placed under a combination of enough cold and hunger stress, they converted to diurnality through temporal niche switching, which was expected. Another similar study that involved energetically challenging small mammals showed that diurnality is most beneficial when the animal has a sheltered location to rest in, reducing heat loss. Both studies concluded that nocturnal mammals do change their activity patterns to be more diurnal when energetically stressed (due to heat loss and limited food availability), but only when predation is\",\n \"-30.618843278673012\"\n ],\n [\n \"night.\\nClimate-change and the change in global temperatures has led to an increasing amount of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. This adaptive measure allows species to avoid the heat of the day, without having to leave that particular habitat. Human disturbances The exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had a major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. The causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas: light pollution and spatial disturbance. Light pollution Light pollution is a major\",\n \"-30.417992838614737\"\n ],\n [\n \"tend to stay awake at night, have higher melatonin at night just like diurnal mammals do. And, although removing the pineal gland in many animals abolishes melatonin rhythms, it does not stop circadian rhythms altogether—though it may alter them and weaken their responsiveness to light cues. Cortisol levels in diurnal animals typically rise throughout the night, peak in the awakening hours, and diminish during the day. In diurnal animals, sleepiness increases during the night. Rodents A study conducted by Datta indirectly supports the idea that memory benefits from sleep. A box was constructed wherein a single rat could move freely\",\n \"-30.368175826617517\"\n ],\n [\n \"energy, though this theory is not fully adequate as it only decreases metabolism by about 5–10%. Additionally it is observed that mammals require sleep even during the hypometabolic state of hibernation, in which circumstance it is actually a net loss of energy as the animal returns from hypothermia to euthermia in order to sleep.\\nNocturnal animals have higher body temperatures, greater activity, rising serotonin, and diminishing cortisol during the night—the inverse of diurnal animals. Nocturnal and diurnal animals both have increased electrical activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and corresponding secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland, at night. Nocturnal mammals, which\",\n \"-29.602952197164996\"\n ],\n [\n \"synchronized with the earth's daily light-dark cycle. Thus, many animals are active during the day, others are active at night, still others near dawn and dusk. Though one might think that these \\\"circadian rhythms\\\" are controlled simply by the presence or absence of light, nearly every animal that has been studied has been shown to have a \\\"biological clock\\\" that yields cycles of activity even when the animal is in constant illumination or darkness. Circadian rhythms are so automatic and fundamental to living things – they occur even in plants – that they are usually discussed separately from cognitive processes,\",\n \"-29.531589577090926\"\n ],\n [\n \"is diminished during the winter months in response to the reduction in available food, the reduction of sunlight (especially for diurnal animals) and the difficulties of surviving in cold weather. Hibernation is an extreme example, but even species that do not hibernate often exhibit changes in behavior during the winter. Presumably, food was scarce during most of human prehistory, and a tendency toward low mood during the winter months would have been adaptive by reducing the need for calorie intake. The preponderance of women with SAD suggests that the response may also somehow regulate reproduction.\\nVarious proximate causes have been proposed.\",\n \"-29.48268547574662\"\n ],\n [\n \"conserve energy. Variations due to circadian rhythms In humans, a diurnal variation has been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity, lowest at 11 p.m. to 3 a.m. and peaking at 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monkeys also have a well-marked and regular diurnal variation of body temperature that follows periods of rest and activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; nocturnal monkeys reach their highest body temperature at night and lowest during the day. Sutherland Simpson and J.J. Galbraith observed that all nocturnal animals and birds – whose periods of rest and\",\n \"-29.152050235163188\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nocturnality Origins While it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, there is a leading hypothesis out in the evolutionary biology community. Known as the \\\"bottleneck theory\\\", it postulates that millions of years ago in the Mesozoic era, many ancestors of modern-day mammals evolved nocturnal characteristics in order to avoid contact with the numerous diurnal predators. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal\",\n \"-28.986625525110867\"\n ],\n [\n \"and nocturnality occurred several times within primate lineages, with switching to diurnality being the most common transitions.\\nStill today, diurnality seems to be reappearing in many lineages of other animals, including small rodent mammals like the Nile grass rat and golden mantle squirrel and reptiles. More specifically, geckos, which have thought to be naturally nocturnal have shown many transitions to diurnality, with about 430 species of geckos now showing diurnal activity. With so many diurnal species recorded, comparative analysis studies using newer lineages of gecko species have been done to study the evolution of diurnality. With about 20 transitions counted for\",\n \"-28.743338257547293\"\n ],\n [\n \"Crepuscular animal Etymology and usage The word crepuscular derives from the Latin crepusculum (\\\"twilight\\\"). Its sense accordingly differs from diurnal and nocturnal behavior, which respectively peak during hours of daylight and darkness. The distinction is not absolute however, because crepuscular animals may also be active on a bright moonlit night or on a dull day. Some animals casually described as nocturnal are in fact crepuscular.\\nSpecial classes of crepuscular behaviour include matutinal (or \\\"matinal\\\") and vespertine, denoting species active only in the dawn or only in the dusk, respectively. Those that are active during both morning and evening twilight are said\",\n \"-28.430798763321945\"\n ],\n [\n \"are called crepuscular. The subdued morning and evening light helps make them less visible to predators, but is bright enough to allow them to locate food. Some animals are crepuscular mainly because their prey is. Crepuscular animals in the area include mule deer, coyotes, porcupines, mountain cottontails, jackrabbits, and many songbirds.\\nSome desert animals are diurnal, or primarily active during the day. These include ground squirrels, marmots, chipmunks, lizards, snakes, hawks, and eagles.\\nMany animals have a specific temperature range where they are active, meaning the times they are active vary with the seasons. Snakes and lizards hibernate during the winter months,\",\n \"-28.278783386806026\"\n ],\n [\n \"typically diurnal species have even become crepuscular or nocturnal as a result of light pollution and general human disturbance. Reproduction There have been documented effects of light pollution on reproductive cycles and factors in different species. It can affect mate choice, migration to breeding grounds, and nest site selection. In male green frogs, artificial light causes a decrease in mate calls, and continued to move around instead of waiting for a potential mate to arrive. This hurts the overall fitness of the species, which is concerning considering the overall decrease in amphibian populations.\\nPredation\\nSome nocturnal predator-prey relationships are interrupted by artificial\",\n \"-27.99643979119719\"\n ],\n [\n \"and diurnal in activity. In tropical areas, most are nocturnal and are attracted to light.\",\n \"-27.82961798075121\"\n ],\n [\n \"human interaction from a young age, though they avoid people in the wild. Maras may even change their habits from coming out in day to becoming nocturnal, simply to avoid social interaction.\",\n \"-27.73399833869189\"\n ],\n [\n \"definitions of being strictly nocturnal, diurnal, or crepuscular, often by factors that include the availability of food, predation pressure, and variable ambient temperature. As a result, many species, particularly among primates, may be classified as cathemeral.\\nAlternative patterns of cathemeral activity have been observed in specific lemurs. Seasonal cathemerality has been described for the mongoose lemur (Eulemur mongoz) as activity that shifts from being predominantly diurnal to being predominantly nocturnal over a yearly cycle. The Common brown lemurs (E. fulvus fulvus) have been observed as seasonally shifting from diurnal activity to cathemerality. Etymology In the original manuscript for his paper,\",\n \"-27.678126289974898\"\n ],\n [\n \"generally diurnal, resting in the hot part of the day and being active morning and afternoon. In areas where humans have encroached on the territory of a herd, they may turn nocturnal. Some species are also migratory, moving with food and water availability. Evolutionary history Modern species of Bos are thought to have evolved from a single ancestor, the aurochs (B. primigenius). This particular species survived until the early 17th century when it was hunted to extinction as the last aurochs, a female, died in Poland.\",\n \"-27.667187699466012\"\n ],\n [\n \"in their cycle, even when they are not about to ovulate.\\nHumans have menstrual cycles rather than estrous cycles. They, unlike most other species, have concealed ovulation, a lack of obvious external signs to signal estral receptivity at ovulation (i.e., the ability to become pregnant). There are, however, subtle signs to which human males may favorably respond, including changes in a woman's scent and facial appearance. Some research also suggests that women tend to have more sexual thoughts and are more prone to sexual activity right before ovulation. Animals with estrous cycles often have unmistakable outward displays of receptivity, ranging\",\n \"-27.591043768450618\"\n ],\n [\n \"the gecko lineages, it shows the significance of diurnality. Strong environmental influences like climate change, predation risk, and competition for resources are all contributing factors. Using the example of geckos, it is thought that species like Mediodactylus amictopholis that live at higher altitudes have switched to diurnality to help gain more heat through the day, and therefore conserve more energy, especially when colder seasonal temperatures hit. Light Light is one of the most defining environmental factors that determines an animal’s activity pattern. Photoperiod or a light dark cycle is determined by the geographical location, with day time being associated with\",\n \"-27.568844689296384\"\n ],\n [\n \"nocturnal primate species. This provides further evidence to support the hypothesis that nocturnality is a derived trait in the family Aotidae. \\nAs the ancestor of Aotidae was likely diurnal, selective and environmental pressures must have been exerted on the members of this family which subsequently resulted in the alteration of their circadian rhythm to adapt to fill empty niches. Being active in the night rather than during the day time, gave Aotus access to better food sources, provided protection from predators, reduced interspecific competition and provided an escape from the harsh environmental conditions of their habitat. To begin, resting during\",\n \"-27.522803832718637\"\n ],\n [\n \"This new rhythm can furthermore adapt to seasonal changes in day length, as with any other diurnal species. \\n\\nHowever, it is clear that the species has not completely evolved to be diurnal. In a lab setting where no other species is present, Acomys russatus immediately adopts nocturnal activity patterns with no transient phase, suggesting that its diurnal behavior is only an adaptation that is made when necessary. Furthermore, it has been found that the Golden Spiny Mouse’s eyes have not evolved to fit a diurnal lifestyle, but rather match the normal pattern of a nocturnal animal. This finding, along with\",\n \"-27.51007252931595\"\n ],\n [\n \"wide range of conductance values. This allows animals to release heat during their activity period, when they have higher basal metabolism, as well as conserve heat during their rest period, when they have lower basal metabolism. In birds, the circadian rhythm in conductance results mostly from circadian rates of evaporative heat loss. In mammals, the conductance oscillates with circadian rhythms in the body's heat resistance and blood flow rate.\\nFollowing up on his temperature studies, he found that a mammalian species can entrain to a temperature cycle, but that temperature is a weak Zeitgeber compared to a light-dark cycle.\\nAschoff described masking\",\n \"-27.422817682730965\"\n ],\n [\n \"mammals, they spend most of their life in old growth temperate rain forests in the high canopy. They are a non-migrating species and typically stay near areas in which they were born. They are active all year, even in the winter, because they do not hibernate. During cold weather in the winter, they huddle together to conserve heat. Groups as large as ten individuals have been documented. They are nocturnal with greatest activity right before dawn and right after dusk. They rest in dens during inactive times. They have a strong olfactory sense\",\n \"-27.278588499611942\"\n ],\n [\n \"causes of nocturnality are linked to the environmental effects on circadian rhythm. While diurnal species are stimulated by the appearance of the sun, in nocturnal species, activity is highly impacted by the degree of moon light available. The presence of a new moon has correlated with inhibition of activity in night monkeys who exhibit lower levels of activity with decreasing levels of moon light. Therefore the lunar cycle has a significant influence on the foraging and a nocturnal behaviors of night monkey species. Pair-bonded social animals (social monogamy) Night monkeys are socially monogamous—they form a bond and mate with one\",\n \"-27.20348340109922\"\n ],\n [\n \"Warm-blooded The variety of thermoregulation types A large proportion of the creatures traditionally called \\\"warm-blooded\\\", like birds and mammals, fit all three of these categories (i.e., they are endothermic, homeothermic, and tachymetabolic). However, over the past 30 years, studies in the field of animal thermophysiology have revealed many species belonging to these two groups that do not fit all these criteria. For example, many bats and small birds are poikilothermic and bradymetabolic when they sleep for the night (or, in nocturnal species, for the day). For these creatures, the term heterothermy was coined.\\nFurther studies on animals that\",\n \"-27.18894119952165\"\n ],\n [\n \"diurnal when temperature is high, but become more nocturnal if temperature plummets. At high latitudes, captive burbot, sculpin and brown bullhead are nocturnal in summer but become diurnal under the short photoperiod of the Arctic winter. In captivity, white sucker Catostomus commersonii are diurnal when living in a shoal but nocturnal when living alone.\",\n \"-27.144171450752765\"\n ],\n [\n \"of all ages by 50%; this is thought to be related to simulation of moonlight.\\nHumans can have a propensity to be morning people or evening people; these behavioral preferences are called chronotypes for which there are various assessment questionnaires and biological marker correlations.\\nIn the second half of 20th century, substantial contributions and formalizations have been made by Europeans such as Jürgen Aschoff and Colin Pittendrigh, who pursued different but complementary views on the phenomenon of entrainment of the circadian system by light (parametric, continuous, tonic, gradual vs. nonparametric, discrete, phasic, instantaneous, respectively).\\nThere is also a food-entrainable biological clock, which is\",\n \"-26.94466458025272\"\n ],\n [\n \"made as far back as the 2nd century by the ancient Greek physician, Aretaeus of Cappadocia, who said, \\\"Lethargics are to be laid in the light and exposed to the rays of the sun, for the disease is gloom.\\\" Also, some studies have found weaker electrical activity in the retinas of depressed people, which gave the individuals studied poor visual contrast, meaning that they saw the world in grayer hues. The naturally weak daylight during winter at extreme latitudes can cause seasonal affective disorder, although a percentage of people experience SAD during summer. A solarium or other source of\",\n \"-26.9109468699462\"\n ],\n [\n \"can react to social cues and gestures from humans. Behaviour Dingoes tend to be nocturnal in warmer regions, but less so in cooler areas. Their main period of activity is around dusk and dawn. The periods of activity are short (often less than 1 hour) with short times of resting. Dingoes have two kinds of movement: a searching movement (apparently associated with hunting) and an exploratory movement (probably for contact and communication with other dogs). According to studies in Queensland, the wild dogs (dingo hybrids) there move freely at night through urban areas and cross streets and seem to get\",\n \"-26.834219585347455\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration, and other biological activities. In addition, photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of\",\n \"-26.75884120541741\"\n ],\n [\n \"the two chronotypes or diurnality and nocturnality in animal behavior. In several countries, especially in Scandinavia, early birds are called A-people and night owls are called B-people. Etymology The term is derived from the primarily nocturnal habits of the owl. Most owls sleep during the day and hunt for food at night. Characteristics Usually, people who are night owls stay awake past midnight, and extreme night owls may stay awake until just before or even after dawn. Night owls tend to feel most energetic just before they go to sleep at night. \\nSome night owls have a preference or habit\",\n \"-26.694897729583317\"\n ],\n [\n \"for cellular excitation via calcium influx and thus favors LTP. What else may be involved The circadian rhythm taking hold is responsible for the feeling of fatigue. Our body naturally starts to shut down, around the time that the sun starts to take its dip into the horizon. The primary chemical for this happening is melatonin, so it would seem natural to wonder if melatonin has some effect on learning and memory formation as well. Every animal that sleeps also exhibits some bodily concentration of melatonin. When studying the effects of sleepiness on fish, it was found that any significant\",\n \"-26.598318357602693\"\n ],\n [\n \"lots of ambient light, and night time being associated with little ambient light. Light is one of the strongest influences of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is part of the hypothalamus in the brain that controls the circadian rhythm in most animals. This is what determines whether an animal is diurnal or not. The SCN uses visual information like light to start a cascade of hormones that are released and work on many physiological and behavioural functions.\\nLight can produce powerful masking effects on an animal’s circadian rhythm, meaning that it can “mask” or influence the internal clock, changing the activity\",\n \"-26.53331527908449\"\n ],\n [\n \"of environmental light change have shown to have an effect on the activity of mammals. An observational study done on the activity of nocturnal owl monkeys in the Gran Chaco in South America showed that increased amounts of moonlight at night increased their activity levels through the night, which led to a decrease of daytime activity. Meaning that for this species, ambient moonlight is negatively correlated with diurnal activity. This is also connected with the foraging behaviours of the monkeys, as when there were nights of little to no moonlight, it affected the monkey’s ability to forage efficiently, so they\",\n \"-26.42301810978097\"\n ],\n [\n \"that they are descended from ectothermic ancestors, but have taken to periodic endothermy for reproductive reasons, so that the young can develop more quickly. Supporters of this theory argue that males hibernate earlier than females because they finish their contribution to reproduction first, and they awake earlier to undergo spermatogenesis in preparation for mating, while females and young lag in their annual cycle. During the hibernation period, the animals stay in entirely covered shelter.\\nShort-beaked echidnas can live anywhere with a good supply of food, and regularly feast on ants and termites. They are believed to locate food by smell, using\",\n \"-26.422844535178797\"\n ],\n [\n \"those active during the night are nocturnal, and animals active at sporadic times during both night and day are cathemeral. \\nPlants that open their flowers during the daytime are described as diurnal, while those that bloom during nighttime are nocturnal. The timing of flower opening is often related to the time at which preferred pollinators are foraging. For example, sunflowers open during the day to attract bees, whereas the night-blooming cereus opens at night to attract large sphinx moths. In animals Many types of animals are classified as being diurnal, meaning they are active during the day time and inactive\",\n \"-26.320449122489663\"\n ],\n [\n \"longevity probably helps them outlast years of low snowpack that cause poor breeding conditions, and thus low metamorphic recruitment. They are largely diurnal in contrast to the majority of anurans, probably owing to the cold mountain temperatures. Aligning their activities with diel peaks in warmth allows them to absorb solar energy to catch and biosynthesize food. The high level of melanism in eggs and tadpoles (and possibly in adult females), as well as the tendency for tadpoles to congregate in the warm shallows, probably serves the same purpose. Similarly, the selection of shallow breeding sites by adults, and shallow water\",\n \"-26.274525131477276\"\n ],\n [\n \"cycle, one experiences reduced attentiveness. During the high points, it is difficult to sleep soundly. The cycle is anchored in part by ambient lighting (darkness causes a person's body to release the hormone melatonin, which induces sleep), and by a person's imposed pattern of regular sleeping and waking times. The influence of the day-night cycle is never fully displaced (standard artificial lighting is not strong enough to inhibit the release of melatonin), and the performance of night shift workers usually suffers. Circadian rhythms are persistent, and can only be shifted by one to two hours forward or backward per day. Changing\",\n \"-26.210150861981674\"\n ],\n [\n \"after adverse conditions have arisen. This is commonly found in areas with an unpredictable climate. While very sudden changes in conditions may lead to a high mortality rate among animals relying on consequential dormancy, its use can be advantageous, as organisms remain active longer and are therefore able to make greater use of available resources. Hibernation Hibernation is a mechanism used by many mammals to reduce energy expenditure and survive food shortage over the winter. Hibernation may be predictive or consequential. An animal prepares for hibernation by building up a thick layer of body fat during late summer\",\n \"-26.126160811516456\"\n ],\n [\n \"year. The male is the primary caregiver, and the mother carries the infant for only the first week or so of its life. This is believed to have developed because it increases the survival of the infant and reduces the metabolic costs on the female. Adults will occasionally be evicted from the group by same-sex individuals, either kin or outsiders. Nocturnality The family Aotidae is the only family of nocturnal species within the suborder Anthropoidea. While the order primates is divided into prosimians; many of which are nocturnal, the anthropoids possess very few nocturnal species and therefore it is highly\",\n \"-26.102975142304786\"\n ],\n [\n \"further deep-time evolutionary pressure may have been lions' habit of eating people on moonless nights. When early Pleistocene hominids in Africa were attempting to survive by robbing big cats of their kills, according to some evolutionary scientists, it may have been adaptive to restrict overnight journeys—including sexual liaisons—to times when there was a moon in the sky. Media attention The question of whether those who live together do in fact synchronize their menstrual cycles has also received attention in the popular media. Traditional myth and ritual The idea that menstruation is – or ideally ought to be – in harmony\",\n \"-26.09196023485856\"\n ],\n [\n \"complaints among the elderly, and poor sleep can be linked to a wide variety of problems including increased cardiovascular problems, disruption of endocrine functions, decline of immune functions, stability problems, and poor cognition. Studies have shown that when the elderly are exposed to high circadian light levels during the day and dim circadian levels at night, their sleep duration and efficiency has significantly improved. Depression The elderly frequently cite depression as a notable ailment. Many researchers have linked the depression to seasonal affective disorder (SAD), and seasonal mood variations have been linked to lack of light. (SAD is\",\n \"-26.023666873632465\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleep or something like it occurs in all land mammals as well as in birds. The primary criteria used to identify REM are the change in electrical activity, measured by EEG, and loss of muscle tone, interspersed with bouts of twitching in phasic REM. The amount of REM sleep and cycling varies among animals; predators experience more REM sleep than prey. Larger animals also tend to stay in REM for longer, possibly because higher thermal inertia of their brains and bodies allows them to tolerate longer suspension of thermoregulation. The period (full cycle of REM and non-REM) lasts for about\",\n \"-26.002004211652093\"\n ],\n [\n \"very precariously, sought to play it safe by not risking a failed crop, given that not all experiments introduced by outsiders had been successful. Animals It is common for animals (even those like hummingbirds that have high energy needs) to forage for food until satiated, and then spend most of their time doing nothing, or at least nothing in particular. They seek to \\\"satisfice\\\" their needs rather than obtaining an optimal diet or habitat. Even diurnal animals, which have a limited amount of daylight in which to accomplish their tasks, follow this pattern. Social activity comes in a distant third\",\n \"-25.98977079166798\"\n ],\n [\n \"Darwin wrote about this in relation to wild horse and cattle. Humming as contact calls Joseph Jordania suggested that human humming could have played a function of contact calls in early human ancestors. According to his suggestion, humans find it distressing to be in full silence (which is a sign of danger for them), and this is why humans who are alone sometimes hum, whistle, talk to themselves, or listen to TV or radio during other activities. Birds Birds use contact calls in flight to establish location and to keep aware of each other's presence while flying and feeding. \",\n \"-25.98529517633142\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sleep in non-human animals Sleep in non-human animals refers to a behavioral and physiological state characterized by altered consciousness, reduced responsiveness to external stimuli, and homeostatic regulation. Sleep is observed in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and some fish, and, in some form, in insects and even in simpler animals such as nematodes. The internal circadian clock promotes sleep at night for diurnal organisms (such as humans) and in the day for nocturnal organisms (such as rodents). Sleep patterns vary widely among species. It appears to be a requirement for all mammals and most other animals. Invertebrates Sleep as a phenomenon\",\n \"-25.920151100785006\"\n ],\n [\n \"an argument for the necessity of sleep. It appears that no animal has developed an ability to go without sleep altogether. Hibernation Animals that hibernate are in a state of torpor, differing from sleep. Hibernation markedly reduces the need for sleep, but does not remove it. Some hibernating animals end their hibernation a couple of times during the winter so that they can sleep. Hibernating animals waking up from hibernation often go into rebound sleep because of lack of sleep during the hibernation period. They are definitely well-rested and are conserving energy during hibernation, but need sleep for something\",\n \"-25.894572574776248\"\n ],\n [\n \"connection between human emotion and animal emotion is so strong, humans have descended from the animal kingdom. How Long Do Animals Feel Grief? One of the questions that can be asked aside from do animals grieve is how long do they grieve for or if these animals show signs of mourning. Anthropologist Barbra J King mentions how animals might sleep less or change their ways in their daily life styles. These animals might also end up staying close to their companion's corpse for a long time as well (Safina, 2015). Something we know is that emotions in a human can\",\n \"-25.887459846631828\"\n ],\n [\n \"most conspicuous during dusk and dawn, and if anything these birds are nocturnal rather than diurnal, preferring to retreat to sheltered areas in daytime. They feed actively during the day, however, if hungry or provisioning young. Shore-living individuals adapt to the rhythm of the tides. They mainly eat small fish, frogs and aquatic arthropods, but may take any invertebrate or vertebrate prey they can catch, including such animals like leeches and mice. Green herons are intolerant of other birds – including conspecifics – when feeding and are not seen to forage in groups. They typically stand still on shore or\",\n \"-25.658145664492622\"\n ],\n [\n \"is naturally nocturnal, but will become diurnal when sharing a habitat with its congener, another spiny mouse species, Acomys cahirinus. Since the two species share food sources, competition does not allow for both of them to be active at the same time in the same habitat. Because of its tolerance for higher temperatures and significantly greater ability to conserve water by concentrating its urine, A. russatus is the species that is better suited to become day-active to eliminate this competition. When this occurs, there is a true switch in circadian rhythm that affects body systems such as metabolism and excretion.\",\n \"-25.6369963849138\"\n ],\n [\n \"they start and end periods of activity earlier, shifting them into daylight hours, and may become diurnal. Diurnal giant anteaters have been observed at Serra da Canastra. Nocturnality in anteaters may be a response to human disturbances.\\nGiant anteaters typically rest in dense brush, but may use tall grass on cooler days. They carve a shallow cavity in the ground for resting. The animal sleeps curled up with its bushy tail folded over its body. The tail serves both to conserve body heat and as camouflage. One anteater was recorded sleeping with its tail stretched out on a sunny morning with\",\n \"-25.635553580021224\"\n ],\n [\n \"remained untouched by migrations and population expansions into that area. Genetic adaptations Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to stand a wide range of environmental temperatures in various ways. A 1958 study comparing cold adaptation in the desert-dwelling Pitjantjatjara people compared with a group of white people showed that the cooling adaptation of the Aboriginal group differed from that of the white people, and that they were able to sleep more soundly through a cold desert night. A 2014 Cambridge University study found that a beneficial mutation in two genes which regulate thyroxine, a hormone involved in regulating body metabolism, helps\",\n \"-25.631074708304368\"\n ],\n [\n \"Estrous cycle The estrous cycle or oestrus cycle (derived from Latin oestrus \\\"frenzy\\\", originally from Greek οἶστρος oîstros \\\"gadfly\\\") is the recurring physiological changes that are induced by reproductive hormones in most mammalian therian females. Estrous cycles start after sexual maturity in females and are interrupted by anestrous phases or by pregnancies. Typically, estrous cycles continue until death. Some animals may display bloody vaginal discharge, often mistaken for menstruation. Differences from the menstrual cycle Mammals share the same reproductive system, including the regulatory hypothalamic system that produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone in pulses, the pituitary gland that secretes follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing\",\n \"-25.626171468262328\"\n ],\n [\n \"influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\\\"sleep debt\\\"). This driver of sleep\",\n \"-25.588948454358615\"\n ],\n [\n \"animal, they appear to be active both day and night, and are not territorial. They are timid, and flee at the sight of humans.\",\n \"-25.55781878984999\"\n ],\n [\n \"species of damselfish, smallmouth bass and largemouth bass, and the brown bullhead. Some diurnal species, like the tautog Tautoga onitis, become active day and night during migration. In the Mozambique tilapia, sleep has been observed in adults, but not in juveniles.\\nSome species may be variable in the phasing of their daily activity/inactivity periods, and thus presumably of their sleep. Within the same laboratory populations of goldfish, some individuals may be spontaneously diurnal while others are nocturnal. Goldfish can also be diurnal if food is more available by day, or nocturnal if food is available at night. Salmon are mostly\",\n \"-25.55415415542666\"\n ],\n [\n \"the day, though they rest during the hottest hours around noon. The night is mainly spent resting. Dromedaries form cohesive groups of about 20 individuals, which consist of several females led by a dominant male. Females may also lead in turns. Some males either form bachelor groups or roam alone. Herds may congregate to form associations of hundreds of camels during migrations at the time of natural disasters. The males of the herd prevent female members from interacting with bachelor males by standing or walking between them and sometimes driving the bachelor males away. In Australia, short-term home ranges of\",\n \"-25.544695313146804\"\n ],\n [\n \"hormone, and the ovary itself that releases sex hormones including estrogens and progesterone.\\nHowever, species vary significantly in the detailed functioning. One difference is that animals that have estrous cycles resorb the endometrium if conception does not occur during that cycle. Animals that have menstrual cycles shed the endometrium through menstruation instead. Another difference is sexual activity. In species with estrous cycles, females are generally only sexually active during the estrus (oestrus) phase of their cycle . This is also referred to as being \\\"in heat\\\". In contrast, females of species with menstrual cycles can be sexually active at any time\",\n \"-25.541809645539615\"\n ],\n [\n \"a rate limiting factor in reproduction, especially in animals with multiple litters, and that in pregnancy and lactation increased secretion of a quintet of steroid and peptide hormones caused a large increase of salt appetite.\\nHis wide-ranging area of study – the instincts – is where many major discoveries were made. The primordial emotions – hunger for air, food hunger, thirst, pain, sexual desire, specific mineral appetites such as for salt or phosphate, search for temperature compatible environment or sleep after deprivation etc., are the subjective element of the instincts. They embody, when fully active, an imperious goal directed intention, which\",\n \"-25.503300761862192\"\n ],\n [\n \"of horses and other large herd animals is that it is usually affected by the seasons. The number of hours daily that light enters the eye of the animal affects the brain, which governs the release of certain precursors and hormones. When daylight hours are few, these animals \\\"shut down\\\", become anestrous, and do not become fertile. As the days grow longer, the longer periods of daylight cause the hormones that activate the breeding cycle to be released. As it happens, this benefits these animals in that, given a gestation period of about eleven months, it prevents them from having\",\n \"-25.460725873010233\"\n ],\n [\n \"in primates.\\nVasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide histidine isoleucine help to regulate prolactin secretion in humans, but the functions of these hormones in birds can be quite different.\\nProlactin follows diurnal and ovulatory cycles. Prolactin levels peak during REM sleep and in the early morning. Many mammals experience a seasonal cycle.\\nDuring pregnancy, high circulating concentrations of estrogen and progesterone increase prolactin levels by 10- to 20-fold. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit the stimulatory effects of prolactin on milk production. The abrupt drop of estrogen and progesterone levels following delivery allow prolactin—which temporarily remains high—to induce lactation.\\nSucking on the nipple offsets the fall in\",\n \"-25.426125589190633\"\n ],\n [\n \"Aestivation Physiology Organisms that aestivate appear to be in a fairly \\\"light\\\" state of dormancy, as their physiological state can be rapidly reversed, and the organism can quickly return to a normal state. A study done on Otala lactea, a snail native to parts of Europe and Northern Africa, shows that they can wake from their dormant state within ten minutes of being introduced to a wetter environment.\\nThe primary physiological and biochemical concerns for an aestivating animal are to conserve energy, retain water in the body, ration the use of stored energy, handle the nitrogenous end products, and stabilize bodily\",\n \"-25.41789251624141\"\n ],\n [\n \"and autumn that will provide it with energy during the dormant period. During hibernation, the animal undergoes many physiological changes, including decreased heart rate (by as much as 95%) and decreased body temperature. In addition to shivering, some hibernating animals also produce body heat by non-shivering thermogenesis to avoid freezing. Non-shivering thermogenesis is a regulated process in which the proton gradient generated by electron transport in mitochondria is used to produce heat instead of ATP in brown adipose tissue. Animals that hibernate include bats, ground squirrels and other rodents, mouse lemurs, the European hedgehog and other insectivores, monotremes and\",\n \"-25.37746613298077\"\n ],\n [\n \"makes them homeothermic when active, and poikilothermic when at rest. This phenomenon has been termed 'daily torpor' and was intensively studied in the Djungarian hamster. During the hibernation season, this animal shows strongly reduced metabolism each day during the rest phase while it reverts to endothermic metabolism during its active phase, leading to normal euthermic body temperatures (around 38 °C).\\nLarger mammals (e.g. ground squirrels) and bats show multi-day torpor bouts during hibernation (up to several weeks) in winter. During these multi-day torpor bouts, body temperature drops to ~1 °C above ambient temperature and metabolism may drop to about 1% of the\",\n \"-25.294843114883406\"\n ],\n [\n \"images become blurred. Humans, like their primate relatives, do not possess a tapetum lucidum and therefore were predisposed to be a diurnal species.\\nDespite the fact that the resolution of human day vision is far superior to that of night vision, human night vision provides many advantages. Like many predatory animals humans can use their night vision to prey upon and ambush other animals without their awareness. Furthermore, in the event of an emergency situation occurring at night humans can increase their chances of survival if they are able to perceive their surroundings and get to safety. \",\n \"-25.265675819129683\"\n ],\n [\n \"essential regulator of biological timing in more natural settings\\\". Obesity and diabetes Obesity and diabetes are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignment of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light–dark cycle) might play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.\\nShift work or chronic jet lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in the body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes. In humans, shift work that favors irregular eating\",\n \"-25.255227462854236\"\n ],\n [\n \"unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection. In cold or barren countries no animals can live to the age of maturity, but those who have strong constitutions; the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities.\\n Sebright said females went to \\\"the most vigorous males\\\", and \\\"the strongest individuals of both sexes, by driving away the weakest, will enjoy the best food, and the most favourable positions, for themselves and their offspring.\\\" After reading the pamphlet, Darwin commented \\\"excellent observations of sickly offspring being cut off so that not propagated by nature. –\",\n \"-25.229013662261423\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nocturnal bottleneck The nocturnal bottleneck hypothesis is a hypothesis to explain several mammalian traits. In 1942, Gordon Lynn Walls described this concept which states that placental mammals were mainly or even exclusively nocturnal through most of their evolutionary story, starting with their origin 225 million years ago, and only ending with the demise of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. While some mammal groups have later evolved to fill diurnal niches, the approximately 160 million years spent as nocturnal animals has left a lasting legacy on basal anatomy and physiology, and most mammals are still nocturnal. Evolution of mammals Mammals\",\n \"-25.224126991815865\"\n ],\n [\n \"are primarily diurnal. Many species, however, fly at night, and then may be attracted to artificial lights. Mantises in the family Liturgusidae collected at night have been shown to be predominately males; this is probably true for most mantises. Nocturnal flight is especially important to males in locating less-mobile females by detecting their pheromones. Flying at night exposes mantises to fewer bird predators than diurnal flight would. Many mantises also have an auditory thoracic organ that helps them avoid bats by detecting their echolocation calls and responding evasively. Diet and predation Mantises are generalist predators of arthropods. The majority\",\n \"-25.21959722795873\"\n ],\n [\n \"species and subspecies are diurnal, hypothesized as a response to a lack of predators.\\nDiurnal taxa include a subspecies of the black-eared flying fox (Pteropus melanotus natalis), the Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger), the Caroline flying fox (Pteropus molossinus), a subspecies of Pteropus pelagicus (P. p. insularis), and the Seychelles fruit bat (Pteropus seychellensis). Roosting A 1992 summary of forty-one megabat genera noted that twenty-nine are tree-roosting genera. A further eleven genera roost in caves, and the remaining six genera roost in other kinds of sites (human structures, mines, and crevices, for example). Tree-roosting species can be solitary or highly colonial,\",\n \"-25.183813417796046\"\n ],\n [\n \"an estrous cycle, yet only ten primates species, four bats species, the elephant shrew, and the spiny mouse have a menstrual cycle. The relatedness of these groups suggests that four distinct evolutionary events have caused menstruation to arise.\\nRecent reviews suggest that menstruation itself is not an evolved, adaptive trait. Rather, it is an inherent consequence of spontaneous decidualization evolving as a derived trait from non-spontaneous decidualization. Spontaneous decidualization allows for more maternal control in the maternal-fetal conflict by increasing selectivity over the implanted embryo.\\nAll female placental mammals have a uterine lining that builds up when the animal is fertile, but\",\n \"-25.165118601871654\"\n ],\n [\n \"well.\\nThe only other mammal species known to hibernate within snow is the polar bear. Reproduction and life history Females are strongly philopatric, meaning that they likely stay in their natal ranges.\\nTherefore, females in a given area are closely related, influencing the social structure of colonies.\\nFemales give birth in the summer to an offspring called a pup.\\nPups are weaned in the summer, and some reach sexual maturity in their first autumn.\\nIt is a relatively short-lived species for a bat, with maximum age recorded as 4 and 4.5 years for males and females, respectively. Parasites and disease The Ussuri tube-nosed bat is\",\n \"-25.13501929186168\"\n ],\n [\n \"slept normally. This suggests that the sleep which follows deprivation is compensatorily deeper.\\nIn 2016, a study report the existence of REM- and NREM-like sleep stages in the Australian dragon Pogona vitticeps. Amphibians have periods of inactivity but show high vigilance (receptivity to potentially threatening stimuli) in this state. Birds There are significant similarities between sleep in birds and sleep in mammals, which is one of the reasons for the idea that sleep in higher animals with its division into REM and NREM sleep has evolved together with warm-bloodedness. Birds compensate for sleep loss in a manner similar to mammals, by\",\n \"-25.073135568614816\"\n ],\n [\n \"a nocturnal phase in which complex colour vision was lost. Being that these pro-mammals were nocturnal they increased their sensitivity in low luminescence settings and reduced their photopic system from tetrachromatic to dichromatic. The shift to a nocturnal lifestyle would demand more rod photoreceptors to absorb the blue light emitted by the moon during the night. It can be extrapolated that the high ratio of rods to cones present in modern human eyes was retained even after the shift from nocturnal back to diurnal.\\nIt is believed that the emergence of trichromacy in primates occurred approximately 55 million\",\n \"-25.024758457089774\"\n ],\n [\n \"these other species may even den together, as most of their relatives are nocturnal. Dens may be found anywhere sheltered from the elements: in crevices between rocks, in hollow logs, and the like. Reproduction A male's range will include the ranges of several females, and scent cues inform him when the female is in heat. The gestation period is believed to be 60 to 70 days, and most pregnancies result in one to three (usually two) young. The male does not help care for them. Unusually, for a solitary species, in the Kalahari the males are philopatric whereas the females\",\n \"-25.00919952034019\"\n ],\n [\n \"activity. The age-related decline in immune function is also related to decreasing vitamin D levels in the elderly. As people age, two things happen that negatively affect their vitamin D levels. First, they stay indoors more due to decreased activity levels. This means that they get less sun and therefore produce less cholecalciferol via UVB radiation. Second, as a person ages the skin becomes less adept at producing vitamin D. Sleep and rest The immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and sleep deprivation is detrimental to immune function. Complex feedback loops involving cytokines, such as interleukin-1 and tumor\",\n \"-24.978231509274337\"\n ],\n [\n \"issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. Species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to the change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. Many diurnal species see the benefit of a \\\"longer day\\\", allowing for a longer hunting period, which is detrminental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them. Orientation Light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are\",\n \"-24.97754786827136\"\n ],\n [\n \"the range can occur at nearly any time of night or day, with bears who dwell in areas with more extensive human contact being more likely to be fully nocturnal. Furthermore, yearling and newly independent bears are more likely to be active diurnally and many adult bears in low-disturbance areas are largely crepuscular. In summer through autumn, a brown bear can double its weight from the spring, gaining up to 180 kg (400 lb) of fat, on which it relies to make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic. Although they are not full hibernators and can be woken easily, both\",\n \"-24.954870521789417\"\n ],\n [\n \"animals being most active in the mornings and evenings while the young are active most of the day. Winter hibernation lasts for about six and a half to eight and a half months. The date of emergence depends on spring conditions and may vary by up to twenty five days. The diet consists of the green parts of plants, roots, bulbs, grass seed, cereals and other agricultural crops. Reproduction takes place in the summer with pregnancy lasting approximately 23 days and the brood size averaging seven to eight young. These grow rapidly and are fully grown in two and a\",\n \"-24.923985435183567\"\n ],\n [\n \"and they like to reside close to stony mountains and hills. In appearance and habits they closely resemble the unrelated rock hyrax of Africa (an example of convergent evolution). They usually shelter in crevices. They are reportedly seen at day and night, but are most active at dawn or dusk. Animals most active at this time are known as crepuscular. Behavior Studies show that there is a direct link between the retina and the mediodorsal nucleus, a large nucleus in the thalamus, which may provide the rock cavy with strong emotional learning, visual recognition, and object-reward association memory. This may\",\n \"-24.8709026107681\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 7 years or more in age are females, with males rarely surviving past 5 years of age. Reasons for higher mortality in males may include loss of weight during the breeding season due to the high energetic demands of defending a territory followed by energetically costly migration.\\nA variety of animals prey on hummingbirds given the opportunity. Due to their small size, hummingbirds are vulnerable even to passerine birds and other animals which generally feed on insects. On the other hand, only very swift predators can capture them and a free-flying adult hummingbird is too nimble for most predators. Chief\",\n \"-24.859712413162924\"\n ],\n [\n \"interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.\\nIn evolutionary terms, the ovulatory shift hypothesis posits that female humans exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their menstrual cycle, as a means to ensure that they attract a high quality mate to copulate with during their most fertile time. Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's overt behaviours, influencing the way a woman presents herself to others during stages of her menstrual cycle, in attempt to attract high quality mates the\",\n \"-24.846961489703972\"\n ],\n [\n \"summarized that the differences came from personal breaks and unproductive activities at the workplace. Another, larger study found that afternoon declines in productivity were greater during longer work shifts.\\nIt is important to note, however, that not all humans share identical circadian rhythms. One study across Italy and Spain had students fill out a questionnaire, then ranked them on a \\\"morningness–eveningness\\\" scale. The results were a fairly standard bell curve. Levels of alertness over the course of the day had a significant correlation with scores on the questionnaire. All categories of participants—evening types, morning types, and intermediate types—had high levels of\",\n \"-24.835442961659282\"\n ],\n [\n \"all diurnal herd animals and grazers preferring a grassland environment. In the Wilton Base Marker and overlying units, the faunal remains are primarily of nocturnal, non-herding animals that generally prefer a more vegetated environment. This change is thought to represent and correspond to a decrease in grassland and increase in scrub and brush that began in the terminal Pleistocene and continued into the Holocene. It is unknown whether this environmental change occurred as a result of human activity, but it is thought to be a natural occurrence that may have been reinforced by human activity.\\nThe principal conclusion of the “Prehistory\",\n \"-24.81277719134232\"\n ],\n [\n \"sun to warm their body or to provide comfort. It has been suggested that early mammals. which may have been small and nocturnal, may have basked to rapidly warm their bodies based on observations made on a nocturnal marsupial, Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis. Insects Many insects require the morning sun to come out of nocturnal torpor and become active. In the higher latitudes, many insects have black on their wings or body to enhance their heat acquisition. This trend for increased darkness in higher latitudes is especially well marked in the Lepidoptera although the trend may be more general and unrelated to\",\n \"-24.811861323658377\"\n ],\n [\n \"or migrate too early. The feeding behavior of insects, bats, sea turtles, fish, replies reflect alterations by artificial light. Sea turtles mistake the glow of electric lights for the shimmer of the ocean, leading them to flock outside of their nest into hazardous areas.\\nHuman circadian rhythm and sleep patterns:\\nExposure to light during traditional sleeping hours have are\\ndocumented to cause disruptions in the circadian rhythm that regulate human\\nsleep cycles. Biologists have noted a decrease in the amount of melatonin, a natural hormone that regulates the Circadian rhythm, in humans that are exposed to light pollution of the night sky. In order\",\n \"-24.7909070836904\"\n ],\n [\n \"study found evidence that genetics account for approximately half of the measurable differences in loneliness among adults, which was similar to the heritability estimates found previously in children. These genes operate in a similar manner in males and females. The study found no common environmental contributions to adult loneliness. Feeling lonely vs. being socially isolated There is a clear distinction between feeling lonely and being socially isolated (for example, a loner). In particular, one way of thinking about loneliness is as a discrepancy between one's necessary and achieved levels of social interaction, while solitude is simply the lack of contact\",\n \"-24.782300573140674\"\n ],\n [\n \"tropical and subtropical animals). Some animals (opportunistic breeders) breed dependent upon other conditions in their environment aside from time of year. Mammals Mating seasons are often associated with changes to herd or group structure, and behavioural changes, including territorialism amongst individuals. These may be annual (e.g. wolves), biannual (e.g. dogs) or more frequently (e.g. horses). During these periods, females of most mammalian species are more mentally and physically receptive to sexual advances, a period scientifically described as estrous but commonly described as being \\\"in season\\\" or \\\"in heat\\\". Sexual behaviour may occur outside estrus, and such acts as do\",\n \"-24.73919768354972\"\n ],\n [\n \"whether menstrual synchrony occurred in a semi-free-ranging population of mandrills of 10-group years. They reported that mandrills do not synchronize their menstrual cycles and concluded that cycle synchrony does not occur in non-human primates. Lions Oestrus synchrony has been reported of female lions living under natural conditions in the wild.\",\n \"-24.69564999535214\"\n ],\n [\n \"for example, which are sown in the fall and germinate before the frost, become dormant during the winter and actually require a few weeks of cold before they are able to flower. Animals Winter rest in an animal is different from true hibernation, since the metabolism is not reduced drastically. The body temperature is not significantly lowered, however the heart rate is reduced. This means that animals like the raccoon can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts. Other animals that winter rest are badgers and brown bears.\",\n \"-24.688975536380894\"\n ],\n [\n \"same, and some produce only blue or green light.\\nA reduction in exposure to sunlight during winter months and the shift in times or sunrise and sunset can affect a person's Circadian rhythm/internal clock, serotonin levels and melatonin levels. Symptoms of SAD may be more pronounced in women (75% of SAD cases), in younger adults (18-30), those with depression or a family history of depression, and it also more common in those who live more than 30 degrees north or south of the equator. Independent verification The non-profit Lighting Research Center, a group of utility companies, experts and government agencies,\",\n \"-24.68877041435917\"\n ],\n [\n \"when they are in a good mood on a sunny day rather than in a bad mood on a rainy day. However, if the interviewer mentions the weather before they ask the life satisfaction question, this mood effect disappears because people accurately attribute their current mood to the weather rather than their life satisfaction.\\nIn other work from the feelings-as-information perspective, Schwarz suggests that metacognitive experiences, such as the feeling of ease or difficulty in recalling or processing information, can exert significant influence on judgments. In other words, people tend to make judgments based on this interpretation of their subjective feelings\",\n \"-24.631089231348597\"\n ],\n [\n \"the dark. Water conservation Another reason for nocturnality is avoiding the heat of the day. This is especially true in arid biomes like deserts, where nocturnal behavior prevents creatures from losing precious water during the hot, dry daytime. This is an adaptation that enhances osmoregulation. One of the reasons that (cathemeral) lions prefer to hunt at night is to conserve water.\\nMany plant species native to arid biomes have adapted so that their flowers only open at night when the sun's intense heat cannot wither and destroy their moist, delicate blossoms. These flowers are pollinated by bats, another creature of the\",\n \"-24.58098310721107\"\n ],\n [\n \"marsupials. Although hibernation is almost exclusively seen in mammals, some birds, such as the common poorwill, may hibernate. Diapause Diapause is a predictive strategy that is predetermined by an animal's genotype. Diapause is common in insects, allowing them to suspend development between autumn and spring, and in mammals such as the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, the only ungulate with embryonic diapause), in which a delay in attachment of the embryo to the uterine lining ensures that offspring are born in spring, when conditions are most favorable. Aestivation Aestivation, also spelled estivation, is an example of consequential dormancy in\",\n \"-24.579631249245722\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be less active overall. Females' home ranges are also smaller than those of males. Males had a mean annual home range of 113 ha (280 acres), and females of 72 ha (180 acres). While males have larger home ranges in all seasons, the differences between males' and females' territories are most significant during the winter. Their home ranges are slightly larger during the spring because they are more active, not only nocturnally, but in seeking a mate. Because of their increased activity, they require more energy and are more active to acquire the necessary sustenance.\\nBoth male and females scent mark in\",\n \"-24.574874020530842\"\n ],\n [\n \"humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun. For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotle's Meteorology (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion. Origin of humankind Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life, and that humans came from other animals in waters. He claimed that animals sprang out of the sea long ago, born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and animals would be able to break it. As\",\n \"-24.559664855943993\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":281,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3bbrik"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is the purpose of the mesh lining inside swim trunks?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Originally the mesh was used as a lightweight barrier to block men's wee-wee's from direct contract from the fabric of the actual boardshorts. When the cloth got wet it got heavier and would cause your sensitive bits to chafe and that's very uncomfortable. More and more companies are starting to make boardshorts without the mesh now, however. They are able to do this because of the inventions of micro-fibers and quick drying technology. There's also a new stitch pattern called \"flat-lock\" stitching which is a non-abrasive stitch used a lot now in active wear clothing. You'll see it a lot in Nike and Under Armour. Source: Worked for both Under Armour and Hurley for several years. EDIT: The underwear underneath the boardshorts seems to have some mixed opinions from what I've read. I personally wear Hurley Phantom boardshorts without any underwear on and there is no chaffing issue. The only downside that I PERSONALLY see about wearing underwear underneath is that it takes longer for you to dry completely. I don't believe only douches wear underwear and I don't think it's a weird decision. It's all about comfort.","When I was a kid I went to a swimming pool with my big cousin. He trusted a fart and the mesh lining acted as a shit sieve trapping the larger particles of the rapidly expanding crumb cloud that was emanating from him in the water. For years after I believed that this was the reason for the mesh.","When you jump into a pool, waterski, or engage in a number of other aquatic activities, your swim trunks have a tendency to ride up your thighs, creating the potential for your junk to flop out. The mesh lining is there to act as underwear so that the junk flop doesn't happen.","So far no one has given you the correct answer. Yes, it is true that swim suits use a double lining for modesty but the reason they use mesh is for one reason and one reason only. SAND Playing in the surf and on the beach will collect sand in your shorts. But, with mesh the sand will fall away. No longer will you leave piles of sand where ever you change at. Also, now you can spray off at the beach without having to take your shorts off since you can simply spray out what sand remains in your shorts while standing under the shower/hose with your shorts still on. I live on a boat most the year and in our \"guide to guests\" we recommend they buy swimwear with mesh just to keep sand from being tracked all over the boat. (That and spray off on the stern deck and take off their sand filled shoes.) EDIT: This is also why beach bags, scuba bags, snorkel bags are often made of mesh. ...to allow the sand to fall out.","It acts like underwear, serving the same purpose. But it's a mesh, and usually similar material as the swim trunks so that it doesn't absorb water like regular cotton underwear would do.","OK everyone is picking one thing and saying that's why buy it's a few things. Swim trunks used to chafe but it's not as much of an issue now with all of the fancy weaves and fabrics. If you're wearing short trunks, you don't want you balls hanging out one of the sides now do you? When they get wet, then you get out of the pool, there's a decent chance your trunks have just shrink wrapped your junk and are displaying it to the world.","What I want to know is, why the fuck don't they have drawstrings around the entire waistband anymore? That is annoying as fuck.","I always thought it was built in underwear. On a side not, most inner mesh was kind of a net design, but I had a pair when I was young, very shiny blue pair that had a silk like lining on the inside, I used to love those trunks, so comfortable.","So you could maintain junk control without the underwear being weighed down by water. The mesh lets the water move in and out of the shorts freely.","I always thought it was too keep your junk from falling out the leg of the shorts. And when I buy trunks without the mesh I wear the man equivalent of spanks to make sure I have no unintended junk lookers.","I always assumed it acted like a jock strap when you were being active while swimming, playing volleyball, or in a training montage with Apollo Creed. Keeping the boys from flapping around all willy nilly."],"string":"[\n \"Originally the mesh was used as a lightweight barrier to block men's wee-wee's from direct contract from the fabric of the actual boardshorts. When the cloth got wet it got heavier and would cause your sensitive bits to chafe and that's very uncomfortable. More and more companies are starting to make boardshorts without the mesh now, however. They are able to do this because of the inventions of micro-fibers and quick drying technology. There's also a new stitch pattern called \\\"flat-lock\\\" stitching which is a non-abrasive stitch used a lot now in active wear clothing. You'll see it a lot in Nike and Under Armour. Source: Worked for both Under Armour and Hurley for several years. EDIT: The underwear underneath the boardshorts seems to have some mixed opinions from what I've read. I personally wear Hurley Phantom boardshorts without any underwear on and there is no chaffing issue. The only downside that I PERSONALLY see about wearing underwear underneath is that it takes longer for you to dry completely. I don't believe only douches wear underwear and I don't think it's a weird decision. It's all about comfort.\",\n \"When I was a kid I went to a swimming pool with my big cousin. He trusted a fart and the mesh lining acted as a shit sieve trapping the larger particles of the rapidly expanding crumb cloud that was emanating from him in the water. For years after I believed that this was the reason for the mesh.\",\n \"When you jump into a pool, waterski, or engage in a number of other aquatic activities, your swim trunks have a tendency to ride up your thighs, creating the potential for your junk to flop out. The mesh lining is there to act as underwear so that the junk flop doesn't happen.\",\n \"So far no one has given you the correct answer. Yes, it is true that swim suits use a double lining for modesty but the reason they use mesh is for one reason and one reason only. SAND Playing in the surf and on the beach will collect sand in your shorts. But, with mesh the sand will fall away. No longer will you leave piles of sand where ever you change at. Also, now you can spray off at the beach without having to take your shorts off since you can simply spray out what sand remains in your shorts while standing under the shower/hose with your shorts still on. I live on a boat most the year and in our \\\"guide to guests\\\" we recommend they buy swimwear with mesh just to keep sand from being tracked all over the boat. (That and spray off on the stern deck and take off their sand filled shoes.) EDIT: This is also why beach bags, scuba bags, snorkel bags are often made of mesh. ...to allow the sand to fall out.\",\n \"It acts like underwear, serving the same purpose. But it's a mesh, and usually similar material as the swim trunks so that it doesn't absorb water like regular cotton underwear would do.\",\n \"OK everyone is picking one thing and saying that's why buy it's a few things. Swim trunks used to chafe but it's not as much of an issue now with all of the fancy weaves and fabrics. If you're wearing short trunks, you don't want you balls hanging out one of the sides now do you? When they get wet, then you get out of the pool, there's a decent chance your trunks have just shrink wrapped your junk and are displaying it to the world.\",\n \"What I want to know is, why the fuck don't they have drawstrings around the entire waistband anymore? That is annoying as fuck.\",\n \"I always thought it was built in underwear. On a side not, most inner mesh was kind of a net design, but I had a pair when I was young, very shiny blue pair that had a silk like lining on the inside, I used to love those trunks, so comfortable.\",\n \"So you could maintain junk control without the underwear being weighed down by water. The mesh lets the water move in and out of the shorts freely.\",\n \"I always thought it was too keep your junk from falling out the leg of the shorts. And when I buy trunks without the mesh I wear the man equivalent of spanks to make sure I have no unintended junk lookers.\",\n \"I always assumed it acted like a jock strap when you were being active while swimming, playing volleyball, or in a training montage with Apollo Creed. Keeping the boys from flapping around all willy nilly.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["MeshBox MeshBox is an item of computer hardware which is used to provide large scale wireless broadband networks. Manufactured by LocustWorld, the devices are designed to co-operate with other MeshBoxes within range, passing the internet service from one box to the next, over the air, until it reaches the final destination. The coverage area of a mesh is typically measured in square miles or square kilometres.\nOriginally released as a bootable CD-ROM called MeshAP based on the OpenAP open source software, the system is now implemented as system image which can fit within a small 32MB CompactFlash card. The system functions","-31.904231439461"],["is accomplished by use of solid barriers such as copper tubes, and water-repellent jelly or water-absorbing powder surrounding the fiber.\nFinally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental hazards, such as construction work or gnawing animals. Undersea cables are more heavily armored in their near-shore portions to protect them from boat anchors, fishing gear, and even sharks, which may be attracted to the electrical power that is carried to power amplifiers or repeaters in the cable.\nModern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications such as direct burial in trenches, dual use as","-31.48380826850189"],["the heat generated by the diver. More insulation is needed for colder conditions and for less energetic diving activity.\nThe principle of layering can be used to provide a wider range of insulation possibilities from a relatively small range of underwear items, however this can only be done before entering the water. Most dry suit underwear insulates by a trapped layer of air in the garment, and this is largely lost if the air is replaced by water in a flooded suit, so as a general rule, insulation is proportional to the combined thickness of the undergarments. The layering principle shows","-31.013004092950723"],["million rectangular mesh openings.\nThe net is usually built underneath a rock where a current of water flows through it. The downstream end of the net is free to move and has an opening to permit a respiratory current to flow through, and groups of nets are often built besides each other. The larva moves about inside the net and feeds on the fine organic matter and diatoms that get caught in the mesh structure. Much of its time is spent scraping this deposit off the net with specialised mouthparts.","-30.83313438037294"],["often used for fishing and trapping. Structural properties Nets, like fabric, stretch less along their constituent strands (the \"bars\" between knots) than diagonally across the gaps in the mesh. They are, so to speak, made on the bias. The choice of material used also affects the structural properties of the net. Nets are designed and constructed for their specific purpose by modifying the parameters of the weave and the material used. Safety nets, for example, must decelerate the person hitting them gradually, usually by having a concave-upwards stress–strain curve, where the amount of force required to stretch the net increases","-30.510247114114463"],["Shared mesh A shared mesh (also known as 'traditional' or 'best effort' mesh) is a wireless mesh network that uses a single radio to communicate via mesh backhaul links to all the neighboring nodes in the mesh. This is a first generation mesh where the total available bandwidth of the radio channel is ‘shared’ between all the neighboring nodes in the mesh. The capacity of the channel is further consumed by traffic being forwarded from one node to the next in the mesh – reducing the end to end traffic that can be passed. Because bandwidth","-30.325264571001753"],["fabric. If two layers of fabric are used, stitched channels can be formed which enclose the tubing between the two fabric layers. Where flame resistance is needed, the garment may be constructed out of materials such as nomex.\nThe tubing is typically a few millimeters in diameter, and may be made out of any number of flexible plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or silicone. Smaller diameter tubing permits a higher degree of garment flexibility, but at a cost of lower heat absorption capacity, and increased pressure needed to push liquid through the tubing.\nWhen a large area needs to be","-30.093211769883055"],["the surface and catch the cable. If the cable is on a rocky sea surface, the grapple is more flexible, with hooks along its length so that it can adjust to the changing surface. In especially deep water, the cable may not be strong enough to lift as a single unit, so a special grapple that cuts the cable soon after it has been hooked is used and only one length of cable is brought to the surface at a time, whereupon a new section is spliced in. The repaired cable is longer than the original, so the excess is","-30.029801242868416"],["winding handle to help keep slack line under control and rewind line. Lines are used in open water to deploy surface marker buoys and decompression buoys and link the buoy on the surface to the submerged diver, or may be used to allow easy return navigation to a point such as a shotline or boat anchor.\nThe material used for any given distance line will vary based on intended use, nylon being the material of choice for cave diving. A common line used is 2 mm (0.08 inch) polypropylene line when it does not matter if the line is buoyant.\nThe use of guideline","-29.645950942125637"],["as much as it defines curves by applying a grid close to the body it generally accentuates the wearer's muscular definition.\nA more practical use of fishnet textiles is in high performance next-to-skin apparel used in cold weather outdoor sports, including hiking, hunting, fishing, skiing, and mountaineering. In this context, fishnet is usually knitted from fibers of polypropylene, merino wool, or nylon, and offers a number of benefits over traditional densely knitted base layer apparel. These benefits are related to the presence of large void spaces in the fishnet fabric structure that trap insulating air for warmth in cool conditions, and","-29.45505299398792"],["Wireless mesh network A wireless mesh network (WMN) is a communications network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. It is also a form of wireless ad hoc network.\nA mesh refers to rich interconnection among devices or nodes. Wireless mesh networks often consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and gateways. Mobility of nodes is less frequent. If nodes constantly or frequently move, the mesh spends more time updating routes than delivering data. In a wireless mesh network, topology tends to be more static, so that routes\ncomputation can converge and delivery of data to their destinations can occur.","-29.383876665087882"],["suit. This high-technology swimwear is designed to minimize drag while maximizing support to muscles. Some companies claim that their fabrics reduce drag even more than the water's normal friction against the skin. To do this, they design high-end lines of competitive swimwear that cover the arms and legs. The fabric used for high-technology swimwear is light and water-repellent. The material is often composed of highly stretchy spandex and nylon. High-technology swimwear is often made using bonded seams, to reduce further drag. These suits also provide the compression necessary to increase performance. Regulation After the 2008 Olympic Games, the International Swimming","-29.378249205998145"],["still be lightweight and compactable. Fisherman use netting when trawling, because it is sturdy enough to carry large amounts of weight as fish are trapped, pulled, then lifted out of water. Oftentimes, the filaments that make up the yarn are coated with wax or plastic. This coating adds a waterproof component to the textile that provides even more reliability.\nNet is also used in medical practices to provide fabric insulation and wrapping under an industry standard sling. In the medical practice, netting provides cushion and protection, when used in layers, but still allows the skin to breathe under the fabric. ","-29.3412905264413"],["mesh is woven tightly enough to stop insects from entering but loosely enough to not interfere with ventilation. The frame is usually self-supporting or freestanding although it can be designed to be attached from the top to an alternative support such as tree limbs. Usage Mosquito nets are often used where malaria or other insect-borne diseases are common, especially as a tent-like covering over a bed. For effectiveness, it is important that the netting not have holes or gaps large enough to allow insects to enter. It is also important to 'seal' the net properly because mosquitoes are able to","-29.237267754157074"],["simultaneously, but they are required to use different combinations of upstream and downstream channels as instructed by the headend. Wireless mesh networks Mesh networks are used to extend coverage (to cover entire homes) and for ad-hoc networking (emergency communication). Wireless mesh networks use a mesh topology to provide the desired coverage. The data travels from one node to another until it reaches its destination. In mesh networks using a single frequency, the data is typically store-and-forwarded, with each hop adding a delay. SIC can enable wireless mesh nodes to reuse frequencies so that the data is retransmitted (relayed) as it","-29.224313190788962"],["form that has holes small enough for moisture to escape, but not allow liquid water to intrude. This material is trade named Gore-Tex. Layering Best practice indicates that for extreme conditions, clothing should be layered and loose. Near the core of the body, a soft, wicking layer is best. Wool or silk underwear is preferred. Then, by preference, a knitted layer of wool or synthetic fleece. A massive insulating layer and a windproof layer complete the ensemble. Inner layer Underwear, inner socks, and glove liners are typically thin soft knits of silk, wool, or synthetic. First insulating layer Typically knit","-29.2130029827822"],["fishing and shipping – the main causes of cable damage – are small. Accordingly, a typical cable is a 17-22mm diameter tube, the size of a domestic garden hose. It is composed of optical glass fibres, a copper power conductor and steel wires to add strength, all of which are encased in chemically inert, marine-grade polyethylene. Antifouling agents are not used. Furthermore, the amount of power in a cable is small being around 0.6 to 1 ampere, which is less than a laptop computer. Deep-ocean cables are laid on the seabed surface with minimal disturbance to the benthic environment.\nLaying is","-29.08991188276559"],["the further the net is stretched. Transport Examples include cargo nets and net bags. Some vegetables, like onions, are often shipped in nets. Sports Nets are used in sporting goals and in games such as soccer, basketball, bossaball and ice hockey. A net separates opponents in various net sports such as volleyball, tennis, badminton, and table tennis, where the ball or shuttlecock must go over the net to remain in play. Capturing animals Nets for capturing animals include fishing nets, butterfly nets, cricket nets, bird netting, and trapping nets such as purse and long nets. Some, like mist nets, rocket","-28.97068357106764"],["optimal mesh netting is made from stainless steel filaments the size of three to four human hairs and with holes that are twice as big as the filament. The netting is coated in a chemical that decreases water droplet's contact angle hysteria, which allows for more small droplets to form. This type of netting can capture 10% of the moisture in the air.\nBelow the mesh netting of a fog fence, there is a small trough for the water to be collected in. The water runs from the trough to some type of storage container or irrigation system for use. If","-28.9293190305616"],["cable guides, and clipping or stapling them to walls are other common methods of keeping them organized. Above drop ceilings, hooks or trays are used to organize cables and protect them from electrical interference\nPlanning is especially crucial for cables such as Thicknet that do not bend around corners easily and fiber optic which is very difficult to splice once cut. Cable strain relief Cable strain relief is a mechanical protection for flexible electrical cables, wires, conduits and pneumatic hoses. It is regulated by the European standard EN 62444 (formerly EN 50262.).\nWith a strain relief component, the connection between a flexible","-28.9028506691684"],["High-technology swimwear fabric High-technology swimwear are scientifically advanced materials used for swimwear in competitive water sports such as swimming and triathlon. Materials of this type are normally spandex and nylon composite fabrics with features to reduce drag against the water. The fabrics include features that increase the swimmer's glide through water and reduce the absorption of water by the suit as opposed to regular swimsuits. Purpose and Design High-technology swimwear is designed to reduce drag and improve swimming performance. Speedo claims that their LZR Racer reduced drag or water resistance by 38% compared to a traditional Lycra practice swim","-28.801743840333074"],["NYC Mesh Technology Like many other free community-driven networks, NYC Mesh uses mesh technology to facilitate robustness and resiliency. Additionally, between larger nodes, the project uses the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Nodes are connected via WiFi links similar to those used by wireless routers in homes, but with more powerful routers that are able to function as a backbone, making connections at distances up to a mile. History NYC Mesh was founded in 2012 and was originally based on the Cjdns protocol. \nIn 2015 the project received a grant from ISOC-NY, the New York chapter of the Internet Society.\nNYC Mesh","-28.788702984078554"],["cable gland or fitting that connects a flexible electrical conduit to an enclosure, machine or bulkhead facilitates assembly and prevents liquid or gas ingress. Boats On a boat having an inboard motor that turns a shaft attached to an external propeller, the shaft passes though a stuffing box, also called a \"packing box\" or \"stern gland\" in this application. The stuffing box prevents sea water from entering the boat's hull. In many small fiberglass boats, for example, the stuffing box is mounted inboard near the point the shaft exits the hull. The \"box\" is a cylindrical assembly, typically of bronze,","-28.717060124967247"],["Plankton net Components Towing line and bridles\nThe towing line and bridle is the upper part of a plankton net and used to hold it. The towing lines connected to the triangle bridles are made of nylon rope and can be adjust to a level suitable for the user.\nNylon mesh net \nThe nylon mesh net is the middle part of the plankton net and is used to filter the plankton in the water sample in accordance with the size of the mesh. In addition, its funnel shape makes it possible to effectively capture plankton of various sizes. There are various mesh","-28.706033605747507"],["Strip-built Strip-built, or \"strip-plank epoxy\", is a method of boat building. Also known as cold moulding, the strip-built method is commonly used for canoes and kayaks, but also suitable for larger boats. The process involves securing narrow, flexible strips of wood edge-to-edge around temporary formers. The strips are glued edge-to-edge with epoxy. It is effectively a modern form of carvel which need no caulking and which is both stiffer and more watertight. In a small boat, there will be just one layer of strip-planking, but larger vessels may have two or three layers which, (being a pre-shaped marine ply), forms","-28.679175206911168"],["of the seams are carefully sealed. It is very difficult to locate and repair leaks in the waterproofing system after the building is completed.\nSeveral layers are used for waterproofing in earth shelter construction. The first layer is meant to seal any cracks or pores in the structural materials, also working as an adhesive for the waterproof membrane. The membrane layer is often a thick flexible polyethylene sheeting called EPDM. EPDM is the material usually used in a water garden, pond and swimming pool construction. This material also prevents roots from burrowing through the waterproofing. EPDM","-28.644819862383883"],["Swim ring Structure A swim ring consists of two identically-sized layers of flat plastic, one of which contains a valve. The shape of each layer is like a large circle with a smaller, concentric circle removed. The two layers are joined at their inner and outer edges, sealing an air chamber inside.\nSwim rings (also called \"swimming rings\", \"swimrings\", \"inner tubes\", \"innertubes\", \"rubber rings\" or \"floaty/floaties\") are inflated with air and worn around the user's torso, usually just under the arms or sat upon, to hold the user above the water. They come in a variety of sizes to fit children","-28.62016399257118"],["Cable compound Cable compounds are materials used to prevent the ingress of moisture into telecommunication and power transmission cables. The exact nature of the compound varies depending upon the type of cable in which they are used, but generally they are either soft waxy compounds (for use in copper-wire telecom cables), soft thixotropic gels with a consistency similar to that of hair gel (for use in optical fibre cables), or resin/polymer thickened oils (for use in paper insulated energy cables).\nCable compounds are formulated and manufactured to have very good electrical resistance properties to ensure good functioning of the filled","-28.61905154908891"],["area, or at least delaying the frogmen while they cut through it.\nIt was made by an Israeli company, RBtec Perimeter Security Systems. It is a netting constructed of copper or fiber optic cable, covered in polyethylene electrical insulation. The strands are a sensor cable sensitive to cutting or shape bending so that any frogman attack on the net will be detected. The grid size best suited to deter divers is 250 x 250 mm = 10 x 10 inches but can be modified to any size needed. Testing showed that a diver using bolt cutters could not cut a hole big","-28.61095824977383"],["\nWhen a hole is ripped in a net, there are fewer holes in it than before the net was ripped. However, the stress concentration at the edges of the hole often causes it to tear further, making timely repairs important. Mending nets by hand is still an important skill for those who work with them. Materials Nets may be made using almost any sort of fiber. Traditional net materials varied with what was locally available; early European fishing nets were often made of linen, for instance. Longer-lasting synthetics are now fairly universal. Nylon monofilament nets are transparent, and are therefore","-28.53164189273957"],["between the wire is stuffed with straw, which acts as a wick to help sop up excess urine, preventing the likelihood of odour problems due to incomplete biological absorption of the nitrogen from the urine. The straw-filled wire also enables the pile to be well-aerated whilst acting as a visual screen for the first year’s use.\nThe structure is surrounded by two closely planted rows of osier or biomass willow cuttings; this living wall of willow can then be woven into a hurdle-like structure and its annual growth can be harvested.","-28.399067847552942"],["at any point along its length.\"\nFrom their outset cable protection systems were designed to be simple, effective, and easy to assemble. The systems consisted of a series of half shells which had a convex flange at one end and a larger socket flange at the other allowing the sections to form a flexible universal joint connection between them. Due to the intended use of heavy cast or forged metals they also had the added advantage of increasing the weight of the cable being installed, thus reducing movement on the seabed.\nOver the years innovations have occurred improving the articulation of the","-28.226872794388328"],["ground. They have rope supports connected at the top and staked into the ground to provide stability.\nThe mesh netting is where the condensation of water droplets appear. It consists of filaments knitted together with small openings, coated with a chemical to increase condensation. Shade Cloth is used for mesh structure because it can be locally sourced in underdeveloped countries. The filaments are coated to be hydrophilic and hydrophobic, which attracts and repels water to increase the condensation. This can retrieve 2% of moisture in the air. Efficiency increases as the size of the filaments and the holes decrease. The most","-28.164542195387185"],["Trench shield Trench shields (also called Trench Boxes or Trench Sheets) are steel or aluminum structures used for protecting utility workers while performing their duties within a trench and avoid cave-ins. They are customarily constructed with sidewalls of varying thicknesses held apart by steel or aluminum spreaders. Spreaders can be interchanged to match the width of the trench. The different materials and building designs lead to a variety of depth ratings, i.e. the depth of a trench that the shield can withstand a collapse without buckling. Depth ratings are determined by registered professional engineers.\nA shield","-28.162801841739565"],["Net (device) Definition A net, in its primary meaning, comprises fibers knotted and twisted into a grid-like structure which blocks the passage of large items, while letting small items and fluids pass. It requires less material than something sheet-like, and provides a degree of transparency, as well as flexibility and lightness. History The oldest nets found are from the Mesolithic era, but nets may have existed in the Upper paleolithic era. Nets are typically made of perishable materials and leave little archeological record. Some nets are preserved in ice or bogs, and there are also clay impressions of nets. Making","-28.14060567985871"],["Optical mesh network An optical mesh network is a type of optical telecommunications network employing wired fiber-optic communication or wireless free-space optical communication in a mesh network architecture.\nMost optical mesh networks use fiber-optic communication and are operated by internet service providers in metropolitan and regional but also national and international scenarios. They are faster and less error prone than other network architectures and support backup and recovery plans for established networks in case of any disaster, damage or failure. Currently planned satellite constellations aim to establish optical mesh networks in space by using wireless laser communication. History of transport networks","-28.125766450582887"],["frames with each other to forward to/from a gateway point.\nSince a mesh requires no costly cable constructions for its backhaul network, it reduces total investment cost. Mesh technology’s capabilities can boost extending coverage of service areas easily and flexibly.\nFor further cost reduction, a large-scale high-capacity mesh is desirable. For instance, Kyushu University's Mimo-Mesh Project, based in Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan, has developed and put into use new technology for building high capacity mesh infrastructure. A key component is called IPT, intermittent periodic transmit, a proprietary packet-forwarding scheme that is designed to reduce radio interference in the forwarding path","-28.08864964323584"],["a base layer. A secondary headbox is normally located at a point where the base sheet is completely drained. This is not considered a separate ply because the water action does a good job of intermixing the fibers of the top and bottom layer. Secondary headboxes are common on linerboard.\nA modification to the basic fourdrinier table by adding a second wire on top of the drainage table is known as a top wire former. The bottom and top wires converge and some drainage is up through the top wire. A top wire improves formation and","-27.995288751204498"],["Filled cable In telecommunication, a filled cable is a cable that has a non-hygroscopic material, usually a gel called icky-pick, inside the jacket or sheath.\nThe nonhygroscopic material fills the spaces between the interior parts of the cable, preventing moisture from entering minor leaks in the sheath and migrating inside the cable.\nA metallic cable, such as a coaxial cable or a metal waveguide, filled with a dielectric material, is not considered as a filled cable.","-27.962047163193347"],["Fishnet In the field of textiles, fishnet is hosiery with an open, diamond-shaped knit; it is most often used as a material for stockings, tights, or bodystockings. Fishnet is available in a multitude of colors, although it is most often sported in traditional matte black. Fishnet is commonly worn on the legs and arms by practitioners of goth and punk fashion, but is also commonly worn by the mainstream as a fashion statement. Generally considered to be a sexy garment, it may serve as a component of sexual fetishism. Fishnets are used mostly as a type of undergarment, and in","-27.842811183596496"],["on the rope have the potential to be torn off the rope during storms as water flow increases significantly, or grow away from the rope and form an unmarketable, low value, characteristic doughnut shaped sponge. Differences in sponge growth and health do occur within species characterised by variations in regenerative ability, susceptibility to infection after cutting, hardiness and growth potential. Mesh bag method Lower levels of damage in some species of sponges cultured via mesh bags can lead to higher levels of survival. Growth rates may be decreased as mesh strands on the bags may decrease water flow, limiting food","-27.834201991616283"],["Inner tube water polo Inner tube water polo (ITWP) is a variation of the sport water polo with the important difference that players, excluding the goalkeeper, are required to float in inflatable inner tubes. By floating in an inner tube, players experience less contact and expend less energy than traditional water polo players, not having to tread water. This allows casual players to enjoy water polo without undertaking the intense conditioning required for conventional water polo.\nThis sport is predominantly played at universities by intramural coed teams, but can also be found in recreational adult leagues. The sport's rules","-27.794090108538512"],["width of more than approximately 2 km, those in charge of construction should consider laying an underwater cable as the more practicable solution.\nAlternatively, it might be possible to erect one or more pylons in the water to be crossed. Such crossings can be seen occasionally in North America. They are, however, only used when it is more economical and practical to do so than to lay a cable underwater, such as when the water is not very deep and no large passage heights are needed for vessels. Also, such construction can be very problematic as far as getting legal permission to","-27.770286252489313"],["Cable grommet A cable grommet is a tube or ring through which an electrical cable passes. They are usually made of rubber or metal.\nThe grommet is usually inserted in holes in certain materials in order to protect, improve friction or seal cables passing through it, from a possible mechanical or chemical attack. Grommets used as wire managers for furniture A grommet can be used in furniture to protect wires, cables or cords for computer equipment or other electronic equipment in homes or offices. At the same time, they are used decoratively to embellish the furniture and can be bought in","-27.76081280570361"],["also braided fishing lines, cofilament and thermally fused lines, also known as 'superlines' for their small diameter, lack of stretch, and great strength relative to standard nylon monofilament lines. Braided, thermally fused, and chemically fused varieties of 'superlines' are now readily available. Specialty lines Fly lines consist of a tough braided or monofilament core, wrapped in a thick waterproof plastic sheath, often of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In the case of floating fly lines, the PVC sheath is usually embedded with many 'microballoons' or air bubbles, and may also be impregnated with silicone or other lubricants to give buoyancy and reduce","-27.741565215255832"],["Trunking is closely related to the concept of grading. Trunking allows a group of inlet switches at the same time. Thus the service provider can provide a lesser number of circuits than might otherwise be required, allowing many users to \"share\" a smaller number of connections and achieve capacity savings. Link aggregation In computer networking, port trunking is the use of multiple concurrent network connections to aggregate the link speed of each participating port and cable, also called link aggregation. Such high-bandwidth link groups may be used to interconnect switches or to connect high-performance servers to a network. VLAN In","-27.730585485962365"],["breathing and reduce drag underwater snorkels are often short with a wide bore and may include a drain valve. The published rules mandate that they must not be rigid or have any sharp edges or points.\nThe snorkel may accommodate an external mouthguard which may be worn in conjunction with, or instead of, an internal mouthguard. Fins Fins allow the player to swim faster through the water. A wide variety of fins are used in the sport, but large plastic/rubber composite fins or smaller, stiffer fibreglass or carbon fibre fins are commonplace at competitions. As with any of the equipment, the","-27.69401949249732"],["the cabling between nodes. It is built of peer radio devices that do not have to be cabled to a wired port like traditional WLAN access points (AP) do. Mesh infrastructure carries data over large distances by splitting the distance into a series of short hops. Intermediate nodes not only boost the signal, but cooperatively pass data from point A to point B by making forwarding decisions based on their knowledge of the network, i.e. perform routing by first deriving the topology of the network.\nWireless mesh networks is a relatively \"stable-topology\" network except for the occasional failure of nodes or","-27.688676823832793"],["spaces, and when the objective of the dive includes penetration of enclosed spaces, taking precautions such as the use of lights and guidelines, for which specialised training is provided in the standard procedures. The most common form of physical entrapment is getting snagged on ropes, lines or nets, and use of a cutting implement is the standard method of dealing with the problem. The risk of entanglement can be reduced by careful configuration of equipment to minimise those parts which can easily be snagged, and allow easier disentanglement. Other forms of entrapment such as getting wedged into tight spaces can","-27.684916793135926"],["Media meshing Media meshing is the process of using one of the media, such as a blog or a website, to enhance the experience of another medium, such as a newspaper article or a fictional television program. \"Meshing\" may describe activities and motivations of an information receiver which are completely independent of the intentions of the source of that information. \"Meshing\" may also be used to describe the activities of an information provider, who may intentionally encourage consumer engagement by using multiple media or channels of information exchange related to a product or organization, as in an integrated advertising campaign.","-27.681039961287752"],["and other uses of the seabed in the area considered. This task begins with a fact-finding exercise, which is a standard desk study that includes a survey of geological maps, bathymetry, fishing charts, aerial and satellite photography, as well as information from navigation authorities. Submarine pipeline characteristics Submarine pipelines generally vary in diameter from 3 inches (76 mm) for gas lines, to 72 inches (1,800 mm) for high capacity lines. Wall thicknesses typically range from 10 millimetres (0.39 in) to 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The pipe can be designed for fluids at high temperature and pressure. The walls are made from high-yield strength steel,","-27.638166638367693"],["in a cable form factor, also are used as part of high-security fencing. They can be embedded in walls or other structures that need protection. Indicating loops for detecting submarines One of the first means for detecting submerged submarines, first installed by the Royal Navy in 1914, was the effect of their passage over an anti-submarine indicator loop on the bottom of a body of water. A metal object passing over it, such as a submarine, will, even if degaussed, have enough magnetic properties to induce a current in the loop's cable. . In this case, the motion of the","-27.63671948420233"],["Pantyhose Terminology The term \"pantyhose\" originated in the United States and refers to the combination of panties (an American English term) with sheer nylon hosiery. In British English, these garments are called \"sheer tights\". The term tights alone refers to all such garments regardless of whether they are sheer lingerie or sturdy outerwear.\nIn American English, the term \"tights\" typically refers to pantyhose-like garments made from thicker material, which are generally opaque or slightly translucent. Opaque leg wear made of material such as spandex are often worn by both sexes for athletic activities or as utility clothing, and are usually referred","-27.635041157889646"],["thick, underneath a layer of earth 15 to 30 cm thick, makes for an adequate lining system. Typically, porous soils are removed before compacted clay is applied to the bed and sides of a canal.\nAnother simple method of canal lining with soils entails applying a layer of compacted silt on top of the subgrade of the canal. The use of soils as canal linings is efficient for controlling seepage, but not effective against weed growth. Plastic membrane Plastic linings are often referred to as geomembranes or flexible membrane linings. Plastic linings are often covered with soil, rocks, brick, concrete or other","-27.588808108630474"],["Net (textile) Net or netting is any textile in which the yarns are fused, looped or knotted at their intersections, resulting in a fabric with open spaces between the yarns. Net has many uses, and comes in different varieties. Depending on the type of yarn or filament that is used to make up the textile, its characteristics can vary from durable to not durable. Uses People use net for many different occupations. Netting is one of the key components to fishing in mass quantities. This textile is used because of its sturdy yet flexible origin, which can carry weight yet,","-27.582234634028282"],["core, fiberglass or other composite cloth, and the bottom skin, the cross section of which appears as a sandwich with the different layers. Firewire Surfboards pioneered this technology for the mass-produced surfboard market beginning in 2006. Shortboard Since the late 1960s when Gordon Clark found the optimum formulation of urethane foam, many of the surfboards in common use have been of the shortboard variety between 180 to 210 cm (6 to 7 ft) in length with a pointed nose and a rounded or squarish tail, typically with three \"skegs\" (fins) but sometimes with two or as many as five. Surfers generally find","-27.567903341987403"],["Manila rope Applications and properties Manila rope is very durable, flexible, and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in rope, hawsers, ships' lines, and fishing nets. It can be used to make handcrafts like bags, carpets, clothing, furniture, and hangings.\nManila ropes shrink when they become wet. This effect can be advantageous under certain circumstances, but if it is not a wanted feature, it should be well taken into account. Since shrinkage is more pronounced the first time the rope becomes wet, new rope is usually immersed into water and put to dry before use so that","-27.563356471946463"],["a safety device, the mesh must be protected from damage due to being dropped or struck by another object, and the mesh must be capable of rigidly retaining its shape during the propagation of a flame front. Any shifting of the individual wires that make up the mesh can create an opening large enough to allow the flame to penetrate and spread beyond the barrier.\nOn a fuel storage vent, flame arresters also serve a secondary purpose of allowing air pressure to equalize inside the tank when fuel is added or removed, while also preventing insects from flying or crawling into","-27.560583697166294"],["for tubing, starting in Phoenicia and proceeding eastward. As in all watersports tubers should wear appropriate safety gear such as life vests, protective water shoes and helmets. Whitewater tubing can be fun and exhilarating, the size of the tube allows a tuber to ride the river in an unencumbered manner not found in rafting or kayaking. Tubers can employ the use of such items as dry boxes and mesh bags to carry small personal items and pack out trash, cans and bottles from their trip.\nPopular riverside tube rentals normally warn against glass due to riverside dangers. Some law enforcement","-27.512467964319512"],["Meshblock Mesh blocks or meshblocks are a small geographic unit used in the census of several countries. New Zealand New Zealand's countrywide meshblock framework was first set up in 1976, although the term dates back to at least the 1916 Census. The meshblock pattern is updated each year. It comprised 41,376 meshblocks at the 2006 Census, increasing to 46,637 meshblocks in 2013.\nMeshblocks are defined by Statistics New Zealand as being \"the smallest geographic unit for which statistical data is collected and processed by Statistics New Zealand\". It is a defined area, varying in size from part of a city block","-27.479059359873645"],["the sand column, a layer of gravel prevents sand from entering the drainage layer and clogging the outlet tube. Below the separating layer is the drainage layer consisting of coarser gravel that prevents clogging near the base of the outlet tube. During the run The high water level (hydraulic head) in the inlet reservoir zone pushes the water through the diffuser and filter, then decreases as water flows evenly through the sand. The flow rate slows because there is less pressure to force the water through the filter. The inlet water contains dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and contaminants. It provides the","-27.47412918518603"],["assist their glide through the water thus gaining a speed advantage.\nUnlike regular swimsuits, which are designed mainly for the aesthetic appearances, swimsuits designed to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist the athlete in swim competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the efficiency of the swimmer's forward motion. The tight fits allow for easy movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration, thus reducing drag. This also reduces the possibility that a high forwards dive will remove a divers swimwear. Starting around 2000, in an effort to improve the effectiveness of the swimsuits, engineers have","-27.470392623683438"],["allows the algae to grow faster and absorb more nutrients without dying and losing attachment to the screen. This is fortunate because green hair algae is the exact type of algae that grows automatically in a properly constructed algae scrubber.\nSome models also use up-flowing air bubbles. This version, which is basically the exact opposite of the waterfall, allows the algae scrubber to be placed underwater in the aquarium, sump or pond, instead of above it. This greatly simplifies construction, since the device does not need to be waterproof, and it allows placement of the scrubber into tight areas where there","-27.428301394931623"],["it was found that the shield was easier to steer if some mud was taken in through holes at the front, since the mud had the consistency of toothpaste. After the tubes had been excavated, they were lined with 2.5-foot-wide (0.76 m) segmental cast-iron rings, each weighing 22 tons. The segments were bolted together and lined with 22-inch (56 cm) of concrete. The two ends of the northern tube under the river met in September 1906; at that time it was the longest underwater tunnel in the world.\nMeanwhile, the John Shields Construction Company had begun in 1905 to bore through Bergen Hill,","-27.421581961680204"],["submarine cables under the ocean for power transmission. Construction Like other power cables, high-voltage cables have the structural elements of one or more conductors, insulation, and a protective jacket. High-voltage cables differ from lower-voltage cables in that they have additional internal layers in the insulation jacket to control the electric field around the conductor.\nFor circuits operating at or above 2,000 volts between conductors, a conductive shield may surround each insulated conductor. This equalizes electrical stress on the cable insulation. This technique was patented by Martin Hochstadter in 1916; the shield is sometimes called a Hochstadter shield. The individual conductor shields","-27.41692421643529"],["However tubing is not flexible and requires special tools to bend and shape. \nLitz wire is another method, which employs a stranded wire with individually insulated conductors (forming a bundle). Each thin conductor is less than a skin-depth, so an individual strand does not suffer an appreciable skin effect loss. The strands must be insulated from each other—otherwise all the wires in the bundle would short together, behave like a single large wire, and still have skin effect problems. Furthermore, the strands cannot occupy the same radial position in the bundle over long distances: the electromagnetic effects that cause the","-27.383096538484097"],["under-suit, or greatly reduce the thickness needed for the under-fabric, but the bubbles in the neoprene are compressed and the insulation of the suit decreases with depth in the same way as for a wetsuit. Crushed neoprene provides the flexibility of neoprene with the consistent buoyancy and insulation of membrane suits. A neoprene wet suit can also be worn under a membrane dry suit for extra protection against condensation and leaks, but it will compress with depth as will any closed cell suit.\nUndersuits used for surface watersports are generally thinner than those used for diving, and are commonly made from","-27.374098784523085"],["fathoms in length are themselves tightly woven in a direction counter to the weave, or twist, of the rope and clamped together over intervals to provide one strong length of rope that is effectively waterproof. The three ropes are so tightly wound counter to the weave of the constituent ropes that the fibers are compressed and the individual weaves stressed, sealing out the water and resulting in a length of about 100 fathoms, the UK traditional definition of cable length. Using a cable, the raising of the anchor, or any activity involving submerging the cable, is not more","-27.3612909796866"],["pencil attached to a plastic board by a short tether, and a way to attach these to a convenient point on the diver's equipment. Slates are particularly useful for information that must be written down prior to a dive and referenced during the dive: elements of the dive plan (depths, durations, decompression schedule) or a drawn map of the dive area. Buddy lines A buddy line is a line or strap physically tethering two scuba divers together underwater to avoid separation in low visibility conditions. A buddy line is usually a short length of about two meters with a","-27.31807645363733"],["Barriers can be in the form of different configurations such as, sleeving, glovebags, containment tents, catch containments, bags, covers and protective clothing.\nSleeving provided on rolls is often cut to length and used to cover radioactive material to prevent the spread of contamination during handling. Typically made of PVC or Polyurethane film formed into a flexible tube, sleeving can cover pipes, hoses, and cables to provide a protective layer. To handle odd-sized objects, adequately sized sleeving is opened so an object can be inserted into the tube which is then twisted to enclose the item at both ends. Tape can be","-27.31188500591088"],["to drainage and automatic pool covers, there are a number of ways to remove humidity in the air that is present with any wet indoor environment. Efficient dehumidification in the indoor pool environment prevents structural damage, lowers energy costs in addition to improving the room's climate to make it a comfortable swimming environment. Other uses Swimming pools are also used for events such as synchronized swimming, water polo, canoe polo and underwater sports such as underwater hockey, underwater rugby, finswimming and sport diving as well as for teaching diving, lifesaving and scuba diving techniques. They have also been used for","-27.304323271731846"],["the water.\nMany public swimming pools are rectangles 25 m or 50 m long, but they can be any size and shape. There are also elaborate pools with artificial waterfalls, fountains, splash pads, wave machines, varying depths of water, bridges, and island bars.\nSome swimming facilities have lockers for clothing and other belongings. The lockers can require a coin to be inserted in a slot, either as deposit or payment. There are usually showers - sometimes mandatory - before and/or after swimming. There are often also lifeguards to ensure the safety of users.\nWading or paddling pools are shallow bodies of water intended for use","-27.28845997618191"],["for the fibre cells' evolutionary origin from tracheids exists. During evolution the strength of the tracheid cell walls was enhanced, the ability to conduct water was lost and the size of the pits was reduced. Fibers that do not belong to the xylem are bast (outside the ring of cambium) and such fibers that are arranged in characteristic patterns at different sites of the shoot.\nThe term \"sclerenchyma\" (originally Sclerenchyma) was introduced by Mettenius in 1865.","-27.287612093088683"],["use nylon. The net will be black in color or occasionally green. The mesh size of the net will be 50mm and will commonly have a twine diameter ranging from 1.8mm – 3.0mm. Cricket nets are supplied from a knotless or knotted netting – as a rule of thumb knotted nets are considered to be superior. It is important to understand that twine thickness of knotted and knotless nets are not directly comparable as breaking strengths of knotted nets are higher than knotless. A good standard cricket net will be UV stabilized and rot proof. For people who construct their","-27.281665239483118"],["is pulled out as a string. By measuring the resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness. Cable construction In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resin coating and an additional buffer layer, which may be further surrounded by a jacket layer, usually plastic. These layers add strength to the fiber but do not contribute to its optical wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing (\"dark\") glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between","-27.254930621711537"],["loose-tube construction the fiber is laid helically into semi-rigid tubes, allowing the cable to stretch without stretching the fiber itself. This protects the fiber from tension during laying and due to temperature changes. Loose-tube fiber may be \"dry block\" or gel-filled. Dry block offers less protection to the fibers than gel-filled, but costs considerably less. Instead of a loose tube, the fiber may be embedded in a heavy polymer jacket, commonly called \"tight buffer\" construction. Tight buffer cables are offered for a variety of applications, but the two most common are \"Breakout\" and \"Distribution\". Breakout cables normally contain a ripcord,","-27.236274505004985"],["should not be confused with a shore. While they may serve the same function, trench shoring is a different physical application that holds up the walls of a trench to prevent collapse.\nIn the US, use of a trench shield is governed by OSHA 29 CFR Part 1926.650-.652 Subpart P-Excavations","-27.203515749424696"],["Canal lining Canal lining is the process of reducing seepage loss of irrigation water by adding an impermeable layer to the edges of the trench. Seepage can result in losses of 30 to 50 percent of irrigation water from canals, so adding lining can make irrigation systems more efficient. Canal linings are also used to prevent weed growth, which can spread throughout an irrigation system and reduce water flow. Lining a canal can also prevent waterlogging around low-lying areas of the canal.\nBy making a canal less permeable, the water velocity increases resulting in a greater overall discharge. Increased velocity also","-27.19049192382954"],["light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications.\n\nFor indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a bundle of flexible fibrous polymer strength members like aramid (e.g. Twaron or Kevlar), in a lightweight plastic cover to form a simple cable. Each end of the cable may be terminated with a specialized optical fiber connector to allow it to be easily connected and disconnected from transmitting and receiving equipment. \nFor use in more strenuous environments, a much more robust cable construction is required. In","-27.184617184946546"],["to reach the ground, before travelling at least 20 metres laterally, which provides a substantial practise enclosure. Indoors nets are commonly multi lane, with 2 or 4 bay nets being particularly common. Unlike outdoor cricket nets where the netting is black, indoor nets tend to be white. They have a separate canvas screen which enclose the area immediately surrounding the batsman and rise to a height of 3 metres. The purpose of this is twofold; the netting to the sides and rear of the batsman has by far the highest work rate, canvas is significantly more durable to tradition mesh","-27.168982694027363"],["same range of movement as the suit itself, and together should allow the diver to bend, squat, kneel, climb a ladder, fin and reach all critical parts of the diving equipment. Underwear which is flexible and stretches, particularly at the joints, will allow the diver more freedom of movement, and is less likely to chafe, and materials which resist compaction under light pressure will maintain a more even thickness in use, which will provide better insulation for the same overall volume.\nFor cold-water use, especially diving under ice, the user will usually wear a thick undersuit in a membrane dry suit.","-27.158525587175973"],["aesthetic appearances, swimsuits designed to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist the athlete in swim competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the efficiency of the swimmer's forward motion. The tight fits allow for easy movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration, thus reducing drag. This also reduces the possibility that a high forwards dive will remove a divers swimwear. Starting around 2000, in an effort to improve the effectiveness of the swimsuits, engineers have taken to designing them to replicate the skin of sea-based animals, sharks in particular.\nIn July 2009, FINA voted to","-27.125593839096837"],["Limber hole A limber hole is a drain hole through a frame or other structural member of a boat designed to prevent water from accumulating against one side of the frame, and allowing it to drain toward the bilge. Limber holes are common in the bilges of wooden boats. The term may be extended to cover drain holes in floors. Limber holes are created in between bulkheads so that one compartment does not fill with water. The limber holes allow water to drain into the lowest part of the bilge so that it can be pumped out","-27.070780322887003"],["nets; monofilament is almost invisible underwater. Divers often carry a net cutter. This is a small handheld tool carried by scuba divers to extricate themselves if trapped by a fishing net or fishing line. It has a small sharp blade such as a replaceable scalpel blade inside the small notch. There is a small hole at the other end to for a lanyard to tether the cutter to the diver.","-27.063138894038275"],["integrated into a swimming or diving mask. The integrated version is only suitable for surface snorkeling, while the separate device may also be used for underwater activities such as spearfishing, freediving, finswimming, underwater hockey, underwater rugby and for surface breathing with scuba equipment. A swimmer's snorkel is a tube bent into a shape often resembling the letter \"L\" or \"J\", fitted with a mouthpiece at the lower end and constructed of light metal, rubber or plastic. The snorkel may come with a rubber loop or a plastic clip enabling the snorkel to be attached to the outside of the head","-27.05464693621616"],["by small children, usually in parks. Concrete wading pools come in many shapes, traditionally rectangle, square or circle. Some are filled and drained daily due to lack of a filter system. Staff chlorinate the water to ensure health and safety standards. Exercise pools In the last two decades, a new style of pool has gained popularity. These consist of a small vessel (usually about 2.5 × 5 m) in which the swimmer swims in place, either against the push of an artificially generated water current or against the pull of restraining devices. These pools have several names, such as swim","-27.033405017311452"],["wells linked at the bottom. The technique involves the dry cutting with temporary sheathing pipes, of aligned drainage wells, with a diameter of 1200–1500 mm., positioned at an interaxis of 6–8 m., their bottoms linked together to a bottom tube for the discharge of drained water. In this way the water discharge takes place passively, due to gravity by perforated pipes with mini-tubes, positioned at the bottom of the wells themselves. The linking pipes, generally made of steel, are blind in the linking length and perforated or windowed in the length corresponding to the well. The wells have a concrete bung","-27.030643111793324"],["is used in a wide variety of clothing products, such as footwear, gloves, hats, and coats. It became popular in outerwear jackets as early as 1985. The fibers are thinner in diameter than polyester fibres, so the material is used as a waterproof synthetic alternative to down.\nIn 2015 Thinsulate was named as receipt of a ISPO Award as a Top 10 Insulation.","-27.02443801763002"],["Slurry wall Construction While a trench is excavated to create a form for a wall, it is simultaneously filled with slurry (usually a mixture of bentonite and water). The dense but liquid slurry prevents the trench from collapsing by providing outward pressure, which balances the inward hydraulic forces and also retards water flow into the trench.\nSlurry walls are typically constructed by starting with a set of guide walls, typically 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) deep and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. The guide walls are constructed on the ground surface to outline the desired slurry trench and guide the excavation","-27.01676781460992"],["Fishing net A fishing net is a net used for fishing. Nets are devices made from fibers woven in a grid-like structure. Some fishing nets are also called fish traps, for example fyke nets. Fishing nets are usually meshes formed by knotting a relatively thin thread. Early nets were woven from grasses, flaxes and other fibrous plant material. Later cotton was used. Modern nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon, although nets of organic polyamides such as wool or silk thread were common until recently and are still used. Weights and anchors The Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, c. 5500 BC to","-26.951940887374803"],["consists of \"marbles or other loose independent filling pieces\" sized to allow placement within the cells of a wire mesh. The purpose of the invention is described as providing \"a convenient and economical means of lettering, ornamenting, or filling\" the wire mesh.\nCurrent products on the market include privacy slats that weave through the fence, plastic-shaped cups designed to clip into open cells, and two-part interlocking units which attach together at the crossover of fence wires.","-26.93625879054889"],["construction, lining of walls is provided to prevent collapsing of wall due to loose or soft soil. While an average suranga is 26 metres (85 ft) meters deep, surangas up to 250 metres (820 ft) meters deep have also been recorded. Air shafts are constructed in longer surangas to supply fresh air and to expel poisonous gases.\nThe surangas can be independent or can be connected with each other. The water can then be collected by using a temporary small barrier or dam with mud, which then can flow through a plastic or bamboo pipe into a storage pit or tank. After","-26.929363498929888"],["an overhead environment may not be obvious. Guidelines are also useful in the event of silt out.\nDistance lines are wound on to a spool or a reel. The length of the distance line used is dependent on the plan for the dive. An open water diver using the distance line only for a surface marker buoy may only need 50 metres / 165 feet, whereas a cave diver may use multiple reels of lengths from 50 ft (15 m) to 1000+ ft (300 m).\nReels for distance lines may have a locking mechanism, ratchet or adjustable drag to control deployment of the line and a","-26.92677085226751"],["Porocyte Porocytes are tubular cells which make up the pores of a sponge known as ostia. Description Covering the sponge is a layer of cells known as the pinacoderm, which is composed of pinacocytes. In a sponge, pinacocytes are a thin, elastic layer which keeps water out. Between the pinacocytes, there are the porocytes that allow water into the sponge. Myocytes are small muscular cells that open and close the porocytes. They also form a circular ring around the osculum and help in closing and opening of it. Once through the pores, water travels down canals. The opening to a","-26.921247916354332"],["they help avoid water infiltration into the subfloor, and are most common in wetrooms. Sheet flooring may also be used with conventional skirting board, in imitation of rigid flooring. A concealed bathtub floor may be hidden behind skirting board (if the lower part of the back of the skirting board is cut away) or under a built-in cabinet. This also decreases the precision with which the sheet must be cut.\nThe flooring may be glued down over its entire area, glued down only around the edges, or unglued, depending on the area. Depending on the size of the room and sheet,","-26.900769056286663"],["Swimming pool A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or paddling pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground (in-ground pools) or built above ground (as a freestanding construction or as part of a building or other larger structure), and are also a common feature aboard ocean-liners and cruise ships. In-ground pools are most commonly constructed from materials such as concrete, natural stone, metal, plastic, or fiberglass, and can be of a custom size and shape or built to a standardized size, the largest of which","-26.859914743807167"],["second mesh rubbing against the first causes the droplets to coalesce and run to the bottom of the meshes, where the water may be collected and led away. Parts of Fog Collector The fog collector is made up of three major parts: the frame, the mesh netting, and the trough or basin.\nThe frame supports the mesh netting and can be made from a wide array of materials from stainless steel poles to bamboo. The frame can vary in shape. Proposed geometries include linear, similar to a fence and cylindrical. Linear frames are rectangles with the vertical endpoints embedded into the","-26.851013977313414"],["shallow water. Oxygen cycle devices are much liked by combat divers and underwater photographers, as they make far fewer bubbles than aqualung-type (open circuit) sets, and those bubbles could betray the diver.\nAnother operational area is fire protection, for instance in chemical industry or rescue in the mining industry, where need for a long use duration forbids use of compressed air sets. Advancements in rebreather design include special more-or-less complex gas proportioning and control devices, allowing use even deeper and even longer, for work divers, than emergency breathing sets and the type of sport diving called technical diving. Today's escape sets","-26.83952731799218"],["hydraulic lines through machine, panel or enclosure walls, cable glands, self-sealing grommets or gland plates can be used to seal the cut-outs required for passing the cables through. This protects the inside of an enclosure or machine from dirt, dust or liquids.\nCable glands and self-sealing grommets are usually designed for entering single or just a few cables. By utilising a gland plate, many cables with different diameters can be routed. Depending on the type, very high cable densities or ingress protection classes up to IP66/IP68 (according to IEC 60529) can be achieved. Split cable entry systems for cables with connectors","-26.83602330996655"],["rubber improved the impermeability of cables to water.\nMany early cables suffered from attack by sealife. The insulation could be eaten, for instance, by species of Teredo (shipworm) and Xylophaga. Hemp laid between the steel wire armouring gave pests a route to eat their way in. Damaged armouring, which was not uncommon, also provided an entrance. Cases of sharks biting cables and attacks by sawfish have been recorded. In one case in 1873, a whale damaged the Persian Gulf Cable between Karachi and Gwadar. The whale was apparently attempting to use the cable to clean off","-26.809503190612304"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"MeshBox MeshBox is an item of computer hardware which is used to provide large scale wireless broadband networks. Manufactured by LocustWorld, the devices are designed to co-operate with other MeshBoxes within range, passing the internet service from one box to the next, over the air, until it reaches the final destination. The coverage area of a mesh is typically measured in square miles or square kilometres.\\nOriginally released as a bootable CD-ROM called MeshAP based on the OpenAP open source software, the system is now implemented as system image which can fit within a small 32MB CompactFlash card. The system functions\",\n \"-31.904231439461\"\n ],\n [\n \"is accomplished by use of solid barriers such as copper tubes, and water-repellent jelly or water-absorbing powder surrounding the fiber.\\nFinally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental hazards, such as construction work or gnawing animals. Undersea cables are more heavily armored in their near-shore portions to protect them from boat anchors, fishing gear, and even sharks, which may be attracted to the electrical power that is carried to power amplifiers or repeaters in the cable.\\nModern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications such as direct burial in trenches, dual use as\",\n \"-31.48380826850189\"\n ],\n [\n \"the heat generated by the diver. More insulation is needed for colder conditions and for less energetic diving activity.\\nThe principle of layering can be used to provide a wider range of insulation possibilities from a relatively small range of underwear items, however this can only be done before entering the water. Most dry suit underwear insulates by a trapped layer of air in the garment, and this is largely lost if the air is replaced by water in a flooded suit, so as a general rule, insulation is proportional to the combined thickness of the undergarments. The layering principle shows\",\n \"-31.013004092950723\"\n ],\n [\n \"million rectangular mesh openings.\\nThe net is usually built underneath a rock where a current of water flows through it. The downstream end of the net is free to move and has an opening to permit a respiratory current to flow through, and groups of nets are often built besides each other. The larva moves about inside the net and feeds on the fine organic matter and diatoms that get caught in the mesh structure. Much of its time is spent scraping this deposit off the net with specialised mouthparts.\",\n \"-30.83313438037294\"\n ],\n [\n \"often used for fishing and trapping. Structural properties Nets, like fabric, stretch less along their constituent strands (the \\\"bars\\\" between knots) than diagonally across the gaps in the mesh. They are, so to speak, made on the bias. The choice of material used also affects the structural properties of the net. Nets are designed and constructed for their specific purpose by modifying the parameters of the weave and the material used. Safety nets, for example, must decelerate the person hitting them gradually, usually by having a concave-upwards stress–strain curve, where the amount of force required to stretch the net increases\",\n \"-30.510247114114463\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shared mesh A shared mesh (also known as 'traditional' or 'best effort' mesh) is a wireless mesh network that uses a single radio to communicate via mesh backhaul links to all the neighboring nodes in the mesh. This is a first generation mesh where the total available bandwidth of the radio channel is ‘shared’ between all the neighboring nodes in the mesh. The capacity of the channel is further consumed by traffic being forwarded from one node to the next in the mesh – reducing the end to end traffic that can be passed. Because bandwidth\",\n \"-30.325264571001753\"\n ],\n [\n \"fabric. If two layers of fabric are used, stitched channels can be formed which enclose the tubing between the two fabric layers. Where flame resistance is needed, the garment may be constructed out of materials such as nomex.\\nThe tubing is typically a few millimeters in diameter, and may be made out of any number of flexible plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or silicone. Smaller diameter tubing permits a higher degree of garment flexibility, but at a cost of lower heat absorption capacity, and increased pressure needed to push liquid through the tubing.\\nWhen a large area needs to be\",\n \"-30.093211769883055\"\n ],\n [\n \"the surface and catch the cable. If the cable is on a rocky sea surface, the grapple is more flexible, with hooks along its length so that it can adjust to the changing surface. In especially deep water, the cable may not be strong enough to lift as a single unit, so a special grapple that cuts the cable soon after it has been hooked is used and only one length of cable is brought to the surface at a time, whereupon a new section is spliced in. The repaired cable is longer than the original, so the excess is\",\n \"-30.029801242868416\"\n ],\n [\n \"winding handle to help keep slack line under control and rewind line. Lines are used in open water to deploy surface marker buoys and decompression buoys and link the buoy on the surface to the submerged diver, or may be used to allow easy return navigation to a point such as a shotline or boat anchor.\\nThe material used for any given distance line will vary based on intended use, nylon being the material of choice for cave diving. A common line used is 2 mm (0.08 inch) polypropylene line when it does not matter if the line is buoyant.\\nThe use of guideline\",\n \"-29.645950942125637\"\n ],\n [\n \"as much as it defines curves by applying a grid close to the body it generally accentuates the wearer's muscular definition.\\nA more practical use of fishnet textiles is in high performance next-to-skin apparel used in cold weather outdoor sports, including hiking, hunting, fishing, skiing, and mountaineering. In this context, fishnet is usually knitted from fibers of polypropylene, merino wool, or nylon, and offers a number of benefits over traditional densely knitted base layer apparel. These benefits are related to the presence of large void spaces in the fishnet fabric structure that trap insulating air for warmth in cool conditions, and\",\n \"-29.45505299398792\"\n ],\n [\n \"Wireless mesh network A wireless mesh network (WMN) is a communications network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. It is also a form of wireless ad hoc network.\\nA mesh refers to rich interconnection among devices or nodes. Wireless mesh networks often consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and gateways. Mobility of nodes is less frequent. If nodes constantly or frequently move, the mesh spends more time updating routes than delivering data. In a wireless mesh network, topology tends to be more static, so that routes\\ncomputation can converge and delivery of data to their destinations can occur.\",\n \"-29.383876665087882\"\n ],\n [\n \"suit. This high-technology swimwear is designed to minimize drag while maximizing support to muscles. Some companies claim that their fabrics reduce drag even more than the water's normal friction against the skin. To do this, they design high-end lines of competitive swimwear that cover the arms and legs. The fabric used for high-technology swimwear is light and water-repellent. The material is often composed of highly stretchy spandex and nylon. High-technology swimwear is often made using bonded seams, to reduce further drag. These suits also provide the compression necessary to increase performance. Regulation After the 2008 Olympic Games, the International Swimming\",\n \"-29.378249205998145\"\n ],\n [\n \"still be lightweight and compactable. Fisherman use netting when trawling, because it is sturdy enough to carry large amounts of weight as fish are trapped, pulled, then lifted out of water. Oftentimes, the filaments that make up the yarn are coated with wax or plastic. This coating adds a waterproof component to the textile that provides even more reliability.\\nNet is also used in medical practices to provide fabric insulation and wrapping under an industry standard sling. In the medical practice, netting provides cushion and protection, when used in layers, but still allows the skin to breathe under the fabric. \",\n \"-29.3412905264413\"\n ],\n [\n \"mesh is woven tightly enough to stop insects from entering but loosely enough to not interfere with ventilation. The frame is usually self-supporting or freestanding although it can be designed to be attached from the top to an alternative support such as tree limbs. Usage Mosquito nets are often used where malaria or other insect-borne diseases are common, especially as a tent-like covering over a bed. For effectiveness, it is important that the netting not have holes or gaps large enough to allow insects to enter. It is also important to 'seal' the net properly because mosquitoes are able to\",\n \"-29.237267754157074\"\n ],\n [\n \"simultaneously, but they are required to use different combinations of upstream and downstream channels as instructed by the headend. Wireless mesh networks Mesh networks are used to extend coverage (to cover entire homes) and for ad-hoc networking (emergency communication). Wireless mesh networks use a mesh topology to provide the desired coverage. The data travels from one node to another until it reaches its destination. In mesh networks using a single frequency, the data is typically store-and-forwarded, with each hop adding a delay. SIC can enable wireless mesh nodes to reuse frequencies so that the data is retransmitted (relayed) as it\",\n \"-29.224313190788962\"\n ],\n [\n \"form that has holes small enough for moisture to escape, but not allow liquid water to intrude. This material is trade named Gore-Tex. Layering Best practice indicates that for extreme conditions, clothing should be layered and loose. Near the core of the body, a soft, wicking layer is best. Wool or silk underwear is preferred. Then, by preference, a knitted layer of wool or synthetic fleece. A massive insulating layer and a windproof layer complete the ensemble. Inner layer Underwear, inner socks, and glove liners are typically thin soft knits of silk, wool, or synthetic. First insulating layer Typically knit\",\n \"-29.2130029827822\"\n ],\n [\n \"fishing and shipping – the main causes of cable damage – are small. Accordingly, a typical cable is a 17-22mm diameter tube, the size of a domestic garden hose. It is composed of optical glass fibres, a copper power conductor and steel wires to add strength, all of which are encased in chemically inert, marine-grade polyethylene. Antifouling agents are not used. Furthermore, the amount of power in a cable is small being around 0.6 to 1 ampere, which is less than a laptop computer. Deep-ocean cables are laid on the seabed surface with minimal disturbance to the benthic environment.\\nLaying is\",\n \"-29.08991188276559\"\n ],\n [\n \"the further the net is stretched. Transport Examples include cargo nets and net bags. Some vegetables, like onions, are often shipped in nets. Sports Nets are used in sporting goals and in games such as soccer, basketball, bossaball and ice hockey. A net separates opponents in various net sports such as volleyball, tennis, badminton, and table tennis, where the ball or shuttlecock must go over the net to remain in play. Capturing animals Nets for capturing animals include fishing nets, butterfly nets, cricket nets, bird netting, and trapping nets such as purse and long nets. Some, like mist nets, rocket\",\n \"-28.97068357106764\"\n ],\n [\n \"optimal mesh netting is made from stainless steel filaments the size of three to four human hairs and with holes that are twice as big as the filament. The netting is coated in a chemical that decreases water droplet's contact angle hysteria, which allows for more small droplets to form. This type of netting can capture 10% of the moisture in the air.\\nBelow the mesh netting of a fog fence, there is a small trough for the water to be collected in. The water runs from the trough to some type of storage container or irrigation system for use. If\",\n \"-28.9293190305616\"\n ],\n [\n \"cable guides, and clipping or stapling them to walls are other common methods of keeping them organized. Above drop ceilings, hooks or trays are used to organize cables and protect them from electrical interference\\nPlanning is especially crucial for cables such as Thicknet that do not bend around corners easily and fiber optic which is very difficult to splice once cut. Cable strain relief Cable strain relief is a mechanical protection for flexible electrical cables, wires, conduits and pneumatic hoses. It is regulated by the European standard EN 62444 (formerly EN 50262.).\\nWith a strain relief component, the connection between a flexible\",\n \"-28.9028506691684\"\n ],\n [\n \"High-technology swimwear fabric High-technology swimwear are scientifically advanced materials used for swimwear in competitive water sports such as swimming and triathlon. Materials of this type are normally spandex and nylon composite fabrics with features to reduce drag against the water. The fabrics include features that increase the swimmer's glide through water and reduce the absorption of water by the suit as opposed to regular swimsuits. Purpose and Design High-technology swimwear is designed to reduce drag and improve swimming performance. Speedo claims that their LZR Racer reduced drag or water resistance by 38% compared to a traditional Lycra practice swim\",\n \"-28.801743840333074\"\n ],\n [\n \"NYC Mesh Technology Like many other free community-driven networks, NYC Mesh uses mesh technology to facilitate robustness and resiliency. Additionally, between larger nodes, the project uses the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Nodes are connected via WiFi links similar to those used by wireless routers in homes, but with more powerful routers that are able to function as a backbone, making connections at distances up to a mile. History NYC Mesh was founded in 2012 and was originally based on the Cjdns protocol. \\nIn 2015 the project received a grant from ISOC-NY, the New York chapter of the Internet Society.\\nNYC Mesh\",\n \"-28.788702984078554\"\n ],\n [\n \"cable gland or fitting that connects a flexible electrical conduit to an enclosure, machine or bulkhead facilitates assembly and prevents liquid or gas ingress. Boats On a boat having an inboard motor that turns a shaft attached to an external propeller, the shaft passes though a stuffing box, also called a \\\"packing box\\\" or \\\"stern gland\\\" in this application. The stuffing box prevents sea water from entering the boat's hull. In many small fiberglass boats, for example, the stuffing box is mounted inboard near the point the shaft exits the hull. The \\\"box\\\" is a cylindrical assembly, typically of bronze,\",\n \"-28.717060124967247\"\n ],\n [\n \"Plankton net Components Towing line and bridles\\nThe towing line and bridle is the upper part of a plankton net and used to hold it. The towing lines connected to the triangle bridles are made of nylon rope and can be adjust to a level suitable for the user.\\nNylon mesh net \\nThe nylon mesh net is the middle part of the plankton net and is used to filter the plankton in the water sample in accordance with the size of the mesh. In addition, its funnel shape makes it possible to effectively capture plankton of various sizes. There are various mesh\",\n \"-28.706033605747507\"\n ],\n [\n \"Strip-built Strip-built, or \\\"strip-plank epoxy\\\", is a method of boat building. Also known as cold moulding, the strip-built method is commonly used for canoes and kayaks, but also suitable for larger boats. The process involves securing narrow, flexible strips of wood edge-to-edge around temporary formers. The strips are glued edge-to-edge with epoxy. It is effectively a modern form of carvel which need no caulking and which is both stiffer and more watertight. In a small boat, there will be just one layer of strip-planking, but larger vessels may have two or three layers which, (being a pre-shaped marine ply), forms\",\n \"-28.679175206911168\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the seams are carefully sealed. It is very difficult to locate and repair leaks in the waterproofing system after the building is completed.\\nSeveral layers are used for waterproofing in earth shelter construction. The first layer is meant to seal any cracks or pores in the structural materials, also working as an adhesive for the waterproof membrane. The membrane layer is often a thick flexible polyethylene sheeting called EPDM. EPDM is the material usually used in a water garden, pond and swimming pool construction. This material also prevents roots from burrowing through the waterproofing. EPDM\",\n \"-28.644819862383883\"\n ],\n [\n \"Swim ring Structure A swim ring consists of two identically-sized layers of flat plastic, one of which contains a valve. The shape of each layer is like a large circle with a smaller, concentric circle removed. The two layers are joined at their inner and outer edges, sealing an air chamber inside.\\nSwim rings (also called \\\"swimming rings\\\", \\\"swimrings\\\", \\\"inner tubes\\\", \\\"innertubes\\\", \\\"rubber rings\\\" or \\\"floaty/floaties\\\") are inflated with air and worn around the user's torso, usually just under the arms or sat upon, to hold the user above the water. They come in a variety of sizes to fit children\",\n \"-28.62016399257118\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cable compound Cable compounds are materials used to prevent the ingress of moisture into telecommunication and power transmission cables. The exact nature of the compound varies depending upon the type of cable in which they are used, but generally they are either soft waxy compounds (for use in copper-wire telecom cables), soft thixotropic gels with a consistency similar to that of hair gel (for use in optical fibre cables), or resin/polymer thickened oils (for use in paper insulated energy cables).\\nCable compounds are formulated and manufactured to have very good electrical resistance properties to ensure good functioning of the filled\",\n \"-28.61905154908891\"\n ],\n [\n \"area, or at least delaying the frogmen while they cut through it.\\nIt was made by an Israeli company, RBtec Perimeter Security Systems. It is a netting constructed of copper or fiber optic cable, covered in polyethylene electrical insulation. The strands are a sensor cable sensitive to cutting or shape bending so that any frogman attack on the net will be detected. The grid size best suited to deter divers is 250 x 250 mm = 10 x 10 inches but can be modified to any size needed. Testing showed that a diver using bolt cutters could not cut a hole big\",\n \"-28.61095824977383\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\nWhen a hole is ripped in a net, there are fewer holes in it than before the net was ripped. However, the stress concentration at the edges of the hole often causes it to tear further, making timely repairs important. Mending nets by hand is still an important skill for those who work with them. Materials Nets may be made using almost any sort of fiber. Traditional net materials varied with what was locally available; early European fishing nets were often made of linen, for instance. Longer-lasting synthetics are now fairly universal. Nylon monofilament nets are transparent, and are therefore\",\n \"-28.53164189273957\"\n ],\n [\n \"between the wire is stuffed with straw, which acts as a wick to help sop up excess urine, preventing the likelihood of odour problems due to incomplete biological absorption of the nitrogen from the urine. The straw-filled wire also enables the pile to be well-aerated whilst acting as a visual screen for the first year’s use.\\nThe structure is surrounded by two closely planted rows of osier or biomass willow cuttings; this living wall of willow can then be woven into a hurdle-like structure and its annual growth can be harvested.\",\n \"-28.399067847552942\"\n ],\n [\n \"at any point along its length.\\\"\\nFrom their outset cable protection systems were designed to be simple, effective, and easy to assemble. The systems consisted of a series of half shells which had a convex flange at one end and a larger socket flange at the other allowing the sections to form a flexible universal joint connection between them. Due to the intended use of heavy cast or forged metals they also had the added advantage of increasing the weight of the cable being installed, thus reducing movement on the seabed.\\nOver the years innovations have occurred improving the articulation of the\",\n \"-28.226872794388328\"\n ],\n [\n \"ground. They have rope supports connected at the top and staked into the ground to provide stability.\\nThe mesh netting is where the condensation of water droplets appear. It consists of filaments knitted together with small openings, coated with a chemical to increase condensation. Shade Cloth is used for mesh structure because it can be locally sourced in underdeveloped countries. The filaments are coated to be hydrophilic and hydrophobic, which attracts and repels water to increase the condensation. This can retrieve 2% of moisture in the air. Efficiency increases as the size of the filaments and the holes decrease. The most\",\n \"-28.164542195387185\"\n ],\n [\n \"Trench shield Trench shields (also called Trench Boxes or Trench Sheets) are steel or aluminum structures used for protecting utility workers while performing their duties within a trench and avoid cave-ins. They are customarily constructed with sidewalls of varying thicknesses held apart by steel or aluminum spreaders. Spreaders can be interchanged to match the width of the trench. The different materials and building designs lead to a variety of depth ratings, i.e. the depth of a trench that the shield can withstand a collapse without buckling. Depth ratings are determined by registered professional engineers.\\nA shield\",\n \"-28.162801841739565\"\n ],\n [\n \"Net (device) Definition A net, in its primary meaning, comprises fibers knotted and twisted into a grid-like structure which blocks the passage of large items, while letting small items and fluids pass. It requires less material than something sheet-like, and provides a degree of transparency, as well as flexibility and lightness. History The oldest nets found are from the Mesolithic era, but nets may have existed in the Upper paleolithic era. Nets are typically made of perishable materials and leave little archeological record. Some nets are preserved in ice or bogs, and there are also clay impressions of nets. Making\",\n \"-28.14060567985871\"\n ],\n [\n \"Optical mesh network An optical mesh network is a type of optical telecommunications network employing wired fiber-optic communication or wireless free-space optical communication in a mesh network architecture.\\nMost optical mesh networks use fiber-optic communication and are operated by internet service providers in metropolitan and regional but also national and international scenarios. They are faster and less error prone than other network architectures and support backup and recovery plans for established networks in case of any disaster, damage or failure. Currently planned satellite constellations aim to establish optical mesh networks in space by using wireless laser communication. History of transport networks\",\n \"-28.125766450582887\"\n ],\n [\n \"frames with each other to forward to/from a gateway point.\\nSince a mesh requires no costly cable constructions for its backhaul network, it reduces total investment cost. Mesh technology’s capabilities can boost extending coverage of service areas easily and flexibly.\\nFor further cost reduction, a large-scale high-capacity mesh is desirable. For instance, Kyushu University's Mimo-Mesh Project, based in Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan, has developed and put into use new technology for building high capacity mesh infrastructure. A key component is called IPT, intermittent periodic transmit, a proprietary packet-forwarding scheme that is designed to reduce radio interference in the forwarding path\",\n \"-28.08864964323584\"\n ],\n [\n \"a base layer. A secondary headbox is normally located at a point where the base sheet is completely drained. This is not considered a separate ply because the water action does a good job of intermixing the fibers of the top and bottom layer. Secondary headboxes are common on linerboard.\\nA modification to the basic fourdrinier table by adding a second wire on top of the drainage table is known as a top wire former. The bottom and top wires converge and some drainage is up through the top wire. A top wire improves formation and\",\n \"-27.995288751204498\"\n ],\n [\n \"Filled cable In telecommunication, a filled cable is a cable that has a non-hygroscopic material, usually a gel called icky-pick, inside the jacket or sheath.\\nThe nonhygroscopic material fills the spaces between the interior parts of the cable, preventing moisture from entering minor leaks in the sheath and migrating inside the cable.\\nA metallic cable, such as a coaxial cable or a metal waveguide, filled with a dielectric material, is not considered as a filled cable.\",\n \"-27.962047163193347\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fishnet In the field of textiles, fishnet is hosiery with an open, diamond-shaped knit; it is most often used as a material for stockings, tights, or bodystockings. Fishnet is available in a multitude of colors, although it is most often sported in traditional matte black. Fishnet is commonly worn on the legs and arms by practitioners of goth and punk fashion, but is also commonly worn by the mainstream as a fashion statement. Generally considered to be a sexy garment, it may serve as a component of sexual fetishism. Fishnets are used mostly as a type of undergarment, and in\",\n \"-27.842811183596496\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the rope have the potential to be torn off the rope during storms as water flow increases significantly, or grow away from the rope and form an unmarketable, low value, characteristic doughnut shaped sponge. Differences in sponge growth and health do occur within species characterised by variations in regenerative ability, susceptibility to infection after cutting, hardiness and growth potential. Mesh bag method Lower levels of damage in some species of sponges cultured via mesh bags can lead to higher levels of survival. Growth rates may be decreased as mesh strands on the bags may decrease water flow, limiting food\",\n \"-27.834201991616283\"\n ],\n [\n \"Inner tube water polo Inner tube water polo (ITWP) is a variation of the sport water polo with the important difference that players, excluding the goalkeeper, are required to float in inflatable inner tubes. By floating in an inner tube, players experience less contact and expend less energy than traditional water polo players, not having to tread water. This allows casual players to enjoy water polo without undertaking the intense conditioning required for conventional water polo.\\nThis sport is predominantly played at universities by intramural coed teams, but can also be found in recreational adult leagues. The sport's rules\",\n \"-27.794090108538512\"\n ],\n [\n \"width of more than approximately 2 km, those in charge of construction should consider laying an underwater cable as the more practicable solution.\\nAlternatively, it might be possible to erect one or more pylons in the water to be crossed. Such crossings can be seen occasionally in North America. They are, however, only used when it is more economical and practical to do so than to lay a cable underwater, such as when the water is not very deep and no large passage heights are needed for vessels. Also, such construction can be very problematic as far as getting legal permission to\",\n \"-27.770286252489313\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cable grommet A cable grommet is a tube or ring through which an electrical cable passes. They are usually made of rubber or metal.\\nThe grommet is usually inserted in holes in certain materials in order to protect, improve friction or seal cables passing through it, from a possible mechanical or chemical attack. Grommets used as wire managers for furniture A grommet can be used in furniture to protect wires, cables or cords for computer equipment or other electronic equipment in homes or offices. At the same time, they are used decoratively to embellish the furniture and can be bought in\",\n \"-27.76081280570361\"\n ],\n [\n \"also braided fishing lines, cofilament and thermally fused lines, also known as 'superlines' for their small diameter, lack of stretch, and great strength relative to standard nylon monofilament lines. Braided, thermally fused, and chemically fused varieties of 'superlines' are now readily available. Specialty lines Fly lines consist of a tough braided or monofilament core, wrapped in a thick waterproof plastic sheath, often of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In the case of floating fly lines, the PVC sheath is usually embedded with many 'microballoons' or air bubbles, and may also be impregnated with silicone or other lubricants to give buoyancy and reduce\",\n \"-27.741565215255832\"\n ],\n [\n \"Trunking is closely related to the concept of grading. Trunking allows a group of inlet switches at the same time. Thus the service provider can provide a lesser number of circuits than might otherwise be required, allowing many users to \\\"share\\\" a smaller number of connections and achieve capacity savings. Link aggregation In computer networking, port trunking is the use of multiple concurrent network connections to aggregate the link speed of each participating port and cable, also called link aggregation. Such high-bandwidth link groups may be used to interconnect switches or to connect high-performance servers to a network. VLAN In\",\n \"-27.730585485962365\"\n ],\n [\n \"breathing and reduce drag underwater snorkels are often short with a wide bore and may include a drain valve. The published rules mandate that they must not be rigid or have any sharp edges or points.\\nThe snorkel may accommodate an external mouthguard which may be worn in conjunction with, or instead of, an internal mouthguard. Fins Fins allow the player to swim faster through the water. A wide variety of fins are used in the sport, but large plastic/rubber composite fins or smaller, stiffer fibreglass or carbon fibre fins are commonplace at competitions. As with any of the equipment, the\",\n \"-27.69401949249732\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cabling between nodes. It is built of peer radio devices that do not have to be cabled to a wired port like traditional WLAN access points (AP) do. Mesh infrastructure carries data over large distances by splitting the distance into a series of short hops. Intermediate nodes not only boost the signal, but cooperatively pass data from point A to point B by making forwarding decisions based on their knowledge of the network, i.e. perform routing by first deriving the topology of the network.\\nWireless mesh networks is a relatively \\\"stable-topology\\\" network except for the occasional failure of nodes or\",\n \"-27.688676823832793\"\n ],\n [\n \"spaces, and when the objective of the dive includes penetration of enclosed spaces, taking precautions such as the use of lights and guidelines, for which specialised training is provided in the standard procedures. The most common form of physical entrapment is getting snagged on ropes, lines or nets, and use of a cutting implement is the standard method of dealing with the problem. The risk of entanglement can be reduced by careful configuration of equipment to minimise those parts which can easily be snagged, and allow easier disentanglement. Other forms of entrapment such as getting wedged into tight spaces can\",\n \"-27.684916793135926\"\n ],\n [\n \"Media meshing Media meshing is the process of using one of the media, such as a blog or a website, to enhance the experience of another medium, such as a newspaper article or a fictional television program. \\\"Meshing\\\" may describe activities and motivations of an information receiver which are completely independent of the intentions of the source of that information. \\\"Meshing\\\" may also be used to describe the activities of an information provider, who may intentionally encourage consumer engagement by using multiple media or channels of information exchange related to a product or organization, as in an integrated advertising campaign.\",\n \"-27.681039961287752\"\n ],\n [\n \"and other uses of the seabed in the area considered. This task begins with a fact-finding exercise, which is a standard desk study that includes a survey of geological maps, bathymetry, fishing charts, aerial and satellite photography, as well as information from navigation authorities. Submarine pipeline characteristics Submarine pipelines generally vary in diameter from 3 inches (76 mm) for gas lines, to 72 inches (1,800 mm) for high capacity lines. Wall thicknesses typically range from 10 millimetres (0.39 in) to 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The pipe can be designed for fluids at high temperature and pressure. The walls are made from high-yield strength steel,\",\n \"-27.638166638367693\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a cable form factor, also are used as part of high-security fencing. They can be embedded in walls or other structures that need protection. Indicating loops for detecting submarines One of the first means for detecting submerged submarines, first installed by the Royal Navy in 1914, was the effect of their passage over an anti-submarine indicator loop on the bottom of a body of water. A metal object passing over it, such as a submarine, will, even if degaussed, have enough magnetic properties to induce a current in the loop's cable. . In this case, the motion of the\",\n \"-27.63671948420233\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pantyhose Terminology The term \\\"pantyhose\\\" originated in the United States and refers to the combination of panties (an American English term) with sheer nylon hosiery. In British English, these garments are called \\\"sheer tights\\\". The term tights alone refers to all such garments regardless of whether they are sheer lingerie or sturdy outerwear.\\nIn American English, the term \\\"tights\\\" typically refers to pantyhose-like garments made from thicker material, which are generally opaque or slightly translucent. Opaque leg wear made of material such as spandex are often worn by both sexes for athletic activities or as utility clothing, and are usually referred\",\n \"-27.635041157889646\"\n ],\n [\n \"thick, underneath a layer of earth 15 to 30 cm thick, makes for an adequate lining system. Typically, porous soils are removed before compacted clay is applied to the bed and sides of a canal.\\nAnother simple method of canal lining with soils entails applying a layer of compacted silt on top of the subgrade of the canal. The use of soils as canal linings is efficient for controlling seepage, but not effective against weed growth. Plastic membrane Plastic linings are often referred to as geomembranes or flexible membrane linings. Plastic linings are often covered with soil, rocks, brick, concrete or other\",\n \"-27.588808108630474\"\n ],\n [\n \"Net (textile) Net or netting is any textile in which the yarns are fused, looped or knotted at their intersections, resulting in a fabric with open spaces between the yarns. Net has many uses, and comes in different varieties. Depending on the type of yarn or filament that is used to make up the textile, its characteristics can vary from durable to not durable. Uses People use net for many different occupations. Netting is one of the key components to fishing in mass quantities. This textile is used because of its sturdy yet flexible origin, which can carry weight yet,\",\n \"-27.582234634028282\"\n ],\n [\n \"core, fiberglass or other composite cloth, and the bottom skin, the cross section of which appears as a sandwich with the different layers. Firewire Surfboards pioneered this technology for the mass-produced surfboard market beginning in 2006. Shortboard Since the late 1960s when Gordon Clark found the optimum formulation of urethane foam, many of the surfboards in common use have been of the shortboard variety between 180 to 210 cm (6 to 7 ft) in length with a pointed nose and a rounded or squarish tail, typically with three \\\"skegs\\\" (fins) but sometimes with two or as many as five. Surfers generally find\",\n \"-27.567903341987403\"\n ],\n [\n \"Manila rope Applications and properties Manila rope is very durable, flexible, and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in rope, hawsers, ships' lines, and fishing nets. It can be used to make handcrafts like bags, carpets, clothing, furniture, and hangings.\\nManila ropes shrink when they become wet. This effect can be advantageous under certain circumstances, but if it is not a wanted feature, it should be well taken into account. Since shrinkage is more pronounced the first time the rope becomes wet, new rope is usually immersed into water and put to dry before use so that\",\n \"-27.563356471946463\"\n ],\n [\n \"a safety device, the mesh must be protected from damage due to being dropped or struck by another object, and the mesh must be capable of rigidly retaining its shape during the propagation of a flame front. Any shifting of the individual wires that make up the mesh can create an opening large enough to allow the flame to penetrate and spread beyond the barrier.\\nOn a fuel storage vent, flame arresters also serve a secondary purpose of allowing air pressure to equalize inside the tank when fuel is added or removed, while also preventing insects from flying or crawling into\",\n \"-27.560583697166294\"\n ],\n [\n \"for tubing, starting in Phoenicia and proceeding eastward. As in all watersports tubers should wear appropriate safety gear such as life vests, protective water shoes and helmets. Whitewater tubing can be fun and exhilarating, the size of the tube allows a tuber to ride the river in an unencumbered manner not found in rafting or kayaking. Tubers can employ the use of such items as dry boxes and mesh bags to carry small personal items and pack out trash, cans and bottles from their trip.\\nPopular riverside tube rentals normally warn against glass due to riverside dangers. Some law enforcement\",\n \"-27.512467964319512\"\n ],\n [\n \"Meshblock Mesh blocks or meshblocks are a small geographic unit used in the census of several countries. New Zealand New Zealand's countrywide meshblock framework was first set up in 1976, although the term dates back to at least the 1916 Census. The meshblock pattern is updated each year. It comprised 41,376 meshblocks at the 2006 Census, increasing to 46,637 meshblocks in 2013.\\nMeshblocks are defined by Statistics New Zealand as being \\\"the smallest geographic unit for which statistical data is collected and processed by Statistics New Zealand\\\". It is a defined area, varying in size from part of a city block\",\n \"-27.479059359873645\"\n ],\n [\n \"the sand column, a layer of gravel prevents sand from entering the drainage layer and clogging the outlet tube. Below the separating layer is the drainage layer consisting of coarser gravel that prevents clogging near the base of the outlet tube. During the run The high water level (hydraulic head) in the inlet reservoir zone pushes the water through the diffuser and filter, then decreases as water flows evenly through the sand. The flow rate slows because there is less pressure to force the water through the filter. The inlet water contains dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and contaminants. It provides the\",\n \"-27.47412918518603\"\n ],\n [\n \"assist their glide through the water thus gaining a speed advantage.\\nUnlike regular swimsuits, which are designed mainly for the aesthetic appearances, swimsuits designed to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist the athlete in swim competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the efficiency of the swimmer's forward motion. The tight fits allow for easy movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration, thus reducing drag. This also reduces the possibility that a high forwards dive will remove a divers swimwear. Starting around 2000, in an effort to improve the effectiveness of the swimsuits, engineers have\",\n \"-27.470392623683438\"\n ],\n [\n \"allows the algae to grow faster and absorb more nutrients without dying and losing attachment to the screen. This is fortunate because green hair algae is the exact type of algae that grows automatically in a properly constructed algae scrubber.\\nSome models also use up-flowing air bubbles. This version, which is basically the exact opposite of the waterfall, allows the algae scrubber to be placed underwater in the aquarium, sump or pond, instead of above it. This greatly simplifies construction, since the device does not need to be waterproof, and it allows placement of the scrubber into tight areas where there\",\n \"-27.428301394931623\"\n ],\n [\n \"it was found that the shield was easier to steer if some mud was taken in through holes at the front, since the mud had the consistency of toothpaste. After the tubes had been excavated, they were lined with 2.5-foot-wide (0.76 m) segmental cast-iron rings, each weighing 22 tons. The segments were bolted together and lined with 22-inch (56 cm) of concrete. The two ends of the northern tube under the river met in September 1906; at that time it was the longest underwater tunnel in the world.\\nMeanwhile, the John Shields Construction Company had begun in 1905 to bore through Bergen Hill,\",\n \"-27.421581961680204\"\n ],\n [\n \"submarine cables under the ocean for power transmission. Construction Like other power cables, high-voltage cables have the structural elements of one or more conductors, insulation, and a protective jacket. High-voltage cables differ from lower-voltage cables in that they have additional internal layers in the insulation jacket to control the electric field around the conductor.\\nFor circuits operating at or above 2,000 volts between conductors, a conductive shield may surround each insulated conductor. This equalizes electrical stress on the cable insulation. This technique was patented by Martin Hochstadter in 1916; the shield is sometimes called a Hochstadter shield. The individual conductor shields\",\n \"-27.41692421643529\"\n ],\n [\n \"However tubing is not flexible and requires special tools to bend and shape. \\nLitz wire is another method, which employs a stranded wire with individually insulated conductors (forming a bundle). Each thin conductor is less than a skin-depth, so an individual strand does not suffer an appreciable skin effect loss. The strands must be insulated from each other—otherwise all the wires in the bundle would short together, behave like a single large wire, and still have skin effect problems. Furthermore, the strands cannot occupy the same radial position in the bundle over long distances: the electromagnetic effects that cause the\",\n \"-27.383096538484097\"\n ],\n [\n \"under-suit, or greatly reduce the thickness needed for the under-fabric, but the bubbles in the neoprene are compressed and the insulation of the suit decreases with depth in the same way as for a wetsuit. Crushed neoprene provides the flexibility of neoprene with the consistent buoyancy and insulation of membrane suits. A neoprene wet suit can also be worn under a membrane dry suit for extra protection against condensation and leaks, but it will compress with depth as will any closed cell suit.\\nUndersuits used for surface watersports are generally thinner than those used for diving, and are commonly made from\",\n \"-27.374098784523085\"\n ],\n [\n \"fathoms in length are themselves tightly woven in a direction counter to the weave, or twist, of the rope and clamped together over intervals to provide one strong length of rope that is effectively waterproof. The three ropes are so tightly wound counter to the weave of the constituent ropes that the fibers are compressed and the individual weaves stressed, sealing out the water and resulting in a length of about 100 fathoms, the UK traditional definition of cable length. Using a cable, the raising of the anchor, or any activity involving submerging the cable, is not more\",\n \"-27.3612909796866\"\n ],\n [\n \"pencil attached to a plastic board by a short tether, and a way to attach these to a convenient point on the diver's equipment. Slates are particularly useful for information that must be written down prior to a dive and referenced during the dive: elements of the dive plan (depths, durations, decompression schedule) or a drawn map of the dive area. Buddy lines A buddy line is a line or strap physically tethering two scuba divers together underwater to avoid separation in low visibility conditions. A buddy line is usually a short length of about two meters with a\",\n \"-27.31807645363733\"\n ],\n [\n \"Barriers can be in the form of different configurations such as, sleeving, glovebags, containment tents, catch containments, bags, covers and protective clothing.\\nSleeving provided on rolls is often cut to length and used to cover radioactive material to prevent the spread of contamination during handling. Typically made of PVC or Polyurethane film formed into a flexible tube, sleeving can cover pipes, hoses, and cables to provide a protective layer. To handle odd-sized objects, adequately sized sleeving is opened so an object can be inserted into the tube which is then twisted to enclose the item at both ends. Tape can be\",\n \"-27.31188500591088\"\n ],\n [\n \"to drainage and automatic pool covers, there are a number of ways to remove humidity in the air that is present with any wet indoor environment. Efficient dehumidification in the indoor pool environment prevents structural damage, lowers energy costs in addition to improving the room's climate to make it a comfortable swimming environment. Other uses Swimming pools are also used for events such as synchronized swimming, water polo, canoe polo and underwater sports such as underwater hockey, underwater rugby, finswimming and sport diving as well as for teaching diving, lifesaving and scuba diving techniques. They have also been used for\",\n \"-27.304323271731846\"\n ],\n [\n \"the water.\\nMany public swimming pools are rectangles 25 m or 50 m long, but they can be any size and shape. There are also elaborate pools with artificial waterfalls, fountains, splash pads, wave machines, varying depths of water, bridges, and island bars.\\nSome swimming facilities have lockers for clothing and other belongings. The lockers can require a coin to be inserted in a slot, either as deposit or payment. There are usually showers - sometimes mandatory - before and/or after swimming. There are often also lifeguards to ensure the safety of users.\\nWading or paddling pools are shallow bodies of water intended for use\",\n \"-27.28845997618191\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the fibre cells' evolutionary origin from tracheids exists. During evolution the strength of the tracheid cell walls was enhanced, the ability to conduct water was lost and the size of the pits was reduced. Fibers that do not belong to the xylem are bast (outside the ring of cambium) and such fibers that are arranged in characteristic patterns at different sites of the shoot.\\nThe term \\\"sclerenchyma\\\" (originally Sclerenchyma) was introduced by Mettenius in 1865.\",\n \"-27.287612093088683\"\n ],\n [\n \"use nylon. The net will be black in color or occasionally green. The mesh size of the net will be 50mm and will commonly have a twine diameter ranging from 1.8mm – 3.0mm. Cricket nets are supplied from a knotless or knotted netting – as a rule of thumb knotted nets are considered to be superior. It is important to understand that twine thickness of knotted and knotless nets are not directly comparable as breaking strengths of knotted nets are higher than knotless. A good standard cricket net will be UV stabilized and rot proof. For people who construct their\",\n \"-27.281665239483118\"\n ],\n [\n \"is pulled out as a string. By measuring the resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness. Cable construction In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resin coating and an additional buffer layer, which may be further surrounded by a jacket layer, usually plastic. These layers add strength to the fiber but do not contribute to its optical wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing (\\\"dark\\\") glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between\",\n \"-27.254930621711537\"\n ],\n [\n \"loose-tube construction the fiber is laid helically into semi-rigid tubes, allowing the cable to stretch without stretching the fiber itself. This protects the fiber from tension during laying and due to temperature changes. Loose-tube fiber may be \\\"dry block\\\" or gel-filled. Dry block offers less protection to the fibers than gel-filled, but costs considerably less. Instead of a loose tube, the fiber may be embedded in a heavy polymer jacket, commonly called \\\"tight buffer\\\" construction. Tight buffer cables are offered for a variety of applications, but the two most common are \\\"Breakout\\\" and \\\"Distribution\\\". Breakout cables normally contain a ripcord,\",\n \"-27.236274505004985\"\n ],\n [\n \"should not be confused with a shore. While they may serve the same function, trench shoring is a different physical application that holds up the walls of a trench to prevent collapse.\\nIn the US, use of a trench shield is governed by OSHA 29 CFR Part 1926.650-.652 Subpart P-Excavations\",\n \"-27.203515749424696\"\n ],\n [\n \"Canal lining Canal lining is the process of reducing seepage loss of irrigation water by adding an impermeable layer to the edges of the trench. Seepage can result in losses of 30 to 50 percent of irrigation water from canals, so adding lining can make irrigation systems more efficient. Canal linings are also used to prevent weed growth, which can spread throughout an irrigation system and reduce water flow. Lining a canal can also prevent waterlogging around low-lying areas of the canal.\\nBy making a canal less permeable, the water velocity increases resulting in a greater overall discharge. Increased velocity also\",\n \"-27.19049192382954\"\n ],\n [\n \"light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications.\\n\\nFor indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a bundle of flexible fibrous polymer strength members like aramid (e.g. Twaron or Kevlar), in a lightweight plastic cover to form a simple cable. Each end of the cable may be terminated with a specialized optical fiber connector to allow it to be easily connected and disconnected from transmitting and receiving equipment. \\nFor use in more strenuous environments, a much more robust cable construction is required. In\",\n \"-27.184617184946546\"\n ],\n [\n \"to reach the ground, before travelling at least 20 metres laterally, which provides a substantial practise enclosure. Indoors nets are commonly multi lane, with 2 or 4 bay nets being particularly common. Unlike outdoor cricket nets where the netting is black, indoor nets tend to be white. They have a separate canvas screen which enclose the area immediately surrounding the batsman and rise to a height of 3 metres. The purpose of this is twofold; the netting to the sides and rear of the batsman has by far the highest work rate, canvas is significantly more durable to tradition mesh\",\n \"-27.168982694027363\"\n ],\n [\n \"same range of movement as the suit itself, and together should allow the diver to bend, squat, kneel, climb a ladder, fin and reach all critical parts of the diving equipment. Underwear which is flexible and stretches, particularly at the joints, will allow the diver more freedom of movement, and is less likely to chafe, and materials which resist compaction under light pressure will maintain a more even thickness in use, which will provide better insulation for the same overall volume.\\nFor cold-water use, especially diving under ice, the user will usually wear a thick undersuit in a membrane dry suit.\",\n \"-27.158525587175973\"\n ],\n [\n \"aesthetic appearances, swimsuits designed to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist the athlete in swim competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the efficiency of the swimmer's forward motion. The tight fits allow for easy movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration, thus reducing drag. This also reduces the possibility that a high forwards dive will remove a divers swimwear. Starting around 2000, in an effort to improve the effectiveness of the swimsuits, engineers have taken to designing them to replicate the skin of sea-based animals, sharks in particular.\\nIn July 2009, FINA voted to\",\n \"-27.125593839096837\"\n ],\n [\n \"Limber hole A limber hole is a drain hole through a frame or other structural member of a boat designed to prevent water from accumulating against one side of the frame, and allowing it to drain toward the bilge. Limber holes are common in the bilges of wooden boats. The term may be extended to cover drain holes in floors. Limber holes are created in between bulkheads so that one compartment does not fill with water. The limber holes allow water to drain into the lowest part of the bilge so that it can be pumped out\",\n \"-27.070780322887003\"\n ],\n [\n \"nets; monofilament is almost invisible underwater. Divers often carry a net cutter. This is a small handheld tool carried by scuba divers to extricate themselves if trapped by a fishing net or fishing line. It has a small sharp blade such as a replaceable scalpel blade inside the small notch. There is a small hole at the other end to for a lanyard to tether the cutter to the diver.\",\n \"-27.063138894038275\"\n ],\n [\n \"integrated into a swimming or diving mask. The integrated version is only suitable for surface snorkeling, while the separate device may also be used for underwater activities such as spearfishing, freediving, finswimming, underwater hockey, underwater rugby and for surface breathing with scuba equipment. A swimmer's snorkel is a tube bent into a shape often resembling the letter \\\"L\\\" or \\\"J\\\", fitted with a mouthpiece at the lower end and constructed of light metal, rubber or plastic. The snorkel may come with a rubber loop or a plastic clip enabling the snorkel to be attached to the outside of the head\",\n \"-27.05464693621616\"\n ],\n [\n \"by small children, usually in parks. Concrete wading pools come in many shapes, traditionally rectangle, square or circle. Some are filled and drained daily due to lack of a filter system. Staff chlorinate the water to ensure health and safety standards. Exercise pools In the last two decades, a new style of pool has gained popularity. These consist of a small vessel (usually about 2.5 × 5 m) in which the swimmer swims in place, either against the push of an artificially generated water current or against the pull of restraining devices. These pools have several names, such as swim\",\n \"-27.033405017311452\"\n ],\n [\n \"wells linked at the bottom. The technique involves the dry cutting with temporary sheathing pipes, of aligned drainage wells, with a diameter of 1200–1500 mm., positioned at an interaxis of 6–8 m., their bottoms linked together to a bottom tube for the discharge of drained water. In this way the water discharge takes place passively, due to gravity by perforated pipes with mini-tubes, positioned at the bottom of the wells themselves. The linking pipes, generally made of steel, are blind in the linking length and perforated or windowed in the length corresponding to the well. The wells have a concrete bung\",\n \"-27.030643111793324\"\n ],\n [\n \"is used in a wide variety of clothing products, such as footwear, gloves, hats, and coats. It became popular in outerwear jackets as early as 1985. The fibers are thinner in diameter than polyester fibres, so the material is used as a waterproof synthetic alternative to down.\\nIn 2015 Thinsulate was named as receipt of a ISPO Award as a Top 10 Insulation.\",\n \"-27.02443801763002\"\n ],\n [\n \"Slurry wall Construction While a trench is excavated to create a form for a wall, it is simultaneously filled with slurry (usually a mixture of bentonite and water). The dense but liquid slurry prevents the trench from collapsing by providing outward pressure, which balances the inward hydraulic forces and also retards water flow into the trench.\\nSlurry walls are typically constructed by starting with a set of guide walls, typically 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) deep and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. The guide walls are constructed on the ground surface to outline the desired slurry trench and guide the excavation\",\n \"-27.01676781460992\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fishing net A fishing net is a net used for fishing. Nets are devices made from fibers woven in a grid-like structure. Some fishing nets are also called fish traps, for example fyke nets. Fishing nets are usually meshes formed by knotting a relatively thin thread. Early nets were woven from grasses, flaxes and other fibrous plant material. Later cotton was used. Modern nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon, although nets of organic polyamides such as wool or silk thread were common until recently and are still used. Weights and anchors The Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, c. 5500 BC to\",\n \"-26.951940887374803\"\n ],\n [\n \"consists of \\\"marbles or other loose independent filling pieces\\\" sized to allow placement within the cells of a wire mesh. The purpose of the invention is described as providing \\\"a convenient and economical means of lettering, ornamenting, or filling\\\" the wire mesh.\\nCurrent products on the market include privacy slats that weave through the fence, plastic-shaped cups designed to clip into open cells, and two-part interlocking units which attach together at the crossover of fence wires.\",\n \"-26.93625879054889\"\n ],\n [\n \"construction, lining of walls is provided to prevent collapsing of wall due to loose or soft soil. While an average suranga is 26 metres (85 ft) meters deep, surangas up to 250 metres (820 ft) meters deep have also been recorded. Air shafts are constructed in longer surangas to supply fresh air and to expel poisonous gases.\\nThe surangas can be independent or can be connected with each other. The water can then be collected by using a temporary small barrier or dam with mud, which then can flow through a plastic or bamboo pipe into a storage pit or tank. After\",\n \"-26.929363498929888\"\n ],\n [\n \"an overhead environment may not be obvious. Guidelines are also useful in the event of silt out.\\nDistance lines are wound on to a spool or a reel. The length of the distance line used is dependent on the plan for the dive. An open water diver using the distance line only for a surface marker buoy may only need 50 metres / 165 feet, whereas a cave diver may use multiple reels of lengths from 50 ft (15 m) to 1000+ ft (300 m).\\nReels for distance lines may have a locking mechanism, ratchet or adjustable drag to control deployment of the line and a\",\n \"-26.92677085226751\"\n ],\n [\n \"Porocyte Porocytes are tubular cells which make up the pores of a sponge known as ostia. Description Covering the sponge is a layer of cells known as the pinacoderm, which is composed of pinacocytes. In a sponge, pinacocytes are a thin, elastic layer which keeps water out. Between the pinacocytes, there are the porocytes that allow water into the sponge. Myocytes are small muscular cells that open and close the porocytes. They also form a circular ring around the osculum and help in closing and opening of it. Once through the pores, water travels down canals. The opening to a\",\n \"-26.921247916354332\"\n ],\n [\n \"they help avoid water infiltration into the subfloor, and are most common in wetrooms. Sheet flooring may also be used with conventional skirting board, in imitation of rigid flooring. A concealed bathtub floor may be hidden behind skirting board (if the lower part of the back of the skirting board is cut away) or under a built-in cabinet. This also decreases the precision with which the sheet must be cut.\\nThe flooring may be glued down over its entire area, glued down only around the edges, or unglued, depending on the area. Depending on the size of the room and sheet,\",\n \"-26.900769056286663\"\n ],\n [\n \"Swimming pool A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or paddling pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground (in-ground pools) or built above ground (as a freestanding construction or as part of a building or other larger structure), and are also a common feature aboard ocean-liners and cruise ships. In-ground pools are most commonly constructed from materials such as concrete, natural stone, metal, plastic, or fiberglass, and can be of a custom size and shape or built to a standardized size, the largest of which\",\n \"-26.859914743807167\"\n ],\n [\n \"second mesh rubbing against the first causes the droplets to coalesce and run to the bottom of the meshes, where the water may be collected and led away. Parts of Fog Collector The fog collector is made up of three major parts: the frame, the mesh netting, and the trough or basin.\\nThe frame supports the mesh netting and can be made from a wide array of materials from stainless steel poles to bamboo. The frame can vary in shape. Proposed geometries include linear, similar to a fence and cylindrical. Linear frames are rectangles with the vertical endpoints embedded into the\",\n \"-26.851013977313414\"\n ],\n [\n \"shallow water. Oxygen cycle devices are much liked by combat divers and underwater photographers, as they make far fewer bubbles than aqualung-type (open circuit) sets, and those bubbles could betray the diver.\\nAnother operational area is fire protection, for instance in chemical industry or rescue in the mining industry, where need for a long use duration forbids use of compressed air sets. Advancements in rebreather design include special more-or-less complex gas proportioning and control devices, allowing use even deeper and even longer, for work divers, than emergency breathing sets and the type of sport diving called technical diving. Today's escape sets\",\n \"-26.83952731799218\"\n ],\n [\n \"hydraulic lines through machine, panel or enclosure walls, cable glands, self-sealing grommets or gland plates can be used to seal the cut-outs required for passing the cables through. This protects the inside of an enclosure or machine from dirt, dust or liquids.\\nCable glands and self-sealing grommets are usually designed for entering single or just a few cables. By utilising a gland plate, many cables with different diameters can be routed. Depending on the type, very high cable densities or ingress protection classes up to IP66/IP68 (according to IEC 60529) can be achieved. Split cable entry systems for cables with connectors\",\n \"-26.83602330996655\"\n ],\n [\n \"rubber improved the impermeability of cables to water.\\nMany early cables suffered from attack by sealife. The insulation could be eaten, for instance, by species of Teredo (shipworm) and Xylophaga. Hemp laid between the steel wire armouring gave pests a route to eat their way in. Damaged armouring, which was not uncommon, also provided an entrance. Cases of sharks biting cables and attacks by sawfish have been recorded. In one case in 1873, a whale damaged the Persian Gulf Cable between Karachi and Gwadar. The whale was apparently attempting to use the cable to clean off\",\n \"-26.809503190612304\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":282,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"5wd0d9"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why is a slice of pickle usually served on the side with sandwiches at restaurants?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Highly vinegared pickles are traditionally served with meats that have a high fat content. The vinegar cuts through the rich, heavy taste of the fat, balancing the whole thing. These days not all sandwiches use fatty meats, but that is how the tradition started: the pickle as pleasant counter to the fatty meat in the sandwich.","It's a palate cleanser - \"a neutral flavored element in food that enables to clear the palate from one flavor to another. Some widely used palate cleansers are sorbet, bread, apple slices, and pickles.\" ( URL_0 ) I'd assume the pickle was chosen based on how the flavor characteristics differ from the entree.","In the past (not anymore) pickles were made in a way that they contained probiotics (similar to kim chi or yogurt) So, people would put pickles in sandwiches with fatty meat (like a cuban sandwich) and it would help people to digest the fat from the meat. Edit: link with information about pickle history URL_0 ","I used to go to a restaurant in Orlando, FL (think pre-Disney small town, although it was the 80's) named Ronnie's. The waitresses were ALL over 70, dressed in strange 60's uniforms. Beautiful kosher deli food served in a diner style. On the table were: Small dill gherkins, medium dill pickles, mustard, and pickled onions. My stomach still grumbles that they're gone. Pickles on the side seem natural.","They are a cheap garnish URL_0 . And also because pickles are delicious.","Apparently this is not done everywhere. My friend from Australia recently asked me why she got a pickle with her sandwich, as she was not accustomed to the practice.","Because they want the pickle juice to get all over the other food, completely ruining the entire meal"],"string":"[\n \"Highly vinegared pickles are traditionally served with meats that have a high fat content. The vinegar cuts through the rich, heavy taste of the fat, balancing the whole thing. These days not all sandwiches use fatty meats, but that is how the tradition started: the pickle as pleasant counter to the fatty meat in the sandwich.\",\n \"It's a palate cleanser - \\\"a neutral flavored element in food that enables to clear the palate from one flavor to another. Some widely used palate cleansers are sorbet, bread, apple slices, and pickles.\\\" ( URL_0 ) I'd assume the pickle was chosen based on how the flavor characteristics differ from the entree.\",\n \"In the past (not anymore) pickles were made in a way that they contained probiotics (similar to kim chi or yogurt) So, people would put pickles in sandwiches with fatty meat (like a cuban sandwich) and it would help people to digest the fat from the meat. Edit: link with information about pickle history URL_0 \",\n \"I used to go to a restaurant in Orlando, FL (think pre-Disney small town, although it was the 80's) named Ronnie's. The waitresses were ALL over 70, dressed in strange 60's uniforms. Beautiful kosher deli food served in a diner style. On the table were: Small dill gherkins, medium dill pickles, mustard, and pickled onions. My stomach still grumbles that they're gone. Pickles on the side seem natural.\",\n \"They are a cheap garnish URL_0 . And also because pickles are delicious.\",\n \"Apparently this is not done everywhere. My friend from Australia recently asked me why she got a pickle with her sandwich, as she was not accustomed to the practice.\",\n \"Because they want the pickle juice to get all over the other food, completely ruining the entire meal\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Mixed pickle Mixed pickles are pickles made from a variety of vegetables mixed in the same pickling process. Mixed pickles are eaten much like other pickles: in small amounts to add flavor and to accent a meal. \nMixed pickles occur in many different world cuisines.\nIn U.S. cuisine, a mixed pickle consists of vegetables typically including cucumbers, cauliflower, cut large onions, and bell peppers, as well as spices like garlic, dill, allspice, and chili peppers, suspended in vinegar. Mixed pickles may also be categorized as sweet or sour depending on the addition of a sweetening agent like sugar.\nIn British cuisine, mixed","-36.60533823084552"],["horizontal slice. The slices range from 3 mm to 6 mm [1/4 to 1/8 inches] thick. This style of bagel was popularized by the St. Louis Bread Company, now known as Panera Bread. Generally, the bagels are sliced into eight pieces using a bread slicer, which produces characteristically precise cuts (the bagel is not torn or crushed while slicing). This particular method of preparation increases the surface area available for spreads (e.g., cream cheese, butter). However, it decreases the portability of the bagel and prevents formation of sandwiches. Other bagel styles As suggested above, other bagel styles can be found","-35.67851693049306"],["Fish slice (kitchen utensil) In British English, a fish slice is a kitchen tool with a wide flat blade with long holes in it, used for lifting and turning food while cooking. In American English, this is known as spatula. \nIt was originally a serving implement for fish, usually made of silver, antique examples of which commonly appear at auction. Fish slices were made of silver or Sheffield plate rather than steel to avoid the possibility of tainting the taste of the fish due a reaction between the fish and its lemon seasoning and the steel. After 1745, their","-35.01495339127723"],["of them are baguette bread sandwiches with different kinds of fillings such as \"jambon/beurre\" (ham with butter), \"jambon/fromage\" (ham with cheese) or \"poulet/crudités\" (chicken with vegetables).\nCrêpes are another common French street food. A crêpe complète containing ham, shredded cheese, and an egg provides a filling lunch. Sweet crêpes or waffles are sold with Nutella and banana or Grand Marnier and sugar.\nOther street foods include pizza, kebab-type sandwiches and panini, a grilled and pressed sandwich.\nDuring the winter, roasted chestnuts can be bought. Germany Bavarian Fleischkäse (also called Leberkäse), is similar to meatloaf, sliced to the thickness of a finger and generally","-34.70585064351326"],["pickles typically include small whole onions, gherkins, and cauliflower. Some specific kinds of British mixed pickle are Branston pickle (more properly termed a relish), and piccalilli (the latter also found in U.S. cuisine).\nIn Indian cuisine, a mixed Indian pickle is more likely to contain fruits (for example, mangos and limes) as well as vegetables. Indian pickle is prepared using oil, unlike western pickles, and is more likely to use lemon juice or some other acid as a souring agent instead of vinegar. There are regional variations in spicing and in the ingredients.\nRecipes for mixed pickles can also be found in","-34.69301210435515"],["of the Jalapeño and serrano varieties, pickled with onions, carrots and herbs form common condiments. Various pickled vegetables, fish, or eggs may make a side dish to a Canadian lunch or dinner. Popular pickles in the Pacific Northwest include pickled asparagus and green beans. Pickled fruits like blueberries and early green strawberries are paired with meat dishes in restaurants. \nIn some parts of the United States, pickles with Kool-Aid are a popular food for children.\nIn the United States, National Pickle Day is recognized as a food \"holiday\" every year on November 14. Mexico, Central America, and South America In","-34.435557626071386"],["pickles (in Mandarin Chinese: 咸菜 xiáncài / 榨菜 zhàcài) made with bailuobo, for example \"sour-sweet cut bailuobo\" (酸甜白蘿蔔塊), \"Spicy bailuobo\" (麻辣白蘿蔔), \"bailuobo zhacai\" (白蘿蔔榨菜), etc.\nIn Vietnamese cuisine, sweet and sour pickled daikon and carrots (củ cải cà rốt chua or đồ chua) are a common condiment in bánh mì sandwiches.\nIn the Philippines, the sour stew sinigang may include daikon.\nIn Pakistani cuisine, the young leaves of the daikon plant are boiled and flash fried with a mixture of heated oil, garlic, ginger, red chili, and a variety of spices. The radish is eaten as a fresh salad often seasoned with either","-34.33126940167858"],["pizzerias compete, vying to provide \"best\" slice in the city.\nThe dish is common in some areas of the Balkans, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia. In Bulgaria, it is a common street food that is purveyed by street vendors and street pizza booths.\nPizza by the slice is also manufactured as a frozen food, and is sometimes packaged in individual serving portions. One example is the Red Baron \"by the slice\" brand, which is a microwaveable product manufactured by Schwan's Company. Jumbo slice The jumbo slice is a large slice of New York-style pizza that is often","-34.328922098648036"],["a mixture of pickled peppers, celery and olives, is a popular condiment in Chicago and other cities with large Italian-American populations, and is often consumed with Italian beef sandwiches. Pickled eggs are common in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Pickled herring is available in the Upper Midwest. Pennsylvania Dutch Country has a strong tradition of pickled foods, including chow-chow and red beet eggs. In the Southern United States, pickled okra and watermelon rind are popular, as are deep-fried pickles and pickled pig's feet, pickled chicken eggs, pickled quail eggs, pickled garden vegetables and pickled sausage. In Mexico, chili peppers, particularly","-34.174165868178534"],["Braciola Cut of meat Braciola may refer to an Italian dish, consisting of slices of meat that are pan-fried or grilled, often in their own juice or in a small amount of light olive oil. They are different from the finer cut fettine (\"small/thin slices\"), which never have bone and are generally thinner. Involtini In Sicilian cuisine, Italian-American cuisine and Italian Australian cuisine, braciola (plural braciole) are thin slices of meat (typically pork, chicken, beef, or swordfish) that are rolled as a roulade (this category of rolled food is known as involtini in Italian) with cheese and bread crumbs and","-34.026984169948264"],["usually deep-fried from a flour dough, and typically either ring-shaped or without a hole and often filled.\nA sandwich is a food item commonly consisting of two or more slices of bread, with one or more fillings between them. Sandwiches are a widely popular type of lunch food, typically taken to work, school, or picnics to be eaten as part of a packed lunch. The bread can be used as it is, or it can be coated with any condiments to enhance flavor and texture. They are also widely sold in restaurants and cafes, served hot or cold.","-34.01557692105416"],["roll which is cut in half to make sandwiches. They do not usually contain any sort of dried fruit. They can be made with either white, brown, wholemeal, or Granary flour (a brand of flour produced by Hovis, made by malting wheat, crushing the grains, roasting them, and then mixing them with brown flour). A favourite way to eat them is to slice them into fingers, toast and then spread with butter and Bovril or Marmite. Scotland The Tunnock's Teacake, made in Scotland but popular throughout the UK, is a chocolate-coated marshmallow with a round biscuit base. The dome comprises","-34.01280638005119"],["franchisees. The chopped sirloin sandwiches are distinctive for being served on rye buns. Frisch's \"Filet de Sole\" fish sandwich was also widely adopted by other Big Boy franchises. Where Bob Wian called a sandwich with french fries and salad item a \"combination plate\", Frisch's began calling it a \"platter\" such as a Big Boy Platter, followed by several other Big Boy chains. Recent history In 1983, Frisch's introduced drive-thru service at many restaurants, although carhops were retained at a few Cincinnati locations. It added the soup and salad bar, and also remodeled, or demolished and completely rebuild older units. Frisch's","-34.00204710122489"],["Due to its ease of preparation and its minimal costs, the sandwich was also widely served in the mess halls and cafeterias of the mid-1900s.\nThis style of sandwich often makes use of leftovers from a previous meal. Substituting turkey for the chicken would make a hot turkey sandwich and substituting roast beef makes a variety of the roast beef sandwich. Pepito The pepito is a sandwich that is prepared with chicken or beef, beans or refried beans and a roll or bun as primary ingredients. It is a common street food in Mexico and Venezuela. Shredded chicken sandwich Found in","-33.888079191034194"],["Spiral vegetable slicer Spiral vegetable slicers (also known as spiralizers) are kitchen appliances used for cutting vegetables, such as zucchinis (to make zoodles), potatoes, cucumbers, carrots, apples, parsnips, and beetroots, into linguine-like strands which can be used as an alternative to pasta. Popularity According to Good Housekeeping and US News, spiralizers were a hot trending item as of September 2014. The LA Times stated that spiralizers became popular in the spring of 2014. Spiralizers are especially popular among people following the Paleo diet, other low-carb diets, and raw vegans. Functionality Spiralizers usually contain three blades: a round blade for spaghetti,","-33.840551592584234"],["Tomato slicer A tomato slicer is an apparatus designed to slice tomatoes and other soft fruits and vegetables.\nTomato slicers have been sold since the 1950s. A tomato slicer was patented in the United States in 1968, by Clayton Giangiulio.","-33.822909988230094"],["Unlike the round pizza normally found in restaurants, which originated in Naples as a street food itself, it is generally baked on large square trays, and square or rectangular portions are sold. It usually has quite a thick base, again unlike the traditional Italian restaurant pizza.\nToppings include margherita, mushrooms, Italian sausage, ham, and vegetables.\nOther street foods are the Genoese focaccia di recco (a double layer of thin dough filled with quark cheese and baked); farinata (a thin, baked chickpea-flour batter, topped with salt, pepper and olive oil), which is often served with focaccia (a thin bread, also with salt and","-33.81312887603417"],["Chopt Fare No sugar is used in any of their salad dressings. Agave nectar and honey are used as replacements in sweet dressings. Besides salads, \"salad sandwiches\" are also purveyed, which are essentially the salads wrapped in tortillas. Food Prep A long bar is present at every restaurant, with three stations occupying the bar. The first is where customers order their salad or salad-sandwich. The second is where the food is chopped with a mezzaluna knife then dressed, and the third is the cashier, where customers go to pay.","-33.78641583964054"],["and beef\", and \"pier and steer\". Rounding out an American steak dinner is some sort of bread, usually a dinner roll.\nSpecial steak knives are provided, which are usually serrated, though straight blades also work; they also often have wooden handles. Prepared condiments known as steak sauces are generally on the table in steakhouses. Tenderized round or sirloin steaks, breaded, and pan-fried or deep-fried, are called chicken fried or country fried steaks, respectively. An iconic specialty of Philadelphia is the Philly Cheesesteak, composed of thinly sliced ribeye or other tender cuts, cooked on a hot griddle and shredded slightly,","-33.74347398278769"],["It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and mezze are served as side dishes to the main meal. The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with the mezze and salad. The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also popular) to make maraqa, which is served with rice. Most households add bread. Drinks are not necessarily served with","-33.732488246110734"],["meat. Crackers were substituted for bread because they could last longer in grocery coolers. The cheese was provided by Kraft when Oscar Mayer merged with Kraft in 1988. The design of the package was based on the look of an American TV dinner.\nThe term Lunchables emerged from a list of possible names for the prepackaged meal that included, among others: On-Trays, Crackerwiches, Mini Meals, Lunch Kits, Snackables, Square Meals, Walk Meals, Go-Packs, and Fun Mealz. Lunchables combinations Lunchables offers 26 different varieties of meal combinations, which include crackers, pizzas, chicken nuggets, small hot dogs, small burgers, nachos, subs, and wraps.","-33.70904786477331"],["the plate. When served as sandwiches, they are known as emparedado de milanesa or sandwich de milanesa when tomatoes, onions, lettuce, ketchup and/or American cheese (known as queso amarillo i.e. yellow cheese). Sandwich bread and pan flauta (a Panamanian type of baguette that is thicker and softer) are the types used to make these sandwiches. Panado In Portugal, breaded cutlet is called bife panado or just panado (which means \"breaded\" in Portuguese). Different varieties of panado can be made with chicken (panado de frango), turkey (panado de peru), pork (costeleta panada for pork chop, febra panada for pork without bone),","-33.69966958242003"],["meat patties are superficially cooked, the edges browned with a torch and the meat made to look more appetizing with a colorant. The edges of melted cheese slices may be brushed with household cleaner to make them look freshly melted longer. Condiments such as mayonnaise are applied to the edges with an applicator bottle. Steam is normally used to suggest the burger is hot.\nSandwiches are assembled using similar techniques. Wet paper towels are used to prevent the bread from drying out. If a half sandwich is to be depicted, the bread and the components are individually sliced with scissors and","-33.68276141278329"],["of the pan, often including other ingredients such as butter, shallots, and/or Dijon mustard. Common side dishes to steak au poivre are various forms of mashed potatoes and pommes frites (small fried shoestring potatoes). Steak au poivre may be found in traditional French restaurants in most urban areas.","-33.68155575846322"],["a luxury and was only served on holidays.\nSomeone came up with a strategy: cut the whole chicken into thin slices and sell it by slice. This strategy proved to be very effective, and \"chicken slices\" gained a good reputation. However, another problem occurred: a kitchen knife could not cut a whole chicken into slices evenly, and customers are often picky when making purchases. However, it was found that beating the chicken into pieces with a giant stick would solve this problem. At the same time, juice broth infuses into the chicken and adds flavor. When preparing the dish, one holds","-33.663641002814984"],["meats and vegetables. The broad rectangular blade also serves to scoop up chopped food for transport to the wok or bowl. Although it may seem unwieldy, skilled practitioners worldwide may be observed using this style of knife for everything — even carving and fine work normally accomplished with a paring knife. Peeling or tourné knife Also known as a bird's beak knife, a peeling knife has a pointed tip that curves downward (sometimes upward) and from side to side (towards the blade). It can be used to cut decorative garnishes (such as rosettes or fluted mushrooms), slice soft fruits, or","-33.627846183720976"],["Julienning Julienne, allumette, or french cut, is a culinary knife cut in which the food item is cut into long thin strips, similar to matchsticks. Common items to be julienned are carrots for carrots julienne, celery for céléris remoulade, or potatoes for Julienne Fries. \nTrimming the ends of the vegetable and the edges to make four straight sides makes it easier to produce a uniform cut. Trimmings can be used for stocks, soups, purees, etc. The measurement for julienne is 1–2 mm × 1–2 mm × 4–5 cm (0.04–0.08 in × 0.04–0.08 in × 1.6–2 in). Julienne usually","-33.61694934198749"],["Tiep Recipe It is a preparation of fresh or dried fish, and rice (rice Wolof), cooked with vegetables (such as cassava, pumpkin, cabbage, carrot, turnip, or eggplant), parsley, tomato paste, peppers, garlic and onions. Originally made with fish, it is nowadays frequent to see it served with beef or even chicken. By Country Originally from Senegal, the traditional recipe includes fish, rice, tomato and onions. However, tiep is commonly consumed in several countries in West Africa. Depending on the country, the recipe and the ingredients change—even the method of cooking can differ. In Mali, tiep is known as \"tieb,\"","-33.609205203305464"],["including the hero sandwich (also, depending on the region of the United States, called a 'wedge,' a 'hoagie,' a 'sub,' or a 'grinder') made on a Italian loaf of bread with lots of salami, cheese, and peppers.\n— John Mariani, America Eats Out, p. 66\nSubs or their national equivalents were already popular in many European, Asian and Australasian countries when late 20th-century franchisee chain restaurants and fast food made them even more popular and increased the prevalence of the word sub. Many outlets offer non-traditional ingredient combinations.\nIn the United States, there are many chain restaurants that specialize in subs. Major international chains","-33.588827186846174"],["vegetarian alternative. Mustard and sometimes honey mustard are common condiments. Upscale variations include, for example, the oyster club, the salmon club, and Dungeness crab melt. \nThe sandwich is commonly served with an accompaniment of either coleslaw, or potato salad, and often garnished with a pickle. The coleslaw or potato salad is often reduced to a \"garnish\" portion, when the primary accompaniment is an order of french fries or potato chips. Due to high fat and carb content from the bread, bacon and dressing, club sandwiches have sometimes been criticized as unhealthy. In 2000, Burger King came under fire for","-33.58722352748737"],["In a typical package, such as the crackers meal combination, it contains an equal number of crackers and small slices of meat and cheese. The brand also created two versions targeting adults, by increasing the amount of food offered in each package, but these have since been discontinued. The first was called the \"Deluxe\" and contained two types of meats and cheeses as well as mustard and a mint. The second version, called \"Maxed Out\" (originally Mega Packs), was available with 40% more food than a regular Lunchables.\nLunchables also carries an assortment of drinks and desserts. In certain meal combinations,","-33.55089504894568"],["flatbreads (bing 饼) and street foods such as chuan (串, also pronounced chuan) are often eaten with the hands. Service In many western countries there are catering businesses that supply finger foods for events such as weddings, engagements, birthdays and other milestone celebrations. For weddings, in particular, finger foods are becoming more popular because they are less expensive and offer more flexibility with menu choices. Gourmet hors d'oeuvres such as quiches, pâté, caviar, and tea sandwiches are suitable for a formal event, whereas more familiar food such as sliced fruits, deli trays, crackers, and cookies are preferred at more casual","-33.548904227791354"],["concluding, \"A sandwich is not commonly understood to include burritos, tacos and quesadillas, which are typically made with a single tortilla and stuffed with a choice filling of meat, rice, and beans.\" However, the Qdoba in Shrewsbury has since closed, while Moe's Southwest Grill and Chipotle Mexican Grill remain open across the street. But Qdoba revived and opened with Whole Foods in Lakeway Commons which is also in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts.","-33.5287927830359"],["used, depending on the region and personal preference. Common methods include being cooked on a griddle, fried in a pan, or made in a panini grill or sandwich toaster. This last method is more common in the United Kingdom, where the sandwiches are normally called \"toasted sandwiches\" or \"toasties\", and in Australia, where they are called \"jaffles\". Other methods such as baking in an oven or toaster oven, or in a toasting bag in an electric toaster, may be employed.\nThe sandwich is typically served as a snack or lunchtime meal, often with a side of salad, soup, french fries, or","-33.485309130192036"],["can be square.\nIt was then cut into triangular sections similar to a sponge cake section and was a regular addition in a working man's lunch box (the whole meal was known as bagging, snap or packing). The sad cake was a filler for eating either after one's sandwiches or as a separate tea break snack during the working day in the cotton mills and coal mines of Lancashire. A spread of margarine, butter or even jam was placed on top. It may be eaten with sandwiches of jam and crumbly soft Lancashire cheese. Chorley cake Street Fair The October \"Chorley","-33.43357276674942"],["in parts of the United States. Codzitos are small tacos popular in the Yucatán Peninsula, which are fastened with toothpicks and then fried . Flautas, also called taquitos or tacos dorados, are similar to tacos in that they are filled, but they are then rolled and fried. They are served topped with cream, salsa, and vegetables such as lettuce, tomatoes and onions. Tamales Lonely Planet travel guide ranked tamales as among the best street food in the world. Tamales come in sweet and savory versions, some spicy and some bland. Versions with pork or chicken with a salsa or","-33.372187671178835"],["It is also used as a vegetable with Chapatis & Rotis.\nIn the United Kingdom, scallions are normally chopped and added to mashed potatoes, or as an added ingredient to potato salad.\nIn the southern Philippines, it is ground in a mortar along with ginger and chili pepper to make a native condiment called wet palapa, which can be used to spice dishes or as a topping for fried or sun-dried food. It can also be used to make the dry version of palapa, when it is stir fried with fresh coconut shavings and wet palapa.\nDuring the Passover meal (Seder), Persian","-33.35009074880509"],["the pickles.\nIn Greece, pickles, called τουρσί(α), are made out of carrots, celery, eggplants stuffed with diced carrots, cauliflower, tomatoes, and peppers. Northern Europe In Britain, pickled onions and pickled eggs are often sold in pubs and fish and chip shops. Pickled beetroot, walnuts, and gherkins, and condiments such as Branston Pickle and piccalilli are typically eaten as an accompaniment to pork pies and cold meats, sandwiches or a ploughman's lunch. Other popular pickles in the UK are pickled mussels, cockles, red cabbage, mango chutney, sauerkraut, and olives. Rollmops are also quite widely available under a range of names from various","-33.32419664086774"],["Platter (dinner) A platter is a meal or course served on a platter.\nIn restaurant terminology, a platter is often a main dish served on a platter with one or more side dishes, such as a salad or french fries.\nNotable platters includes the Colombian bandeja paisa, Indian thali or Arabic mixed-meat platters.","-33.28687958267983"],["Calzone In Italy Sandwich-sized calzones are often sold at Italian lunch counters or by street vendors, because they are easy to eat while standing up or walking. Fried versions of the calzone are typically filled with tomato and mozzarella: these are made in Apulia and are called panzerotti.\nThe Sicilian cuddiruni or cudduruni pizza is distantly related to the calzone. This is a dish stuffed with onions (or sometimes other vegetables, such as potatoes or broccoli), anchovies, olives, cheese and mortadella; the rolled pizza dough is folded in two over the stuffing and the edges are sealed before the dish","-33.2865490600816"],["Breaded cutlet Chicken fingers Chicken fingers or chicken tenders are an American dish prepared by breading and deep frying the pectoralis minor muscle of the chicken, which is the smaller cut of the chicken breast located along its underside, attached to the ribs. Chicken fried steak Chicken fried steak (also known as country fried steak) is an American breaded cutlet dish that may have originated with German and Austrian immigrants to Texas in the 19th century. It is a piece of beef steak (tenderized cubed steak) coated with seasoned flour and fried. It is associated with Southern U.S. cuisine. Its","-33.280556984915165"],["or veal (escalope de vitela panado). The meat is usually seasoned with black pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. It is commonly served with spaghetti, fried potatoes, or rice (plain or with beans). It is also popular as a sandwich, served in a bun with lettuce (sandes de panado). Parmesan In North America, chicken parmigiana is an Italian-American dish, consisting of a breaded chicken breast topped with tomato sauce and mozzarella, Parmesan or provolone cheese. It is commonly offered as a sit-down entree, with a side of Italian-style pasta. It is also offered as a submarine sandwich.\nIn Australia, chicken","-33.24756505759433"],["or olive oil is poured on the slab, and the meat is cooked over it like in a pan. It is a very common form of fondue in South America. Traditions and etiquette A tradition says that if a man loses his bread in the pot, he buys drinks all around.\nFondue is eaten by spearing a piece of bread on a fork, swirling it in the pot, and putting it into the mouth. Some writers recommend that the dipping fork be used only to transport the food from the pot to one's plate, not to eat from.\nThe choice of beverage","-33.2187683514785"],["that sell food: \"bifes\" and \"milanesas\" are served \"a caballo\" (\"on horseback\", with fried egg on top), \"milanesa completa\" (a milanesa with two fried eggs and French fries), \"revuelto Gramajo\", \"colchón de arvejas\" (an omelette made with peas), \"suprema de pollo\" (chicken supreme, usually breaded as a milanesa), matambres, \"lengua a la vinagreta\" (pickled tongue), and \"sandwiches\" (sandwiches de miga) are made with sliced white bread, rather than, say, rolls.\nThe most common sandwiches are those made of milanesa, baked ham and cheese, 'pan de miga, toast, pebetes, panchos (hot dogs), choripanes, morcipanes, etc.; from Montevideo comes a different species of","-33.196097490879765"],["straight-edged blade tends to compress the cake rather than slice it. Forks, electric serrated knives, special tined cutters, or a strong thread should be used instead.\nAngel food cake is usually baked in a tube pan, a tall, round pan with a tube up the center that leaves a hole in the middle of the cake. A bundt pan may also be used, but the fluted sides can make releasing the cake more difficult. The center tube allows the cake batter to rise higher by 'clinging' to all sides of the pan. The angel food cake pan should not be greased,","-33.19020972507133"],["buffet) and everyone partaking using their bare hands (kamayan). Another traditional method of serving food is by placing it on a banana-leaf liner placed over a woven bilao (a winnowing basket made of bamboo). The bilao is normally a farm implement used for removing chaff from grains, although there are now smaller woven trays or carved wooden plates of the same kind in Filipino restaurants used specifically for serving food. Banana leaves are also commonly used in wrapping food (binalot), and are valued for the aroma they impart to the food. Specific Philippine dishes that use banana leaves include suman","-33.14842226098881"],["the diner will use them. In the West, forks, plate, butter knife, and napkin generally are placed to the left of the dinner plate, and knives, spoons, stemware and tumblers, cups, and saucers to the right. (By contrast, formal settings in Armenia place the fork to the right of the dinner plate and informal settings in Turkey place the fork to the right of the dinner plate if not accompanied by a knife) Sauceboats and serving dishes, when used, either are placed on the table or, more formally, may be kept on a side table. Informal At","-33.130236043885816"],["Paupiette A paupiette is a piece of meat, beaten thin, and rolled with a stuffing of vegetables, fruits or sweetmeats. It is often featured in recipes from Normandy. It is often fried or braised, or baked in wine or stock. They are very popular in France, being sold ready-prepared in supermarkets and butchers. Paupiettes can be made with various items such as chicken, beef, lamb, fish, veal, cabbage, turkey escalopes or slices of calves' sweetbreads.\nA paupiette is a type of roulade and sometimes called a braciole. Paupiette may also refer to a classic French fish dish whereby a thin slice","-33.11982733646437"],["or caramelized peanuts, local sweets and others. Colombia In Colombia, the empanada, a deep-fried meat-filled patty, is sold. It is also a very popular side dish. Various types of arepa are also a common street food. Also popular is the chuzo (meat skewer), consisting of pork or chicken speared shish-kebab style on a thin wooden stake (hence the name chuzo, from chuzar meaning \"to pierce or spear\") and cooked over charcoal on a pushcart. Most chuzos are garnished with a small arepa at the top and a small roasted potato at the bottom. Morcilla, various sausages, chicharrón and chinchurria are","-33.104396070266375"],["communities occur, due to commercially produced varieties. The slow-roasted Piedmontese version is called coppa cotta.\nCapocollo is esteemed for its delicate flavor and tender, fatty texture, and is often more expensive than most other salumi. In many countries, it is often sold as a gourmet food item. It is usually sliced thin for use in antipasto or sandwiches such as muffulettas, Italian grinders and subs, and panini, as well as some traditional Italian pizza.","-33.08752192754764"],["courses are served right off the cooking spit and are sliced or plated right at the table. Sometimes, they are accompanied with fried potatoes, fried bananas, collard greens, black beans, and rice (self-served buffet style).\nIn many restaurants, the diner is provided with a colored card. Green, on one side, indicates to servers to bring more meat. Red, on the other side, indicates that the diners have enough meat for the moment.","-33.059283313690685"],["1970s casseroles took on a less-than sophisticated image. Method In the United States and continental Europe, casseroles usually consist of: pieces of meat (such as chicken or ground meat) or fish (such as tuna), various chopped vegetables, a starchy binder (such as flour, potato or pasta), and often a crunchy or cheesy topping. Liquids are released from the meat and vegetables during cooking, and further liquid in the form of stock, wine, beer (for example lapin à la Gueuze), gin, cider, vegetable juice, or even water may be added when the dish is assembled. Casseroles are usually cooked slowly","-33.049578064121306"],["Canada, mille-feuille is often named gâteaux Napoléon or Napoleon slice (in English Canada). It is sold either with custard, whipped cream, or both, between three layers of puff pastry. Almond paste is the most common flavoured variety. There is a French Canadian way where the mille-feuille is made with graham crackers instead of puff pastry, and where pudding replaces the custard layer.\nIn South Africa and Zimbabwe, it is called a custard slice.\nIn Australia it is called a custard slice or a vanilla slice, colloquially, it is referred to as a snot block or puss pie. It is made","-33.04733498918358"],["Meat slicer A meat slicer, also called a slicing machine, deli slicer or simply a slicer, is a tool used in butcher shops and delicatessens to slice meats, sausages, cheeses and other deli products. Older models of meat slicer may be operated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor. While the slicer is traditionally a commercial apparatus, domestic use versions are also marketed.","-32.99446540471399"],["Bento Bento (弁当 bentō) is a single-portion take-out or home-packed meal common in Japanese cuisine. A traditional bento holds rice or noodles, fish or meat, with pickled and cooked vegetables, in a box. Containers range from mass-produced disposables to hand-crafted lacquerware. Bento are readily available in many places throughout Japan, including convenience stores, bento shops (弁当屋 bentō-ya), railway stations, and department stores. However, Japanese homemakers often spend time and energy on carefully prepared lunch boxes for their spouses, children, or themselves.\nBentos can be elaborately arranged in a style called \"kyaraben\" (\"character bento\"). Kyaraben are typically decorated to look like popular","-32.99314530321135"],["may be prepared using two slices of toasted sourdough bread, mayonnaise, pastrami, lettuce, tomato slices. Preparation involves placing the pastrami on a toasted slice of sourdough bread and topping it with the lettuce and tomato slices. Mayonnaise may be spread on the second slice of sourdough, and placed on top of the sandwich.","-32.98706278478494"],["Twist (cocktail garnish) A twist is a piece of citrus zest used as a cocktail garnish, generally for decoration and to add flavor when added to a mixed drink.\nThere are a variety of ways of making and using twists. Twists are typically cut from a whole fresh fruit with a small kitchen knife immediately prior to serving, although a peeler, citrus zesters, or other utensil may be used. A curled shape may come from cutting the wedge into a spiral, winding it around a straw or other object, or as a byproduct of the cutting.\nThe name may refer to the","-32.96437364348094"],["usage In kitchen utensils, a spatula is any utensil fitting the above description. One variety is used to lift and flip food items during cooking, such as pancakes and fillets (known in British English as a fish slice). The blades on these are usually made of metal or plastic, with a wooden or plastic handle to insulate them from heat. A cookie shovel is a specialty spatula with a larger blade, made for scooping cookies off their pan or cooking sheet.\nA frosting spatula is also known as palette knife and is usually made of metal or plastic.\nBowl and plate scrapers","-32.93612819444388"],["the main ingredient in the Mexican dish carnitas and in the Caribbean dishes lechon asado and pernil.\nIn Mexican Spanish, this cut is also known as the espaldilla (literally \"little back\").\nIn Argentina, this cut is incredibly popular and is known as bondiola.\nIn Korea, the cut is known as moksal (목살; literally \"neck meat\").","-32.918255338357994"],["complementary choice of side salad or steamed vegetables is also commonly offered. Balkan region In the Balkan region, steak is often rubbed with mustard and pepper, and marinated in vinegar and vegetable oil for up to a week. It is then fried in butter, and a slice of toast is then used to soak up the pan drippings. The steak is served on the toast and topped with optional fried egg and a sprig of parsley. France In France, steak, locally called bifteck, is usually served with fried potatoes (pommes frites in French). The combination is known as steak-frites. Vegetables","-32.912703547408455"],["on weck is a sandwich found primarily in Western New York. It is made with roast beef on a kummelweck roll topped with salt and caraway seeds. The meat on the sandwich is traditionally served rare, thin cut, with the top bun getting a dip au jus and topped with horseradish. Chivito sandwich The chivito sandwich is a national dish in Uruguay, and consists primarily of a thin slice of filet mignon (churrasco beef), with mozzarella, tomatoes, mayonnaise, black or green olives, and commonly also bacon, fried or hard-boiled eggs and ham. It is served in a bun, often with","-32.89997979195323"],["Spuccadella The spuccadella is an Italian-American bread roll that has a long, pointed shape. It is used in the preparation of the spuckie sandwich, which is what the Italian sandwich is referred to in East Boston, Massachusetts. The spuckie is still available in some sandwich shops in the Boston area. The Italian American word \"spuccadella\" does not exist in the written Italian of Italy, but it may be derived from the common Italian word \"spaccatella,\" a kind of \"panino\" or bread roll, with rounded ends, that could be used for sandwich making.","-32.87198136863299"],["refers only to an item which uses sliced bread from a loaf. An item with similar fillings, but using an entire bread roll cut horizontally in half, is always referred to as a roll. (In South Australia, there is a regional variant of the roll, superficially similar to a club sandwich, where the bread roll is sliced three times with parallel cuts, and filling is put in the first and third openings, but not the second. This makes the resulting double cut roll easier to handle: the top half and the bottom half are eaten separately.) Any hot item based","-32.82386362995021"],["on a cast-iron plate in Acapulco.\nThe food was popularized by various businesses such as Ninfa's in Houston, the Hyatt Regency in Austin, and numerous restaurants in San Antonio. In southern Arizona, the term was unknown except as a cut of meat until the 1990s, when Mexican fast food restaurants started using the word in their marketing. In recent years, fajitas have become popular at American casual dining restaurants as well as in home cooking.\nIn many restaurants, the fajita meat and vegetables is brought to the table sizzling loudly on a metal platter or skillet, along with warmed tortillas and condiments","-32.80748989485437"],["a large thin pancake made of buckwheat flour, often cooked on one side only.\nCrêpes are popular in many South American countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. They are consumed with sweet fillings (marmalade, dulce de leche) or with salty fillings (ground meat (Brazil), vegetables, tomato sauce, cheese).\nThey have also become popular East Asian countries, including Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, Thailand and China, where they are sold in crêpe stands and kiosks. They are often served with whipped cream and fruits, or non-sweet spreads such as vegetables.\nFarinata are popular in Mediterranean regions, including Nice. Also called socca, these are","-32.80005543681909"],["Menudo (soup) Cultural significance Menudo is traditionally prepared by the entire family, and often serves as an occasion for social interactions such as after wedding receptions where the families of the groom and bride go to either family's house to enjoy a bowl of menudo before and after the ceremony. It is also a pseudoscientific remedy for recovery from alcoholic consumption.\nMenudo is time intensive to prepare, as the tripe takes hours to cook. It includes many ingredients and side dishes (such as salsa), and garnished with chopped onions, chiles, cilantro, and often with lime juice; it is often prepared communally","-32.760919193096925"],["Escalope An escalope is a piece of boneless meat that has been thinned out using a mallet, rolling pin or beaten with the handle of a knife, or merely butterflied. The mallet breaks down the fibers in the meat, making it more tender. But the thinner meat cooks faster with more moisture loss. The meat is then coated and fried. Escalope is often breaded and considered the healthy option for diners. Common sizes The typical sizes of an escalope used in the food industry range from 110 to 225 g (4–8 oz). Paillard or scallop Paillard is an older French culinary","-32.75271725737548"],["Canadian greasy spoon diners focus on fried or grilled food, such as Salisbury steak, fish and chips, deep fried chicken, sausages, bacon, waffles, pancakes, fried or scrambled eggs, and omelettes. Sandwiches are also popular, including hamburgers, steak sandwiches, and deli meats. These are often accompanied by sides of baked beans, hash browns, toast, french fries, coleslaw. Soups and chili con carne are generally available. Regional fare is often served. Since the 1970s, many Greek immigrants have entered the business. As a result, native Greek cuisine such as gyro and souvlaki meats are now a common part of the repertoire, often","-32.74558549034555"],["Tiella Tiella is a dish in Italian cuisine that is prepared with potato, rice, onion and mussels as primary ingredients. Additional ingredients may be used. Variations of the dish exist, and some may be prepared with other types of seafood. The round earthenware dish in which tiella is traditionally cooked is also referred to as a \"tiella\". Tiella is part of the cuisine of Apulia in southern Italy. It may also be found in coastal areas of Calabria.\nIn Gaeta, Lazio, Italy, tiella is a specialty dish of the region prepared in the style of a pocket sandwich, using seafood such","-32.70079149544472"],["aesthetic of nouvelle cuisine emphasizes minimalism, serving fewer courses and utilizing simple plating. Chefs were extremely creative in constructing innovative recipes and plating. Bento Box A bento box is a Japanese meal traditionally consisting of rice, meat/fish, and vegetables served in a portable box. In Japan, as well as in the United States, a large focus is placed on the aesthetic arrangement of the food. There have even been contests to see who can come up with the most inventive way of creating bento boxes, allowing for creativity in amateur chefs and everyday people. Sometimes bento boxes are used to","-32.67508581034781"],["for mincing and chopping. Some mincing knives are supplied with a wooden cutting board with a circular bowl-shaped indentation that matches the curvature of the knife. Some models have two blades that are parallel to each other to increase their mincing power.\nLarge mezzaluna-like knives with shallow curves are sometimes used to cut pizza, though the rolling pizza cutter is more common for this purpose. Cutting board A cutting board is kitchen utensil used in conjunction with a knife. It is a flat surface, generally made of either wood, plastic or glass (glass are less common because they dull the blade;","-32.62958298641024"],["a side of French fries. Other ingredients might be added into the sandwich such as red beets, peas, grilled or pan-fried red peppers, and slices of cucumber. Corned beef sandwich The corned beef sandwich is a sandwich prepared with corned beef. The salt beef style corned beef sandwiches are traditionally served with mustard and a pickle. In the United Kingdom, pickle is a common addition to a corned beef sandwich. French dip The French dip sandwich is a hot sandwich consisting of thinly sliced roast beef (or, sometimes, other meats) on a \"French roll\" or baguette. It is usually served","-32.61846877705466"],["for manipulating food in the plate and as an alternative for a knife. Often dishes require slicing before serving or sliced into small portions before cooking to relinquish the use of a knife. Placement of forks Tables are often set with two or more forks, meant to be used for different courses; for example, a salad fork, a meat fork, and a dessert fork. Some institutions wishing to give an impression of high formality set places with many different forks for meals of several courses, although many etiquette authorities regard this as vulgar and prefer that the appropriate cutlery be","-32.60631696834753"],["- but serving the same function. Butter knife Butter knives have a dull cutting edge and are generally used for spreading. They are typically thought of more as servingware (used more as part of a table setting), to be used by diners to serve and/or spread butter or other soft spreadable foods, i.e. soft cheeses or jams, than as a kitchen or food preparation tool.\nA modern variant that is intended for food prep is the 'sandwich spreader' - a broad, flexible, almost spatula-like tool, with a rounded end and often with one serrated edge, similar to that used by pastry","-32.60536529929959"],["Manchette (cuisine) In cuisine a manchette is a paper frill attached to the exposed end of a bone of a cooked piece of meat.\nManchettes are typically applied to the legs of roasted poultry and the bones of roasted pork or lamb. One particular dish often decorated with manchettes is the crown roast of lamb or pork.\nManchettes were originally of practical use: they allowed a cut of meat to be held with one hand securely and without the hand becoming greasy, leaving the other hand free to carve meat from the bone.","-32.59891727089416"],["the US or Canada might instead refer to these more thickly-cut chips as steak fries or potato wedges, depending on the shape, as the word chips is more often used to refer to potato chips, known in the UK and Ireland as crisps.\nThomas Jefferson had \"potatoes served in the French manner\" at a White House dinner in 1802. The expression \"french fried potatoes\" first occurred in print in English in the 1856 work Cookery for Maids of All Work by E. Warren: \"French Fried Potatoes. – Cut new potatoes in thin slices, put them in boiling fat, and a little","-32.57697818626184"],["the Philippines in Southeast Asia. Philippines In the Philippines, bistek Tagalog, a specialty of the Tagalog provinces, is typically made with strips of sirloin beef and onions slowly cooked in soy sauce and calamansi juice. Unlike usual beefsteak that has different degrees of doneness, Filipino bistek is always served well done. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, steak is often served with medium-thick fried potatoes (chips), fried onions, mushrooms, and tomatoes; however, in more expensive restaurants, it is more likely to be served with potatoes and other vegetables and offered with a selection of cooked sauces such as red wine,","-32.573230828595115"],["Eating utensil etiquette Chopstick etiquette In many East Asian cultures, it is impolite to point with chopsticks. It is also considered impolite to leave chopsticks resting in a bowl when not in use, and instead should be laid beside the meal. Leaving chopsticks in a bowl is believed to resemble offerings to the deceased or spirits. Fork etiquette When used in conjunction with a knife to cut and consume food in Western social settings, two forms of fork etiquette are common. In the European style, the diner keeps the fork in his or her left hand, while in the American","-32.570484042866156"],["to choose from, the fork farthest from the plate should be used, leaving the closer one for the main course. Similarly, if you start with soup, select the spoon that is farthest from the plate.\n\nMany restaurants set the table with a bread plate and water glass at each seat before patrons arrive. The bread plate goes to the left of the plate, and the beverage to the right. To avoid drinking from the wrong glass or taking a bite of your neighbor's bread, use the following trick if you forget which is yours:\nTouch both your index fingers to","-32.55771567253396"],["and beans, cooked together or apart. When cooked together the recipe is called \"congri\" or \"Moros\" or \"Moros y Cristianos\" (black beans and rice). If cooked separately it is called \"arroz con frijoles\" (rice with beans) or \"arroz y frijoles\" (rice and beans). Cuban sandwich A Cuban sandwich (sometimes called a mixto, especially in Cuba) is a popular lunch item that grew out of the once-open flow of cigar workers between Cuba and Florida (specifically Key West and the Ybor City neighborhood of Tampa) in the late 1800s and has since spread to other Cuban American communities.\nThe sandwich is built","-32.55754188253195"],["Sanguchería Butifarra Among the many types of sandwiches one finds the traditional butifarra, made normally from pork loin cooked in a traditional Limeña manner called locally jamón del país, accompanied with fresh lettuce, salsa criolla, and occasionally a touch of mustard.\nThis sandwich arose from the culinary exchange between Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru. Later it was popularized in the fondas and bars of the immigrant Italian community, such as the Bar Cordano and the Bodega Carbone in the historic city center of Lima; Juanito in the Barranco District; La Lucha Sanguchería Criolla in Miraflores; the Antigua Taberna Queirolo in","-32.55167517479276"],["bread or sandwiches, plain or with cheese, often served for breakfast or as a snack, with manchego, mató, or Picón cheese. It is also often used to stuff pastries. Regional variations In Spain, Uruguay, Argentina, Mexico, Chile and Ecuador the quince (Spanish membrillo) is cooked into a reddish gelatin-like block or firm reddish paste known as dulce de membrillo. The Pastafrola, a sweet tart common in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, is usually filled with quince paste. In Argentina and Uruguay, a slice of quince cheese (dulce de membrillo) eaten with a slice of soft cheese is considered the national dessert.","-32.53291074885783"],["in a 1799 edition of The Times. British piccalilli British piccalilli contains various vegetables—invariably cauliflower, onion, and gherkin—and seasonings of mustard and turmeric. A more finely chopped variety \"sandwich piccalilli\" is also available from major British supermarkets. It is used as an accompaniment to foods such as sausages, bacon, eggs, toast, cheese, and tomatoes. It is usually used to accompany a dish on a plate rather than as a bread spread. It is popular as a relish with cold meats such as ham and head cheese, and with a ploughman's lunch. It is produced both commercially and domestically, being a","-32.52525536582107"],["Wiener schnitzel. However, it is a cutlet rather than an escalope, and it is traditionally cooked with its rib. Originally from Milan, it can now be found all over the country.\nIn Spain, breaded cutlet is normally called escalope milanesa in restaurants when served with French fries and a slice of lemon. When eaten in a sandwich, it is simply called filete empanado. It is usually made of veal or beef. Chicken is called pollo empanado, and pork is not usual.\nCotoletta was first documented in 1148 (Saint Ambrose's archive, Milan) in Latin: \"Lumbolos cum panicio\". Kotlet schabowy Polish kotlet schabowy is","-32.51510828649043"],["small amount of hoisin sauce is spread onto the pancake, then some moo shu pork is placed in the center of the pancake. The bottom of the pancake is folded up (to prevent the contents from falling out), then the sides of the pancake are folded or wrapped, in the manner of a soft taco. Unlike the practice in wrapping a burrito, the top is usually not folded over, as the pancake is generally eaten immediately and thus there is no danger of the food falling out of the top, which is the part that is eaten first. Because the","-32.511410457547754"],["oven to the diner's table, and served halved with a large slab of butter in between the halves. This item is sometimes criticised for containing too much fat and cholesterol. Other common variants The pineapple bun may come in miniature sizes (迷你菠蘿包), it may be used as a bread roll for sandwiches with luncheon meat (餐肉菠蘿包), or it may be pre-stuffed with red bean paste (紅豆菠蘿包), custard cream (奶黃菠蘿包), barbecued pork (叉燒菠蘿包), or a sweet filling of shredded coconut (椰絲菠蘿包) like that in a cocktail bun. It is possible to order a \"pineapple pineapple bun\", actually stuffed with pineapple (菠蘿菠蘿包),","-32.48706072762798"],["earlier times, mass-produced graham crackers were typically prepared using yeast-leavened dough, which added flavor to the food via the process of fermentation, whereas contemporary mass-production of the product typically omits this process. The dough is sometimes chilled before being rolled out, which prevents blistering and breakage from occurring when the product is baked. Uses Graham cracker crumbs are used to create graham cracker crusts for pies and moon pie, and as a base, layer or topping for cheesecake. Graham cracker pie crusts are also mass-produced in the United States, and consumer versions of the product typically consist of a graham","-32.43978784428327"],["and fried. In Argentina, a milanesa napolitana is topped with ham, melted mozzarella cheese and tomato slices or tomato sauce.\nDue to the strong influence of Italian culture in Brazil, breaded cutlets are known as filé à milanesa (Milanese steak) or bife à milanesa. It is found easily in street restaurants and often cooked at home. Servings often include white rice, salted brown or black beans, mashed potatoes or French fries, lettuce and tomato salad. Milanesa sandwiches are somewhat less common, and there is also the parmigiana version - filé à milanesa with tomato sauce, ham, and melted mozzarella cheese.\nIn Colombia,","-32.41245970269665"],["Tajada Tajada \"slices\" is a dish of fried plantains that are sliced long. It is a typical food of Caribbean countries as well as Nicaragua, Colombia, Honduras, Panama, and Venezuela. It is sometimes served with grated cheese.","-32.404181700708364"],["apart in supermarkets. Milanesas Milanesa (from Italian cotoletta alla milanese) is a thin breaded cutlet that can be veal, chicken or fish.\nBreading consists of three successive steps that its order defines mostly the character of the milanesa, most of Montevideo's bars and old style restaurants make breading starting with egg so that the latest dip is also egg, this method generated by galician and Spanish barists leaves a coat of egg that turns into a film at frying, it is a curious variation that is often served on those restaurants because the main breading has inverse order and is the","-32.39014486222368"],["sandwich called the chivito, even though it contains no goat meat.\nPicadas, which are consumed at home or in bars, cafés, \"cafetines\" and \"bodegones\" are also popular; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of salame, olives in brine, french fries, maníes (peanuts), etc.; picadas are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (\"fernet\", beer, wine with soda, to give some common examples).\nThe people of Argentina greatly enjoy helado (ice creams of Italian lineage or sorbets Spanish lineage). In Spanish colonial times a type of sorbet was made from","-32.37233981047757"],["In a basket Food served in a basket, a basket platter or a basket with fries is a sandwich or other main dish that is served on top of a basket of an accompanying foodstuff, usually french fries. The \"basket\" is usually either made of plastic and lined with paper, or is simply a disposable paperboard box or tray. Sometimes the basket contains other side dishes as well, such as a container of coleslaw or a pickle. This term is common in the Midwestern U.S.. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom chicken in a basket, fried chicken on","-32.35987949198079"],["by Ray Cardell. Historically, club sandwiches featured slices of chicken, but with time, turkey has become increasingly common. Ingredients As with a BLT, toasted white bread is standard, along with iceberg lettuce, bacon, and tomatoes. The sandwich is traditionally dressed with mayonnaise. However variations on the traditional club sandwich abound. Some vary the protein, for example, a \"breakfast club\" that includes eggs or a \"roast beef club.\" Others include ham (instead of, or in addition to bacon) and/or cheese slices. Vegetarian club sandwiches often include hummus, avocado or spinach, as well as substitute the real bacon with a","-32.35643145383801"],["dough strings called kaka pizon, meaning \"pigeon droppings,\" are also eaten in neighboring Reunion Island, and home-made yogurts, are all commonly sold on the street. In rural areas, steamed cassava or sweet potatoes are eaten, occasionally with fresh or sweetened condensed milk. Morocco Typical street food includes bessara, crumbed liver, spicy sardines, and brochettes, Fricassé de saucisses, Boubouch (Hot spicy snail soup), Salty Chips Cornet, Jaban (Candy), Soffa (coton candy), Kefta Sandwich, Corn, Hommos Kamún, And a wide range of soups according to the region.\nIn the northern side of the country, Ze3za3 (a typical juice) and calenté (Or karane, calentica)","-32.323804582432786"],["thus clumping together like cookie dough. This is important, as it allows the veggie burger to stick together to form the patty. Forming the patties The mixture is now put into an automatic patty-making machine or press. The press then punches out the patties into a disc shape onto a conveyor belt underneath. A constant spray of water may also be used to prevent any of the mixture from sticking to machinery parts. Once on the conveyor tray, the patties move along to be put onto baking trays. Baking the patties Patties are first inspected to make sure they are","-32.31615979387425"],["\"menu\" written on a huge chalkboard behind the counter) was to combine the sandwich and side of fries, held (grilled) together with eggs as a binding unit, straight from the grill into a hoagie bun. The sandwich was then wrapped in a sheet of newspaper and handed to the customer. This was done so the customer could then go back to his (hopefully loaded) truck and drive back to his shop while managing to eat the sandwich while driving without getting it all over his lap.\nIt has also been a tradition for the late night crowd to go","-32.30067705758847"],["them \"Mexi-Fries\", while Taco Bell used to sell them as \"Mexi-Nuggets\" and \"Border Fries\". Taco Mayo in the Southwest offers round disc-shaped tater tots called \"Potato Locos.\" Taco John's also has coin shaped tots called \"Potato Olés\". Oceania In Australia and New Zealand, they are known as \"potato gems\", \"potato royals\" or \"potato pom-poms\". The New Zealand Pizza Hut franchise offers \"Hash Bites\" as a side dish, available alone or with an aioli dipping sauce.","-32.29586143227425"],["chicken fillet roll is a baguette filled with a spicy or plain breaded chicken fillet and a mayonnaise and/or butter spread. \"Hot chicken\" sandwich The hot chicken sandwich or simply \"hot chicken\" (Quebec French: sandwich chaud au poulet) is a type of chicken sandwich consisting of chicken, sliced bread, and gravy (which is generally poutine sauce). The sandwich is usually served with green peas and commonly found in Eastern Canadian cuisine. It's especially popular in Quebec and is often considered one of the province's staple dishes. Since it is so commonly found in eateries of Quebec (Rôtisserie St-Hubert, Valentine, e.g.)","-32.29532998667855"],["bundle of fresh herbs used as an ingredient in stocks, soups, and sauces. Freshly chopped green parsley is used as a topping for soups such as chicken soup, green salads, or salads such as salade Olivier, and on open sandwiches with cold cuts or pâtés.\nPersillade is a mixture of chopped garlic and chopped parsley in French cuisine.\nParsley is the main ingredient in Italian salsa verde, which is a mixed condiment of parsley, capers, anchovies, garlic, and sometimes bread, soaked in vinegar. It is an Italian custom to serve it with bollito misto or fish. Gremolata, a mixture of parsley, garlic,","-32.280257771897595"],["Mezzaluna A mezzaluna (/ˌmɛtsəˈluːnə/; Italian: [ˌmɛddzaˈluːna]) is a knife consisting of one or more curved blades with a handle on each end, which is rocked back and forth chopping the ingredients below with each movement. They most commonly have a single blade, but are sometimes seen with two or three blades.\nIt is typically used for mincing herbs or garlic, but it can be used for chopping other things such as cheese or meat. Very large single blade versions are sometimes used for pizza. Common uses in Italy include preparation of a soffritto or a pesto, etc. Name Mezzaluna means","-32.277477479947265"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Mixed pickle Mixed pickles are pickles made from a variety of vegetables mixed in the same pickling process. Mixed pickles are eaten much like other pickles: in small amounts to add flavor and to accent a meal. \\nMixed pickles occur in many different world cuisines.\\nIn U.S. cuisine, a mixed pickle consists of vegetables typically including cucumbers, cauliflower, cut large onions, and bell peppers, as well as spices like garlic, dill, allspice, and chili peppers, suspended in vinegar. Mixed pickles may also be categorized as sweet or sour depending on the addition of a sweetening agent like sugar.\\nIn British cuisine, mixed\",\n \"-36.60533823084552\"\n ],\n [\n \"horizontal slice. The slices range from 3 mm to 6 mm [1/4 to 1/8 inches] thick. This style of bagel was popularized by the St. Louis Bread Company, now known as Panera Bread. Generally, the bagels are sliced into eight pieces using a bread slicer, which produces characteristically precise cuts (the bagel is not torn or crushed while slicing). This particular method of preparation increases the surface area available for spreads (e.g., cream cheese, butter). However, it decreases the portability of the bagel and prevents formation of sandwiches. Other bagel styles As suggested above, other bagel styles can be found\",\n \"-35.67851693049306\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fish slice (kitchen utensil) In British English, a fish slice is a kitchen tool with a wide flat blade with long holes in it, used for lifting and turning food while cooking. In American English, this is known as spatula. \\nIt was originally a serving implement for fish, usually made of silver, antique examples of which commonly appear at auction. Fish slices were made of silver or Sheffield plate rather than steel to avoid the possibility of tainting the taste of the fish due a reaction between the fish and its lemon seasoning and the steel. After 1745, their\",\n \"-35.01495339127723\"\n ],\n [\n \"of them are baguette bread sandwiches with different kinds of fillings such as \\\"jambon/beurre\\\" (ham with butter), \\\"jambon/fromage\\\" (ham with cheese) or \\\"poulet/crudités\\\" (chicken with vegetables).\\nCrêpes are another common French street food. A crêpe complète containing ham, shredded cheese, and an egg provides a filling lunch. Sweet crêpes or waffles are sold with Nutella and banana or Grand Marnier and sugar.\\nOther street foods include pizza, kebab-type sandwiches and panini, a grilled and pressed sandwich.\\nDuring the winter, roasted chestnuts can be bought. Germany Bavarian Fleischkäse (also called Leberkäse), is similar to meatloaf, sliced to the thickness of a finger and generally\",\n \"-34.70585064351326\"\n ],\n [\n \"pickles typically include small whole onions, gherkins, and cauliflower. Some specific kinds of British mixed pickle are Branston pickle (more properly termed a relish), and piccalilli (the latter also found in U.S. cuisine).\\nIn Indian cuisine, a mixed Indian pickle is more likely to contain fruits (for example, mangos and limes) as well as vegetables. Indian pickle is prepared using oil, unlike western pickles, and is more likely to use lemon juice or some other acid as a souring agent instead of vinegar. There are regional variations in spicing and in the ingredients.\\nRecipes for mixed pickles can also be found in\",\n \"-34.69301210435515\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the Jalapeño and serrano varieties, pickled with onions, carrots and herbs form common condiments. Various pickled vegetables, fish, or eggs may make a side dish to a Canadian lunch or dinner. Popular pickles in the Pacific Northwest include pickled asparagus and green beans. Pickled fruits like blueberries and early green strawberries are paired with meat dishes in restaurants. \\nIn some parts of the United States, pickles with Kool-Aid are a popular food for children.\\nIn the United States, National Pickle Day is recognized as a food \\\"holiday\\\" every year on November 14. Mexico, Central America, and South America In\",\n \"-34.435557626071386\"\n ],\n [\n \"pickles (in Mandarin Chinese: 咸菜 xiáncài / 榨菜 zhàcài) made with bailuobo, for example \\\"sour-sweet cut bailuobo\\\" (酸甜白蘿蔔塊), \\\"Spicy bailuobo\\\" (麻辣白蘿蔔), \\\"bailuobo zhacai\\\" (白蘿蔔榨菜), etc.\\nIn Vietnamese cuisine, sweet and sour pickled daikon and carrots (củ cải cà rốt chua or đồ chua) are a common condiment in bánh mì sandwiches.\\nIn the Philippines, the sour stew sinigang may include daikon.\\nIn Pakistani cuisine, the young leaves of the daikon plant are boiled and flash fried with a mixture of heated oil, garlic, ginger, red chili, and a variety of spices. The radish is eaten as a fresh salad often seasoned with either\",\n \"-34.33126940167858\"\n ],\n [\n \"pizzerias compete, vying to provide \\\"best\\\" slice in the city.\\nThe dish is common in some areas of the Balkans, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia. In Bulgaria, it is a common street food that is purveyed by street vendors and street pizza booths.\\nPizza by the slice is also manufactured as a frozen food, and is sometimes packaged in individual serving portions. One example is the Red Baron \\\"by the slice\\\" brand, which is a microwaveable product manufactured by Schwan's Company. Jumbo slice The jumbo slice is a large slice of New York-style pizza that is often\",\n \"-34.328922098648036\"\n ],\n [\n \"a mixture of pickled peppers, celery and olives, is a popular condiment in Chicago and other cities with large Italian-American populations, and is often consumed with Italian beef sandwiches. Pickled eggs are common in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Pickled herring is available in the Upper Midwest. Pennsylvania Dutch Country has a strong tradition of pickled foods, including chow-chow and red beet eggs. In the Southern United States, pickled okra and watermelon rind are popular, as are deep-fried pickles and pickled pig's feet, pickled chicken eggs, pickled quail eggs, pickled garden vegetables and pickled sausage. In Mexico, chili peppers, particularly\",\n \"-34.174165868178534\"\n ],\n [\n \"Braciola Cut of meat Braciola may refer to an Italian dish, consisting of slices of meat that are pan-fried or grilled, often in their own juice or in a small amount of light olive oil. They are different from the finer cut fettine (\\\"small/thin slices\\\"), which never have bone and are generally thinner. Involtini In Sicilian cuisine, Italian-American cuisine and Italian Australian cuisine, braciola (plural braciole) are thin slices of meat (typically pork, chicken, beef, or swordfish) that are rolled as a roulade (this category of rolled food is known as involtini in Italian) with cheese and bread crumbs and\",\n \"-34.026984169948264\"\n ],\n [\n \"usually deep-fried from a flour dough, and typically either ring-shaped or without a hole and often filled.\\nA sandwich is a food item commonly consisting of two or more slices of bread, with one or more fillings between them. Sandwiches are a widely popular type of lunch food, typically taken to work, school, or picnics to be eaten as part of a packed lunch. The bread can be used as it is, or it can be coated with any condiments to enhance flavor and texture. They are also widely sold in restaurants and cafes, served hot or cold.\",\n \"-34.01557692105416\"\n ],\n [\n \"roll which is cut in half to make sandwiches. They do not usually contain any sort of dried fruit. They can be made with either white, brown, wholemeal, or Granary flour (a brand of flour produced by Hovis, made by malting wheat, crushing the grains, roasting them, and then mixing them with brown flour). A favourite way to eat them is to slice them into fingers, toast and then spread with butter and Bovril or Marmite. Scotland The Tunnock's Teacake, made in Scotland but popular throughout the UK, is a chocolate-coated marshmallow with a round biscuit base. The dome comprises\",\n \"-34.01280638005119\"\n ],\n [\n \"franchisees. The chopped sirloin sandwiches are distinctive for being served on rye buns. Frisch's \\\"Filet de Sole\\\" fish sandwich was also widely adopted by other Big Boy franchises. Where Bob Wian called a sandwich with french fries and salad item a \\\"combination plate\\\", Frisch's began calling it a \\\"platter\\\" such as a Big Boy Platter, followed by several other Big Boy chains. Recent history In 1983, Frisch's introduced drive-thru service at many restaurants, although carhops were retained at a few Cincinnati locations. It added the soup and salad bar, and also remodeled, or demolished and completely rebuild older units. Frisch's\",\n \"-34.00204710122489\"\n ],\n [\n \"Due to its ease of preparation and its minimal costs, the sandwich was also widely served in the mess halls and cafeterias of the mid-1900s.\\nThis style of sandwich often makes use of leftovers from a previous meal. Substituting turkey for the chicken would make a hot turkey sandwich and substituting roast beef makes a variety of the roast beef sandwich. Pepito The pepito is a sandwich that is prepared with chicken or beef, beans or refried beans and a roll or bun as primary ingredients. It is a common street food in Mexico and Venezuela. Shredded chicken sandwich Found in\",\n \"-33.888079191034194\"\n ],\n [\n \"Spiral vegetable slicer Spiral vegetable slicers (also known as spiralizers) are kitchen appliances used for cutting vegetables, such as zucchinis (to make zoodles), potatoes, cucumbers, carrots, apples, parsnips, and beetroots, into linguine-like strands which can be used as an alternative to pasta. Popularity According to Good Housekeeping and US News, spiralizers were a hot trending item as of September 2014. The LA Times stated that spiralizers became popular in the spring of 2014. Spiralizers are especially popular among people following the Paleo diet, other low-carb diets, and raw vegans. Functionality Spiralizers usually contain three blades: a round blade for spaghetti,\",\n \"-33.840551592584234\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tomato slicer A tomato slicer is an apparatus designed to slice tomatoes and other soft fruits and vegetables.\\nTomato slicers have been sold since the 1950s. A tomato slicer was patented in the United States in 1968, by Clayton Giangiulio.\",\n \"-33.822909988230094\"\n ],\n [\n \"Unlike the round pizza normally found in restaurants, which originated in Naples as a street food itself, it is generally baked on large square trays, and square or rectangular portions are sold. It usually has quite a thick base, again unlike the traditional Italian restaurant pizza.\\nToppings include margherita, mushrooms, Italian sausage, ham, and vegetables.\\nOther street foods are the Genoese focaccia di recco (a double layer of thin dough filled with quark cheese and baked); farinata (a thin, baked chickpea-flour batter, topped with salt, pepper and olive oil), which is often served with focaccia (a thin bread, also with salt and\",\n \"-33.81312887603417\"\n ],\n [\n \"Chopt Fare No sugar is used in any of their salad dressings. Agave nectar and honey are used as replacements in sweet dressings. Besides salads, \\\"salad sandwiches\\\" are also purveyed, which are essentially the salads wrapped in tortillas. Food Prep A long bar is present at every restaurant, with three stations occupying the bar. The first is where customers order their salad or salad-sandwich. The second is where the food is chopped with a mezzaluna knife then dressed, and the third is the cashier, where customers go to pay.\",\n \"-33.78641583964054\"\n ],\n [\n \"and beef\\\", and \\\"pier and steer\\\". Rounding out an American steak dinner is some sort of bread, usually a dinner roll.\\nSpecial steak knives are provided, which are usually serrated, though straight blades also work; they also often have wooden handles. Prepared condiments known as steak sauces are generally on the table in steakhouses. Tenderized round or sirloin steaks, breaded, and pan-fried or deep-fried, are called chicken fried or country fried steaks, respectively. An iconic specialty of Philadelphia is the Philly Cheesesteak, composed of thinly sliced ribeye or other tender cuts, cooked on a hot griddle and shredded slightly,\",\n \"-33.74347398278769\"\n ],\n [\n \"It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and mezze are served as side dishes to the main meal. The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with the mezze and salad. The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also popular) to make maraqa, which is served with rice. Most households add bread. Drinks are not necessarily served with\",\n \"-33.732488246110734\"\n ],\n [\n \"meat. Crackers were substituted for bread because they could last longer in grocery coolers. The cheese was provided by Kraft when Oscar Mayer merged with Kraft in 1988. The design of the package was based on the look of an American TV dinner.\\nThe term Lunchables emerged from a list of possible names for the prepackaged meal that included, among others: On-Trays, Crackerwiches, Mini Meals, Lunch Kits, Snackables, Square Meals, Walk Meals, Go-Packs, and Fun Mealz. Lunchables combinations Lunchables offers 26 different varieties of meal combinations, which include crackers, pizzas, chicken nuggets, small hot dogs, small burgers, nachos, subs, and wraps.\",\n \"-33.70904786477331\"\n ],\n [\n \"the plate. When served as sandwiches, they are known as emparedado de milanesa or sandwich de milanesa when tomatoes, onions, lettuce, ketchup and/or American cheese (known as queso amarillo i.e. yellow cheese). Sandwich bread and pan flauta (a Panamanian type of baguette that is thicker and softer) are the types used to make these sandwiches. Panado In Portugal, breaded cutlet is called bife panado or just panado (which means \\\"breaded\\\" in Portuguese). Different varieties of panado can be made with chicken (panado de frango), turkey (panado de peru), pork (costeleta panada for pork chop, febra panada for pork without bone),\",\n \"-33.69966958242003\"\n ],\n [\n \"meat patties are superficially cooked, the edges browned with a torch and the meat made to look more appetizing with a colorant. The edges of melted cheese slices may be brushed with household cleaner to make them look freshly melted longer. Condiments such as mayonnaise are applied to the edges with an applicator bottle. Steam is normally used to suggest the burger is hot.\\nSandwiches are assembled using similar techniques. Wet paper towels are used to prevent the bread from drying out. If a half sandwich is to be depicted, the bread and the components are individually sliced with scissors and\",\n \"-33.68276141278329\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the pan, often including other ingredients such as butter, shallots, and/or Dijon mustard. Common side dishes to steak au poivre are various forms of mashed potatoes and pommes frites (small fried shoestring potatoes). Steak au poivre may be found in traditional French restaurants in most urban areas.\",\n \"-33.68155575846322\"\n ],\n [\n \"a luxury and was only served on holidays.\\nSomeone came up with a strategy: cut the whole chicken into thin slices and sell it by slice. This strategy proved to be very effective, and \\\"chicken slices\\\" gained a good reputation. However, another problem occurred: a kitchen knife could not cut a whole chicken into slices evenly, and customers are often picky when making purchases. However, it was found that beating the chicken into pieces with a giant stick would solve this problem. At the same time, juice broth infuses into the chicken and adds flavor. When preparing the dish, one holds\",\n \"-33.663641002814984\"\n ],\n [\n \"meats and vegetables. The broad rectangular blade also serves to scoop up chopped food for transport to the wok or bowl. Although it may seem unwieldy, skilled practitioners worldwide may be observed using this style of knife for everything — even carving and fine work normally accomplished with a paring knife. Peeling or tourné knife Also known as a bird's beak knife, a peeling knife has a pointed tip that curves downward (sometimes upward) and from side to side (towards the blade). It can be used to cut decorative garnishes (such as rosettes or fluted mushrooms), slice soft fruits, or\",\n \"-33.627846183720976\"\n ],\n [\n \"Julienning Julienne, allumette, or french cut, is a culinary knife cut in which the food item is cut into long thin strips, similar to matchsticks. Common items to be julienned are carrots for carrots julienne, celery for céléris remoulade, or potatoes for Julienne Fries. \\nTrimming the ends of the vegetable and the edges to make four straight sides makes it easier to produce a uniform cut. Trimmings can be used for stocks, soups, purees, etc. The measurement for julienne is 1–2 mm × 1–2 mm × 4–5 cm (0.04–0.08 in × 0.04–0.08 in × 1.6–2 in). Julienne usually\",\n \"-33.61694934198749\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tiep Recipe It is a preparation of fresh or dried fish, and rice (rice Wolof), cooked with vegetables (such as cassava, pumpkin, cabbage, carrot, turnip, or eggplant), parsley, tomato paste, peppers, garlic and onions. Originally made with fish, it is nowadays frequent to see it served with beef or even chicken. By Country Originally from Senegal, the traditional recipe includes fish, rice, tomato and onions. However, tiep is commonly consumed in several countries in West Africa. Depending on the country, the recipe and the ingredients change—even the method of cooking can differ. In Mali, tiep is known as \\\"tieb,\\\"\",\n \"-33.609205203305464\"\n ],\n [\n \"including the hero sandwich (also, depending on the region of the United States, called a 'wedge,' a 'hoagie,' a 'sub,' or a 'grinder') made on a Italian loaf of bread with lots of salami, cheese, and peppers.\\n— John Mariani, America Eats Out, p. 66\\nSubs or their national equivalents were already popular in many European, Asian and Australasian countries when late 20th-century franchisee chain restaurants and fast food made them even more popular and increased the prevalence of the word sub. Many outlets offer non-traditional ingredient combinations.\\nIn the United States, there are many chain restaurants that specialize in subs. Major international chains\",\n \"-33.588827186846174\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegetarian alternative. Mustard and sometimes honey mustard are common condiments. Upscale variations include, for example, the oyster club, the salmon club, and Dungeness crab melt. \\nThe sandwich is commonly served with an accompaniment of either coleslaw, or potato salad, and often garnished with a pickle. The coleslaw or potato salad is often reduced to a \\\"garnish\\\" portion, when the primary accompaniment is an order of french fries or potato chips. Due to high fat and carb content from the bread, bacon and dressing, club sandwiches have sometimes been criticized as unhealthy. In 2000, Burger King came under fire for\",\n \"-33.58722352748737\"\n ],\n [\n \"In a typical package, such as the crackers meal combination, it contains an equal number of crackers and small slices of meat and cheese. The brand also created two versions targeting adults, by increasing the amount of food offered in each package, but these have since been discontinued. The first was called the \\\"Deluxe\\\" and contained two types of meats and cheeses as well as mustard and a mint. The second version, called \\\"Maxed Out\\\" (originally Mega Packs), was available with 40% more food than a regular Lunchables.\\nLunchables also carries an assortment of drinks and desserts. In certain meal combinations,\",\n \"-33.55089504894568\"\n ],\n [\n \"flatbreads (bing 饼) and street foods such as chuan (串, also pronounced chuan) are often eaten with the hands. Service In many western countries there are catering businesses that supply finger foods for events such as weddings, engagements, birthdays and other milestone celebrations. For weddings, in particular, finger foods are becoming more popular because they are less expensive and offer more flexibility with menu choices. Gourmet hors d'oeuvres such as quiches, pâté, caviar, and tea sandwiches are suitable for a formal event, whereas more familiar food such as sliced fruits, deli trays, crackers, and cookies are preferred at more casual\",\n \"-33.548904227791354\"\n ],\n [\n \"concluding, \\\"A sandwich is not commonly understood to include burritos, tacos and quesadillas, which are typically made with a single tortilla and stuffed with a choice filling of meat, rice, and beans.\\\" However, the Qdoba in Shrewsbury has since closed, while Moe's Southwest Grill and Chipotle Mexican Grill remain open across the street. But Qdoba revived and opened with Whole Foods in Lakeway Commons which is also in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts.\",\n \"-33.5287927830359\"\n ],\n [\n \"used, depending on the region and personal preference. Common methods include being cooked on a griddle, fried in a pan, or made in a panini grill or sandwich toaster. This last method is more common in the United Kingdom, where the sandwiches are normally called \\\"toasted sandwiches\\\" or \\\"toasties\\\", and in Australia, where they are called \\\"jaffles\\\". Other methods such as baking in an oven or toaster oven, or in a toasting bag in an electric toaster, may be employed.\\nThe sandwich is typically served as a snack or lunchtime meal, often with a side of salad, soup, french fries, or\",\n \"-33.485309130192036\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be square.\\nIt was then cut into triangular sections similar to a sponge cake section and was a regular addition in a working man's lunch box (the whole meal was known as bagging, snap or packing). The sad cake was a filler for eating either after one's sandwiches or as a separate tea break snack during the working day in the cotton mills and coal mines of Lancashire. A spread of margarine, butter or even jam was placed on top. It may be eaten with sandwiches of jam and crumbly soft Lancashire cheese. Chorley cake Street Fair The October \\\"Chorley\",\n \"-33.43357276674942\"\n ],\n [\n \"in parts of the United States. Codzitos are small tacos popular in the Yucatán Peninsula, which are fastened with toothpicks and then fried . Flautas, also called taquitos or tacos dorados, are similar to tacos in that they are filled, but they are then rolled and fried. They are served topped with cream, salsa, and vegetables such as lettuce, tomatoes and onions. Tamales Lonely Planet travel guide ranked tamales as among the best street food in the world. Tamales come in sweet and savory versions, some spicy and some bland. Versions with pork or chicken with a salsa or\",\n \"-33.372187671178835\"\n ],\n [\n \"It is also used as a vegetable with Chapatis & Rotis.\\nIn the United Kingdom, scallions are normally chopped and added to mashed potatoes, or as an added ingredient to potato salad.\\nIn the southern Philippines, it is ground in a mortar along with ginger and chili pepper to make a native condiment called wet palapa, which can be used to spice dishes or as a topping for fried or sun-dried food. It can also be used to make the dry version of palapa, when it is stir fried with fresh coconut shavings and wet palapa.\\nDuring the Passover meal (Seder), Persian\",\n \"-33.35009074880509\"\n ],\n [\n \"the pickles.\\nIn Greece, pickles, called τουρσί(α), are made out of carrots, celery, eggplants stuffed with diced carrots, cauliflower, tomatoes, and peppers. Northern Europe In Britain, pickled onions and pickled eggs are often sold in pubs and fish and chip shops. Pickled beetroot, walnuts, and gherkins, and condiments such as Branston Pickle and piccalilli are typically eaten as an accompaniment to pork pies and cold meats, sandwiches or a ploughman's lunch. Other popular pickles in the UK are pickled mussels, cockles, red cabbage, mango chutney, sauerkraut, and olives. Rollmops are also quite widely available under a range of names from various\",\n \"-33.32419664086774\"\n ],\n [\n \"Platter (dinner) A platter is a meal or course served on a platter.\\nIn restaurant terminology, a platter is often a main dish served on a platter with one or more side dishes, such as a salad or french fries.\\nNotable platters includes the Colombian bandeja paisa, Indian thali or Arabic mixed-meat platters.\",\n \"-33.28687958267983\"\n ],\n [\n \"Calzone In Italy Sandwich-sized calzones are often sold at Italian lunch counters or by street vendors, because they are easy to eat while standing up or walking. Fried versions of the calzone are typically filled with tomato and mozzarella: these are made in Apulia and are called panzerotti.\\nThe Sicilian cuddiruni or cudduruni pizza is distantly related to the calzone. This is a dish stuffed with onions (or sometimes other vegetables, such as potatoes or broccoli), anchovies, olives, cheese and mortadella; the rolled pizza dough is folded in two over the stuffing and the edges are sealed before the dish\",\n \"-33.2865490600816\"\n ],\n [\n \"Breaded cutlet Chicken fingers Chicken fingers or chicken tenders are an American dish prepared by breading and deep frying the pectoralis minor muscle of the chicken, which is the smaller cut of the chicken breast located along its underside, attached to the ribs. Chicken fried steak Chicken fried steak (also known as country fried steak) is an American breaded cutlet dish that may have originated with German and Austrian immigrants to Texas in the 19th century. It is a piece of beef steak (tenderized cubed steak) coated with seasoned flour and fried. It is associated with Southern U.S. cuisine. Its\",\n \"-33.280556984915165\"\n ],\n [\n \"or veal (escalope de vitela panado). The meat is usually seasoned with black pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. It is commonly served with spaghetti, fried potatoes, or rice (plain or with beans). It is also popular as a sandwich, served in a bun with lettuce (sandes de panado). Parmesan In North America, chicken parmigiana is an Italian-American dish, consisting of a breaded chicken breast topped with tomato sauce and mozzarella, Parmesan or provolone cheese. It is commonly offered as a sit-down entree, with a side of Italian-style pasta. It is also offered as a submarine sandwich.\\nIn Australia, chicken\",\n \"-33.24756505759433\"\n ],\n [\n \"or olive oil is poured on the slab, and the meat is cooked over it like in a pan. It is a very common form of fondue in South America. Traditions and etiquette A tradition says that if a man loses his bread in the pot, he buys drinks all around.\\nFondue is eaten by spearing a piece of bread on a fork, swirling it in the pot, and putting it into the mouth. Some writers recommend that the dipping fork be used only to transport the food from the pot to one's plate, not to eat from.\\nThe choice of beverage\",\n \"-33.2187683514785\"\n ],\n [\n \"that sell food: \\\"bifes\\\" and \\\"milanesas\\\" are served \\\"a caballo\\\" (\\\"on horseback\\\", with fried egg on top), \\\"milanesa completa\\\" (a milanesa with two fried eggs and French fries), \\\"revuelto Gramajo\\\", \\\"colchón de arvejas\\\" (an omelette made with peas), \\\"suprema de pollo\\\" (chicken supreme, usually breaded as a milanesa), matambres, \\\"lengua a la vinagreta\\\" (pickled tongue), and \\\"sandwiches\\\" (sandwiches de miga) are made with sliced white bread, rather than, say, rolls.\\nThe most common sandwiches are those made of milanesa, baked ham and cheese, 'pan de miga, toast, pebetes, panchos (hot dogs), choripanes, morcipanes, etc.; from Montevideo comes a different species of\",\n \"-33.196097490879765\"\n ],\n [\n \"straight-edged blade tends to compress the cake rather than slice it. Forks, electric serrated knives, special tined cutters, or a strong thread should be used instead.\\nAngel food cake is usually baked in a tube pan, a tall, round pan with a tube up the center that leaves a hole in the middle of the cake. A bundt pan may also be used, but the fluted sides can make releasing the cake more difficult. The center tube allows the cake batter to rise higher by 'clinging' to all sides of the pan. The angel food cake pan should not be greased,\",\n \"-33.19020972507133\"\n ],\n [\n \"buffet) and everyone partaking using their bare hands (kamayan). Another traditional method of serving food is by placing it on a banana-leaf liner placed over a woven bilao (a winnowing basket made of bamboo). The bilao is normally a farm implement used for removing chaff from grains, although there are now smaller woven trays or carved wooden plates of the same kind in Filipino restaurants used specifically for serving food. Banana leaves are also commonly used in wrapping food (binalot), and are valued for the aroma they impart to the food. Specific Philippine dishes that use banana leaves include suman\",\n \"-33.14842226098881\"\n ],\n [\n \"the diner will use them. In the West, forks, plate, butter knife, and napkin generally are placed to the left of the dinner plate, and knives, spoons, stemware and tumblers, cups, and saucers to the right. (By contrast, formal settings in Armenia place the fork to the right of the dinner plate and informal settings in Turkey place the fork to the right of the dinner plate if not accompanied by a knife) Sauceboats and serving dishes, when used, either are placed on the table or, more formally, may be kept on a side table. Informal At\",\n \"-33.130236043885816\"\n ],\n [\n \"Paupiette A paupiette is a piece of meat, beaten thin, and rolled with a stuffing of vegetables, fruits or sweetmeats. It is often featured in recipes from Normandy. It is often fried or braised, or baked in wine or stock. They are very popular in France, being sold ready-prepared in supermarkets and butchers. Paupiettes can be made with various items such as chicken, beef, lamb, fish, veal, cabbage, turkey escalopes or slices of calves' sweetbreads.\\nA paupiette is a type of roulade and sometimes called a braciole. Paupiette may also refer to a classic French fish dish whereby a thin slice\",\n \"-33.11982733646437\"\n ],\n [\n \"or caramelized peanuts, local sweets and others. Colombia In Colombia, the empanada, a deep-fried meat-filled patty, is sold. It is also a very popular side dish. Various types of arepa are also a common street food. Also popular is the chuzo (meat skewer), consisting of pork or chicken speared shish-kebab style on a thin wooden stake (hence the name chuzo, from chuzar meaning \\\"to pierce or spear\\\") and cooked over charcoal on a pushcart. Most chuzos are garnished with a small arepa at the top and a small roasted potato at the bottom. Morcilla, various sausages, chicharrón and chinchurria are\",\n \"-33.104396070266375\"\n ],\n [\n \"communities occur, due to commercially produced varieties. The slow-roasted Piedmontese version is called coppa cotta.\\nCapocollo is esteemed for its delicate flavor and tender, fatty texture, and is often more expensive than most other salumi. In many countries, it is often sold as a gourmet food item. It is usually sliced thin for use in antipasto or sandwiches such as muffulettas, Italian grinders and subs, and panini, as well as some traditional Italian pizza.\",\n \"-33.08752192754764\"\n ],\n [\n \"courses are served right off the cooking spit and are sliced or plated right at the table. Sometimes, they are accompanied with fried potatoes, fried bananas, collard greens, black beans, and rice (self-served buffet style).\\nIn many restaurants, the diner is provided with a colored card. Green, on one side, indicates to servers to bring more meat. Red, on the other side, indicates that the diners have enough meat for the moment.\",\n \"-33.059283313690685\"\n ],\n [\n \"1970s casseroles took on a less-than sophisticated image. Method In the United States and continental Europe, casseroles usually consist of: pieces of meat (such as chicken or ground meat) or fish (such as tuna), various chopped vegetables, a starchy binder (such as flour, potato or pasta), and often a crunchy or cheesy topping. Liquids are released from the meat and vegetables during cooking, and further liquid in the form of stock, wine, beer (for example lapin à la Gueuze), gin, cider, vegetable juice, or even water may be added when the dish is assembled. Casseroles are usually cooked slowly\",\n \"-33.049578064121306\"\n ],\n [\n \"Canada, mille-feuille is often named gâteaux Napoléon or Napoleon slice (in English Canada). It is sold either with custard, whipped cream, or both, between three layers of puff pastry. Almond paste is the most common flavoured variety. There is a French Canadian way where the mille-feuille is made with graham crackers instead of puff pastry, and where pudding replaces the custard layer.\\nIn South Africa and Zimbabwe, it is called a custard slice.\\nIn Australia it is called a custard slice or a vanilla slice, colloquially, it is referred to as a snot block or puss pie. It is made\",\n \"-33.04733498918358\"\n ],\n [\n \"Meat slicer A meat slicer, also called a slicing machine, deli slicer or simply a slicer, is a tool used in butcher shops and delicatessens to slice meats, sausages, cheeses and other deli products. Older models of meat slicer may be operated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor. While the slicer is traditionally a commercial apparatus, domestic use versions are also marketed.\",\n \"-32.99446540471399\"\n ],\n [\n \"Bento Bento (弁当 bentō) is a single-portion take-out or home-packed meal common in Japanese cuisine. A traditional bento holds rice or noodles, fish or meat, with pickled and cooked vegetables, in a box. Containers range from mass-produced disposables to hand-crafted lacquerware. Bento are readily available in many places throughout Japan, including convenience stores, bento shops (弁当屋 bentō-ya), railway stations, and department stores. However, Japanese homemakers often spend time and energy on carefully prepared lunch boxes for their spouses, children, or themselves.\\nBentos can be elaborately arranged in a style called \\\"kyaraben\\\" (\\\"character bento\\\"). Kyaraben are typically decorated to look like popular\",\n \"-32.99314530321135\"\n ],\n [\n \"may be prepared using two slices of toasted sourdough bread, mayonnaise, pastrami, lettuce, tomato slices. Preparation involves placing the pastrami on a toasted slice of sourdough bread and topping it with the lettuce and tomato slices. Mayonnaise may be spread on the second slice of sourdough, and placed on top of the sandwich.\",\n \"-32.98706278478494\"\n ],\n [\n \"Twist (cocktail garnish) A twist is a piece of citrus zest used as a cocktail garnish, generally for decoration and to add flavor when added to a mixed drink.\\nThere are a variety of ways of making and using twists. Twists are typically cut from a whole fresh fruit with a small kitchen knife immediately prior to serving, although a peeler, citrus zesters, or other utensil may be used. A curled shape may come from cutting the wedge into a spiral, winding it around a straw or other object, or as a byproduct of the cutting.\\nThe name may refer to the\",\n \"-32.96437364348094\"\n ],\n [\n \"usage In kitchen utensils, a spatula is any utensil fitting the above description. One variety is used to lift and flip food items during cooking, such as pancakes and fillets (known in British English as a fish slice). The blades on these are usually made of metal or plastic, with a wooden or plastic handle to insulate them from heat. A cookie shovel is a specialty spatula with a larger blade, made for scooping cookies off their pan or cooking sheet.\\nA frosting spatula is also known as palette knife and is usually made of metal or plastic.\\nBowl and plate scrapers\",\n \"-32.93612819444388\"\n ],\n [\n \"the main ingredient in the Mexican dish carnitas and in the Caribbean dishes lechon asado and pernil.\\nIn Mexican Spanish, this cut is also known as the espaldilla (literally \\\"little back\\\").\\nIn Argentina, this cut is incredibly popular and is known as bondiola.\\nIn Korea, the cut is known as moksal (목살; literally \\\"neck meat\\\").\",\n \"-32.918255338357994\"\n ],\n [\n \"complementary choice of side salad or steamed vegetables is also commonly offered. Balkan region In the Balkan region, steak is often rubbed with mustard and pepper, and marinated in vinegar and vegetable oil for up to a week. It is then fried in butter, and a slice of toast is then used to soak up the pan drippings. The steak is served on the toast and topped with optional fried egg and a sprig of parsley. France In France, steak, locally called bifteck, is usually served with fried potatoes (pommes frites in French). The combination is known as steak-frites. Vegetables\",\n \"-32.912703547408455\"\n ],\n [\n \"on weck is a sandwich found primarily in Western New York. It is made with roast beef on a kummelweck roll topped with salt and caraway seeds. The meat on the sandwich is traditionally served rare, thin cut, with the top bun getting a dip au jus and topped with horseradish. Chivito sandwich The chivito sandwich is a national dish in Uruguay, and consists primarily of a thin slice of filet mignon (churrasco beef), with mozzarella, tomatoes, mayonnaise, black or green olives, and commonly also bacon, fried or hard-boiled eggs and ham. It is served in a bun, often with\",\n \"-32.89997979195323\"\n ],\n [\n \"Spuccadella The spuccadella is an Italian-American bread roll that has a long, pointed shape. It is used in the preparation of the spuckie sandwich, which is what the Italian sandwich is referred to in East Boston, Massachusetts. The spuckie is still available in some sandwich shops in the Boston area. The Italian American word \\\"spuccadella\\\" does not exist in the written Italian of Italy, but it may be derived from the common Italian word \\\"spaccatella,\\\" a kind of \\\"panino\\\" or bread roll, with rounded ends, that could be used for sandwich making.\",\n \"-32.87198136863299\"\n ],\n [\n \"refers only to an item which uses sliced bread from a loaf. An item with similar fillings, but using an entire bread roll cut horizontally in half, is always referred to as a roll. (In South Australia, there is a regional variant of the roll, superficially similar to a club sandwich, where the bread roll is sliced three times with parallel cuts, and filling is put in the first and third openings, but not the second. This makes the resulting double cut roll easier to handle: the top half and the bottom half are eaten separately.) Any hot item based\",\n \"-32.82386362995021\"\n ],\n [\n \"on a cast-iron plate in Acapulco.\\nThe food was popularized by various businesses such as Ninfa's in Houston, the Hyatt Regency in Austin, and numerous restaurants in San Antonio. In southern Arizona, the term was unknown except as a cut of meat until the 1990s, when Mexican fast food restaurants started using the word in their marketing. In recent years, fajitas have become popular at American casual dining restaurants as well as in home cooking.\\nIn many restaurants, the fajita meat and vegetables is brought to the table sizzling loudly on a metal platter or skillet, along with warmed tortillas and condiments\",\n \"-32.80748989485437\"\n ],\n [\n \"a large thin pancake made of buckwheat flour, often cooked on one side only.\\nCrêpes are popular in many South American countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. They are consumed with sweet fillings (marmalade, dulce de leche) or with salty fillings (ground meat (Brazil), vegetables, tomato sauce, cheese).\\nThey have also become popular East Asian countries, including Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, Thailand and China, where they are sold in crêpe stands and kiosks. They are often served with whipped cream and fruits, or non-sweet spreads such as vegetables.\\nFarinata are popular in Mediterranean regions, including Nice. Also called socca, these are\",\n \"-32.80005543681909\"\n ],\n [\n \"Menudo (soup) Cultural significance Menudo is traditionally prepared by the entire family, and often serves as an occasion for social interactions such as after wedding receptions where the families of the groom and bride go to either family's house to enjoy a bowl of menudo before and after the ceremony. It is also a pseudoscientific remedy for recovery from alcoholic consumption.\\nMenudo is time intensive to prepare, as the tripe takes hours to cook. It includes many ingredients and side dishes (such as salsa), and garnished with chopped onions, chiles, cilantro, and often with lime juice; it is often prepared communally\",\n \"-32.760919193096925\"\n ],\n [\n \"Escalope An escalope is a piece of boneless meat that has been thinned out using a mallet, rolling pin or beaten with the handle of a knife, or merely butterflied. The mallet breaks down the fibers in the meat, making it more tender. But the thinner meat cooks faster with more moisture loss. The meat is then coated and fried. Escalope is often breaded and considered the healthy option for diners. Common sizes The typical sizes of an escalope used in the food industry range from 110 to 225 g (4–8 oz). Paillard or scallop Paillard is an older French culinary\",\n \"-32.75271725737548\"\n ],\n [\n \"Canadian greasy spoon diners focus on fried or grilled food, such as Salisbury steak, fish and chips, deep fried chicken, sausages, bacon, waffles, pancakes, fried or scrambled eggs, and omelettes. Sandwiches are also popular, including hamburgers, steak sandwiches, and deli meats. These are often accompanied by sides of baked beans, hash browns, toast, french fries, coleslaw. Soups and chili con carne are generally available. Regional fare is often served. Since the 1970s, many Greek immigrants have entered the business. As a result, native Greek cuisine such as gyro and souvlaki meats are now a common part of the repertoire, often\",\n \"-32.74558549034555\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tiella Tiella is a dish in Italian cuisine that is prepared with potato, rice, onion and mussels as primary ingredients. Additional ingredients may be used. Variations of the dish exist, and some may be prepared with other types of seafood. The round earthenware dish in which tiella is traditionally cooked is also referred to as a \\\"tiella\\\". Tiella is part of the cuisine of Apulia in southern Italy. It may also be found in coastal areas of Calabria.\\nIn Gaeta, Lazio, Italy, tiella is a specialty dish of the region prepared in the style of a pocket sandwich, using seafood such\",\n \"-32.70079149544472\"\n ],\n [\n \"aesthetic of nouvelle cuisine emphasizes minimalism, serving fewer courses and utilizing simple plating. Chefs were extremely creative in constructing innovative recipes and plating. Bento Box A bento box is a Japanese meal traditionally consisting of rice, meat/fish, and vegetables served in a portable box. In Japan, as well as in the United States, a large focus is placed on the aesthetic arrangement of the food. There have even been contests to see who can come up with the most inventive way of creating bento boxes, allowing for creativity in amateur chefs and everyday people. Sometimes bento boxes are used to\",\n \"-32.67508581034781\"\n ],\n [\n \"for mincing and chopping. Some mincing knives are supplied with a wooden cutting board with a circular bowl-shaped indentation that matches the curvature of the knife. Some models have two blades that are parallel to each other to increase their mincing power.\\nLarge mezzaluna-like knives with shallow curves are sometimes used to cut pizza, though the rolling pizza cutter is more common for this purpose. Cutting board A cutting board is kitchen utensil used in conjunction with a knife. It is a flat surface, generally made of either wood, plastic or glass (glass are less common because they dull the blade;\",\n \"-32.62958298641024\"\n ],\n [\n \"a side of French fries. Other ingredients might be added into the sandwich such as red beets, peas, grilled or pan-fried red peppers, and slices of cucumber. Corned beef sandwich The corned beef sandwich is a sandwich prepared with corned beef. The salt beef style corned beef sandwiches are traditionally served with mustard and a pickle. In the United Kingdom, pickle is a common addition to a corned beef sandwich. French dip The French dip sandwich is a hot sandwich consisting of thinly sliced roast beef (or, sometimes, other meats) on a \\\"French roll\\\" or baguette. It is usually served\",\n \"-32.61846877705466\"\n ],\n [\n \"for manipulating food in the plate and as an alternative for a knife. Often dishes require slicing before serving or sliced into small portions before cooking to relinquish the use of a knife. Placement of forks Tables are often set with two or more forks, meant to be used for different courses; for example, a salad fork, a meat fork, and a dessert fork. Some institutions wishing to give an impression of high formality set places with many different forks for meals of several courses, although many etiquette authorities regard this as vulgar and prefer that the appropriate cutlery be\",\n \"-32.60631696834753\"\n ],\n [\n \"- but serving the same function. Butter knife Butter knives have a dull cutting edge and are generally used for spreading. They are typically thought of more as servingware (used more as part of a table setting), to be used by diners to serve and/or spread butter or other soft spreadable foods, i.e. soft cheeses or jams, than as a kitchen or food preparation tool.\\nA modern variant that is intended for food prep is the 'sandwich spreader' - a broad, flexible, almost spatula-like tool, with a rounded end and often with one serrated edge, similar to that used by pastry\",\n \"-32.60536529929959\"\n ],\n [\n \"Manchette (cuisine) In cuisine a manchette is a paper frill attached to the exposed end of a bone of a cooked piece of meat.\\nManchettes are typically applied to the legs of roasted poultry and the bones of roasted pork or lamb. One particular dish often decorated with manchettes is the crown roast of lamb or pork.\\nManchettes were originally of practical use: they allowed a cut of meat to be held with one hand securely and without the hand becoming greasy, leaving the other hand free to carve meat from the bone.\",\n \"-32.59891727089416\"\n ],\n [\n \"the US or Canada might instead refer to these more thickly-cut chips as steak fries or potato wedges, depending on the shape, as the word chips is more often used to refer to potato chips, known in the UK and Ireland as crisps.\\nThomas Jefferson had \\\"potatoes served in the French manner\\\" at a White House dinner in 1802. The expression \\\"french fried potatoes\\\" first occurred in print in English in the 1856 work Cookery for Maids of All Work by E. Warren: \\\"French Fried Potatoes. – Cut new potatoes in thin slices, put them in boiling fat, and a little\",\n \"-32.57697818626184\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Philippines in Southeast Asia. Philippines In the Philippines, bistek Tagalog, a specialty of the Tagalog provinces, is typically made with strips of sirloin beef and onions slowly cooked in soy sauce and calamansi juice. Unlike usual beefsteak that has different degrees of doneness, Filipino bistek is always served well done. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, steak is often served with medium-thick fried potatoes (chips), fried onions, mushrooms, and tomatoes; however, in more expensive restaurants, it is more likely to be served with potatoes and other vegetables and offered with a selection of cooked sauces such as red wine,\",\n \"-32.573230828595115\"\n ],\n [\n \"Eating utensil etiquette Chopstick etiquette In many East Asian cultures, it is impolite to point with chopsticks. It is also considered impolite to leave chopsticks resting in a bowl when not in use, and instead should be laid beside the meal. Leaving chopsticks in a bowl is believed to resemble offerings to the deceased or spirits. Fork etiquette When used in conjunction with a knife to cut and consume food in Western social settings, two forms of fork etiquette are common. In the European style, the diner keeps the fork in his or her left hand, while in the American\",\n \"-32.570484042866156\"\n ],\n [\n \"to choose from, the fork farthest from the plate should be used, leaving the closer one for the main course. Similarly, if you start with soup, select the spoon that is farthest from the plate.\\n\\nMany restaurants set the table with a bread plate and water glass at each seat before patrons arrive. The bread plate goes to the left of the plate, and the beverage to the right. To avoid drinking from the wrong glass or taking a bite of your neighbor's bread, use the following trick if you forget which is yours:\\nTouch both your index fingers to\",\n \"-32.55771567253396\"\n ],\n [\n \"and beans, cooked together or apart. When cooked together the recipe is called \\\"congri\\\" or \\\"Moros\\\" or \\\"Moros y Cristianos\\\" (black beans and rice). If cooked separately it is called \\\"arroz con frijoles\\\" (rice with beans) or \\\"arroz y frijoles\\\" (rice and beans). Cuban sandwich A Cuban sandwich (sometimes called a mixto, especially in Cuba) is a popular lunch item that grew out of the once-open flow of cigar workers between Cuba and Florida (specifically Key West and the Ybor City neighborhood of Tampa) in the late 1800s and has since spread to other Cuban American communities.\\nThe sandwich is built\",\n \"-32.55754188253195\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sanguchería Butifarra Among the many types of sandwiches one finds the traditional butifarra, made normally from pork loin cooked in a traditional Limeña manner called locally jamón del país, accompanied with fresh lettuce, salsa criolla, and occasionally a touch of mustard.\\nThis sandwich arose from the culinary exchange between Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru. Later it was popularized in the fondas and bars of the immigrant Italian community, such as the Bar Cordano and the Bodega Carbone in the historic city center of Lima; Juanito in the Barranco District; La Lucha Sanguchería Criolla in Miraflores; the Antigua Taberna Queirolo in\",\n \"-32.55167517479276\"\n ],\n [\n \"bread or sandwiches, plain or with cheese, often served for breakfast or as a snack, with manchego, mató, or Picón cheese. It is also often used to stuff pastries. Regional variations In Spain, Uruguay, Argentina, Mexico, Chile and Ecuador the quince (Spanish membrillo) is cooked into a reddish gelatin-like block or firm reddish paste known as dulce de membrillo. The Pastafrola, a sweet tart common in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, is usually filled with quince paste. In Argentina and Uruguay, a slice of quince cheese (dulce de membrillo) eaten with a slice of soft cheese is considered the national dessert.\",\n \"-32.53291074885783\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a 1799 edition of The Times. British piccalilli British piccalilli contains various vegetables—invariably cauliflower, onion, and gherkin—and seasonings of mustard and turmeric. A more finely chopped variety \\\"sandwich piccalilli\\\" is also available from major British supermarkets. It is used as an accompaniment to foods such as sausages, bacon, eggs, toast, cheese, and tomatoes. It is usually used to accompany a dish on a plate rather than as a bread spread. It is popular as a relish with cold meats such as ham and head cheese, and with a ploughman's lunch. It is produced both commercially and domestically, being a\",\n \"-32.52525536582107\"\n ],\n [\n \"Wiener schnitzel. However, it is a cutlet rather than an escalope, and it is traditionally cooked with its rib. Originally from Milan, it can now be found all over the country.\\nIn Spain, breaded cutlet is normally called escalope milanesa in restaurants when served with French fries and a slice of lemon. When eaten in a sandwich, it is simply called filete empanado. It is usually made of veal or beef. Chicken is called pollo empanado, and pork is not usual.\\nCotoletta was first documented in 1148 (Saint Ambrose's archive, Milan) in Latin: \\\"Lumbolos cum panicio\\\". Kotlet schabowy Polish kotlet schabowy is\",\n \"-32.51510828649043\"\n ],\n [\n \"small amount of hoisin sauce is spread onto the pancake, then some moo shu pork is placed in the center of the pancake. The bottom of the pancake is folded up (to prevent the contents from falling out), then the sides of the pancake are folded or wrapped, in the manner of a soft taco. Unlike the practice in wrapping a burrito, the top is usually not folded over, as the pancake is generally eaten immediately and thus there is no danger of the food falling out of the top, which is the part that is eaten first. Because the\",\n \"-32.511410457547754\"\n ],\n [\n \"oven to the diner's table, and served halved with a large slab of butter in between the halves. This item is sometimes criticised for containing too much fat and cholesterol. Other common variants The pineapple bun may come in miniature sizes (迷你菠蘿包), it may be used as a bread roll for sandwiches with luncheon meat (餐肉菠蘿包), or it may be pre-stuffed with red bean paste (紅豆菠蘿包), custard cream (奶黃菠蘿包), barbecued pork (叉燒菠蘿包), or a sweet filling of shredded coconut (椰絲菠蘿包) like that in a cocktail bun. It is possible to order a \\\"pineapple pineapple bun\\\", actually stuffed with pineapple (菠蘿菠蘿包),\",\n \"-32.48706072762798\"\n ],\n [\n \"earlier times, mass-produced graham crackers were typically prepared using yeast-leavened dough, which added flavor to the food via the process of fermentation, whereas contemporary mass-production of the product typically omits this process. The dough is sometimes chilled before being rolled out, which prevents blistering and breakage from occurring when the product is baked. Uses Graham cracker crumbs are used to create graham cracker crusts for pies and moon pie, and as a base, layer or topping for cheesecake. Graham cracker pie crusts are also mass-produced in the United States, and consumer versions of the product typically consist of a graham\",\n \"-32.43978784428327\"\n ],\n [\n \"and fried. In Argentina, a milanesa napolitana is topped with ham, melted mozzarella cheese and tomato slices or tomato sauce.\\nDue to the strong influence of Italian culture in Brazil, breaded cutlets are known as filé à milanesa (Milanese steak) or bife à milanesa. It is found easily in street restaurants and often cooked at home. Servings often include white rice, salted brown or black beans, mashed potatoes or French fries, lettuce and tomato salad. Milanesa sandwiches are somewhat less common, and there is also the parmigiana version - filé à milanesa with tomato sauce, ham, and melted mozzarella cheese.\\nIn Colombia,\",\n \"-32.41245970269665\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tajada Tajada \\\"slices\\\" is a dish of fried plantains that are sliced long. It is a typical food of Caribbean countries as well as Nicaragua, Colombia, Honduras, Panama, and Venezuela. It is sometimes served with grated cheese.\",\n \"-32.404181700708364\"\n ],\n [\n \"apart in supermarkets. Milanesas Milanesa (from Italian cotoletta alla milanese) is a thin breaded cutlet that can be veal, chicken or fish.\\nBreading consists of three successive steps that its order defines mostly the character of the milanesa, most of Montevideo's bars and old style restaurants make breading starting with egg so that the latest dip is also egg, this method generated by galician and Spanish barists leaves a coat of egg that turns into a film at frying, it is a curious variation that is often served on those restaurants because the main breading has inverse order and is the\",\n \"-32.39014486222368\"\n ],\n [\n \"sandwich called the chivito, even though it contains no goat meat.\\nPicadas, which are consumed at home or in bars, cafés, \\\"cafetines\\\" and \\\"bodegones\\\" are also popular; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of salame, olives in brine, french fries, maníes (peanuts), etc.; picadas are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (\\\"fernet\\\", beer, wine with soda, to give some common examples).\\nThe people of Argentina greatly enjoy helado (ice creams of Italian lineage or sorbets Spanish lineage). In Spanish colonial times a type of sorbet was made from\",\n \"-32.37233981047757\"\n ],\n [\n \"In a basket Food served in a basket, a basket platter or a basket with fries is a sandwich or other main dish that is served on top of a basket of an accompanying foodstuff, usually french fries. The \\\"basket\\\" is usually either made of plastic and lined with paper, or is simply a disposable paperboard box or tray. Sometimes the basket contains other side dishes as well, such as a container of coleslaw or a pickle. This term is common in the Midwestern U.S.. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom chicken in a basket, fried chicken on\",\n \"-32.35987949198079\"\n ],\n [\n \"by Ray Cardell. Historically, club sandwiches featured slices of chicken, but with time, turkey has become increasingly common. Ingredients As with a BLT, toasted white bread is standard, along with iceberg lettuce, bacon, and tomatoes. The sandwich is traditionally dressed with mayonnaise. However variations on the traditional club sandwich abound. Some vary the protein, for example, a \\\"breakfast club\\\" that includes eggs or a \\\"roast beef club.\\\" Others include ham (instead of, or in addition to bacon) and/or cheese slices. Vegetarian club sandwiches often include hummus, avocado or spinach, as well as substitute the real bacon with a\",\n \"-32.35643145383801\"\n ],\n [\n \"dough strings called kaka pizon, meaning \\\"pigeon droppings,\\\" are also eaten in neighboring Reunion Island, and home-made yogurts, are all commonly sold on the street. In rural areas, steamed cassava or sweet potatoes are eaten, occasionally with fresh or sweetened condensed milk. Morocco Typical street food includes bessara, crumbed liver, spicy sardines, and brochettes, Fricassé de saucisses, Boubouch (Hot spicy snail soup), Salty Chips Cornet, Jaban (Candy), Soffa (coton candy), Kefta Sandwich, Corn, Hommos Kamún, And a wide range of soups according to the region.\\nIn the northern side of the country, Ze3za3 (a typical juice) and calenté (Or karane, calentica)\",\n \"-32.323804582432786\"\n ],\n [\n \"thus clumping together like cookie dough. This is important, as it allows the veggie burger to stick together to form the patty. Forming the patties The mixture is now put into an automatic patty-making machine or press. The press then punches out the patties into a disc shape onto a conveyor belt underneath. A constant spray of water may also be used to prevent any of the mixture from sticking to machinery parts. Once on the conveyor tray, the patties move along to be put onto baking trays. Baking the patties Patties are first inspected to make sure they are\",\n \"-32.31615979387425\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"menu\\\" written on a huge chalkboard behind the counter) was to combine the sandwich and side of fries, held (grilled) together with eggs as a binding unit, straight from the grill into a hoagie bun. The sandwich was then wrapped in a sheet of newspaper and handed to the customer. This was done so the customer could then go back to his (hopefully loaded) truck and drive back to his shop while managing to eat the sandwich while driving without getting it all over his lap.\\nIt has also been a tradition for the late night crowd to go\",\n \"-32.30067705758847\"\n ],\n [\n \"them \\\"Mexi-Fries\\\", while Taco Bell used to sell them as \\\"Mexi-Nuggets\\\" and \\\"Border Fries\\\". Taco Mayo in the Southwest offers round disc-shaped tater tots called \\\"Potato Locos.\\\" Taco John's also has coin shaped tots called \\\"Potato Olés\\\". Oceania In Australia and New Zealand, they are known as \\\"potato gems\\\", \\\"potato royals\\\" or \\\"potato pom-poms\\\". The New Zealand Pizza Hut franchise offers \\\"Hash Bites\\\" as a side dish, available alone or with an aioli dipping sauce.\",\n \"-32.29586143227425\"\n ],\n [\n \"chicken fillet roll is a baguette filled with a spicy or plain breaded chicken fillet and a mayonnaise and/or butter spread. \\\"Hot chicken\\\" sandwich The hot chicken sandwich or simply \\\"hot chicken\\\" (Quebec French: sandwich chaud au poulet) is a type of chicken sandwich consisting of chicken, sliced bread, and gravy (which is generally poutine sauce). The sandwich is usually served with green peas and commonly found in Eastern Canadian cuisine. It's especially popular in Quebec and is often considered one of the province's staple dishes. Since it is so commonly found in eateries of Quebec (Rôtisserie St-Hubert, Valentine, e.g.)\",\n \"-32.29532998667855\"\n ],\n [\n \"bundle of fresh herbs used as an ingredient in stocks, soups, and sauces. Freshly chopped green parsley is used as a topping for soups such as chicken soup, green salads, or salads such as salade Olivier, and on open sandwiches with cold cuts or pâtés.\\nPersillade is a mixture of chopped garlic and chopped parsley in French cuisine.\\nParsley is the main ingredient in Italian salsa verde, which is a mixed condiment of parsley, capers, anchovies, garlic, and sometimes bread, soaked in vinegar. It is an Italian custom to serve it with bollito misto or fish. Gremolata, a mixture of parsley, garlic,\",\n \"-32.280257771897595\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mezzaluna A mezzaluna (/ˌmɛtsəˈluːnə/; Italian: [ˌmɛddzaˈluːna]) is a knife consisting of one or more curved blades with a handle on each end, which is rocked back and forth chopping the ingredients below with each movement. They most commonly have a single blade, but are sometimes seen with two or three blades.\\nIt is typically used for mincing herbs or garlic, but it can be used for chopping other things such as cheese or meat. Very large single blade versions are sometimes used for pizza. Common uses in Italy include preparation of a soffritto or a pesto, etc. Name Mezzaluna means\",\n \"-32.277477479947265\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":283,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3uviw6"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How exactly does shopping at small independent stores help the local economy?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["As a local shop owner, when people buy from me, it means I (your neighbor), get your money, not an investor to Caribou Coffee. I, the only guy who works here, can afford to feed my family. I'm not a corporation that has 1000 stores and paying overhead on 1000 stores. That money you give me goes to the electric company, the restaurant where we celebrate after the Sport Team wins, and the local farmers market. I'm buying my produce from the guy who lives down the street...his tomatoes came in great this year. He's also got a daughter in college. I helped him pay his bills this month, and when she graduates, she's gonna run a B & B, which means more people are gonna drop the town and have a cup of coffee.","I own a small children's boutique so this is a topic that is near and dear to my heart. There are many benefits to shopping local. 1. Your money stays in your community. This happens on many levels. First, you are directly supporting the shop owner and their family as opposed to your dollars going to increase the bottom line for a bunch of stock holders that are probably already extremely wealthy. Those dollars are typically spent locally and used for things like their children's sports, piano lessons, etc. Secondly, most local businesses are active members of the community. My business donates thousands of dollars to local non-profit organizations that serve people in our community. If I (and other local businesses) weren't there, they would most likely have to cut programs or go under. Lastly, most small shops support local manufacturing, cottage businesses, and US made products. For example, I carry multiple handcrafted lines in my store that are local home based businesses. These small businesses would not have an avenue to get into a retail location if a small shop like mine was not around. A mom and pop botanical business is not getting on the shelf at Target, let's be real. 2. By supporting local business, you create diversity and choice in your community. You can see this by shopping around, if you want to purchase something unique from a brick and mortar location... you aren't going to find it at Walmart. Big box stores have a very bland selection, and are typically products that can be found anywhere. Want something truly unique? Visit a local boutique. 3. You are most likely going to get a high quality product. The small business owner knows that everything they sell in their shop reflects on them personally. Carrying crap on your shelf will result in nothing but problems. Big box stores and Amazon however, couldn't give two shits if you end up with some p.o.s. from China. There's my rant, now buy some shit from me ;) *edited for formating","The argument is that local shop owners pay taxes in the city/county/state where they live and they spend their profits in that city as well. There's also a better chance that local stores source their goods from local producers. Non-local corporations pay some local taxes, but not as many and the profits are distributed to shareholders who will spend the money wherever they live and not necessarily in the city where the store is located.","Its about where the money is circulating. A local shop probably buys from local sources while big box stores ship stuff in from all over the world. If you buy a catfish that's was caught in china then at least some of your money is going to china, which is a problem because of unequal trade between china and where you live. The question is where do you want your money to go. Do you want it to feed your next door neighbor, who is probably sleeping with your wife, or do you want it to go to the crack head Walmart heirs. (full disclosure, i don't know who is sleeping with your wife, it might be your neighbor or it might be your pasture. I don't know your life. )","If you buy at big name store, the money goes to corporate which is probably out of state. Maybe 10¢ on the dollar is paid to the employees, meaning 90% of that money just left the area. When you buy from local owned, the money goes from the register to the owner, who then pays his employees their cut, still 10% let's say, buys his products (which may or may not be local) and keeps that 50% markup for himself, just like corporate. The difference? Local business owner lives in your town, and spends the money there. If he shops at Walmart or on amazon you still lose the money after one transaction though. But if you trade locally, you keep the money local. If you buy stuff from people who but stuff from out of the area, eventually you don't have any money left. But if that 5$ bill keeps trading hands in your town, your town stays that much richer.","If you buy local from somewhere, the money goes to the owner of the company. Usually theyre in the same state community. If you buy from big retailers, buy from people who get paid commission because it goes right back into the community."],"string":"[\n \"As a local shop owner, when people buy from me, it means I (your neighbor), get your money, not an investor to Caribou Coffee. I, the only guy who works here, can afford to feed my family. I'm not a corporation that has 1000 stores and paying overhead on 1000 stores. That money you give me goes to the electric company, the restaurant where we celebrate after the Sport Team wins, and the local farmers market. I'm buying my produce from the guy who lives down the street...his tomatoes came in great this year. He's also got a daughter in college. I helped him pay his bills this month, and when she graduates, she's gonna run a B & B, which means more people are gonna drop the town and have a cup of coffee.\",\n \"I own a small children's boutique so this is a topic that is near and dear to my heart. There are many benefits to shopping local. 1. Your money stays in your community. This happens on many levels. First, you are directly supporting the shop owner and their family as opposed to your dollars going to increase the bottom line for a bunch of stock holders that are probably already extremely wealthy. Those dollars are typically spent locally and used for things like their children's sports, piano lessons, etc. Secondly, most local businesses are active members of the community. My business donates thousands of dollars to local non-profit organizations that serve people in our community. If I (and other local businesses) weren't there, they would most likely have to cut programs or go under. Lastly, most small shops support local manufacturing, cottage businesses, and US made products. For example, I carry multiple handcrafted lines in my store that are local home based businesses. These small businesses would not have an avenue to get into a retail location if a small shop like mine was not around. A mom and pop botanical business is not getting on the shelf at Target, let's be real. 2. By supporting local business, you create diversity and choice in your community. You can see this by shopping around, if you want to purchase something unique from a brick and mortar location... you aren't going to find it at Walmart. Big box stores have a very bland selection, and are typically products that can be found anywhere. Want something truly unique? Visit a local boutique. 3. You are most likely going to get a high quality product. The small business owner knows that everything they sell in their shop reflects on them personally. Carrying crap on your shelf will result in nothing but problems. Big box stores and Amazon however, couldn't give two shits if you end up with some p.o.s. from China. There's my rant, now buy some shit from me ;) *edited for formating\",\n \"The argument is that local shop owners pay taxes in the city/county/state where they live and they spend their profits in that city as well. There's also a better chance that local stores source their goods from local producers. Non-local corporations pay some local taxes, but not as many and the profits are distributed to shareholders who will spend the money wherever they live and not necessarily in the city where the store is located.\",\n \"Its about where the money is circulating. A local shop probably buys from local sources while big box stores ship stuff in from all over the world. If you buy a catfish that's was caught in china then at least some of your money is going to china, which is a problem because of unequal trade between china and where you live. The question is where do you want your money to go. Do you want it to feed your next door neighbor, who is probably sleeping with your wife, or do you want it to go to the crack head Walmart heirs. (full disclosure, i don't know who is sleeping with your wife, it might be your neighbor or it might be your pasture. I don't know your life. )\",\n \"If you buy at big name store, the money goes to corporate which is probably out of state. Maybe 10¢ on the dollar is paid to the employees, meaning 90% of that money just left the area. When you buy from local owned, the money goes from the register to the owner, who then pays his employees their cut, still 10% let's say, buys his products (which may or may not be local) and keeps that 50% markup for himself, just like corporate. The difference? Local business owner lives in your town, and spends the money there. If he shops at Walmart or on amazon you still lose the money after one transaction though. But if you trade locally, you keep the money local. If you buy stuff from people who but stuff from out of the area, eventually you don't have any money left. But if that 5$ bill keeps trading hands in your town, your town stays that much richer.\",\n \"If you buy local from somewhere, the money goes to the owner of the company. Usually theyre in the same state community. If you buy from big retailers, buy from people who get paid commission because it goes right back into the community.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["This, along with decreasing rural population, reduces the importance of the rural store. As businesses relocate from other communities, one town will become the trade center for its region, sometimes constructing a shopping mall.\nGenerally, businesses in a trade-center town, except for those in competition with the mall, will benefit from the mall's presence as shoppers spill over. However, business in nearby towns will suffer as shoppers converge on the town with the greatest variety of stores.\nExamples: West Burlington, Iowa; Wickenburg, Arizona. Exurbs See: Commuter town Government Centers Government in rural regions is becoming increasingly consolidated, so that a small number","-31.284732078260276"],["to live in a small town and work in a park-like campus filled with young people and because there is so much competition for tenure-track positions at more prestigious schools.\nStores often introduce strategies to reduce customers' perceived psychic costs, because these can cause customers to delay or forgo purchases that they are considering. Customers have many areas of perceived psychic costs in regards to making purchases. They may be worried that there will be a sale after they buy the item, in which case they will pay a higher price. For mechanical items such as cars and appliances, customers may","-30.669156098243548"],["and transportation differences between the rural and urban areas. Rural food deserts are mostly the result of large supermarket stores that move into areas and create competition that is impossible for small businesses to keep up with. The competition causes many small grocers to go out of business. This makes the task of getting nutritious, whole ingredients much more difficult for citizens who live far away from large supermarket stores.\nIn most cases, people who live in rural food deserts are more likely to lack a high school degree or GED, to experience increased poverty rates, and to have lower median","-30.339210987687693"],["Local purchasing Rationale for local purchasing Advocates often suggest local purchasing as a form of moral purchasing. Local purchasing is often claimed to be better for the environment and better for working conditions. Others contend (with empirical evidence) that local purchasing and contracting enhances local job creation and wealth while strengthening community cohesiveness.\nThe first potential moral benefit is environmental: Bringing goods from afar generally requires using more energy than transporting goods locally, and some environmental advocates see this as a serious environmental threat. Transportation contributes to environmental contamination in addition to the pollution caused by chemical inputs in the","-29.924304705753457"],["older, urban facilities can accommodate, meaning that urban supermarket development often requires the construction of new facilities. And, while suburban supermarkets are typically 45,000 square feet (4,200 m²), urban supermarkets are only 25,000 square feet (2,300 m²) on average. This means that urban supermarkets can sell significantly fewer products than suburban stores, which contributes to fewer profits. Community issues A grocery store's 24-hour lighting \"does a lot for the sense of safety and community in the neighborhood,\" because supermarkets can be a safe haven. Citizens feel a \"dramatic change in atmosphere,\" after new supermarkets are built.\nIn addition, new supermarkets can be used","-29.762004317482933"],["and health centers. The increased availability of online food retailers and delivery services, such as AmazonFresh and FreshDirect, can also help in food deserts by delivering food straight to residences. The ability for elderly people, disabled people, and those who live geographically far from supermarkets to use SNAP benefits online to order groceries is a major resource. For those who lack transportation options, Transportation network companies such as Uber and Lyft may be vital resources to increase access to nutritious foods in food deserts. Geisinger Health Services Fresh Food Pharmacy In central Pennsylvania, an innovative solution to food insecurity for","-29.564138131099753"],["consist overwhelmingly of working households with a substantial share of middle-income people. Security A problem in urban and suburban stores alike, shoplifting is 6% to 8% of supermarket revenues. Fear of crime also acts as a big deterrent for investors, but some cities interested in developing new grocery stores have placed police stations near development sites in order to allay developers' fears. Land The expense and scarcity of land in urban environments pose some of the greatest problems for supermarket developers. Finding sites for urban development also involves fees, complexity, length, and unpredictability.\nToday's suburban supermarket model requires more space than","-29.257958824571688"],["the United Kingdom, the retail park is a similar concept to the North American power center. They are found on the fringes of most large towns and cities in highly accessible locations and are aimed at households owning a car, though there are often also bus services. They are an alternative to busy city centres. Such developments have been encouraged by cheaper, more affordable land on the outskirts of towns and cities, and with loose planning controls in a number of Enterprise Zones, making planning and development very easy. In recent years, in many areas across the UK, planning","-29.217636724963086"],["access to affordable food, thus limiting their ability to maintain a healthy diet. For these families living in poverty, many people work multiple jobs with rotating or evening shifts that make it difficult to find time to shop for food. Time constraints affect decision-making and people often choose to go to a closer convenience store rather than travel farther for fresh food. Families in urban food deserts may lack access to a car, which adds to the time needed to shop for groceries. Additionally, convenience stores and corner stores are typically open later hours than a traditional grocery store, making","-29.151204004709143"],["from the market.\nFor communities, spending at local independent businesses also generates more jobs and wealth in the local economy compared to spending at absentee-owned businesses, including corporate chains.\nThe goal of localisation is to reduce unnecessary transport, support entrepreneurism and to strengthen and diversify community economies. This calls for condensation of agriculture and supports the idea that local farmers are capable of sustaining a community.\nThe term “Buy Local” has become subject to varying interpretations. While leading advocates of local independent business such as the American Independent Business Alliance say the term should apply only to locally owned independent businesses, some campaigns","-29.026825519977137"],["as location of community programs—health exams, nutritional education, eye exams, voter registration, birthdays for children, Western Union wire transfers so immigrants can wire remittances, selling event tickets, having Driver’s License renewal facilities, and providing phones for discount international calls. Besides contributing to a community’s overall well-being, such services make a grocery store more appealing to urban consumers: developing the services that urban citizens desire is a crucial way to make new supermarket development work.\nBy engaging with local organizations, supermarkets can create a link with a community that will contribute to security, reduction in shrinkage, and provide for better selection and","-28.89709922975453"],["is their distance from the main distribution centres used by supermarkets which are mostly located near centres of population in England.\nTo increase their incomes, many farmers have diversified; the average income from non-farming business activities on farms in Wales in 2013/2014 was £4,900. Tourism-related activities accounted for much of this; these included bed and breakfast accommodation, self-catering accommodation in redundant outbuildings or purpose-built units, bunkhouses for walkers and provision of food-related services in cafés, restaurants, farm shops, pick-your-own and farmer's markets. Indoor and outdoor leisure and recreational facilities are provided by some farmers including paint-balling, laser-combat games, pony trekking, mountain","-28.836854522582144"],["in accessing large grocery stores due to have to travel over a mile in urban areas or more than 10 in urban areas may increase reliance on convenience stores and restaurants(fast food), resulting in a poor diet and diet-related health problems. The USDA recognizes that the limited food access in Urban core areas, “are characterized by higher levels of racial segregation and greater income inequality.” In small-town and rural areas with limited the lack of transportation infrastructure.”\nHowever not all chain groceries will go into small neighborhoods due to the risk and upkeep, For places like West Oakland in California, where","-28.748330877744593"],["from fast-food restaurants. These residents are also forced to purchase highly processed foods because of the lack of fresh food options. In addition, food at independently owned grocery stores are often 10-60% more expensive than food offered at large chain supermarkets. Education Housing segregation has an effect on the quality of education received by community members. Specifically, the spatial separation of specific populations due to housing segregation leads to geographic concentrations of quality education. For example, public schools in suburban areas are usually more equipped with resources, have a higher percentage quality teachers, and produce a larger amount of successful","-28.598306349478662"],["where services are sold at the same price as in urban areas, the quality is often poorer with, for example, frequent electricity power cuts, potholed roads, longer waits for emergency services and poor quality of internet access. Rural depopulation It is argued by Dick Roche that\n\"The most important ingredient in rural development is population.\" \nThe implication of this argument is that permitting one-off housing sustains rural populations by making it economically feasible for people to live in rural areas.\nThere are two counter-arguments: that one-off housing draws people out of rural towns and villages, stifling the growth of these regions, or","-28.539854090078734"],["this is related to policies that favour access to retail services by non-motorised modes. The Danish 1997 Planning Act requires that planning shall encourage a diverse mix of retail shops in small and medium-sized towns and in individual districts of large cities and ensure that retail trade uses will be placed in locations to which people have good access by walking, bicycling and public transport. From the mid-1970s the Netherlands has had policies in place to severely restrict the growth of large out-of-town retail developments. Germany has had federal planning regulations in place to restrict retail uses to designated areas","-28.458407593658194"],["and tax revenues that grocery stores provide. Strategies Where supermarket developers have neglected some urban neighborhoods, city governments and non-profits can work together to market the potential of inner city areas to grocery store executives. Chicago’s planning department provided an information guide with a database of suitable land parcels to executives at a grocers’ expo in 2005.\nMany of Oakland’s existing food retail businesses are located within Redevelopment Areas, allowing them to qualify for redevelopment fund assistance. The Food Systems Assessment Report for Oakland suggested the creation of Food Retail Enterprise Zones, whereby food retailers that provide nutritious foods","-28.1881359918043"],["controls have been tightened to preserve the countryside. This has made it more difficult for such developments to proceed, resulting in many smaller, more compact retail parks, sometimes consisting of only three or four stores being built on former brownfield sites. There are also environmental disadvantages to large retail parks on the rural fringe, including the increased traffic and pollution that occurs during access.\nTypically retail parks host a range of chain stores, including furniture, clothes or footwear superstores, electrical stores, carpet and others - and the anchor tenant is usually a supermarket. Owing to their out-of-town sites, abundance of","-28.13365015736781"],["and retailers are by-passed, and revenue received from the sales contributes immediately to a farm’s income.\nIn terms of social goals, farmgate sales helps to build a direct relationship between the farming community and consumers as well as fostering respect for food and awareness of how it is produced by consumers. It can also contribute to budget savings by consumers (see also potato movement).\nIn environmental terms, farmgate sales shorten transport distances and are expected to reduce food waste. Sales methods Farmgate sales are most common in the form of either retail outlets on the farm itself in a farm shop, roadside","-28.108688239532057"],["large retail outlets set up shop, while pre-existing retailers and many others have rebuilt into larger venues. One of the woes of the village is its heavy concentration of minimum-wage, service industry jobs. Other similarly sized communities nearby have a much wider range of income opportunities: Wolfville is an area supported by higher-education jobs with Acadia University, and Kentville is an area who supports itself with an industrial park, hospital and an orientation toward professional centers. Due to New Minas having no hospital of its own, citizens must travel to Kentville by way of public transit or by use of","-28.098058878269512"],["town's economy had dramatically shifted from stagnant to a fast-moving basis. Aside from agriculture being the main backbone of the town's economy, commerce and trade also became the second economic-based income of the town and its residents with the opening of numerous business establishments, hotels and financial institutions that generated many opportunities and more employment for its residents. In 2015, SM Prime opened its first branch of Savemore Market in the town along National Highway while Puregold, a large retail chain opened its first Puregold Price Club Store in the same year. Multi-national fast food chain like Jollibee opened their","-28.08812380488962"],["usage reductions. Without improving public transport connections you can only expect increasing private car usage and increased condition and time delays. Retail Retail is one of the four main components of activity centres, towards the broader social and environmental sustainability plus economic objectives of the increasingly preferred polycentric approach to planning and managing cities.\nIncorporating retail into the activity centre mix of uses provides benefits for the immediate centre and surrounding community including a:\no more equitable access to shops and services,\no source of employment,\no Strengthening and opportunities for marketing local economies and independent small businesses – in turn more able to","-28.063647272763774"],["examined and have revealed to play a major role in the contribution to health disparities, particularly the presence of fast food restaurants and convenience stores. In neighborhoods that have access barriers to supermarkets because of proximity or prices, consumers are left with only two options; convenience stores and fast food restaurants. Low-income communities that are “lacking healthy food access—can simultaneously be ‘food swamps,’ consisting in a saturation of access to unhealthy food (e.g., fast-food, convenience stores) and nonfood (e.g., gas stations) venues, characterized by calorie-dense and high-sugared food items”, these environments reinforce unhealthy behaviors among residents. Currently, there are few","-27.953688641660847"],["low-income communities with access to supermarkets but with financial barriers to access those healthy foods. In a study done by researchers at Portland State University, a food mirage was examined in a neighborhood where residents living in poverty were surrounded by new grocery stores. Researchers found that out of the 81% of impoverished residents surveyed, 61% percent lived in moderate or extreme food mirage. Resulting in traveling more than 1.8 miles past their neighborhood grocery store in search of better prices.\nWhile food deserts are often assessed by the distance in miles between individuals' homes and supermarkets, and food mirages assess","-27.92270281043602"],["of subsidies for the production of these foods will not appreciably change their lower cost in comparison to healthier options such as fruits and vegetables. Supermarket construction Local and state governments can also work to pass legislation that calls for the establishment of healthy food retailers in low-income neighborhoods classified as food deserts. The implementation of such policies can reduce hunger and food insecurity by increasing the availability and variety of healthy food options and providing a convenient means of access. Examples of this are The Pennsylvania Fresh Food Financing Initiative and The New York City FRESH (Food Retail Expansion","-27.755790435825475"],["is fresher. It may also influence a consumer's decision when it comes to multiple options; with a domestic sourcing strategy, selling local products can help to gain support from consumers who are concerned about the origin of the product that they are buying for political, ethical, or environmental reasons. It is also persuasive to tell consumers that local products are quality assured; buying with confidence is a very important aspect for retailers to gain trust from consumers, subsequently increasing brand awareness and loyalty. Cost benefit Business or retailers who have strong relationships with local suppliers do not have to go","-27.59909913444426"],["through a long supply chain which will help to reduce the cost of sales, resulting in attracting more consumers with a lower selling price. Less transportation between the supplier and retailer may also reduce the selling price as transportation costs are cut. Job opportunities Increases in domestic sourcing rather than international sourcing will increase the job opportunities for locals. If all local business supports domestic sourcing, and the demand for domestic sourcing will increase, more job opportunities is then created to meet the new demands. Benefits to the local economy According to IGD report, over 54% of consumers buy local","-27.597411475260742"],["from either local grocery stores or market boxes sent to your door. However, some of these tend to be expensive or require internet accessibility to control your account, depending on the community especially those in rural areas this option may not be possible.\nThere are other innovations from the nonprofit, social enterprise sector that show promise for connecting residents with limited access to fresh food to sources of fresh produce. New Roots Fresh Stop Markets were created in 2009 with the express purpose of \"igniting community power for fresh food access.\" Fresh Stop Markets are fresh food markets that pop up","-27.587486744421767"],["the concept of decentralization. The creation and maintenance of a regional economy is supported by communities who believe that their community is economically better off sustaining itself rather than being part of and relying upon a larger economy, such as a national economy or the global economy. This is a movement against the increasing globalization of all economies around the world. The main tenets of fiscal localism include buying products that are made locally and using a currency that is unique to that local economy. This allows a community to grow at a controllable and sustainable rate by supporting farmers,","-27.572766956465784"],["residents of low-income neighborhoods with greater access to healthy food options at more remote supermarkets. This strategy may be limited by the fact that low-income populations often face time constraints in managing employment and caring for children and may not have the time to commute to buy healthy foods. Furthermore, this method does not address the issue of neighborhood deprivation, failing to resolve the disparities in access to goods and services across geographical space. Community gardens Local governments can also mitigate hunger and food insecurity in low-income neighborhoods by establishing community gardens. According to the Encyclopedia of Community, a community","-27.556668015080504"],["Help to Buy Help to Buy is the name of a government programme in the United Kingdom that aims to help first time buyers, and those looking to move home, purchase residential property. It was announced in Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne's 2013 budget speech, and was described as \"the biggest government intervention in the housing market since the Right to Buy scheme\" of the 1980s. It is an extension of a previous programme called FirstBuy that was aimed solely at first-time buyers. Help to Buy has itself been expanded and extended. Oversight Aware of its upward effect upon","-27.518112993100658"],["by payroll were manufacturing companies such as T B Wood's Inc., Manitowoc cranes, retail trade, and health care and social assistance. Despite suburban growth, much of the economy of the area is still largely based on agriculture.\nRetail stores such as Wal-Mart and Lowe's serve the population with jobs and basic needs. The Chambersburg Mall with one anchor store and about thirty-three vacant stores is located in the unincorporated village of Scotland, about four miles (6 km) north of town on Interstate 81. Chambersburg's retail sector has grown quickly since 2006 with the opening of Target, Petsmart, Michaels, and Kohls near the","-27.508944626664743"],["are done by car only. The town's economy is driven mostly by service industries that serve the residents such as a grocery store, convenience stores, doctors offices, hair salons, real-estate offices and restaurants among others.\nWith population growth in the town in recent years the housing market has become a significant part of the local economy. Torbay has become the most expensive housing market in the province with average home prices surpassing $375,000. Between 2009 and 2010 the town also saw the largest appreciation in housing prices in the St. John's CMA, with housing prices rising 32%. Air The town is","-27.50852253344783"],["an area's likelihood of having a supermarket. Case studies Many cities and states across the US have recognized the urban supermarket gap problem and have developed plans to address the issue of food access. Additionally, the U.S. federal government established the Healthy Food Financing Initiative. The initiative provided more than $400 million in funding from the Treasury Department, USDA and Department of Health and Human Services to promote expanding access to nutritious foods, including developing and equipping grocery stores and other small retailers to sell healthful food in low-income rural and urban communities that currently lack this option. Pennsylvania","-27.46527191158384"],["a type of cooperative which employs economies of scale on behalf of its retailer members. Retailers' cooperatives use their purchasing power to acquire discounts from manufacturers and often share marketing expenses. They are often recognized as \"local groups\" because they own their own stores within the community. It is common for locally owned grocery stores, hardware stores, and pharmacies to participate in retailers' cooperatives. Ace Hardware, True Value, and NAPA are examples of a retailers' cooperative. Retail cooperatives also allow consumers to supply their own earnings and gain bargaining power outside of the business sector. Retail cooperatives mainly reside within","-27.31566527619725"],["geared to multiethnic tastes. Compounding the problem, chain stores are generally unfamiliar with ethnic preferences. Chains tend to develop a formula that works for their core market, which consists of middle-class, white suburbanites.\nOne obstacle to supermarket growth is that developers tend to overlook the market potential of urban communities. Underserved, urban neighborhoods tend to be composed of populations with lower incomes on average, but the density of an urban environment also means that city neighborhoods tend to have more income per acre than suburban areas. Studies by the Initiative for a Competitive Inner City in Boston found that \"nearly 8","-27.279009862453677"],["and wholesalers may also undertake retail distribution of goods to bypass the intermediary retailer, by which they earn higher profits. Importance and Role The importance of domestic trade in a country is that it facilitates exchange of goods within the country. By doing this it also makes sure that factors of production reach to the right places so that the economy of the country can grow. By allowing all different types of goods and services to reach to all parts of the country it improves the standard of living of the residents of the country as well as the employment","-27.180178035923745"],["Fiscal localism Fiscal localism \"Buy local\" or local purchasing is the most visible face of fiscal localism. There are more complex institutions (both new and well established) that contribute to a community's ability to flourish. Institutions like credit unions, CDFI's (Community Development Financial Institutions), and local currency or complementary currency all can contribute to making communities more resilient and wealthy.\nLocal currency has been in the news most, with journalists citing the Berkshares in Massachusetts, and the Ithaca Hours in Ithaca, New York. Beyond these salient examples, there are thousands of local currencies all over the world.\nFiscal localism is rooted in","-27.112900040694512"],["produce retailers, familiar High Street brands, major banking chains and professional services such as accountants, dentists and architects.\nThere are also a number of public houses, cafes, small restaurants and take-away food outlets in the area, plus a number of small and medium-sized enterprises. In July 2006, the closure of the 80-year-old British Sugar plant near Boroughbridge Road meant the loss of 100 jobs and problems for many local farmers.\nResidential homes are a mixture of council estates and private freeholds. Provision was made for small shopping areas of four or five stores to be located in the centre of the estates.","-27.088545723585412"],["the A490. Economy The local economy is primarily based upon agriculture and local industry. The Smithfield Livestock Market is the largest one-day sheep market in Europe, whilst the town's industrial estates are home to numerous different types of small industry.\nDue to the town's small size and population the attraction of high street stores is limited, meaning many of the residents are forced to shop in neighbouring towns like Newtown and Shrewsbury. Education The town is the home of Ardwyn Nursery and Infants School, Oldford Nursery and Infants School, Gungrog Nursery and Infants School, Maes-y-dre Primary School. Welshpool High School is","-27.042563032126054"],["wants them. Really, Really Free Markets are free social events in which freegans can share goods instead of discarding them, share skills, give presents and eat food. A free store is a temporary market where people exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. In New York City, freegan.info often distributes recovered food items for free in an ad-hoc manner after trash tours.\nFreegans also advocate sharing travel resources. Internet-based ridesharing or hitchhiking reduces but does not eliminate use of cars and all the related resources needed to maintain and operate them. Community bicycle programs and collectives facilitate community sharing","-27.02716102550039"],["ethnic minorities, children, the elderly, those with disabilities, adults lacking basic skills, and immigrant populations. Criteria for Socially Responsible Procurement can be applied to every stage of a supply-chain e.g. from mining to assembly and distribution. Economic Often differences in the purchase price between a non-sustainable and sustainable alternative are negligible. Yet even where the sustainable option costs more upfront, savings of energy, water and waste over the lifetime of the product or service can provide significant financial savings. On a macroeconomic level, it can be argued that there are economic benefits in the form of efficiency gains from incorporating","-26.995659271313343"],["to improve levels of self-esteem or of self-efficacy. Households and small communities take advantage of vacant land and contribute not only to their household food needs but also the needs of their resident city. The CFSC states that:\nCommunity and residential gardening, as well as small-scale farming, save household food dollars. They promote nutrition and free cash for non-garden foods and other items. As an example, you can raise your own chickens on an urban farm and have fresh eggs for only $0.44 per dozen.\nThis allows families to generate larger incomes selling to local grocers or to local outdoor markets while","-26.949349405243993"],["benefits, will contribute to the evaluation of options in deciding what to buy. One way to evaluate more sustainable consumption is to consider the total customer cost which incurs in acquisition, use and post-use phases. Purchase Consumers have to trade off the environmental benefits against other attributes such as higher price, better performance and better design. In addition they may need to change the manner of behavior that they usually do. Use In this stage, maintenance, repair, use frequency and type of use are of interest. Some key products such as homes, cars and domestic appliances, much of the","-26.91311047389172"],["local industry programs in existence since the 1960s, although some degree of local autonomy is allowed. However, a major departure places output, pricing, and purchases outside central planning. In addition, direct sales stores were established to distribute goods produced under the movement directly to consumers. The movement is characterized as a third sector in the production of consumer goods, alongside centrally controlled light industry and locally controlled traditional light industry. Moreover, there were some reports in the mid-1980s of increasing encouragement of small-scale private handicrafts and farm markets. As of 1992, however, no move was reported to expand the size","-26.88718930957839"],["have big businesses or various other economic activities. People make money in any way that they can. Some run small family businesses from their homes, such as tailoring, shoemaking and laundry. Others find themselves digging through the ample mounds of trash hoping to find something worth keeping or selling. A large number of the slum’s residents dig through the many mountains of garbage, including children. This has an effect on the health of the residents. The slum does not offer water, electricity, or good roads.\nBesides the home-run businesses in the slum, another trade is arising that is becoming more common","-26.887020980590023"],["community environments. These include programs that encourage supermarkets to return to low-income communities and that improve nutrition, physical activity, and staff wellness in schools nationwide. The foundation partnered with The Food Trust, a non-profit in Philadelphia that helps make fresh, affordable food accessible to the underprivileged and educates children about healthy eating. The Food Trust's research on childhood obesity led the Philadelphia school system to ban soda vending machines from all of its schools, the strongest measure in the country.\nHealthy Communities: Supporting initiatives that are helping to change conditions in local communities so that residents can reach their greatest","-26.88278619167977"],["developed retail facilities and innovative products. Hypothesis confirms that high sensory seekers are more sensitive to realize the new alternatives, think over more options, making less rejection decision with cognitive assessment, will attempt and eventually take more innovations. Generally, high-sensitivity seekers incline to have a reasonable expectation for goods and equipment through the evaluation stage entering the practical experiments, but consciousness and the model that is ultimately adopted seem to depend on the essence of innovation. Recreational Shopping Tendency For leisure consumers, whether to buy products or enjoy services, shopping is a comfortable way to spend time. They want to","-26.859828001004644"],["to subsidise multi-national retail chains and draw business from local downtown business. Much of this subsidy was due to competition between Halifax, Bedford and Dartmouth to host these giant retail chains and this controversy helped lead the province to force amalgamation as a way to end wasteful municipal rivalries. In the past few years, urban housing sprawl has even reached these industrial/retail parks as new blasting techniques permitted construction on the granite wilderness around the city. What was once a business park surrounded by forest and a highway on one side has become a large suburb with","-26.81092260661535"],["rural areas to be financially independent and improved livelihood, which in turn helps reduce rural poverty. It hopes that through their aid, villages can become self govern and capable of serving their community’s economics and social needs.,\nSEEDS provides saving and credit services for starting a small enterprise or to improve livelihood as well as non-financial services such as business counselling, training in technical skills and market information. It uses the village banking microfinance model to help the rural communities. Village banking treats the whole community as one unit, and establishes semi-formal or formal institutions through which micro-finance is","-26.806261982070282"],[" By the 1990s, many supermarkets in the flatlands also closed their doors to invest in more profitable areas.\nBy 2005, The California Endowment and its then-$26 million initiative California FreshWorks set out to increase availability of healthy food options by investing in grocery stores in low-income and minority communities. As of 2014, about $264 million had been raised from a variety of investors. Illinois The Illinois Fresh Food begun with a $10 million state grant was set up to finance full-service grocery stores in neighborhoods with little access to fresh foods.\nChicago's Retail Chicago Program is outreach program for retailers, brokers,","-26.792182392673567"],["Shopping mall high school Shopping Mall High School is a term used in reference to consumer-oriented secondary educational institutions offering an abundance of student choice within its program. This most often includes choice of schedule, classes, a wide variety of subject matter, subjulty, and extracurricular activities (sports and hobbies). Schools dubbed shopping mall high schools make such numerous and different accommodations for students in an attempt to allow students to achieve the customized, individualized education and training they desire. Shopping mall high schools offer various curricula in order to maximize holding power, graduation percentages, and customer satisfaction. Background","-26.776655190624297"],["small communities where local businesses are often shut down. Advantages Many small businesses can be started at a low cost and on a part-time basis, while a person continues a regular job with an employer or provides care for family members in the home. In developing countries, many small businesses are sole-proprietor operations such as selling produce at a market stall or preparing hot food to sell on the street, that provide a small income. In the 2000s, a small business is also well suited to Internet marketing; because, it can easily serve specialized niches, something that would have been","-26.766839804033225"],["strategy that strengthens the ties between the city and its inhabitants. There is a lack of clients and purchasing power for retailers, which causes problems especially for working-class neighborhoods. There is a public hearing that is held to brainstorm strategies for solving this problem, like focusing exclusively on physical solutions like improvements of housing stock and public space. Long-term monitoring of sustainable urban open space development at the city district level will also be helpful in the long run. Concrete socio-economic evidence of the benefits that green spaces bring to shrinking cities would be a valuable contribution to the rehabilitation","-26.727186546777375"],["Health) program, which promote the construction of supermarkets in low-income neighborhoods by offering a reduction in land or building taxes for a certain period of time and providing grants, loans, and tax exemption for infrastructure costs. Such policies may be limited by the oligopolistic nature of supermarkets, in which a few large supermarket chains maintain the large majority of market share and exercise considerable influence over retail locations and prices. Transportation infrastructure If it is unfeasible to implement policies aimed at grocery store construction in low-income neighborhoods, local and state governments can instead invest in transportation infrastructure. This would provide","-26.646473321306985"],["website states:\n‘It can be difficult—if not impossible—to find fresh, affordable healthy food in many urban and rural low-income communities. One way to make fresh produce more accessible is to encourage alternative retail outlets, such as farmers’ markets, farm stands, and community supported agriculture (CSA) programs, where farmers can sell their produce directly to consumers.’\nTheir report entitled ‘California Certified Farmers’ Markets and Farm Stands: A Closer Look at State Law’ argues for more flexible regulations. Change Lab Solutions has written a fact sheet entitled ‘Creating a Permit Program for Produce Cart Vendors.’ University of California at Davis The University of California","-26.529895360872615"],["contribute to gentrification. The perception of organic foods being for an affluent population, plus the perceived notion of eliteness that comes from organic-based market chains like Whole Foods and Trader Joe's work against the goals of most urban agricultural initiatives by creating exclusive spaces. Community gardens based on crop sharing, knowledge sharing, and community building help to promote access to healthy foods by creating accessible spaces.\nOne issue faced by lower-income citizens is that they don't have the time or energy needed for becoming active in a community garden, and therefore struggle to receive the benefits they offer. Community gardens that","-26.499059764377307"],["In April 2003, Pennsylvania passed the nation's first statewide economic development initiative aimed at improving access to markets that sell healthy food in underserved rural and urban communities. The legislation devoted $100 million to agriculture projects, including the development of grocery stores and farmers' markets, and $40 million to support the development of 10 new stores in underserved communities across Pennsylvania.\nThe resulting Fresh Food Financing Initiative was a public-private partnership in association with The Food Trust started in 2004 with state seed funds. The program encouraged the development of new supermarkets by providing grants of up to $250,000 or loans","-26.38616794871632"],["in poor neighborhoods are exempt from Oakland business taxes. It also suggested programs, like the Green Business certification program could award “Green and Healthy Oakland” certification to retail establishments that stock food or offer menu items conforming to specific criteria (fresh, nutritious, local, etc.) \nMarket leaders close urban stores, even if they are showing a profit, to focus on the most productive stores in the suburbs. But \"operators in second and third place in a metro area may seek to expand their core clientele outside the highly contested, white suburbs to other areas and groups, such as the mixed-income neighborhoods","-26.344405854702927"],["grocery stores a \"competitive advantage\" over competitors Whole Foods, Kroger and Trader Joe's. Walmart contributed around 14.5% of the entire quantity of food purchased in the USA during 2016. This figure was more than double the contribution from their closest competitor Kroger.\nNeighborhood Market stores expanded slowly at first as a way to fill gaps between Walmart Supercenters and Discount Stores in existing markets. In its first 12 years, the company opened about 180 Walmart Neighborhood Markets. By 2010, Walmart said it was ready to accelerate its expansion plans for the grocery stores. As of July 31, 2019, there were 688 Walmart","-26.288062224717578"],["locally owned and operated, with inventory support from SuperValu. To compete with other grocery chains such as Giant Eagle and Shop 'n Save, FoodLand has partnered with Fueland gas stations/convenience stores in the greater Pittsburgh area. Most FueLand sites are located just outside the grocery store.\nTo further meet the needs of its customers, Foodland offers an internet shopping service for hard to find food products through its website. Customers can order these items direct and have them delivered to their door. These are items typically stocked only in specialty food retail stores and are hard to locate in general. Many","-26.276102638687007"],["serves thousands of families through their \"Martha's Market\" choice grocery program set up in eight local elementary schools. These markets serve each school once per month, bringing free groceries and the opportunity for children and parents to fill their shopping bags with a variety of fresh produce and shelf-stable foods—all while enjoying cooking demonstrations, tastings, and information tables. On July 1, Martha's Table and Arcadia Foods launched a new weekly mobile farmer's market that offers a combination of free and for-sale produce and groceries to low-income families across the Metro D.C. area. Through this partnership, a bright, green truck","-26.27126111398684"],["an independent economic activity but within a supportive group context. Purchasing cooperative A \"purchasing cooperative\" is a type of cooperative arrangement, often among businesses, to agree to aggregate demand to get lower prices from selected suppliers. Retailers' cooperatives are a form of purchasing cooperative.\nMajor purchasing cooperatives include Best Western, ACE Hardware and CCA Global Partners.\nAgricultural service cooperatives provide various services to their individual farming members, and to agricultural production cooperatives, where production resources such as land or machinery are pooled and members farm jointly.\nAgricultural supply cooperatives aggregate purchases, storage, and distribution of farm inputs for their members. By taking advantage","-26.23770560626872"],["areas. Instead, they allowed the region to rely on industry—using barges to send natural resources to market, requiring that workers have only minimal education, etc.--and created no infrastructure for business.\nThere is a lot of evidence to show that economic status generally has a positive effect on education. This positive link suggests that people in Appalachia are less educated than in rest areas of the nation. \"Labor economists estimated that the inflation-adjusted rate of return to an additional year of schooling is about 10 percent on average\". (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) This means, each additional school year will contribute a","-26.227759315283038"],["run by governments and Chambers of Commerce consider \"local\" to be merely a geographic consideration. Additionally, many corporations have manipulated the term in ways critics call \"local-washing\". Alternative viewpoints The argument that \"buying local\" is good for the economy is questioned by many economic theorists. They argue that transportation costs actually account for a fraction of overall production prices, and that choosing less efficient local products over more efficient nonlocal products is an economic deadweight loss. Moreover, the community as a whole does not actually save money because consumers have to spend so much more on the more expensive local","-26.201814466156065"],["attempt to strengthen the local economy. The program also seeks to increase public awareness of the importance of local economies and to foster optimism for the prospect of gaining local economic self-sufficiency.\nThe project seeks to assure that a high percentage of each dollar spent will remain circulating in the community. This increase in community capital creates a positive environment for new entrepreneurial ventures. It is hoped that new businesses sprouting from the resulting local generation of wealth will replace imported goods with locally produced items, which are more environmentally sustainable in that they do not need to be shipped over","-26.19790138566168"],["(a Walmart type store), Farmers made a decision to become a far more fashionable shopping destination, ranging an increasing amount of branded product. Where Farmers once would have faced competition from The Warehouse (nationwide) and various small chain stores, they've established themselves well apart from this discount retailer. Farmers still face competition from remaining department stores Smith & Caughey's, Ballantynes, and H & J Smith's, none of which are nationwide.\nFarmers closed its Queen Street, Auckland, store in rented premises in 2014 at the conclusion of a long-term lease. In November 2015, the company opened a new store located on the","-26.190014512394555"],["value. They maximize the potential of their site by building many stories. As one travels farther from the inner core, the amount that commerce is willing to pay declines rapidly.\nIndustry, however, is willing to pay to be in the outer core. There is more land available for factories, but it still has many of the benefits of the inner core, such as a marketplace and good transportation linkages.\nAs one goes farther out, the land becomes less attractive to industry because of the reducing transportation linkages and a decreasing marketplace. Because householders do not rely heavily on these factors and can","-26.178743800439406"],["parks or estates for light industry, the economy is based on agriculture and tourism. A high proportion of the working population is employed in the service sector. The uplands support sheep and beef cattle rearing, while in the Vale of Clwyd dairy farming and wheat and barley crops predominate. Many towns have livestock markets and the farming supports farm machinery merchants, vets, feed merchants, contractors and other ancillary trades. With their incomes on the decline, farmers have found opportunities in tourism, rural crafts, specialist food shops, farmers' markets and value-added food products.\nTourism is nowadays the main source of income. The","-26.13260282826377"],["Communal shopping Communal shopping is a method of shopping where the shopper enlists others to participate in the purchase decision. This added participation empowers the shopper by giving additional points of view. Having multiple opinions and ideas from other people provides the shopper with a more encompassing examination of the product/service.\nAnother factor that comes from communal shopping is boosted confidence in the decision to buy or not to buy. With a group contributing to the purchase decision, the shopper is more likely to feel like they have properly inspected the product or service. This confidence allows the shopper to reach","-26.109017502050847"],["living in places with limited grocery stores find themselves in a situation where they are unable to access the food they need. Food deserts affect a high percentage of minorities due to them being a part of a lower socioeconomic class. The issue with urban food deserts is not always the lack of food in the area, but the lack of nutritional knowledge and the food inequality seen in urban areas.\nAccording to research conducted by Tulane University in 2009 2.3 million Americans lived more than one mile away from a super market, and did not own a car. For those that","-26.092043876764365"],["However, to create a consumer dependency on urban agriculture and to introduce local food production as a sustainable career for farmers, markets would have to be open regularly. For example, the Los Angeles Farmers' Market is open seven days a week and has linked several local grocers together to provide different food products. The market's central location in downtown Los Angeles provides the perfect interaction for a diverse group of sellers to access their consumers. Queensland, Australia In Queensland many people have started a trend of urban farming both utilizing Aquaponics and self-watering containers. Cairo, Egypt In Egypt, development of","-26.063732934650034"],["who otherwise have few marketable skills apart from their labour, become actively involved in the market economy. Benefits are that it does not rely on education or language, it adapts well to providing work for extended family groups, and in large market growing regions even wider community support networks. Sharing of knowledge and experience within communities reduces risks, and supports a network of other trades such as carriers, market agents, and heavy machinery contractors, and contract farm labour. Market-gardening land is typically relatively cheap and allows immigrants to purchase land, often with an accompanying residence, far more readily than in","-26.0490272998577"],["Shop-keepers complain of heightened competition between vendors, a situation made worse by the overall decreasing demand for goods as more villagers are forced to rely on contraband Mexican goods solely to be able to provide for themselves and their families as inflation continues to afflict rural communities throughout our country. Economy The majority of villagers made their wealth during the climax of the sugar cane industry, and villagers are grateful to the past economy for having provided houses and land which, in today’s tight times, would be impossible to acquire. However, the labour force of Xaibe today has forcibly become","-26.045984650569153"],["puzzle by delivering essential products and services at affordable prices to the rural poor in the developing world. MCM entrepreneurs, primarily young women and homemakers who work within defined territories, provide solutions to health problems, save families money, help individuals increase their productivity, and help protect the environment. MCM entrepreneurs offer solutions to help the population at the “base of the pyramid” — in this case, the most vulnerable rural communities — by addressing the “what” (essential products and services), the “who” (rural villagers), and the “where” (rural villages) by creating a highly scalable local distribution network that works to","-26.037998658754987"],["wages welfare. On the other hand, because e-commerce requires sufficient stocks that could be delivered to customers in time, the warehouse becomes an important element. Warehouse needs more staff to manage, supervise and organize, thus the condition of warehouse environment will be concerned by employees. Impact on customers E-commerce brings convenience for customers as they do not have to leave home and only need to browse website online, especially for buying the products which are not sold in nearby shops. It could help customers buy wider range of products and save customers’ time. Consumers also gain power through online shopping.","-26.00531611527549"],["Furthermore, the development of infrastructure and public utilities such as electricity and water supply due to the increasing number of tourists also made the locals’ lives more convenient and comfortable. Economic Economically, floating markets help to improve the standard of living by generating jobs, thus improving income and increasing employment opportunities for local people directly, e.g. as hotel staff or tour guides. Moreover, the plentiful resources within the communities can be used by the locals to produce souvenirs or dishes for sale. As a result, these can benefit communities by providing more funds to further develop them.","-25.998739681672305"],["be more competitive, with their local knowledge of the industry.\nBuilding Broker services include everything from the initial site survey to creation of the home design; then qualifying builders and managing the tender process to ensure client satisfaction. Typically, savings can be achieved in excess of 10% when compared to the traditional method of purchasing a new home by way of display homes. Clear Build, as an example, does not draw its own plans, but utilises the customers plans, forcing builders into a competitive environment to ensure your plans are priced fairly, with significant savings possible.\nPlaceme differs from the standard procedure,","-25.96046223602025"],["and developers to introduce them to the many community retail development opportunities in Chicago and expedite their entry into these new markets by serving as a \"One Stop Shop\" to assist them during their site selection process. Other states Similar programs created after Pennsylvania's initiative include the New Jersey Food Access Initiative and Colorado Fresh Food Financing Fund ad at the city level with New Orleans Fresh Food Retailer Initiative and Cincinnati Fresh Food Financing Fund. Economic effects Besides causing a lack of access to healthy foods, the urban supermarket gap also means that inner city neighborhoods lack the jobs","-25.932674426410813"],["and to help improve local economies through micro and neuro economics.","-25.932607397378888"],["where the population is more spread out. This results in lower expenditures for the same level of service, which saves taxpayer dollars. The efficiencies gained can also result in benefits to the private sector. For example, grocery stores and pizza delivery businesses can serve only a limited area. If more customers are located within their service delivery area, the cost of delivering their services is decreased.\nUndeveloped land at the periphery of urban areas is often the target of growth management efforts since its future use is yet to be determined. That land can be targeted","-25.898270604084246"],["clinic, and improving infrastructure, such as bringing in electricity and bettering roads.\nFarmers' organisations that use their social premium for public goods often finance educational scholarships. For example, Costa Rican coffee co-operative, Coocafé, has supported hundreds of children and youth at school and university through the financing of scholarships from funding from their fair trade social premium. In terms of education, the social premium can be used to build and furnish schools too. History The first attempts to commercialize fair trade goods in Northern markets were initiated in the 1940s and 1950s by religious groups and various politically oriented non-governmental organizations","-25.89615344023332"],["Groupon MyCityDeal Collective buying business model Collective buying allows for direct cost savings, both for the consumer as well as the business. Consumers participating in on-line buying reap the benefits of discounted prices for restaurants, spas, attractions, hotels, etc., while organizations can save money by directly reaching target markets. Participating members further benefit through \"networking opportunities and shared knowledge\" which over time can build a tipping point of group purchasing power based on a growing number of active participants.\n'MyCityDeal uses an assurance contract platform to ensure that retailers are able to offer quantity discounts through a viable sales platform. In","-25.887711618444882"],["raise the resilience of local economies by encouraging re-localisation of buying and food production. The drive for this change has arisen from a range of community-based initiatives and social movements. The Transition Towns movement originating in the UK has utilised local currencies for re-localisation in the face of energy descent from peak oil and climate change. Other drives include movements against Clone town and Big-box trends.\n2. Rewards currency based on the frequent flyer model. Consumer spends cash with participating businesses who issue rewards points in a local currency. These rewards points can be used to offset cash prices in","-25.8757547546993"],["Stores: City Harvest helps neighborhood retailers increase the quantity, quality and variety of produce. In addition, City Harvest hosts healthy cooking demonstrations and budget shopping workshops. The efforts seek to improve communication between shop owners and clientele.\nCommunity Networks: To build public support for healthy food outlets and sustain change over time, City Harvest convenes Community Action Networks (CANS) in each of its Healthy Neighborhoods. These networks engage residents and retailers who are committed to improving access to healthy food. Advocacy City Harvest advocates at the city, state and federal level for programs, policies and actions to change the","-25.862734622409334"],["wholesale markets are organized and managed.\nRetail marketing systems in western countries have broadly evolved from traditional street markets through to the modern hypermarket or out-of-town shopping center. In developing countries, there remains scope to improve agricultural marketing by constructing new retail markets, despite the growth of supermarkets, although municipalities often view markets primarily as sources of revenue rather than infrastructure requiring development. Effective regulation of markets is essential. Inside a market, both hygiene rules and revenue collection activities have to be enforced. Of equal importance, however, is the maintenance of order outside the market. Licensed traders in a market will","-25.86013126152102"],["on Friday). Only if one assumes that learning is simply a matter of acquiring information (for how long? a week? a semester? forever?) can one believe that schools can be improved by becoming more like shopping malls. The Mall and High School Experience The 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High also makes a comparison of high schools to shopping malls. Its opening titles appear over scenes of a mall, which continues throughout as the main setting where students live out their adolescence.\nMalls across the United States have seen a decline in business since the heyday","-25.85573731700424"],["not more than $50,000 per loan to corner stores for assistance in providing access to healthy food in food deserts.","-25.81788188725477"],["Court found that this funding system ensured that more educational dollars were allotted to children who lived in property-rich towns than to children in property-poor towns. This enabled the property-rich towns to offer a wider range and higher quality of education programs than other towns. It also provided students in property-rich towns with more course offerings and library resources, expanded special education, better learning disability teachers and facilities, and many other opportunities.\nThe Court held that because many elements of a quality education require high per pupil operating costs, there was a direct relationship between per pupil school expenditures and the","-25.804949909448624"],["way, they are in high demand and parents often have to pay part of the costs. Hobby Activities such as reading, creative writing, sport, computer games, chess, music, dance, foreign languages, and art give an extra intellectual challenge outside of school hours. Homeschooling in the US An umbrella term encompassing myriad educational options for gifted children: part-time schooling; school at home; classes, groups, mentors and tutors; and unschooling. In many US states, the population of gifted students who are being homeschooled is rising quite rapidly, as school districts responding to budgetary issues and standards-based policies are cutting what limited gifted","-25.794930483563803"],["in the city and surrounding areas of [Rajasthan] and [Madhya Pradesh] and supplements the irrigation of these areas. Economy The city is the trade centre for an area in which cotton, millet, wheat, coriander and oilseeds are grown; industries include cotton and oilseed milling, textile weaving, distilling, dairying, and the manufacture of metal handcrafts. Kota also has an extensive industry of stone-polishing of a stone called Kota Stone, used for the floor and walls of residential and business buildings. Since last 15 years Kota has emerged as an Education hub of the country as producing excellent results in IIT-JEE and","-25.792233207030222"],["are becoming more adept at direct importing.\nHypermarkets and supermarkets, including joint ventures between the Portuguese and French, control over 50 percent of retail food sales. The Portuguese government put the brakes on the tremendous growth of hypermarkets in an effort to protect smaller retailers. With their high buying power, the hypermarkets can be more competitive in pricing and could easily squeeze smaller businesses out of the marketplace. Organic farming Organic farming in Portugal has steadily increased in the past years. From only 73 producers in 1993, it rapidly grew to more than 1,500 in 2005. Today, more than 2,000 km² are","-25.78890751407016"],["business (such as with microfinance). In other systems, people for a Rotating Savings and Credit Association or ROSCA to purchase costly material together (such as Tontines and Susu accounts). Organisations, communities, cities or individuals can provide loans to other communities/cities (such as with the approach followed by Kiva, World Vision Microloans MicroPlace and LETS). Finally, in certain communities (usually isolated communities such as small islands or oases) everything of value is shared. This is called gift economy. Determining a sustainable approach Features such as low cost, low usage of fossil fuels and use of locally available resources can give some","-25.745633474783972"],["Community economic development Community economic development (CED) is a field of study that actively elicits community involvement when working with government, and private sectors to build strong communities, industries, and markets.\nCommunity economic development encourages using local resources in a way that enhances economic opportunities while improving social conditions in a sustainable way. Often CED initiatives are implemented to overcome crises, and increase opportunities for communities who are disadvantaged. An aspect of “localizing economics,” CED is a community-centered process that blends social and economic development to foster the economic, social, ecological and cultural well-being of communities. For example, neighborhood business organizations","-25.703182014884078"],["of up to $2.5 million per store to defray the infrastructure costs of developing a new store. Up to 2009, $41.8 million in grants and loans have funded 58 stores. Success of the initiative led to the creation of similar programs in at least seven states and cities, like the New York City Food Retail Expansion to Support Health (FRESH) program. New York City Like many other cities in the US, New York City faces a supermarket shortage that is closely linked to health epidemics. At the request of the Mayor’s office, the Department of City Planning studied supermarket","-25.681255174335092"],["and open areas, rather than to add anchors and new retail space to the existing mall facility. Puente Hills Mall and Del Amo Fashion Center in Southern California are good examples of this. Other examples are Seven Corners Shopping Center in suburban Washington, D.C. and Deerfoot Meadows in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Power centers are almost always located in suburban areas, but occasionally redevelopment has brought power centers to densely populated urban areas.\nSome new power center developments have attempted to re-create the atmosphere of an old-town Main Street, with varying levels of success. Retail parks in the United Kingdom In","-25.67821205916698"],["of traders, farmers and entrepreneurs sell goods and vegetables directly to the retail & wholesale customers in busy market setup.\nService aspects of the economy are mainly centered on banking, education, transportation and health sectors. Thus, increasing numbers of people are involved in these sectors for their jobs.\nButwal is also a connecting city between nearby tourist towns of Tansen, Kapilvastu, and Lumbini. It is the gateway to nearby cities of Sunwal, Pokhara and Bharatpur. It is also a busy land-route to enter Nepal from India for tourists and others. Thus, Butwal is witnessing huge investments in the hospitality sector as well.","-25.678169921971858"],["be better controlled A \"food desert\" is an area with restricted access to healthy foods due to a lack of supermarkets within a reasonable distance. These are often low-income neighborhoods with the majority of residents lacking transportation . There have been several grassroots movements in the past 20 years to encourage urban gardening, such as the GreenThumb organization in New York City. Urban gardening uses vacant lots to grow food for a neighborhood and is cultivated by the local residents. Mobile fresh markets are another resource for residents in a \"food desert\", which are specially outfitted buses","-25.667617944884114"],["lifestyle that is generally localized in the community not based on commuting. The last, especially, raises real state valuations for not only the neighborhood but the entire surrounding region. Consumers living sustainable lifestyles in upgraded housing will generally be unwilling to drive around aimlessly shopping, for instance, to save a few dollars on their purchases. Instead, they'll stay nearer to home and create jobs in grocery delivery and small organic grocers, spending substantially less money on gasoline and car operation costs even if they pay more for food. Progressive or regressive? Some green tax shift proposals have been criticized as","-25.66474080318585"],["towns, 2 cities, and 10 villages. Economy Oswego's economy is most prominent as industry; in 2012, manufactured shipments made up $2.1 billion of the local economy. Retail made up the next most prominent sector, totaling $1.2 billion or more than $10,000 per resident. Wholesale merchants also made $368 million sales the same year. Services made up the final total, equal to over $500 million in food service, healthcare, accommodation, and social services.","-25.639344821800478"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"This, along with decreasing rural population, reduces the importance of the rural store. As businesses relocate from other communities, one town will become the trade center for its region, sometimes constructing a shopping mall.\\nGenerally, businesses in a trade-center town, except for those in competition with the mall, will benefit from the mall's presence as shoppers spill over. However, business in nearby towns will suffer as shoppers converge on the town with the greatest variety of stores.\\nExamples: West Burlington, Iowa; Wickenburg, Arizona. Exurbs See: Commuter town Government Centers Government in rural regions is becoming increasingly consolidated, so that a small number\",\n \"-31.284732078260276\"\n ],\n [\n \"to live in a small town and work in a park-like campus filled with young people and because there is so much competition for tenure-track positions at more prestigious schools.\\nStores often introduce strategies to reduce customers' perceived psychic costs, because these can cause customers to delay or forgo purchases that they are considering. Customers have many areas of perceived psychic costs in regards to making purchases. They may be worried that there will be a sale after they buy the item, in which case they will pay a higher price. For mechanical items such as cars and appliances, customers may\",\n \"-30.669156098243548\"\n ],\n [\n \"and transportation differences between the rural and urban areas. Rural food deserts are mostly the result of large supermarket stores that move into areas and create competition that is impossible for small businesses to keep up with. The competition causes many small grocers to go out of business. This makes the task of getting nutritious, whole ingredients much more difficult for citizens who live far away from large supermarket stores.\\nIn most cases, people who live in rural food deserts are more likely to lack a high school degree or GED, to experience increased poverty rates, and to have lower median\",\n \"-30.339210987687693\"\n ],\n [\n \"Local purchasing Rationale for local purchasing Advocates often suggest local purchasing as a form of moral purchasing. Local purchasing is often claimed to be better for the environment and better for working conditions. Others contend (with empirical evidence) that local purchasing and contracting enhances local job creation and wealth while strengthening community cohesiveness.\\nThe first potential moral benefit is environmental: Bringing goods from afar generally requires using more energy than transporting goods locally, and some environmental advocates see this as a serious environmental threat. Transportation contributes to environmental contamination in addition to the pollution caused by chemical inputs in the\",\n \"-29.924304705753457\"\n ],\n [\n \"older, urban facilities can accommodate, meaning that urban supermarket development often requires the construction of new facilities. And, while suburban supermarkets are typically 45,000 square feet (4,200 m²), urban supermarkets are only 25,000 square feet (2,300 m²) on average. This means that urban supermarkets can sell significantly fewer products than suburban stores, which contributes to fewer profits. Community issues A grocery store's 24-hour lighting \\\"does a lot for the sense of safety and community in the neighborhood,\\\" because supermarkets can be a safe haven. Citizens feel a \\\"dramatic change in atmosphere,\\\" after new supermarkets are built.\\nIn addition, new supermarkets can be used\",\n \"-29.762004317482933\"\n ],\n [\n \"and health centers. The increased availability of online food retailers and delivery services, such as AmazonFresh and FreshDirect, can also help in food deserts by delivering food straight to residences. The ability for elderly people, disabled people, and those who live geographically far from supermarkets to use SNAP benefits online to order groceries is a major resource. For those who lack transportation options, Transportation network companies such as Uber and Lyft may be vital resources to increase access to nutritious foods in food deserts. Geisinger Health Services Fresh Food Pharmacy In central Pennsylvania, an innovative solution to food insecurity for\",\n \"-29.564138131099753\"\n ],\n [\n \"consist overwhelmingly of working households with a substantial share of middle-income people. Security A problem in urban and suburban stores alike, shoplifting is 6% to 8% of supermarket revenues. Fear of crime also acts as a big deterrent for investors, but some cities interested in developing new grocery stores have placed police stations near development sites in order to allay developers' fears. Land The expense and scarcity of land in urban environments pose some of the greatest problems for supermarket developers. Finding sites for urban development also involves fees, complexity, length, and unpredictability.\\nToday's suburban supermarket model requires more space than\",\n \"-29.257958824571688\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United Kingdom, the retail park is a similar concept to the North American power center. They are found on the fringes of most large towns and cities in highly accessible locations and are aimed at households owning a car, though there are often also bus services. They are an alternative to busy city centres. Such developments have been encouraged by cheaper, more affordable land on the outskirts of towns and cities, and with loose planning controls in a number of Enterprise Zones, making planning and development very easy. In recent years, in many areas across the UK, planning\",\n \"-29.217636724963086\"\n ],\n [\n \"access to affordable food, thus limiting their ability to maintain a healthy diet. For these families living in poverty, many people work multiple jobs with rotating or evening shifts that make it difficult to find time to shop for food. Time constraints affect decision-making and people often choose to go to a closer convenience store rather than travel farther for fresh food. Families in urban food deserts may lack access to a car, which adds to the time needed to shop for groceries. Additionally, convenience stores and corner stores are typically open later hours than a traditional grocery store, making\",\n \"-29.151204004709143\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the market.\\nFor communities, spending at local independent businesses also generates more jobs and wealth in the local economy compared to spending at absentee-owned businesses, including corporate chains.\\nThe goal of localisation is to reduce unnecessary transport, support entrepreneurism and to strengthen and diversify community economies. This calls for condensation of agriculture and supports the idea that local farmers are capable of sustaining a community.\\nThe term “Buy Local” has become subject to varying interpretations. While leading advocates of local independent business such as the American Independent Business Alliance say the term should apply only to locally owned independent businesses, some campaigns\",\n \"-29.026825519977137\"\n ],\n [\n \"as location of community programs—health exams, nutritional education, eye exams, voter registration, birthdays for children, Western Union wire transfers so immigrants can wire remittances, selling event tickets, having Driver’s License renewal facilities, and providing phones for discount international calls. Besides contributing to a community’s overall well-being, such services make a grocery store more appealing to urban consumers: developing the services that urban citizens desire is a crucial way to make new supermarket development work.\\nBy engaging with local organizations, supermarkets can create a link with a community that will contribute to security, reduction in shrinkage, and provide for better selection and\",\n \"-28.89709922975453\"\n ],\n [\n \"is their distance from the main distribution centres used by supermarkets which are mostly located near centres of population in England.\\nTo increase their incomes, many farmers have diversified; the average income from non-farming business activities on farms in Wales in 2013/2014 was £4,900. Tourism-related activities accounted for much of this; these included bed and breakfast accommodation, self-catering accommodation in redundant outbuildings or purpose-built units, bunkhouses for walkers and provision of food-related services in cafés, restaurants, farm shops, pick-your-own and farmer's markets. Indoor and outdoor leisure and recreational facilities are provided by some farmers including paint-balling, laser-combat games, pony trekking, mountain\",\n \"-28.836854522582144\"\n ],\n [\n \"in accessing large grocery stores due to have to travel over a mile in urban areas or more than 10 in urban areas may increase reliance on convenience stores and restaurants(fast food), resulting in a poor diet and diet-related health problems. The USDA recognizes that the limited food access in Urban core areas, “are characterized by higher levels of racial segregation and greater income inequality.” In small-town and rural areas with limited the lack of transportation infrastructure.”\\nHowever not all chain groceries will go into small neighborhoods due to the risk and upkeep, For places like West Oakland in California, where\",\n \"-28.748330877744593\"\n ],\n [\n \"from fast-food restaurants. These residents are also forced to purchase highly processed foods because of the lack of fresh food options. In addition, food at independently owned grocery stores are often 10-60% more expensive than food offered at large chain supermarkets. Education Housing segregation has an effect on the quality of education received by community members. Specifically, the spatial separation of specific populations due to housing segregation leads to geographic concentrations of quality education. For example, public schools in suburban areas are usually more equipped with resources, have a higher percentage quality teachers, and produce a larger amount of successful\",\n \"-28.598306349478662\"\n ],\n [\n \"where services are sold at the same price as in urban areas, the quality is often poorer with, for example, frequent electricity power cuts, potholed roads, longer waits for emergency services and poor quality of internet access. Rural depopulation It is argued by Dick Roche that\\n\\\"The most important ingredient in rural development is population.\\\" \\nThe implication of this argument is that permitting one-off housing sustains rural populations by making it economically feasible for people to live in rural areas.\\nThere are two counter-arguments: that one-off housing draws people out of rural towns and villages, stifling the growth of these regions, or\",\n \"-28.539854090078734\"\n ],\n [\n \"this is related to policies that favour access to retail services by non-motorised modes. The Danish 1997 Planning Act requires that planning shall encourage a diverse mix of retail shops in small and medium-sized towns and in individual districts of large cities and ensure that retail trade uses will be placed in locations to which people have good access by walking, bicycling and public transport. From the mid-1970s the Netherlands has had policies in place to severely restrict the growth of large out-of-town retail developments. Germany has had federal planning regulations in place to restrict retail uses to designated areas\",\n \"-28.458407593658194\"\n ],\n [\n \"and tax revenues that grocery stores provide. Strategies Where supermarket developers have neglected some urban neighborhoods, city governments and non-profits can work together to market the potential of inner city areas to grocery store executives. Chicago’s planning department provided an information guide with a database of suitable land parcels to executives at a grocers’ expo in 2005.\\nMany of Oakland’s existing food retail businesses are located within Redevelopment Areas, allowing them to qualify for redevelopment fund assistance. The Food Systems Assessment Report for Oakland suggested the creation of Food Retail Enterprise Zones, whereby food retailers that provide nutritious foods\",\n \"-28.1881359918043\"\n ],\n [\n \"controls have been tightened to preserve the countryside. This has made it more difficult for such developments to proceed, resulting in many smaller, more compact retail parks, sometimes consisting of only three or four stores being built on former brownfield sites. There are also environmental disadvantages to large retail parks on the rural fringe, including the increased traffic and pollution that occurs during access.\\nTypically retail parks host a range of chain stores, including furniture, clothes or footwear superstores, electrical stores, carpet and others - and the anchor tenant is usually a supermarket. Owing to their out-of-town sites, abundance of\",\n \"-28.13365015736781\"\n ],\n [\n \"and retailers are by-passed, and revenue received from the sales contributes immediately to a farm’s income.\\nIn terms of social goals, farmgate sales helps to build a direct relationship between the farming community and consumers as well as fostering respect for food and awareness of how it is produced by consumers. It can also contribute to budget savings by consumers (see also potato movement).\\nIn environmental terms, farmgate sales shorten transport distances and are expected to reduce food waste. Sales methods Farmgate sales are most common in the form of either retail outlets on the farm itself in a farm shop, roadside\",\n \"-28.108688239532057\"\n ],\n [\n \"large retail outlets set up shop, while pre-existing retailers and many others have rebuilt into larger venues. One of the woes of the village is its heavy concentration of minimum-wage, service industry jobs. Other similarly sized communities nearby have a much wider range of income opportunities: Wolfville is an area supported by higher-education jobs with Acadia University, and Kentville is an area who supports itself with an industrial park, hospital and an orientation toward professional centers. Due to New Minas having no hospital of its own, citizens must travel to Kentville by way of public transit or by use of\",\n \"-28.098058878269512\"\n ],\n [\n \"town's economy had dramatically shifted from stagnant to a fast-moving basis. Aside from agriculture being the main backbone of the town's economy, commerce and trade also became the second economic-based income of the town and its residents with the opening of numerous business establishments, hotels and financial institutions that generated many opportunities and more employment for its residents. In 2015, SM Prime opened its first branch of Savemore Market in the town along National Highway while Puregold, a large retail chain opened its first Puregold Price Club Store in the same year. Multi-national fast food chain like Jollibee opened their\",\n \"-28.08812380488962\"\n ],\n [\n \"usage reductions. Without improving public transport connections you can only expect increasing private car usage and increased condition and time delays. Retail Retail is one of the four main components of activity centres, towards the broader social and environmental sustainability plus economic objectives of the increasingly preferred polycentric approach to planning and managing cities.\\nIncorporating retail into the activity centre mix of uses provides benefits for the immediate centre and surrounding community including a:\\no more equitable access to shops and services,\\no source of employment,\\no Strengthening and opportunities for marketing local economies and independent small businesses – in turn more able to\",\n \"-28.063647272763774\"\n ],\n [\n \"examined and have revealed to play a major role in the contribution to health disparities, particularly the presence of fast food restaurants and convenience stores. In neighborhoods that have access barriers to supermarkets because of proximity or prices, consumers are left with only two options; convenience stores and fast food restaurants. Low-income communities that are “lacking healthy food access—can simultaneously be ‘food swamps,’ consisting in a saturation of access to unhealthy food (e.g., fast-food, convenience stores) and nonfood (e.g., gas stations) venues, characterized by calorie-dense and high-sugared food items”, these environments reinforce unhealthy behaviors among residents. Currently, there are few\",\n \"-27.953688641660847\"\n ],\n [\n \"low-income communities with access to supermarkets but with financial barriers to access those healthy foods. In a study done by researchers at Portland State University, a food mirage was examined in a neighborhood where residents living in poverty were surrounded by new grocery stores. Researchers found that out of the 81% of impoverished residents surveyed, 61% percent lived in moderate or extreme food mirage. Resulting in traveling more than 1.8 miles past their neighborhood grocery store in search of better prices.\\nWhile food deserts are often assessed by the distance in miles between individuals' homes and supermarkets, and food mirages assess\",\n \"-27.92270281043602\"\n ],\n [\n \"of subsidies for the production of these foods will not appreciably change their lower cost in comparison to healthier options such as fruits and vegetables. Supermarket construction Local and state governments can also work to pass legislation that calls for the establishment of healthy food retailers in low-income neighborhoods classified as food deserts. The implementation of such policies can reduce hunger and food insecurity by increasing the availability and variety of healthy food options and providing a convenient means of access. Examples of this are The Pennsylvania Fresh Food Financing Initiative and The New York City FRESH (Food Retail Expansion\",\n \"-27.755790435825475\"\n ],\n [\n \"is fresher. It may also influence a consumer's decision when it comes to multiple options; with a domestic sourcing strategy, selling local products can help to gain support from consumers who are concerned about the origin of the product that they are buying for political, ethical, or environmental reasons. It is also persuasive to tell consumers that local products are quality assured; buying with confidence is a very important aspect for retailers to gain trust from consumers, subsequently increasing brand awareness and loyalty. Cost benefit Business or retailers who have strong relationships with local suppliers do not have to go\",\n \"-27.59909913444426\"\n ],\n [\n \"through a long supply chain which will help to reduce the cost of sales, resulting in attracting more consumers with a lower selling price. Less transportation between the supplier and retailer may also reduce the selling price as transportation costs are cut. Job opportunities Increases in domestic sourcing rather than international sourcing will increase the job opportunities for locals. If all local business supports domestic sourcing, and the demand for domestic sourcing will increase, more job opportunities is then created to meet the new demands. Benefits to the local economy According to IGD report, over 54% of consumers buy local\",\n \"-27.597411475260742\"\n ],\n [\n \"from either local grocery stores or market boxes sent to your door. However, some of these tend to be expensive or require internet accessibility to control your account, depending on the community especially those in rural areas this option may not be possible.\\nThere are other innovations from the nonprofit, social enterprise sector that show promise for connecting residents with limited access to fresh food to sources of fresh produce. New Roots Fresh Stop Markets were created in 2009 with the express purpose of \\\"igniting community power for fresh food access.\\\" Fresh Stop Markets are fresh food markets that pop up\",\n \"-27.587486744421767\"\n ],\n [\n \"the concept of decentralization. The creation and maintenance of a regional economy is supported by communities who believe that their community is economically better off sustaining itself rather than being part of and relying upon a larger economy, such as a national economy or the global economy. This is a movement against the increasing globalization of all economies around the world. The main tenets of fiscal localism include buying products that are made locally and using a currency that is unique to that local economy. This allows a community to grow at a controllable and sustainable rate by supporting farmers,\",\n \"-27.572766956465784\"\n ],\n [\n \"residents of low-income neighborhoods with greater access to healthy food options at more remote supermarkets. This strategy may be limited by the fact that low-income populations often face time constraints in managing employment and caring for children and may not have the time to commute to buy healthy foods. Furthermore, this method does not address the issue of neighborhood deprivation, failing to resolve the disparities in access to goods and services across geographical space. Community gardens Local governments can also mitigate hunger and food insecurity in low-income neighborhoods by establishing community gardens. According to the Encyclopedia of Community, a community\",\n \"-27.556668015080504\"\n ],\n [\n \"Help to Buy Help to Buy is the name of a government programme in the United Kingdom that aims to help first time buyers, and those looking to move home, purchase residential property. It was announced in Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne's 2013 budget speech, and was described as \\\"the biggest government intervention in the housing market since the Right to Buy scheme\\\" of the 1980s. It is an extension of a previous programme called FirstBuy that was aimed solely at first-time buyers. Help to Buy has itself been expanded and extended. Oversight Aware of its upward effect upon\",\n \"-27.518112993100658\"\n ],\n [\n \"by payroll were manufacturing companies such as T B Wood's Inc., Manitowoc cranes, retail trade, and health care and social assistance. Despite suburban growth, much of the economy of the area is still largely based on agriculture.\\nRetail stores such as Wal-Mart and Lowe's serve the population with jobs and basic needs. The Chambersburg Mall with one anchor store and about thirty-three vacant stores is located in the unincorporated village of Scotland, about four miles (6 km) north of town on Interstate 81. Chambersburg's retail sector has grown quickly since 2006 with the opening of Target, Petsmart, Michaels, and Kohls near the\",\n \"-27.508944626664743\"\n ],\n [\n \"are done by car only. The town's economy is driven mostly by service industries that serve the residents such as a grocery store, convenience stores, doctors offices, hair salons, real-estate offices and restaurants among others.\\nWith population growth in the town in recent years the housing market has become a significant part of the local economy. Torbay has become the most expensive housing market in the province with average home prices surpassing $375,000. Between 2009 and 2010 the town also saw the largest appreciation in housing prices in the St. John's CMA, with housing prices rising 32%. Air The town is\",\n \"-27.50852253344783\"\n ],\n [\n \"an area's likelihood of having a supermarket. Case studies Many cities and states across the US have recognized the urban supermarket gap problem and have developed plans to address the issue of food access. Additionally, the U.S. federal government established the Healthy Food Financing Initiative. The initiative provided more than $400 million in funding from the Treasury Department, USDA and Department of Health and Human Services to promote expanding access to nutritious foods, including developing and equipping grocery stores and other small retailers to sell healthful food in low-income rural and urban communities that currently lack this option. Pennsylvania\",\n \"-27.46527191158384\"\n ],\n [\n \"a type of cooperative which employs economies of scale on behalf of its retailer members. Retailers' cooperatives use their purchasing power to acquire discounts from manufacturers and often share marketing expenses. They are often recognized as \\\"local groups\\\" because they own their own stores within the community. It is common for locally owned grocery stores, hardware stores, and pharmacies to participate in retailers' cooperatives. Ace Hardware, True Value, and NAPA are examples of a retailers' cooperative. Retail cooperatives also allow consumers to supply their own earnings and gain bargaining power outside of the business sector. Retail cooperatives mainly reside within\",\n \"-27.31566527619725\"\n ],\n [\n \"geared to multiethnic tastes. Compounding the problem, chain stores are generally unfamiliar with ethnic preferences. Chains tend to develop a formula that works for their core market, which consists of middle-class, white suburbanites.\\nOne obstacle to supermarket growth is that developers tend to overlook the market potential of urban communities. Underserved, urban neighborhoods tend to be composed of populations with lower incomes on average, but the density of an urban environment also means that city neighborhoods tend to have more income per acre than suburban areas. Studies by the Initiative for a Competitive Inner City in Boston found that \\\"nearly 8\",\n \"-27.279009862453677\"\n ],\n [\n \"and wholesalers may also undertake retail distribution of goods to bypass the intermediary retailer, by which they earn higher profits. Importance and Role The importance of domestic trade in a country is that it facilitates exchange of goods within the country. By doing this it also makes sure that factors of production reach to the right places so that the economy of the country can grow. By allowing all different types of goods and services to reach to all parts of the country it improves the standard of living of the residents of the country as well as the employment\",\n \"-27.180178035923745\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fiscal localism Fiscal localism \\\"Buy local\\\" or local purchasing is the most visible face of fiscal localism. There are more complex institutions (both new and well established) that contribute to a community's ability to flourish. Institutions like credit unions, CDFI's (Community Development Financial Institutions), and local currency or complementary currency all can contribute to making communities more resilient and wealthy.\\nLocal currency has been in the news most, with journalists citing the Berkshares in Massachusetts, and the Ithaca Hours in Ithaca, New York. Beyond these salient examples, there are thousands of local currencies all over the world.\\nFiscal localism is rooted in\",\n \"-27.112900040694512\"\n ],\n [\n \"produce retailers, familiar High Street brands, major banking chains and professional services such as accountants, dentists and architects.\\nThere are also a number of public houses, cafes, small restaurants and take-away food outlets in the area, plus a number of small and medium-sized enterprises. In July 2006, the closure of the 80-year-old British Sugar plant near Boroughbridge Road meant the loss of 100 jobs and problems for many local farmers.\\nResidential homes are a mixture of council estates and private freeholds. Provision was made for small shopping areas of four or five stores to be located in the centre of the estates.\",\n \"-27.088545723585412\"\n ],\n [\n \"the A490. Economy The local economy is primarily based upon agriculture and local industry. The Smithfield Livestock Market is the largest one-day sheep market in Europe, whilst the town's industrial estates are home to numerous different types of small industry.\\nDue to the town's small size and population the attraction of high street stores is limited, meaning many of the residents are forced to shop in neighbouring towns like Newtown and Shrewsbury. Education The town is the home of Ardwyn Nursery and Infants School, Oldford Nursery and Infants School, Gungrog Nursery and Infants School, Maes-y-dre Primary School. Welshpool High School is\",\n \"-27.042563032126054\"\n ],\n [\n \"wants them. Really, Really Free Markets are free social events in which freegans can share goods instead of discarding them, share skills, give presents and eat food. A free store is a temporary market where people exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. In New York City, freegan.info often distributes recovered food items for free in an ad-hoc manner after trash tours.\\nFreegans also advocate sharing travel resources. Internet-based ridesharing or hitchhiking reduces but does not eliminate use of cars and all the related resources needed to maintain and operate them. Community bicycle programs and collectives facilitate community sharing\",\n \"-27.02716102550039\"\n ],\n [\n \"ethnic minorities, children, the elderly, those with disabilities, adults lacking basic skills, and immigrant populations. Criteria for Socially Responsible Procurement can be applied to every stage of a supply-chain e.g. from mining to assembly and distribution. Economic Often differences in the purchase price between a non-sustainable and sustainable alternative are negligible. Yet even where the sustainable option costs more upfront, savings of energy, water and waste over the lifetime of the product or service can provide significant financial savings. On a macroeconomic level, it can be argued that there are economic benefits in the form of efficiency gains from incorporating\",\n \"-26.995659271313343\"\n ],\n [\n \"to improve levels of self-esteem or of self-efficacy. Households and small communities take advantage of vacant land and contribute not only to their household food needs but also the needs of their resident city. The CFSC states that:\\nCommunity and residential gardening, as well as small-scale farming, save household food dollars. They promote nutrition and free cash for non-garden foods and other items. As an example, you can raise your own chickens on an urban farm and have fresh eggs for only $0.44 per dozen.\\nThis allows families to generate larger incomes selling to local grocers or to local outdoor markets while\",\n \"-26.949349405243993\"\n ],\n [\n \"benefits, will contribute to the evaluation of options in deciding what to buy. One way to evaluate more sustainable consumption is to consider the total customer cost which incurs in acquisition, use and post-use phases. Purchase Consumers have to trade off the environmental benefits against other attributes such as higher price, better performance and better design. In addition they may need to change the manner of behavior that they usually do. Use In this stage, maintenance, repair, use frequency and type of use are of interest. Some key products such as homes, cars and domestic appliances, much of the\",\n \"-26.91311047389172\"\n ],\n [\n \"local industry programs in existence since the 1960s, although some degree of local autonomy is allowed. However, a major departure places output, pricing, and purchases outside central planning. In addition, direct sales stores were established to distribute goods produced under the movement directly to consumers. The movement is characterized as a third sector in the production of consumer goods, alongside centrally controlled light industry and locally controlled traditional light industry. Moreover, there were some reports in the mid-1980s of increasing encouragement of small-scale private handicrafts and farm markets. As of 1992, however, no move was reported to expand the size\",\n \"-26.88718930957839\"\n ],\n [\n \"have big businesses or various other economic activities. People make money in any way that they can. Some run small family businesses from their homes, such as tailoring, shoemaking and laundry. Others find themselves digging through the ample mounds of trash hoping to find something worth keeping or selling. A large number of the slum’s residents dig through the many mountains of garbage, including children. This has an effect on the health of the residents. The slum does not offer water, electricity, or good roads.\\nBesides the home-run businesses in the slum, another trade is arising that is becoming more common\",\n \"-26.887020980590023\"\n ],\n [\n \"community environments. These include programs that encourage supermarkets to return to low-income communities and that improve nutrition, physical activity, and staff wellness in schools nationwide. The foundation partnered with The Food Trust, a non-profit in Philadelphia that helps make fresh, affordable food accessible to the underprivileged and educates children about healthy eating. The Food Trust's research on childhood obesity led the Philadelphia school system to ban soda vending machines from all of its schools, the strongest measure in the country.\\nHealthy Communities: Supporting initiatives that are helping to change conditions in local communities so that residents can reach their greatest\",\n \"-26.88278619167977\"\n ],\n [\n \"developed retail facilities and innovative products. Hypothesis confirms that high sensory seekers are more sensitive to realize the new alternatives, think over more options, making less rejection decision with cognitive assessment, will attempt and eventually take more innovations. Generally, high-sensitivity seekers incline to have a reasonable expectation for goods and equipment through the evaluation stage entering the practical experiments, but consciousness and the model that is ultimately adopted seem to depend on the essence of innovation. Recreational Shopping Tendency For leisure consumers, whether to buy products or enjoy services, shopping is a comfortable way to spend time. They want to\",\n \"-26.859828001004644\"\n ],\n [\n \"to subsidise multi-national retail chains and draw business from local downtown business. Much of this subsidy was due to competition between Halifax, Bedford and Dartmouth to host these giant retail chains and this controversy helped lead the province to force amalgamation as a way to end wasteful municipal rivalries. In the past few years, urban housing sprawl has even reached these industrial/retail parks as new blasting techniques permitted construction on the granite wilderness around the city. What was once a business park surrounded by forest and a highway on one side has become a large suburb with\",\n \"-26.81092260661535\"\n ],\n [\n \"rural areas to be financially independent and improved livelihood, which in turn helps reduce rural poverty. It hopes that through their aid, villages can become self govern and capable of serving their community’s economics and social needs.,\\nSEEDS provides saving and credit services for starting a small enterprise or to improve livelihood as well as non-financial services such as business counselling, training in technical skills and market information. It uses the village banking microfinance model to help the rural communities. Village banking treats the whole community as one unit, and establishes semi-formal or formal institutions through which micro-finance is\",\n \"-26.806261982070282\"\n ],\n [\n \" By the 1990s, many supermarkets in the flatlands also closed their doors to invest in more profitable areas.\\nBy 2005, The California Endowment and its then-$26 million initiative California FreshWorks set out to increase availability of healthy food options by investing in grocery stores in low-income and minority communities. As of 2014, about $264 million had been raised from a variety of investors. Illinois The Illinois Fresh Food begun with a $10 million state grant was set up to finance full-service grocery stores in neighborhoods with little access to fresh foods.\\nChicago's Retail Chicago Program is outreach program for retailers, brokers,\",\n \"-26.792182392673567\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shopping mall high school Shopping Mall High School is a term used in reference to consumer-oriented secondary educational institutions offering an abundance of student choice within its program. This most often includes choice of schedule, classes, a wide variety of subject matter, subjulty, and extracurricular activities (sports and hobbies). Schools dubbed shopping mall high schools make such numerous and different accommodations for students in an attempt to allow students to achieve the customized, individualized education and training they desire. Shopping mall high schools offer various curricula in order to maximize holding power, graduation percentages, and customer satisfaction. Background\",\n \"-26.776655190624297\"\n ],\n [\n \"small communities where local businesses are often shut down. Advantages Many small businesses can be started at a low cost and on a part-time basis, while a person continues a regular job with an employer or provides care for family members in the home. In developing countries, many small businesses are sole-proprietor operations such as selling produce at a market stall or preparing hot food to sell on the street, that provide a small income. In the 2000s, a small business is also well suited to Internet marketing; because, it can easily serve specialized niches, something that would have been\",\n \"-26.766839804033225\"\n ],\n [\n \"strategy that strengthens the ties between the city and its inhabitants. There is a lack of clients and purchasing power for retailers, which causes problems especially for working-class neighborhoods. There is a public hearing that is held to brainstorm strategies for solving this problem, like focusing exclusively on physical solutions like improvements of housing stock and public space. Long-term monitoring of sustainable urban open space development at the city district level will also be helpful in the long run. Concrete socio-economic evidence of the benefits that green spaces bring to shrinking cities would be a valuable contribution to the rehabilitation\",\n \"-26.727186546777375\"\n ],\n [\n \"Health) program, which promote the construction of supermarkets in low-income neighborhoods by offering a reduction in land or building taxes for a certain period of time and providing grants, loans, and tax exemption for infrastructure costs. Such policies may be limited by the oligopolistic nature of supermarkets, in which a few large supermarket chains maintain the large majority of market share and exercise considerable influence over retail locations and prices. Transportation infrastructure If it is unfeasible to implement policies aimed at grocery store construction in low-income neighborhoods, local and state governments can instead invest in transportation infrastructure. This would provide\",\n \"-26.646473321306985\"\n ],\n [\n \"website states:\\n‘It can be difficult—if not impossible—to find fresh, affordable healthy food in many urban and rural low-income communities. One way to make fresh produce more accessible is to encourage alternative retail outlets, such as farmers’ markets, farm stands, and community supported agriculture (CSA) programs, where farmers can sell their produce directly to consumers.’\\nTheir report entitled ‘California Certified Farmers’ Markets and Farm Stands: A Closer Look at State Law’ argues for more flexible regulations. Change Lab Solutions has written a fact sheet entitled ‘Creating a Permit Program for Produce Cart Vendors.’ University of California at Davis The University of California\",\n \"-26.529895360872615\"\n ],\n [\n \"contribute to gentrification. The perception of organic foods being for an affluent population, plus the perceived notion of eliteness that comes from organic-based market chains like Whole Foods and Trader Joe's work against the goals of most urban agricultural initiatives by creating exclusive spaces. Community gardens based on crop sharing, knowledge sharing, and community building help to promote access to healthy foods by creating accessible spaces.\\nOne issue faced by lower-income citizens is that they don't have the time or energy needed for becoming active in a community garden, and therefore struggle to receive the benefits they offer. Community gardens that\",\n \"-26.499059764377307\"\n ],\n [\n \"In April 2003, Pennsylvania passed the nation's first statewide economic development initiative aimed at improving access to markets that sell healthy food in underserved rural and urban communities. The legislation devoted $100 million to agriculture projects, including the development of grocery stores and farmers' markets, and $40 million to support the development of 10 new stores in underserved communities across Pennsylvania.\\nThe resulting Fresh Food Financing Initiative was a public-private partnership in association with The Food Trust started in 2004 with state seed funds. The program encouraged the development of new supermarkets by providing grants of up to $250,000 or loans\",\n \"-26.38616794871632\"\n ],\n [\n \"in poor neighborhoods are exempt from Oakland business taxes. It also suggested programs, like the Green Business certification program could award “Green and Healthy Oakland” certification to retail establishments that stock food or offer menu items conforming to specific criteria (fresh, nutritious, local, etc.) \\nMarket leaders close urban stores, even if they are showing a profit, to focus on the most productive stores in the suburbs. But \\\"operators in second and third place in a metro area may seek to expand their core clientele outside the highly contested, white suburbs to other areas and groups, such as the mixed-income neighborhoods\",\n \"-26.344405854702927\"\n ],\n [\n \"grocery stores a \\\"competitive advantage\\\" over competitors Whole Foods, Kroger and Trader Joe's. Walmart contributed around 14.5% of the entire quantity of food purchased in the USA during 2016. This figure was more than double the contribution from their closest competitor Kroger.\\nNeighborhood Market stores expanded slowly at first as a way to fill gaps between Walmart Supercenters and Discount Stores in existing markets. In its first 12 years, the company opened about 180 Walmart Neighborhood Markets. By 2010, Walmart said it was ready to accelerate its expansion plans for the grocery stores. As of July 31, 2019, there were 688 Walmart\",\n \"-26.288062224717578\"\n ],\n [\n \"locally owned and operated, with inventory support from SuperValu. To compete with other grocery chains such as Giant Eagle and Shop 'n Save, FoodLand has partnered with Fueland gas stations/convenience stores in the greater Pittsburgh area. Most FueLand sites are located just outside the grocery store.\\nTo further meet the needs of its customers, Foodland offers an internet shopping service for hard to find food products through its website. Customers can order these items direct and have them delivered to their door. These are items typically stocked only in specialty food retail stores and are hard to locate in general. Many\",\n \"-26.276102638687007\"\n ],\n [\n \"serves thousands of families through their \\\"Martha's Market\\\" choice grocery program set up in eight local elementary schools. These markets serve each school once per month, bringing free groceries and the opportunity for children and parents to fill their shopping bags with a variety of fresh produce and shelf-stable foods—all while enjoying cooking demonstrations, tastings, and information tables. On July 1, Martha's Table and Arcadia Foods launched a new weekly mobile farmer's market that offers a combination of free and for-sale produce and groceries to low-income families across the Metro D.C. area. Through this partnership, a bright, green truck\",\n \"-26.27126111398684\"\n ],\n [\n \"an independent economic activity but within a supportive group context. Purchasing cooperative A \\\"purchasing cooperative\\\" is a type of cooperative arrangement, often among businesses, to agree to aggregate demand to get lower prices from selected suppliers. Retailers' cooperatives are a form of purchasing cooperative.\\nMajor purchasing cooperatives include Best Western, ACE Hardware and CCA Global Partners.\\nAgricultural service cooperatives provide various services to their individual farming members, and to agricultural production cooperatives, where production resources such as land or machinery are pooled and members farm jointly.\\nAgricultural supply cooperatives aggregate purchases, storage, and distribution of farm inputs for their members. By taking advantage\",\n \"-26.23770560626872\"\n ],\n [\n \"areas. Instead, they allowed the region to rely on industry—using barges to send natural resources to market, requiring that workers have only minimal education, etc.--and created no infrastructure for business.\\nThere is a lot of evidence to show that economic status generally has a positive effect on education. This positive link suggests that people in Appalachia are less educated than in rest areas of the nation. \\\"Labor economists estimated that the inflation-adjusted rate of return to an additional year of schooling is about 10 percent on average\\\". (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) This means, each additional school year will contribute a\",\n \"-26.227759315283038\"\n ],\n [\n \"run by governments and Chambers of Commerce consider \\\"local\\\" to be merely a geographic consideration. Additionally, many corporations have manipulated the term in ways critics call \\\"local-washing\\\". Alternative viewpoints The argument that \\\"buying local\\\" is good for the economy is questioned by many economic theorists. They argue that transportation costs actually account for a fraction of overall production prices, and that choosing less efficient local products over more efficient nonlocal products is an economic deadweight loss. Moreover, the community as a whole does not actually save money because consumers have to spend so much more on the more expensive local\",\n \"-26.201814466156065\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempt to strengthen the local economy. The program also seeks to increase public awareness of the importance of local economies and to foster optimism for the prospect of gaining local economic self-sufficiency.\\nThe project seeks to assure that a high percentage of each dollar spent will remain circulating in the community. This increase in community capital creates a positive environment for new entrepreneurial ventures. It is hoped that new businesses sprouting from the resulting local generation of wealth will replace imported goods with locally produced items, which are more environmentally sustainable in that they do not need to be shipped over\",\n \"-26.19790138566168\"\n ],\n [\n \"(a Walmart type store), Farmers made a decision to become a far more fashionable shopping destination, ranging an increasing amount of branded product. Where Farmers once would have faced competition from The Warehouse (nationwide) and various small chain stores, they've established themselves well apart from this discount retailer. Farmers still face competition from remaining department stores Smith & Caughey's, Ballantynes, and H & J Smith's, none of which are nationwide.\\nFarmers closed its Queen Street, Auckland, store in rented premises in 2014 at the conclusion of a long-term lease. In November 2015, the company opened a new store located on the\",\n \"-26.190014512394555\"\n ],\n [\n \"value. They maximize the potential of their site by building many stories. As one travels farther from the inner core, the amount that commerce is willing to pay declines rapidly.\\nIndustry, however, is willing to pay to be in the outer core. There is more land available for factories, but it still has many of the benefits of the inner core, such as a marketplace and good transportation linkages.\\nAs one goes farther out, the land becomes less attractive to industry because of the reducing transportation linkages and a decreasing marketplace. Because householders do not rely heavily on these factors and can\",\n \"-26.178743800439406\"\n ],\n [\n \"parks or estates for light industry, the economy is based on agriculture and tourism. A high proportion of the working population is employed in the service sector. The uplands support sheep and beef cattle rearing, while in the Vale of Clwyd dairy farming and wheat and barley crops predominate. Many towns have livestock markets and the farming supports farm machinery merchants, vets, feed merchants, contractors and other ancillary trades. With their incomes on the decline, farmers have found opportunities in tourism, rural crafts, specialist food shops, farmers' markets and value-added food products.\\nTourism is nowadays the main source of income. The\",\n \"-26.13260282826377\"\n ],\n [\n \"Communal shopping Communal shopping is a method of shopping where the shopper enlists others to participate in the purchase decision. This added participation empowers the shopper by giving additional points of view. Having multiple opinions and ideas from other people provides the shopper with a more encompassing examination of the product/service.\\nAnother factor that comes from communal shopping is boosted confidence in the decision to buy or not to buy. With a group contributing to the purchase decision, the shopper is more likely to feel like they have properly inspected the product or service. This confidence allows the shopper to reach\",\n \"-26.109017502050847\"\n ],\n [\n \"living in places with limited grocery stores find themselves in a situation where they are unable to access the food they need. Food deserts affect a high percentage of minorities due to them being a part of a lower socioeconomic class. The issue with urban food deserts is not always the lack of food in the area, but the lack of nutritional knowledge and the food inequality seen in urban areas.\\nAccording to research conducted by Tulane University in 2009 2.3 million Americans lived more than one mile away from a super market, and did not own a car. For those that\",\n \"-26.092043876764365\"\n ],\n [\n \"However, to create a consumer dependency on urban agriculture and to introduce local food production as a sustainable career for farmers, markets would have to be open regularly. For example, the Los Angeles Farmers' Market is open seven days a week and has linked several local grocers together to provide different food products. The market's central location in downtown Los Angeles provides the perfect interaction for a diverse group of sellers to access their consumers. Queensland, Australia In Queensland many people have started a trend of urban farming both utilizing Aquaponics and self-watering containers. Cairo, Egypt In Egypt, development of\",\n \"-26.063732934650034\"\n ],\n [\n \"who otherwise have few marketable skills apart from their labour, become actively involved in the market economy. Benefits are that it does not rely on education or language, it adapts well to providing work for extended family groups, and in large market growing regions even wider community support networks. Sharing of knowledge and experience within communities reduces risks, and supports a network of other trades such as carriers, market agents, and heavy machinery contractors, and contract farm labour. Market-gardening land is typically relatively cheap and allows immigrants to purchase land, often with an accompanying residence, far more readily than in\",\n \"-26.0490272998577\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shop-keepers complain of heightened competition between vendors, a situation made worse by the overall decreasing demand for goods as more villagers are forced to rely on contraband Mexican goods solely to be able to provide for themselves and their families as inflation continues to afflict rural communities throughout our country. Economy The majority of villagers made their wealth during the climax of the sugar cane industry, and villagers are grateful to the past economy for having provided houses and land which, in today’s tight times, would be impossible to acquire. However, the labour force of Xaibe today has forcibly become\",\n \"-26.045984650569153\"\n ],\n [\n \"puzzle by delivering essential products and services at affordable prices to the rural poor in the developing world. MCM entrepreneurs, primarily young women and homemakers who work within defined territories, provide solutions to health problems, save families money, help individuals increase their productivity, and help protect the environment. MCM entrepreneurs offer solutions to help the population at the “base of the pyramid” — in this case, the most vulnerable rural communities — by addressing the “what” (essential products and services), the “who” (rural villagers), and the “where” (rural villages) by creating a highly scalable local distribution network that works to\",\n \"-26.037998658754987\"\n ],\n [\n \"wages welfare. On the other hand, because e-commerce requires sufficient stocks that could be delivered to customers in time, the warehouse becomes an important element. Warehouse needs more staff to manage, supervise and organize, thus the condition of warehouse environment will be concerned by employees. Impact on customers E-commerce brings convenience for customers as they do not have to leave home and only need to browse website online, especially for buying the products which are not sold in nearby shops. It could help customers buy wider range of products and save customers’ time. Consumers also gain power through online shopping.\",\n \"-26.00531611527549\"\n ],\n [\n \"Furthermore, the development of infrastructure and public utilities such as electricity and water supply due to the increasing number of tourists also made the locals’ lives more convenient and comfortable. Economic Economically, floating markets help to improve the standard of living by generating jobs, thus improving income and increasing employment opportunities for local people directly, e.g. as hotel staff or tour guides. Moreover, the plentiful resources within the communities can be used by the locals to produce souvenirs or dishes for sale. As a result, these can benefit communities by providing more funds to further develop them.\",\n \"-25.998739681672305\"\n ],\n [\n \"be more competitive, with their local knowledge of the industry.\\nBuilding Broker services include everything from the initial site survey to creation of the home design; then qualifying builders and managing the tender process to ensure client satisfaction. Typically, savings can be achieved in excess of 10% when compared to the traditional method of purchasing a new home by way of display homes. Clear Build, as an example, does not draw its own plans, but utilises the customers plans, forcing builders into a competitive environment to ensure your plans are priced fairly, with significant savings possible.\\nPlaceme differs from the standard procedure,\",\n \"-25.96046223602025\"\n ],\n [\n \"and developers to introduce them to the many community retail development opportunities in Chicago and expedite their entry into these new markets by serving as a \\\"One Stop Shop\\\" to assist them during their site selection process. Other states Similar programs created after Pennsylvania's initiative include the New Jersey Food Access Initiative and Colorado Fresh Food Financing Fund ad at the city level with New Orleans Fresh Food Retailer Initiative and Cincinnati Fresh Food Financing Fund. Economic effects Besides causing a lack of access to healthy foods, the urban supermarket gap also means that inner city neighborhoods lack the jobs\",\n \"-25.932674426410813\"\n ],\n [\n \"and to help improve local economies through micro and neuro economics.\",\n \"-25.932607397378888\"\n ],\n [\n \"where the population is more spread out. This results in lower expenditures for the same level of service, which saves taxpayer dollars. The efficiencies gained can also result in benefits to the private sector. For example, grocery stores and pizza delivery businesses can serve only a limited area. If more customers are located within their service delivery area, the cost of delivering their services is decreased.\\nUndeveloped land at the periphery of urban areas is often the target of growth management efforts since its future use is yet to be determined. That land can be targeted\",\n \"-25.898270604084246\"\n ],\n [\n \"clinic, and improving infrastructure, such as bringing in electricity and bettering roads.\\nFarmers' organisations that use their social premium for public goods often finance educational scholarships. For example, Costa Rican coffee co-operative, Coocafé, has supported hundreds of children and youth at school and university through the financing of scholarships from funding from their fair trade social premium. In terms of education, the social premium can be used to build and furnish schools too. History The first attempts to commercialize fair trade goods in Northern markets were initiated in the 1940s and 1950s by religious groups and various politically oriented non-governmental organizations\",\n \"-25.89615344023332\"\n ],\n [\n \"Groupon MyCityDeal Collective buying business model Collective buying allows for direct cost savings, both for the consumer as well as the business. Consumers participating in on-line buying reap the benefits of discounted prices for restaurants, spas, attractions, hotels, etc., while organizations can save money by directly reaching target markets. Participating members further benefit through \\\"networking opportunities and shared knowledge\\\" which over time can build a tipping point of group purchasing power based on a growing number of active participants.\\n'MyCityDeal uses an assurance contract platform to ensure that retailers are able to offer quantity discounts through a viable sales platform. In\",\n \"-25.887711618444882\"\n ],\n [\n \"raise the resilience of local economies by encouraging re-localisation of buying and food production. The drive for this change has arisen from a range of community-based initiatives and social movements. The Transition Towns movement originating in the UK has utilised local currencies for re-localisation in the face of energy descent from peak oil and climate change. Other drives include movements against Clone town and Big-box trends.\\n2. Rewards currency based on the frequent flyer model. Consumer spends cash with participating businesses who issue rewards points in a local currency. These rewards points can be used to offset cash prices in\",\n \"-25.8757547546993\"\n ],\n [\n \"Stores: City Harvest helps neighborhood retailers increase the quantity, quality and variety of produce. In addition, City Harvest hosts healthy cooking demonstrations and budget shopping workshops. The efforts seek to improve communication between shop owners and clientele.\\nCommunity Networks: To build public support for healthy food outlets and sustain change over time, City Harvest convenes Community Action Networks (CANS) in each of its Healthy Neighborhoods. These networks engage residents and retailers who are committed to improving access to healthy food. Advocacy City Harvest advocates at the city, state and federal level for programs, policies and actions to change the\",\n \"-25.862734622409334\"\n ],\n [\n \"wholesale markets are organized and managed.\\nRetail marketing systems in western countries have broadly evolved from traditional street markets through to the modern hypermarket or out-of-town shopping center. In developing countries, there remains scope to improve agricultural marketing by constructing new retail markets, despite the growth of supermarkets, although municipalities often view markets primarily as sources of revenue rather than infrastructure requiring development. Effective regulation of markets is essential. Inside a market, both hygiene rules and revenue collection activities have to be enforced. Of equal importance, however, is the maintenance of order outside the market. Licensed traders in a market will\",\n \"-25.86013126152102\"\n ],\n [\n \"on Friday). Only if one assumes that learning is simply a matter of acquiring information (for how long? a week? a semester? forever?) can one believe that schools can be improved by becoming more like shopping malls. The Mall and High School Experience The 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High also makes a comparison of high schools to shopping malls. Its opening titles appear over scenes of a mall, which continues throughout as the main setting where students live out their adolescence.\\nMalls across the United States have seen a decline in business since the heyday\",\n \"-25.85573731700424\"\n ],\n [\n \"not more than $50,000 per loan to corner stores for assistance in providing access to healthy food in food deserts.\",\n \"-25.81788188725477\"\n ],\n [\n \"Court found that this funding system ensured that more educational dollars were allotted to children who lived in property-rich towns than to children in property-poor towns. This enabled the property-rich towns to offer a wider range and higher quality of education programs than other towns. It also provided students in property-rich towns with more course offerings and library resources, expanded special education, better learning disability teachers and facilities, and many other opportunities.\\nThe Court held that because many elements of a quality education require high per pupil operating costs, there was a direct relationship between per pupil school expenditures and the\",\n \"-25.804949909448624\"\n ],\n [\n \"way, they are in high demand and parents often have to pay part of the costs. Hobby Activities such as reading, creative writing, sport, computer games, chess, music, dance, foreign languages, and art give an extra intellectual challenge outside of school hours. Homeschooling in the US An umbrella term encompassing myriad educational options for gifted children: part-time schooling; school at home; classes, groups, mentors and tutors; and unschooling. In many US states, the population of gifted students who are being homeschooled is rising quite rapidly, as school districts responding to budgetary issues and standards-based policies are cutting what limited gifted\",\n \"-25.794930483563803\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the city and surrounding areas of [Rajasthan] and [Madhya Pradesh] and supplements the irrigation of these areas. Economy The city is the trade centre for an area in which cotton, millet, wheat, coriander and oilseeds are grown; industries include cotton and oilseed milling, textile weaving, distilling, dairying, and the manufacture of metal handcrafts. Kota also has an extensive industry of stone-polishing of a stone called Kota Stone, used for the floor and walls of residential and business buildings. Since last 15 years Kota has emerged as an Education hub of the country as producing excellent results in IIT-JEE and\",\n \"-25.792233207030222\"\n ],\n [\n \"are becoming more adept at direct importing.\\nHypermarkets and supermarkets, including joint ventures between the Portuguese and French, control over 50 percent of retail food sales. The Portuguese government put the brakes on the tremendous growth of hypermarkets in an effort to protect smaller retailers. With their high buying power, the hypermarkets can be more competitive in pricing and could easily squeeze smaller businesses out of the marketplace. Organic farming Organic farming in Portugal has steadily increased in the past years. From only 73 producers in 1993, it rapidly grew to more than 1,500 in 2005. Today, more than 2,000 km² are\",\n \"-25.78890751407016\"\n ],\n [\n \"business (such as with microfinance). In other systems, people for a Rotating Savings and Credit Association or ROSCA to purchase costly material together (such as Tontines and Susu accounts). Organisations, communities, cities or individuals can provide loans to other communities/cities (such as with the approach followed by Kiva, World Vision Microloans MicroPlace and LETS). Finally, in certain communities (usually isolated communities such as small islands or oases) everything of value is shared. This is called gift economy. Determining a sustainable approach Features such as low cost, low usage of fossil fuels and use of locally available resources can give some\",\n \"-25.745633474783972\"\n ],\n [\n \"Community economic development Community economic development (CED) is a field of study that actively elicits community involvement when working with government, and private sectors to build strong communities, industries, and markets.\\nCommunity economic development encourages using local resources in a way that enhances economic opportunities while improving social conditions in a sustainable way. Often CED initiatives are implemented to overcome crises, and increase opportunities for communities who are disadvantaged. An aspect of “localizing economics,” CED is a community-centered process that blends social and economic development to foster the economic, social, ecological and cultural well-being of communities. For example, neighborhood business organizations\",\n \"-25.703182014884078\"\n ],\n [\n \"of up to $2.5 million per store to defray the infrastructure costs of developing a new store. Up to 2009, $41.8 million in grants and loans have funded 58 stores. Success of the initiative led to the creation of similar programs in at least seven states and cities, like the New York City Food Retail Expansion to Support Health (FRESH) program. New York City Like many other cities in the US, New York City faces a supermarket shortage that is closely linked to health epidemics. At the request of the Mayor’s office, the Department of City Planning studied supermarket\",\n \"-25.681255174335092\"\n ],\n [\n \"and open areas, rather than to add anchors and new retail space to the existing mall facility. Puente Hills Mall and Del Amo Fashion Center in Southern California are good examples of this. Other examples are Seven Corners Shopping Center in suburban Washington, D.C. and Deerfoot Meadows in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Power centers are almost always located in suburban areas, but occasionally redevelopment has brought power centers to densely populated urban areas.\\nSome new power center developments have attempted to re-create the atmosphere of an old-town Main Street, with varying levels of success. Retail parks in the United Kingdom In\",\n \"-25.67821205916698\"\n ],\n [\n \"of traders, farmers and entrepreneurs sell goods and vegetables directly to the retail & wholesale customers in busy market setup.\\nService aspects of the economy are mainly centered on banking, education, transportation and health sectors. Thus, increasing numbers of people are involved in these sectors for their jobs.\\nButwal is also a connecting city between nearby tourist towns of Tansen, Kapilvastu, and Lumbini. It is the gateway to nearby cities of Sunwal, Pokhara and Bharatpur. It is also a busy land-route to enter Nepal from India for tourists and others. Thus, Butwal is witnessing huge investments in the hospitality sector as well.\",\n \"-25.678169921971858\"\n ],\n [\n \"be better controlled A \\\"food desert\\\" is an area with restricted access to healthy foods due to a lack of supermarkets within a reasonable distance. These are often low-income neighborhoods with the majority of residents lacking transportation . There have been several grassroots movements in the past 20 years to encourage urban gardening, such as the GreenThumb organization in New York City. Urban gardening uses vacant lots to grow food for a neighborhood and is cultivated by the local residents. Mobile fresh markets are another resource for residents in a \\\"food desert\\\", which are specially outfitted buses\",\n \"-25.667617944884114\"\n ],\n [\n \"lifestyle that is generally localized in the community not based on commuting. The last, especially, raises real state valuations for not only the neighborhood but the entire surrounding region. Consumers living sustainable lifestyles in upgraded housing will generally be unwilling to drive around aimlessly shopping, for instance, to save a few dollars on their purchases. Instead, they'll stay nearer to home and create jobs in grocery delivery and small organic grocers, spending substantially less money on gasoline and car operation costs even if they pay more for food. Progressive or regressive? Some green tax shift proposals have been criticized as\",\n \"-25.66474080318585\"\n ],\n [\n \"towns, 2 cities, and 10 villages. Economy Oswego's economy is most prominent as industry; in 2012, manufactured shipments made up $2.1 billion of the local economy. Retail made up the next most prominent sector, totaling $1.2 billion or more than $10,000 per resident. Wholesale merchants also made $368 million sales the same year. Services made up the final total, equal to over $500 million in food service, healthcare, accommodation, and social services.\",\n \"-25.639344821800478\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":284,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3pmpi4"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How do cemeteries continue to pay the bills after there are no more plots left to sell?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["The cemetery has to put some money for each burial into a perpetual care fund. This money is invested and used to pay for the ongoing maintenance of the cemetery. Some cemeteries are publicly funded by taxes.","Eventually, they dig up old plots & resell them. How long they have to wait depends on where you are. The alternative, as you see with some historical cemeteries, is that they just *don't* make money. Some church or the local government ends up eating the maintenance costs.","In most jurisdictions, cemeteries are required to set aside money for an endowment that ensures they will be able to provide care indefinitely.","Where I live what they do is you pay for the burial site. Body is there for 8 years. After 8 years they unburry the coffin to see if the body has decomposed yet. If not, goes back down. If it has, the family will have to either pay for a [\"drawer\"]( URL_0 ) with a special box where they move the bones to, or they pay to cremate the bones and then you can keep them and do whatever you want. So the same body will bring in money twice (unless you cremate it to begin with which is the best anyway).","So what happens when we run out o space for cemeteries? The world is only so big.","When we bought my father's plot, we had to pay into an escrow account. The money is held at a financial institution and the interest serves kind of like rent.","some cemetery plots are subscription based. If you don't pay dues, your loved ones will be dug up and cremated so they can fit new bodies in the ground. sucks.","It really depends where in the world you live. Here in the Netherlands, a grave is usually rented for 30-40 years. After that time is over, the grave is cleared and the remains are put into a mass grave. Exceptions are rare - mostly to very old graves (historic value) or for those of important people."],"string":"[\n \"The cemetery has to put some money for each burial into a perpetual care fund. This money is invested and used to pay for the ongoing maintenance of the cemetery. Some cemeteries are publicly funded by taxes.\",\n \"Eventually, they dig up old plots & resell them. How long they have to wait depends on where you are. The alternative, as you see with some historical cemeteries, is that they just *don't* make money. Some church or the local government ends up eating the maintenance costs.\",\n \"In most jurisdictions, cemeteries are required to set aside money for an endowment that ensures they will be able to provide care indefinitely.\",\n \"Where I live what they do is you pay for the burial site. Body is there for 8 years. After 8 years they unburry the coffin to see if the body has decomposed yet. If not, goes back down. If it has, the family will have to either pay for a [\\\"drawer\\\"]( URL_0 ) with a special box where they move the bones to, or they pay to cremate the bones and then you can keep them and do whatever you want. So the same body will bring in money twice (unless you cremate it to begin with which is the best anyway).\",\n \"So what happens when we run out o space for cemeteries? The world is only so big.\",\n \"When we bought my father's plot, we had to pay into an escrow account. The money is held at a financial institution and the interest serves kind of like rent.\",\n \"some cemetery plots are subscription based. If you don't pay dues, your loved ones will be dug up and cremated so they can fit new bodies in the ground. sucks.\",\n \"It really depends where in the world you live. Here in the Netherlands, a grave is usually rented for 30-40 years. After that time is over, the grave is cleared and the remains are put into a mass grave. Exceptions are rare - mostly to very old graves (historic value) or for those of important people.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["authorities face a number of tensions in regard to the management of cemeteries.\nOne issue relates to cost. Traditionally a single payment is made at the time of burial, but the cemetery authority incurs expenses in cemetery maintenance over many decades. Many cemetery authorities find that their accumulated funds are not sufficient for the costs of long-term maintenance. This shortfall in funds for maintenance results in three main options: charge much higher prices for new burials, obtain some other kind of public subsidy, or neglect maintenance. For cemeteries without space for new burials, the options are even more limited. Public attitudes","-32.31564297096338"],["had acquired them. Without maintenance, the cemeteries soon became overgrown, headstones were vandalised, and they were frequented by drug addicts. \nIn 1988, following a public outcry, the Local Government Ombudsman ruled that WCC had to buy back the graves, and in February 1990 the District Auditor ruled that the sale was unlawful. WCC bought back the graves in June 1992 at a loss to ratepayers of £4.25 million. They were unable to repurchase any of the unused land - which had been \"sold on by property developers for housing at an enormous profit\" - or the buildings, including the crematorium.","-32.12259619636461"],["graves. Shelves are usually installed to accommodate their remains.\nDuring relatively recent times, the Père Lachaise has adopted a standard practice of issuing 30-year leases on grave sites, so that if a lease is not renewed by a family, the remains can be removed, space made for a new grave, and the overall deterioration of the cemetery minimized. Abandoned remains are boxed, tagged and moved to Aux Morts ossuary, still in the Père Lachaise cemetery.\nPlots can be bought in perpetuity or for 50, 30 or 10 years, the last being the least expensive option. Even for the case of mausoleums and","-32.08289640810108"],["charitable contributions, even if a portion of the payment is for the perpetual care of the entirety of the cemetery. Bequests or gifts to a 501(c)(13) cemetery is not deductible for federal estate tax purposes or gift tax purposes. History Historically, cemeteries were exempt from local property taxes and excise taxes in most states because states generally considered cemeteries to be performing a recognized civic service.\nThe Tariff Act of 1913 provided an exemption from federal income taxes for mutual cemetery companies that were organized and operated exclusively \"for the benefit of their members\". In 1921, Congress extended the tax-exemption to","-31.83104795536201"],["to secure the eviction of a cemetery keeper - so WCC also paid the purchaser £70,000 compensation. \nThe sale was ordered by Dame Shirley Porter, the Conservative leader of WCC at the time, in order to save the annual maintenance costs of £422,000, with the upkeep of the cemeteries passing to the new owner. However, the deal had been handled with such incompetence by WCC that the maintenance agreement only applied to the immediate purchaser of the cemeteries and not to any subsequent owners; the cemeteries were re-sold by the purchaser for £1.25 million on the same day that he","-31.48777313885512"],["instances could reclaim and reuse a grave after 75 years, under the London Authorities Act 2007. Extending this provision elsewhere in the country was deliberated. The consultation considered the ‘Exclusive Rights for Burial’. When purchasing a grave, a person usually buys the right to exclusively be buried in it for a period, often 100 years, they do not buy the land. Noted was the possibility of reusing graves with the permission of the Church of England. Section 25 of the Burial Act 1857, amended by Section 2 of the Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measures 2014 permitted the disturbance of","-31.4439156553708"],["while in Israel; the cost of the plot and funeral services is paid for by Bituah Leumi, the National Insurance Institute. However, the choice of plot is left to the burial society, and if a spouse wishes to be buried in the adjacent plot, he or she must pay for the second plot. According to the law, the burial society must reserve the plots on both sides of a newly-dug grave for 90 days in order to give the spouse and relatives of the deceased the option to purchase them. According to the Kehillat Yerushalayim burial society, 90 percent of","-31.21988850599155"],["their $2.1 million endowment, which generated roughly $62,000 per year in interest, was not enough to water the property and properly maintain all the graves; their records show that they lost $159,000 in 2003. They still employ two groundskeepers to pick up trash, but have had to refuse offers of maintenance help from volunteers due to liability issues. In 2005, Fairmount approached the city government and requested they take over operation of the cemetery; however, the city was forced to decline due to lack of funds. Local residents, concerned by the dying trees and grass and generally poor state of","-31.190080033571576"],["When the cemeteries were eventually reacquired by WCC, part of the deal required them to award an annual maintenance contract back to a company with connections to the seller.\nPeter Bradley, the deputy Leader of the Labour Group at Westminster Council, said:\n\"Shirley Porter will go down in history as the woman who sold three council cemeteries for five pence each and David Weeks will go down in history as the man who bought them back for £4.25 million.\"","-31.179092306178063"],["that no one knew had been used. On May 24, 2011, a federal judge approved a plan to place the cemetery into a trust that would use about $2.6 million of a $7 million insurance settlement to renovate and run the cemetery. The judge set aside at least $50,000 for a memorial to honor those whose graves were lost or desecrated. Those who can prove they buried relatives in the cemetery will receive $100 per grave. Those whose relatives' graves were destroyed may apply for more money.","-31.120866636105347"],["restitution, calculated the costs of providing safe access to the cemetery at € 400 - 800,000. Apart from the trimming of the older trees, hardly any preservation measures have been taken in recent years. Parts of the cemetery have become inaccessible due to the strong growth of bushes and small trees. In addition, the growth of the roots from the trees has dislocated gravestones, some of which have fallen over. Gravestones continue to be damaged by falling trees or falling rotten branches. Additional severe damage appears on the graves from environmental factors such as acid rain, frost and vegetation. Extreme-rightwing","-31.02556890656706"],["in existing cemeteries.\nA third issue is the maintenance of monuments and headstones, which are generally the responsibility of families, but often become neglected over time. Decay and damage through vandalism or cemetery maintenance practices can render monuments and headstones either unsafe or at least unsightly. On the other hand, some families do not forget the grave but constantly visit, leaving behind flowers, plants, and other decorative items that create their own maintenance problem. Re-use of graves All of these issues tend to put pressure on the re-use of grave sites within cemeteries. The re-use of graves already used for","-30.645170686766505"],["take control of the maintaining graves business (on the cemetery) worth 20 million rubles ($341,000) a month.","-30.587956997333094"],["either failed to place markers on graves or willfully discarded or recycled markers. Advance purchase contracts for plots were inaccurate or incomplete. They also discovered that Howard had removed $40,000 from the perpetual care trust fund as a \"loan\" but never repaid it.\nThe CFB issued an order suspending all operations at Grand View Memorial Park. The cemetery was prohibited from selling new graves or soliciting new business. Burials could continue if already planned, or if planned for plots which had already been purchased. Howard and Goldsman's state licenses to operate a cemetery were suspended, and Howard was no longer permitted","-30.518627223209478"],["to make arrangements with less distant cemeteries, or to buy land on the outskirts of London and open their own suburban cemeteries. Concerns over the financial irregularities and the viability of the scheme had led to only 15,000 of the 25,000 LNC shares being sold, severely limiting the company's working capital and forcing it to take out large loans. Buying the land from Lord Onslow, compensating local residents for the loss of rights over Woking Common, draining and landscaping the portion to be used for the initial cemetery, and building the railway lines and stations were all expensive undertakings. With","-30.43490242507687"],["settle outstanding debts. The business had been established on the basis that the cemetery would handle between 10,000 and 50,000 burials per year, but the number never exceeded 4,100 and over its first 20 years of operations averaged just 3,200. As the five-year extension expired the financial difficulties remained, and under pressure from shareholders the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Amendment Act 1869 was passed. This removed all restrictions on land sales, other than within the existing cemetery and the adjacent reserve site. Despite the releasing of restrictions in the 1869 Act, land sales remained disappointing. By 1887 less than","-30.328407526471665"],["allow a non-Catholic to be buried there. Some families did not want to be separated by this rule and moved their loved ones to the Cementerio Civil. As a result, some graves have been abandoned and cannot be sold by the cemetery administration since they are private property and have a legal, albeit uninterested, owner.","-30.22326338972198"],["the person who initially purchased the burial plot(s) may have subsequently died and locating living family members, if any, many decades later is virtually impossible (or at least prohibitively expensive). Public notice about the proposed re-use of graves may or may not reach family members living further afield who may object to such practices. Therefore, it is possible that re-use could occur without family awareness - an unpleasant scenario to say the least.\nSome cemeteries did foresee the need for re-use and included in their original terms and conditions a limited tenure on a grave site and most new","-30.057397368072998"],["would seem easier to \"re-use\" such grave sites as there can be no claims of desecration, but often this is made complicated by the legal rights to be buried obtained by the pre-purchase, as any limited tenure clause only takes effect after there has been a burial. Again, cemetery authorities suspect that in many cases the holders of these burial rights are probably dead and that nobody will exercise that burial right, but again some families are aware of the burial rights they possess and do intend to exercise them as and when family members die. Again the difficulty of","-30.028364449972287"],["cemeteries follow this practice, having seen the problems faced by older cemeteries. Common practice in Europe is to place bones in an ossuary after the proscribed burial period is over.\nHowever, even when the cemetery has the legal right to re-use a grave, strong public opinion often forces the authorities to back down on that re-use. Also, even when cemeteries have a limited tenure provision in place, funding shortages can force them to contemplate re-use earlier than the original arrangements provided for.\nAnother type of grave site considered for re-use are empty plots purchased years ago but never used. In principle it","-30.01686224900186"],["traditional burial plots are extremely scarce and expensive, and in London, a space crisis led Harriet Harman to propose reopening old graves for \"double-decker\" burials.\nSome cities in Germany do not have plots for sale, only for lease. When the lease expires, the remains are disinterred and a specialist bundles the bones, inscribes the forehead of the skull with the information that was on the headstone, and places the remains in a special crypt. Christianity In Christian countries and cultures, cremation has historically been discouraged, but now in many denominations it is accepted. Catholicism Christians preferred to bury the dead rather","-29.998219291272108"],["cemetery has been set up, and collects money on All Saint's Day for the treasures of the burial ground to be returned to their former glory.","-29.958455964922905"],["By the end of 1896, the cemetery had disinterred 637 bodies at a cost of $5,002.57.\nBy January 1897, the cemetery was close to running out of money to continue the process. The cemetery sought to mortgage its property to raise the necessary funds, but lacked the legal authority to do so. It sought the assistance of Congress, and in January 1897 Senator James McMillan and Representative Joseph W. Babcock (R-Wisconsin) sponsored legislation to permit the cemetery to mortgage its land. The House and Senate quickly passed the legislation, and President Grover Cleveland signed it into law on March 3,","-29.906454164301977"],["above, costing local authorities approximately £500,000. These funerals are usually conducted by an undertaker contracted by the local authority to prepare the body and provide a basic funeral.","-29.839743278302194"],["countries, and many others, visitors to graves commonly leave cut flowers, especially during major holidays and on birthdays or relevant anniversaries. Cemeteries usually dispose of these flowers after a few weeks in order to keep the space maintained. Some companies offer perpetual flower services, to ensure a grave is always decorated with fresh flowers. Flowers may often be planted on the grave as well, usually immediately in front of the gravestone. For this purpose roses are highly common. Stones Visitors to loved ones interred in Jewish cemeteries often leave a small stone on the top of the headstone. There","-29.75296508334577"],["a permanent grave, the property rights of the Church are not transferred but only the right of use of the particular grave is given to the family concerned, subject to the rules and regulations governing the graveyard. As regards temporary graves, permission is given for one particular burial and the family members have no right over the grave.","-29.672166456701234"],["shillings (about £46 in 2019 terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future. Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves (other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased, third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site. (The","-29.647732741432264"],["the individuals, as the cemetery was closed and could not provide staff or services.\nThe City of Glendale voted in June 2007 to spend $187,600 ($226,680 in 2018 dollars) for maintenance and $79,800 ($96,423 in 2018 dollars) for staff to keep Grand View open from July 2007 to June 2008. By this time, the cemetery was in need of extensive maintenance. No irrigation, tree trimming, or weed control had occurred for more than a year. By August 2007, the city was facing a $400,000 ($362,494 in 2018 dollars) maintenance bill to make the cemetery safe for visitors. California's extreme, ongoing drought","-29.553062395891175"],["abandoned or have had their lease run out.\nMaintenance is done by self-employed gravekeepers, who receive funds from the families of those interred. The gravekeepers generally do not attend to the graves of families who do not pay them.\nAlthough the cemetery is often devoid of visitors, during Ramadhan, the cemetery is often filled with pilgrims and families visiting the dead. History In 2009 the government of Jakarta began the plakatisasi program to ensure the graves in Karet Bivak followed the rules for gravestones as outlined by a 2007 bylaw. By September 2009 the government had replaced 2,000 graves with plain gray","-29.535958305728855"],["the person buying the funeral to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery; at the time of opening, first class prices began at £2 10s (about £230 in 2019 terms) for a basic 9-by-4-foot (2.7 m × 1.2 m) plot with no special coffin specifications. It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral. Second class funerals cost £1 (about £92 in 2019 terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10","-29.526409106932988"],["estimated 2,500 to 3,000 claimants harmed by the cemetery's actions. Paul Ayers, one of the lead attorneys for the plaintiffs, agreed to oversee the restoration, which included obtaining, cleaning, organizing, and possibly restoring cemetery records; identifying and properly interring all cremated remains; installing an in-ground irrigation system; and reseeding much of the cemetery's lawns.\nThe restoration work began in July 2010, during which the cemetery was closed for 15 weeks. Using plans drawn up by a landscape architect, between $300,000 and $400,000 ($344,682 to $459,576 in 2018 dollars) was spent installing the permanent in-ground irrigation system and planting new trees,","-29.52548891542392"],["cemetery's finances. For thirty years, the cemetery had used the income generated by the sale of lots to keep the graveyard in good repair. Excess income, however, was not placed in a trust but rather used for other charitable purposes. The cemetery's sexton died about 1887 as well, and the church—with little incentive to appoint a new one—allowed the ground to once more fall into disrepair.\nOn August 1, 1891, trustees of the cemetery agreed to close it. The president of the board of trustees, S. Thomas Brown, said that Georgetown Presbyterian Church had no funds for the upkeep of the","-29.501668068871368"],["graves that had been used previously.\nThe cemetery is listed with National Institute of Anthropology and History as a historical monument due to the persons interred and age of the cemetery. However, this has not kept the cemetery in good repair. There are problems with maintenance and security. In the back part of the cemetery in a gully, workers have discarded old caskets and urns that are considered unusable. Those who work in the cemetery testify to graverobbing here for artistic and archeological pieces. In January 2009, a section of the original retaining wall built in the 19th century on","-29.37644305813592"],["course following the funeral. Second class funerals cost £1 (about £92 in 2019 terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings (about £46 in 2019 terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future. Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves (other than the burial of next of kin in the same","-29.346466256887652"],["cemetery was xeriscaped with a budget of $4.2 million to convert the land. William F. Tuerk, director of the National Cemetery Administration oversaw the change. In 2013, the cemetery won the Texas Environmental Excellence Award because it was saving an average of $400,000 a year because of cutting costs for water and grass upkeep. In 2013, around 100 graves began to sink in the cemetery due to heavy rainfall in the area. Eventually, 1,300 graves were damaged, prompting geologists, Diane Doser and Lixin Jin and Representative Joe Moody to investigate the cause of the problem at the cemetery.","-29.251542636520753"],["the owners, saying that if they did not repair their property (the decrepit tombs) in 60 days, it would be demolished by the Church. In June 1948, under the orders of Mayor Morrison, the church was simply destroyed. He had people start hauling away bricks, disregarding the protests of the Christ Church Cathedral, and alerted citizens that they should retrieve their loved ones. In October 1958 the remaining 96,000 square feet of the cemetery were sold to the government for almost 300,000.\nThe cemetery fell into disrepair in the 20th century and it was deconsecrated on January 4, 1957. According to","-29.235684256302193"],["bury those whose families could not afford to buy a plot. Several persons, entirely unrelated to each other, could be buried in the same grave within the space of a few weeks. Allegedly some graves were dug 40 feet deep and contained up to 30 bodies.\nThe cemetery itself did not remain in a tidy and elegant state for long. Only 55 years after it was opened it was reported to be in a neglected state. During the Second World War the cemetery was bombed five times during raids on the City of London; both cemetery chapels were damaged and","-29.18153673809138"],["being unable to locate the holders of these burial rights complicates the re-use of those graves.\nAs historic cemeteries begin to reach their capacity for full burials, alternative memorialization, such as collective memorials for cremated individuals, is becoming more common. Different cultures have different attitudes to destruction of cemeteries and use of the land for construction. In some countries it is considered normal to destroy the graves, while in others the graves are traditionally respected for a century or more. In many cases, after a suitable period of time has elapsed, the headstones are removed and the now former cemetery is","-29.140734695538413"],["a result, it prospered and paid good dividends to its shareholders. By the 1960s, however, with the cemetery nearly full, it became clear that it was no longer financially viable and that the high returns previously enjoyed by the shareholders could not be sustained. With prospects of very little income to pay wages and cover the maintenance of the site the company, in June 1966, went into voluntary liquidation. When the process was completed in 1979, there was nothing of commercial value left, only the land containing over 28,000 graves, 17,000 monuments and two listed buildings in an advanced state","-29.113697580567532"],["graveyard. Due to non-availability of space, it is not possible to allot fresh permanent graves even to the existing parishioners of St. Andrew's whose numbers have increased tremendously. To meet the shortage, persons who do not have permanent graves are buried in temporary graves.\nVaulting of Graves: Section ‘B’ (area along Chimbai Road) needs to be re-planned as there are a number of overhanging trees which not only cause a cleaning problem but graves cannot be dug in the allotted space because of the spreading roots, resulting in problems of encroachment. Besides the passage in the corner is very narrow and","-29.105143227498047"],["random collection of monuments and headstones they contain. Also, as maintenance of the headstones is the responsibility of family members (in the absence of a proscribed Perpetual Care and Maintenance Fund), over time many headstones are forgotten about and decay and become damaged. For cemetery authorities, monumental cemeteries are difficult to maintain. While cemeteries often have grassed areas between graves, the layout of graves makes it difficult to use modern equipment such as ride-on lawn mowers in the cemetery. Often the maintenance of grass must be done by more labour-intensive (and therefore expensive) methods. In order to reduce the labour","-28.94899576762691"],["required the Graceland Cemetery Association to remove all the bodies from the burial ground and reinter them at some other suitable cemetery or cemeteries in the District of Columbia. The board was authorized to subdivide and sell the land for any purpose. Proceeds from the sale were to be used to pay the debts of the cemetery association. Afterward, five percent of the proceeds went to the board of directors as compensation for their services. The remaining funds were then to be distributed among the lotholders on a pro rate basis. Once disbursement was made, the board was ordered to","-28.91658453654236"],["city to pursue reimbursement from the owners at a later date. Second closure and abatement Winning the nuisance abatement order forced the full closure of Grand View Memorial Park, barring all families and visitors from the graveyard. Abatement work began on December 27, 2007. The entire cemetery was covered by an above-ground irrigation system, the knee-high grass was mowed, and the pruning and removal of trees began at an estimated cost of $105,400 ($122,767 in 2018 dollars). Four abandoned vehicles (including a hearse) were also removed, and repairs were made to all cemetery buildings to secure them against unauthorized entry.","-28.89760527704493"],["Grand View Memorial Park and Crematory. After four years of minimal maintenance, the new owners kept the cemetery open only one day a week while funds were spent restoring the site. On January 1, 2015, the cemetery opened its doors for seven days a week for about six hours a day. Heritage Cemetery Management began locating graves which had become overgrown by grass and uncovering them, renovating the chapel, and repairing the north and west mausoleums. The company also spent $500,000 ($528,499 in 2018 dollars) upgrading the crematory, so that it could begin operating again and generating income for the","-28.83783064529416"],["to dispose of the cemetery. The church agreed to advertise Presbyterian Burying Ground's closure once more, and to demand that all remains be claimed by September 1, 1896. The church agreed that all bodies which went unclaimed would be reinterred at another cemetery at church expense. The church said the property would be subdivided into housing lots and sold.\nThe deterioration of Presbyterian Burying Ground continued into 1896. Local people began using the cemetery as a garbage dump, throwing old wire, pieces of metal, tin cans, carcasses, and household ashes onto the grounds. There were open graves everywhere, and in some","-28.81927898939466"],["because of simple portability. Survivors relocating to another city or country have the option of transporting the remains of their loved ones with the ultimate goal of being interred or scattered together.\nCremated remains can be scattered or buried. Cremation plots or columbarium niches are usually cheaper than a traditional burial plot or mausoleum crypt, and require less space. Some religions, such as Roman Catholicism, require the burial or entombment of cremated remains, but burial of cremated remains may often be accomplished in the burial plot of another person, such as a family member, without any additional cost. This option is","-28.807046381247346"],["there may visit the cemetery.\nMore recent is the practice of families with large estates choosing to create private cemeteries in the form of burial sites, monuments, crypts, or mausoleums on their property; the mausoleum at Fallingwater is an example of this practice. Burial of a body at a site may protect the location from redevelopment, with such estates often being placed in the care of a trust or foundation. Presently, state regulations have made it increasingly difficult, if not impossible, to start private cemeteries; many require a plan to care for the site in perpetuity. Private cemeteries are nearly always","-28.754747473751195"],["families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial, but this practice was rare.) Despite this, Brookwood's pauper graves granted more dignity to the deceased than did other graveyards and cemeteries of the period, all of which other than Brookwood continued the practice of mass graves for the poor. Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays, which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day","-28.717256847725366"],["According to another source, however, there were 75 tombstones in the original cemetery at Mint Street, but when shifted out the second time in 1983, only 28 remained. \nThe last burial in the cemetery was in 1997, of Eileen Joshua – wife of Isaac Joshua, president of the Madras Jewish Association. Since then, the cemetery has been under the care of the Joshua family.\nTwo walls of the cemetery came down during the Cyclone Nilam in 2012. The cost for repair was projected to be $2070. As of 2016, the cemetery had recently undergone renovation, and the walls were re-erected. The","-28.71017064084299"],["entire cemetery. The practice of placing the vault at the surface of the ground has been discontinued since the late 1980s.\nIn other parts of the cemetery, families purchased entire family size plots. Some of the areas of this cemetery is in a non-perpetual care and the families take care of their burial sites. There is now a perpetual care area. The cemetery has been privately held since its opening. As of 2016, people are still being buried in the cemetery.","-28.684948361711577"],["their respect to the dead, bring a small gift for the widow (or whatever the case may be), have their share of food and then leave until the actual burial. The household of the deceased is supposed to provide a meal, or meals if it takes long, to all mourners. In case of a large family this is a huge and expensive operation with big ʻumu, and tons of food.\nCloser family will bring huge ngatu and other traditional gifts, and are supposed to stay for the ʻapō (night vigil). Usually a big tent (some companies are specialised in hiring out","-28.61808488954557"],["not dispute the Army Audit Agency's testimony during the hearing, cemetery officials said the next day that they had accounted for the missing $12 million by reconciling contracts. A cemetery spokesperson said that Army inspectors, federal auditors, and others would again examine the cemetery's books in June 2012 to verify that funds are properly spent and accounted for.\nA Government Accountability Office report released the same day found that Arlington officials had made \"major improvements\" to strategic planning, technology infrastructure, and workforce management. While the report said that there were still problems and that transferring operation of the cemetery to the","-28.558141588408034"],["not occur until June 10, 1873.) Fundraisers to benefit the cemetery were held in June 1865 and May 1866.\nIn 1867, PHC reported that it received income of $1,500 ($26,889 in 2018 dollars) in the past six months, expended $500 in improvements and repairs, and was in excellent financial condition. The board elected that year included August Meiners, president; John Vogt, vice president; Frederick Schweiring, secretary; Michael Langman, treasurer; and Christopher Freiss, F. Haiden, Christopher Just, H. Kaiser, John Killian, and August Lipold. By 1870, however, the cemetery faced a problem: A significant number of individuals had purchased lots but failed","-28.532285663884977"],["the property. However, on September 29, 1908, the City Commissioners recommended the purchase of the Presbyterian Burying Ground for $32,000. Some time in late June or early July 1909, the sale finally was consummated for $30,000. The city paid $20,000, while private donations came up with the remaining $10,000.\nDuring preparation of the area for conversion to a playground, 30 more bodies were uncovered. These were sent to an undertaker for cremation and burial. But more than 2,000 corpses remained buried at the site. Noted D.C. historian John Proctor Clagett claimed in 1942 that most of the bodies near 34th","-28.488425255054608"],["than 18 acres (73,000 m²) and not less than 15 acres (61,000 m²), and affirmed that the core 15 acres (61,000 m²) of the cemetery could never be sold or used for any purpose other than a burial ground. The bill also affirmed the right of all lotholders (not just those associated with Concordia Church or the German Evangelical Church Society) to vote at annual meetings and hold office, provided new rules for managing the annual meeting and casting votes, directed the cemetery to use its income solely for the benefit of the burying ground, and expanded the board of directors to nine","-28.44164242298575"],["stem or a small posy. As the flowers decay, they simply fall to the ground and do not create a significant maintenance problem. Family While uncommon today, family (or private) cemeteries were a matter of practicality during the settlement of America. If a municipal or religious cemetery had not been established, settlers would seek out a small plot of land, often in wooded areas bordering their fields, to begin a family plot. Sometimes, several families would arrange to bury their dead together. While some of these sites later grew into true cemeteries, many were forgotten after a family moved away","-28.3727512670157"],["with compensation being provided by the local authorities. Houzeau de Lehaie refused to accept payment for the land and agreed to part with it only under the condition that it be donated instead of requisitioned, and that in the cemetery the dead of both sides be treated with equal respect. During 1916 and 1917 Landsturm Infantry Battalions exhumed burials from isolated and less maintainable sites and re-interred them in the new cemetery. Most of the bodies that were exhumed were from the north and north east of the Mons battlefield especially near Nimy and Obourg where the British stopped Imperial","-28.35837450483814"],["burials in existing family graves. After that time the cemetery was badly affected by air raids and was closed altogether. Many of the arcade vaults and most of the other cemetery buildings were destroyed.\nAfter the war it was decided not to reopen the cemetery. For one thing, most of the graves were full. For another, there was enough capacity in the large cemeteries opened at the beginning of the 20th century under Hans Grässel to be able to do without this rather small one. Many graves were subsequently cleared: of the total capacity of 7,272 burial places only about 700","-28.347600273555145"],["burials in family plots continued through the 1950s and 1960s, but by 1978 ownership of the cemetery had passed to Sheffield City Council and it was closed to all new burials. In 1980 the council got permission by Act of Parliament to clear 800 gravestones to make a recreation area. Through the 1980s and 1990s most of the rest of the cemetery was left untouched, becoming overgrown and an important sanctuary for local wildlife. Unfortunately, many of the buildings also fell into disrepair. In early 2003 work began to restore the gatehouse and catacombs funded by a £500,000 grant from","-28.300049340032274"],["an additional cost. Local governments own and maintain most crematoria, and thus profit minimally from cremation costs. A particular public crematorium in Yokohama charged ¥12 000 for residents and ¥50 000 for visitors in 2016. A shortage in crematoria as Japan's population ages means that families can wait up to 4 days before the deceased can be cremated. Temporary mortuaries, commonly called 'hotels', are now available for families to store the deceased for around ¥9000 a night. Some temples also offer this service. \nIn the aftermath of the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011, 2000","-28.288205975390156"],["brick structure served as the cemetery chapel.\nAccording to the Washington Federalist newspaper, \"lots at present will be sold low for cash in order to defray present expenses, but when these are discharged they will rise much higher in price.\" Interments began almost immediately, due to the low prices the church offered, and the cemetery was instantly popular. Most of the graves were in the northern half of the cemetery, which sloped gently downward to Q Street. Families erected small headstones and, later, large funerary monuments. Some private brick mausoleums were constructed, and the church itself built a burial vault (for","-28.273015239901724"],["of its expiration because it supposedly \"had no money\". Mayor Rafał Dutkiewicz was also widely criticized for doing nothing. Random people organized a charity and paid for the grave to remain.","-28.23928912100382"],["building extensions began to address this problem, and so started the almost continuous process of rebuilding and improvements that go on in the present day.\nThe friends or relatives of a deceased patient were free to remove the remains for burial. Failing this, the deceased were interred in unmarked paupers' graves in the hospitals burial ground. With the 1832 Anatomy Act, the body was first kept in a building called the 'dead house', on the west side of the burial ground (see diagram above). If unclaimed after 72 hours it could be sold to a licensed anatomy school. The Act also","-28.212722441123333"],["graves were left open rather than filled in, leaving sunken pits all over the area. Some graves had been opened by mistaken and not recovered, while other human remains were scattered over the ground. The entire place reeked of decomposition. On July 8, 1893, the District of Columbia Health Department ordered that no more removals occur for at least three months. It demanded that the cemetery's trustees remove all bodies from open graves and have them interred elsewhere, and that the entire cemetery grounds be disinfected. Twelve months later, the cemetery's wooden outer fence had almost completely fallen to the","-28.196656590793282"],["to completing remedial works and opening the site as soon as possible. Controversy In September 2018, the police opened an investigation following reports that the cemetery had been unearthing remains without permission and refusing the space for new graves. In the United Kingdom, it is against the Burial Act 1857 to remove buried human remains without a licence from the government, or permission from the Church of England if it is consecrated ground.","-28.174781028035795"],["signed in 1951 the U.S. government was granted free use in perpetuity of the land covered by the cemetery, without taxation.","-28.16832795762457"],["from altering or destroying the cemetery or any of its buildings, grounds, or contents. The following December, Judge Mohr placed a preservation of evidence order on the property to specifically protect any evidence relating to the ongoing lawsuit being pursued by aggrieved families. On February 2, 2007, the first cremation interment was made at the cemetery since the suspension of its operating license on November 5, 2005. This was followed by the first full-body in-ground burial (in a two-person plot which already had one burial) in March 2007. The $2,000 ($2,417 in 2018 dollars) cost of burials were born by","-28.1382380045834"],["burial plots have been sold for some years. A memorial garden for the interment of ashes was opened in the time of J. R. Seddon, providing a popular resting place for the Ashfield community.\nSince the late 1970s day-release prisoners have assisted with maintenance of the cemetery grounds. In Australia's bicentennial year, 1988, a $16,000 grant was awarded for restoration work in the cemetery, at which time some broken gravestones were cemented together, and some illegible ones were 'cut back' and the letters repainted. Annex In 2017 an annex was added directly adjacent and connected to the western side of","-28.09373122273246"],["lived and buried two bodies was demolished by its owner, the South Australian Housing Trust. The bank, with a four-bedroom attached house, was placed on auction in February 2012 but only reached half its reserve price of $200,000. After holding an open house which raised $700 for charity through charging an entrance fee, the property sold later that year on 27 September for just over $185,000 with the new owners intending to live in the house while running a business from the bank. A plaque will be installed to commemorate the victims. Films Snowtown, a feature film based upon the","-28.07203929591924"],["appearance of a lawn cemetery, the common practice of placing flowers (sometimes in vases) and increasingly other items (e.g. small toys on children's graves) re-introduces some clutter to the cemetery and makes it difficult to use the larger mowers. While cemetery authorities increasingly impose restrictions on the nature and type of objects that can be placed on lawn graves and actively remove prohibited items, grieving families are often unwilling to comply with these restrictions and become very upset if the items are removed. Another problem with lawn cemeteries involves grass over-growth over time: the grass can grow over and cover","-28.056651071470696"],["by a legal action brought by the remaining holders of burial rights. The cemetery reflects years of disuse and neglect. Many of the tombstones are toppled, damaged or overgrown, and grass grows up through large cracks in the asphalt walkway leading through it. \nIn 2018, Georgetown University and the Holy Trinity Catholic Church announced plans to restore the historic cemetery. The cemetery, which has been closed to new burials since 1985, is constructing a columbarium to hold cremated remains. The columbarium, which will hold the remains of parishioners, University alumni, faculty and staff, those who have ancestors interred","-28.050644722243305"],["on local authorities under the National Assistance Act 1948 where the body of a person who has died or been found dead in their area and no suitable arrangements are being made for disposal of the body. A local authority may also arrange a burial or cremation for any person who was in the care of or receiving assistance (as well as children in local authority care) from the authority immediately prior to their death. In both cases a local authority may seek to recover costs from the estate of the deceased.\n549 funerals were undertaken in 2015 under the provisions","-27.993828957143705"],["on June 13, 2006, after he was unable to pay the $40,000 to $50,000 a month \n($49,713 to $62,141 in 2018 dollars) it took to pay employee salaries and the insurance, mortgage, and utility bills.\nThe City of Glendale reopened Grand View Memorial Park to visitors on August 27, 2006. Thereafter, the city paid the cost for the cemetery to remain open each Sunday from noon to 4 PM. The cost the city $31,000 a month ($38,527 in 2018 dollars).\nIn October 2006, Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Anthony Mohr placed Grand View Memorial Park under a preservation order, which barred anyone","-27.98885788966436"],["the burials at Har HaMenuchot involve couples. Stone monuments must be paid for by the family of the deceased. The burial societies recoup their development costs and make their profit on the sale of plots to Jews living abroad, with the price of the plot, burial costs, and transportation of the body by airline exceeding US$11,000. Burials from abroad constitute an estimated one-fifth to one-third of all burials. Description Like other Jewish cemeteries in Jerusalem, the plots on Har HaMenuchot consist of an underground grave topped by a rectangular platform of poured concrete, faced with stone tiles, that rises 2","-27.974006771924905"],["to families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for remembrance. Carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose. Materials A cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be placed. Others may require stones of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting. Headstones of granite, marble and","-27.903175824554637"],["authority to build a tomb, which was a typical of the period, since the space had no place to bury their dead. The tomb was located the eastern corner of the church and Misericórdia Velha.\nWhile, by 1765, it was able to take in 324$861 réis in receipts, while expending 302$000 réis (a meager profit), by 1804 the situation had turned grave. The brotherhood of the Misericórdia sent a letter to the Crown, informing it of \"grave financial situation\" that existed in the Santa Casa, referring to corruption of the previous board. In their communique, the former brotherhood of not paying","-27.902097477242933"],["perpetual care fund lacks functional interest. Maintenance is currently provided by veterans, volunteer groups like the Friends of Eastern Cemetery, and Dismas Charities. Mismanagement In 1989, a whistleblower working for Louisville Crematories and Cemetery Company made the public aware that graves purchased by families had been reused. Bodies were buried atop other bodies, graves were carelessly excavated for reuse, and medical cadaver body parts from the University of Louisville were buried in-mass rather than intact (as is legally required for donated bodies). Human bones were found in inappropriate areas, including in a tool box, a glove compartment, a fast food","-27.900974200339988"],["ripe and unearth graves in the family and slave cemeteries to search for valuables buried under false headstones. The most expensive blow comes when the troops torch more than $158,331 worth of baled cotton (in 2014 currency ). (The O'Haras had been unable to sell the cotton to English merchants, owing to the blockade, and thus it was still awaiting transport.) Upon the army's withdrawal, the family and their loyal remaining slaves are left with a looted and dilapidated house, a ruined farm with no stock, work animals, or farm equipment, no food and no means to produce food. ","-27.883683100226335"],["death had been buried on the cemetery on 31 May 1904, donated another 100 Napoléons d’or, while the Anglican side was still behind with its payments. In 1907 Bertha von Braun donated another ℳ 5,000 (= 6,250 Francs; = £250) for the purposes of the cemetery.\nEventual deficits were to be halved among the parties, and it turned out that the stipulated burial fees did not cover the running expenses for inspector and maintenance. Because deficits repeated the burial board decided to collect once a year alms in favour of the cemetery in both congregations, starting on Sunday 24 November 1912,","-27.881583292279174"],["purchase an adjoining 5-acre (2.0 ha) tract, to improve and operate the cemetery, sell burial plots, and be exempt from taxation as long as the land was used as a cemetery. The act named the initial seven members of corporation that would manage the cemetery, specified that all future members must be owners of burial plots within the cemetery, and that a new board would be elected annually by vote proportional to the number of plots owned. The act also specified that family gravesites in the old cemetery could continue to be used for burial by the respective families.\nA conservation assessment","-27.860374724754365"],["to ensure unused graves are properly covered, and to avoid legal liability that would result from an injury related to an improperly dug or uncovered grave. Preparation of the grave is usually done before the mourners arrive for the burial. The cemetery caretakers fill the grave after the burial, generally after the mourners have departed. Mechanical equipment, such as backhoes, are used to reduce labour cost of digging and filling, but some hand shovelling may still be required.\nIn the United Kingdom the minimum depth from the surface to the highest lid is 36 inches. There must be 6 inches between","-27.848662104574032"],["cemeteries viable, thus forestalling the need for permanent closure, which would result in a reduction of their work force. Burial registers Usually there is a legal requirement to maintain records regarding the burials (or interment of ashes) within a cemetery. These burial registers usually contain (at a minimum) the name of the person buried, the date of burial and the location of the burial plots within the cemetery, although some contain far more detail. The Arlington National Cemetery, one of the United States' largest military cemeteries, has a registry, The ANC Explorer, which contains details such as photographs of the","-27.83683491416741"],["or died out.\nToday, it is not unheard of to discover groupings of tombstones, ranging from a few to a dozen or more, on undeveloped land. As late 20th century suburban sprawl pressured the pace of development in formerly rural areas, it became increasingly common for larger exurban properties to be encumbered by \"religious easements\", which are legal requirements for the property owner to permit periodic maintenance of small burial plots located on the property but technically not owned with it. Often, cemeteries are relocated to accommodate building. However, if the cemetery is not relocated, descendants of people buried","-27.833322856691666"],["gets waterlogged during the monsoons. It was therefore decided to vault the graves so that the area would be leveled up and easy to clean. Each grave holder is expected to defray part of the expenses by paying ₹2000.\nIn 1964 the graveyard was rearranged and the entire area divided into sections marked ‘A’, to ‘H’. Some of these sections were vaulted. Each permanent grave owner was issued a Registration Card giving the name of the grave-owner, the co-users and the grave number and section and a plan showing the location of the grave. It may be noted that while allotting","-27.816292581614107"],["population was undertaken, further gravestones were destroyed through wind damage (see Kyrill (storm)). In early 2007, the Jewish Kultusgemeinde estimated the cost of repairing the cemetery at 14 million euros and planned to turn the caretaker's house into a meeting house. In January 2007, along with the Educult institute, the Jewish Kultusgemeinde started an initiative that envisaged the publishing of a book and a photo calendar, as well as an exhibition, that would contribute to restoring the property. In addition, the until then irregular guided tours of the cemetery are now offered on a monthly basis. On 2 March 2007,","-27.81400008109631"],["tombstones.\nThe main reason for the attempt to pass such a law with such severe punishments if broken is that the town's 28,000 inhabitants apparently do not look after their health properly, making them more vulnerable to death, which would mean having to bury more corpses in the already full cemetery. Since the cemetery was inaugurated in 1910, over 50,000 people have been buried in 3,500 crypts and tombs. In November 2005, the cemetery was declared to be full and 20 recently deceased residents were forced to share a crypt, and several others were buried under the walkways.\nThe mayor, to support","-27.803463940450456"],["which are unidentifiable through DNA analysis. The remains will be cremated before placement in the memorial. Burial procedures The flags in the cemetery are flown at half-staff from a half-hour before the first funeral until a half hour after the last funeral each day. Funerals are normally conducted five days a week, excluding weekends.\nFunerals, including interments and inurnments, average between 27–30 per day. The Cemetery conducts approximately 6,900 burials each year.\nWith more than 400,000 interments, the cemetery has the second-largest number of burials of any national cemetery in the United States. The largest of the 130 national cemeteries is the","-27.76102726906538"],["historical interests, the mass graves continue to attract history tourists and researchers. The graves are located on private land whose owners are prevented from farming or construction by laws and cultural taboos that prohibit exhumation of bodies and disturbance of grave sites. There have been proposals and promises to compensate and relocated the landowners in exchange for setting up memorial sites.","-27.7603593081476"],["buried at Camp Nelson. A veteran's spouse and dependent children are likewise eligible to be buried. The grave plot, headstone, perpetual maintenance of the grave, and labor involved with burial are provided at no cost to the veteran or the family. Starting in the 1990s, inexpensive plastic burial vaults have been used to enclose the casket within the grave, and are provided at no additional cost to the family. These vaults protect the casket from being crushed, and are effective at preventing collapse of the surface of the grave due to soil compaction.\nAt the funeral service of a veteran, an","-27.759184335940517"],["for example are removed, they can be replaced with new trees to \"frame\" the cemetery.\n\nI was not awarded the maintenance contract but was informed that a temporary contract was being put in place and the situation would be reviewed in the coming year.\n— Gina Plate, email to Stuart Read, 11 December 2011.\nThe Cemetery is largely intact, except for the loss of the Church of England Robing Room/Chapel (burned down 1975), the Sexton's Cottages (first demolished c.1949, second demolished 1984) and damage due to vandalism and natural decay. Heritage listing As at 19 February 2001, Gore Hill Memorial Cemetery was an","-27.737630436880863"],["in the number of cremations. Whereas 36 percent of all deceased were cremated in the United States in 2008, the National Association of Funeral Directors forecast this to rise to 46 percent by 2015 and 59 percent by 2025.\nJewish law does not bar the use of burial vaults or liners, and their use is permitted where law or a cemetery requires them. But Morrison David Bial argues that burial vaults are antithetical to traditional Judaism, in part because they deny the reality of death (e.g., inhibit decomposition of the body) and in part because they are ostentatious and undercut","-27.724397061392665"],["which were initially considered to be large often run out of space for new burials and there is no vacant adjacent land available to extend the cemetery or even land in the same general area to create new cemeteries. New cemeteries are generally established on the periphery of towns and cities, where large tracts of land are still available. However, people often wish to be buried in the same cemetery as other relatives, and are not interested in being buried in new cemeteries with which there is no sense of connection to their family, creating pressure to find more space","-27.702761221444234"],["Grace Church oversaw the re-interment of the body. Currently The gravesites are not arranged in rows or plots and only a few stones remain. They are randomly placed. Many of the graves are unmarked, or the stones have been removed. Very few if any records were kept and several people have since desecrated the graveyard by reducing the graves themselves to a pile of rubble.","-27.701283957110718"],["expenditures required by Congress, $30,000 remained which the City Commissioners agreed to spend in acquiring Presbyterian Burying Ground for a municipal playground. In May 1907, Allen W. Mallery, agent for the church, agreed to sell the cemetery to the city, but the Beatty family objected and the sale cancelled. For reasons which are not clear, the sale was consummated on June 20, 1907, for $27,969.25. The city, however, required the church to provide clear title and title insurance, and to clear the property of all bodies. The city was forced to spend $14,000 of the $30,000, however, leaving just $16,000","-27.68841682188213"],["burial can cause considerable upset to family members. Although the authorities might declare that the grave is sufficiently old that there will be no human remains still present, nonetheless many people regard the re-use of graves (particularly their family's graves) as a desecration. Also re-use of a used grave involves the removal of any monuments and headstones, which may cause further distress to families (although families will typically be allowed to take away the monuments and headstones if they wish).\nOn the other hand, cemetery authorities are well aware that many old graves are forgotten and not visited and that their","-27.637567121055326"],["graves with Church of England permission. Successive Government have considered the problem of lack of space for graves but not taken any action.\nThe 2015 amendments to the Burial Act 1857, allowing the Church of England to reuse graves, was controversial. Such changes have been criticised as offensive and distressing to the living, and disrespectful to the dead.","-27.621339222649112"],["ornate structures. Some cemeteries co-located a chapel (either next to or above) with the receiving vault to make it easier to hold a funeral in conjunction with the vault's use. The cost of constructing and operating the receiving vault was usually borne by the cemetery. Receiving vaults were usually located toward the center or the rear of a cemetery. Small cemeteries usually used a small, subterranean receiving vault, while larger burying grounds with more income built larger underground or above-ground structures.","-27.599250856845174"],["re-use will not cause distress to anyone. However, there may be some older graves in a cemetery for whom there are local and vocal descendants who will mount a public campaign against re-use. One pragmatic strategy is to publicly announce plans to re-use older graves and invite families to respond if they are willing or not. Re-use then only occurs where there are no objections allowing the \"forgotten\" graves to be re-used. Sometimes the cemetery authorities request a further payment to avoid re-use of a grave, but often this backfires politically.\nA practical problem with regard to contacting families is that","-27.595304319576826"],["burials may take place there apart from cremated remains.\nThe northern (i.e. lower level) part of the Churchyard was given to Lambeth Council soon after the Second World War and converted into a memorial garden to remember those who died in that conflict. Lambeth Council has used money from a Section 106 agreement to refurbish these gardens. This section of the churchyard is used on the first Sunday of most months of the year for selling refreshments in connection with the Norwood Feast.\nThe original ornate railings around the churchyard were removed as wartime \"salvage\" and only restored in 2009. The elaborate","-27.554401171044447"],["during reconstruction. They would receive $50,000 in credit to buy furniture and appliances, payable in 60 months with five percent interest. Rosario's real estate firms prepared a list of houses for rent without charging victims their regular fee. Some of the affected buildings may have had cheap insurances which would not cover the risk of an explosion. Some cars trapped in an underground parking lot could not be retrieved.\nWhen the search for survivors ended, authorities closed Salta Street. Engineers began checking the buildings at ground zero, trying to restore the original layout of the street and demolishing unstable structures. Secretary","-27.543364544486394"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"authorities face a number of tensions in regard to the management of cemeteries.\\nOne issue relates to cost. Traditionally a single payment is made at the time of burial, but the cemetery authority incurs expenses in cemetery maintenance over many decades. Many cemetery authorities find that their accumulated funds are not sufficient for the costs of long-term maintenance. This shortfall in funds for maintenance results in three main options: charge much higher prices for new burials, obtain some other kind of public subsidy, or neglect maintenance. For cemeteries without space for new burials, the options are even more limited. Public attitudes\",\n \"-32.31564297096338\"\n ],\n [\n \"had acquired them. Without maintenance, the cemeteries soon became overgrown, headstones were vandalised, and they were frequented by drug addicts. \\nIn 1988, following a public outcry, the Local Government Ombudsman ruled that WCC had to buy back the graves, and in February 1990 the District Auditor ruled that the sale was unlawful. WCC bought back the graves in June 1992 at a loss to ratepayers of £4.25 million. They were unable to repurchase any of the unused land - which had been \\\"sold on by property developers for housing at an enormous profit\\\" - or the buildings, including the crematorium.\",\n \"-32.12259619636461\"\n ],\n [\n \"graves. Shelves are usually installed to accommodate their remains.\\nDuring relatively recent times, the Père Lachaise has adopted a standard practice of issuing 30-year leases on grave sites, so that if a lease is not renewed by a family, the remains can be removed, space made for a new grave, and the overall deterioration of the cemetery minimized. Abandoned remains are boxed, tagged and moved to Aux Morts ossuary, still in the Père Lachaise cemetery.\\nPlots can be bought in perpetuity or for 50, 30 or 10 years, the last being the least expensive option. Even for the case of mausoleums and\",\n \"-32.08289640810108\"\n ],\n [\n \"charitable contributions, even if a portion of the payment is for the perpetual care of the entirety of the cemetery. Bequests or gifts to a 501(c)(13) cemetery is not deductible for federal estate tax purposes or gift tax purposes. History Historically, cemeteries were exempt from local property taxes and excise taxes in most states because states generally considered cemeteries to be performing a recognized civic service.\\nThe Tariff Act of 1913 provided an exemption from federal income taxes for mutual cemetery companies that were organized and operated exclusively \\\"for the benefit of their members\\\". In 1921, Congress extended the tax-exemption to\",\n \"-31.83104795536201\"\n ],\n [\n \"to secure the eviction of a cemetery keeper - so WCC also paid the purchaser £70,000 compensation. \\nThe sale was ordered by Dame Shirley Porter, the Conservative leader of WCC at the time, in order to save the annual maintenance costs of £422,000, with the upkeep of the cemeteries passing to the new owner. However, the deal had been handled with such incompetence by WCC that the maintenance agreement only applied to the immediate purchaser of the cemeteries and not to any subsequent owners; the cemeteries were re-sold by the purchaser for £1.25 million on the same day that he\",\n \"-31.48777313885512\"\n ],\n [\n \"instances could reclaim and reuse a grave after 75 years, under the London Authorities Act 2007. Extending this provision elsewhere in the country was deliberated. The consultation considered the ‘Exclusive Rights for Burial’. When purchasing a grave, a person usually buys the right to exclusively be buried in it for a period, often 100 years, they do not buy the land. Noted was the possibility of reusing graves with the permission of the Church of England. Section 25 of the Burial Act 1857, amended by Section 2 of the Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measures 2014 permitted the disturbance of\",\n \"-31.4439156553708\"\n ],\n [\n \"while in Israel; the cost of the plot and funeral services is paid for by Bituah Leumi, the National Insurance Institute. However, the choice of plot is left to the burial society, and if a spouse wishes to be buried in the adjacent plot, he or she must pay for the second plot. According to the law, the burial society must reserve the plots on both sides of a newly-dug grave for 90 days in order to give the spouse and relatives of the deceased the option to purchase them. According to the Kehillat Yerushalayim burial society, 90 percent of\",\n \"-31.21988850599155\"\n ],\n [\n \"their $2.1 million endowment, which generated roughly $62,000 per year in interest, was not enough to water the property and properly maintain all the graves; their records show that they lost $159,000 in 2003. They still employ two groundskeepers to pick up trash, but have had to refuse offers of maintenance help from volunteers due to liability issues. In 2005, Fairmount approached the city government and requested they take over operation of the cemetery; however, the city was forced to decline due to lack of funds. Local residents, concerned by the dying trees and grass and generally poor state of\",\n \"-31.190080033571576\"\n ],\n [\n \"When the cemeteries were eventually reacquired by WCC, part of the deal required them to award an annual maintenance contract back to a company with connections to the seller.\\nPeter Bradley, the deputy Leader of the Labour Group at Westminster Council, said:\\n\\\"Shirley Porter will go down in history as the woman who sold three council cemeteries for five pence each and David Weeks will go down in history as the man who bought them back for £4.25 million.\\\"\",\n \"-31.179092306178063\"\n ],\n [\n \"that no one knew had been used. On May 24, 2011, a federal judge approved a plan to place the cemetery into a trust that would use about $2.6 million of a $7 million insurance settlement to renovate and run the cemetery. The judge set aside at least $50,000 for a memorial to honor those whose graves were lost or desecrated. Those who can prove they buried relatives in the cemetery will receive $100 per grave. Those whose relatives' graves were destroyed may apply for more money.\",\n \"-31.120866636105347\"\n ],\n [\n \"restitution, calculated the costs of providing safe access to the cemetery at € 400 - 800,000. Apart from the trimming of the older trees, hardly any preservation measures have been taken in recent years. Parts of the cemetery have become inaccessible due to the strong growth of bushes and small trees. In addition, the growth of the roots from the trees has dislocated gravestones, some of which have fallen over. Gravestones continue to be damaged by falling trees or falling rotten branches. Additional severe damage appears on the graves from environmental factors such as acid rain, frost and vegetation. Extreme-rightwing\",\n \"-31.02556890656706\"\n ],\n [\n \"in existing cemeteries.\\nA third issue is the maintenance of monuments and headstones, which are generally the responsibility of families, but often become neglected over time. Decay and damage through vandalism or cemetery maintenance practices can render monuments and headstones either unsafe or at least unsightly. On the other hand, some families do not forget the grave but constantly visit, leaving behind flowers, plants, and other decorative items that create their own maintenance problem. Re-use of graves All of these issues tend to put pressure on the re-use of grave sites within cemeteries. The re-use of graves already used for\",\n \"-30.645170686766505\"\n ],\n [\n \"take control of the maintaining graves business (on the cemetery) worth 20 million rubles ($341,000) a month.\",\n \"-30.587956997333094\"\n ],\n [\n \"either failed to place markers on graves or willfully discarded or recycled markers. Advance purchase contracts for plots were inaccurate or incomplete. They also discovered that Howard had removed $40,000 from the perpetual care trust fund as a \\\"loan\\\" but never repaid it.\\nThe CFB issued an order suspending all operations at Grand View Memorial Park. The cemetery was prohibited from selling new graves or soliciting new business. Burials could continue if already planned, or if planned for plots which had already been purchased. Howard and Goldsman's state licenses to operate a cemetery were suspended, and Howard was no longer permitted\",\n \"-30.518627223209478\"\n ],\n [\n \"to make arrangements with less distant cemeteries, or to buy land on the outskirts of London and open their own suburban cemeteries. Concerns over the financial irregularities and the viability of the scheme had led to only 15,000 of the 25,000 LNC shares being sold, severely limiting the company's working capital and forcing it to take out large loans. Buying the land from Lord Onslow, compensating local residents for the loss of rights over Woking Common, draining and landscaping the portion to be used for the initial cemetery, and building the railway lines and stations were all expensive undertakings. With\",\n \"-30.43490242507687\"\n ],\n [\n \"settle outstanding debts. The business had been established on the basis that the cemetery would handle between 10,000 and 50,000 burials per year, but the number never exceeded 4,100 and over its first 20 years of operations averaged just 3,200. As the five-year extension expired the financial difficulties remained, and under pressure from shareholders the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Amendment Act 1869 was passed. This removed all restrictions on land sales, other than within the existing cemetery and the adjacent reserve site. Despite the releasing of restrictions in the 1869 Act, land sales remained disappointing. By 1887 less than\",\n \"-30.328407526471665\"\n ],\n [\n \"allow a non-Catholic to be buried there. Some families did not want to be separated by this rule and moved their loved ones to the Cementerio Civil. As a result, some graves have been abandoned and cannot be sold by the cemetery administration since they are private property and have a legal, albeit uninterested, owner.\",\n \"-30.22326338972198\"\n ],\n [\n \"the person who initially purchased the burial plot(s) may have subsequently died and locating living family members, if any, many decades later is virtually impossible (or at least prohibitively expensive). Public notice about the proposed re-use of graves may or may not reach family members living further afield who may object to such practices. Therefore, it is possible that re-use could occur without family awareness - an unpleasant scenario to say the least.\\nSome cemeteries did foresee the need for re-use and included in their original terms and conditions a limited tenure on a grave site and most new\",\n \"-30.057397368072998\"\n ],\n [\n \"would seem easier to \\\"re-use\\\" such grave sites as there can be no claims of desecration, but often this is made complicated by the legal rights to be buried obtained by the pre-purchase, as any limited tenure clause only takes effect after there has been a burial. Again, cemetery authorities suspect that in many cases the holders of these burial rights are probably dead and that nobody will exercise that burial right, but again some families are aware of the burial rights they possess and do intend to exercise them as and when family members die. Again the difficulty of\",\n \"-30.028364449972287\"\n ],\n [\n \"cemeteries follow this practice, having seen the problems faced by older cemeteries. Common practice in Europe is to place bones in an ossuary after the proscribed burial period is over.\\nHowever, even when the cemetery has the legal right to re-use a grave, strong public opinion often forces the authorities to back down on that re-use. Also, even when cemeteries have a limited tenure provision in place, funding shortages can force them to contemplate re-use earlier than the original arrangements provided for.\\nAnother type of grave site considered for re-use are empty plots purchased years ago but never used. In principle it\",\n \"-30.01686224900186\"\n ],\n [\n \"traditional burial plots are extremely scarce and expensive, and in London, a space crisis led Harriet Harman to propose reopening old graves for \\\"double-decker\\\" burials.\\nSome cities in Germany do not have plots for sale, only for lease. When the lease expires, the remains are disinterred and a specialist bundles the bones, inscribes the forehead of the skull with the information that was on the headstone, and places the remains in a special crypt. Christianity In Christian countries and cultures, cremation has historically been discouraged, but now in many denominations it is accepted. Catholicism Christians preferred to bury the dead rather\",\n \"-29.998219291272108\"\n ],\n [\n \"cemetery has been set up, and collects money on All Saint's Day for the treasures of the burial ground to be returned to their former glory.\",\n \"-29.958455964922905\"\n ],\n [\n \"By the end of 1896, the cemetery had disinterred 637 bodies at a cost of $5,002.57.\\nBy January 1897, the cemetery was close to running out of money to continue the process. The cemetery sought to mortgage its property to raise the necessary funds, but lacked the legal authority to do so. It sought the assistance of Congress, and in January 1897 Senator James McMillan and Representative Joseph W. Babcock (R-Wisconsin) sponsored legislation to permit the cemetery to mortgage its land. The House and Senate quickly passed the legislation, and President Grover Cleveland signed it into law on March 3,\",\n \"-29.906454164301977\"\n ],\n [\n \"above, costing local authorities approximately £500,000. These funerals are usually conducted by an undertaker contracted by the local authority to prepare the body and provide a basic funeral.\",\n \"-29.839743278302194\"\n ],\n [\n \"countries, and many others, visitors to graves commonly leave cut flowers, especially during major holidays and on birthdays or relevant anniversaries. Cemeteries usually dispose of these flowers after a few weeks in order to keep the space maintained. Some companies offer perpetual flower services, to ensure a grave is always decorated with fresh flowers. Flowers may often be planted on the grave as well, usually immediately in front of the gravestone. For this purpose roses are highly common. Stones Visitors to loved ones interred in Jewish cemeteries often leave a small stone on the top of the headstone. There\",\n \"-29.75296508334577\"\n ],\n [\n \"a permanent grave, the property rights of the Church are not transferred but only the right of use of the particular grave is given to the family concerned, subject to the rules and regulations governing the graveyard. As regards temporary graves, permission is given for one particular burial and the family members have no right over the grave.\",\n \"-29.672166456701234\"\n ],\n [\n \"shillings (about £46 in 2019 terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future. Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves (other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased, third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site. (The\",\n \"-29.647732741432264\"\n ],\n [\n \"the individuals, as the cemetery was closed and could not provide staff or services.\\nThe City of Glendale voted in June 2007 to spend $187,600 ($226,680 in 2018 dollars) for maintenance and $79,800 ($96,423 in 2018 dollars) for staff to keep Grand View open from July 2007 to June 2008. By this time, the cemetery was in need of extensive maintenance. No irrigation, tree trimming, or weed control had occurred for more than a year. By August 2007, the city was facing a $400,000 ($362,494 in 2018 dollars) maintenance bill to make the cemetery safe for visitors. California's extreme, ongoing drought\",\n \"-29.553062395891175\"\n ],\n [\n \"abandoned or have had their lease run out.\\nMaintenance is done by self-employed gravekeepers, who receive funds from the families of those interred. The gravekeepers generally do not attend to the graves of families who do not pay them.\\nAlthough the cemetery is often devoid of visitors, during Ramadhan, the cemetery is often filled with pilgrims and families visiting the dead. History In 2009 the government of Jakarta began the plakatisasi program to ensure the graves in Karet Bivak followed the rules for gravestones as outlined by a 2007 bylaw. By September 2009 the government had replaced 2,000 graves with plain gray\",\n \"-29.535958305728855\"\n ],\n [\n \"the person buying the funeral to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery; at the time of opening, first class prices began at £2 10s (about £230 in 2019 terms) for a basic 9-by-4-foot (2.7 m × 1.2 m) plot with no special coffin specifications. It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral. Second class funerals cost £1 (about £92 in 2019 terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10\",\n \"-29.526409106932988\"\n ],\n [\n \"estimated 2,500 to 3,000 claimants harmed by the cemetery's actions. Paul Ayers, one of the lead attorneys for the plaintiffs, agreed to oversee the restoration, which included obtaining, cleaning, organizing, and possibly restoring cemetery records; identifying and properly interring all cremated remains; installing an in-ground irrigation system; and reseeding much of the cemetery's lawns.\\nThe restoration work began in July 2010, during which the cemetery was closed for 15 weeks. Using plans drawn up by a landscape architect, between $300,000 and $400,000 ($344,682 to $459,576 in 2018 dollars) was spent installing the permanent in-ground irrigation system and planting new trees,\",\n \"-29.52548891542392\"\n ],\n [\n \"cemetery's finances. For thirty years, the cemetery had used the income generated by the sale of lots to keep the graveyard in good repair. Excess income, however, was not placed in a trust but rather used for other charitable purposes. The cemetery's sexton died about 1887 as well, and the church—with little incentive to appoint a new one—allowed the ground to once more fall into disrepair.\\nOn August 1, 1891, trustees of the cemetery agreed to close it. The president of the board of trustees, S. Thomas Brown, said that Georgetown Presbyterian Church had no funds for the upkeep of the\",\n \"-29.501668068871368\"\n ],\n [\n \"graves that had been used previously.\\nThe cemetery is listed with National Institute of Anthropology and History as a historical monument due to the persons interred and age of the cemetery. However, this has not kept the cemetery in good repair. There are problems with maintenance and security. In the back part of the cemetery in a gully, workers have discarded old caskets and urns that are considered unusable. Those who work in the cemetery testify to graverobbing here for artistic and archeological pieces. In January 2009, a section of the original retaining wall built in the 19th century on\",\n \"-29.37644305813592\"\n ],\n [\n \"course following the funeral. Second class funerals cost £1 (about £92 in 2019 terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings (about £46 in 2019 terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future. Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves (other than the burial of next of kin in the same\",\n \"-29.346466256887652\"\n ],\n [\n \"cemetery was xeriscaped with a budget of $4.2 million to convert the land. William F. Tuerk, director of the National Cemetery Administration oversaw the change. In 2013, the cemetery won the Texas Environmental Excellence Award because it was saving an average of $400,000 a year because of cutting costs for water and grass upkeep. In 2013, around 100 graves began to sink in the cemetery due to heavy rainfall in the area. Eventually, 1,300 graves were damaged, prompting geologists, Diane Doser and Lixin Jin and Representative Joe Moody to investigate the cause of the problem at the cemetery.\",\n \"-29.251542636520753\"\n ],\n [\n \"the owners, saying that if they did not repair their property (the decrepit tombs) in 60 days, it would be demolished by the Church. In June 1948, under the orders of Mayor Morrison, the church was simply destroyed. He had people start hauling away bricks, disregarding the protests of the Christ Church Cathedral, and alerted citizens that they should retrieve their loved ones. In October 1958 the remaining 96,000 square feet of the cemetery were sold to the government for almost 300,000.\\nThe cemetery fell into disrepair in the 20th century and it was deconsecrated on January 4, 1957. According to\",\n \"-29.235684256302193\"\n ],\n [\n \"bury those whose families could not afford to buy a plot. Several persons, entirely unrelated to each other, could be buried in the same grave within the space of a few weeks. Allegedly some graves were dug 40 feet deep and contained up to 30 bodies.\\nThe cemetery itself did not remain in a tidy and elegant state for long. Only 55 years after it was opened it was reported to be in a neglected state. During the Second World War the cemetery was bombed five times during raids on the City of London; both cemetery chapels were damaged and\",\n \"-29.18153673809138\"\n ],\n [\n \"being unable to locate the holders of these burial rights complicates the re-use of those graves.\\nAs historic cemeteries begin to reach their capacity for full burials, alternative memorialization, such as collective memorials for cremated individuals, is becoming more common. Different cultures have different attitudes to destruction of cemeteries and use of the land for construction. In some countries it is considered normal to destroy the graves, while in others the graves are traditionally respected for a century or more. In many cases, after a suitable period of time has elapsed, the headstones are removed and the now former cemetery is\",\n \"-29.140734695538413\"\n ],\n [\n \"a result, it prospered and paid good dividends to its shareholders. By the 1960s, however, with the cemetery nearly full, it became clear that it was no longer financially viable and that the high returns previously enjoyed by the shareholders could not be sustained. With prospects of very little income to pay wages and cover the maintenance of the site the company, in June 1966, went into voluntary liquidation. When the process was completed in 1979, there was nothing of commercial value left, only the land containing over 28,000 graves, 17,000 monuments and two listed buildings in an advanced state\",\n \"-29.113697580567532\"\n ],\n [\n \"graveyard. Due to non-availability of space, it is not possible to allot fresh permanent graves even to the existing parishioners of St. Andrew's whose numbers have increased tremendously. To meet the shortage, persons who do not have permanent graves are buried in temporary graves.\\nVaulting of Graves: Section ‘B’ (area along Chimbai Road) needs to be re-planned as there are a number of overhanging trees which not only cause a cleaning problem but graves cannot be dug in the allotted space because of the spreading roots, resulting in problems of encroachment. Besides the passage in the corner is very narrow and\",\n \"-29.105143227498047\"\n ],\n [\n \"random collection of monuments and headstones they contain. Also, as maintenance of the headstones is the responsibility of family members (in the absence of a proscribed Perpetual Care and Maintenance Fund), over time many headstones are forgotten about and decay and become damaged. For cemetery authorities, monumental cemeteries are difficult to maintain. While cemeteries often have grassed areas between graves, the layout of graves makes it difficult to use modern equipment such as ride-on lawn mowers in the cemetery. Often the maintenance of grass must be done by more labour-intensive (and therefore expensive) methods. In order to reduce the labour\",\n \"-28.94899576762691\"\n ],\n [\n \"required the Graceland Cemetery Association to remove all the bodies from the burial ground and reinter them at some other suitable cemetery or cemeteries in the District of Columbia. The board was authorized to subdivide and sell the land for any purpose. Proceeds from the sale were to be used to pay the debts of the cemetery association. Afterward, five percent of the proceeds went to the board of directors as compensation for their services. The remaining funds were then to be distributed among the lotholders on a pro rate basis. Once disbursement was made, the board was ordered to\",\n \"-28.91658453654236\"\n ],\n [\n \"city to pursue reimbursement from the owners at a later date. Second closure and abatement Winning the nuisance abatement order forced the full closure of Grand View Memorial Park, barring all families and visitors from the graveyard. Abatement work began on December 27, 2007. The entire cemetery was covered by an above-ground irrigation system, the knee-high grass was mowed, and the pruning and removal of trees began at an estimated cost of $105,400 ($122,767 in 2018 dollars). Four abandoned vehicles (including a hearse) were also removed, and repairs were made to all cemetery buildings to secure them against unauthorized entry.\",\n \"-28.89760527704493\"\n ],\n [\n \"Grand View Memorial Park and Crematory. After four years of minimal maintenance, the new owners kept the cemetery open only one day a week while funds were spent restoring the site. On January 1, 2015, the cemetery opened its doors for seven days a week for about six hours a day. Heritage Cemetery Management began locating graves which had become overgrown by grass and uncovering them, renovating the chapel, and repairing the north and west mausoleums. The company also spent $500,000 ($528,499 in 2018 dollars) upgrading the crematory, so that it could begin operating again and generating income for the\",\n \"-28.83783064529416\"\n ],\n [\n \"to dispose of the cemetery. The church agreed to advertise Presbyterian Burying Ground's closure once more, and to demand that all remains be claimed by September 1, 1896. The church agreed that all bodies which went unclaimed would be reinterred at another cemetery at church expense. The church said the property would be subdivided into housing lots and sold.\\nThe deterioration of Presbyterian Burying Ground continued into 1896. Local people began using the cemetery as a garbage dump, throwing old wire, pieces of metal, tin cans, carcasses, and household ashes onto the grounds. There were open graves everywhere, and in some\",\n \"-28.81927898939466\"\n ],\n [\n \"because of simple portability. Survivors relocating to another city or country have the option of transporting the remains of their loved ones with the ultimate goal of being interred or scattered together.\\nCremated remains can be scattered or buried. Cremation plots or columbarium niches are usually cheaper than a traditional burial plot or mausoleum crypt, and require less space. Some religions, such as Roman Catholicism, require the burial or entombment of cremated remains, but burial of cremated remains may often be accomplished in the burial plot of another person, such as a family member, without any additional cost. This option is\",\n \"-28.807046381247346\"\n ],\n [\n \"there may visit the cemetery.\\nMore recent is the practice of families with large estates choosing to create private cemeteries in the form of burial sites, monuments, crypts, or mausoleums on their property; the mausoleum at Fallingwater is an example of this practice. Burial of a body at a site may protect the location from redevelopment, with such estates often being placed in the care of a trust or foundation. Presently, state regulations have made it increasingly difficult, if not impossible, to start private cemeteries; many require a plan to care for the site in perpetuity. Private cemeteries are nearly always\",\n \"-28.754747473751195\"\n ],\n [\n \"families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial, but this practice was rare.) Despite this, Brookwood's pauper graves granted more dignity to the deceased than did other graveyards and cemeteries of the period, all of which other than Brookwood continued the practice of mass graves for the poor. Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays, which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day\",\n \"-28.717256847725366\"\n ],\n [\n \"According to another source, however, there were 75 tombstones in the original cemetery at Mint Street, but when shifted out the second time in 1983, only 28 remained. \\nThe last burial in the cemetery was in 1997, of Eileen Joshua – wife of Isaac Joshua, president of the Madras Jewish Association. Since then, the cemetery has been under the care of the Joshua family.\\nTwo walls of the cemetery came down during the Cyclone Nilam in 2012. The cost for repair was projected to be $2070. As of 2016, the cemetery had recently undergone renovation, and the walls were re-erected. The\",\n \"-28.71017064084299\"\n ],\n [\n \"entire cemetery. The practice of placing the vault at the surface of the ground has been discontinued since the late 1980s.\\nIn other parts of the cemetery, families purchased entire family size plots. Some of the areas of this cemetery is in a non-perpetual care and the families take care of their burial sites. There is now a perpetual care area. The cemetery has been privately held since its opening. As of 2016, people are still being buried in the cemetery.\",\n \"-28.684948361711577\"\n ],\n [\n \"their respect to the dead, bring a small gift for the widow (or whatever the case may be), have their share of food and then leave until the actual burial. The household of the deceased is supposed to provide a meal, or meals if it takes long, to all mourners. In case of a large family this is a huge and expensive operation with big ʻumu, and tons of food.\\nCloser family will bring huge ngatu and other traditional gifts, and are supposed to stay for the ʻapō (night vigil). Usually a big tent (some companies are specialised in hiring out\",\n \"-28.61808488954557\"\n ],\n [\n \"not dispute the Army Audit Agency's testimony during the hearing, cemetery officials said the next day that they had accounted for the missing $12 million by reconciling contracts. A cemetery spokesperson said that Army inspectors, federal auditors, and others would again examine the cemetery's books in June 2012 to verify that funds are properly spent and accounted for.\\nA Government Accountability Office report released the same day found that Arlington officials had made \\\"major improvements\\\" to strategic planning, technology infrastructure, and workforce management. While the report said that there were still problems and that transferring operation of the cemetery to the\",\n \"-28.558141588408034\"\n ],\n [\n \"not occur until June 10, 1873.) Fundraisers to benefit the cemetery were held in June 1865 and May 1866.\\nIn 1867, PHC reported that it received income of $1,500 ($26,889 in 2018 dollars) in the past six months, expended $500 in improvements and repairs, and was in excellent financial condition. The board elected that year included August Meiners, president; John Vogt, vice president; Frederick Schweiring, secretary; Michael Langman, treasurer; and Christopher Freiss, F. Haiden, Christopher Just, H. Kaiser, John Killian, and August Lipold. By 1870, however, the cemetery faced a problem: A significant number of individuals had purchased lots but failed\",\n \"-28.532285663884977\"\n ],\n [\n \"the property. However, on September 29, 1908, the City Commissioners recommended the purchase of the Presbyterian Burying Ground for $32,000. Some time in late June or early July 1909, the sale finally was consummated for $30,000. The city paid $20,000, while private donations came up with the remaining $10,000.\\nDuring preparation of the area for conversion to a playground, 30 more bodies were uncovered. These were sent to an undertaker for cremation and burial. But more than 2,000 corpses remained buried at the site. Noted D.C. historian John Proctor Clagett claimed in 1942 that most of the bodies near 34th\",\n \"-28.488425255054608\"\n ],\n [\n \"than 18 acres (73,000 m²) and not less than 15 acres (61,000 m²), and affirmed that the core 15 acres (61,000 m²) of the cemetery could never be sold or used for any purpose other than a burial ground. The bill also affirmed the right of all lotholders (not just those associated with Concordia Church or the German Evangelical Church Society) to vote at annual meetings and hold office, provided new rules for managing the annual meeting and casting votes, directed the cemetery to use its income solely for the benefit of the burying ground, and expanded the board of directors to nine\",\n \"-28.44164242298575\"\n ],\n [\n \"stem or a small posy. As the flowers decay, they simply fall to the ground and do not create a significant maintenance problem. Family While uncommon today, family (or private) cemeteries were a matter of practicality during the settlement of America. If a municipal or religious cemetery had not been established, settlers would seek out a small plot of land, often in wooded areas bordering their fields, to begin a family plot. Sometimes, several families would arrange to bury their dead together. While some of these sites later grew into true cemeteries, many were forgotten after a family moved away\",\n \"-28.3727512670157\"\n ],\n [\n \"with compensation being provided by the local authorities. Houzeau de Lehaie refused to accept payment for the land and agreed to part with it only under the condition that it be donated instead of requisitioned, and that in the cemetery the dead of both sides be treated with equal respect. During 1916 and 1917 Landsturm Infantry Battalions exhumed burials from isolated and less maintainable sites and re-interred them in the new cemetery. Most of the bodies that were exhumed were from the north and north east of the Mons battlefield especially near Nimy and Obourg where the British stopped Imperial\",\n \"-28.35837450483814\"\n ],\n [\n \"burials in existing family graves. After that time the cemetery was badly affected by air raids and was closed altogether. Many of the arcade vaults and most of the other cemetery buildings were destroyed.\\nAfter the war it was decided not to reopen the cemetery. For one thing, most of the graves were full. For another, there was enough capacity in the large cemeteries opened at the beginning of the 20th century under Hans Grässel to be able to do without this rather small one. Many graves were subsequently cleared: of the total capacity of 7,272 burial places only about 700\",\n \"-28.347600273555145\"\n ],\n [\n \"burials in family plots continued through the 1950s and 1960s, but by 1978 ownership of the cemetery had passed to Sheffield City Council and it was closed to all new burials. In 1980 the council got permission by Act of Parliament to clear 800 gravestones to make a recreation area. Through the 1980s and 1990s most of the rest of the cemetery was left untouched, becoming overgrown and an important sanctuary for local wildlife. Unfortunately, many of the buildings also fell into disrepair. In early 2003 work began to restore the gatehouse and catacombs funded by a £500,000 grant from\",\n \"-28.300049340032274\"\n ],\n [\n \"an additional cost. Local governments own and maintain most crematoria, and thus profit minimally from cremation costs. A particular public crematorium in Yokohama charged ¥12 000 for residents and ¥50 000 for visitors in 2016. A shortage in crematoria as Japan's population ages means that families can wait up to 4 days before the deceased can be cremated. Temporary mortuaries, commonly called 'hotels', are now available for families to store the deceased for around ¥9000 a night. Some temples also offer this service. \\nIn the aftermath of the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011, 2000\",\n \"-28.288205975390156\"\n ],\n [\n \"brick structure served as the cemetery chapel.\\nAccording to the Washington Federalist newspaper, \\\"lots at present will be sold low for cash in order to defray present expenses, but when these are discharged they will rise much higher in price.\\\" Interments began almost immediately, due to the low prices the church offered, and the cemetery was instantly popular. Most of the graves were in the northern half of the cemetery, which sloped gently downward to Q Street. Families erected small headstones and, later, large funerary monuments. Some private brick mausoleums were constructed, and the church itself built a burial vault (for\",\n \"-28.273015239901724\"\n ],\n [\n \"of its expiration because it supposedly \\\"had no money\\\". Mayor Rafał Dutkiewicz was also widely criticized for doing nothing. Random people organized a charity and paid for the grave to remain.\",\n \"-28.23928912100382\"\n ],\n [\n \"building extensions began to address this problem, and so started the almost continuous process of rebuilding and improvements that go on in the present day.\\nThe friends or relatives of a deceased patient were free to remove the remains for burial. Failing this, the deceased were interred in unmarked paupers' graves in the hospitals burial ground. With the 1832 Anatomy Act, the body was first kept in a building called the 'dead house', on the west side of the burial ground (see diagram above). If unclaimed after 72 hours it could be sold to a licensed anatomy school. The Act also\",\n \"-28.212722441123333\"\n ],\n [\n \"graves were left open rather than filled in, leaving sunken pits all over the area. Some graves had been opened by mistaken and not recovered, while other human remains were scattered over the ground. The entire place reeked of decomposition. On July 8, 1893, the District of Columbia Health Department ordered that no more removals occur for at least three months. It demanded that the cemetery's trustees remove all bodies from open graves and have them interred elsewhere, and that the entire cemetery grounds be disinfected. Twelve months later, the cemetery's wooden outer fence had almost completely fallen to the\",\n \"-28.196656590793282\"\n ],\n [\n \"to completing remedial works and opening the site as soon as possible. Controversy In September 2018, the police opened an investigation following reports that the cemetery had been unearthing remains without permission and refusing the space for new graves. In the United Kingdom, it is against the Burial Act 1857 to remove buried human remains without a licence from the government, or permission from the Church of England if it is consecrated ground.\",\n \"-28.174781028035795\"\n ],\n [\n \"signed in 1951 the U.S. government was granted free use in perpetuity of the land covered by the cemetery, without taxation.\",\n \"-28.16832795762457\"\n ],\n [\n \"from altering or destroying the cemetery or any of its buildings, grounds, or contents. The following December, Judge Mohr placed a preservation of evidence order on the property to specifically protect any evidence relating to the ongoing lawsuit being pursued by aggrieved families. On February 2, 2007, the first cremation interment was made at the cemetery since the suspension of its operating license on November 5, 2005. This was followed by the first full-body in-ground burial (in a two-person plot which already had one burial) in March 2007. The $2,000 ($2,417 in 2018 dollars) cost of burials were born by\",\n \"-28.1382380045834\"\n ],\n [\n \"burial plots have been sold for some years. A memorial garden for the interment of ashes was opened in the time of J. R. Seddon, providing a popular resting place for the Ashfield community.\\nSince the late 1970s day-release prisoners have assisted with maintenance of the cemetery grounds. In Australia's bicentennial year, 1988, a $16,000 grant was awarded for restoration work in the cemetery, at which time some broken gravestones were cemented together, and some illegible ones were 'cut back' and the letters repainted. Annex In 2017 an annex was added directly adjacent and connected to the western side of\",\n \"-28.09373122273246\"\n ],\n [\n \"lived and buried two bodies was demolished by its owner, the South Australian Housing Trust. The bank, with a four-bedroom attached house, was placed on auction in February 2012 but only reached half its reserve price of $200,000. After holding an open house which raised $700 for charity through charging an entrance fee, the property sold later that year on 27 September for just over $185,000 with the new owners intending to live in the house while running a business from the bank. A plaque will be installed to commemorate the victims. Films Snowtown, a feature film based upon the\",\n \"-28.07203929591924\"\n ],\n [\n \"appearance of a lawn cemetery, the common practice of placing flowers (sometimes in vases) and increasingly other items (e.g. small toys on children's graves) re-introduces some clutter to the cemetery and makes it difficult to use the larger mowers. While cemetery authorities increasingly impose restrictions on the nature and type of objects that can be placed on lawn graves and actively remove prohibited items, grieving families are often unwilling to comply with these restrictions and become very upset if the items are removed. Another problem with lawn cemeteries involves grass over-growth over time: the grass can grow over and cover\",\n \"-28.056651071470696\"\n ],\n [\n \"by a legal action brought by the remaining holders of burial rights. The cemetery reflects years of disuse and neglect. Many of the tombstones are toppled, damaged or overgrown, and grass grows up through large cracks in the asphalt walkway leading through it. \\nIn 2018, Georgetown University and the Holy Trinity Catholic Church announced plans to restore the historic cemetery. The cemetery, which has been closed to new burials since 1985, is constructing a columbarium to hold cremated remains. The columbarium, which will hold the remains of parishioners, University alumni, faculty and staff, those who have ancestors interred\",\n \"-28.050644722243305\"\n ],\n [\n \"on local authorities under the National Assistance Act 1948 where the body of a person who has died or been found dead in their area and no suitable arrangements are being made for disposal of the body. A local authority may also arrange a burial or cremation for any person who was in the care of or receiving assistance (as well as children in local authority care) from the authority immediately prior to their death. In both cases a local authority may seek to recover costs from the estate of the deceased.\\n549 funerals were undertaken in 2015 under the provisions\",\n \"-27.993828957143705\"\n ],\n [\n \"on June 13, 2006, after he was unable to pay the $40,000 to $50,000 a month \\n($49,713 to $62,141 in 2018 dollars) it took to pay employee salaries and the insurance, mortgage, and utility bills.\\nThe City of Glendale reopened Grand View Memorial Park to visitors on August 27, 2006. Thereafter, the city paid the cost for the cemetery to remain open each Sunday from noon to 4 PM. The cost the city $31,000 a month ($38,527 in 2018 dollars).\\nIn October 2006, Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Anthony Mohr placed Grand View Memorial Park under a preservation order, which barred anyone\",\n \"-27.98885788966436\"\n ],\n [\n \"the burials at Har HaMenuchot involve couples. Stone monuments must be paid for by the family of the deceased. The burial societies recoup their development costs and make their profit on the sale of plots to Jews living abroad, with the price of the plot, burial costs, and transportation of the body by airline exceeding US$11,000. Burials from abroad constitute an estimated one-fifth to one-third of all burials. Description Like other Jewish cemeteries in Jerusalem, the plots on Har HaMenuchot consist of an underground grave topped by a rectangular platform of poured concrete, faced with stone tiles, that rises 2\",\n \"-27.974006771924905\"\n ],\n [\n \"to families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for remembrance. Carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose. Materials A cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be placed. Others may require stones of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting. Headstones of granite, marble and\",\n \"-27.903175824554637\"\n ],\n [\n \"authority to build a tomb, which was a typical of the period, since the space had no place to bury their dead. The tomb was located the eastern corner of the church and Misericórdia Velha.\\nWhile, by 1765, it was able to take in 324$861 réis in receipts, while expending 302$000 réis (a meager profit), by 1804 the situation had turned grave. The brotherhood of the Misericórdia sent a letter to the Crown, informing it of \\\"grave financial situation\\\" that existed in the Santa Casa, referring to corruption of the previous board. In their communique, the former brotherhood of not paying\",\n \"-27.902097477242933\"\n ],\n [\n \"perpetual care fund lacks functional interest. Maintenance is currently provided by veterans, volunteer groups like the Friends of Eastern Cemetery, and Dismas Charities. Mismanagement In 1989, a whistleblower working for Louisville Crematories and Cemetery Company made the public aware that graves purchased by families had been reused. Bodies were buried atop other bodies, graves were carelessly excavated for reuse, and medical cadaver body parts from the University of Louisville were buried in-mass rather than intact (as is legally required for donated bodies). Human bones were found in inappropriate areas, including in a tool box, a glove compartment, a fast food\",\n \"-27.900974200339988\"\n ],\n [\n \"ripe and unearth graves in the family and slave cemeteries to search for valuables buried under false headstones. The most expensive blow comes when the troops torch more than $158,331 worth of baled cotton (in 2014 currency ). (The O'Haras had been unable to sell the cotton to English merchants, owing to the blockade, and thus it was still awaiting transport.) Upon the army's withdrawal, the family and their loyal remaining slaves are left with a looted and dilapidated house, a ruined farm with no stock, work animals, or farm equipment, no food and no means to produce food. \",\n \"-27.883683100226335\"\n ],\n [\n \"death had been buried on the cemetery on 31 May 1904, donated another 100 Napoléons d’or, while the Anglican side was still behind with its payments. In 1907 Bertha von Braun donated another ℳ 5,000 (= 6,250 Francs; = £250) for the purposes of the cemetery.\\nEventual deficits were to be halved among the parties, and it turned out that the stipulated burial fees did not cover the running expenses for inspector and maintenance. Because deficits repeated the burial board decided to collect once a year alms in favour of the cemetery in both congregations, starting on Sunday 24 November 1912,\",\n \"-27.881583292279174\"\n ],\n [\n \"purchase an adjoining 5-acre (2.0 ha) tract, to improve and operate the cemetery, sell burial plots, and be exempt from taxation as long as the land was used as a cemetery. The act named the initial seven members of corporation that would manage the cemetery, specified that all future members must be owners of burial plots within the cemetery, and that a new board would be elected annually by vote proportional to the number of plots owned. The act also specified that family gravesites in the old cemetery could continue to be used for burial by the respective families.\\nA conservation assessment\",\n \"-27.860374724754365\"\n ],\n [\n \"to ensure unused graves are properly covered, and to avoid legal liability that would result from an injury related to an improperly dug or uncovered grave. Preparation of the grave is usually done before the mourners arrive for the burial. The cemetery caretakers fill the grave after the burial, generally after the mourners have departed. Mechanical equipment, such as backhoes, are used to reduce labour cost of digging and filling, but some hand shovelling may still be required.\\nIn the United Kingdom the minimum depth from the surface to the highest lid is 36 inches. There must be 6 inches between\",\n \"-27.848662104574032\"\n ],\n [\n \"cemeteries viable, thus forestalling the need for permanent closure, which would result in a reduction of their work force. Burial registers Usually there is a legal requirement to maintain records regarding the burials (or interment of ashes) within a cemetery. These burial registers usually contain (at a minimum) the name of the person buried, the date of burial and the location of the burial plots within the cemetery, although some contain far more detail. The Arlington National Cemetery, one of the United States' largest military cemeteries, has a registry, The ANC Explorer, which contains details such as photographs of the\",\n \"-27.83683491416741\"\n ],\n [\n \"or died out.\\nToday, it is not unheard of to discover groupings of tombstones, ranging from a few to a dozen or more, on undeveloped land. As late 20th century suburban sprawl pressured the pace of development in formerly rural areas, it became increasingly common for larger exurban properties to be encumbered by \\\"religious easements\\\", which are legal requirements for the property owner to permit periodic maintenance of small burial plots located on the property but technically not owned with it. Often, cemeteries are relocated to accommodate building. However, if the cemetery is not relocated, descendants of people buried\",\n \"-27.833322856691666\"\n ],\n [\n \"gets waterlogged during the monsoons. It was therefore decided to vault the graves so that the area would be leveled up and easy to clean. Each grave holder is expected to defray part of the expenses by paying ₹2000.\\nIn 1964 the graveyard was rearranged and the entire area divided into sections marked ‘A’, to ‘H’. Some of these sections were vaulted. Each permanent grave owner was issued a Registration Card giving the name of the grave-owner, the co-users and the grave number and section and a plan showing the location of the grave. It may be noted that while allotting\",\n \"-27.816292581614107\"\n ],\n [\n \"population was undertaken, further gravestones were destroyed through wind damage (see Kyrill (storm)). In early 2007, the Jewish Kultusgemeinde estimated the cost of repairing the cemetery at 14 million euros and planned to turn the caretaker's house into a meeting house. In January 2007, along with the Educult institute, the Jewish Kultusgemeinde started an initiative that envisaged the publishing of a book and a photo calendar, as well as an exhibition, that would contribute to restoring the property. In addition, the until then irregular guided tours of the cemetery are now offered on a monthly basis. On 2 March 2007,\",\n \"-27.81400008109631\"\n ],\n [\n \"tombstones.\\nThe main reason for the attempt to pass such a law with such severe punishments if broken is that the town's 28,000 inhabitants apparently do not look after their health properly, making them more vulnerable to death, which would mean having to bury more corpses in the already full cemetery. Since the cemetery was inaugurated in 1910, over 50,000 people have been buried in 3,500 crypts and tombs. In November 2005, the cemetery was declared to be full and 20 recently deceased residents were forced to share a crypt, and several others were buried under the walkways.\\nThe mayor, to support\",\n \"-27.803463940450456\"\n ],\n [\n \"which are unidentifiable through DNA analysis. The remains will be cremated before placement in the memorial. Burial procedures The flags in the cemetery are flown at half-staff from a half-hour before the first funeral until a half hour after the last funeral each day. Funerals are normally conducted five days a week, excluding weekends.\\nFunerals, including interments and inurnments, average between 27–30 per day. The Cemetery conducts approximately 6,900 burials each year.\\nWith more than 400,000 interments, the cemetery has the second-largest number of burials of any national cemetery in the United States. The largest of the 130 national cemeteries is the\",\n \"-27.76102726906538\"\n ],\n [\n \"historical interests, the mass graves continue to attract history tourists and researchers. The graves are located on private land whose owners are prevented from farming or construction by laws and cultural taboos that prohibit exhumation of bodies and disturbance of grave sites. There have been proposals and promises to compensate and relocated the landowners in exchange for setting up memorial sites.\",\n \"-27.7603593081476\"\n ],\n [\n \"buried at Camp Nelson. A veteran's spouse and dependent children are likewise eligible to be buried. The grave plot, headstone, perpetual maintenance of the grave, and labor involved with burial are provided at no cost to the veteran or the family. Starting in the 1990s, inexpensive plastic burial vaults have been used to enclose the casket within the grave, and are provided at no additional cost to the family. These vaults protect the casket from being crushed, and are effective at preventing collapse of the surface of the grave due to soil compaction.\\nAt the funeral service of a veteran, an\",\n \"-27.759184335940517\"\n ],\n [\n \"for example are removed, they can be replaced with new trees to \\\"frame\\\" the cemetery.\\n\\nI was not awarded the maintenance contract but was informed that a temporary contract was being put in place and the situation would be reviewed in the coming year.\\n— Gina Plate, email to Stuart Read, 11 December 2011.\\nThe Cemetery is largely intact, except for the loss of the Church of England Robing Room/Chapel (burned down 1975), the Sexton's Cottages (first demolished c.1949, second demolished 1984) and damage due to vandalism and natural decay. Heritage listing As at 19 February 2001, Gore Hill Memorial Cemetery was an\",\n \"-27.737630436880863\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the number of cremations. Whereas 36 percent of all deceased were cremated in the United States in 2008, the National Association of Funeral Directors forecast this to rise to 46 percent by 2015 and 59 percent by 2025.\\nJewish law does not bar the use of burial vaults or liners, and their use is permitted where law or a cemetery requires them. But Morrison David Bial argues that burial vaults are antithetical to traditional Judaism, in part because they deny the reality of death (e.g., inhibit decomposition of the body) and in part because they are ostentatious and undercut\",\n \"-27.724397061392665\"\n ],\n [\n \"which were initially considered to be large often run out of space for new burials and there is no vacant adjacent land available to extend the cemetery or even land in the same general area to create new cemeteries. New cemeteries are generally established on the periphery of towns and cities, where large tracts of land are still available. However, people often wish to be buried in the same cemetery as other relatives, and are not interested in being buried in new cemeteries with which there is no sense of connection to their family, creating pressure to find more space\",\n \"-27.702761221444234\"\n ],\n [\n \"Grace Church oversaw the re-interment of the body. Currently The gravesites are not arranged in rows or plots and only a few stones remain. They are randomly placed. Many of the graves are unmarked, or the stones have been removed. Very few if any records were kept and several people have since desecrated the graveyard by reducing the graves themselves to a pile of rubble.\",\n \"-27.701283957110718\"\n ],\n [\n \"expenditures required by Congress, $30,000 remained which the City Commissioners agreed to spend in acquiring Presbyterian Burying Ground for a municipal playground. In May 1907, Allen W. Mallery, agent for the church, agreed to sell the cemetery to the city, but the Beatty family objected and the sale cancelled. For reasons which are not clear, the sale was consummated on June 20, 1907, for $27,969.25. The city, however, required the church to provide clear title and title insurance, and to clear the property of all bodies. The city was forced to spend $14,000 of the $30,000, however, leaving just $16,000\",\n \"-27.68841682188213\"\n ],\n [\n \"burial can cause considerable upset to family members. Although the authorities might declare that the grave is sufficiently old that there will be no human remains still present, nonetheless many people regard the re-use of graves (particularly their family's graves) as a desecration. Also re-use of a used grave involves the removal of any monuments and headstones, which may cause further distress to families (although families will typically be allowed to take away the monuments and headstones if they wish).\\nOn the other hand, cemetery authorities are well aware that many old graves are forgotten and not visited and that their\",\n \"-27.637567121055326\"\n ],\n [\n \"graves with Church of England permission. Successive Government have considered the problem of lack of space for graves but not taken any action.\\nThe 2015 amendments to the Burial Act 1857, allowing the Church of England to reuse graves, was controversial. Such changes have been criticised as offensive and distressing to the living, and disrespectful to the dead.\",\n \"-27.621339222649112\"\n ],\n [\n \"ornate structures. Some cemeteries co-located a chapel (either next to or above) with the receiving vault to make it easier to hold a funeral in conjunction with the vault's use. The cost of constructing and operating the receiving vault was usually borne by the cemetery. Receiving vaults were usually located toward the center or the rear of a cemetery. Small cemeteries usually used a small, subterranean receiving vault, while larger burying grounds with more income built larger underground or above-ground structures.\",\n \"-27.599250856845174\"\n ],\n [\n \"re-use will not cause distress to anyone. However, there may be some older graves in a cemetery for whom there are local and vocal descendants who will mount a public campaign against re-use. One pragmatic strategy is to publicly announce plans to re-use older graves and invite families to respond if they are willing or not. Re-use then only occurs where there are no objections allowing the \\\"forgotten\\\" graves to be re-used. Sometimes the cemetery authorities request a further payment to avoid re-use of a grave, but often this backfires politically.\\nA practical problem with regard to contacting families is that\",\n \"-27.595304319576826\"\n ],\n [\n \"burials may take place there apart from cremated remains.\\nThe northern (i.e. lower level) part of the Churchyard was given to Lambeth Council soon after the Second World War and converted into a memorial garden to remember those who died in that conflict. Lambeth Council has used money from a Section 106 agreement to refurbish these gardens. This section of the churchyard is used on the first Sunday of most months of the year for selling refreshments in connection with the Norwood Feast.\\nThe original ornate railings around the churchyard were removed as wartime \\\"salvage\\\" and only restored in 2009. The elaborate\",\n \"-27.554401171044447\"\n ],\n [\n \"during reconstruction. They would receive $50,000 in credit to buy furniture and appliances, payable in 60 months with five percent interest. Rosario's real estate firms prepared a list of houses for rent without charging victims their regular fee. Some of the affected buildings may have had cheap insurances which would not cover the risk of an explosion. Some cars trapped in an underground parking lot could not be retrieved.\\nWhen the search for survivors ended, authorities closed Salta Street. Engineers began checking the buildings at ground zero, trying to restore the original layout of the street and demolishing unstable structures. Secretary\",\n \"-27.543364544486394\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":285,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"4pd5p3"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Is there any advantage to suburban neighborhoods being twisty labyrinths of cul de sacs?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Some people like living on a street with no through traffic. It's very inconvenient, but they like the quiet.","My grandmother lives on what used to be a small, quiet street, thirty years ago. It's also straight and fairly well maintained, so it eventually started being used by the majority of the city. It alternates between heavy, loud traffic, and light traffic with people going 40+ mph. Living in a twisty labyrinth prevents this from happening.","It is purposefully built to make it so that there is not through traffic and what traffic is there does not go at high speed. Yes it does slow down emergency responders but those are not needed often enough for the slight slow down to be a big enough negative to make it a grid.","Why would it cause delays for emergency responders? They only have go up and down the main roads and then into the one cul de sac that they need... they don't drive in and out of every cul de sac looking for the right address.","They allow their inhabitants to pretend they are living a semi-rural level lifestyle while demanding city level services and paying farm level taxes. The usual result is a ponzi scheme of growth followed by municipal bankruptcy. URL_0 These configurations result in a far greater land use consumed per person/household, which has a direct impact on municipal service cost per person/houshold. If these ppl really wanted to live a rural life, with a dirt road, no water or sewage, etc, then it wouldn't matter. But if they want someone else to pave their road, maintain water & sewer, and come put out their fires, then all those services costs scale inversely to density. The less intensely the land is used, the more expensive it is to provide services. This calculus is slowly percolating through cities, so change is happening, but it's slow, and people who are used to their cul de sacs and taxes too low to support them will push back hard against paying their fair share.","I always thought it was for aesthetics. Houses all lined up on little grids are hideous and developers (rightly) imagine the people who want to live in the suburbs don't want a city look/feel. Or it could be to imitate the gated communities in cities that are designed that way to be more park like. Or it could be to decrease cut through traffic, making it feel safer and family friendly. There are cities that build barricades on streets to make cul de sacs out of their perfect little grids, presumably to decrease traffic and therefore crime."],"string":"[\n \"Some people like living on a street with no through traffic. It's very inconvenient, but they like the quiet.\",\n \"My grandmother lives on what used to be a small, quiet street, thirty years ago. It's also straight and fairly well maintained, so it eventually started being used by the majority of the city. It alternates between heavy, loud traffic, and light traffic with people going 40+ mph. Living in a twisty labyrinth prevents this from happening.\",\n \"It is purposefully built to make it so that there is not through traffic and what traffic is there does not go at high speed. Yes it does slow down emergency responders but those are not needed often enough for the slight slow down to be a big enough negative to make it a grid.\",\n \"Why would it cause delays for emergency responders? They only have go up and down the main roads and then into the one cul de sac that they need... they don't drive in and out of every cul de sac looking for the right address.\",\n \"They allow their inhabitants to pretend they are living a semi-rural level lifestyle while demanding city level services and paying farm level taxes. The usual result is a ponzi scheme of growth followed by municipal bankruptcy. URL_0 These configurations result in a far greater land use consumed per person/household, which has a direct impact on municipal service cost per person/houshold. If these ppl really wanted to live a rural life, with a dirt road, no water or sewage, etc, then it wouldn't matter. But if they want someone else to pave their road, maintain water & sewer, and come put out their fires, then all those services costs scale inversely to density. The less intensely the land is used, the more expensive it is to provide services. This calculus is slowly percolating through cities, so change is happening, but it's slow, and people who are used to their cul de sacs and taxes too low to support them will push back hard against paying their fair share.\",\n \"I always thought it was for aesthetics. Houses all lined up on little grids are hideous and developers (rightly) imagine the people who want to live in the suburbs don't want a city look/feel. Or it could be to imitate the gated communities in cities that are designed that way to be more park like. Or it could be to decrease cut through traffic, making it feel safer and family friendly. There are cities that build barricades on streets to make cul de sacs out of their perfect little grids, presumably to decrease traffic and therefore crime.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["hills to steep mountain slopes. The hilly barrios of the municipality (moving clockwise around the outskirts of the city) are these seven: Quebrada Limón, Marueño, Magueyes, Tibes, Portugués Rural, Machuelo Arriba, and Cerrillos. The barrios of Canas, Coto Laurel, Capitanejo, Sabanetas, Vayas, and Bucaná also surround the outskirts of the city but these are mostly flat. The remaining six (6) other barrios are further away from the city and their topology is rugged mountain terrain. These are (clockwise): Guaraguao, San Patricio, Monte Llano, Maragüez, Anón, and Real. The ruggedness of these barrios is because through these areas of the","-32.19670597999357"],["Ciudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar Urban character Ciudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar is an unusual, colorful, socially mixed and lively neighbourhood of about 6,650 families in an area of 2.4 km² (0.93 sq mi). Inspired by the Garden city movement, its layout is designed on a pedestrian scale with compact residential areas made up of tile roofed row style and free standing chalets in tree-lined streets and boulevards. There are three arcaded three-storey residential-commercial plazas (town squares) with central greenery, children playgrounds, fountains and surrounded by shops, pubs and al fresco dining restaurants.\nThe layout was developed to place cultural facilities, schools, churches, clubs","-31.970534420823242"],["are all two lanes and they are neither on a grid with uniform city blocks nor in the suburban cul-de-sac style found in most American suburbs but are slightly winding and usually separated by the equivalent of two or more city blocks. Fairlington's apartment units are grouped in \"courts,\" usually three or four separate buildings of around 40-50 total units facing a parking lot (carpark). Most units are three levels (upstairs, ground level and basement) with front and back doors. Some units are two or three story walk-ups with units on a single floor. Prior to the condominium conversions, back","-31.94574963584455"],["Flatbush Malls The Flatbush Malls are a series of tree-lined landscaped medians along several roads in the Victorian Flatbush neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City. An architecture critic has written that the malls \"give the streets an uncommon spaciousness, if not grandeur\". The first series was built in the northern part of the neighborhood along Albemarle Road, and extending one block north on Buckingham Road, in the Prospect Park South development of 1899, east of Coney Island Avenue and west of the BMT Brighton Line. This was modeled by the Scottish landscape architect John Aiken on Commonwealth Avenue Mall in","-31.712586744863074"],[" The curvilinear streets followed precedents in European towns and England, rather than the American gridiron pattern.\nThe units were designed primarily as row houses since this allowed for the most density. The longer the row, the more economical the construction, but there was an issue with getting behind the homes for garbage and ash disposal. They solved this problem by installing sunken garbage receptacles in front eliminating the need for rear access to the units.\nThe interiors consisted of a few floor plans of three, four, and five rooms. They were designed to suit the needs of","-31.516810449305922"],["the street with private domains separated to the rear. This is different from suburban development where cul-de-sacs often leave houses backing onto the street. The urban grain of a neighbourhood is important to a vibrant public realm. Small-scale development by lots of different developers creates variety in the buildings which create the backdrop to urban life. This is missing or artificially produced if a developer is given a large block to develop, failing to capture the traditional nature of urban areas. A fine urban grain creates a sense of place, not space, generating vibrancy and unity in the neighbourhood. Good","-31.422915908537107"],["roots still remain. First of all, the fact that property lines generally followed irrigation ditches can still be seen in the neighborhood's haphazard street grids today. Second, the neighborhood's working-class character is visible in its primarily single-story homes featuring simple façades.\nA fifth neighborhood, the Barrio de la Estación, is often grouped in with the city's original neighborhoods. However, this neighborhood is considerably more modern, with much of its development dating from the final decades of the 19th century or later. Therefore, despite its important role in the history of Aguascalientes, it's not strictly accurate to consider the Barrio de la","-31.27457544085337"],["to have been the most organised, having the best layout, while Bekir mahala and Karamoutza mahala were the most labyrinthine. However, all quarters shared the same type of streets; firstly, they all had main streets which were wide, busy and public roads meant to allow for communication between neighbourhoods (typical examples are, to a great extent, modern-day Korinthou, Nafpliou and Tripoleos streets). Secondary streets were also common in all four quarters since they lead to the interior of each mahala, having a semi-public character, whereas the third type of streets referred to dead-end private alleys used specifically by families to","-31.268328556485358"],["it dealing with spatial marginalization) –, with a very noticeable example being the rail suburbs of Rio de Janeiro – the North Zone, the Baixada Fluminense, the part of the West Zone associated with SuperVia's Ramal de Santa Cruz. These, in comparison with the inner suburbs, often prove to be remote, violent food deserts with inadequate sewer structure coverage, saturated mass transit, more precarious running water, electricity and communication services, and lack of urban planning and landscaping, while also not necessarily qualifying as actual favelas or slums. They often are former agricultural land or wild areas settled through squatting, and","-31.105255019676406"],["all of the somewhat narrow east/west streets here have been one-way, an oddity for a neighborhood relatively far from downtown.\nFurther contributing to the unusually high density for a neighborhood mostly of single family homes, Deer Park includes two pedestrian courts whose long rows of houses, with no conventional street, are accessible only by alleys and sidewalks running through the short front yards. Ivanhoe Court was built in 1914, and the slightly smaller Maplewood Place a year later in 1915. These types of developments, built during the streetcar suburb era, are apparently unique to Louisville. There are 11 in Old Louisville,","-31.000095329178293"],["small park or square. Other than the diagonal streets, all streets are on a rectangular grid and are numbered consecutively. Thus, La Plata is nicknamed \"la ciudad de las diagonales\" (city of diagonals). It is also called \"la ciudad de los tilos\" (city of linden trees), because of the large number of linden trees lining the many streets and squares. The linden tree is one of a number of deciduous Northern Hemisphere tree species which dominate La Plata's parks and streets; ash, horsechestnut, plane, sweetgum and tulip tree are among the other examples. Palms and subtropical broadleaf evergreen trees thrive,","-30.92753545243977"],["neighbourhoods: I, II, III, Piedras Coloradas, and Barrio Llequén at the outskirts of the vllage. Neighbourhoods I, II and III were chiefly created for power plant workers and police officers and dwellings were given in hierarchical order. Hence, in Neighbourhood I lived those inhabitants with the most important ranks, and so on.\nThese neighbourhoods take advantage of the hills upon which the village is located, with Neighbourhood III being in the highest place and Neighbourhood I in the lowest position.\nHouses are very much alike: they are rectangular with white walls and red tiled rooftops. Their backyards are well outlined and the","-30.90309296936175"],["neighborhoods, that is, neighborhoods and independent nuclei, with schools, churches and complete infrastructure. The neighborhood is divided into 24 nuclei organized in a numeral form.\nLocated in the convergence between the Center and the North Zone, the neighborhood is one of the most valued in the city, growing rapidly and attracting the upper class, coming from already saturated noble neighborhoods and emerging upper middle class, from humbler neighborhoods.","-30.483693812857382"],["in a lack of urban sprawl, or at least of new urban sprawl. As new neighbourhoods need to be built as an outer skin around existing settlements and as other policies prohibited establishing new settlements outside other towns or villages, no new linear villages could be founded without governmental intervention any more. This in order to keep the rural landscape 'clean' and cities dense and compact.\nAs a result, in Dutch towns all neighbourhoods are close to city centers, enabling inhabitants to get around quickly and cheaply by bike. Getting out of town doesn't involve driving through ever-ongoing sprawled suburbs, making","-30.402350896794815"],["Place Appearing as a circle but actually a duodecagon this is the largest and grandest space within the plan. Technically it is symmetrical around its northwest/southeast axis, but the scale of the form and central gardens makes this impossible to interpret on the ground, and this is only visible from above. Although rear mews were standard at the time of building, the layout only permitted mews on the north-east side (now known as Gloucester Lane).\nLord Moray took one of the largest and most prominent houses: 28 Moray Place. Other notable residents included Alexander Kinnear, 1st Baron Kinnear (2), George Deas,","-30.178387486485008"],["Roxbury, Mattapan and Jamaica Plain were popular with the emerging middle class and became \"streetcar suburbs\" as transportation systems expanded from the older, core sections of the city. Typically, the affordable three decker homes attracted live-in landlords who would collect rent from the other two apartments.\nIn Worcester, Massachusetts, sewer connection charges were based on street frontage, so builders favored houses with as little frontage as possible. This is one reason why three-deckers are often situated on narrow lots and are rectangular shape, with the smaller sides at the front and the rear.\nIn the textile mill city of Fall River, Massachusetts,","-30.171622251502413"],["(French: jardins en terrain) and courtyards (French: cours) of some French former palaces have resulted in redevelopments into spaces equivalent to garden squares. The same former single-owner scenario applies to at least one garden square in London (Coleridge Square). Outside of Paris Grandiose instances of garden-use town squares are a part of many French cities, others opt for solid material town squares. Belgium The Square de Meeûs and Square Orban are notable examples in Brussels. Ireland Dublin has several Georgian examples, including Merrion Square, Fitzwilliam Square, Mountjoy Square, St Stephens Green and Parnell Square. United States Perhaps the most","-30.120286419165495"],["comparable to nearby areas but distinguishable compared with the city, which in general slopes south to the lake. One resident described the topography of the neighbourhood as \"Toronto's hidden San Francisco,\" comparing Silverthorn with the famously hilly terrain of San Francisco. The winding and one-way streets make through traffic a non-factor for ball playing. Castlefield Design District The area along Castlefield Road from Kincort Street to just west of Dufferin is home to the interior design district, home to furniture retailers, home decor centres, as well as Roots Canada and Art Shoppe.","-30.05354657533462"],["laid out on a traditional grid system. Today, the streets of the outlying city are contorted as a result of the many marshes and lowlands that run through much of Columbia County. The northern side of the city thus looks different from the central city, with the organized grid street system giving way to a more suburban streetscape with a lower housing density.\nThe city has two commercial areas. One is the downtown historic district, which features several small boutique shops and restaurants; the other is the Northridge commercial area that features big box stores. In the summer of 2007, the","-29.995142245403258"],["as well as streetscapes are dominant in providing the outsider a simple yet strong image of the Forest Hill neighbourhood. In other words, neighbourhoods in Toronto are sometimes characterized by their housing types and/or streetscape. For instance, the Leaside neighbourhood is noted for having lots of trees or the Rosedale neighbourhood being noted for distinct and large lot housing.\nThroughout Forest Hill, the conventional suburbs housing style (without the aspect of homogeneous households), makes up the majority of the area. In simplicity, Forest Hill housing has dominant traits of the conventional suburbs housing type. In further analysis, characteristics of low density,","-29.975163833645638"],["Barrio de La Latina (Madrid) History La Latina occupies much of the oldest section of Madrid, sometimes referred to as El Madrid de los Austrias which maintains a peculiar urban layout similar to the medieval distribution, with spacious squares and narrow streets that follow the former course of creeks. As such, the effect is often that of a traditional pueblo rather than the heart of a major city. Its configuration overlaps almost perfectly with the first walled enclosures of the ninth-century fortress, Almudena - and that of the city - Medina - that surrounded it. Its streets have felt the","-29.895070986214364"],["persons per acre) that were laid out on a grid-type pattern. Also, many early grid-plan towns and suburbs such as Windermere, Florida, Dauphin, Manitoba, and St. Andrews, New Brunswick exhibit grid layouts and very low densities. Conversely, incidental cul-de-sac and crescent streets in central areas show high densities. Examples of unusual, unconventional associations of density and street type demonstrate that street patterns are coincidentally, not causally, related to housing density. Any given street pattern can be built at a predetermined density. Transportation, traffic, and their effects More significant criticisms of the grid and the Radburn patterns were put forward based","-29.837144259508932"],["to the neighbouring suburbs, there is a sense of luxury living associated with the area hence a high level of affluent residents and property investors are found in the area.\nGreenstone Hill seems to portray a fairly decent active lifestyle where a large contingency of joggers and cyclists are noticeable, this is over and above the advent of a number of gyms and crossfit boxes opening up within the area. Neighbouring suburbs Acacia Park, Antwerp, Eastleigh, Edenvale, Illiondale, Longmeadow, Marais Steyn Park, Modderfontein, Rembrandt Park","-29.81096817267826"],["layout.\nAlthough rare, some pizza layouts have also used multi-level spiral layouts, with something of the rabbit warren to them. Scenery Scenery may be realistic, a caricature of geography containing real buildings or deliberately unrealistic. The difficulty is the likelihood that all of the layout can be seen at once, and the problem of finding any sort of visual break between the two sides. Many simply ignore this, placing a realistic building or feature in the centre and ignoring the logical pointlessness of a railway that obviously circles without going anywhere. Some layouts model funfairs, where the short circle can appear","-29.76444802719925"],["at the time, Walden 7 was built in the area to the west of Barcelona. It was originally designed as one of five similar blocks. The building is composed of 18 towers which are displaced from their base, forming a curve and coming into contact with the neighbouring towers, described as a \"vertical labyrinth with seven interconnecting interior courtyards.\" The area originally devoted to communal uses was reduced to allow an increased number of apartments. These apartments are formed on the basis of one or more 28-square-metre (33 sq yd) modules, which creates, on different levels, dwellings that range from single-module studios","-29.742513201519614"],["The southern suburbs are mainly affluent.\nThe town is bordered by Waddon immediately southwest of central Croydon. To the west, inside the London Borough of Sutton lies Beddington. To the north are Broad Green, Thornton Heath and Selhurst. To the south lies South Croydon, and going further south are Purley and Sanderstead. To the east lie Addiscombe and Shirley.\nCroydon High Street runs from South Croydon up to the point where it meets the street called North End. North End is the main shopping street, while Croydon High Street is the main restaurant quarter.\nThe High Street is also home to Wrencote House,","-29.730866501718992"],["mountains. Layout The streets of the city, along with the rest of Davis County north of Layton, are laid out on a unified grid plan. Most major streets run very nearly north-south and east-west. Clearfield City is the farthest east on this grid, while Syracuse, West Point, Sunset, Clinton and Unincorporated Davis County all are located north, west and south on the same street grid. Neighborhoods Clearfield City has many informal neighborhoods, most of which are more business or industrial related than residential. In the southwestern portion of the city is a large industrial business center called The Freeport Center,","-29.718150322129077"],["streets and squares, together with its developed sewerage systems and water pipelines. Subterranean kurabandis (‘sewerage system’), made from river stones, and dating back to almost one thousand years, are thought to be one of the most ancient sewerage systems used in the world.\nThe residents of Lahij are divided into three categories, based on their craftsmanship: Baadvan, Azavarro and Araghird. Each of these categories has its own village square, mosque, hammam and graveyard. One of the most striking features of the urban look of Lahij, is the village square of each category, which, today, still has its specific role in the","-29.713882525858935"],["in Polanco. There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small \"squares\" occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts.\nSeveral other larger parks such as the Bosque de Tlalpan and Viveros de Coyoacán, and in the east Alameda Oriente, offer many recreational activities. Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón. In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market, a World Heritage site. West of Santa Fe district are the pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park.\nAmusement parks include Six Flags México, in Ajusco","-29.7075179622625"],["modeled on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, is the most notable street in the Bronx. The City Beautiful movement inspired similar boulevards in Brooklyn, known as parkways.","-29.698374644028036"],["vineyards, and numerous small orchards and community gardens. Gardens are irrigated by naturally-flowing creeks, which also serve as natural filters that eliminate the need for an expensive storm-water sewer system. Residents enjoy environmental and aesthetic benefits from their shared spaces, and the increased sense of community is evident; Village Homes residents on average know 40 neighbors, compared to an average of 17 acquaintances reported in a nearby traditional suburban development. Jackson Heights - Queens, New York For nearly nine decades, the historic neighborhood of Jackson Heights in Queens has maintained its fourteen block-long shared interior courtyards, and is considered to","-29.689539608050836"],["total. Villages and towns with narrow streets (2 to 3 m wide) consume much less.\nActual layouts of specific districts show variability within that range due to site-specific conditions and network pattern idiosyncrasies. Land taken up by streets becomes unavailable for development; its use is inefficient since it stays empty for most of the time. Were it to be developed, less land would be required for the same number housing units, resulting in lowering the pressure to consume more of it.\nA 2007 study compared alternative layout plans for a 3.4 square kilometre subdivision and found that the traditional grid layout","-29.651680027949624"],["Neighbourhood Preindustrial cities In the words of the urban scholar Lewis Mumford, “Neighbourhoods, in some annoying, inchoate fashion exist wherever human beings congregate, in permanent family dwellings; and many of the functions of the city tend to be distributed naturally—that is, without any theoretical preoccupation or political direction—into neighbourhoods.” Most of the earliest cities around the world as excavated by archaeologists have evidence for the presence of social neighbourhoods. Historical documents shed light on neighbourhood life in numerous historical preindustrial or nonwestern cities.\nNeighbourhoods are typically generated by social interaction among people living near one another. In this sense they are","-29.64039361749019"],["mystified by the fact that their neighborhood is dotted on maps and designated as a CDP, as it is actually a suburban residential neighborhood and not a separate town or settlement of any sort.","-29.631403257022612"],["of Management for Welwyn Garden City. Every road has a wide grass verge. The spine of the town is Parkway, a central mall or scenic parkway, almost a mile long. The view along Parkway to the south was once described as one of the world's finest urban vistas. Older houses are on the west side of Parkway and newer houses on the east side\nThe original planners intended that all the residents of the garden city would shop in one shop and created the Welwyn Stores, a monopoly which caused some local resentment. Commercial pressures have since ensured much more competition","-29.620128877519164"],["opposed to square or rectangular designs. The narrow and irregular street grid is unlike that of other quarters, where streets usually meet at approximately right angles. Similar to the majority of excavated homes of Delos, those in the Theatre Quarter feature an open courtyard without porticoes, instead of the peristyle layout with columns. Some of the houses in the Theatre Quarter lack interior decoration altogether, with neither wall murals nor mosaics, which is unusual for most Delian homes. House of Dionysos The Delos mosaic of Dionysos riding a tiger in the House of Dionysos is one of the finest examples","-29.61614059479325"],["suburban sprawl.\nIn addition to \"from-scratch\" new-built communities (including those physically retrofitting/re-using existing structures), there are also \"retrofit\" (aka \"organic\") communities in which neighbors create \"intentional neighborhoods\" by buying adjacent properties and removing fences. Often, they create common amenities such as Common Houses after the fact, while living there. N Street Cohousing in Davis, CA, is the canonical example of this type; it came together before the term Cohousing was popularized in the United States.\nCohousing differs from some types of intentional communities in that the residents do not have a shared economy or a common set of beliefs or religion, but","-29.542619654530426"],["claimed to be founded on seven hills like Rome. The more prominent hills are: Constitution Hill (near downtown), College Hill (east of the Providence River), and Federal Hill (west of downtown and containing New England's largest Italian district outside of Massachusetts). The other four are: Tockwotten Hill at Fox Point, Smith Hill (where the State House is located), Christian Hill at Hoyle Square (junction of Cranston and Westminster Streets), and Weybosset Hill at the lower end of Weybosset Street, which was leveled in the early 1880s. Cityscape The city of Providence is geographically very compact, characteristic of eastern seaboard cities","-29.53669906259165"],["Barelas Geography The neighborhood occupies a roughly triangular region between the Rio Grande and the BNSF railroad tracks south of Coal Avenue, which forms the boundary with Downtown. The area claimed by the Barelas Neighborhood Association extends all the way south to Woodward Road, though south of Bridge Boulevard the neighborhood becomes primarily industrial rather than residential. Geographically speaking Barelas is somewhat isolated, with the railyard and river separating it from adjacent areas to the east and west. Demographics Barelas has around 3,700 inhabitants, roughly two thirds of whom are Hispanic. It has historically been one of the poorest neighborhoods","-29.500626362510957"],["with good numbers of dwellings that are joined to through streets tend to be safe. As for permeability, it suggests that residential areas should be permeable enough to allow movement in all directions but no more. The overprovision of poorly used permeability is a crime hazard. The open, uniform grid could be seen as an example of undifferentiated permeability.\nA recent study in California examined the amount of child play that occurred on the streets of neighbourhoods with different characteristics; grid pattern and culs-de-sac. The findings indicate that the open grid streets showed substantially lower play activity than the cul-de-sac street","-29.489699130208464"],["of the city are legally organized somewhat similarly to condominiums, co-ops or homeowners associations. In 1982 the St. Louis metropolitan area had more than 427 street associations administering private places. Although often associated with high-end communities, neighborhoods of various socio-economic natures have been structured as private places.","-29.481253937468864"],["Gated community In its modern form, a gated community (or walled community) is a form of residential community or housing estate containing strictly controlled entrances for pedestrians, bicycles, and automobiles, and often characterized by a closed perimeter of walls and fences. Similar walls and gates have separated quarters of some cities for centuries. Gated communities usually consist of small residential streets and include various shared amenities. For smaller communities, these amenities may include only a park or other common area. For larger communities, it may be possible for residents to stay within the community for most daily activities. Gated communities","-29.466864604735747"],["homes which was viewed as the highest echelon of the development.\nThe streets at the outer boundaries of Rochelle Heights contain smaller lots. These streets frame the core of the development and buffer the interior properties. Although these tertiary streets were lesser properties in the context of the Rochelle Heights development, they were still above the mean and intended for a middle-class clientele.\nThese two neighborhoods, combined into one historic district in 1986, reflect the history of suburban design since 1885 when the phenomenon first took hold in the United States.","-29.456752662255894"],["Its-tree lined streets contain many different architectural styles.\nCompared to most other Queens neighborhoods, Glendale is long and narrow since it is essentially sandwiched by cemeteries and Forest Park. As a result, it is considered to have three areas: from east to west, they are Upper Glendale, Middle Glendale, and Lower Glendale. Each area has its own unique attributes.\nThe easternmost portion near the Shops at Atlas Park is known as Upper Glendale and in general has more expensive homes and slightly higher income levels than the rest of Glendale. Upper Glendale has detached and semi-attached single- and two-family houses of above-average","-29.41333345788007"],["lots of stone and classical elements to the town. Natural and physical features The Northbrae neighborhood is known for its hilly terrain. The built environment follows along the natural topography which includes trees and existing outcropping of volcanic rock. The volcanic rock in the area, rhyolite, is primarily composed of quartz and is a significant feature of the area. The streets are arranged predominantly N-S in order to emphasize the views of the San Francisco bay and the hills. Most of the homes are bungalows and are tucked into the hills, connected by stairways that have been carved into the","-29.375884522742126"],["is a mixture of different style and sizes, from single-story 1820s mansions to recently built shopping malls and the 162-meter Swissotel in Red Hills (2005).\nFrom the 1990s till 2010, the city government has proposed conversion of the Garden Ring to a one-way street, completely separated from radial street traffic. The public and professionals equally reject the idea of a one-way, 18-lane street.\nSince 2010, with the arrival of the new city government, these plans were canceled. In 2016 a new reconstruction began. Trolleybus traffic was eliminated, they were replaced by diesel buses. It is planned to narrow down all section of","-29.374680513741623"],["and forked streets that lead to squares of different sizes. One explanation is that this was done by design, to make the city easier to defend from any raiders; by the same version, the reason that there is only one exit from the city was that should pirates ever return and succeed in entering the city, it would be possible for local inhabitants to entrap and kill them. However, locals dispute this reasoning as a myth, asserting that in truth the city developed without planning, and that winding streets developed out of everybody wanting to stay close to their local","-29.36325177208346"],["of South Fayette, not a separate entity), the neighborhood is geographically separate because of its elevated location spread around the Hickory Heights golf course. The autonomous neighborhood has a community swimming pool (Hickory Heights swimming pool), central golf course (Hickory Heights golf course), horse stables (Rolling Hills Ranch), a sportsman's club (The Alpine Club) and a farmers market (Original Farmer's Night Market). The rolling hills and scenic views provide some of the nicest suburban scenery in Pennsylvania. History Around 1770 General George Washington (later to become first President of the United States) acquired a 2,813-acre (11.38 km²) parcel of","-29.33547196049767"],["it can be found on Flamingo Avenue. Geography The district of Fourways encompasses several suburbs and estates. The suburbs include Fourways (on the Western side of William Nicol Drive, with a small portion on the Eastern side colloquially known as Little Fourways), Magalies View, Bryanston Ext. 34, several Magaliessig extensions, Norscot, Norscot Slopes, Lonehill and Beverley, Craigavon, Broadacres. The estates are Cedar Creek, Cedar Lakes, Fourways Gardens, Dainfern, Dainfern Valley, Dainfern Ridge and Fernbrook Estate. The estates have come to be because of the city's high crime rate. Dainfern is centred on a golf course, while Cedar Lakes, Fourways Gardens","-29.326564874092583"],["in the minds of Wellanders. East side and west side are very commonly used as basic directions.\nThe communities of Cooks Mills and Dain City have their own separation stories. Cooks Mills, located on the other side of the By-Pass channel than the rest of Welland, has arguably been protected against the impact of urban sprawl, but the necessity of using one of the two highway tunnels to cross the canal causes some residents to head to nearby Niagara Falls instead. Dain City, located in the south of the city where the two channels meet, is separated by the massive approaches","-29.29315772738846"],["in a neighborhood called \"Eastchester.\" This is perhaps due to confusion with Eastchester Road, a thoroughfare which runs through other parts of the Bronx, or with the Town of Eastchester in Westchester County. It is more common to hear the Eastchester neighborhood described as \"east of White Plains Road\", \"south of Mount Vernon\", \"near Pelham\", \"East 233rd Street\", etc. Land use and terrain Eastchester is dominated by one- and two-family homes of various types, one large public housing project, and an industrial district. The total land area is roughly half a square mile. The area is low-lying and flat. ","-29.272574815971893"],["in La Puente have been ongoing. However, the local government has been relatively unsuccessful in its attempts to attract big-box retailers and restaurant chains. La Puente retains many aging 1950s-era strip malls. Geography La Puente is located at 34°1′57″N 117°57′19″W (34.032410, -117.955195). The city, which is mostly flat, covers about 3.5 square miles (9.1 km²) of land in the San Gabriel Valley. 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that La Puente had a population of 39,816. The population density was 11,443.2 people per square mile (4,418.2/km²). La Puente is 49.4% White (4.6% Non-Hispanic White), 1.4% Black or African American,","-29.271736977927503"],["southeast, directed the early growth of the city. Most early streets ran parallel to the river to maximize the amount of land that could be used. Eventually, growth of Minneapolis turned to north-south and east-west streets. Many unique intersections like Seven Corners on the eastern periphery of downtown were formed to translate between the two layouts. Some streets, especially older and more traditionally important ones like Hennepin Avenue and Nicollet Avenue, have both orientations at different points. Parks and lakes Minneapolis has a large park system consisting of ten square miles (26 km²) of land and water that is interlinked in","-29.25262114546058"],["Raymond Unwin and the Garden city movement. The area is almost unique within the surrounding area with its tree-lined streets and boulevard stretching the length of the area at its most northern point. Entirely residential, the scheme's green and semi-rural setting was intended to provide a healthier alternative to the city's traditional tenement landscape, which had become too much identified with urban corrosion.\nThe 1500 house development was built by the firm Mactaggart and Mickel. Although flats featured in Mosspark's plans, two-thirds of the housing stock was built in the form of cottages, semi-detached and terraced, and surrounded by gardens. The","-29.187386076082475"],["the neighborhood. \nThe master plan for Carthay Circle was designed by leading early 20th century architects Aleck Curlett and his partner Claud Beelman (designer of MGM Studios and Downtown LA's Eastern Columbia Building) in conjunction with landscape architects Cook & Hall (Wilbur D. Cook is also noted for creating the master plan for the neighboring city of Beverly Hills).\nMcCarthy named the streets in honor of prominent figures of the California Gold Rush. He also planned the neighborhood around a shopping center. \nCarthay Circle was one of the first planned communities in Los Angeles, and the first in the city","-29.18471093183325"],["east and parks were built to accommodate the new residents. Parcels that were too small to develop, such as this site, were designated as green spaces maintained by the city's Parks Department.\nThe park contains plots for 24 trees and a bench on its northern side. Continuing north, Murray Lane gradually narrows, taking on the appearance of a countryside lane, having changed little as the surrounding neighborhood transformed over a century from farmland towards residential.","-29.150717265016283"],["but the village has a small shopping strip along Route 14. With a population of 4,209 in 2010, Barrington Hills has kept its rural flavor as industrial and commercial development has sprung up around its borders.\nThe village is bordered on the west by East Dundee, Carpentersville, and Algonquin; on the north by Fox River Grove, and Lake Barrington; on the east by Barrington and Inverness; and to the south and southeast by South Barrington, and Hoffman Estates. Barrington Hills is one of only two municipalities in Illinois with land located among four counties.","-29.11584168637637"],["Far Hills, New Jersey History Far Hills encompasses nearly 5 square miles (13 km²) in Somerset County, encircled by the equally upscale communities of Bedminster Township, Peapack-Gladstone, Bernards Township, and Bernardsville. It shares a community pool, athletic programs, civic organizations, and a school system with Bernardsville. It shares a public library, a fire department and a first aid squad with neighboring Bedminster Township.\nThe borough maintains its character through 10-acre (40,000 m²) minimum zoning laws whereby large private properties and homes surround a small village which was the creation of a wealthy New York businessman in the late 1800s. The beginning of rail","-29.111762658722"],["The neighborhood is partitioned into two separate neighborhood assemblies, divided by Pennsylvania Avenue and Southbridge, due to their distinct characters. Southside East contains working-class residences and some public housing projects, while Southside West is primarily made up of larger middle-class residences. Race and ethnicity Binghamton is home to a large ethnic population. During its industrial heyday, thousands of European immigrants moved to the city as they found an abundance of jobs and working-class prosperity. Many Irish, Italians, and Eastern Europeans settled in the area, and the American Civic Association was created to help their transition to life and assimilation","-29.105520869372413"],["the numbered streets that permitted placing a \"mini-public-square\" of green space for houses to face inward on all four sides and directions. The center large rectangular common parks space was originally designated as a \"Terrace\" that included pathways, grass and trees with an octagon-shaped wading pool at the west end and a raised octagon sand pit platform with a flag pole at the east end. Marconi West: Residential Roman Terraces of Marconi: The Greco-Roman–accented homes west of the plaza from 15th to 19th street, using the same concept but on a smaller scale, include two oval-shaped terrace streets at Smedley","-29.093200300922035"],["flat and includes four large low peninsulas, or 'necks,' of low-lying land which jut into the waters of the East River and were once saltmarsh: Hunts Point, Clason's Point, Screvin's Neck (Castle Hill Point) and Throgs Neck. The East Bronx has older tenement buildings, low income public housing complexes, and multifamily homes, as well as single family homes. It includes New York City's largest park: Pelham Bay Park along the Westchester-Bronx border.\nNeighborhoods include: Clason's Point, Harding Park, Soundview, Castle Hill, Parkchester (Board 9); Throggs Neck, Country Club, City Island, Pelham Bay, Edgewater Park, Co-op City (Board 10); Westchester Square, Van","-29.08152608742239"],["and other Midwestern states moved into the city and settled uptown. Along the division between these two cultures, a canal was planned. The canal was never built but the street which took its place received the name. Furthermore, the median of the street became known as the neutral ground, acknowledging the cultural divide. To this day, all medians of New Orleans streets are called neutral grounds.\nOne end of Canal Street terminates at the Mississippi River. Often called \"the foot of Canal Street\", at the riverfront the Canal Street Ferry offers a connection to the Algiers Point neighborhood, an older,","-29.075275350478478"],["as well as its northern European target population, explains its unusually regular, colonial-style grid layout, with wide avenues, as opposed to the more common winding narrow streets typical of the Moorish-patterned towns in Andalusia.","-29.06640138255898"],["a more suburban lifestyle but were open to remaining within the city limits of New Orleans. Eastern New Orleans grew in a comparatively well-planned and neatly zoned fashion. Some care was taken to avoid placing major thoroughfares along the rights-of-way of unsightly drainage canals, as had frequently occurred in suburban Jefferson Parish. Instead, major roads (e.g., Mayo, Crowder, Bundy, Read, Bullard, etc.) were located equidistant from parallel canals and were outfitted with landscaped medians (neutral grounds in the local vernacular). Numerous subdivisions were developed with large lakes at their centers, providing both an assist to neighborhood drainage and a scenic","-29.06216239661444"],["it well suited for use as a street tree in urban areas. It makes a rather formal statement in the landscape due to the tight, consistently-shaped, narrow crown. It is well suited for areas which have restricted overhead. Corylus colurna is also used in different sized parking lot islands and a variety of wide lawns. It is recommended for a buffer strip around parking lots or highways. Also it is used as a street tree, specimen tree, or in sidewalk cut outs. Other landscape uses for Corylus colurna are for fruit, difficult and dry sites, naturalistic areas, and street trees.","-29.061318658525124"],["in the neighborhood restoring houses and building new homes on vacant lots. Geography Every neighborhood has its own unique and different geography that describes the people that live there along with the culture of the neighborhood itself, and Faubourg Livaudias is no different. Neighborhoods serve as geographical frames of orientation, encompassing the demographic, economic and ecologic physiognomies of a particular place. The definition of a \"neighborhood,\" however, relies heavily on perspective. Neighborhoods have different geographic gauges that assist different purposes. For example, metropolitan governments often define a neighborhood as a very large area for planning, providing services or maintaining infrastructure.","-29.049368680425687"],["Sowcarpet Description Most streets in Sowcarpet are rather narrow, with a few exceptions like Mint Street and nearby area. The buildings in the streets are so close to each other that they look like they share a common wall. The sight is typical of the crowded bazaars of Indian cities - a potpourri of different vendors and artisans, trading and making a variety of articles. The wholesale markets for several goods are in Narayana Mudali street, Govindappa Naicken street and Rattan Bazaar. The area around Kasi Chetty street and Mint street is famous for shopping and one can find varieties","-29.032815012309584"],["such as the uniquely Torontonian bay-and-gable housing style, and post-war high-rises. Many of the neighbourhoods in these areas were built up as streetcar suburbs and contain many dense and mixed-use streets. They share many characteristics with sections of the \"old\" city that are outside of the downtown core. The \"outer ring\" suburbs of Etobicoke, Scarborough, and North York are much more suburban but are developing urban centres of their own, such as North York Centre around Mel Lastman Square. Ravine system The ravine system, a distinctive feature of the geography of Toronto, is a network of deep ravines forming an","-29.0171265139943"],["what had historically been a suburban city. While retaining many characteristics of traditional shopping malls, such as large anchor stores, a food court, and vast parking lots and garages, the smaller stores are arranged as city blocks in a grid of two-lane streets, featuring lush landscaping and metered \"teaser parking\" in front of the stores, which open onto the sidewalk. There are two \"Main Streets\", which run from west to east across the center. Running from north to south between them is a pedestrian axis leading from one of the Macy's anchor stores, through a \"town square\" between a pair","-29.012059951484844"],["success of Chatham Village as an urban community in a park-like setting depended upon the residents' tendencies to trust one another due to the similarities in their professional, economic, and social status. The ideals of city planning expressed in the Garden City Movement, Jacobs argues, are only suitable for upper-middle-class lifestyles and, thus, fail to engage the endemic economic and social diversity of cities. The homes The homes are red-brick-and-slate-roof townhomes. They are situated in clusters toward interior courtyards with their rears facing the loop roads around the property. The homes do have rear-access integral garages in the","-29.00054966303287"],["district, is eight miles (13 km) north of Downtown and the city's third-largest business district. The district is marked by an urbanized core along Peachtree Road, surrounded by suburban single-family neighborhoods situated among woods and rolling hills.\nSurrounding Atlanta's three high-rise districts are the city's low- and medium-density neighborhoods, where the craftsman bungalow single-family home is dominant. The eastside is marked by historic streetcar suburbs, built from the 1890s-1930s as havens for the upper middle class. These neighborhoods, many of which contain their own villages encircled by shaded, architecturally distinct residential streets, include the Victorian Inman Park, Bohemian East Atlanta, and eclectic","-28.999345592659665"],["also used for political and social gatherings. A typical square, (which was probably a model for other bastides), can be found in Montauban.\nGenerally, there is just one square. Saint-Lys and Albias are different because they have two squares, one for the market and one square for the church.\nThe square is also used to divide the city into quarters. Generally, it lies outside the main street (the axis) which carried the traffic. There are three possible layouts:\nCompletely closed: The square does not touch any street. These are very rare; there is one example at Tournay with a size of 70 metres","-28.982594416564098"],["enclosure, there is an area known as the extra-mural district, which coincides with the entrance to the castro. This second collection consists of a great oblong dwelling, two fountains with drains and a circular oven, which, during its time, must have been covered by a dome. The dwellings are circular or rectangular with rounded corners, and stand out in comparison with those of other sites because of their great size.\nDolmen de Dombate is located a few kilometers from the site.","-28.96445818279244"],["divides streets east and west. There are numerous small neighborhoods within South Hill, which usually take their names from the original developments built there. Neighborhoods in South Hill east of Broadway include Anthony Hill, Charlesbois, Warrendale and Woodridge. Neighborhoods in South Hill west of Broadway include Brooklyn, Dakota Square and Southwest Minot. Education Minot High School's Magic City Campus is located in the South Hill neighborhood on Eleventh Avenue SW. The building was constructed in 1973 and is home to the juniors and seniors in the Minot District school system. Edison Elementary School, Jim Hill Middle School and Washington Elementary","-28.956921797289397"],[" still pass through.\nThe layout of residential side streets in Lathrup Village makes it nearly impossible for motorists to cut through from crowded thoroughfares during heavy traffic periods on Southfield Road, Twelve Mile Road and the I-696/Reuther Freeway service drive. While a map or GPS would make it easy, drivers or cyclists without those tools would likely get lost. Very few streets proceed in a straight line. This makes many lot sizes and shapes varied and interesting.\nNeighborhoods are typically quiet, well-kept and interesting due to the wide variety of home styles built over a span from the late 1930s to","-28.935278713528533"],["the south, but led to straight north-south streets and random east-west connectors north of Grškovićeva Street. East of Voćarska and Bijenička Street the neighborhood is located on steep slopes and canyons, generating long, steep north-south streets connected by staircases. The most expensive houses are primarily located along the major thoroughfares, which tend not to exhibit much traffic due to the Šalata's proximity of Medveščak Road, the main route to the northernmost parts of Zagreb. In the southern part of the neighborhood is the Voćarsko naselje, a small, but densely built neighborhood that has become a sort of a microdistrict on","-28.92843803719734"],["of alleyways were often only 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) wide, and had poor lighting and drainage. An informal network of staircases and passageways also formed on upper levels, which was so extensive that one could travel north to south through the entire City without ever touching solid ground. Construction in the City went unregulated, and most of the roughly 350 buildings were built with poor foundations and few or no utilities. Because apartments were so small—a typical unit was 23 m² (250 sq ft)—space was maximised with wider upper floors, caged balconies and rooftop additions. Roofs in the City were full of television antennae, clothes","-28.924423714498516"],["and communities. These newly populated places were generally more economically homogeneous than the cities they encircled. Many suburban communities enacted local ordinances, often in zoning codes, to preserve the character of their municipality. One of the most commonly cited exclusionary practices is the stipulation that lots must be of a certain minimum size and houses must be set back from the street a certain minimum distance. In many cases, these housing ordinances prevented affordable housing from being built, because the large plots of land required to build within the code restrictions were cost-prohibitive for modestly priced houses. Communities have remained","-28.923224242287688"],["dwellings to form a larger diversified neighborhood concept. Schools, churches, retirement homes, hospitals, and recreation facilities begin to find their way into residential districts. Residential districts also tend to use the best land in the community and the most favorable sites are protected from commercial and industrial uses.\nGrouping shopping districts by service area is a first step in returning to the neighborhood concept. Land is reserved for regional, community, and local shopping clusters with some specific restrictions based on market experience and on what types of business intend to locate at each development. Local shopping districts with sufficient provisions for","-28.920323708560318"],["However, unlike most such places (for example, Lexington and LeRoy), the plat used at Concord showed with dashed lines how the streets which entered the public square midway along each side could be extended to meet at the center of the square. In effect, this unusual feature of the plan made it possible to subdivide the square into four smaller rectangles. This was soon done. One of these rectangles has always been a park, but the other three have been put to different civic uses, including locations for the library, fire station, water tower, and school gymnasium. Early growth","-28.906891648337478"],["\"Market Square\"; and \"Kentlands Square\". The winding street layout is based on a grid pattern, varied as necessary by the requirements of Kentlands topography. Multiple open green spaces and pocket parks have been developed where land was available between the districts or in odd spaces near buildings and dwellings. \nMarket Square, Kentlands Square, and the Boulevard Shops are commercial districts with grocery stores, banks, boutiques, offices, stores, dozens of restaurants, and a 10-screen cinema cafe. Main Street is a mixed-use area with distinctive \"live-work\" buildings with retail and office uses on the lower floors and residential uses on","-28.89473389304476"],["that the square should be proportionally large enough for the number of neighbors (Spanish: grandeza proporcionada al\nnúmero de vecinos). These Spanish regulations also stated that the streets nearby should be comfortable portals for passersby, protecting them from the elements: sun and rain.","-28.889349166733155"],["These divide the suburb into rectangular grids. Main avenues include J. Tongogara Ave(Northern boundary), J. Chinamano Ave,Chitepo Avenue, Central Ave and the busy Samora Machel Avenue. Neighboring suburbs include Milton Park and Belgravia,Alexandra Park to the north, Belvedere to the west, Eastlea and Newlands to the East and the CBD to the south.\nThe Avenues is mostly occupied by Black-Africans, but there are people of all races living there. The suburb has many facilities: Shopping Centres e.g. Montague, Fife Ave; Schools e.g.Dominican Convent, David Livingstone Primary and Colleges e.g. Speciss College, Trust College, Ilsa College, some of the nations best private","-28.883617246960057"],["however, engaged through their neighborhood association, still actively press to maintain the uniqueness of their distinctive neighborhood. Wynnewood has retained some of its original characteristics: it is still one of the most diverse neighborhoods in Dallas, not only in socio-economic but now also in racial terms. The homes have turned out to be as solid as their creators promised. The tree-lined streets exude a sense of quietness and comfort. The apartments have become subsidized housing, with some of the problems attendant upon this type of dwelling.\nThe most disappointing aspect in the recent history of Wynnewood is the fate of the","-28.880967920238618"],["The Neighborhoods The Neighborhoods are a Boston rock band formed in 1978. The band earned local fame by playing regularly at Boston venues such as The Rat and winning the WBCN Rock 'n' Roll Rumble in 1979 (beating out La Peste, Mission of Burma, among others). Their 1980 debut single, \"Prettiest Girl\" (b/w \"No Place Like Home\") was a local hit. The band broke up for a short time between 1980-1981, but reformed in 1982 with bassist Lee Harrington and went on to release 5 albums between 1984-1991. In 1987 they opened for David Bowie on his Glass Spider tour","-28.87443911369337"],["further south in the current Ten Hills neighborhood, was avoided by the early settlers because of poorly draining clay soils. The highland site on Ten Hills offered better agricultural land and the first Governor of Massachusetts, John Winthrop, chose it for the site of his farmstead. The location of the Ten Hills site on the Mystic River made it a natural choice for the transport of people and goods, and the first seagoing vessel built in this region was launched from there.\nTrade and transport led to an expansion of the area’s economy and population. The construction of the Middlesex Canal","-28.86319735541474"],["rooms only on the south and east sides because of the slope of the land, which led through a colonnade to the exterior of the space. The whole market area extended over two levels with a large columned hall in the centre, which contained small shop spaces and miscellaneous rooms. Streets and bridges The course of the main street, which winds up the hill to the Acropolis with a series of hairpin turns, is typical of the street system of Pergamon. On this street were shops and warehouses. The surface of the street consisted of andesite blocks up to 5","-28.853050085745053"],["southeast is Notting Hill Gate tube station, the nearest underground station.\nThe Ladbroke Square Montessori School is located at 43 Ladbroke Square. Gardens The gardens form the largest of the 16 communal gardens of the historic Ladbroke Estate. In fact, it is one of the largest private garden squares in London and is Grade II listed by English Heritage. Surrounded by railings, there are mature trees in the gardens and a long straight walk along the north side, together with other curving paths. The three-hectare garden is only open to local residents. History The garden square was originally the site of","-28.835714693363116"],["with typical glazed tiles.\nThe neighbourhood of Triana, situated on the west bank of the Guadalquivir River, played an important role in the history of the city and constitutes by itself a folk, monumental and cultural center.\nOn the other hand, La Macarena neighbourhood is located on the northern side of the city centre. It contains some important monuments and religious buildings, such as the Museum and Basilica of La Macarena or the Hospital de las Cinco Llagas.","-28.824658012890723"],["is traditionally thought of as the South Side but is more appropriately the South Side Flats. Sections of the Slopes are so steep that special fire trucks have to be used to navigate the zigzagging maze of narrow streets. Some spots are so steep that public staircases actually serve as the street. These public steps have street signs and houses located along them.\nPublic steps are not rare in the hilly city of Pittsburgh. The city has over 700 sets of steps providing access to otherwise unreachable neighborhoods.","-28.818599216479925"],["separated from its greater metropolitan area by a ring of public parklands on all sides. The so-called \"square mile\" within the park lands is defined by a small area of high rise office and apartment buildings in the centre north, around King William Street, which runs north-to-south through the centre. Surrounding this central business district are a large number of medium to low density apartments, townhouses and detached houses which make up the residential portion of the city centre. Layout The layout of Adelaide, known as Light's Vision, features a cardinal direction grid pattern of wide streets and terraces and","-28.79861444278231"],["allowed him to frame the building in greenery which completely surrounded it, except for a part to the right of the courtyard. The gardens are visible from each room, even the ones on each side. A central corridor, an innovation from the 18th century which was only possible because a lack of central walls, distributed the rooms along both sides, with light coming in part from side windows at each end. Isolated on a platform a few steps up, the building has three levels: a mezzanine broken by windows capped in lowered arcs, a first floor, and a second level","-28.79504314615042"],["of all man-made canals except the natural canal on the North Side of NE 171st Street. Eastern Shores is bounded by Sunny Isles Blvd to the South, Maule Lake to the West, The Intracoastal Waterway to the East, and Dumfoundling Bay to the Northeast. Eastern Shores is located right next to the city of Sunny Isles Beach. There are 2 sides of each street in Eastern Shores, when you are on the main street (Eastern Shores Blvd) you can turn either right or left for each street number. The Left side (West side) of Eastern Shores are all Single","-28.790702407015488"],["centers in any particular country, but later editions were made specific to the US with a separate set for Europe. Neighborhood center Neighborhood centers are small-scale malls serving the local neighborhood. They typically have a supermarket or a drugstore as an anchor, and are commonly arranged in a strip mall format. Neighborhood centers usually have a retail area of 30,000 to 150,000 square feet (2,800 to 13,900 m²), and serve a primary area in a 3-mile (4.8 km) radius. They are sometimes known as convenience centers. Community mall Community malls are larger than neighborhood centers, and offer a wider range of goods.","-28.788879137206095"],["the fabled pathos of wistfulness or existencial angst of the Sur of Buenos Aires, with \"Sur, paredón, y después..:\" (\"South, a [crumbling, old] wall, and beyond.. \") alluding to the desolate open spaces of the flat Pampas that seemed to crouch behind the (long gone at the time of writing) last dividing houses' or vacant lots' brick walls on the barrio's farthest empty cobblestone streets. This ambience can be still partially felt at the southernmost reaches of Boedo and other formerly industrial and working class barrios del Sur such as the mentioned Parque Patricios, Pompeya, Barracas (named so for its","-28.762453149145585"],["contains an abundance of historic neighborhoods and traditional \"corner markets\". This section gets its name from the abundance of Germans who moved into this area when the City was still expanding. Dutch Hill is the area that borders the City Center to the East and is zoned as multiple household residential. The boundaries are generally considered 4th Street to 17th Street north to south, and 6th Avenue to Walton Avenue from west to east. However, as the Altoona Area High School and Junior High are considered City Center, the border is around 4th Ave (or 3rd Ave if the entire","-28.759737592095917"],["and national businesses, stores, restaurants, apartments, and business offices. The streets adjacent to Far West Boulevard are the most densely populated areas of Northwest Hills. Architecture and societal structure Most of the houses in Northwest Hills area feature Colonial, Californian ranch, or Texas Tuscan villa-style architectures. Beyond Mesa Drive, many of the homes have a western Austin style: big family homes with large garages, landscaped yards, and old trees. The common design is brick and limestone. The community is mostly middle and upper-middle class, and is often cited as being \"upscale\".\nResidents are usually quite involved with the community, and they","-28.751868770632427"],["novelty in New England. This street hierarchy was seen as an economic development tool as it lends well to high-rise buildings, and the surrounding canals could be landscaped for recreation. Whereas New York's Commissioner's Plan of 1811 lays out a system of numbered streets and avenues, the names of routes in Holyoke's grid system alternate between tree species for North to South streets (Sycamore, Locust, Linden, Oak, Beech, Pine, Walnut, Elm, Chestnut, Maple), and the names of the Hadley Falls Company founders (Lyman, Dwight, Appleton, Cabot, Sargeant, Jackson), as well as several Massachusetts counties (Hampden, Suffolk, Essex, Hampshire, Franklin) for","-28.746991517949937"],["to mean a suburb with special areas zoned for different uses, e.g.: residential and commercial; an absence of attached terraces with free-standing houses, wide tree-lined streets, \"nature strips\" on footpaths, parks reserves and gardens. Much-derided rear lanes and rights-of-way became redundant with sewerage and the provision of side access between houses. Verandas and bay windows were means of integrating house & garden.\nTree-lined streets such as Burwood Rd., The Appian Way or The Boulevard in Strathfield were in marked contrast to most development in Australian cities of the late 19th century. St. Cloud St. Cloud was built by industrialist George Hoskins,","-28.7452990379079"],["Álvarez, and the Torre Fortabat by Sánchez Elía, as well as around the world, most notably the Norwest Center and the Petronas Towers, both by César Pelli.\nArgentinian neighborhoods are characterized by highly independent designs for each building. Most houses have individual designs.\nTract housing is near to non-existent, generally reserved for subsidized houses made by the state for the poorest.","-28.741360710642766"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"hills to steep mountain slopes. The hilly barrios of the municipality (moving clockwise around the outskirts of the city) are these seven: Quebrada Limón, Marueño, Magueyes, Tibes, Portugués Rural, Machuelo Arriba, and Cerrillos. The barrios of Canas, Coto Laurel, Capitanejo, Sabanetas, Vayas, and Bucaná also surround the outskirts of the city but these are mostly flat. The remaining six (6) other barrios are further away from the city and their topology is rugged mountain terrain. These are (clockwise): Guaraguao, San Patricio, Monte Llano, Maragüez, Anón, and Real. The ruggedness of these barrios is because through these areas of the\",\n \"-32.19670597999357\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ciudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar Urban character Ciudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar is an unusual, colorful, socially mixed and lively neighbourhood of about 6,650 families in an area of 2.4 km² (0.93 sq mi). Inspired by the Garden city movement, its layout is designed on a pedestrian scale with compact residential areas made up of tile roofed row style and free standing chalets in tree-lined streets and boulevards. There are three arcaded three-storey residential-commercial plazas (town squares) with central greenery, children playgrounds, fountains and surrounded by shops, pubs and al fresco dining restaurants.\\nThe layout was developed to place cultural facilities, schools, churches, clubs\",\n \"-31.970534420823242\"\n ],\n [\n \"are all two lanes and they are neither on a grid with uniform city blocks nor in the suburban cul-de-sac style found in most American suburbs but are slightly winding and usually separated by the equivalent of two or more city blocks. Fairlington's apartment units are grouped in \\\"courts,\\\" usually three or four separate buildings of around 40-50 total units facing a parking lot (carpark). Most units are three levels (upstairs, ground level and basement) with front and back doors. Some units are two or three story walk-ups with units on a single floor. Prior to the condominium conversions, back\",\n \"-31.94574963584455\"\n ],\n [\n \"Flatbush Malls The Flatbush Malls are a series of tree-lined landscaped medians along several roads in the Victorian Flatbush neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City. An architecture critic has written that the malls \\\"give the streets an uncommon spaciousness, if not grandeur\\\". The first series was built in the northern part of the neighborhood along Albemarle Road, and extending one block north on Buckingham Road, in the Prospect Park South development of 1899, east of Coney Island Avenue and west of the BMT Brighton Line. This was modeled by the Scottish landscape architect John Aiken on Commonwealth Avenue Mall in\",\n \"-31.712586744863074\"\n ],\n [\n \" The curvilinear streets followed precedents in European towns and England, rather than the American gridiron pattern.\\nThe units were designed primarily as row houses since this allowed for the most density. The longer the row, the more economical the construction, but there was an issue with getting behind the homes for garbage and ash disposal. They solved this problem by installing sunken garbage receptacles in front eliminating the need for rear access to the units.\\nThe interiors consisted of a few floor plans of three, four, and five rooms. They were designed to suit the needs of\",\n \"-31.516810449305922\"\n ],\n [\n \"the street with private domains separated to the rear. This is different from suburban development where cul-de-sacs often leave houses backing onto the street. The urban grain of a neighbourhood is important to a vibrant public realm. Small-scale development by lots of different developers creates variety in the buildings which create the backdrop to urban life. This is missing or artificially produced if a developer is given a large block to develop, failing to capture the traditional nature of urban areas. A fine urban grain creates a sense of place, not space, generating vibrancy and unity in the neighbourhood. Good\",\n \"-31.422915908537107\"\n ],\n [\n \"roots still remain. First of all, the fact that property lines generally followed irrigation ditches can still be seen in the neighborhood's haphazard street grids today. Second, the neighborhood's working-class character is visible in its primarily single-story homes featuring simple façades.\\nA fifth neighborhood, the Barrio de la Estación, is often grouped in with the city's original neighborhoods. However, this neighborhood is considerably more modern, with much of its development dating from the final decades of the 19th century or later. Therefore, despite its important role in the history of Aguascalientes, it's not strictly accurate to consider the Barrio de la\",\n \"-31.27457544085337\"\n ],\n [\n \"to have been the most organised, having the best layout, while Bekir mahala and Karamoutza mahala were the most labyrinthine. However, all quarters shared the same type of streets; firstly, they all had main streets which were wide, busy and public roads meant to allow for communication between neighbourhoods (typical examples are, to a great extent, modern-day Korinthou, Nafpliou and Tripoleos streets). Secondary streets were also common in all four quarters since they lead to the interior of each mahala, having a semi-public character, whereas the third type of streets referred to dead-end private alleys used specifically by families to\",\n \"-31.268328556485358\"\n ],\n [\n \"it dealing with spatial marginalization) –, with a very noticeable example being the rail suburbs of Rio de Janeiro – the North Zone, the Baixada Fluminense, the part of the West Zone associated with SuperVia's Ramal de Santa Cruz. These, in comparison with the inner suburbs, often prove to be remote, violent food deserts with inadequate sewer structure coverage, saturated mass transit, more precarious running water, electricity and communication services, and lack of urban planning and landscaping, while also not necessarily qualifying as actual favelas or slums. They often are former agricultural land or wild areas settled through squatting, and\",\n \"-31.105255019676406\"\n ],\n [\n \"all of the somewhat narrow east/west streets here have been one-way, an oddity for a neighborhood relatively far from downtown.\\nFurther contributing to the unusually high density for a neighborhood mostly of single family homes, Deer Park includes two pedestrian courts whose long rows of houses, with no conventional street, are accessible only by alleys and sidewalks running through the short front yards. Ivanhoe Court was built in 1914, and the slightly smaller Maplewood Place a year later in 1915. These types of developments, built during the streetcar suburb era, are apparently unique to Louisville. There are 11 in Old Louisville,\",\n \"-31.000095329178293\"\n ],\n [\n \"small park or square. Other than the diagonal streets, all streets are on a rectangular grid and are numbered consecutively. Thus, La Plata is nicknamed \\\"la ciudad de las diagonales\\\" (city of diagonals). It is also called \\\"la ciudad de los tilos\\\" (city of linden trees), because of the large number of linden trees lining the many streets and squares. The linden tree is one of a number of deciduous Northern Hemisphere tree species which dominate La Plata's parks and streets; ash, horsechestnut, plane, sweetgum and tulip tree are among the other examples. Palms and subtropical broadleaf evergreen trees thrive,\",\n \"-30.92753545243977\"\n ],\n [\n \"neighbourhoods: I, II, III, Piedras Coloradas, and Barrio Llequén at the outskirts of the vllage. Neighbourhoods I, II and III were chiefly created for power plant workers and police officers and dwellings were given in hierarchical order. Hence, in Neighbourhood I lived those inhabitants with the most important ranks, and so on.\\nThese neighbourhoods take advantage of the hills upon which the village is located, with Neighbourhood III being in the highest place and Neighbourhood I in the lowest position.\\nHouses are very much alike: they are rectangular with white walls and red tiled rooftops. Their backyards are well outlined and the\",\n \"-30.90309296936175\"\n ],\n [\n \"neighborhoods, that is, neighborhoods and independent nuclei, with schools, churches and complete infrastructure. The neighborhood is divided into 24 nuclei organized in a numeral form.\\nLocated in the convergence between the Center and the North Zone, the neighborhood is one of the most valued in the city, growing rapidly and attracting the upper class, coming from already saturated noble neighborhoods and emerging upper middle class, from humbler neighborhoods.\",\n \"-30.483693812857382\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a lack of urban sprawl, or at least of new urban sprawl. As new neighbourhoods need to be built as an outer skin around existing settlements and as other policies prohibited establishing new settlements outside other towns or villages, no new linear villages could be founded without governmental intervention any more. This in order to keep the rural landscape 'clean' and cities dense and compact.\\nAs a result, in Dutch towns all neighbourhoods are close to city centers, enabling inhabitants to get around quickly and cheaply by bike. Getting out of town doesn't involve driving through ever-ongoing sprawled suburbs, making\",\n \"-30.402350896794815\"\n ],\n [\n \"Place Appearing as a circle but actually a duodecagon this is the largest and grandest space within the plan. Technically it is symmetrical around its northwest/southeast axis, but the scale of the form and central gardens makes this impossible to interpret on the ground, and this is only visible from above. Although rear mews were standard at the time of building, the layout only permitted mews on the north-east side (now known as Gloucester Lane).\\nLord Moray took one of the largest and most prominent houses: 28 Moray Place. Other notable residents included Alexander Kinnear, 1st Baron Kinnear (2), George Deas,\",\n \"-30.178387486485008\"\n ],\n [\n \"Roxbury, Mattapan and Jamaica Plain were popular with the emerging middle class and became \\\"streetcar suburbs\\\" as transportation systems expanded from the older, core sections of the city. Typically, the affordable three decker homes attracted live-in landlords who would collect rent from the other two apartments.\\nIn Worcester, Massachusetts, sewer connection charges were based on street frontage, so builders favored houses with as little frontage as possible. This is one reason why three-deckers are often situated on narrow lots and are rectangular shape, with the smaller sides at the front and the rear.\\nIn the textile mill city of Fall River, Massachusetts,\",\n \"-30.171622251502413\"\n ],\n [\n \"(French: jardins en terrain) and courtyards (French: cours) of some French former palaces have resulted in redevelopments into spaces equivalent to garden squares. The same former single-owner scenario applies to at least one garden square in London (Coleridge Square). Outside of Paris Grandiose instances of garden-use town squares are a part of many French cities, others opt for solid material town squares. Belgium The Square de Meeûs and Square Orban are notable examples in Brussels. Ireland Dublin has several Georgian examples, including Merrion Square, Fitzwilliam Square, Mountjoy Square, St Stephens Green and Parnell Square. United States Perhaps the most\",\n \"-30.120286419165495\"\n ],\n [\n \"comparable to nearby areas but distinguishable compared with the city, which in general slopes south to the lake. One resident described the topography of the neighbourhood as \\\"Toronto's hidden San Francisco,\\\" comparing Silverthorn with the famously hilly terrain of San Francisco. The winding and one-way streets make through traffic a non-factor for ball playing. Castlefield Design District The area along Castlefield Road from Kincort Street to just west of Dufferin is home to the interior design district, home to furniture retailers, home decor centres, as well as Roots Canada and Art Shoppe.\",\n \"-30.05354657533462\"\n ],\n [\n \"laid out on a traditional grid system. Today, the streets of the outlying city are contorted as a result of the many marshes and lowlands that run through much of Columbia County. The northern side of the city thus looks different from the central city, with the organized grid street system giving way to a more suburban streetscape with a lower housing density.\\nThe city has two commercial areas. One is the downtown historic district, which features several small boutique shops and restaurants; the other is the Northridge commercial area that features big box stores. In the summer of 2007, the\",\n \"-29.995142245403258\"\n ],\n [\n \"as well as streetscapes are dominant in providing the outsider a simple yet strong image of the Forest Hill neighbourhood. In other words, neighbourhoods in Toronto are sometimes characterized by their housing types and/or streetscape. For instance, the Leaside neighbourhood is noted for having lots of trees or the Rosedale neighbourhood being noted for distinct and large lot housing.\\nThroughout Forest Hill, the conventional suburbs housing style (without the aspect of homogeneous households), makes up the majority of the area. In simplicity, Forest Hill housing has dominant traits of the conventional suburbs housing type. In further analysis, characteristics of low density,\",\n \"-29.975163833645638\"\n ],\n [\n \"Barrio de La Latina (Madrid) History La Latina occupies much of the oldest section of Madrid, sometimes referred to as El Madrid de los Austrias which maintains a peculiar urban layout similar to the medieval distribution, with spacious squares and narrow streets that follow the former course of creeks. As such, the effect is often that of a traditional pueblo rather than the heart of a major city. Its configuration overlaps almost perfectly with the first walled enclosures of the ninth-century fortress, Almudena - and that of the city - Medina - that surrounded it. Its streets have felt the\",\n \"-29.895070986214364\"\n ],\n [\n \"persons per acre) that were laid out on a grid-type pattern. Also, many early grid-plan towns and suburbs such as Windermere, Florida, Dauphin, Manitoba, and St. Andrews, New Brunswick exhibit grid layouts and very low densities. Conversely, incidental cul-de-sac and crescent streets in central areas show high densities. Examples of unusual, unconventional associations of density and street type demonstrate that street patterns are coincidentally, not causally, related to housing density. Any given street pattern can be built at a predetermined density. Transportation, traffic, and their effects More significant criticisms of the grid and the Radburn patterns were put forward based\",\n \"-29.837144259508932\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the neighbouring suburbs, there is a sense of luxury living associated with the area hence a high level of affluent residents and property investors are found in the area.\\nGreenstone Hill seems to portray a fairly decent active lifestyle where a large contingency of joggers and cyclists are noticeable, this is over and above the advent of a number of gyms and crossfit boxes opening up within the area. Neighbouring suburbs Acacia Park, Antwerp, Eastleigh, Edenvale, Illiondale, Longmeadow, Marais Steyn Park, Modderfontein, Rembrandt Park\",\n \"-29.81096817267826\"\n ],\n [\n \"layout.\\nAlthough rare, some pizza layouts have also used multi-level spiral layouts, with something of the rabbit warren to them. Scenery Scenery may be realistic, a caricature of geography containing real buildings or deliberately unrealistic. The difficulty is the likelihood that all of the layout can be seen at once, and the problem of finding any sort of visual break between the two sides. Many simply ignore this, placing a realistic building or feature in the centre and ignoring the logical pointlessness of a railway that obviously circles without going anywhere. Some layouts model funfairs, where the short circle can appear\",\n \"-29.76444802719925\"\n ],\n [\n \"at the time, Walden 7 was built in the area to the west of Barcelona. It was originally designed as one of five similar blocks. The building is composed of 18 towers which are displaced from their base, forming a curve and coming into contact with the neighbouring towers, described as a \\\"vertical labyrinth with seven interconnecting interior courtyards.\\\" The area originally devoted to communal uses was reduced to allow an increased number of apartments. These apartments are formed on the basis of one or more 28-square-metre (33 sq yd) modules, which creates, on different levels, dwellings that range from single-module studios\",\n \"-29.742513201519614\"\n ],\n [\n \"The southern suburbs are mainly affluent.\\nThe town is bordered by Waddon immediately southwest of central Croydon. To the west, inside the London Borough of Sutton lies Beddington. To the north are Broad Green, Thornton Heath and Selhurst. To the south lies South Croydon, and going further south are Purley and Sanderstead. To the east lie Addiscombe and Shirley.\\nCroydon High Street runs from South Croydon up to the point where it meets the street called North End. North End is the main shopping street, while Croydon High Street is the main restaurant quarter.\\nThe High Street is also home to Wrencote House,\",\n \"-29.730866501718992\"\n ],\n [\n \"mountains. Layout The streets of the city, along with the rest of Davis County north of Layton, are laid out on a unified grid plan. Most major streets run very nearly north-south and east-west. Clearfield City is the farthest east on this grid, while Syracuse, West Point, Sunset, Clinton and Unincorporated Davis County all are located north, west and south on the same street grid. Neighborhoods Clearfield City has many informal neighborhoods, most of which are more business or industrial related than residential. In the southwestern portion of the city is a large industrial business center called The Freeport Center,\",\n \"-29.718150322129077\"\n ],\n [\n \"streets and squares, together with its developed sewerage systems and water pipelines. Subterranean kurabandis (‘sewerage system’), made from river stones, and dating back to almost one thousand years, are thought to be one of the most ancient sewerage systems used in the world.\\nThe residents of Lahij are divided into three categories, based on their craftsmanship: Baadvan, Azavarro and Araghird. Each of these categories has its own village square, mosque, hammam and graveyard. One of the most striking features of the urban look of Lahij, is the village square of each category, which, today, still has its specific role in the\",\n \"-29.713882525858935\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Polanco. There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small \\\"squares\\\" occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts.\\nSeveral other larger parks such as the Bosque de Tlalpan and Viveros de Coyoacán, and in the east Alameda Oriente, offer many recreational activities. Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón. In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market, a World Heritage site. West of Santa Fe district are the pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park.\\nAmusement parks include Six Flags México, in Ajusco\",\n \"-29.7075179622625\"\n ],\n [\n \"modeled on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, is the most notable street in the Bronx. The City Beautiful movement inspired similar boulevards in Brooklyn, known as parkways.\",\n \"-29.698374644028036\"\n ],\n [\n \"vineyards, and numerous small orchards and community gardens. Gardens are irrigated by naturally-flowing creeks, which also serve as natural filters that eliminate the need for an expensive storm-water sewer system. Residents enjoy environmental and aesthetic benefits from their shared spaces, and the increased sense of community is evident; Village Homes residents on average know 40 neighbors, compared to an average of 17 acquaintances reported in a nearby traditional suburban development. Jackson Heights - Queens, New York For nearly nine decades, the historic neighborhood of Jackson Heights in Queens has maintained its fourteen block-long shared interior courtyards, and is considered to\",\n \"-29.689539608050836\"\n ],\n [\n \"total. Villages and towns with narrow streets (2 to 3 m wide) consume much less.\\nActual layouts of specific districts show variability within that range due to site-specific conditions and network pattern idiosyncrasies. Land taken up by streets becomes unavailable for development; its use is inefficient since it stays empty for most of the time. Were it to be developed, less land would be required for the same number housing units, resulting in lowering the pressure to consume more of it.\\nA 2007 study compared alternative layout plans for a 3.4 square kilometre subdivision and found that the traditional grid layout\",\n \"-29.651680027949624\"\n ],\n [\n \"Neighbourhood Preindustrial cities In the words of the urban scholar Lewis Mumford, “Neighbourhoods, in some annoying, inchoate fashion exist wherever human beings congregate, in permanent family dwellings; and many of the functions of the city tend to be distributed naturally—that is, without any theoretical preoccupation or political direction—into neighbourhoods.” Most of the earliest cities around the world as excavated by archaeologists have evidence for the presence of social neighbourhoods. Historical documents shed light on neighbourhood life in numerous historical preindustrial or nonwestern cities.\\nNeighbourhoods are typically generated by social interaction among people living near one another. In this sense they are\",\n \"-29.64039361749019\"\n ],\n [\n \"mystified by the fact that their neighborhood is dotted on maps and designated as a CDP, as it is actually a suburban residential neighborhood and not a separate town or settlement of any sort.\",\n \"-29.631403257022612\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Management for Welwyn Garden City. Every road has a wide grass verge. The spine of the town is Parkway, a central mall or scenic parkway, almost a mile long. The view along Parkway to the south was once described as one of the world's finest urban vistas. Older houses are on the west side of Parkway and newer houses on the east side\\nThe original planners intended that all the residents of the garden city would shop in one shop and created the Welwyn Stores, a monopoly which caused some local resentment. Commercial pressures have since ensured much more competition\",\n \"-29.620128877519164\"\n ],\n [\n \"opposed to square or rectangular designs. The narrow and irregular street grid is unlike that of other quarters, where streets usually meet at approximately right angles. Similar to the majority of excavated homes of Delos, those in the Theatre Quarter feature an open courtyard without porticoes, instead of the peristyle layout with columns. Some of the houses in the Theatre Quarter lack interior decoration altogether, with neither wall murals nor mosaics, which is unusual for most Delian homes. House of Dionysos The Delos mosaic of Dionysos riding a tiger in the House of Dionysos is one of the finest examples\",\n \"-29.61614059479325\"\n ],\n [\n \"suburban sprawl.\\nIn addition to \\\"from-scratch\\\" new-built communities (including those physically retrofitting/re-using existing structures), there are also \\\"retrofit\\\" (aka \\\"organic\\\") communities in which neighbors create \\\"intentional neighborhoods\\\" by buying adjacent properties and removing fences. Often, they create common amenities such as Common Houses after the fact, while living there. N Street Cohousing in Davis, CA, is the canonical example of this type; it came together before the term Cohousing was popularized in the United States.\\nCohousing differs from some types of intentional communities in that the residents do not have a shared economy or a common set of beliefs or religion, but\",\n \"-29.542619654530426\"\n ],\n [\n \"claimed to be founded on seven hills like Rome. The more prominent hills are: Constitution Hill (near downtown), College Hill (east of the Providence River), and Federal Hill (west of downtown and containing New England's largest Italian district outside of Massachusetts). The other four are: Tockwotten Hill at Fox Point, Smith Hill (where the State House is located), Christian Hill at Hoyle Square (junction of Cranston and Westminster Streets), and Weybosset Hill at the lower end of Weybosset Street, which was leveled in the early 1880s. Cityscape The city of Providence is geographically very compact, characteristic of eastern seaboard cities\",\n \"-29.53669906259165\"\n ],\n [\n \"Barelas Geography The neighborhood occupies a roughly triangular region between the Rio Grande and the BNSF railroad tracks south of Coal Avenue, which forms the boundary with Downtown. The area claimed by the Barelas Neighborhood Association extends all the way south to Woodward Road, though south of Bridge Boulevard the neighborhood becomes primarily industrial rather than residential. Geographically speaking Barelas is somewhat isolated, with the railyard and river separating it from adjacent areas to the east and west. Demographics Barelas has around 3,700 inhabitants, roughly two thirds of whom are Hispanic. It has historically been one of the poorest neighborhoods\",\n \"-29.500626362510957\"\n ],\n [\n \"with good numbers of dwellings that are joined to through streets tend to be safe. As for permeability, it suggests that residential areas should be permeable enough to allow movement in all directions but no more. The overprovision of poorly used permeability is a crime hazard. The open, uniform grid could be seen as an example of undifferentiated permeability.\\nA recent study in California examined the amount of child play that occurred on the streets of neighbourhoods with different characteristics; grid pattern and culs-de-sac. The findings indicate that the open grid streets showed substantially lower play activity than the cul-de-sac street\",\n \"-29.489699130208464\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the city are legally organized somewhat similarly to condominiums, co-ops or homeowners associations. In 1982 the St. Louis metropolitan area had more than 427 street associations administering private places. Although often associated with high-end communities, neighborhoods of various socio-economic natures have been structured as private places.\",\n \"-29.481253937468864\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gated community In its modern form, a gated community (or walled community) is a form of residential community or housing estate containing strictly controlled entrances for pedestrians, bicycles, and automobiles, and often characterized by a closed perimeter of walls and fences. Similar walls and gates have separated quarters of some cities for centuries. Gated communities usually consist of small residential streets and include various shared amenities. For smaller communities, these amenities may include only a park or other common area. For larger communities, it may be possible for residents to stay within the community for most daily activities. Gated communities\",\n \"-29.466864604735747\"\n ],\n [\n \"homes which was viewed as the highest echelon of the development.\\nThe streets at the outer boundaries of Rochelle Heights contain smaller lots. These streets frame the core of the development and buffer the interior properties. Although these tertiary streets were lesser properties in the context of the Rochelle Heights development, they were still above the mean and intended for a middle-class clientele.\\nThese two neighborhoods, combined into one historic district in 1986, reflect the history of suburban design since 1885 when the phenomenon first took hold in the United States.\",\n \"-29.456752662255894\"\n ],\n [\n \"Its-tree lined streets contain many different architectural styles.\\nCompared to most other Queens neighborhoods, Glendale is long and narrow since it is essentially sandwiched by cemeteries and Forest Park. As a result, it is considered to have three areas: from east to west, they are Upper Glendale, Middle Glendale, and Lower Glendale. Each area has its own unique attributes.\\nThe easternmost portion near the Shops at Atlas Park is known as Upper Glendale and in general has more expensive homes and slightly higher income levels than the rest of Glendale. Upper Glendale has detached and semi-attached single- and two-family houses of above-average\",\n \"-29.41333345788007\"\n ],\n [\n \"lots of stone and classical elements to the town. Natural and physical features The Northbrae neighborhood is known for its hilly terrain. The built environment follows along the natural topography which includes trees and existing outcropping of volcanic rock. The volcanic rock in the area, rhyolite, is primarily composed of quartz and is a significant feature of the area. The streets are arranged predominantly N-S in order to emphasize the views of the San Francisco bay and the hills. Most of the homes are bungalows and are tucked into the hills, connected by stairways that have been carved into the\",\n \"-29.375884522742126\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a mixture of different style and sizes, from single-story 1820s mansions to recently built shopping malls and the 162-meter Swissotel in Red Hills (2005).\\nFrom the 1990s till 2010, the city government has proposed conversion of the Garden Ring to a one-way street, completely separated from radial street traffic. The public and professionals equally reject the idea of a one-way, 18-lane street.\\nSince 2010, with the arrival of the new city government, these plans were canceled. In 2016 a new reconstruction began. Trolleybus traffic was eliminated, they were replaced by diesel buses. It is planned to narrow down all section of\",\n \"-29.374680513741623\"\n ],\n [\n \"and forked streets that lead to squares of different sizes. One explanation is that this was done by design, to make the city easier to defend from any raiders; by the same version, the reason that there is only one exit from the city was that should pirates ever return and succeed in entering the city, it would be possible for local inhabitants to entrap and kill them. However, locals dispute this reasoning as a myth, asserting that in truth the city developed without planning, and that winding streets developed out of everybody wanting to stay close to their local\",\n \"-29.36325177208346\"\n ],\n [\n \"of South Fayette, not a separate entity), the neighborhood is geographically separate because of its elevated location spread around the Hickory Heights golf course. The autonomous neighborhood has a community swimming pool (Hickory Heights swimming pool), central golf course (Hickory Heights golf course), horse stables (Rolling Hills Ranch), a sportsman's club (The Alpine Club) and a farmers market (Original Farmer's Night Market). The rolling hills and scenic views provide some of the nicest suburban scenery in Pennsylvania. History Around 1770 General George Washington (later to become first President of the United States) acquired a 2,813-acre (11.38 km²) parcel of\",\n \"-29.33547196049767\"\n ],\n [\n \"it can be found on Flamingo Avenue. Geography The district of Fourways encompasses several suburbs and estates. The suburbs include Fourways (on the Western side of William Nicol Drive, with a small portion on the Eastern side colloquially known as Little Fourways), Magalies View, Bryanston Ext. 34, several Magaliessig extensions, Norscot, Norscot Slopes, Lonehill and Beverley, Craigavon, Broadacres. The estates are Cedar Creek, Cedar Lakes, Fourways Gardens, Dainfern, Dainfern Valley, Dainfern Ridge and Fernbrook Estate. The estates have come to be because of the city's high crime rate. Dainfern is centred on a golf course, while Cedar Lakes, Fourways Gardens\",\n \"-29.326564874092583\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the minds of Wellanders. East side and west side are very commonly used as basic directions.\\nThe communities of Cooks Mills and Dain City have their own separation stories. Cooks Mills, located on the other side of the By-Pass channel than the rest of Welland, has arguably been protected against the impact of urban sprawl, but the necessity of using one of the two highway tunnels to cross the canal causes some residents to head to nearby Niagara Falls instead. Dain City, located in the south of the city where the two channels meet, is separated by the massive approaches\",\n \"-29.29315772738846\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a neighborhood called \\\"Eastchester.\\\" This is perhaps due to confusion with Eastchester Road, a thoroughfare which runs through other parts of the Bronx, or with the Town of Eastchester in Westchester County. It is more common to hear the Eastchester neighborhood described as \\\"east of White Plains Road\\\", \\\"south of Mount Vernon\\\", \\\"near Pelham\\\", \\\"East 233rd Street\\\", etc. Land use and terrain Eastchester is dominated by one- and two-family homes of various types, one large public housing project, and an industrial district. The total land area is roughly half a square mile. The area is low-lying and flat. \",\n \"-29.272574815971893\"\n ],\n [\n \"in La Puente have been ongoing. However, the local government has been relatively unsuccessful in its attempts to attract big-box retailers and restaurant chains. La Puente retains many aging 1950s-era strip malls. Geography La Puente is located at 34°1′57″N 117°57′19″W (34.032410, -117.955195). The city, which is mostly flat, covers about 3.5 square miles (9.1 km²) of land in the San Gabriel Valley. 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that La Puente had a population of 39,816. The population density was 11,443.2 people per square mile (4,418.2/km²). La Puente is 49.4% White (4.6% Non-Hispanic White), 1.4% Black or African American,\",\n \"-29.271736977927503\"\n ],\n [\n \"southeast, directed the early growth of the city. Most early streets ran parallel to the river to maximize the amount of land that could be used. Eventually, growth of Minneapolis turned to north-south and east-west streets. Many unique intersections like Seven Corners on the eastern periphery of downtown were formed to translate between the two layouts. Some streets, especially older and more traditionally important ones like Hennepin Avenue and Nicollet Avenue, have both orientations at different points. Parks and lakes Minneapolis has a large park system consisting of ten square miles (26 km²) of land and water that is interlinked in\",\n \"-29.25262114546058\"\n ],\n [\n \"Raymond Unwin and the Garden city movement. The area is almost unique within the surrounding area with its tree-lined streets and boulevard stretching the length of the area at its most northern point. Entirely residential, the scheme's green and semi-rural setting was intended to provide a healthier alternative to the city's traditional tenement landscape, which had become too much identified with urban corrosion.\\nThe 1500 house development was built by the firm Mactaggart and Mickel. Although flats featured in Mosspark's plans, two-thirds of the housing stock was built in the form of cottages, semi-detached and terraced, and surrounded by gardens. The\",\n \"-29.187386076082475\"\n ],\n [\n \"the neighborhood. \\nThe master plan for Carthay Circle was designed by leading early 20th century architects Aleck Curlett and his partner Claud Beelman (designer of MGM Studios and Downtown LA's Eastern Columbia Building) in conjunction with landscape architects Cook & Hall (Wilbur D. Cook is also noted for creating the master plan for the neighboring city of Beverly Hills).\\nMcCarthy named the streets in honor of prominent figures of the California Gold Rush. He also planned the neighborhood around a shopping center. \\nCarthay Circle was one of the first planned communities in Los Angeles, and the first in the city\",\n \"-29.18471093183325\"\n ],\n [\n \"east and parks were built to accommodate the new residents. Parcels that were too small to develop, such as this site, were designated as green spaces maintained by the city's Parks Department.\\nThe park contains plots for 24 trees and a bench on its northern side. Continuing north, Murray Lane gradually narrows, taking on the appearance of a countryside lane, having changed little as the surrounding neighborhood transformed over a century from farmland towards residential.\",\n \"-29.150717265016283\"\n ],\n [\n \"but the village has a small shopping strip along Route 14. With a population of 4,209 in 2010, Barrington Hills has kept its rural flavor as industrial and commercial development has sprung up around its borders.\\nThe village is bordered on the west by East Dundee, Carpentersville, and Algonquin; on the north by Fox River Grove, and Lake Barrington; on the east by Barrington and Inverness; and to the south and southeast by South Barrington, and Hoffman Estates. Barrington Hills is one of only two municipalities in Illinois with land located among four counties.\",\n \"-29.11584168637637\"\n ],\n [\n \"Far Hills, New Jersey History Far Hills encompasses nearly 5 square miles (13 km²) in Somerset County, encircled by the equally upscale communities of Bedminster Township, Peapack-Gladstone, Bernards Township, and Bernardsville. It shares a community pool, athletic programs, civic organizations, and a school system with Bernardsville. It shares a public library, a fire department and a first aid squad with neighboring Bedminster Township.\\nThe borough maintains its character through 10-acre (40,000 m²) minimum zoning laws whereby large private properties and homes surround a small village which was the creation of a wealthy New York businessman in the late 1800s. The beginning of rail\",\n \"-29.111762658722\"\n ],\n [\n \"The neighborhood is partitioned into two separate neighborhood assemblies, divided by Pennsylvania Avenue and Southbridge, due to their distinct characters. Southside East contains working-class residences and some public housing projects, while Southside West is primarily made up of larger middle-class residences. Race and ethnicity Binghamton is home to a large ethnic population. During its industrial heyday, thousands of European immigrants moved to the city as they found an abundance of jobs and working-class prosperity. Many Irish, Italians, and Eastern Europeans settled in the area, and the American Civic Association was created to help their transition to life and assimilation\",\n \"-29.105520869372413\"\n ],\n [\n \"the numbered streets that permitted placing a \\\"mini-public-square\\\" of green space for houses to face inward on all four sides and directions. The center large rectangular common parks space was originally designated as a \\\"Terrace\\\" that included pathways, grass and trees with an octagon-shaped wading pool at the west end and a raised octagon sand pit platform with a flag pole at the east end. Marconi West: Residential Roman Terraces of Marconi: The Greco-Roman–accented homes west of the plaza from 15th to 19th street, using the same concept but on a smaller scale, include two oval-shaped terrace streets at Smedley\",\n \"-29.093200300922035\"\n ],\n [\n \"flat and includes four large low peninsulas, or 'necks,' of low-lying land which jut into the waters of the East River and were once saltmarsh: Hunts Point, Clason's Point, Screvin's Neck (Castle Hill Point) and Throgs Neck. The East Bronx has older tenement buildings, low income public housing complexes, and multifamily homes, as well as single family homes. It includes New York City's largest park: Pelham Bay Park along the Westchester-Bronx border.\\nNeighborhoods include: Clason's Point, Harding Park, Soundview, Castle Hill, Parkchester (Board 9); Throggs Neck, Country Club, City Island, Pelham Bay, Edgewater Park, Co-op City (Board 10); Westchester Square, Van\",\n \"-29.08152608742239\"\n ],\n [\n \"and other Midwestern states moved into the city and settled uptown. Along the division between these two cultures, a canal was planned. The canal was never built but the street which took its place received the name. Furthermore, the median of the street became known as the neutral ground, acknowledging the cultural divide. To this day, all medians of New Orleans streets are called neutral grounds.\\nOne end of Canal Street terminates at the Mississippi River. Often called \\\"the foot of Canal Street\\\", at the riverfront the Canal Street Ferry offers a connection to the Algiers Point neighborhood, an older,\",\n \"-29.075275350478478\"\n ],\n [\n \"as well as its northern European target population, explains its unusually regular, colonial-style grid layout, with wide avenues, as opposed to the more common winding narrow streets typical of the Moorish-patterned towns in Andalusia.\",\n \"-29.06640138255898\"\n ],\n [\n \"a more suburban lifestyle but were open to remaining within the city limits of New Orleans. Eastern New Orleans grew in a comparatively well-planned and neatly zoned fashion. Some care was taken to avoid placing major thoroughfares along the rights-of-way of unsightly drainage canals, as had frequently occurred in suburban Jefferson Parish. Instead, major roads (e.g., Mayo, Crowder, Bundy, Read, Bullard, etc.) were located equidistant from parallel canals and were outfitted with landscaped medians (neutral grounds in the local vernacular). Numerous subdivisions were developed with large lakes at their centers, providing both an assist to neighborhood drainage and a scenic\",\n \"-29.06216239661444\"\n ],\n [\n \"it well suited for use as a street tree in urban areas. It makes a rather formal statement in the landscape due to the tight, consistently-shaped, narrow crown. It is well suited for areas which have restricted overhead. Corylus colurna is also used in different sized parking lot islands and a variety of wide lawns. It is recommended for a buffer strip around parking lots or highways. Also it is used as a street tree, specimen tree, or in sidewalk cut outs. Other landscape uses for Corylus colurna are for fruit, difficult and dry sites, naturalistic areas, and street trees.\",\n \"-29.061318658525124\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the neighborhood restoring houses and building new homes on vacant lots. Geography Every neighborhood has its own unique and different geography that describes the people that live there along with the culture of the neighborhood itself, and Faubourg Livaudias is no different. Neighborhoods serve as geographical frames of orientation, encompassing the demographic, economic and ecologic physiognomies of a particular place. The definition of a \\\"neighborhood,\\\" however, relies heavily on perspective. Neighborhoods have different geographic gauges that assist different purposes. For example, metropolitan governments often define a neighborhood as a very large area for planning, providing services or maintaining infrastructure.\",\n \"-29.049368680425687\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sowcarpet Description Most streets in Sowcarpet are rather narrow, with a few exceptions like Mint Street and nearby area. The buildings in the streets are so close to each other that they look like they share a common wall. The sight is typical of the crowded bazaars of Indian cities - a potpourri of different vendors and artisans, trading and making a variety of articles. The wholesale markets for several goods are in Narayana Mudali street, Govindappa Naicken street and Rattan Bazaar. The area around Kasi Chetty street and Mint street is famous for shopping and one can find varieties\",\n \"-29.032815012309584\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as the uniquely Torontonian bay-and-gable housing style, and post-war high-rises. Many of the neighbourhoods in these areas were built up as streetcar suburbs and contain many dense and mixed-use streets. They share many characteristics with sections of the \\\"old\\\" city that are outside of the downtown core. The \\\"outer ring\\\" suburbs of Etobicoke, Scarborough, and North York are much more suburban but are developing urban centres of their own, such as North York Centre around Mel Lastman Square. Ravine system The ravine system, a distinctive feature of the geography of Toronto, is a network of deep ravines forming an\",\n \"-29.0171265139943\"\n ],\n [\n \"what had historically been a suburban city. While retaining many characteristics of traditional shopping malls, such as large anchor stores, a food court, and vast parking lots and garages, the smaller stores are arranged as city blocks in a grid of two-lane streets, featuring lush landscaping and metered \\\"teaser parking\\\" in front of the stores, which open onto the sidewalk. There are two \\\"Main Streets\\\", which run from west to east across the center. Running from north to south between them is a pedestrian axis leading from one of the Macy's anchor stores, through a \\\"town square\\\" between a pair\",\n \"-29.012059951484844\"\n ],\n [\n \"success of Chatham Village as an urban community in a park-like setting depended upon the residents' tendencies to trust one another due to the similarities in their professional, economic, and social status. The ideals of city planning expressed in the Garden City Movement, Jacobs argues, are only suitable for upper-middle-class lifestyles and, thus, fail to engage the endemic economic and social diversity of cities. The homes The homes are red-brick-and-slate-roof townhomes. They are situated in clusters toward interior courtyards with their rears facing the loop roads around the property. The homes do have rear-access integral garages in the\",\n \"-29.00054966303287\"\n ],\n [\n \"district, is eight miles (13 km) north of Downtown and the city's third-largest business district. The district is marked by an urbanized core along Peachtree Road, surrounded by suburban single-family neighborhoods situated among woods and rolling hills.\\nSurrounding Atlanta's three high-rise districts are the city's low- and medium-density neighborhoods, where the craftsman bungalow single-family home is dominant. The eastside is marked by historic streetcar suburbs, built from the 1890s-1930s as havens for the upper middle class. These neighborhoods, many of which contain their own villages encircled by shaded, architecturally distinct residential streets, include the Victorian Inman Park, Bohemian East Atlanta, and eclectic\",\n \"-28.999345592659665\"\n ],\n [\n \"also used for political and social gatherings. A typical square, (which was probably a model for other bastides), can be found in Montauban.\\nGenerally, there is just one square. Saint-Lys and Albias are different because they have two squares, one for the market and one square for the church.\\nThe square is also used to divide the city into quarters. Generally, it lies outside the main street (the axis) which carried the traffic. There are three possible layouts:\\nCompletely closed: The square does not touch any street. These are very rare; there is one example at Tournay with a size of 70 metres\",\n \"-28.982594416564098\"\n ],\n [\n \"enclosure, there is an area known as the extra-mural district, which coincides with the entrance to the castro. This second collection consists of a great oblong dwelling, two fountains with drains and a circular oven, which, during its time, must have been covered by a dome. The dwellings are circular or rectangular with rounded corners, and stand out in comparison with those of other sites because of their great size.\\nDolmen de Dombate is located a few kilometers from the site.\",\n \"-28.96445818279244\"\n ],\n [\n \"divides streets east and west. There are numerous small neighborhoods within South Hill, which usually take their names from the original developments built there. Neighborhoods in South Hill east of Broadway include Anthony Hill, Charlesbois, Warrendale and Woodridge. Neighborhoods in South Hill west of Broadway include Brooklyn, Dakota Square and Southwest Minot. Education Minot High School's Magic City Campus is located in the South Hill neighborhood on Eleventh Avenue SW. The building was constructed in 1973 and is home to the juniors and seniors in the Minot District school system. Edison Elementary School, Jim Hill Middle School and Washington Elementary\",\n \"-28.956921797289397\"\n ],\n [\n \" still pass through.\\nThe layout of residential side streets in Lathrup Village makes it nearly impossible for motorists to cut through from crowded thoroughfares during heavy traffic periods on Southfield Road, Twelve Mile Road and the I-696/Reuther Freeway service drive. While a map or GPS would make it easy, drivers or cyclists without those tools would likely get lost. Very few streets proceed in a straight line. This makes many lot sizes and shapes varied and interesting.\\nNeighborhoods are typically quiet, well-kept and interesting due to the wide variety of home styles built over a span from the late 1930s to\",\n \"-28.935278713528533\"\n ],\n [\n \"the south, but led to straight north-south streets and random east-west connectors north of Grškovićeva Street. East of Voćarska and Bijenička Street the neighborhood is located on steep slopes and canyons, generating long, steep north-south streets connected by staircases. The most expensive houses are primarily located along the major thoroughfares, which tend not to exhibit much traffic due to the Šalata's proximity of Medveščak Road, the main route to the northernmost parts of Zagreb. In the southern part of the neighborhood is the Voćarsko naselje, a small, but densely built neighborhood that has become a sort of a microdistrict on\",\n \"-28.92843803719734\"\n ],\n [\n \"of alleyways were often only 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) wide, and had poor lighting and drainage. An informal network of staircases and passageways also formed on upper levels, which was so extensive that one could travel north to south through the entire City without ever touching solid ground. Construction in the City went unregulated, and most of the roughly 350 buildings were built with poor foundations and few or no utilities. Because apartments were so small—a typical unit was 23 m² (250 sq ft)—space was maximised with wider upper floors, caged balconies and rooftop additions. Roofs in the City were full of television antennae, clothes\",\n \"-28.924423714498516\"\n ],\n [\n \"and communities. These newly populated places were generally more economically homogeneous than the cities they encircled. Many suburban communities enacted local ordinances, often in zoning codes, to preserve the character of their municipality. One of the most commonly cited exclusionary practices is the stipulation that lots must be of a certain minimum size and houses must be set back from the street a certain minimum distance. In many cases, these housing ordinances prevented affordable housing from being built, because the large plots of land required to build within the code restrictions were cost-prohibitive for modestly priced houses. Communities have remained\",\n \"-28.923224242287688\"\n ],\n [\n \"dwellings to form a larger diversified neighborhood concept. Schools, churches, retirement homes, hospitals, and recreation facilities begin to find their way into residential districts. Residential districts also tend to use the best land in the community and the most favorable sites are protected from commercial and industrial uses.\\nGrouping shopping districts by service area is a first step in returning to the neighborhood concept. Land is reserved for regional, community, and local shopping clusters with some specific restrictions based on market experience and on what types of business intend to locate at each development. Local shopping districts with sufficient provisions for\",\n \"-28.920323708560318\"\n ],\n [\n \"However, unlike most such places (for example, Lexington and LeRoy), the plat used at Concord showed with dashed lines how the streets which entered the public square midway along each side could be extended to meet at the center of the square. In effect, this unusual feature of the plan made it possible to subdivide the square into four smaller rectangles. This was soon done. One of these rectangles has always been a park, but the other three have been put to different civic uses, including locations for the library, fire station, water tower, and school gymnasium. Early growth\",\n \"-28.906891648337478\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Market Square\\\"; and \\\"Kentlands Square\\\". The winding street layout is based on a grid pattern, varied as necessary by the requirements of Kentlands topography. Multiple open green spaces and pocket parks have been developed where land was available between the districts or in odd spaces near buildings and dwellings. \\nMarket Square, Kentlands Square, and the Boulevard Shops are commercial districts with grocery stores, banks, boutiques, offices, stores, dozens of restaurants, and a 10-screen cinema cafe. Main Street is a mixed-use area with distinctive \\\"live-work\\\" buildings with retail and office uses on the lower floors and residential uses on\",\n \"-28.89473389304476\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the square should be proportionally large enough for the number of neighbors (Spanish: grandeza proporcionada al\\nnúmero de vecinos). These Spanish regulations also stated that the streets nearby should be comfortable portals for passersby, protecting them from the elements: sun and rain.\",\n \"-28.889349166733155\"\n ],\n [\n \"These divide the suburb into rectangular grids. Main avenues include J. Tongogara Ave(Northern boundary), J. Chinamano Ave,Chitepo Avenue, Central Ave and the busy Samora Machel Avenue. Neighboring suburbs include Milton Park and Belgravia,Alexandra Park to the north, Belvedere to the west, Eastlea and Newlands to the East and the CBD to the south.\\nThe Avenues is mostly occupied by Black-Africans, but there are people of all races living there. The suburb has many facilities: Shopping Centres e.g. Montague, Fife Ave; Schools e.g.Dominican Convent, David Livingstone Primary and Colleges e.g. Speciss College, Trust College, Ilsa College, some of the nations best private\",\n \"-28.883617246960057\"\n ],\n [\n \"however, engaged through their neighborhood association, still actively press to maintain the uniqueness of their distinctive neighborhood. Wynnewood has retained some of its original characteristics: it is still one of the most diverse neighborhoods in Dallas, not only in socio-economic but now also in racial terms. The homes have turned out to be as solid as their creators promised. The tree-lined streets exude a sense of quietness and comfort. The apartments have become subsidized housing, with some of the problems attendant upon this type of dwelling.\\nThe most disappointing aspect in the recent history of Wynnewood is the fate of the\",\n \"-28.880967920238618\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Neighborhoods The Neighborhoods are a Boston rock band formed in 1978. The band earned local fame by playing regularly at Boston venues such as The Rat and winning the WBCN Rock 'n' Roll Rumble in 1979 (beating out La Peste, Mission of Burma, among others). Their 1980 debut single, \\\"Prettiest Girl\\\" (b/w \\\"No Place Like Home\\\") was a local hit. The band broke up for a short time between 1980-1981, but reformed in 1982 with bassist Lee Harrington and went on to release 5 albums between 1984-1991. In 1987 they opened for David Bowie on his Glass Spider tour\",\n \"-28.87443911369337\"\n ],\n [\n \"further south in the current Ten Hills neighborhood, was avoided by the early settlers because of poorly draining clay soils. The highland site on Ten Hills offered better agricultural land and the first Governor of Massachusetts, John Winthrop, chose it for the site of his farmstead. The location of the Ten Hills site on the Mystic River made it a natural choice for the transport of people and goods, and the first seagoing vessel built in this region was launched from there.\\nTrade and transport led to an expansion of the area’s economy and population. The construction of the Middlesex Canal\",\n \"-28.86319735541474\"\n ],\n [\n \"rooms only on the south and east sides because of the slope of the land, which led through a colonnade to the exterior of the space. The whole market area extended over two levels with a large columned hall in the centre, which contained small shop spaces and miscellaneous rooms. Streets and bridges The course of the main street, which winds up the hill to the Acropolis with a series of hairpin turns, is typical of the street system of Pergamon. On this street were shops and warehouses. The surface of the street consisted of andesite blocks up to 5\",\n \"-28.853050085745053\"\n ],\n [\n \"southeast is Notting Hill Gate tube station, the nearest underground station.\\nThe Ladbroke Square Montessori School is located at 43 Ladbroke Square. Gardens The gardens form the largest of the 16 communal gardens of the historic Ladbroke Estate. In fact, it is one of the largest private garden squares in London and is Grade II listed by English Heritage. Surrounded by railings, there are mature trees in the gardens and a long straight walk along the north side, together with other curving paths. The three-hectare garden is only open to local residents. History The garden square was originally the site of\",\n \"-28.835714693363116\"\n ],\n [\n \"with typical glazed tiles.\\nThe neighbourhood of Triana, situated on the west bank of the Guadalquivir River, played an important role in the history of the city and constitutes by itself a folk, monumental and cultural center.\\nOn the other hand, La Macarena neighbourhood is located on the northern side of the city centre. It contains some important monuments and religious buildings, such as the Museum and Basilica of La Macarena or the Hospital de las Cinco Llagas.\",\n \"-28.824658012890723\"\n ],\n [\n \"is traditionally thought of as the South Side but is more appropriately the South Side Flats. Sections of the Slopes are so steep that special fire trucks have to be used to navigate the zigzagging maze of narrow streets. Some spots are so steep that public staircases actually serve as the street. These public steps have street signs and houses located along them.\\nPublic steps are not rare in the hilly city of Pittsburgh. The city has over 700 sets of steps providing access to otherwise unreachable neighborhoods.\",\n \"-28.818599216479925\"\n ],\n [\n \"separated from its greater metropolitan area by a ring of public parklands on all sides. The so-called \\\"square mile\\\" within the park lands is defined by a small area of high rise office and apartment buildings in the centre north, around King William Street, which runs north-to-south through the centre. Surrounding this central business district are a large number of medium to low density apartments, townhouses and detached houses which make up the residential portion of the city centre. Layout The layout of Adelaide, known as Light's Vision, features a cardinal direction grid pattern of wide streets and terraces and\",\n \"-28.79861444278231\"\n ],\n [\n \"allowed him to frame the building in greenery which completely surrounded it, except for a part to the right of the courtyard. The gardens are visible from each room, even the ones on each side. A central corridor, an innovation from the 18th century which was only possible because a lack of central walls, distributed the rooms along both sides, with light coming in part from side windows at each end. Isolated on a platform a few steps up, the building has three levels: a mezzanine broken by windows capped in lowered arcs, a first floor, and a second level\",\n \"-28.79504314615042\"\n ],\n [\n \"of all man-made canals except the natural canal on the North Side of NE 171st Street. Eastern Shores is bounded by Sunny Isles Blvd to the South, Maule Lake to the West, The Intracoastal Waterway to the East, and Dumfoundling Bay to the Northeast. Eastern Shores is located right next to the city of Sunny Isles Beach. There are 2 sides of each street in Eastern Shores, when you are on the main street (Eastern Shores Blvd) you can turn either right or left for each street number. The Left side (West side) of Eastern Shores are all Single\",\n \"-28.790702407015488\"\n ],\n [\n \"centers in any particular country, but later editions were made specific to the US with a separate set for Europe. Neighborhood center Neighborhood centers are small-scale malls serving the local neighborhood. They typically have a supermarket or a drugstore as an anchor, and are commonly arranged in a strip mall format. Neighborhood centers usually have a retail area of 30,000 to 150,000 square feet (2,800 to 13,900 m²), and serve a primary area in a 3-mile (4.8 km) radius. They are sometimes known as convenience centers. Community mall Community malls are larger than neighborhood centers, and offer a wider range of goods.\",\n \"-28.788879137206095\"\n ],\n [\n \"the fabled pathos of wistfulness or existencial angst of the Sur of Buenos Aires, with \\\"Sur, paredón, y después..:\\\" (\\\"South, a [crumbling, old] wall, and beyond.. \\\") alluding to the desolate open spaces of the flat Pampas that seemed to crouch behind the (long gone at the time of writing) last dividing houses' or vacant lots' brick walls on the barrio's farthest empty cobblestone streets. This ambience can be still partially felt at the southernmost reaches of Boedo and other formerly industrial and working class barrios del Sur such as the mentioned Parque Patricios, Pompeya, Barracas (named so for its\",\n \"-28.762453149145585\"\n ],\n [\n \"contains an abundance of historic neighborhoods and traditional \\\"corner markets\\\". This section gets its name from the abundance of Germans who moved into this area when the City was still expanding. Dutch Hill is the area that borders the City Center to the East and is zoned as multiple household residential. The boundaries are generally considered 4th Street to 17th Street north to south, and 6th Avenue to Walton Avenue from west to east. However, as the Altoona Area High School and Junior High are considered City Center, the border is around 4th Ave (or 3rd Ave if the entire\",\n \"-28.759737592095917\"\n ],\n [\n \"and national businesses, stores, restaurants, apartments, and business offices. The streets adjacent to Far West Boulevard are the most densely populated areas of Northwest Hills. Architecture and societal structure Most of the houses in Northwest Hills area feature Colonial, Californian ranch, or Texas Tuscan villa-style architectures. Beyond Mesa Drive, many of the homes have a western Austin style: big family homes with large garages, landscaped yards, and old trees. The common design is brick and limestone. The community is mostly middle and upper-middle class, and is often cited as being \\\"upscale\\\".\\nResidents are usually quite involved with the community, and they\",\n \"-28.751868770632427\"\n ],\n [\n \"novelty in New England. This street hierarchy was seen as an economic development tool as it lends well to high-rise buildings, and the surrounding canals could be landscaped for recreation. Whereas New York's Commissioner's Plan of 1811 lays out a system of numbered streets and avenues, the names of routes in Holyoke's grid system alternate between tree species for North to South streets (Sycamore, Locust, Linden, Oak, Beech, Pine, Walnut, Elm, Chestnut, Maple), and the names of the Hadley Falls Company founders (Lyman, Dwight, Appleton, Cabot, Sargeant, Jackson), as well as several Massachusetts counties (Hampden, Suffolk, Essex, Hampshire, Franklin) for\",\n \"-28.746991517949937\"\n ],\n [\n \"to mean a suburb with special areas zoned for different uses, e.g.: residential and commercial; an absence of attached terraces with free-standing houses, wide tree-lined streets, \\\"nature strips\\\" on footpaths, parks reserves and gardens. Much-derided rear lanes and rights-of-way became redundant with sewerage and the provision of side access between houses. Verandas and bay windows were means of integrating house & garden.\\nTree-lined streets such as Burwood Rd., The Appian Way or The Boulevard in Strathfield were in marked contrast to most development in Australian cities of the late 19th century. St. Cloud St. Cloud was built by industrialist George Hoskins,\",\n \"-28.7452990379079\"\n ],\n [\n \"Álvarez, and the Torre Fortabat by Sánchez Elía, as well as around the world, most notably the Norwest Center and the Petronas Towers, both by César Pelli.\\nArgentinian neighborhoods are characterized by highly independent designs for each building. Most houses have individual designs.\\nTract housing is near to non-existent, generally reserved for subsidized houses made by the state for the poorest.\",\n \"-28.741360710642766\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":286,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"1gn24a"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why is it illegal for news programs and and other major media sources to show people's faces without having consent, but it's perfectly legal for papparazzi and tabloids to print and sell candid photos of celebrities?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Laws differ by country, so my answer applies to the United States... In general, if a person is in a place where they don't have a reasonable expectation of privacy (street, shopping center, etc.) you are allowed to take their picture and publish it (newspaper, tv, Internet, etc.) if it's in the public interest. For example, if you are walking down the street on a hot day and I take a picture of you wiping sweat off your brow I can publish the picture in the newspaper, without your permission, to illustrate an article about the hot weather. However, I can not use that picture in an advertisement for sunscreen (or anything else for that matter) without your permission. There are exceptions to this rule that protect people from libel and invasion of privacy, but there's no law requiring news organizations from blurring out faces.","I think [this article in Wikimedia Commons]( URL_0 ) summarizes the differences: > The following examples do not require consent in many countries: An anonymous street performer An anonymous person, in a public place, especially as part of a larger crowd People taking part in a public event at a privately-owned venue, for example, a press conference at an office building A basketball player competing in a match which is open to the public > The following examples typically require consent A man and woman talking, entitled \"A prostitute speaks to her pimp\" (possible defamation) An identifiable child, entitled \"An obese girl\" (potentially derogatory or demeaning) Partygoers at a private party, unless press is specifically invited (unreasonable intrusion without consent) Nudes, underwear or swimsuit shots, unless obviously taken in a public place – even if the subject's face \\ is obscured (unreasonable intrusion without consent) Long-lens images, taken from afar, of an individual in a private place (unreasonable intrusion)","As a former newspaper employee in the US, our rule was: If you were legally allowed to stand where you were when the picture was taken and didn't need the photo equipment (telephoto,night vision, etc) to see, then the photo is legal to print. However, only under exceptional circumstances would we choose to print without permission. Why? You want the people in the news to be willing to talk to you. Asking and respecting the answer garners goodwill and cooperation."," > but it's perfectly legal for papparazzi and tabloids to print and sell candid photos of celebrities? That's kind of a misconception. In a lot of cases, said celebrities can (and some have) sue the paparazzi for taking the picture or the tabloids for publishing them, but they don't. The reason they don't is because they know that if they sue too much, the paparazzi will actually stop, and they don't *want* them to stop, it's annoying, but for a lot of them, that's pretty much free publicity.","There is a legal difference between public figures and non public figures. Public figures have lower privacy rights and higher burdens when suing for libel and slander.","It's not illegal for new programmes and other major media sources to show people's faces without having consent (in public). So there's your answer.","When it comes to privacy law, your position in life matters. For example, many states have lax privacy laws for public figures. The idea is that since you have decided to become an actor, or essentially a person who performs publicly, then by doing so you waive some of your right to privacy. If you become a politician you voluntarily put yourself out there as a public figure and so waive some of your right to privacy. Most private citizens have a large amount of privacy rights, until they give it up voluntarily. The only time you don't give it up voluntarily exactly is if you become a news report- especially for something violent. If you kill twenty people they don't give a shit about your privacy they will report everything they find out about you.","Fun fact: a good number of these supposedly candid pap shots are arranged by the celeb in question, and they're paid for it.","Actually in the US you don't need permission to publish images of an adult taken in a public place. That's why street photography is legal. News papers don't need permission either. Blurred faces are most often courtesy or for minors","Hey, just a heads up, asking a legal question on reddit will almost always leave you more uninformed than you were to start with.","Pretend you and your mom are at a park. You're five years old. You get there, you start playing in the sandbox. You look over and some people are gathering around your mom. They're other parents, discussing the recent PTA meeting. Nobody pays you any mind. They talk for a long time, and a student reporter who happened to be nearby takes a picture to put in the school newspaper (PTA RELAX AT THE PARK!). It's been a couple hours, and your mom finally comes to get you. When you're leaving, you ask your mom who those people were, what you were talking about, why they were taking her picture. She answers, and you listen and, satisfied, fall asleep in the car seat. Edit: Court cases! Tl;Dr: You don't spur public debate, you don't forward public interest, and you don't possess the resources to block or otherwise tame the bad mean things said about you that can cause harm. Therefore, your privacy is more important than a public figure's. Here's one. Curtis Publishing Co. V. Butts. Little legal difference between public figures and public officials -- essentially lumping everybody I just said into one category. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote: \"Many who do not hold public office at the moment are nevertheless intimately involved in the resolution of important public questions or, by reason of their fame, shape events in areas of concern to society at large.\" This was for a libel case, but the idea still holds up. Public officials and public figures alike have a massive hand in shaping public opinion, spurring talk and debate, and forwarding public interest whether we recognize it or not (nobody LIKES those tabloids, but how many are sold a day?). As well as this, and established in another court case (Gertz v. Robert Welch Inc.): \"Public officials and public figures usually enjoy significantly greater access to the channels of effective communication and hence have a more realistic opportunity to counteract false statements than private individuals normally enjoy. Private individuals are therefore more vulnerable to injury, and the state interest in protecting them is correspondingly greater...\" Basically outlining the idea that, not only do public figures spur debate and provide for society's best interests, but they also have a more-than-normal power to deflect or otherwise change the news or debate that disfavors them through the use of money and status, and therefore the state focuses more resources on protecting your rights than theirs.","People are right here about the expectation of privacy and the difference between public and private figures but there is also just plain old caution. The benefit of publishing a picture of someone without consent often doesn't outweigh the cost of fighting a lawsuit(even if bullshit) or dealing with people angry that their picture was published. Or, even worse, the person they showed was in hiding say from an abuser or some other person intending them harm and the picture helps locate them.","They can and do show people's pictures in group street shots. It's when they run a piece about \"the obesity epidemic\" where they show muffin tops trotting around that they blur the faces. If it's for some sort of advertisement, or where a company gains profit by the shot, then they'll need a release to be signed. It's cheaper to blur the faces on those.","The reason for this is because of the difference between public and private people. A public person is someone like the president or famous actor. The Supreme Court ruled that public people have less privacy rights. I believe the reason for this is because public people need to be open to criticism. The actual definition of what a public person is is more complicated, but it basically boils down to a person that has been thrust into the public spotlight. Jimmy down the road is not a public person, but if he runs for Congress or his dad runs for Congress, he would be. Everyone else has more privacy rights. Now, this does not mean that people always have to get consent to film people withot blurred faces, but it does mean that if you are in a situation where you would expect privacy, you'll receive it.","Is it actually illegal for new outlets to not blur your face, or do they do it to avoid any potential lawsuit...just a blanket policy because it is cheaper to do it that way than deal with lawsuits?","Paparazzi are used so the people can decide which celebrity will be sacrificed for the next corn harvest."],"string":"[\n \"Laws differ by country, so my answer applies to the United States... In general, if a person is in a place where they don't have a reasonable expectation of privacy (street, shopping center, etc.) you are allowed to take their picture and publish it (newspaper, tv, Internet, etc.) if it's in the public interest. For example, if you are walking down the street on a hot day and I take a picture of you wiping sweat off your brow I can publish the picture in the newspaper, without your permission, to illustrate an article about the hot weather. However, I can not use that picture in an advertisement for sunscreen (or anything else for that matter) without your permission. There are exceptions to this rule that protect people from libel and invasion of privacy, but there's no law requiring news organizations from blurring out faces.\",\n \"I think [this article in Wikimedia Commons]( URL_0 ) summarizes the differences: > The following examples do not require consent in many countries: An anonymous street performer An anonymous person, in a public place, especially as part of a larger crowd People taking part in a public event at a privately-owned venue, for example, a press conference at an office building A basketball player competing in a match which is open to the public > The following examples typically require consent A man and woman talking, entitled \\\"A prostitute speaks to her pimp\\\" (possible defamation) An identifiable child, entitled \\\"An obese girl\\\" (potentially derogatory or demeaning) Partygoers at a private party, unless press is specifically invited (unreasonable intrusion without consent) Nudes, underwear or swimsuit shots, unless obviously taken in a public place – even if the subject's face \\\\ is obscured (unreasonable intrusion without consent) Long-lens images, taken from afar, of an individual in a private place (unreasonable intrusion)\",\n \"As a former newspaper employee in the US, our rule was: If you were legally allowed to stand where you were when the picture was taken and didn't need the photo equipment (telephoto,night vision, etc) to see, then the photo is legal to print. However, only under exceptional circumstances would we choose to print without permission. Why? You want the people in the news to be willing to talk to you. Asking and respecting the answer garners goodwill and cooperation.\",\n \" > but it's perfectly legal for papparazzi and tabloids to print and sell candid photos of celebrities? That's kind of a misconception. In a lot of cases, said celebrities can (and some have) sue the paparazzi for taking the picture or the tabloids for publishing them, but they don't. The reason they don't is because they know that if they sue too much, the paparazzi will actually stop, and they don't *want* them to stop, it's annoying, but for a lot of them, that's pretty much free publicity.\",\n \"There is a legal difference between public figures and non public figures. Public figures have lower privacy rights and higher burdens when suing for libel and slander.\",\n \"It's not illegal for new programmes and other major media sources to show people's faces without having consent (in public). So there's your answer.\",\n \"When it comes to privacy law, your position in life matters. For example, many states have lax privacy laws for public figures. The idea is that since you have decided to become an actor, or essentially a person who performs publicly, then by doing so you waive some of your right to privacy. If you become a politician you voluntarily put yourself out there as a public figure and so waive some of your right to privacy. Most private citizens have a large amount of privacy rights, until they give it up voluntarily. The only time you don't give it up voluntarily exactly is if you become a news report- especially for something violent. If you kill twenty people they don't give a shit about your privacy they will report everything they find out about you.\",\n \"Fun fact: a good number of these supposedly candid pap shots are arranged by the celeb in question, and they're paid for it.\",\n \"Actually in the US you don't need permission to publish images of an adult taken in a public place. That's why street photography is legal. News papers don't need permission either. Blurred faces are most often courtesy or for minors\",\n \"Hey, just a heads up, asking a legal question on reddit will almost always leave you more uninformed than you were to start with.\",\n \"Pretend you and your mom are at a park. You're five years old. You get there, you start playing in the sandbox. You look over and some people are gathering around your mom. They're other parents, discussing the recent PTA meeting. Nobody pays you any mind. They talk for a long time, and a student reporter who happened to be nearby takes a picture to put in the school newspaper (PTA RELAX AT THE PARK!). It's been a couple hours, and your mom finally comes to get you. When you're leaving, you ask your mom who those people were, what you were talking about, why they were taking her picture. She answers, and you listen and, satisfied, fall asleep in the car seat. Edit: Court cases! Tl;Dr: You don't spur public debate, you don't forward public interest, and you don't possess the resources to block or otherwise tame the bad mean things said about you that can cause harm. Therefore, your privacy is more important than a public figure's. Here's one. Curtis Publishing Co. V. Butts. Little legal difference between public figures and public officials -- essentially lumping everybody I just said into one category. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote: \\\"Many who do not hold public office at the moment are nevertheless intimately involved in the resolution of important public questions or, by reason of their fame, shape events in areas of concern to society at large.\\\" This was for a libel case, but the idea still holds up. Public officials and public figures alike have a massive hand in shaping public opinion, spurring talk and debate, and forwarding public interest whether we recognize it or not (nobody LIKES those tabloids, but how many are sold a day?). As well as this, and established in another court case (Gertz v. Robert Welch Inc.): \\\"Public officials and public figures usually enjoy significantly greater access to the channels of effective communication and hence have a more realistic opportunity to counteract false statements than private individuals normally enjoy. Private individuals are therefore more vulnerable to injury, and the state interest in protecting them is correspondingly greater...\\\" Basically outlining the idea that, not only do public figures spur debate and provide for society's best interests, but they also have a more-than-normal power to deflect or otherwise change the news or debate that disfavors them through the use of money and status, and therefore the state focuses more resources on protecting your rights than theirs.\",\n \"People are right here about the expectation of privacy and the difference between public and private figures but there is also just plain old caution. The benefit of publishing a picture of someone without consent often doesn't outweigh the cost of fighting a lawsuit(even if bullshit) or dealing with people angry that their picture was published. Or, even worse, the person they showed was in hiding say from an abuser or some other person intending them harm and the picture helps locate them.\",\n \"They can and do show people's pictures in group street shots. It's when they run a piece about \\\"the obesity epidemic\\\" where they show muffin tops trotting around that they blur the faces. If it's for some sort of advertisement, or where a company gains profit by the shot, then they'll need a release to be signed. It's cheaper to blur the faces on those.\",\n \"The reason for this is because of the difference between public and private people. A public person is someone like the president or famous actor. The Supreme Court ruled that public people have less privacy rights. I believe the reason for this is because public people need to be open to criticism. The actual definition of what a public person is is more complicated, but it basically boils down to a person that has been thrust into the public spotlight. Jimmy down the road is not a public person, but if he runs for Congress or his dad runs for Congress, he would be. Everyone else has more privacy rights. Now, this does not mean that people always have to get consent to film people withot blurred faces, but it does mean that if you are in a situation where you would expect privacy, you'll receive it.\",\n \"Is it actually illegal for new outlets to not blur your face, or do they do it to avoid any potential lawsuit...just a blanket policy because it is cheaper to do it that way than deal with lawsuits?\",\n \"Paparazzi are used so the people can decide which celebrity will be sacrificed for the next corn harvest.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["civil action against organizations that publish photos of nude celebrities without a model release, and this restricts the availability of such photos through the print media. On the Internet, the difficulty of identifying offenders and applying court sanction makes circulation of such photographs much less risky. Such photographs circulate through many online photo distribution channels such as Usenet and Internet forums, and commercial operators, often in countries beyond the reach of courts, also offer such photos for commercial gain. Copyright restrictions are often ignored.\nIn some cases, when the depicted person is young and the photo is an actual photo,","-35.546321087284014"],["on the internet by numerous online mug shot publishing sites.\nSome organizations attempt to respond to this privacy-related concern. For example, the 2005 Wikimania conference required that photographers have the prior permission of the people in their pictures, albeit this made it impossible for photographers to practice candid photography and doing the same in a public place would violate the photographers' free speech rights. Some people wore a \"no photos\" tag to indicate they would prefer not to have their photo taken .\nThe Harvard Law Review published a short piece called \"In The Face of Danger: Facial Recognition and Privacy Law\",","-34.434925984242"],["People have rights to their images (shōzōken, droit de image). The law is especially strict when that which is taken, or the taking, is in any sense shameful. Exception is made for photos of famous people in public places and news photography by registered news media outlets where favour is given to the public right to know. South Africa In South Africa, photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law","-33.21576896868646"],["is scheduled to begin, but the police have no authority to prohibit the event.\nDefamation is a crime only if the target is a private person. Defamation of corporations is never a crime unless it's covered by competition regulations or similar legislation. Sentences have never been given for publishing pro-drug propaganda.\nThere are no restrictions regarding obscenity. It's illegal to display obscene visual material in a public place in a manner that is likely to cause public offense. In practice this means that obscene photos and videos may be shown only in places where they are expected to be seen, while there","-32.35774084809236"],["the photos appear \"nude, bruised, bloodied or in a broken state with open wounds, a state of dismemberment or decapitation.\"\n\"We have to walk the line between open record laws and the constitutional provisions that allow women to be able to be photographed nude or in pornography when they knowingly and willingly offer their bodies for dissemination,\" Chambers stated. \"Meredith isn't in a position to give that kind of permission to have her exploited in that kind of venue...we're not only protecting future victims of crime, we're protecting the integrity of what happened to Meredith.\"\nHustler's response was through an email that","-32.048736698459834"],["much of it explaining how \"privacy law, in its current form, is of no help to those unwillingly tagged.\" Any individual can be unwillingly tagged in a photo and displayed in a manner that might violate them personally in some way, and by the time Facebook gets to taking down the photo, many people will have already had the chance to view, share, or distribute it. Furthermore, traditional tort law does not protect people who are captured by a photograph in public because this is not counted as an invasion of privacy. The extensive Facebook privacy policy covers these","-32.01973495911807"],["educational, cultural, scientific or news publications, and for fine art purposes (e.g. street photography which has been uphold as legal by the courts whether done by professional or amateur photographers). However, photographing people or collecting their personal data for commercial (advertising) purposes requires their consent. The law gives photographers the right to commercially use photos of people who have not consented to the use of the images in which they appear if the depicted people have either been paid for the photo session as models (so there is no separation between editorial and commercial models in Greek law) or they","-31.910213850671425"],["and we never sell tickets to our \"shows.\"\nOur performances are always 'illegal,' staged only in unpredictable locations and public places not designed for traditional entertainment. The distribution of our clips is always through free and unrestricted media channels.\nWe are anonymous, because we act against any personality cult, against hierarchies implied by appearance, age and other visible social attributes. We cover our heads, because we oppose the very idea of using female face as a trademark for promoting any sort of goods or services.\nThe mixing of the rebel feminist punk image with the image of institutionalized defenders of prisoners' rights, is","-31.79765251003846"],["nude media of celebrities may fall under the purvue of child pornography laws, a legal regime with harsh penalties for distribution. When such photos are faked or doctored, the media is classified as simulated child pornography. History There has likely been interest in nude images of celebrities for as long as artistic nude imagery and pornography has existed. One of the more famous examples is Playboy's inaugural December 1953 issue that featured photos of Marilyn Monroe from a 1949 photo session as its first Playmate of the Month. The commercialization, promotion, and organized supply of nude celebrity images can be","-31.722944834036753"],["they can get the photographs easily from the internet. Freedom of speech On 2 February, Commissioner of Police Tang King Shing warned that anyone with the pictures on their computer could be in breach of the law, even if there was no record of distribution. This led to an immediate objection by lawmaker \"Long Hair\" Leung Kwok-hung, who led a protest of about two dozen people outside police headquarters in Wan Chai. They accused the police of sowing confusion and creating an atmosphere of \"White Terror\" among netizens. Leung urged Commissioner Tang to clarify whether merely keeping the pictures violated","-31.526831510855118"],["of publicity With the current lack of legislations to protect individuals against potential malicious use of digital cloning, the right of publicity may be the best way to protect one in a legal setting. The right of publicity, also referred to as personality rights, gives autonomy to the individual when it comes to controlling their own voice, appearance, and other aspects that essentially makes up their personality in a commercial setting. If a deepfake video or digital clone of one arises without their consent, depicting the individual taking actions or making statements that are out of their personality, they can","-31.25260099489242"],["underage photos of Liz Lee which had been circulating prior to this incident, would be permanently banned from the site and could be prosecuted for distributing child pornography. On September 7, citing copyright issues, Reddit banned its \"TheFappening\" subreddit, also saying the workload of dealing with them had become too much. Reddit banned another subreddit named \"Fappening\" on the same day. Content and affected celebrities The original release contained photos and videos of more than 100 individuals that were allegedly obtained from file storage on hacked iCloud accounts, including some the leakers claimed were A-list celebrities. Shortly after the photos","-31.18060704221716"],["Photography and the law General Australia's laws in relation to this matter are similar to that of the United States. In Australia you can generally photograph anything or anyone in a public place without permission assuming that it isn't being used in an otherwise illegal way such as defamation and does contain copyrighted material. Furthermore photographing in a place where people would reasonably expect to be afforded privacy such as in a public restroom may also be illegal. Private property While you can generally photograph private property and the people within it if you are not within the bounds of","-30.987479490970145"],["the court, whether civil or criminal, or to publish such a photograph. This includes photographs taken in a court building or the precincts of the court.\nTaking a photograph in a court can be seen as a serious offence, leading to a prison sentence. The prohibition on taking photographs in the precincts is vague. It was designed to prevent the undermining of the dignity of the court, through the exploitation of images in low brow \"picture papers\".\nPhotography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of","-30.946013723267242"],["the rightholder gives permission. It will not be infringed if the photograph is incidentally included in an artistic work, film, or broadcast. United States Local, state, and national laws govern still and motion photography. Laws vary between jurisdictions, and what is not illegal in one place may be illegal in another. Typical laws in the United States are as follows: Hong Kong In some public property owned by government, such as law courts, government buildings, libraries, civic centres and some of the museums in Hong Kong, photography is not allowed without permission from the government. It is illegal to","-30.922689765458927"],["limited this requirement to exclude persons whose photographs were taken during an event of public interest. That is, a person of public interest or equally an unknown person who is implicated in a public matter cannot claim image rights. Consequently, anyone whose photograph was incidental to a photo of some matter will be treated as part of the background and will not be able to claim their rights were violated. Aftermath Photojournalist and photographers groups took issue with the decision, arguing that it had the potential to create a chilling effect on their profession. Justice Bastarache later referred to the","-30.815977226622635"],["photographs of a person against his/her will without legal justification, even in a public place. Besides, everyone has a right to Personality Rights. People are not to be photographed, photographs of them displayed or reproduced without their prior consent. Criminal penalties include imprisonment. Additionally, photography of police officers in Macau is illegal. South Africa In South Africa photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law requires the consent of any","-30.637679057661444"],["article \"Our Flagging Rights\" in Hong Kong Law Journal.\nThe Edison Chen photo scandal brought people to harbour doubts about the Control of Obscene and Indecent Articles Ordinance, which criminalizes the distribution of obscene articles and the distribution of indecent articles without proper warnings to persons under 18. On 2 February 2008, Commissioner of Police Tang King Shing warned that sharing the photos via email, and even storing them on a personal computer, might be illegal, even if there was no record of distribution. This inaccurate statement of the law led to the objection of Leung Kwok-hung, who accused the police","-30.610782667528838"],["a policy of removing photos which they believe violate the terms and conditions of the website. Images have been removed from user pages on topics such as breastfeeding, nudes in art, apparent breasts, naked mannequins, kisses between persons of the same sex and family photos.\nIn September 2016, Norwegian author Tom Egeland published Nick Ut's iconic napalm girl photo on his Facebook page. He was banned for publishing \"a picture of a nude child\". A few weeks later, the newspaper Aftenposten published an open letter to Zuckerberg after the banning of \"Napalm Girl\", a Pulitzer Prize-winning documentary photograph from the Vietnam","-30.57898050075164"],["photographs and videos.\nGANs can be used to generate unique, realistic profile photos of people who do not exist, in order to automate creation of fake social media profiles.\nIn 2019 the state of California considered and passed on 3rd of October 2019 the bill AB-602 that bans the use of human image synthesis technologies to make fake pornography without the consent of the people depicted and bill AB-730, which prohibits distribution of manipulated videos of a political candidate within 60 days of an election were signed by Governor Gavin Newsom. Both bills were authored by Assembly member Marc Berman. The","-30.518193941214122"],["administrators of the websites which uploaded the photos, and the photographers who reportedly supplied the photos to them. However, it was uncertain whether uploading the photographs, since they were taken in a public place, could be termed as illegal, and sought a legal opinion on how to go about the investigation. Home media The film's television rights were acquired by MAA TV for an undisclosed price. The film registered a TRP rating of 10.14 during its television premiere. The television rights of the dubbed Malayalam version, Bhaiyya My Brother, were sold to Mazhavil Manorama for ₹6.5 million, which was the","-30.483745311619714"],["very important tactic for governments and politicians, and it even made its way to the famous book The 48 Laws of Power by Robert Greene, in the Law #26 titled: \"Keep your hands clean\". Photo manipulation Visual media can be transformed through photo manipulation, commonly called \"photoshopping.\" This can make a product, person, or idea seem more appealing. This is done by highlighting certain features on the product and using certain editing tools to enlarge the photo, to attract and persuade the public. Video manipulation Video manipulation is a new variant of media manipulation that targets digital video using a","-30.4440091111901"],["Secret photography Laws and ethics There are various personal privacy laws in different countries which also impact on the secret photography of individuals, and on the publication of any resulting pictures. France for instance, has very strict laws against publication of such images, while the British tabloid press will publish a variety of secret photography. Examples of the British situation include the publication of photos of Princess Diana secretly taken in a gym, and the publication of secretly taken photos of Naomi Campbell which led to a major court case.\nNews gathering organisations and media trade unions issue ethical guidelines to","-30.259988828969654"],["equip or take photographs and recording in a place of public entertainment, such as cinemas and indoor theaters.\nIn private property, photography may be prohibited or restricted by a property owner on their property.\nPhotography on private property that is generally open to the public (e.g., a shopping mall) is usually permitted unless explicitly prohibited by posted signs. Even if no such signs are posted, the property owner or agent can ask a person to stop photographing, and if the person refuses to do so, the owner or agent can ask the person to leave; in some jurisdictions, a person who refuses","-30.22248713695444"],["and selling street photography (including street portraits) is legal, even without the consent of the person being portrayed, because photography is protected as free speech and art by the First Amendment. However, the Court of Appeals for the State of New York upheld the Nussenzweig decision solely on the basis of the statute of limitations expiring and did not address the free speech and First Amendment arguments.","-30.19177985889837"],["a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel\". The IAC, Film and Video Institute recommends to follow instruction given by police as there may be a reason you are unaware of for not filming. An exception is an area that has prohibitions detailed within anti terrorism legislation. Civil proceeding can be taken if a person is filmed without consent, and privacy laws exist to protect a person where they can expect privacy. Two public locations in the UK, Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square,","-30.189026177201413"],["McKayla Maroney initially denied the images' authenticity on Twitter, then later confirmed that the photos were legitimate while also stating she was underage at the time they were taken. Victoria Justice denied that the photos were authentic but later stated on Twitter that she was pursuing legal actions and found the leak to be a massive invasion of not just her privacy, but of the privacy of all the celebrities affected by the leak. Reports in October indicated that Nick Hogan was the first male star to be directly targeted by hackers; however, Hogan denied the pictures' authenticity.\nAccording to security","-30.112731429235282"],["thus overstated because reporters and their sources do not have a license to violate criminal laws. The court wrote that defendants claimed they were journalists because they sought the protection of the privilege against revealing their sources of information, rather than finding they sought the protection of privilege because they were journalists.\nThe court noted that Apple's legal argument passed the five-part test articulated in the California case Mitchell v. Superior Court which weighed whether a subpoena should be permitted over journalists' privilege rights under the First Amendment. The court reasoned that because there was no pending motion for injunctive relief","-30.037642235984094"],["if ever by the general public. Amateur photography, which includes nude photography, which has previously been produced for personal enjoyment, is increasingly being more widely disseminated through the internet, at times without the knowledge and consent of the subject of the photograph, and to their subsequent embarrassment. Also, the use of secret photography to capture images of an unsuspecting person (undressed or not, and whether for personal use, or intended for posting on the Internet) creates additional personal privacy issues.\nSome people are made anxious by being nude or being in the presence of nude people; if this begins to interfere","-30.016518278978765"],["were leaked, several affected celebrities issued statements to either confirm or deny the photos' authenticity. Celebrities who have confirmed the photos' authenticity include Jennifer Lawrence (confirmed by her publicist), Kate Upton and her husband Justin Verlander (confirmed by Upton's lawyer), Mary Elizabeth Winstead (confirmed on Twitter), Jessica Brown Findlay (confirmed by spokesman), Kaley Cuoco (confirmed via Instagram), and Kirsten Dunst, who also criticized the iCloud service. Jill Scott confirmed on Twitter that one of the leaked photos was of her while stating that another was fake.\nCelebrities who have denied the photos' authenticity include Ariana Grande and Yvonne Strahovski. Olympic gymnast","-29.9937647995539"],["to describe people who request surgery to look like the edited version of themselves as they appear through Snapchat Filters.\nThis could serve as a trigger for more insecurities, with many utilising digital manipulation techniques as well, to modify their photos in order to meet the media-crafted ideals of thinness and perfection. According to research by the Renfrew Center Foundation, 50% of men and 70% of 18 to 35-year-old women edited their images before uploading. Therefore, 35% of respondents were also actively concerned about being tagged in unattractive photos, while 27% fretted about their appearances online. Yet, with the presence of","-29.91026768228039"],["\"fake nude pics\" of celebrities. In July 2013, an OS X-specific ransomware Trojan surfaced, which displays a web page that accuses the user of downloading pornography. Unlike its Windows-based counterparts, it does not block the entire computer, but simply exploits the behaviour of the web browser itself to frustrate attempts to close the page through normal means.\nIn July 2013, a 21-year-old man from Virginia, whose computer coincidentally did contain pornographic photographs of underage girls with whom he had conducted sexualized communications, turned himself in to police after receiving and being deceived by FBI MoneyPak Ransomware accusing him of possessing child","-29.8748837064486"],["of her children and husband, but no one was arrested. Some senior officials have threatened journalists who have been critical of the government. Many journalists practice self-censorship out of fear of government reprisal. Since 2005 there has been no official censorship and no imprisonment for defamation, though libel or slander still carries a fine of up to eight million CFA francs ($16,000). It is illegal to disseminate material deemed to be \"misogynist.\" Internet use is not restricted or monitored, although only a tiny minority of persons in the country have Internet access.\nAlthough the right of assembly is guaranteed in the","-29.872364219045267"],["process can take several months. Recently, bloggers reporting news from internet blogs have been issued press passes, which attracted much attention, but it was also found that a reporters from a conservative news website was also running an illegal pornography website, provoking criticism in that the security checks were not good enough to discover the reporter's illegal transactions.\nIn the United Kingdom, until recently only reporters with press passes for the Houses of Parliament were allowed to attend briefings, but since Tony Blair took power, freelance journalists have been allowed to participate. In addition, before this reform, briefings were treated as","-29.850080719974358"],["due to their regular exposure to the materials. It also meant that prosecutors often had to prove that purchasers were unaware of the obscene nature of material on sale prior to purchase, as those who actively sought out such material were deemed unlikely to be corrupted by it. Secondly, the offer of such materials for sale was not held to be publication, since it was merely an invitation to buy, not an actual purchase. Thirdly, the courts held in Straker v DPP [1963] 1 QB 926 that negatives for photographs could not be forfeited if it was not intended to","-29.846347163664177"],["without the consent of the originator. Some countries have revenge porn laws that prevent the publication of sexual images without consent of parties in the image. While there are many possible legal avenues for prosecution of people who knowingly breach the confidence of those sending sexual messages, in practice, nude images can be widely propagated without the consent of the originator.\nSome young people blackmail their sexual partners and former partners by threatening to release private images of them. In a study conducted by Drouin et al. analyzing sexting behaviours among young adults, it was found that men would show the","-29.83967275498435"],["in public. Only 17% of respondents express themselves freely on the Internet. Journalism Journalists often censor themselves due to threats against them or their interests from another party, editorial instructions from their supervisor[s], perceived conflicts of interest with a media organization's economic sponsors, advertisers or shareholders, etc.). Self-censorship occurs when journalists deliberately manipulate their expression out of fear of, or deference to, the sensibilities or preferences (actual or perceived) of others and without overt pressure from any specific party or institution of authority. Self-censorship of journalists is most pervasive in societies where governments have official media censorship policies and where","-29.839479967369698"],["which a series of court rulings struck down most legal restrictions on pornography. Penthouse has also, over the years, featured a number of authorized and unauthorized photos of celebrities such as Madonna and Vanessa Lynn Williams. In both cases, the photos were taken earlier in their careers and sold to Penthouse only after Madonna and Williams became famous. In Williams's case, this led to her forced resignation as Miss America 1984. The September 1984 issue in which Williams was first featured also included a layout with pornographic actress Traci Lords, who was only 15 when the photo shoot was done","-29.831997437635437"],["journalists' right to access information are violated both by the courts and the Parliament. For instance, in 2013 there were cases of journalists to whom was impeded to cover trials even though all the hearings were open. In 2013, the Parliament impeded journalists to bring their equipment and smartphones to the meeting rooms following the episode of a video recorded by a journalist on a smartphone and published on the Internet showing MPs voting with e-cards on behalf of their colleagues.\nIn January 2014, the Minister of education signed a decree to forbid educational institutions, including universities, to make information public","-29.769592888420448"],["11 attacks.\nAccording to New Jersey newspaper Hudson Reporter, this ban excludes members of the general public who want to take pictures, and the photography and filmography ban only applies for commercial or professional purposes. The general public is allowed to take pictures of PATH stations and all other Port Authority facilities except in secure and off-limits areas. There have been decisions from the United States Supreme Court stating that casual photography is covered by the First Amendment; the case law is mixed. Under the law PATH employees may not force a casual photographer to destroy or surrender their film or","-29.762429115828127"],["to access a blocked site, a message will be displayed stating that the material is illegal and that is why the site has been blocked. However, UPC does not pass on the details of customers who try to access blocked sites to An Garda Síochána. However, not all ISPs have filters in place and filters can easily be bypassed using proxy servers. Italy Production, possession, distribution of child pornography in all its forms is illegal in Italy. Italian law clearly designates child pornography as \"portraying or visually depicting any minor engaged or involved in sexually explicit activities, as well as","-29.760492046480067"],["to remedies like France's Guigou Law which forbid such photos from being published. \"People who have been treated unfairly should have civil remedies, but to be that prescriptive to put a blanket on coverage, this freedom of expression proponent is nervous about a prohibition of photographing and publishing anything.\" Al Tompkins of the Poynter Institute says the remedy for the perp walk's effect is to:\nAllow cameras inside the courtroom. If journalists can capture video of the accused in court, there is no need to chase him down the sidewalk. The courtroom video is likely to show the accused in a","-29.76042357995175"],["because \"the Internet never forgets.\" Multiple archival services store the content of most websites on a periodic basis, and that content can be retrieved at any time in the future. Discrimination Mugshot publication sites are often pulled up during routine searches online for things as innocent as employment or housing. Even if you have had your record sealed, expunged or reduced, and even if the mugshot publishing site has removed the offending photos, they can still be located. One company in Utah was recently outed in a leaked internal document for hiring \"White Hat Hackers\" to dig through internet archives","-29.74419564125128"],["be attained only through the use of editing the photos. The American Medical Associations as a whole adopted a policy to work with advertisers to work on setting up guidelines for advertisements to try to limit how much photoshop is used. The goal of this policy is to limit the amount of unrealistic expectations for body image in advertisement. Government opposition Governments are exerting pressure on advertisers, and are starting to ban photos that are too airbrushed and edited. In the United Kingdom the Advertising Standards Authority has banned an advertisement by Lancôme featuring Julia Roberts for being misleading, stating","-29.713500141304394"],["it. State courts provide varying degrees of such protection. Journalists who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed. On the journalistic side of keeping sources confidential, there is also a risk to the journalist's credibility because there can be no actual confirmation of whether the information is valid. As such it is highly discouraged for journalists to have confidential sources.","-29.698037569993176"],["for the protection of morals and for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\".\nThe Government has conflated the issue with participants being abused in the production of such images, with Martin Salter claiming the existence of snuff films where women are raped and murdered on camera in Guatemala. However, no such examples of images have been shown to exist and the sites referred to by the government are instead those produced in the UK and US with consenting actors (see \"Sites labelled as 'extreme pornography'\", below).\nThe law has been criticised for criminalising images where no crime took place","-29.68622353731189"],["purposes usually means that you are photographing for financial gain or to promote goods or services. Legal restrictions on photography In the United Kingdom there are no laws forbidding photography of private property from a public place. Photography is not restricted on land if the landowner has given permission to be on the land or the photographer has legal right to access, for example Byways Open to All Traffic or a public right of way or an area of open access land. The Metropolitan Police state in their own advice \"Members of the public and the media do not need","-29.62487357959617"],["new photo. Therefore, they will manipulate photos by editing the date or some of the background.\nAt the same time, fauxtography may sway the reliability of the photo. Institutions such as government departments and news media carry responsibility to reveal the truth with no censorship. The public relies on authoritative information to witness world events. Fauxtography brings questions and doubt to the credibility. It may turn out to be misleading and exploiting the public’s trust. Fauxtography distorts how we see our past, affects our current and future behaviour and so it has become a cause for concern. Examples An example of","-29.57403918050113"],["publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police and publishing the photographs is also legal.\nPhotography and video-taking is also permitted across the whole Athens Metro transport network, which is very popular among Greek street photographers. Hungary In Hungary, from 15 March 2014 anyone taking photographs is technically breaking the law if someone wanders into shot, under a new civil code that outlaws taking pictures without the","-29.445893172174692"],["policy, r/Coontown was banned in August 2015. TheFappening In August 2014, Reddit users began sharing a large number of naked pictures of celebrities stolen, using phishing, from their private Apple iCloud accounts. A subreddit, r/TheFappening, was created as a hub to share and discuss these stolen photos; the situation was called CelebGate by the media. The subreddit contained most of the images. Victims of \"The Fappening\" included high-profile names such as Jennifer Lawrence and Kate Upton. Some of the images may have constituted child pornography, as the photos of Liz Lee and McKayla Maroney from the leak were claimed to","-29.444773701339727"],["the private property and can't be asked to stop or delete the images, the owner can restrict recording whilst you are on the private property. Failure to comply with orders to stop recording on the private property is not a criminal offence although it may be against the terms or policy of entrance and you many be asked to leave, if you refuse to leave you may be liable for trespassing. Commercial purposes If you are seeking to photograph for commercial purposes you may be required to gain permission from anyone who was involved in the film or photograph. Commercial","-29.433722450747155"],["targeting the exploitative, abusive and bullying elements of the pornography industry, the law is aimed at sadomasochistic images regardless of the context. So low is the barrier that if taken literally it could lead to a couple who take a photo of their consensual (and legal) sexual activity being arrested for possession of that photo.\"","-29.38997843535617"],["to edit Wikipedia because the country's Internet Watch Foundation had blacklisted a single image on the site, illustrated the pitfalls of mandatory ISP filtering\". The Sydney Morning Herald has commented that \"Ironically, the banning of the image has only made it visible to more people as news sites publicise the issue and the image spreads across sites other than Wikipedia.\" an example of the Streisand effect.\nAt the time of the incident Amazon US were also displaying the image on their site and the IWF stated that it \"might yet add Amazon US to its list of 'blocked' sites for hosting","-29.381074977573007"],["they constituted \"obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children\", under the PROTECT Act of 2003. That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law. Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, saying that Wikipedia did not have \"material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it.\" Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteer to maintain the site","-29.344180551590398"],["have been incidents in which authorities intimidated journalists or other news professionals. Local journalists engage in self-censorship, particularly when coverage could adversely affect the economic or political interests of media owners. The government denies using unauthorized wiretapping or other surreptitious methods to interfere with the private lives of individuals and families, however, human rights groups and opposition politicians allege that such interference does occur.","-29.329450561665"],["the 21st century, it has become difficult to make an artistic statement in nude photography, given the proliferation of non-artistic and pornographic images which taints the subject in the perception of most viewers, limiting the opportunities to exhibit or publish the images. When they appear in mainstream consumer magazines such as Popular Photography, PC Photo, and Shutterbug; the editors receive sufficient negative response that they tend to reject the work of serious nude-image photographers. Children as subjects Several photographers have become controversial because of their nude photographs of underage subjects. David Hamilton often used erotic themes in books such as","-29.321201600832865"],["from allegations made against them. Thompson stated:\n“There are inherent difficulties in requiring journalists, who operate alone, to demonstrate, unequivocally, that filmed footage is genuine and that safeguards must be put in place to protect journalists from claims of fraud which may themselves be false but which are impossible authoritatively to disprove.” Personal life McDougall is married to the former BBC South Asia Correspondent Navdip Dhariwal with whom he has two children. They live in South Africa.","-29.30547924710845"],["have paid the photographer for obtaining the photo (this, for example, gives the right to wedding photographers to advertise their work using their photos of newly-wed couples they photographed in a professional capacity). In Greece the right to take photographs and publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police or children and publishing the photographs in a non-commercial capacity is also legal. Hong Kong In Hong","-29.2876198257145"],["in their creation. In the House of Lords debates Lord Wallace of Tankerness stated, \"Having engaged in it consensually would not be a crime, but to have a photograph of it in one's possession would be a crime. That does not seem to me to make sense\". The law has also been criticised for covering images of consenting adults—for example, including some forms of BDSM or bondage pornography.\nIn 2009 the organisation Comic Shop Voice said that the law may result in the banning of certain comic books, such as Watchmen, Batman: The Killing Joke and several collections of manga. They","-29.271301128879713"],["to penalties, but not prevented from the outset.)\nText and video information containing illegal context, such as pornography involving underage or unwilling individuals are generally censored in order to protect the victim/s of the material, and preserve the legal and ethical standards of the country/state initiating the censorship of the offensive material. Blackstone and early views In William Blackstone's Commentaries \"Freedom of the Press\" is defined as the right to be free from prior restraints. In addition, he held that a person should not be punished for speaking or writing the truth, with good motives and for justifiable ends. Truth","-29.22848953201901"],["pursued as an art form under certain circumstances. While in one prominent case the freedom of artistic expression trumped the individual's right to privacy, the legality will much depend on the individual case. Germany Germany protects the right to take photos in public, but also recognizes a \"right to one's own picture\". That means that even though pictures can often be taken without someones consent, they must not be published without the permission of the person in the picture. The law also protects specifically against defamation”.\nThis right to one's picture, however, does not extend to people who are not the","-29.20981951651629"],["only to assist the court with information which was outside the normal experience and knowledge of the judge or jury. Making photographs (computer files) In an appeal against conviction in R v Bowden (1999), the Court of Appeal held that downloading data representing indecent photographs of children from the Internet amounts to an offence within the meaning of s.1(1)(a) of the Protection of Children Act 1978. Collages In Goodland v DPP (2000), Lord Justice Simon Brown ruled that \"an image made by an exhibit which obviously consists, as this one does, of parts of two different photographs sellotaped together","-29.1668371713713"],["on the websites they operated did not rise to the level of pornography. However, the judge assigned to the case, Chief Judge Campbell, denied the motion to dismiss, noting that the U.S. Supreme Court has determined fully clothed pictures can be considered pornographic.","-29.142750950850314"],["i.e. children or people with few resources.\nIt can be controversial where the limits go for what constitutes social pornography and what is deemed to be newsworthy. For example, a news coverage may transcend to social pornography depending on what details the media choose to make public or focus on. It has been asserted that the media coverage of terror attacks at times are of a social pornographic nature, which can cause an excessive fear of terrorism.\nSome reality TV shows are considered to be social pornography, for example Big Brother and Ex on the Beach.\nPsychologists have stated that some \"help TV\"","-29.136773640930187"],["being manipulated by professionals for the media, but also with the rise of social media everyone has easy access to edit photos they post online. Countless Apps have been created to allow smartphone user tools to modify personal images. These apps allow people to edit virtually every aspect in the photo focusing on the face and body represented. With social media users and the younger generation being exposed to an extreme amount of imagery that has been manipulated the consequences have a negative impact as body ideals are unachievable. Social media has the opportunity to be used","-29.12681636074558"],["had breached her First Amendment rights, but a federal district court ruled that the photograph was not \"protected speech\" under the First Amendment.","-29.122869682963938"],["expert Nik Cubrilovic, in addition to the photographs, other personal information such as text messages, calendars, address books, phone call logs and any other data stored on their phones and backed up to the service were also likely stolen.\nOn September 20, 2014, a second batch of similar private photos of additional celebrities was leaked by hackers. On September 26, 2014, a third batch was also leaked, which was dubbed as \"The Fappening 3\". Reaction Actress Lena Dunham pleaded on Twitter for people not to view the pictures, saying doing so \"violat[es] these women over and over again. It's not okay.\"","-29.112331327516586"],["it's done well.\" Though he went on to express concern over the notion of people posing as documentarians or journalists adding,\nI think there's a larger issue here and that is, if there's one thing we don't need any more of in this particular era it's people posing as documentarians. I think there's enough skepticism to go around about people who actually are reporters, who actually are documentarians. And to undermine whatever tiny little bit of confidence might be left by pulling a stunt like this ... maybe it will make for a good comedy show. I don't know. But I don't","-29.066002077655867"],["sexually-explicit photos of their girlfriends to their friends. This is a new risk associated with new media, as prior to cell phones and email, it would be difficult to quickly distribute photos to acquaintances; with sexting, one can forward a photo in a matter of seconds.\nStudies have shown that sex crimes using digital media against minors reflect the same kind of victimization that happens offline. Family members, acquaintances and intimate partners make up the mass majority of perpetrators for digital media sex crimes. Research by the Internet Watch Foundation in 2012, estimated that 88% of self-made explicit images are \"stolen\"","-29.05140290921554"],["allows them to claim they did not pay for a story. Such indirect methods may include referring to sources as \"consultants,\" covering source's travel costs, arranging accommodations and covering meal costs, paying for local transportation, arranging their entertainment; and doing so for the source, their family and even friends.\nAccording to David Shribman of the Boston Globe, until recently, reporters treated allegations against individuals, including political officials, in much same way: They sought to verify the allegations before putting them into print. Generally, they were made public only after they had been made part of a court record, usually a lawsuit","-29.027183646219783"],["for a presentation titled \"The Internet is for Porn! How High Heels and Fishnet Have Driven Internet Innovation and Information Security\". Unisys demanded all information regarding the presentation be removed from the internet, but the Streisand effect occurred, with the censorship attempt posted on thousands of websites instead. A first for the conference, a ghost speaker @JK47theweapon had to deliver most of the presentation due to legal threats against Kubecka. Prior to beginning, the MC invited \"any hangers on or associates of the law firm of Baker & McKenzie\" to speak to the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF). Baker &","-28.99706174513267"],["threatened application may stifle expression and journalists do engage in self-censorship. The constitution and laws prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions.","-28.993972449214198"],["It is possible that that information could be made available to the authorities.\"\nWhen discussing the MAINWAY program, former U.S. Senate majority leader Trent Lott stated \"What are people worried about? What is the problem? Are you doing something you're not supposed to?\"\nJohann Hari, a British writer, argued that the \"nothing to hide\" argument is irrelevant to the placement of CCTV cameras in public places in the United Kingdom because the cameras are public areas where one is observed by many people he or she would be unfamiliar with and not in \"places where you hide\".\nIn November 2015, British Conservative Party","-28.984911164909136"],["Yayi; and a mass purchase, supposedly by government agents, was made of copies of newspapers that reported on a corruption case. Many journalists engage in self-censorship, and a number of them have been sued for libel, although judges tend to choose not to prosecute them. \"Abuse\" of the freedom of expression is punishable by imprisonment with hard labor. Still, there is an active media that is often critical of the government, although its reach is limited, partly owing to illiteracy. The most influential news media are owned by the government. Some private media receive government aid.\nThere is an unrestricted right","-28.970987871769466"],["in court on 29 October 2008, as part of a larger presentation of over 300 photographs and two videos. The defense objected to the presentation, claiming that the evidence was obtained illegally, and that the subjects shown in the video and the photographs were digitally altered to resemble the suspects. When Sayenko and Suprunyuk were asked if they recognized the people in the photographs, they replied that they did not. Judge Ivan Senchenko responded by stating: \"You are not blind.\" Valery Voronyuk, an expert on film and video editing, testified that the video was not faked or altered. The court","-28.947603088221513"],["often prohibited from criticizing the national government, and in many cases are required to distribute propaganda as if it were news. Various other forms of censorship may restrict reporting on issues the government deems sensitive. In the United States, freedom of the press is protected under the First Amendment in the Bill of Rights. Under the First Amendment, the government is not allowed to censor the press. The government does not have the right to try to control what is published and cannot prevent certain things from being published by the press. Prior constraint is an attempt by the government","-28.942212675930932"],["Family First senator Senator Steve Fielding was reported to support the censorship of hardcore pornography and fetish material under the government's plans to filter access to the web. A Family First spokeswoman confirmed that the party wants X-rated content banned for everyone, including adults.\n\nA spokesman for independent senator Nick Xenophon said: \n \"should the filtering plan go ahead, he would look to use it to block Australians from accessing overseas online casino sites, which are illegal to run in Australia\". \n Senator Xenophon has, however, stated that he has serious concerns about the plan, and in February 2009 withdrew all","-28.90322646970162"],["the laws governing any type of motion picture photography.\nIn the United States, anti-photography laws have been passed following the September 11, 2001 attacks and the increased popularity of camera phones. There might be local laws and policies governing the specific landmark or property in which one seeks to photograph. Laws on private property differ. Owners of private property in most places must authorize recording on their own property. High-profile locations Signs posted around many bridges, including the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, state that filming the structure is prohibited. The legality of such restrictions is problematic; in view of the First Amendment, restrictions","-28.878548082826455"],["have a specific provision against photography for commercial purposes without the written permission of the Mayor or the Squares' Management Team and paying a fee, and permission is needed to photograph or film for commercial purposes in the Royal Parks or on any National Trust land.\nPersistent or aggressive photography of a single individual may come under the legal definition of harassment.\nIt is contempt of court, a criminal offence, to take a photograph in any court of law of any person, being a judge of the court or a juror or a witness in or a party to any proceedings before","-28.8688405463472"],["these very reasons journalists and publishers seldom appeal to the commissioner protesting restrictions of their right of seeking, receiving, transferring, publishing or distributing information. Yet disguised restrictions exist to a considerable degree, they are often put through the economic pressure on mass media by the authorities and loyal business. The so-called \"self-censorship\" which induces journalists to refrain from disseminating information which, in their opinion, may not please the authorities, is also widespread. So in many places the right to praise the authorities is ensured, while the opposite right is just formally declared.\nIn 2008 annual report, Vladimir Lukin wrote that it","-28.86860455828719"],["citizens would stop seeking out illegal, uncensored versions if approved versions of the films were broadcast. Censorship cut out the following: alcoholic beverages, sorcery, men and women sitting too closely together or touching, closeups of women's faces, low necklines on shirts, and many others. People are sometimes edited out or objects are strategically placed to cover what is considered inappropriate. For example, a low neckline on a woman's shirt is edited to be more modest. Dialogue in foreign films is often rewritten. For example, romantic implications are replaced with marriage proposals. Religious The agents of censorship are sometimes not official","-28.855725242872722"],["needed to identify themselves manually, but could pass freely after being authorized by the facial recognition system. Use in schools In the United States, Britain, Australia and New Zealand, CCTV is widely used in schools due to its success in preventing bullying, vandalism, monitoring visitors and maintaining a record of evidence in the event of a crime. There are some restrictions on installation, with cameras not being installed in an area where there is a \"reasonable expectation of privacy\", such as bathrooms, gym locker areas and private offices (unless consent by the office occupant is given). Cameras are generally acceptable","-28.854524787864648"],["displaying her pictures on a personal website of hers.\nIn August 2016, Zuma Press, an independent press agency, filed suit against Getty for alleged copyright violations and unauthorized licensing of more than 47,000 images. Claiming copyright over public domain content Getty Images has continued the practice that Corbis (whose license it acquired in 2016) has been criticized for of claiming copyright, watermarking and selling images that are in public domain, including images related to The Holocaust like the Warsaw Ghetto boy photo or the Polish cavalry in Sochaczew photograph.","-28.8497780560283"],["House reports the government occasionally blocks access to Web sites containing pornography or information deemed offensive to the state; but that such blocked information typically does not extend to political content. In its Freedom of the Press 2012 report, Freedom House described high levels of self-censorship among media practitioners, despite few reports of official intimidation or threats.\nThe constitution provides for freedom of speech including for members of the press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. Citizens can publicly and privately criticize the government without reprisal. The constitution states that persons \"shall not be subjected to arbitrary or","-28.838324006501352"],["the body of an individual with a #MyLastShot pledge. In the article, Al Tompkins writes, \"...the use of such images is situational and should not be covered by a blanket “never publish” or “always publish” policy that allows journalists to escape tough calls.\" This stance goes contrary to Poynter's previous guidelines to stay away from showing graphic images of the crime scene. In the same week, another large media ethics institution, Reynolds Journalism Institute gave journalist Jim MacMillan a one-year grant to create new guidelines for gun violence reporting in the United States.","-28.805241573485546"],["In contrast, a celebrity may take the route of openly releasing the tape and benefit directly from royalties as well as indirectly from the publicity. The current public acceptance of celebrities with sex tapes is speculated by Joe Levy, executive editor of Rolling Stone, to be due to the easy availability of pornography, as well as couples more commonly making their own tapes due to the prevalence of video cameras.\nIn recent years there have also been occasions where celebrities have made a pornographic video for the explicit purpose of being sold as such. Famous celebrity sex tapes The following is","-28.80269866486924"],["national interest. Something bigger than pornography or unlicensed alterations to copyrighted portrayals.\nIn the story, interactive fake video is injected in a video conference call.\nThese days an actual gathering of a team around a table had become very much a rarity. It was so much simpler, and more convenient, to gather by vieway upon an exclusive circuit. Sessions could be as private and enclosed as any. No system was absolutely impenetrable, however. An opponent might easily sneak a doppelganger into a top-level conference. If accepted, such a known person could glean a great deal of information effortlessly and unnoticeably. Not just","-28.79345603226102"],["legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin stated he thought it was not illegal, though legal expert Sunny Hostin was more skeptical, describing jailbait images as \"borderline\" child pornography which may be illegal. While the images may be legal, they are often considered to be in poor taste. Jailbait is amongst the list of banned hashtags at the photo-sharing website Instagram, and the social networking website Tumblr. The term is also blocked on Google Instant. Jailbait images have been defended on the grounds of free speech, and have also been defended on the grounds they are similar to mainstream sexualised images of minors,","-28.788633112912066"],["observed to maintain decorum. Photography is often forbidden, and in some schools, the students (sometimes including non-art students) are not allowed to also be models, as it creates the possibility of conflict for the institution. Admission to and visibility of the area where a nude model is posing is tightly controlled. Disrobing is done discreetly, and the model wears a robe when not posing. It is generally prohibited for anyone (including the instructor) to touch a model. Very close examinations are only made with the permission of the model. Some institutions allow only the instructor to speak directly with a","-28.772702034475515"],["be utilized in a school setting to prevent academic dishonesty, it has been suggested that governments may also use it to suppress their people, for example, by disabling a phone's camera or antenna in the area of a protest.\nThe ability to remotely remove files and applications from a user's device has also come under fire. Apple's apparent ability to blacklist applications, rendering them unusable on any iDevice, has raised concerns about the user's rights when downloading from the App Store. As of July 2014, no applications appear on Apple's blacklist website.","-28.70874288774212"],["who has ‘the right’ to claim ownership of images to in turn edit their content and show them to others (Mannay 2016).Once a visual image is created it becomes very difficult to control its use or remove it from the public arena if participants decide that they no longer want to be represented in a fixed visual trope for time immemorial. Even if images are successfully anodised, acts to disguise images can be seen as tantamount to silencing the voice of research participants. This is particularly problematic where researchers invest in the epistemological aims of participatory approaches predicated on giving","-28.68953436164884"],["credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Although individuals and groups can engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, few residents have access to it.\nThe constitution provides for freedom of opinion, expression, and press, but the government does not always respect these rights. Private individuals are generally free to criticize the government without reprisal, but reporters and publishers risk harassment from authorities when publishing critical articles. The 2010 media law abolished prison sentences for defamation and insult, but prohibits \"inciting racial, ethnic, or religious hatred\", which is punishable by one to two years","-28.673101039079484"],["where the \"predominant impression conveyed\" is of a person under the age of 18. The Act made it illegal to own any picture depicting under-18s participating in sexual activities, or depictions of sexual activity in the presence of someone under 18 years old. The law was condemned by a coalition of graphic artists, publishers, and MPs, who feared it would criminalise graphic novels such as Lost Girls and Watchmen.\nThe government claimed that publication or supply of such material could be illegal under the Obscene Publications Act, if a jury would consider it to have a tendency to \"deprave and corrupt\".","-28.65513048322464"],["the royal family, the General Intelligence Directorate (GID), and other sensitive topics such as religion.\nThe government continues to enforce bans on the publication of selected books for religious, moral, and political reasons, some foreign films are edited prior to release, and the media is directly and indirectly censored. Authorities monitor and censor printing presses and edit articles deemed offensive before they can be printed. Journalists claim the government uses informants in newsrooms and that GID officials monitor reporting. Editors reportedly receive telephone calls from security officials instructing them how to cover events or to refrain from covering certain topics or","-28.651366523001343"],["by law”; however, the government severely restricts these rights. Individuals who criticize the government publicly or privately are subject to reprisal, including arrest. Journalists are subjected to arrest, harassment, intimidation, and violence due to their reporting. The government, including NISS, practices direct prepublication censorship of all forms of media. Journalists also practice self-censorship. NISS resorts to legal action against journalists, bringing libel lawsuits for stories critical of the government and security services. The Supreme Court in December 2011 overturned a lower court decision against several of the accused journalists, but NISS petitioned for a review of the higher court's decision.","-28.646893128287047"],["images (the NCA could not confirm whether the BBC was actually being investigated). Milner later stated to the BBC that the investigation had exposed flaws in its image moderation process that have since been addressed, and that all of the reported content was removed from the service. Objectification of women In July 2017, GMA News reported that \"a number\" of secret Facebook groups that had been engaging in illegal activity of sharing \"obscene\" photos of women had been exposed, with the Philippine National Bureau of Investigation warning group members of the possibility of being liable for violating child pornography and","-28.644684910192154"],["Internet Watch Foundation Background During 1996 the Metropolitan Police told the Internet Service Providers Association (ISPA) that the content carried by some of the newsgroups made available by them was illegal, that they considered the ISPs involved to be publishers of that material, and that they were therefore breaking the law. In August 1996, Chief Inspector Stephen French, of the Metropolitan Police Clubs & Vice Unit, sent an open letter to the ISPA, requesting that they ban access to a list of 132 newsgroups, many of which were deemed to contain pornographic images or explicit text.\nThis list is not exhaustive","-28.612298956722952"],["House copyright because the photograph was \"in the public domain from the moment of inception\". In addition, Dee Voch (The Week), a weekly Hasidic magazine from Brooklyn, also edited out the women.\nThe editing of images of women out of photographs is a common practice of Haredi newspapers. While some interpreted this practice as a result of inequality to women's rights in Hasidic Judaism, Di Tzeitung, in its statement, said it was done only because of modesty reasons, and should in no way be seen as degrading of women. Other uses The photograph was used satirically on the cover of","-28.608535810606554"],["Since a user's profile can be completely open to the public, profile images and information are viewable. Users may post personal information such as their address, telephone number, family members, relationship status and school.\nOnline spam increased such as through \"dummy\" accounts that spam users, linking them to websites containing porn or malicious information. Users who do not follow the rules may get a simple ban from the website or have their account \"frozen\".\nIn March 2012, the website was found to be in violation of federal privacy laws by keeping personal information indefinitely. As of November 2012, Nexopia was working with","-28.59182805661112"],["which can be difficult to obtain when broadcasters and agencies insist on full ownership of the footage. The other difficulty can be trying to find distribution beyond established contacts. Increasingly, online companies are giving VJs the opportunity to keep ownership of their stories and find global distribution.","-28.57715841452591"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"civil action against organizations that publish photos of nude celebrities without a model release, and this restricts the availability of such photos through the print media. On the Internet, the difficulty of identifying offenders and applying court sanction makes circulation of such photographs much less risky. Such photographs circulate through many online photo distribution channels such as Usenet and Internet forums, and commercial operators, often in countries beyond the reach of courts, also offer such photos for commercial gain. Copyright restrictions are often ignored.\\nIn some cases, when the depicted person is young and the photo is an actual photo,\",\n \"-35.546321087284014\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the internet by numerous online mug shot publishing sites.\\nSome organizations attempt to respond to this privacy-related concern. For example, the 2005 Wikimania conference required that photographers have the prior permission of the people in their pictures, albeit this made it impossible for photographers to practice candid photography and doing the same in a public place would violate the photographers' free speech rights. Some people wore a \\\"no photos\\\" tag to indicate they would prefer not to have their photo taken .\\nThe Harvard Law Review published a short piece called \\\"In The Face of Danger: Facial Recognition and Privacy Law\\\",\",\n \"-34.434925984242\"\n ],\n [\n \"People have rights to their images (shōzōken, droit de image). The law is especially strict when that which is taken, or the taking, is in any sense shameful. Exception is made for photos of famous people in public places and news photography by registered news media outlets where favour is given to the public right to know. South Africa In South Africa, photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law\",\n \"-33.21576896868646\"\n ],\n [\n \"is scheduled to begin, but the police have no authority to prohibit the event.\\nDefamation is a crime only if the target is a private person. Defamation of corporations is never a crime unless it's covered by competition regulations or similar legislation. Sentences have never been given for publishing pro-drug propaganda.\\nThere are no restrictions regarding obscenity. It's illegal to display obscene visual material in a public place in a manner that is likely to cause public offense. In practice this means that obscene photos and videos may be shown only in places where they are expected to be seen, while there\",\n \"-32.35774084809236\"\n ],\n [\n \"the photos appear \\\"nude, bruised, bloodied or in a broken state with open wounds, a state of dismemberment or decapitation.\\\"\\n\\\"We have to walk the line between open record laws and the constitutional provisions that allow women to be able to be photographed nude or in pornography when they knowingly and willingly offer their bodies for dissemination,\\\" Chambers stated. \\\"Meredith isn't in a position to give that kind of permission to have her exploited in that kind of venue...we're not only protecting future victims of crime, we're protecting the integrity of what happened to Meredith.\\\"\\nHustler's response was through an email that\",\n \"-32.048736698459834\"\n ],\n [\n \"much of it explaining how \\\"privacy law, in its current form, is of no help to those unwillingly tagged.\\\" Any individual can be unwillingly tagged in a photo and displayed in a manner that might violate them personally in some way, and by the time Facebook gets to taking down the photo, many people will have already had the chance to view, share, or distribute it. Furthermore, traditional tort law does not protect people who are captured by a photograph in public because this is not counted as an invasion of privacy. The extensive Facebook privacy policy covers these\",\n \"-32.01973495911807\"\n ],\n [\n \"educational, cultural, scientific or news publications, and for fine art purposes (e.g. street photography which has been uphold as legal by the courts whether done by professional or amateur photographers). However, photographing people or collecting their personal data for commercial (advertising) purposes requires their consent. The law gives photographers the right to commercially use photos of people who have not consented to the use of the images in which they appear if the depicted people have either been paid for the photo session as models (so there is no separation between editorial and commercial models in Greek law) or they\",\n \"-31.910213850671425\"\n ],\n [\n \"and we never sell tickets to our \\\"shows.\\\"\\nOur performances are always 'illegal,' staged only in unpredictable locations and public places not designed for traditional entertainment. The distribution of our clips is always through free and unrestricted media channels.\\nWe are anonymous, because we act against any personality cult, against hierarchies implied by appearance, age and other visible social attributes. We cover our heads, because we oppose the very idea of using female face as a trademark for promoting any sort of goods or services.\\nThe mixing of the rebel feminist punk image with the image of institutionalized defenders of prisoners' rights, is\",\n \"-31.79765251003846\"\n ],\n [\n \"nude media of celebrities may fall under the purvue of child pornography laws, a legal regime with harsh penalties for distribution. When such photos are faked or doctored, the media is classified as simulated child pornography. History There has likely been interest in nude images of celebrities for as long as artistic nude imagery and pornography has existed. One of the more famous examples is Playboy's inaugural December 1953 issue that featured photos of Marilyn Monroe from a 1949 photo session as its first Playmate of the Month. The commercialization, promotion, and organized supply of nude celebrity images can be\",\n \"-31.722944834036753\"\n ],\n [\n \"they can get the photographs easily from the internet. Freedom of speech On 2 February, Commissioner of Police Tang King Shing warned that anyone with the pictures on their computer could be in breach of the law, even if there was no record of distribution. This led to an immediate objection by lawmaker \\\"Long Hair\\\" Leung Kwok-hung, who led a protest of about two dozen people outside police headquarters in Wan Chai. They accused the police of sowing confusion and creating an atmosphere of \\\"White Terror\\\" among netizens. Leung urged Commissioner Tang to clarify whether merely keeping the pictures violated\",\n \"-31.526831510855118\"\n ],\n [\n \"of publicity With the current lack of legislations to protect individuals against potential malicious use of digital cloning, the right of publicity may be the best way to protect one in a legal setting. The right of publicity, also referred to as personality rights, gives autonomy to the individual when it comes to controlling their own voice, appearance, and other aspects that essentially makes up their personality in a commercial setting. If a deepfake video or digital clone of one arises without their consent, depicting the individual taking actions or making statements that are out of their personality, they can\",\n \"-31.25260099489242\"\n ],\n [\n \"underage photos of Liz Lee which had been circulating prior to this incident, would be permanently banned from the site and could be prosecuted for distributing child pornography. On September 7, citing copyright issues, Reddit banned its \\\"TheFappening\\\" subreddit, also saying the workload of dealing with them had become too much. Reddit banned another subreddit named \\\"Fappening\\\" on the same day. Content and affected celebrities The original release contained photos and videos of more than 100 individuals that were allegedly obtained from file storage on hacked iCloud accounts, including some the leakers claimed were A-list celebrities. Shortly after the photos\",\n \"-31.18060704221716\"\n ],\n [\n \"Photography and the law General Australia's laws in relation to this matter are similar to that of the United States. In Australia you can generally photograph anything or anyone in a public place without permission assuming that it isn't being used in an otherwise illegal way such as defamation and does contain copyrighted material. Furthermore photographing in a place where people would reasonably expect to be afforded privacy such as in a public restroom may also be illegal. Private property While you can generally photograph private property and the people within it if you are not within the bounds of\",\n \"-30.987479490970145\"\n ],\n [\n \"the court, whether civil or criminal, or to publish such a photograph. This includes photographs taken in a court building or the precincts of the court.\\nTaking a photograph in a court can be seen as a serious offence, leading to a prison sentence. The prohibition on taking photographs in the precincts is vague. It was designed to prevent the undermining of the dignity of the court, through the exploitation of images in low brow \\\"picture papers\\\".\\nPhotography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of\",\n \"-30.946013723267242\"\n ],\n [\n \"the rightholder gives permission. It will not be infringed if the photograph is incidentally included in an artistic work, film, or broadcast. United States Local, state, and national laws govern still and motion photography. Laws vary between jurisdictions, and what is not illegal in one place may be illegal in another. Typical laws in the United States are as follows: Hong Kong In some public property owned by government, such as law courts, government buildings, libraries, civic centres and some of the museums in Hong Kong, photography is not allowed without permission from the government. It is illegal to\",\n \"-30.922689765458927\"\n ],\n [\n \"limited this requirement to exclude persons whose photographs were taken during an event of public interest. That is, a person of public interest or equally an unknown person who is implicated in a public matter cannot claim image rights. Consequently, anyone whose photograph was incidental to a photo of some matter will be treated as part of the background and will not be able to claim their rights were violated. Aftermath Photojournalist and photographers groups took issue with the decision, arguing that it had the potential to create a chilling effect on their profession. Justice Bastarache later referred to the\",\n \"-30.815977226622635\"\n ],\n [\n \"photographs of a person against his/her will without legal justification, even in a public place. Besides, everyone has a right to Personality Rights. People are not to be photographed, photographs of them displayed or reproduced without their prior consent. Criminal penalties include imprisonment. Additionally, photography of police officers in Macau is illegal. South Africa In South Africa photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law requires the consent of any\",\n \"-30.637679057661444\"\n ],\n [\n \"article \\\"Our Flagging Rights\\\" in Hong Kong Law Journal.\\nThe Edison Chen photo scandal brought people to harbour doubts about the Control of Obscene and Indecent Articles Ordinance, which criminalizes the distribution of obscene articles and the distribution of indecent articles without proper warnings to persons under 18. On 2 February 2008, Commissioner of Police Tang King Shing warned that sharing the photos via email, and even storing them on a personal computer, might be illegal, even if there was no record of distribution. This inaccurate statement of the law led to the objection of Leung Kwok-hung, who accused the police\",\n \"-30.610782667528838\"\n ],\n [\n \"a policy of removing photos which they believe violate the terms and conditions of the website. Images have been removed from user pages on topics such as breastfeeding, nudes in art, apparent breasts, naked mannequins, kisses between persons of the same sex and family photos.\\nIn September 2016, Norwegian author Tom Egeland published Nick Ut's iconic napalm girl photo on his Facebook page. He was banned for publishing \\\"a picture of a nude child\\\". A few weeks later, the newspaper Aftenposten published an open letter to Zuckerberg after the banning of \\\"Napalm Girl\\\", a Pulitzer Prize-winning documentary photograph from the Vietnam\",\n \"-30.57898050075164\"\n ],\n [\n \"photographs and videos.\\nGANs can be used to generate unique, realistic profile photos of people who do not exist, in order to automate creation of fake social media profiles.\\nIn 2019 the state of California considered and passed on 3rd of October 2019 the bill AB-602 that bans the use of human image synthesis technologies to make fake pornography without the consent of the people depicted and bill AB-730, which prohibits distribution of manipulated videos of a political candidate within 60 days of an election were signed by Governor Gavin Newsom. Both bills were authored by Assembly member Marc Berman. The\",\n \"-30.518193941214122\"\n ],\n [\n \"administrators of the websites which uploaded the photos, and the photographers who reportedly supplied the photos to them. However, it was uncertain whether uploading the photographs, since they were taken in a public place, could be termed as illegal, and sought a legal opinion on how to go about the investigation. Home media The film's television rights were acquired by MAA TV for an undisclosed price. The film registered a TRP rating of 10.14 during its television premiere. The television rights of the dubbed Malayalam version, Bhaiyya My Brother, were sold to Mazhavil Manorama for ₹6.5 million, which was the\",\n \"-30.483745311619714\"\n ],\n [\n \"very important tactic for governments and politicians, and it even made its way to the famous book The 48 Laws of Power by Robert Greene, in the Law #26 titled: \\\"Keep your hands clean\\\". Photo manipulation Visual media can be transformed through photo manipulation, commonly called \\\"photoshopping.\\\" This can make a product, person, or idea seem more appealing. This is done by highlighting certain features on the product and using certain editing tools to enlarge the photo, to attract and persuade the public. Video manipulation Video manipulation is a new variant of media manipulation that targets digital video using a\",\n \"-30.4440091111901\"\n ],\n [\n \"Secret photography Laws and ethics There are various personal privacy laws in different countries which also impact on the secret photography of individuals, and on the publication of any resulting pictures. France for instance, has very strict laws against publication of such images, while the British tabloid press will publish a variety of secret photography. Examples of the British situation include the publication of photos of Princess Diana secretly taken in a gym, and the publication of secretly taken photos of Naomi Campbell which led to a major court case.\\nNews gathering organisations and media trade unions issue ethical guidelines to\",\n \"-30.259988828969654\"\n ],\n [\n \"equip or take photographs and recording in a place of public entertainment, such as cinemas and indoor theaters.\\nIn private property, photography may be prohibited or restricted by a property owner on their property.\\nPhotography on private property that is generally open to the public (e.g., a shopping mall) is usually permitted unless explicitly prohibited by posted signs. Even if no such signs are posted, the property owner or agent can ask a person to stop photographing, and if the person refuses to do so, the owner or agent can ask the person to leave; in some jurisdictions, a person who refuses\",\n \"-30.22248713695444\"\n ],\n [\n \"and selling street photography (including street portraits) is legal, even without the consent of the person being portrayed, because photography is protected as free speech and art by the First Amendment. However, the Court of Appeals for the State of New York upheld the Nussenzweig decision solely on the basis of the statute of limitations expiring and did not address the free speech and First Amendment arguments.\",\n \"-30.19177985889837\"\n ],\n [\n \"a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel\\\". The IAC, Film and Video Institute recommends to follow instruction given by police as there may be a reason you are unaware of for not filming. An exception is an area that has prohibitions detailed within anti terrorism legislation. Civil proceeding can be taken if a person is filmed without consent, and privacy laws exist to protect a person where they can expect privacy. Two public locations in the UK, Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square,\",\n \"-30.189026177201413\"\n ],\n [\n \"McKayla Maroney initially denied the images' authenticity on Twitter, then later confirmed that the photos were legitimate while also stating she was underage at the time they were taken. Victoria Justice denied that the photos were authentic but later stated on Twitter that she was pursuing legal actions and found the leak to be a massive invasion of not just her privacy, but of the privacy of all the celebrities affected by the leak. Reports in October indicated that Nick Hogan was the first male star to be directly targeted by hackers; however, Hogan denied the pictures' authenticity.\\nAccording to security\",\n \"-30.112731429235282\"\n ],\n [\n \"thus overstated because reporters and their sources do not have a license to violate criminal laws. The court wrote that defendants claimed they were journalists because they sought the protection of the privilege against revealing their sources of information, rather than finding they sought the protection of privilege because they were journalists.\\nThe court noted that Apple's legal argument passed the five-part test articulated in the California case Mitchell v. Superior Court which weighed whether a subpoena should be permitted over journalists' privilege rights under the First Amendment. The court reasoned that because there was no pending motion for injunctive relief\",\n \"-30.037642235984094\"\n ],\n [\n \"if ever by the general public. Amateur photography, which includes nude photography, which has previously been produced for personal enjoyment, is increasingly being more widely disseminated through the internet, at times without the knowledge and consent of the subject of the photograph, and to their subsequent embarrassment. Also, the use of secret photography to capture images of an unsuspecting person (undressed or not, and whether for personal use, or intended for posting on the Internet) creates additional personal privacy issues.\\nSome people are made anxious by being nude or being in the presence of nude people; if this begins to interfere\",\n \"-30.016518278978765\"\n ],\n [\n \"were leaked, several affected celebrities issued statements to either confirm or deny the photos' authenticity. Celebrities who have confirmed the photos' authenticity include Jennifer Lawrence (confirmed by her publicist), Kate Upton and her husband Justin Verlander (confirmed by Upton's lawyer), Mary Elizabeth Winstead (confirmed on Twitter), Jessica Brown Findlay (confirmed by spokesman), Kaley Cuoco (confirmed via Instagram), and Kirsten Dunst, who also criticized the iCloud service. Jill Scott confirmed on Twitter that one of the leaked photos was of her while stating that another was fake.\\nCelebrities who have denied the photos' authenticity include Ariana Grande and Yvonne Strahovski. Olympic gymnast\",\n \"-29.9937647995539\"\n ],\n [\n \"to describe people who request surgery to look like the edited version of themselves as they appear through Snapchat Filters.\\nThis could serve as a trigger for more insecurities, with many utilising digital manipulation techniques as well, to modify their photos in order to meet the media-crafted ideals of thinness and perfection. According to research by the Renfrew Center Foundation, 50% of men and 70% of 18 to 35-year-old women edited their images before uploading. Therefore, 35% of respondents were also actively concerned about being tagged in unattractive photos, while 27% fretted about their appearances online. Yet, with the presence of\",\n \"-29.91026768228039\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"fake nude pics\\\" of celebrities. In July 2013, an OS X-specific ransomware Trojan surfaced, which displays a web page that accuses the user of downloading pornography. Unlike its Windows-based counterparts, it does not block the entire computer, but simply exploits the behaviour of the web browser itself to frustrate attempts to close the page through normal means.\\nIn July 2013, a 21-year-old man from Virginia, whose computer coincidentally did contain pornographic photographs of underage girls with whom he had conducted sexualized communications, turned himself in to police after receiving and being deceived by FBI MoneyPak Ransomware accusing him of possessing child\",\n \"-29.8748837064486\"\n ],\n [\n \"of her children and husband, but no one was arrested. Some senior officials have threatened journalists who have been critical of the government. Many journalists practice self-censorship out of fear of government reprisal. Since 2005 there has been no official censorship and no imprisonment for defamation, though libel or slander still carries a fine of up to eight million CFA francs ($16,000). It is illegal to disseminate material deemed to be \\\"misogynist.\\\" Internet use is not restricted or monitored, although only a tiny minority of persons in the country have Internet access.\\nAlthough the right of assembly is guaranteed in the\",\n \"-29.872364219045267\"\n ],\n [\n \"process can take several months. Recently, bloggers reporting news from internet blogs have been issued press passes, which attracted much attention, but it was also found that a reporters from a conservative news website was also running an illegal pornography website, provoking criticism in that the security checks were not good enough to discover the reporter's illegal transactions.\\nIn the United Kingdom, until recently only reporters with press passes for the Houses of Parliament were allowed to attend briefings, but since Tony Blair took power, freelance journalists have been allowed to participate. In addition, before this reform, briefings were treated as\",\n \"-29.850080719974358\"\n ],\n [\n \"due to their regular exposure to the materials. It also meant that prosecutors often had to prove that purchasers were unaware of the obscene nature of material on sale prior to purchase, as those who actively sought out such material were deemed unlikely to be corrupted by it. Secondly, the offer of such materials for sale was not held to be publication, since it was merely an invitation to buy, not an actual purchase. Thirdly, the courts held in Straker v DPP [1963] 1 QB 926 that negatives for photographs could not be forfeited if it was not intended to\",\n \"-29.846347163664177\"\n ],\n [\n \"without the consent of the originator. Some countries have revenge porn laws that prevent the publication of sexual images without consent of parties in the image. While there are many possible legal avenues for prosecution of people who knowingly breach the confidence of those sending sexual messages, in practice, nude images can be widely propagated without the consent of the originator.\\nSome young people blackmail their sexual partners and former partners by threatening to release private images of them. In a study conducted by Drouin et al. analyzing sexting behaviours among young adults, it was found that men would show the\",\n \"-29.83967275498435\"\n ],\n [\n \"in public. Only 17% of respondents express themselves freely on the Internet. Journalism Journalists often censor themselves due to threats against them or their interests from another party, editorial instructions from their supervisor[s], perceived conflicts of interest with a media organization's economic sponsors, advertisers or shareholders, etc.). Self-censorship occurs when journalists deliberately manipulate their expression out of fear of, or deference to, the sensibilities or preferences (actual or perceived) of others and without overt pressure from any specific party or institution of authority. Self-censorship of journalists is most pervasive in societies where governments have official media censorship policies and where\",\n \"-29.839479967369698\"\n ],\n [\n \"which a series of court rulings struck down most legal restrictions on pornography. Penthouse has also, over the years, featured a number of authorized and unauthorized photos of celebrities such as Madonna and Vanessa Lynn Williams. In both cases, the photos were taken earlier in their careers and sold to Penthouse only after Madonna and Williams became famous. In Williams's case, this led to her forced resignation as Miss America 1984. The September 1984 issue in which Williams was first featured also included a layout with pornographic actress Traci Lords, who was only 15 when the photo shoot was done\",\n \"-29.831997437635437\"\n ],\n [\n \"journalists' right to access information are violated both by the courts and the Parliament. For instance, in 2013 there were cases of journalists to whom was impeded to cover trials even though all the hearings were open. In 2013, the Parliament impeded journalists to bring their equipment and smartphones to the meeting rooms following the episode of a video recorded by a journalist on a smartphone and published on the Internet showing MPs voting with e-cards on behalf of their colleagues.\\nIn January 2014, the Minister of education signed a decree to forbid educational institutions, including universities, to make information public\",\n \"-29.769592888420448\"\n ],\n [\n \"11 attacks.\\nAccording to New Jersey newspaper Hudson Reporter, this ban excludes members of the general public who want to take pictures, and the photography and filmography ban only applies for commercial or professional purposes. The general public is allowed to take pictures of PATH stations and all other Port Authority facilities except in secure and off-limits areas. There have been decisions from the United States Supreme Court stating that casual photography is covered by the First Amendment; the case law is mixed. Under the law PATH employees may not force a casual photographer to destroy or surrender their film or\",\n \"-29.762429115828127\"\n ],\n [\n \"to access a blocked site, a message will be displayed stating that the material is illegal and that is why the site has been blocked. However, UPC does not pass on the details of customers who try to access blocked sites to An Garda Síochána. However, not all ISPs have filters in place and filters can easily be bypassed using proxy servers. Italy Production, possession, distribution of child pornography in all its forms is illegal in Italy. Italian law clearly designates child pornography as \\\"portraying or visually depicting any minor engaged or involved in sexually explicit activities, as well as\",\n \"-29.760492046480067\"\n ],\n [\n \"to remedies like France's Guigou Law which forbid such photos from being published. \\\"People who have been treated unfairly should have civil remedies, but to be that prescriptive to put a blanket on coverage, this freedom of expression proponent is nervous about a prohibition of photographing and publishing anything.\\\" Al Tompkins of the Poynter Institute says the remedy for the perp walk's effect is to:\\nAllow cameras inside the courtroom. If journalists can capture video of the accused in court, there is no need to chase him down the sidewalk. The courtroom video is likely to show the accused in a\",\n \"-29.76042357995175\"\n ],\n [\n \"because \\\"the Internet never forgets.\\\" Multiple archival services store the content of most websites on a periodic basis, and that content can be retrieved at any time in the future. Discrimination Mugshot publication sites are often pulled up during routine searches online for things as innocent as employment or housing. Even if you have had your record sealed, expunged or reduced, and even if the mugshot publishing site has removed the offending photos, they can still be located. One company in Utah was recently outed in a leaked internal document for hiring \\\"White Hat Hackers\\\" to dig through internet archives\",\n \"-29.74419564125128\"\n ],\n [\n \"be attained only through the use of editing the photos. The American Medical Associations as a whole adopted a policy to work with advertisers to work on setting up guidelines for advertisements to try to limit how much photoshop is used. The goal of this policy is to limit the amount of unrealistic expectations for body image in advertisement. Government opposition Governments are exerting pressure on advertisers, and are starting to ban photos that are too airbrushed and edited. In the United Kingdom the Advertising Standards Authority has banned an advertisement by Lancôme featuring Julia Roberts for being misleading, stating\",\n \"-29.713500141304394\"\n ],\n [\n \"it. State courts provide varying degrees of such protection. Journalists who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed. On the journalistic side of keeping sources confidential, there is also a risk to the journalist's credibility because there can be no actual confirmation of whether the information is valid. As such it is highly discouraged for journalists to have confidential sources.\",\n \"-29.698037569993176\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the protection of morals and for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\\\".\\nThe Government has conflated the issue with participants being abused in the production of such images, with Martin Salter claiming the existence of snuff films where women are raped and murdered on camera in Guatemala. However, no such examples of images have been shown to exist and the sites referred to by the government are instead those produced in the UK and US with consenting actors (see \\\"Sites labelled as 'extreme pornography'\\\", below).\\nThe law has been criticised for criminalising images where no crime took place\",\n \"-29.68622353731189\"\n ],\n [\n \"purposes usually means that you are photographing for financial gain or to promote goods or services. Legal restrictions on photography In the United Kingdom there are no laws forbidding photography of private property from a public place. Photography is not restricted on land if the landowner has given permission to be on the land or the photographer has legal right to access, for example Byways Open to All Traffic or a public right of way or an area of open access land. The Metropolitan Police state in their own advice \\\"Members of the public and the media do not need\",\n \"-29.62487357959617\"\n ],\n [\n \"new photo. Therefore, they will manipulate photos by editing the date or some of the background.\\nAt the same time, fauxtography may sway the reliability of the photo. Institutions such as government departments and news media carry responsibility to reveal the truth with no censorship. The public relies on authoritative information to witness world events. Fauxtography brings questions and doubt to the credibility. It may turn out to be misleading and exploiting the public’s trust. Fauxtography distorts how we see our past, affects our current and future behaviour and so it has become a cause for concern. Examples An example of\",\n \"-29.57403918050113\"\n ],\n [\n \"publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police and publishing the photographs is also legal.\\nPhotography and video-taking is also permitted across the whole Athens Metro transport network, which is very popular among Greek street photographers. Hungary In Hungary, from 15 March 2014 anyone taking photographs is technically breaking the law if someone wanders into shot, under a new civil code that outlaws taking pictures without the\",\n \"-29.445893172174692\"\n ],\n [\n \"policy, r/Coontown was banned in August 2015. TheFappening In August 2014, Reddit users began sharing a large number of naked pictures of celebrities stolen, using phishing, from their private Apple iCloud accounts. A subreddit, r/TheFappening, was created as a hub to share and discuss these stolen photos; the situation was called CelebGate by the media. The subreddit contained most of the images. Victims of \\\"The Fappening\\\" included high-profile names such as Jennifer Lawrence and Kate Upton. Some of the images may have constituted child pornography, as the photos of Liz Lee and McKayla Maroney from the leak were claimed to\",\n \"-29.444773701339727\"\n ],\n [\n \"the private property and can't be asked to stop or delete the images, the owner can restrict recording whilst you are on the private property. Failure to comply with orders to stop recording on the private property is not a criminal offence although it may be against the terms or policy of entrance and you many be asked to leave, if you refuse to leave you may be liable for trespassing. Commercial purposes If you are seeking to photograph for commercial purposes you may be required to gain permission from anyone who was involved in the film or photograph. Commercial\",\n \"-29.433722450747155\"\n ],\n [\n \"targeting the exploitative, abusive and bullying elements of the pornography industry, the law is aimed at sadomasochistic images regardless of the context. So low is the barrier that if taken literally it could lead to a couple who take a photo of their consensual (and legal) sexual activity being arrested for possession of that photo.\\\"\",\n \"-29.38997843535617\"\n ],\n [\n \"to edit Wikipedia because the country's Internet Watch Foundation had blacklisted a single image on the site, illustrated the pitfalls of mandatory ISP filtering\\\". The Sydney Morning Herald has commented that \\\"Ironically, the banning of the image has only made it visible to more people as news sites publicise the issue and the image spreads across sites other than Wikipedia.\\\" an example of the Streisand effect.\\nAt the time of the incident Amazon US were also displaying the image on their site and the IWF stated that it \\\"might yet add Amazon US to its list of 'blocked' sites for hosting\",\n \"-29.381074977573007\"\n ],\n [\n \"they constituted \\\"obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children\\\", under the PROTECT Act of 2003. That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law. Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, saying that Wikipedia did not have \\\"material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it.\\\" Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteer to maintain the site\",\n \"-29.344180551590398\"\n ],\n [\n \"have been incidents in which authorities intimidated journalists or other news professionals. Local journalists engage in self-censorship, particularly when coverage could adversely affect the economic or political interests of media owners. The government denies using unauthorized wiretapping or other surreptitious methods to interfere with the private lives of individuals and families, however, human rights groups and opposition politicians allege that such interference does occur.\",\n \"-29.329450561665\"\n ],\n [\n \"the 21st century, it has become difficult to make an artistic statement in nude photography, given the proliferation of non-artistic and pornographic images which taints the subject in the perception of most viewers, limiting the opportunities to exhibit or publish the images. When they appear in mainstream consumer magazines such as Popular Photography, PC Photo, and Shutterbug; the editors receive sufficient negative response that they tend to reject the work of serious nude-image photographers. Children as subjects Several photographers have become controversial because of their nude photographs of underage subjects. David Hamilton often used erotic themes in books such as\",\n \"-29.321201600832865\"\n ],\n [\n \"from allegations made against them. Thompson stated:\\n“There are inherent difficulties in requiring journalists, who operate alone, to demonstrate, unequivocally, that filmed footage is genuine and that safeguards must be put in place to protect journalists from claims of fraud which may themselves be false but which are impossible authoritatively to disprove.” Personal life McDougall is married to the former BBC South Asia Correspondent Navdip Dhariwal with whom he has two children. They live in South Africa.\",\n \"-29.30547924710845\"\n ],\n [\n \"have paid the photographer for obtaining the photo (this, for example, gives the right to wedding photographers to advertise their work using their photos of newly-wed couples they photographed in a professional capacity). In Greece the right to take photographs and publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police or children and publishing the photographs in a non-commercial capacity is also legal. Hong Kong In Hong\",\n \"-29.2876198257145\"\n ],\n [\n \"in their creation. In the House of Lords debates Lord Wallace of Tankerness stated, \\\"Having engaged in it consensually would not be a crime, but to have a photograph of it in one's possession would be a crime. That does not seem to me to make sense\\\". The law has also been criticised for covering images of consenting adults—for example, including some forms of BDSM or bondage pornography.\\nIn 2009 the organisation Comic Shop Voice said that the law may result in the banning of certain comic books, such as Watchmen, Batman: The Killing Joke and several collections of manga. They\",\n \"-29.271301128879713\"\n ],\n [\n \"to penalties, but not prevented from the outset.)\\nText and video information containing illegal context, such as pornography involving underage or unwilling individuals are generally censored in order to protect the victim/s of the material, and preserve the legal and ethical standards of the country/state initiating the censorship of the offensive material. Blackstone and early views In William Blackstone's Commentaries \\\"Freedom of the Press\\\" is defined as the right to be free from prior restraints. In addition, he held that a person should not be punished for speaking or writing the truth, with good motives and for justifiable ends. Truth\",\n \"-29.22848953201901\"\n ],\n [\n \"pursued as an art form under certain circumstances. While in one prominent case the freedom of artistic expression trumped the individual's right to privacy, the legality will much depend on the individual case. Germany Germany protects the right to take photos in public, but also recognizes a \\\"right to one's own picture\\\". That means that even though pictures can often be taken without someones consent, they must not be published without the permission of the person in the picture. The law also protects specifically against defamation”.\\nThis right to one's picture, however, does not extend to people who are not the\",\n \"-29.20981951651629\"\n ],\n [\n \"only to assist the court with information which was outside the normal experience and knowledge of the judge or jury. Making photographs (computer files) In an appeal against conviction in R v Bowden (1999), the Court of Appeal held that downloading data representing indecent photographs of children from the Internet amounts to an offence within the meaning of s.1(1)(a) of the Protection of Children Act 1978. Collages In Goodland v DPP (2000), Lord Justice Simon Brown ruled that \\\"an image made by an exhibit which obviously consists, as this one does, of parts of two different photographs sellotaped together\",\n \"-29.1668371713713\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the websites they operated did not rise to the level of pornography. However, the judge assigned to the case, Chief Judge Campbell, denied the motion to dismiss, noting that the U.S. Supreme Court has determined fully clothed pictures can be considered pornographic.\",\n \"-29.142750950850314\"\n ],\n [\n \"i.e. children or people with few resources.\\nIt can be controversial where the limits go for what constitutes social pornography and what is deemed to be newsworthy. For example, a news coverage may transcend to social pornography depending on what details the media choose to make public or focus on. It has been asserted that the media coverage of terror attacks at times are of a social pornographic nature, which can cause an excessive fear of terrorism.\\nSome reality TV shows are considered to be social pornography, for example Big Brother and Ex on the Beach.\\nPsychologists have stated that some \\\"help TV\\\"\",\n \"-29.136773640930187\"\n ],\n [\n \"being manipulated by professionals for the media, but also with the rise of social media everyone has easy access to edit photos they post online. Countless Apps have been created to allow smartphone user tools to modify personal images. These apps allow people to edit virtually every aspect in the photo focusing on the face and body represented. With social media users and the younger generation being exposed to an extreme amount of imagery that has been manipulated the consequences have a negative impact as body ideals are unachievable. Social media has the opportunity to be used\",\n \"-29.12681636074558\"\n ],\n [\n \"had breached her First Amendment rights, but a federal district court ruled that the photograph was not \\\"protected speech\\\" under the First Amendment.\",\n \"-29.122869682963938\"\n ],\n [\n \"expert Nik Cubrilovic, in addition to the photographs, other personal information such as text messages, calendars, address books, phone call logs and any other data stored on their phones and backed up to the service were also likely stolen.\\nOn September 20, 2014, a second batch of similar private photos of additional celebrities was leaked by hackers. On September 26, 2014, a third batch was also leaked, which was dubbed as \\\"The Fappening 3\\\". Reaction Actress Lena Dunham pleaded on Twitter for people not to view the pictures, saying doing so \\\"violat[es] these women over and over again. It's not okay.\\\"\",\n \"-29.112331327516586\"\n ],\n [\n \"it's done well.\\\" Though he went on to express concern over the notion of people posing as documentarians or journalists adding,\\nI think there's a larger issue here and that is, if there's one thing we don't need any more of in this particular era it's people posing as documentarians. I think there's enough skepticism to go around about people who actually are reporters, who actually are documentarians. And to undermine whatever tiny little bit of confidence might be left by pulling a stunt like this ... maybe it will make for a good comedy show. I don't know. But I don't\",\n \"-29.066002077655867\"\n ],\n [\n \"sexually-explicit photos of their girlfriends to their friends. This is a new risk associated with new media, as prior to cell phones and email, it would be difficult to quickly distribute photos to acquaintances; with sexting, one can forward a photo in a matter of seconds.\\nStudies have shown that sex crimes using digital media against minors reflect the same kind of victimization that happens offline. Family members, acquaintances and intimate partners make up the mass majority of perpetrators for digital media sex crimes. Research by the Internet Watch Foundation in 2012, estimated that 88% of self-made explicit images are \\\"stolen\\\"\",\n \"-29.05140290921554\"\n ],\n [\n \"allows them to claim they did not pay for a story. Such indirect methods may include referring to sources as \\\"consultants,\\\" covering source's travel costs, arranging accommodations and covering meal costs, paying for local transportation, arranging their entertainment; and doing so for the source, their family and even friends.\\nAccording to David Shribman of the Boston Globe, until recently, reporters treated allegations against individuals, including political officials, in much same way: They sought to verify the allegations before putting them into print. Generally, they were made public only after they had been made part of a court record, usually a lawsuit\",\n \"-29.027183646219783\"\n ],\n [\n \"for a presentation titled \\\"The Internet is for Porn! How High Heels and Fishnet Have Driven Internet Innovation and Information Security\\\". Unisys demanded all information regarding the presentation be removed from the internet, but the Streisand effect occurred, with the censorship attempt posted on thousands of websites instead. A first for the conference, a ghost speaker @JK47theweapon had to deliver most of the presentation due to legal threats against Kubecka. Prior to beginning, the MC invited \\\"any hangers on or associates of the law firm of Baker & McKenzie\\\" to speak to the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF). Baker &\",\n \"-28.99706174513267\"\n ],\n [\n \"threatened application may stifle expression and journalists do engage in self-censorship. The constitution and laws prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions.\",\n \"-28.993972449214198\"\n ],\n [\n \"It is possible that that information could be made available to the authorities.\\\"\\nWhen discussing the MAINWAY program, former U.S. Senate majority leader Trent Lott stated \\\"What are people worried about? What is the problem? Are you doing something you're not supposed to?\\\"\\nJohann Hari, a British writer, argued that the \\\"nothing to hide\\\" argument is irrelevant to the placement of CCTV cameras in public places in the United Kingdom because the cameras are public areas where one is observed by many people he or she would be unfamiliar with and not in \\\"places where you hide\\\".\\nIn November 2015, British Conservative Party\",\n \"-28.984911164909136\"\n ],\n [\n \"Yayi; and a mass purchase, supposedly by government agents, was made of copies of newspapers that reported on a corruption case. Many journalists engage in self-censorship, and a number of them have been sued for libel, although judges tend to choose not to prosecute them. \\\"Abuse\\\" of the freedom of expression is punishable by imprisonment with hard labor. Still, there is an active media that is often critical of the government, although its reach is limited, partly owing to illiteracy. The most influential news media are owned by the government. Some private media receive government aid.\\nThere is an unrestricted right\",\n \"-28.970987871769466\"\n ],\n [\n \"in court on 29 October 2008, as part of a larger presentation of over 300 photographs and two videos. The defense objected to the presentation, claiming that the evidence was obtained illegally, and that the subjects shown in the video and the photographs were digitally altered to resemble the suspects. When Sayenko and Suprunyuk were asked if they recognized the people in the photographs, they replied that they did not. Judge Ivan Senchenko responded by stating: \\\"You are not blind.\\\" Valery Voronyuk, an expert on film and video editing, testified that the video was not faked or altered. The court\",\n \"-28.947603088221513\"\n ],\n [\n \"often prohibited from criticizing the national government, and in many cases are required to distribute propaganda as if it were news. Various other forms of censorship may restrict reporting on issues the government deems sensitive. In the United States, freedom of the press is protected under the First Amendment in the Bill of Rights. Under the First Amendment, the government is not allowed to censor the press. The government does not have the right to try to control what is published and cannot prevent certain things from being published by the press. Prior constraint is an attempt by the government\",\n \"-28.942212675930932\"\n ],\n [\n \"Family First senator Senator Steve Fielding was reported to support the censorship of hardcore pornography and fetish material under the government's plans to filter access to the web. A Family First spokeswoman confirmed that the party wants X-rated content banned for everyone, including adults.\\n\\nA spokesman for independent senator Nick Xenophon said: \\n \\\"should the filtering plan go ahead, he would look to use it to block Australians from accessing overseas online casino sites, which are illegal to run in Australia\\\". \\n Senator Xenophon has, however, stated that he has serious concerns about the plan, and in February 2009 withdrew all\",\n \"-28.90322646970162\"\n ],\n [\n \"the laws governing any type of motion picture photography.\\nIn the United States, anti-photography laws have been passed following the September 11, 2001 attacks and the increased popularity of camera phones. There might be local laws and policies governing the specific landmark or property in which one seeks to photograph. Laws on private property differ. Owners of private property in most places must authorize recording on their own property. High-profile locations Signs posted around many bridges, including the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, state that filming the structure is prohibited. The legality of such restrictions is problematic; in view of the First Amendment, restrictions\",\n \"-28.878548082826455\"\n ],\n [\n \"have a specific provision against photography for commercial purposes without the written permission of the Mayor or the Squares' Management Team and paying a fee, and permission is needed to photograph or film for commercial purposes in the Royal Parks or on any National Trust land.\\nPersistent or aggressive photography of a single individual may come under the legal definition of harassment.\\nIt is contempt of court, a criminal offence, to take a photograph in any court of law of any person, being a judge of the court or a juror or a witness in or a party to any proceedings before\",\n \"-28.8688405463472\"\n ],\n [\n \"these very reasons journalists and publishers seldom appeal to the commissioner protesting restrictions of their right of seeking, receiving, transferring, publishing or distributing information. Yet disguised restrictions exist to a considerable degree, they are often put through the economic pressure on mass media by the authorities and loyal business. The so-called \\\"self-censorship\\\" which induces journalists to refrain from disseminating information which, in their opinion, may not please the authorities, is also widespread. So in many places the right to praise the authorities is ensured, while the opposite right is just formally declared.\\nIn 2008 annual report, Vladimir Lukin wrote that it\",\n \"-28.86860455828719\"\n ],\n [\n \"citizens would stop seeking out illegal, uncensored versions if approved versions of the films were broadcast. Censorship cut out the following: alcoholic beverages, sorcery, men and women sitting too closely together or touching, closeups of women's faces, low necklines on shirts, and many others. People are sometimes edited out or objects are strategically placed to cover what is considered inappropriate. For example, a low neckline on a woman's shirt is edited to be more modest. Dialogue in foreign films is often rewritten. For example, romantic implications are replaced with marriage proposals. Religious The agents of censorship are sometimes not official\",\n \"-28.855725242872722\"\n ],\n [\n \"needed to identify themselves manually, but could pass freely after being authorized by the facial recognition system. Use in schools In the United States, Britain, Australia and New Zealand, CCTV is widely used in schools due to its success in preventing bullying, vandalism, monitoring visitors and maintaining a record of evidence in the event of a crime. There are some restrictions on installation, with cameras not being installed in an area where there is a \\\"reasonable expectation of privacy\\\", such as bathrooms, gym locker areas and private offices (unless consent by the office occupant is given). Cameras are generally acceptable\",\n \"-28.854524787864648\"\n ],\n [\n \"displaying her pictures on a personal website of hers.\\nIn August 2016, Zuma Press, an independent press agency, filed suit against Getty for alleged copyright violations and unauthorized licensing of more than 47,000 images. Claiming copyright over public domain content Getty Images has continued the practice that Corbis (whose license it acquired in 2016) has been criticized for of claiming copyright, watermarking and selling images that are in public domain, including images related to The Holocaust like the Warsaw Ghetto boy photo or the Polish cavalry in Sochaczew photograph.\",\n \"-28.8497780560283\"\n ],\n [\n \"House reports the government occasionally blocks access to Web sites containing pornography or information deemed offensive to the state; but that such blocked information typically does not extend to political content. In its Freedom of the Press 2012 report, Freedom House described high levels of self-censorship among media practitioners, despite few reports of official intimidation or threats.\\nThe constitution provides for freedom of speech including for members of the press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. Citizens can publicly and privately criticize the government without reprisal. The constitution states that persons \\\"shall not be subjected to arbitrary or\",\n \"-28.838324006501352\"\n ],\n [\n \"the body of an individual with a #MyLastShot pledge. In the article, Al Tompkins writes, \\\"...the use of such images is situational and should not be covered by a blanket “never publish” or “always publish” policy that allows journalists to escape tough calls.\\\" This stance goes contrary to Poynter's previous guidelines to stay away from showing graphic images of the crime scene. In the same week, another large media ethics institution, Reynolds Journalism Institute gave journalist Jim MacMillan a one-year grant to create new guidelines for gun violence reporting in the United States.\",\n \"-28.805241573485546\"\n ],\n [\n \"In contrast, a celebrity may take the route of openly releasing the tape and benefit directly from royalties as well as indirectly from the publicity. The current public acceptance of celebrities with sex tapes is speculated by Joe Levy, executive editor of Rolling Stone, to be due to the easy availability of pornography, as well as couples more commonly making their own tapes due to the prevalence of video cameras.\\nIn recent years there have also been occasions where celebrities have made a pornographic video for the explicit purpose of being sold as such. Famous celebrity sex tapes The following is\",\n \"-28.80269866486924\"\n ],\n [\n \"national interest. Something bigger than pornography or unlicensed alterations to copyrighted portrayals.\\nIn the story, interactive fake video is injected in a video conference call.\\nThese days an actual gathering of a team around a table had become very much a rarity. It was so much simpler, and more convenient, to gather by vieway upon an exclusive circuit. Sessions could be as private and enclosed as any. No system was absolutely impenetrable, however. An opponent might easily sneak a doppelganger into a top-level conference. If accepted, such a known person could glean a great deal of information effortlessly and unnoticeably. Not just\",\n \"-28.79345603226102\"\n ],\n [\n \"legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin stated he thought it was not illegal, though legal expert Sunny Hostin was more skeptical, describing jailbait images as \\\"borderline\\\" child pornography which may be illegal. While the images may be legal, they are often considered to be in poor taste. Jailbait is amongst the list of banned hashtags at the photo-sharing website Instagram, and the social networking website Tumblr. The term is also blocked on Google Instant. Jailbait images have been defended on the grounds of free speech, and have also been defended on the grounds they are similar to mainstream sexualised images of minors,\",\n \"-28.788633112912066\"\n ],\n [\n \"observed to maintain decorum. Photography is often forbidden, and in some schools, the students (sometimes including non-art students) are not allowed to also be models, as it creates the possibility of conflict for the institution. Admission to and visibility of the area where a nude model is posing is tightly controlled. Disrobing is done discreetly, and the model wears a robe when not posing. It is generally prohibited for anyone (including the instructor) to touch a model. Very close examinations are only made with the permission of the model. Some institutions allow only the instructor to speak directly with a\",\n \"-28.772702034475515\"\n ],\n [\n \"be utilized in a school setting to prevent academic dishonesty, it has been suggested that governments may also use it to suppress their people, for example, by disabling a phone's camera or antenna in the area of a protest.\\nThe ability to remotely remove files and applications from a user's device has also come under fire. Apple's apparent ability to blacklist applications, rendering them unusable on any iDevice, has raised concerns about the user's rights when downloading from the App Store. As of July 2014, no applications appear on Apple's blacklist website.\",\n \"-28.70874288774212\"\n ],\n [\n \"who has ‘the right’ to claim ownership of images to in turn edit their content and show them to others (Mannay 2016).Once a visual image is created it becomes very difficult to control its use or remove it from the public arena if participants decide that they no longer want to be represented in a fixed visual trope for time immemorial. Even if images are successfully anodised, acts to disguise images can be seen as tantamount to silencing the voice of research participants. This is particularly problematic where researchers invest in the epistemological aims of participatory approaches predicated on giving\",\n \"-28.68953436164884\"\n ],\n [\n \"credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Although individuals and groups can engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, few residents have access to it.\\nThe constitution provides for freedom of opinion, expression, and press, but the government does not always respect these rights. Private individuals are generally free to criticize the government without reprisal, but reporters and publishers risk harassment from authorities when publishing critical articles. The 2010 media law abolished prison sentences for defamation and insult, but prohibits \\\"inciting racial, ethnic, or religious hatred\\\", which is punishable by one to two years\",\n \"-28.673101039079484\"\n ],\n [\n \"where the \\\"predominant impression conveyed\\\" is of a person under the age of 18. The Act made it illegal to own any picture depicting under-18s participating in sexual activities, or depictions of sexual activity in the presence of someone under 18 years old. The law was condemned by a coalition of graphic artists, publishers, and MPs, who feared it would criminalise graphic novels such as Lost Girls and Watchmen.\\nThe government claimed that publication or supply of such material could be illegal under the Obscene Publications Act, if a jury would consider it to have a tendency to \\\"deprave and corrupt\\\".\",\n \"-28.65513048322464\"\n ],\n [\n \"the royal family, the General Intelligence Directorate (GID), and other sensitive topics such as religion.\\nThe government continues to enforce bans on the publication of selected books for religious, moral, and political reasons, some foreign films are edited prior to release, and the media is directly and indirectly censored. Authorities monitor and censor printing presses and edit articles deemed offensive before they can be printed. Journalists claim the government uses informants in newsrooms and that GID officials monitor reporting. Editors reportedly receive telephone calls from security officials instructing them how to cover events or to refrain from covering certain topics or\",\n \"-28.651366523001343\"\n ],\n [\n \"by law”; however, the government severely restricts these rights. Individuals who criticize the government publicly or privately are subject to reprisal, including arrest. Journalists are subjected to arrest, harassment, intimidation, and violence due to their reporting. The government, including NISS, practices direct prepublication censorship of all forms of media. Journalists also practice self-censorship. NISS resorts to legal action against journalists, bringing libel lawsuits for stories critical of the government and security services. The Supreme Court in December 2011 overturned a lower court decision against several of the accused journalists, but NISS petitioned for a review of the higher court's decision.\",\n \"-28.646893128287047\"\n ],\n [\n \"images (the NCA could not confirm whether the BBC was actually being investigated). Milner later stated to the BBC that the investigation had exposed flaws in its image moderation process that have since been addressed, and that all of the reported content was removed from the service. Objectification of women In July 2017, GMA News reported that \\\"a number\\\" of secret Facebook groups that had been engaging in illegal activity of sharing \\\"obscene\\\" photos of women had been exposed, with the Philippine National Bureau of Investigation warning group members of the possibility of being liable for violating child pornography and\",\n \"-28.644684910192154\"\n ],\n [\n \"Internet Watch Foundation Background During 1996 the Metropolitan Police told the Internet Service Providers Association (ISPA) that the content carried by some of the newsgroups made available by them was illegal, that they considered the ISPs involved to be publishers of that material, and that they were therefore breaking the law. In August 1996, Chief Inspector Stephen French, of the Metropolitan Police Clubs & Vice Unit, sent an open letter to the ISPA, requesting that they ban access to a list of 132 newsgroups, many of which were deemed to contain pornographic images or explicit text.\\nThis list is not exhaustive\",\n \"-28.612298956722952\"\n ],\n [\n \"House copyright because the photograph was \\\"in the public domain from the moment of inception\\\". In addition, Dee Voch (The Week), a weekly Hasidic magazine from Brooklyn, also edited out the women.\\nThe editing of images of women out of photographs is a common practice of Haredi newspapers. While some interpreted this practice as a result of inequality to women's rights in Hasidic Judaism, Di Tzeitung, in its statement, said it was done only because of modesty reasons, and should in no way be seen as degrading of women. Other uses The photograph was used satirically on the cover of\",\n \"-28.608535810606554\"\n ],\n [\n \"Since a user's profile can be completely open to the public, profile images and information are viewable. Users may post personal information such as their address, telephone number, family members, relationship status and school.\\nOnline spam increased such as through \\\"dummy\\\" accounts that spam users, linking them to websites containing porn or malicious information. Users who do not follow the rules may get a simple ban from the website or have their account \\\"frozen\\\".\\nIn March 2012, the website was found to be in violation of federal privacy laws by keeping personal information indefinitely. As of November 2012, Nexopia was working with\",\n \"-28.59182805661112\"\n ],\n [\n \"which can be difficult to obtain when broadcasters and agencies insist on full ownership of the footage. The other difficulty can be trying to find distribution beyond established contacts. Increasingly, online companies are giving VJs the opportunity to keep ownership of their stories and find global distribution.\",\n \"-28.57715841452591\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":287,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2755hi"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why haven't we found a way to restore enamel on our teeth?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["I would say the most accurate answer is we don't know why we can't. If we knew why we can't, we'd probably know why we can. (Imagine asking preflight engineers why we can't fly or preantibiotic doctors why we can't cure infection) Firstly, some incorrect answers in the thread can lead us to an OK answer. That laser business is completely useless in my opinion. But the mechanism will explain why we can't do the same for enamel. Those lasers work by chemically treating and then stimulating odontoblasts (cells which create dentine, the second layer of the tooth, enamels softer little brother) to create dentine. I won't go too far into why the only reason those lasers are gaining traction is because they're lasers, but long story short is you need vital, sterile, exposed pulp tissue, which really is only found in the case of trauma. But we already know how to stimulate dentine in such situations - CaOH or MTA. Anyone interested in why this 'breakthrough' is literally nothing but a waste of money for both clinician and patient, please Google 'Cvek Pulpotomy'. We have been doing this for decades. Now, onto the question - why can't we do that with enamel? Consider how teeth are formed. An ELIcloserto5 version, is teeth are made of 3 layers like a cake. The crisp, hard, protective, water tight icing (enamel), the softer, porous, shock absorbing sponge cake (dentine), and the gelatinous jam (blood) and cream (nerve) inner filling. The critical part here, is how the icing and sponge are formed. The icing creating cells (ameloblasts) and the sponge creating cells (odontoblasts) start touching each other. Then, step by step, nanometer by nanometer, they move away from eachother, laying down icing and sponge cake as they go. The sponge cake cells move towards the jam and cream fillig, and when they are done they live in the filling, laying down sponge when stimulated for the life of the tooth.The icing cells move away from the jam cream filling, to the harsh outside world. Eventually, when the cake leaves the oven, the icing creating cells are lost. Now, the world is harsh. The outside world is full of flies and general trauma, which will wear the icing down and lose sugar (minerals from hydroxapatite - calcium and phosphate, although fluoride can go back in as an even better/harder mineral, though not naturally present). With good diligence shooing the flies away (brushing/flossing) and regular reintroduction of lost sugar (toothpaste/fluoride/that gum someone mentioned) we can replace the lost sugar. However, sugar isn't icing - some specialised cells laid down the sugar in a very particular way. As long as not to much sugar is lost and no big chunks are missing, just dusting it with sugar will work, as the exisitng icing holds enough of the pattern that there's only one way for the dusted sugar to go - the right way. We know what's in the icing - we have the recipe. But we can't lay it down with the same style and pattern the cells did. And the cells are lost. There's no stimulating them like the sponge cells. Once the icing is gone, it's gone. Edit: the comments in this thread are a testament to what I'm saying about lasers. People are almost satirical in their irrational affinity towards the study, simply because \"lasers\".","Actually good news! I can't find the article anymore, but i read (on reddit a couple weeks ago) about a recent discovery where dentists will soon be able to \"add\" enamel to our teeth using lasers or something. Basically it was saying it could be the end of fillings, cracked teeth, etc. Don't have much info, but there is hope that fillings/drilling will be a thing of the past","Dental student here. The cells that form enamel (ameloblasts) die after secreting the enamel found in teeth. Most other \"regenerative medicine\" techniques work by stimulating certain cells to produce specific substances. This is not possible with enamel because the ameloblasts are gone early after tooth formation. It is possible with dentin, which lies beneath enamel and is produced by odontoblasts. These cells are functioning throughout our lives. Link: URL_0 ","Try xposting this to /r/dentistry? Very informative folks over there.","The other important factor you have to consider is money. The dental industry is a very large multi billion if not trillion dollar industry. If you suddenly create a solution to the problem that will cause this industry to loose money, it simply won't be allowed into the market. Look at the pharmaceutical industry and the drugs they produce as a reference. Why fix the problem when you can milk it.","Well I mean I have this act mouthwash that says it rebuilds enamel. So that's pretty cool I guess. It works really well actually, but I would love for someone to comment telling me this isn't the same thing.","Another related question is: Why is there a commercial that claims their product can do exactly this, then another commercial FOR THE SAME PRODUCT says that once the enamel is gone, it's gone?","Biomaterials Science Masters student here, The recent Harvard publication on dentine regeneration would not be applied to enamel as the material composition is very different. Enamel is an inorganic composition of Hydroxyapatite (very similar calcium based ceramic found in bone). The ameloblasts as someone mentioned earlier is only found during the development phase of the tooth. There is a very small percentage of proteins found in the enamel and is solely used as a shock absorber so the layer doesn't propagate fracture. [Article]( URL_1 ) [News report]( URL_0 ) At this stage, this is the best approach. Until artificially stimulating ameloblasts to undergo repetition of their phase cycle. Restoration, rather than regeneration.","we actually just found a way to use stem cells to regrow teeth URL_0 ","Growing teeth is like growing fingers and toes. Very specialised. There are 3 major groups in teeth, the enamel, the dentine and the pulp complex which includes the nerve and blood supply. That's like skin, bone and vessels/nerves in your fingers. Now, the enamel is exclusively hydroxyapatite (mineral content) with some carbon based material scattered (roughly 2%). There is no regenerative function because simply aren't any cells in there to GROW it. The only thing you can do is if it softens up (demineralizes), you can 'remineralize' it but that requires the lattice of structure to be largely intact. So essentially, you can strengthen it before it gets lost, but you can't lose it and get it back. The second layer of tooth is dentine which is about 70% mineral and the rest water with very FEW cells laid out in between. This layer can be 'relayered' at the part closest to the pulp but it too will never be 'regenerated'. By regeneration, what I'm referring to is the ability for the tooth to reform its original shape. The third layer is the vascular and nerve bundle (the pulp) and in children, it may regenerate itself but in adults, it will almost certainly kill itself if irritated too much. Restoration is only in the form of dental fillings, crowns and veneers due to the fact that enamel has NO cells to regenerate itself.","Degredation of enamel is caused by acids, which are Hydrogen (H+) ions dissolved in the moisture of the mouth, bonding to hydroxyl (OH-) groups in enamel's chemical structure. Probably resulting in H2O as a by-product if memory serves. The enamel is dissolved into a hydrocarbon and water. The only way to restore enamel would be to re-add the OH- groups to the enamel molecule's framework. Typically, we slow the dissolving action by saturating our mouth with Flouride ions, F-. F- is one of the few ions that is more electronegative than OH-. More electronegative means the H+ ions are more strongly attracted to the Flouride ions than the Hydroxyl groups in enamel. When F- ions are present, the H+ ions are neutralized by them, and the OH- ions are not. This suspends the decay process. Unfortunately, F- ions in strong concentrations are unhealthy. So reversing decay is probably chemically not possible.","The reason is very simple. Far to much money to be made. If we where able to rebuild enamel it would mean that dentist wouldn't be needed as much. If it was something as simple as a pill or a paste you put on your teeth and they are white with no cavities think of all the business that would be out over night. All the tooth brush makers and tooth paste makers, and the people who make white strips and then not to mention the dentist. Then add in all the schools all over the country/world that get paid $100k for each students to go to school to become dentist. IMO the reason we haven't figured it out is money. To much money is to be made by not figuring it out.","The fact that you're wondering that means you're not old enough that doctors tell you \"yea that's just something you live with now\" when you come in with a problem. How we handle teeth is pretty much par for the course.","Because discovering shit is hard. People don't just get baked in a lab and talk about how cool stuff would be. They spend tens of thousands of hours trying out different things and most of those don't work.","Because every dentist has at least one mortgage and wants to go on vacation.","Dentist here. The whole thread seems like gibberish. I'd say enamel is formed when the tooth buds are unerupted. By specialised cells called ameloblasts. Once erupted there remains some specialised cells in the dentine near the pulp but they only deposit dentine. On the inside meaning narrowing the pulp chamber. I guess the why you're looking for is that the enamel is the outermost bony structure and exposed to the oral environment with another bony structure(dentine) underlying it. For growth to occur rigid structures like these must expand but being bony in nature they are unable to remodel what's more ameloblasts are not present to produce enamel. Sry gtg.","I wanna know why there isn't an easier method to clean our teeth, other than brushing. You'd think there would be a gum, or mouthwash, or combo of the two that could clean them as well as little plastic bristles on a stick.","After you guys went to the moon, the number 1 goal for people should have been to automate dentistry.","Teeth don't grow the way fingers and hair does, they don't come out of our bodies and build up gradually. When we are born they grow inside our faces, like they literally sit up there under other teeth, and slowly surface as we get older, teeth could potentially be jump-started to grow again inside our cheeks, built by the circulatory systems in our gums and pop out again like a shark's, but once they are out they're basically like the armor of a turtle, they cannot be re-padded with the same stuff that they came out with, they can only be polished or patched with other chemicals. Maybe one day, but I think it's more feasible to just get a new tooth installed on an artificial mount. I bet in the near future scientists will be able to trick our bodies to start growing new teeth again, and on that day we will truly have revolutionized the dental world, as well as potentially put a lot of people out of business. [Source]( URL_0 )","Late to the party and most likely no one will see this and I hope Im not repeating if posted already but.....XYLITOL! I make a toothpaste and mouth rinse with it (and calcium lactate, to work together synergistically). Remineralizes your teeth and has saved a few of mine that had begun to crack from chewing ice. You can purchase xylitol chewing gum for this reason too!","as long as your teeth aren't your largest risk factor for death... who gives a shit if theyre yellow? We are sentient beings. You only care about your tooth color because the opposite gender generally zombies out for the big \"they\"","This whole thread is just... so, so depressing. I love my teeth and the fact that they will never be white again makes me want to cry. This is terrible What is this I hear about bleaching, does anyone know?","Because dentists would be unemployed largely. You would decimate the dental assistant sector of employment. There is no money in curing diseases but plenty in treating them.","Because it is more profitable to see toothpaste and mouthwash and Whitening and dentures than it would be to have a 1 stop fix for enamel repair","The cells that form enamel aren't present anymore once the teeth start erupting - it's not like bone where bone cells constantly reabsorb and rebuild damaged bone.","Dental sales rep here...I hope to God fillings aren't a thing of the past...or I'm out of a job. Ugh.","What about those toothpastes that promise to restore and protect enamel? Are they lies and waste of money?","I just bought a tub of enamel and I spread it on my teeth every night before bed.","[Because crowns etc are stronger and anyway we CAN fully regrow teeth from stem cells.]( URL_0 )","We also can't replace hyaline cartilage in our joints. That's why there are knee replacements.","Late to the party but... Actually, its been done recently Source : URL_0 ","Ben Affleck seems to have done it. hmmm"],"string":"[\n \"I would say the most accurate answer is we don't know why we can't. If we knew why we can't, we'd probably know why we can. (Imagine asking preflight engineers why we can't fly or preantibiotic doctors why we can't cure infection) Firstly, some incorrect answers in the thread can lead us to an OK answer. That laser business is completely useless in my opinion. But the mechanism will explain why we can't do the same for enamel. Those lasers work by chemically treating and then stimulating odontoblasts (cells which create dentine, the second layer of the tooth, enamels softer little brother) to create dentine. I won't go too far into why the only reason those lasers are gaining traction is because they're lasers, but long story short is you need vital, sterile, exposed pulp tissue, which really is only found in the case of trauma. But we already know how to stimulate dentine in such situations - CaOH or MTA. Anyone interested in why this 'breakthrough' is literally nothing but a waste of money for both clinician and patient, please Google 'Cvek Pulpotomy'. We have been doing this for decades. Now, onto the question - why can't we do that with enamel? Consider how teeth are formed. An ELIcloserto5 version, is teeth are made of 3 layers like a cake. The crisp, hard, protective, water tight icing (enamel), the softer, porous, shock absorbing sponge cake (dentine), and the gelatinous jam (blood) and cream (nerve) inner filling. The critical part here, is how the icing and sponge are formed. The icing creating cells (ameloblasts) and the sponge creating cells (odontoblasts) start touching each other. Then, step by step, nanometer by nanometer, they move away from eachother, laying down icing and sponge cake as they go. The sponge cake cells move towards the jam and cream fillig, and when they are done they live in the filling, laying down sponge when stimulated for the life of the tooth.The icing cells move away from the jam cream filling, to the harsh outside world. Eventually, when the cake leaves the oven, the icing creating cells are lost. Now, the world is harsh. The outside world is full of flies and general trauma, which will wear the icing down and lose sugar (minerals from hydroxapatite - calcium and phosphate, although fluoride can go back in as an even better/harder mineral, though not naturally present). With good diligence shooing the flies away (brushing/flossing) and regular reintroduction of lost sugar (toothpaste/fluoride/that gum someone mentioned) we can replace the lost sugar. However, sugar isn't icing - some specialised cells laid down the sugar in a very particular way. As long as not to much sugar is lost and no big chunks are missing, just dusting it with sugar will work, as the exisitng icing holds enough of the pattern that there's only one way for the dusted sugar to go - the right way. We know what's in the icing - we have the recipe. But we can't lay it down with the same style and pattern the cells did. And the cells are lost. There's no stimulating them like the sponge cells. Once the icing is gone, it's gone. Edit: the comments in this thread are a testament to what I'm saying about lasers. People are almost satirical in their irrational affinity towards the study, simply because \\\"lasers\\\".\",\n \"Actually good news! I can't find the article anymore, but i read (on reddit a couple weeks ago) about a recent discovery where dentists will soon be able to \\\"add\\\" enamel to our teeth using lasers or something. Basically it was saying it could be the end of fillings, cracked teeth, etc. Don't have much info, but there is hope that fillings/drilling will be a thing of the past\",\n \"Dental student here. The cells that form enamel (ameloblasts) die after secreting the enamel found in teeth. Most other \\\"regenerative medicine\\\" techniques work by stimulating certain cells to produce specific substances. This is not possible with enamel because the ameloblasts are gone early after tooth formation. It is possible with dentin, which lies beneath enamel and is produced by odontoblasts. These cells are functioning throughout our lives. Link: URL_0 \",\n \"Try xposting this to /r/dentistry? Very informative folks over there.\",\n \"The other important factor you have to consider is money. The dental industry is a very large multi billion if not trillion dollar industry. If you suddenly create a solution to the problem that will cause this industry to loose money, it simply won't be allowed into the market. Look at the pharmaceutical industry and the drugs they produce as a reference. Why fix the problem when you can milk it.\",\n \"Well I mean I have this act mouthwash that says it rebuilds enamel. So that's pretty cool I guess. It works really well actually, but I would love for someone to comment telling me this isn't the same thing.\",\n \"Another related question is: Why is there a commercial that claims their product can do exactly this, then another commercial FOR THE SAME PRODUCT says that once the enamel is gone, it's gone?\",\n \"Biomaterials Science Masters student here, The recent Harvard publication on dentine regeneration would not be applied to enamel as the material composition is very different. Enamel is an inorganic composition of Hydroxyapatite (very similar calcium based ceramic found in bone). The ameloblasts as someone mentioned earlier is only found during the development phase of the tooth. There is a very small percentage of proteins found in the enamel and is solely used as a shock absorber so the layer doesn't propagate fracture. [Article]( URL_1 ) [News report]( URL_0 ) At this stage, this is the best approach. Until artificially stimulating ameloblasts to undergo repetition of their phase cycle. Restoration, rather than regeneration.\",\n \"we actually just found a way to use stem cells to regrow teeth URL_0 \",\n \"Growing teeth is like growing fingers and toes. Very specialised. There are 3 major groups in teeth, the enamel, the dentine and the pulp complex which includes the nerve and blood supply. That's like skin, bone and vessels/nerves in your fingers. Now, the enamel is exclusively hydroxyapatite (mineral content) with some carbon based material scattered (roughly 2%). There is no regenerative function because simply aren't any cells in there to GROW it. The only thing you can do is if it softens up (demineralizes), you can 'remineralize' it but that requires the lattice of structure to be largely intact. So essentially, you can strengthen it before it gets lost, but you can't lose it and get it back. The second layer of tooth is dentine which is about 70% mineral and the rest water with very FEW cells laid out in between. This layer can be 'relayered' at the part closest to the pulp but it too will never be 'regenerated'. By regeneration, what I'm referring to is the ability for the tooth to reform its original shape. The third layer is the vascular and nerve bundle (the pulp) and in children, it may regenerate itself but in adults, it will almost certainly kill itself if irritated too much. Restoration is only in the form of dental fillings, crowns and veneers due to the fact that enamel has NO cells to regenerate itself.\",\n \"Degredation of enamel is caused by acids, which are Hydrogen (H+) ions dissolved in the moisture of the mouth, bonding to hydroxyl (OH-) groups in enamel's chemical structure. Probably resulting in H2O as a by-product if memory serves. The enamel is dissolved into a hydrocarbon and water. The only way to restore enamel would be to re-add the OH- groups to the enamel molecule's framework. Typically, we slow the dissolving action by saturating our mouth with Flouride ions, F-. F- is one of the few ions that is more electronegative than OH-. More electronegative means the H+ ions are more strongly attracted to the Flouride ions than the Hydroxyl groups in enamel. When F- ions are present, the H+ ions are neutralized by them, and the OH- ions are not. This suspends the decay process. Unfortunately, F- ions in strong concentrations are unhealthy. So reversing decay is probably chemically not possible.\",\n \"The reason is very simple. Far to much money to be made. If we where able to rebuild enamel it would mean that dentist wouldn't be needed as much. If it was something as simple as a pill or a paste you put on your teeth and they are white with no cavities think of all the business that would be out over night. All the tooth brush makers and tooth paste makers, and the people who make white strips and then not to mention the dentist. Then add in all the schools all over the country/world that get paid $100k for each students to go to school to become dentist. IMO the reason we haven't figured it out is money. To much money is to be made by not figuring it out.\",\n \"The fact that you're wondering that means you're not old enough that doctors tell you \\\"yea that's just something you live with now\\\" when you come in with a problem. How we handle teeth is pretty much par for the course.\",\n \"Because discovering shit is hard. People don't just get baked in a lab and talk about how cool stuff would be. They spend tens of thousands of hours trying out different things and most of those don't work.\",\n \"Because every dentist has at least one mortgage and wants to go on vacation.\",\n \"Dentist here. The whole thread seems like gibberish. I'd say enamel is formed when the tooth buds are unerupted. By specialised cells called ameloblasts. Once erupted there remains some specialised cells in the dentine near the pulp but they only deposit dentine. On the inside meaning narrowing the pulp chamber. I guess the why you're looking for is that the enamel is the outermost bony structure and exposed to the oral environment with another bony structure(dentine) underlying it. For growth to occur rigid structures like these must expand but being bony in nature they are unable to remodel what's more ameloblasts are not present to produce enamel. Sry gtg.\",\n \"I wanna know why there isn't an easier method to clean our teeth, other than brushing. You'd think there would be a gum, or mouthwash, or combo of the two that could clean them as well as little plastic bristles on a stick.\",\n \"After you guys went to the moon, the number 1 goal for people should have been to automate dentistry.\",\n \"Teeth don't grow the way fingers and hair does, they don't come out of our bodies and build up gradually. When we are born they grow inside our faces, like they literally sit up there under other teeth, and slowly surface as we get older, teeth could potentially be jump-started to grow again inside our cheeks, built by the circulatory systems in our gums and pop out again like a shark's, but once they are out they're basically like the armor of a turtle, they cannot be re-padded with the same stuff that they came out with, they can only be polished or patched with other chemicals. Maybe one day, but I think it's more feasible to just get a new tooth installed on an artificial mount. I bet in the near future scientists will be able to trick our bodies to start growing new teeth again, and on that day we will truly have revolutionized the dental world, as well as potentially put a lot of people out of business. [Source]( URL_0 )\",\n \"Late to the party and most likely no one will see this and I hope Im not repeating if posted already but.....XYLITOL! I make a toothpaste and mouth rinse with it (and calcium lactate, to work together synergistically). Remineralizes your teeth and has saved a few of mine that had begun to crack from chewing ice. You can purchase xylitol chewing gum for this reason too!\",\n \"as long as your teeth aren't your largest risk factor for death... who gives a shit if theyre yellow? We are sentient beings. You only care about your tooth color because the opposite gender generally zombies out for the big \\\"they\\\"\",\n \"This whole thread is just... so, so depressing. I love my teeth and the fact that they will never be white again makes me want to cry. This is terrible What is this I hear about bleaching, does anyone know?\",\n \"Because dentists would be unemployed largely. You would decimate the dental assistant sector of employment. There is no money in curing diseases but plenty in treating them.\",\n \"Because it is more profitable to see toothpaste and mouthwash and Whitening and dentures than it would be to have a 1 stop fix for enamel repair\",\n \"The cells that form enamel aren't present anymore once the teeth start erupting - it's not like bone where bone cells constantly reabsorb and rebuild damaged bone.\",\n \"Dental sales rep here...I hope to God fillings aren't a thing of the past...or I'm out of a job. Ugh.\",\n \"What about those toothpastes that promise to restore and protect enamel? Are they lies and waste of money?\",\n \"I just bought a tub of enamel and I spread it on my teeth every night before bed.\",\n \"[Because crowns etc are stronger and anyway we CAN fully regrow teeth from stem cells.]( URL_0 )\",\n \"We also can't replace hyaline cartilage in our joints. That's why there are knee replacements.\",\n \"Late to the party but... Actually, its been done recently Source : URL_0 \",\n \"Ben Affleck seems to have done it. hmmm\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["mineral from enamel produces a cavity, through which bacteria can infect the inner tooth and destroy the latticework.This process requires many months or years. Although a key feature of tooth decay is the increase of bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus in dental plaque, it is not considered an infectious disease. Tooth Remineralisation Treatments & Preventative Strategies Besides professional dental care, there are other ways for promoting tooth remineralisation: Effect of fluoride The presence of fluoride in saliva and plaque fluid interacts with remineralisation process in many ways and thus exerts a topical or surface effect. A person","-32.634002202306874"],["(decay preventative) dentifrice that can be of significant value when used in a conscientiously applied program of oral hygiene and regular professional care.\"\nIn 1980, the Japanese company, Sangi Co., Ltd., launched APADENT, the world's first remineralizing toothpaste to use a nano-form of hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, rather than fluoride, to remineralize areas of mineral loss below the surface of tooth enamel (incipient caries lesions). After many years of laboratory experiments and field trials, its hydroxyapatite ingredient was approved as an active anti-caries agent by the Japanese Ministry of Health in 1993, and given the name Medical Hydroxyapatite","-31.355165033775847"],["walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated by utilizing proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.\nIn some circumstances, less tooth structure can be removed compared to preparation for other dental materials such as amalgam and many of the indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam","-31.014523496851325"],["Remineralisation of teeth Tooth remineralisation is the natural repair process for non-cavitated tooth lesions, in which calcium, phosphate and sometimes fluoride ions are deposited into crystal voids in demineralised enamel. Remineralisation can contribute towards restoring strength and function within tooth structure.\nDemineralization is the removal of minerals (mainly calcium) from any of the hard tissues: enamel, dentine, and cementum. It begins at the surface, and may progress into cavitation unless arrested or reversed by remineralisation. Tooth decay process When food or drinks containing fermentable sugars enter the mouth, the bacteria in dental plaque rapidly feed on the sugars and produce organic","-30.913606506364886"],["may be left more vulnerable to decay because the enamel is not able to protect the tooth.\nIn most people, disorders or diseases affecting teeth are not the primary cause of dental caries. Approximately 96% of tooth enamel is composed of minerals. These minerals, especially hydroxyapatite, will become soluble when exposed to acidic environments. Enamel begins to demineralize at a pH of 5.5. Dentin and cementum are more susceptible to caries than enamel because they have lower mineral content. Thus, when root surfaces of teeth are exposed from gingival recession or periodontal disease, caries can develop","-30.830536107867374"],["decay, where healing is possible by the hardening process of remineralisation. Where a cavity has formed from excessive demineralisation, the decay has reached the point of no return where the tooth structure has been lost and the decay is permanent and non-reversible. In this situation of cavitated decay, the cavity will have to be filled to restore the tooth. Minimal intervention dentistry is focused on filling only cavitated regions, leaving non-cavitated decay to be remineralised, thus restoring the tooth while removing as little of the tooth structure as possible, enhancing the strength and aesthetics of the restoration. Classifications of the","-30.466256376705132"],["decay. Changing the biochemical properties of saliva, potentially through the use of appropriate drugs, can help the buffering capacity of the saliva to resist changes in pH caused by plaque acid, resisting the acid attack caused by the active caries. Restoration Decay is the process or result of demineralisation (softening) of an area of dental tissue, creating a decayed lesion on the tooth. The process of restoring decay begins with an analysis of the decayed lesions together with their location and severity, with particular regard to the state of reversibility. Where decay is reversible, it is referred to as non-cavitated","-30.36897229339229"],["air across the suspect surface, which removes moisture and changes the optical properties of the unmineralized enamel.\nSome dental researchers have cautioned against the use of dental explorers to find caries, in particular sharp ended explorers. In cases where a small area of tooth has begun demineralizing but has not yet cavitated, the pressure from the dental explorer could cause a cavity. Since the carious process is reversible before a cavity is present, it may be possible to arrest caries with fluoride and remineralize the tooth surface. When a cavity is present, a restoration will be needed to replace the","-30.20730171719333"],["the amount of bacteria in the mouth that are responsible for tooth decay. After a wave of empirical studies on the efficacy of Xylitol (a sugar alcohol) a consensus report in the British Dental Journal considered it to give a reduction in the risk of caries. There is also increasing use of newer technologies such as photo-activated disinfection and treating with ozone.\nThere is also an aspect of minimising the effect of the caries to control the symptoms of decay. Constant remineralisation (hardening) with continuous application of fluoride toothpaste is highly common practice that reduces the impact of the caries on","-29.799315297743306"],["removal of dental plaque and food from the teeth, it can aid in the elimination and/or masking of halitosis when tonsil stones are not the cause, and it can deliver active ingredients such as fluoride to prevent tooth and gum (gingiva) disease.\nThere is evidence that the addition of xylitol to fluoride-containing toothpastes reduces incidence of tooth decay by about 13%. Tooth powder Tooth powder (or 'toothpaste powder') is an alternative to toothpaste. It may be recommended for people with sensitive teeth. Tooth powder typically does not contain the chemical sodium lauryl sulphate which can be a skin irritant.","-29.71939053683309"],["be replanted with little signs of resorption. Hank's Balanced Salt Solution is found in a Save-A-Tooth, a storage device for the storage, preservation, and regeneration of tooth root cells.\nHBSS also has been shown to be capable of replacing lost cell metabolites. Since a cell that has been cut off from its blood supply depletes its stored metabolites after fifteen minutes, a tooth that has been extra-oral for one hour has less vital cells to reconnect with the bone ligament cells.\nSome studies in dental research have shown that knocked out teeth that have been dry for up to one hour will","-29.068414390960243"],["selection of dentifrice should also be critically analysed and changed to include a less abrasive and gentler paste such as sensitive toothpaste as evidence suggests that a very abrasive toothpaste would lead to loss of tooth structure. A toothpaste containing increased fluoride will also help combat the increased sensitivity and risk to dental decay. Fluoride varnish is known to alleviate hypersensitivity in teeth and can be used as a preventive measure for high risk patients of dental erosion with abrasion because fluoride varnish is reported to have an effect on the surface and subsurface","-29.04026748065371"],["tooth whitening were shown to have a beneficial effect in reducing extrinsic stains, irrespective of whether or not a chemical discoloration agent was added. However, the whitening process can permanently reduce the strength of the teeth, as the process scrapes away a protective outer layer of enamel. Herbal and natural toothpastes Companies such as Tom's of Maine, among others, manufacture natural and herbal toothpastes and market them to consumers who wish to avoid the artificial ingredients commonly found in regular toothpastes. Many herbal toothpastes do not contain fluoride or sodium lauryl sulfate. The ingredients found in natural toothpastes vary widely","-29.010083325905725"],["Dental restoration Direct restorations This technique involves placing a soft or malleable filling into the prepared tooth and building up the tooth. The material is then set hard and the tooth is restored. The advantage of direct restorations is that they usually set quickly and can be placed in a single procedure. The dentist has a variety of different filling options to choose from. A decision is usually made based on the location and severity of the associated cavity. Since the material is required to set while in contact with the tooth, limited energy (heat) is passed to the tooth","-28.721887168620015"],["cover part of the enamel of the tooth. Full-porcelain restorations are particularly desirable because their color and translucency mimic natural tooth enamel.\nAnother type is known as porcelain-fused-to-metal, which is used to provide strength to a crown or bridge. These restorations are very strong, durable and resistant to wear, because the combination of porcelain and metal creates a stronger restoration than porcelain used alone.\nOne of the advantages of computerized dentistry (CAD/CAM technologies) involves the use of machinable ceramics which are sold in a partially sintered, machinable state that is fired again after machining to form a hard ceramic. Some of the","-28.636758191343688"],["forms. The minerals in the hard tissues of the teeth (enamel, dentin and cementum) are constantly undergoing processes of demineralization and remineralisation. Dental caries results when the demineralization rate is faster than the remineralisation and there is net mineral loss. This happens when there is an ecologic shift within the dental biofilm, from a balanced population of micro-organisms to a population that produce acids and can survive in an acid environment. Enamel Enamel is a highly mineralized acellular tissue, and caries act upon it through a chemical process brought on by the acidic environment produced by bacteria. As the","-28.603989195107715"],["the long-term success of a restoration. Besides working as a retentive aid to prevent the fixed prosthesis from dislodging, it also plays the role of a seal, preventing bacteria from penetrating the tooth-restoration interface.\nThe oldest material available is the zinc phosphate cement, which has been used in dentistry for more than 100 years. Following the introduction of adhesive resin systems to the market, there is now a wide range of dental materials available that can serve as luting agents. As such, they each have their own advantages and disadvantages, and can each be employed in different scenarios. The choice of","-28.588324087264482"],["loss within dental hard tissues (enamel and then dentin), the sign and symptom being a carious lesion. By preventing the dental plaque biofilm from maturing or by returning it back to a non-cariogenic state, dental caries can be prevented and arrested. This can be achieved though the behavioural step of reducing the supply of fermentable carbohydrates (i.e. sugar intake) and frequent removal of the biofilm (i.e. toothbrushing).\nA peptide pheromone quorum sensing signaling system in S. mutans includes the Competence Stimulating Peptide (CSP) that controls genetic competence. Genetic competence is the ability of a cell to take up DNA released by","-28.54493410559371"],["grooves. Preservation of tooth structure Preparing a tooth to accept a full coverage crown is relatively destructive. The procedure can damage the pulp irreversibly, through mechanical, thermal and chemical trauma and making the pulp more susceptible to bacterial invasion. Therefore, preparations must be as conservative as possible, whilst producing a strong retentive restoration. Although it may be seen as contradictory to the previous statement, at times, sound tooth structure may need to be sacrificed in order to prevent further more substantial and uncontrolled loss of tooth structure. Structural durability In order to last, the crown must be made of enough","-28.505839083125466"],["to enamel, were hard and structurally complex. The outer layers contained glass nanoparticles and aluminium oxide plates were aligned perpendicular to the surface. After the outer layers hardened, a second suspension was poured. It contained no glass, and the plates were aligned horizontally to the surface of the tooth. These deeper layers were tougher, resembling dentine. The tooth was then cooked at 1,600 degrees to compact and harden the material — a process known as sintering. The last step involved filling remaining pores with a synthetic monomer used in dentistry, which polymerizes after treatment. Hardness and durability approximated that","-28.445656456897268"],["Sodium monofluorophosphate Tooth decay Tooth decay is caused by bacteria naturally present in one's mouth. These bacteria form a sticky, colorless soft film on the teeth called plaque. When foods containing carbohydrates (starches and sugars) are eaten, the bacteria that form plaque use the sugar as a form of energy. They also turn it into a glue-like substance that helps them stick to the surface of the tooth. The plaque produces acid, which attacks the enamel. Structure The structure of the fluorophosphate anion consists of phosphorus at the center of a tetrahedron defined by three oxygen atoms and one fluorine.","-28.34817059535999"],["the reformation of enamel. Miscellaneous components Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as glycerol, sorbitol, or xylitol, or related derivatives, such as 1,2-propylene glycol and polyethyleneglycol. Strontium chloride or potassium nitrate is included in some toothpastes to reduce sensitivity. Two systemic meta-analysis reviews reported that arginine, and calcium sodium phosphosilicate - CSPS containing toothpastes are also effective in alleviating dentinal hypersensitivity respectively. Another randomized clinical trial found superior effects when both formulas were combined together.\nSodium polyphosphate is added to minimize the formation of tartar. Other","-28.24322072500945"],["tooth after it has undergone endodontic therapy. Its physical and chemical properties, including but not limited to its inertness and biocompatibility, melting point, ductility, and malleability, make it important in endodontics, e.g. as gutta-percha points. Zinc oxide is added to reduce brittleness and improve plasticity. Barium sulfate is added to provide radiopacity so that its presence and location can be verified in dental X-ray images. Substitutes Gutta-percha remained an industrial staple well into the 20th century, when it was gradually replaced with superior synthetic materials such as Bakelite, though a similar and cheaper natural material called balatá was often used","-28.220558640314266"],["within days of a tooth's erupting into the mouth if the diet is sufficiently rich in suitable carbohydrates. Evidence suggests that the introduction of fluoride treatments has slowed the process. Proximal caries take an average of four years to pass through enamel in permanent teeth. Because the cementum enveloping the root surface is not nearly as durable as the enamel encasing the crown, root caries tends to progress much more rapidly than decay on other surfaces. The progression and loss of mineralization on the root surface is 2.5 times faster than caries in enamel. In very","-28.172340906225145"],["Enamel microabrasion Enamel microabrasion is a procedure in cosmetic dentistry used to improve the appearance of the teeth. Like tooth whitening it is used to remove discolorations of the tooth surface but microabrasion is a mechanical, rather than chemical, procedure. History In the past, teeth with stains or other color changes were made to look better through the use of restorative materials, such as dental porcelain. These materials would create a thin veneer over the outer surface of the tooth. Although veneers looked better, these materials did not match the structure or characteristics of the tooth enamel and replacement","-28.130210324190557"],["Tooth regeneration Tooth regeneration is a stem cell based regenerative medicine procedure in the field of tissue engineering and stem cell biology to replace damaged or lost teeth by regrowing them from autologous stem cells.\nAs a source of the new bioengineered teeth somatic stem cells are collected and reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells which can be placed in the dental lamina directly or placed in a reabsorbable biopolymer in the shape of the new tooth History Young et al. first demonstrated in 2002 that teeth could be regenerated from cells.","-28.00464922876563"],["for remineralisation of the non-cavitated areas. Remineralisation of non-cavitated lesions Various techniques exists for remineralisation, varying from simple application of fluoride to using special substances for filling materials that interact with the tooth to aid the process from within. Glass Ionomer Cements (GICs) have been shown to undergo ion exchange with the surrounding tooth structure, and also engage in fluoride feeding. Research by Prof. Hien Ngo and others has shown that these methods can in practice heal some non-cavitated lesions. Prevention The same methods for cure of the disease can be used for prevention, as well as other techniques such","-28.0021931834126"],["cusps or incisal edges. These can be resolved by restoring and polishing sharp cusps. Then, desensitizing agents such as topical fluoride varnishes can be applied, and at home desensitising toothpastes recommended. Many restorative options have been proposed, such as direct composite restorations, bonded cast metal restorations, removable partial dentures, orthodontic treatment, crown lengthening procedures and protective splints. The decision to restore the dentition depends on the wants and needs of the patient, the severity of tooth surface loss and whether tooth surface loss is active. The use of adhesive materials to replace lost tooth structure can be performed as a","-27.884751191566465"],["Dental technician Fixed restorations A fixed dental restoration is an appliance designed to replace a tooth or teeth that may have been lost or damaged by injury, caries or other oral diseases. These restorations are distinguished from other restorations by the fact that once they have been placed by a dentist the patient can not remove them.\nSuch Restorations include; crowns, bridges, veneers, fixed implant restorations, inlays and onlays. Removable restorations Removable restorations are dental appliances to replace one or more teeth that have been completely lost. These restorations ideally remain stable in normal function but can be removed by","-27.873385512444656"],["tooth can be replanted and the halves of the ligament will reattach and the tooth will remain vital. The half that stays on the socket wall, since it remains connected to the bone blood supply, is naturally kept alive. However, the ligament cells that remain on the tooth root lose their blood and nutrition supply and must be artificially maintained. They must be protected from two potentially destructive processes: cell crushing and loss of normal cell metabolism. All treatment between the time of the accident and the ultimate replantation must be focused on preventing these two possibilities. Prevention of cell","-27.841797181521542"],["Dentifrice Toothpaste Toothpaste is a dentifrice used in conjunction with a toothbrush to help maintain oral hygiene. The essential components are an abrasive, binder, surfactant and humectant. Other ingredients are also used. The main purpose of the paste is to help remove debris and plaque with some marketed to serve accessory functions such as breath freshening and teeth whitening. Tooth powder Tooth powder is an alternative to toothpaste. Modern versions may be sold with or without fluoride.\nTooth powder was historically used among the Romans to clean and whiten teeth, to fix them when loose, to strengthen the gums, and to","-27.78289853516617"],[" The Dental Papilla → will develop to become the dental pulp and the dentine\n3) The Enamel Organ → will develop to create the enamel solely\nIt is important to note that till this point, no dental tissues have been created yet.\nWhen all of the individual components of the tooth germ have become developed, the entire cell mass would have appeared to have migrated deeper into the underlying connective tissues. This phenomenon, which will continue throughout the whole life of the teeth, is most possibly due to the cell mass moving towards a rich blood supply that can","-27.70773334481055"],["Enamel infraction Enamel infractions are microcracks seen within the dental enamel of a tooth. They are commonly the result of dental trauma to the brittle enamel, which remains adherent to the underlying dentine. They can be seen more clearly when transillumination is used.\nEnamel infractions are found more often in older teeth, as the accumulated trauma is greatest. Enamel infractions can also be found as a result of iatrogenic damage inadvertently caused by instrumentation during dental treatments. Treatment Minor infraction may not require any treatment, however major infraction may require treatment including smoothing, fluoride treatment and crown restoration.","-27.699713866692036"],["Enamel matrix derivative In dentistry, enamel matrix derivative (EMD) is an extract of porcine fetal tooth material used to biomimetically stimulate the soft and hard tissues surrounding teeth to regrow (in a process known as regeneration) following tissue destruction. Discovery of EMP's role in cementogenesis There are three hard tissues that comprise human teeth: enamel, dentin and cementum. The majority of the tooth structure is formed from dentin, and the enamel serves as the superficial layer of the crown while the cementum serves to cover the root. In the mid-1990s, however, it was discovered that a very thin","-27.597733789676568"],["GSK to withdraw its claim that Ribena Toothkind, a lower-sugar variety, did not encourage tooth decay. A company poster showed bottles of Toothkind in place of the bristles on a toothbrush. The ASA's ruling was upheld by the High Court. In 2007 GSK was fined $217,000 in New Zealand over its claim that ready-to-drink Ribena contained high levels of vitamin C, after it was found to contain no detectable vitamin C. In 2013 GSK sold Ribena and another drink, Lucozade, to the Japanese multinational Suntory for £1.35 billion. SB Pharmco Puerto Rico In 2010 the US Department of Justice announced","-27.533544029211043"],["tooth cleaning methods, and reduction of sugar consumption, he called for the cessation of the caries epidemic.\nNumerous research studies emanating from the Caries Research Station demonstrated which foodstuffs were responsible for rapid caries development. Mühlemann was able to demonstrate that topically applied fluoride reduced the acid solubility of tooth enamel and therewith incidence of dental caries. These studies led Mühlemann to the conclusion that fluoride incorporated into a dentifrice could exert a caries prophylactic effect. This conclusion was substantiated by numerous researchers at the University of Zurich Dental Institute. (Marthaler/Mühlemann/König: elmex® research). Over the course of 45 years, Prof. Thomas","-27.477483898052014"],["a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed \"polishing\" action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus.\nThe abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Too high RDA values are deleterious. Some dentists recommend toothpaste with an RDA value no higher than 50 for daily use. Fluorides Fluoride in various forms","-27.466640211991034"],["Dental alveolus Socket preservation Socket preservation or alveolar ridge preservation (ARP) is a procedure to reduce bone loss after tooth extraction to preserve the dental alveolus (tooth socket) in the alveolar bone. A platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) membrane containing bone growth enhancing elements can be stitched over the wound or a graft material or scaffold is placed in the socket of an extracted tooth. The socket is then directly closed with stitches or covered with a non-resorbable or resorbable membrane and sutured. Pathology The swelling of the dental alveoli can result in alveolitis, causing pain and discomfort to the mouth.","-27.439440838526934"],["in dentistry is on the mineral phase of dentin in order to understand its alteration with aging. These alterations lead to “transparent” dentin, which is also called sclerotic. It was shown that a ‘‘dissolution and reprecipitation’’ mechanism reigns the formation of transparent dentin. The causes and cures of these conditions can possibly be found from further studies on the role of the mineralized tissues involved. Bioinspired materials The attractive properties of mineralized tissues like nacre and bone have led to the creation of a large number of biomimetic materials. Although improvements can be made, there are several techniques used to","-27.4271482527256"],["of tooth-to-restoration contact, and should be a smooth, well-defined delineation so that the restoration, no matter how it is fabricated, can be properly adapted and not allow for any openings visible to the naked eye, however slight. An acceptable distance from tooth margin to restoration margin is anywhere from 40-100 nm. However, the R.V. Tucker method of gold inlay and onlay restoration produces tooth-to-restoration adaptation of potentially only 2 nm, confirmed by scanning electron microscopy; this is less than the diameter of a single bacterium.\nNaturally, the tooth-to-restoration margin is an unsightly thing to have exposed on the visible surface","-27.423632669553626"],["formed over the remaining surface of the enamel; this veneer is much more acid-resistant than the original hydroxyapatite, and is formed more quickly than ordinary remineralised enamel would be. The cavity-prevention effect of fluoride is partly due to these surface effects, which occur during and after tooth eruption. Fluoride interferes with the process of tooth decay as fluoride intake during the period of enamel development for up to 7 years of age; the fluoride alters the structure of the developing enamel making it more resistant to acid attack. In children and adults when teeth are subjected to the alternating","-27.369907158543356"],["tooth decay, attributed in advertisements to the supposed ingredient Irium. In a 1994 speech, the chairman of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission, Reed Hundt, claimed that the \"Irium\" mentioned in Pepsodent advertisements \"didn't exist\". \"Irium\" was being used as another name for sodium lauryl sulfate, an ionic surfactant.\nAnother ingredient, \"I.M.P.\", which stood for \"Insoluble Meta-Phosphate\", was purported to whiten teeth. Radio program Pepsodent sponsored a radio program, The Pepsodent Show Starring Bob Hope that began airing in 1938 and ran for approximately 10 years on NBC. The show featured Bob Hope and his cast of regular characters such as Jerry","-27.25614174292423"],["are at higher risk of tooth decay, and are usually placed as soon as the adult molar teeth come through. Background Dental caries is an upset of the balance between loss and gain of minerals from a tooth surface. The loss of minerals from the teeth occurs from the bacteria within the mouth, fermenting foods and producing acids, whereas the tooth gains minerals from our saliva and fluoride that is present within the mouth. When this balance is skewed due to frequent intake of fermentable carbohydrates, poor oral hygiene, and lack of fluoride consumption, there is a continuous loss and","-27.25067418187973"],["removed tissue \"from behind the third molar\" and reattached it near the canine tooth, claiming the surgery to have been a success.\nYounger practiced for some time in San Francisco, California.","-27.223462614463642"],["tooth is removed, material (usually a bone substitute) is placed in the tooth socket, it is covered with a barrier membrane, and sutured closed. Roughly 30 days after socket preservation, the barrier membrane is either removed, or it resorbs, and the callous of bone covers with new gingiva. While there is good evidence that socket preservation prevents bone loss, there is no definitive proof that this leads to higher implants success or long-term health. Medical Uses After tooth extraction, the alveolar ridge has a mean loss of width of 3.8mm, and a height loss of 1.24mm within six","-27.222608941840008"],["a failure can be as small as 1 mm of additional tooth structure that, when encased by a ferrule, provides great protection. When such a long-lasting, functional restoration cannot be predictably created, tooth extraction should be considered.\" Crown-to-root ratio The alveolar bone surrounding one tooth will naturally surround an adjacent tooth, and removing bone for a crown lengthening procedure will effectively damage the bony support of adjacent teeth to some inevitable extent, as well as unfavorably increase the crown-to-root ratio. Additionally, once bone is removed, it is almost impossible to regain it to previous levels, and in","-27.161760304647032"],["If a tooth fragment is still available, it can be bonded to the tooth. For small or minor fractures, it can be smoothed to remove rough margins and edges. For a larger or major fractures, dental composite resin can be used to mask the defective enamel for aesthetic purpose. In archaeological samples enamel fractures can give insight into the diet and behaviour of past populations.","-27.143932846724056"],["cells will die that rejection of the tooth by the body at a later time is the usual outcome. The method by which the body rejects the replanted tooth is a process called “replacement root resorption”. During this process, the tooth root cells become necrotic (dead) and will activate the immunologic mechanism of the body to attempt to remove this necrotic layer and literally eats away the tooth root. This is called “root resorption” It is a slow, but non-painful, process that is sometimes not observed by x-rays for years. Once this process starts, it is irreversible and the tooth","-27.07864754498587"],["maintain the surrounding dental tissues.\nRemovable dental prostheses (mainly dentures) are sometimes considered a form of indirect dental restoration, as they are made to replace missing teeth. There are numerous types of precision attachments (also known as combined restorations) to aid removable prosthetic attachment to teeth, including magnets, clips, hooks, and implants which may themselves be seen as a form of dental restoration.\nThe CEREC method is a chairside CAD/CAM restorative procedure. An optical impression of the prepared tooth is taken using a camera. Next, the specific software takes the digital picture and converts it into a 3D virtual model on the","-27.02800622896757"],["and flossing, if that's not possible, to prevent tooth decay and increase saliva production. Chewing gum can also help with the lack of saliva or xerostomia since it naturally stimulates saliva production. Saliva is made of chemicals, such as organic molecules, inorganic ions and macromolecules. 0.5% of saliva deals with dental health, since tooth enamel is made of calcium phosphate, those inorganic ions in saliva help repair the teeth and keep them in good condition. The pH of saliva is neutral, which having a pH of 7 allows it to remineralize tooth enamel. Falling below a pH of 5.5 (which","-27.024043759563938"],["develop in bone deprived of a budding or growing tooth. Secondly, they provided evidence to prove that the dental follicle is involved in the process. Therefore, it is only when concurrent bone deposition can be confirmed at the base of the crypt and inhibition of such bone deposition can be demonstrated to show interference with tooth eruption, then the conclusion that an eruptive pathway forming within bone means that bony remodelling is the cause for tooth formation.\nIn many studies, with the usage of tetracyclines as indicators of bone deposition have proven that bone resorption is principal activity in the fundus","-27.014469594694674"],["certain lots of Sensodyne Repair & Protect toothpaste as well as Sensodyne Complete toothpaste due to the possible presence of wood fragments in the products. The recall also applied to the company's Biotene brand of toothpaste. The recall was a precautionary measure based on a small number of complaints, and no injuries have been reported. The recall applies to products manufactured between 2013 and September 2014, and shipped from June 2013 to April 2015.","-26.92818842304405"],["extrinsic stain is present on the tooth surface. This suggests that tooth polishing should be based on the clients individual needs. Previously, tooth polishing was a service provided at every hygiene appointment, due to this many patients expect this as part of the routine care. This has placed dental professionals into an ethical dilemma on whether or not this service should be provided. Extrinsic Stain Many factors may lead to discoloration of the external layer of the tooth called the enamel. Foods and beverages such as coffee, tea, and red wine can stain the enamel. Chromogenic bacteria found in plaque","-26.8628178005456"],["This, in turn, can lead to destruction of the gingival tissues, which may progress to destruction of the periodontal attachment apparatus. The plaque accumulates in the small gaps between teeth, in the gingival grooves and in areas known as plaque traps: locations that serve to accumulate and maintain plaque. Examples of plaque traps include bulky and overhanging restorative margins, clasps of removable partial dentures and calculus (tartar) that forms on teeth. Although these accumulations may be tiny, the bacteria in them produce chemicals, such as degradative enzymes, and toxins, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS, otherwise known as endotoxin) or","-26.8310733094404"],["for its remineralizing effects on enamel, often repairing the tooth surface and reducing the risk of caries.\nThe use of fluoridated toothpaste is highly recommended by dental professionals; whereby studies suggest that the correct daily use of fluoride on the dentition of children has a high caries-preventive effect and therefore prevents has potential to prevent ECC. However, it is important to use fluoridated toothpastes correctly; children below the age of two do not usually require toothpaste unless they are already at a high risk of ECC as diagnosed by a dental professional, and therefore it is it is recommended to use","-26.814906605053693"],["professionals. Dental sealants have been shown to be more effective at preventing occlusal decay when compared to fluoride varnish applications.\nCalcium, as found in food such as milk and green vegetables, is often recommended to protect against dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent decay of a tooth by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel. Streptococcus mutans is the leading cause of tooth decay. Low concentration fluoride ions act as bacteriostatic therapeutic agent and high concentration fluoride ions are bactericidal. The incorporated fluorine makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and, thus, resistant to decay. Fluoride can be found in either topical or","-26.80573721375913"],["to correct crooked or excessively long teeth. The removed enamel is irreplaceable, and may sometimes expose dentin. It is also known as enameloplasty, odontoplasty, contouring, recontouring, slenderizing, stripping. This procedure offers fast results and can even be a substitute for braces under certain circumstances. Bonding Bonding is a process in which an enamel-like dental composite material is applied to a tooth's surface, sculpted into shape, hardened and then polished. An example of a bonding substance are inlays and onlays, which are used to repair decayed & cracked teeth. These are helped at those parts of teeth when a filling is","-26.726466307765804"],["of dentures, artificial teeth, impression trays, maxillofacial / orthodontic appliances and temporary (provisional) restorations, however they can not be used as tooth filling materials because they can lead to pulpitis and periodontitis as they may generate heat and acids during (setting) curing, and in addition they shrink. Failure of dental restorations Fillings have a finite lifespan; composites appear to have a higher failure rate than amalgam over five to seven years. How well people keep their teeth clean and avoid cavities is probably a more important factor than the material chosen for the restoration. Evaluation and regulation of","-26.709648907766677"],["introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. He asserted that sugar derivate acids like tartaric acid were responsible for dental decay, and also suggested that tumors surrounding the teeth and in the gums could appear in the later stages of tooth decay.\nFauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he discovered many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would follow the pattern","-26.625082368962467"],["materials to repair tooth decay and damage from osteoporosis.","-26.61700273148017"],["tooth structure, as well as in \"enamel sites beyond the height of contour\". For cosmetic purposes, composite is preferred when a restoration is required on an immediately visible portion of a tooth. Bonded amalgam Dental amalgam does not by itself bond to tooth structure. This was recognized as a shortcoming by early practitioners such as Baldwin. He recommended that the prepared cavity be coated with zinc phosphate cement just prior to filling with amalgam, in order to improve the seal and retention. The practice did not become universally accepted and eventually fell into disuse. Until the 1980s, most amalgam restorations","-26.567717358993832"],["bristled toothbrushes can damage tooth enamel and irritate gums as indicated by the American Dental Association. Toothbrushes are often made from synthetic fibers, although natural toothbrushes are also known in many parts of the world. Those with dentures may also brush their teeth with traditional tooth brushes, specially made denture brushes or denture cleaners. Toothpaste Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used to clean and improve the aesthetic appearance and health of teeth. It is almost always used in conjunction with a toothbrush. Toothpaste use can promote good oral hygiene: it can aid in the","-26.556970235949848"],["acids as by-products. The glucose produced from starch by salivary amylase, is also digested by the bacteria. When enough acid is produced so that the pH goes below 5.5, the acid dissolves carbonated hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel. The plaque can hold the acids in contact with the tooth for up to two hours, before it is neutralised by saliva. Once the plaque acid has been neutralised, the minerals can return from the plaque and saliva to the enamel surface.\nHowever, the capacity for remineralisation is limited, and if sugars enter the mouth too frequently a net loss of","-26.507013451016974"],["Dental pellicle The dental pellicle, or acquired pellicle, is a protein film that forms on the surface enamel by selective binding of glycoproteins from saliva that prevents continuous deposition of salivary calcium phosphate. It forms in seconds after a tooth is cleaned or after chewing. It protects the tooth from the acids produced by oral microorganisms after consuming carbohydrates. Plaque formation Plaque is a biofilm composed of several different kinds of bacteria and their products that develop over the enamel on a layer known as pellicle. The process of plaque formation takes several days to weeks and will cause the","-26.47813532067812"],["a tight seal between the internal structures of the tooth and the surrounding environment. Dental caries is caused by bacterial production of acid during their metabolic actions. The acid produced from this metabolism results in the breakdown of tooth enamel and subsequent inner structures of the tooth, if the disease is not intervened by a dental professional, or if the carious lesion does not arrest and/or the enamel re-mineralises by itself. Glass ionomer cements act as sealants when pits and fissures in the tooth occur and release fluoride to prevent further enamel demineralisation and promote remineralisation. Fluoride can also hinder","-26.457417381112464"],["visit is required to complete crown and bridge work, and the additional time required for the procedure can be a disadvantage; the increased benefits of such a restoration, however, will generally offset these considerations. Dimensions of preparation When preparing a tooth for a crown, the preparation should, ideally, exist entirely in enamel. As elaborated on below, the amount of tooth structure required to be removed will depend on the material(s) being used to restore the tooth. If the tooth is to be restored with a full gold crown, the restoration need only be .5 mm in thickness (as gold","-26.417455396040168"],["forces. Enamel fractures Some sources consider them to be of no clinical significance. However, they have been noted to be an important potential source of enamel fractures that arise after extended use or overloading. It appears that, although enamel easily starts to form the fracture defects of enamel tufts, they then enable enamel to resist the further progress of these fractures, ultimately preventing mechanical failure. This fracture resistance is why tooth enamel is three times stronger than its constituent hydroxyapatite crystallites that make up its enamel rods.\nEnamel tufts do not normally lead to enamel failure, due to these defects stabilizing","-26.338472354924306"],["Speirs, Neil found that the surface of tooth enamel is high in fluoride, a finding which never received the recognition it deserves, as it went unpublished in any dental journal. He also looked at the effects fluoride in water had on teeth, even going so far as to give himself tooth decay to show that it could be cured using fluoride. He lectured on the subject of water fluoridation across the world, becoming a key contributor to a controversial debate. During the Second World War, he served as a nutritional advisor to the government. Jenkins also acted as an associate","-26.310082434676588"],["citrate have been available since at least 2000. It is believed that potassium ions diffuse along the dentinal tubules to inactivate intradental nerves. However, as of 2000, this has not been confirmed in intact human teeth and the desensitizing mechanism of potassium-containing toothpastes remains uncertain. Since 2000, several trials have shown that potassium-containing toothpastes can be effective in reducing dentin hypersensitivity, although rinsing the mouth after brushing may reduce their efficacy.\nStudies have found that mouthwashes containing potassium salts and fluorides can reduce dentine hypersensitivity. A randomized clinical trial published in 2018 found promising results in controlling and reducing hypersensitivity when","-26.271844419301488"],["stains. Whitening toothpaste cannot alter the natural color of teeth or reverse discoloration by penetrating surface stains or decay. To remove surface stains, whitening toothpaste may include abrasives to gently polish the teeth or additives such as sodium tripolyphosphate to break down or dissolve stains. When used twice a day, whitening toothpaste typically takes two to four weeks to make teeth appear whiter. Whitening toothpaste is generally safe for daily use, but excessive use might damage tooth enamel. Teeth whitening gels represent an alternative. A recent systematic review in 2017 concluded that nearly all dentifrices that are specifically formulated for","-26.243322156369686"],["days. If teeth sensitivity is experienced after using a teeth whitening product, taking a break may help. Home treatment At-home treatments include desensitizing toothpastes or dentifrices, potassium salts, mouthwashes and chewing gums.\nA variety of toothpastes are marketed for dentin hypersensitivity, including compounds such as strontium chloride, strontium acetate, arginine, calcium carbonate, hydroxyapatite and calcium sodium phosphosilicate. Desensitizing chewing gums and mouthwashes are also marketed.\nPotassium-containing toothpastes are common; however, the mechanism by which they may reduce hypersensitivity is unclear. Animal research has demonstrated that potassium ions placed in deep dentin cavities cause nerve depolarization and prevent re-polarization. It is not known","-26.215623963507824"],["obtained by burning extracted teeth, destroying the potential infection-causing material within the tooth, resulting in tooth ash Tooth ash has been shown to promote bone repair. Although recent studies have shown that calcine tooth powder- culture media (CTP-CM) does not affect proliferation, they have shown that CTP-CM has significantly increased levels of osteo/odontogenic markers in DPSCs. Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) are similar to DPSCs in the sense that they are both derived from the dental pulp, but SHED are derived from baby teeth, whereas DPSCs are derived from","-26.127600614563562"],["eventually disintegrates into small clusters of epithelium and is reabsorbed. The dental lamina is first evidence of tooth development and begins at the sixth week in utero.\nThis is responsible for the cap like structure of the enamel organ. It is important to note that enamel is an ectodermal product as it is originally derived from ectoderm which is the outermost of the three germ layers of the forming embryo. The other two are: the mesoderm and the endoderm. It gives rise to the nervous system, sense organs, outer layer of the skin, teeth and the membrane lining the oral cavity","-26.1126784599619"],["In plaque, the cariogenic microorganisms are those that produce lactic acid as a by-product from fermentable carbohydrates. Examples of these fermentable carbohydrates include such as fructose, sucrose and glucose. Cariogenic bacteria thrive on these sugars and help them to weaken the adjacent tooth surface. A poor oral care routine and a diet that is high in fermentable carbohydrates favour acidic attack in the oral cavity. This prolonged acidic exposure allows the net loss of minerals from the tooth. This diminishes the strength of the tooth and is called demineralisation. For the outer layer of the tooth (enamel) to reach cavitation,","-26.09774888382526"],["months. This loss of bone volume, can cause a denture to be loose, or an inadequate amount of bone width to place an implant. Historically, alveolar preservation was used to provide a base to retain conventional dentures. Advances in osseointegration have expanded the need of the procedure to maintain ridge width and height for dental implant placement. In some cases, where a tooth requires removal when other teeth still need to erupt, socket preservation may be used to maintain bone for the formative tooth to erupt into. Risks and complications While there are no absolute contraindications to","-26.061389111637254"],["lactate to food. Calcium lactate added to toothpaste has reduced calculus formation. One study has shown that calcium lactate enhances enamel remineralization when added to xylitol-containing gum, but another study showed no additional remineralization benefit from calcium lactate or other calcium compounds in chewing-gum.\nOther studies indicated that the caries preventive effect of chewing sugar-free gum is related to the chewing process itself rather than being an effect of gum sweeteners or additives, such as polyols and carbamide. A study investigated the in situ effect of casein phosphopeptide–amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP–ACP) found that its incorporation into a sugar-free gum increases the","-25.98344197263941"],["Toothpaste Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it is an abrasive that aids in removing dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis, and delivers active ingredients (most commonly fluoride) to help prevent tooth decay (dental caries) and gum disease (gingivitis). Salt and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) are among materials that can be substituted for commercial toothpaste. Large amounts of swallowed toothpaste can be toxic. Ingredients In addition to 20%–42% water, toothpastes are derived from","-25.937215212950832"],["from the setting process. Indirect restorations In this technique the restoration is fabricated outside of the mouth using the dental impressions of the prepared tooth. Common indirect restorations include inlays and onlays, crowns, bridges, and veneers. Usually a dental technician fabricates the indirect restoration from records the dentist has provided. The finished restoration is usually bonded permanently with a dental cement. It is often done in two separate visits to the dentist. Common indirect restorations are done using gold or ceramics.\nWhile the indirect restoration is being prepared, a provisory/temporary restoration is sometimes used to cover the prepared tooth to help","-25.937141518224962"],["but often include baking soda, aloe, eucalyptus oil, myrrh, plant extract (strawberry extract), and essential oils. A systemic review in 2014 found insufficient evidence to determine whether the aloe vera herbal dentifrice can reduce plaque or improve gingival health, as the randomized studies were found to be flawed with high risk of bias.\nAccording to a study by the Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, many of the herbal toothpastes being sold in India were adulterated with nicotine.\nCharcoal has also been incorporated in toothpaste formulas; however, there is no evidence to determine its safety and effectiveness. Early toothpastes Since 5000","-25.927621861046646"],["demineralisation of teeth, and reversely increases opportunities for remineralisation. Diet Demineralization is caused by bacteria excreting acids as a product of their metabolism of carbohydrates. By reducing the intake frequency of carbohydrates in an individual's diet, remineralization is increased and demineralization is decreased. Diet control is an important aspect in promoting remineralization to occur naturally. A loss of the tooth enamel structure and cavitation may occur if the demineralization phase continues for a long period of time. This disturbance of demineralisation caused by the presence of fermentable carbohydrates continues until the saliva has returned to a normal pH and had","-25.876652855600696"],["Gary Kiracofe, a scrimshander in Nantucket, Massachusetts, advises collectors that if a piece looks dry, one should fill the center of the tooth with unscented baby oil and allow it to remain until as much oil as possible is soaked into the microscopic pores of the ivory. Clear paste wax or high-end car wax will seal the surface after oiling. Bone items are even more fragile (more fibrous and porous) and may be treated the same way: with a light clear mineral oil. Organic oils are inadvisable, as they will eventually hasten discoloration, as on old piano keys subjected to","-25.86767748813145"],["Temporary restoration Temporary restoration is a temporary filling of a prepared tooth until permanent restoration is carried out. It is used to cover the prepared part of the tooth, in order to maintain the occlusal space and the contact points, and insulation of the pulpal tissues and maintenance of the periodontal relationship. Sometimes permanent restoration is not done after tooth preparation; this may be to prepare for indirect restoration such as inlays and onlays. Temporary fillings are also used for 'stabilization' techniques where many restorations are needed, and the problem may become worse before it can be fully treated –","-25.852359643904492"],["restore the tooth back to full chewing function, require no periodic removal for cleaning, have a long life-expectancy and are aesthetically pleasing.","-25.85132926958613"],["teeth. Such stimulators help to increase circulation to the gum line and to clear away bacteria which might not be removed by brushing and flossing alone. Food and drink Foods that help muscles and bones also help teeth and gums. Vitamin C is necessary, for example, to prevent scurvy which manifests as serious gum disease.\nEating a balanced diet and limiting sugar intake can help prevent tooth decay and periodontal disease. The Fédération dentaire internationale (FDI World Dental Federation) has promoted foods such as raw vegetables, plain yogurt, cheese, or fruit as dentally beneficial—this has been echoed by the American","-25.82559420749749"],["tissue of which the dentin portion of the tooth is composed. The dental pulp helps complete formation of the secondary teeth (adult teeth) one to two years after eruption into the mouth. The dental pulp also nourishes and hydrates the tooth structure, making the tooth more resilient, less brittle and less prone to fracture from chewing hard foods. Additionally, the dental pulp provides a hot and cold sensory function. Variation Root canals presenting an oval cross-section are found in 50–70% of root canals. In addition, canals with a \"tear-shaped\" cross section are common when a single root contains two canals","-25.784997450886294"],["time of extraction. After removal of the tooth, the gum is elevated away from the bone, the socket is thoroughly cleansed, and antibiotic powder may be used. A barrier membrane is then fastened to the gum, the socket is packed with bone grafting material and the wound closed over the barrier membrane. Where the barrier membrane does not dissolve, it is removed approximately 30 days after placement, and the graft becomes incorporated into the healing bone between 3–9 months later. Material types Bone grafting materials can be divided into several categories. Autografts (bone harvested from","-25.718611840624362"],["scarcely time for the placement of adequate restorations. In the post-war years, children in Switzerland developed four carious teeth per year; frequently, the first permanent molars were extracted in 7 to 9-year olds for “prophylactic” reasons.\nDuring his years in the United States, Mühlemann had learned that caries incidence could be significantly reduced through fluoridation of the communal water supply. The assumption at that time was that fluoride by way of the blood vascular system would be incorporated into tooth substance during tooth development, and positively affect caries resistance. Mühlemann was able to demonstrate that fluoride was also effective when applied","-25.698026075027883"],["teeth, usually to remove sharp points or to balance out the mouth. However, the veterinarian must be careful not to take off too much of the surface, or there will not be enough roughened area on the tooth to allow it to properly tear apart food. Additionally, too much work on a tooth can cause thermal damage (which could lead to having to extract the tooth), or expose the sensitive interior of the tooth (pulp). A person without a veterinary degree who performs this service is called a horse floater or equine dental technician. In popular culture The common","-25.69337325892411"],["mineral fluorapatite. However, more recent studies showed no difference in the frequency of caries (cavities) between teeth that were pre-fluoridated to different degrees. Current thinking is that fluoride prevents cavities primarily by helping teeth that are in the very early stages of tooth decay.\nWhen teeth begin to decay from the acid produced by sugar-consuming bacteria, calcium is lost (demineralization). However, teeth have a limited ability to recover calcium if decay is not too far advanced (remineralization). Fluoride appears to reduce demineralization and increase remineralization. Also, there is some evidence that fluoride interferes with the bacteria that consume sugars in the","-25.688811762141995"],["stages of tooth decay.\nFauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he discovered many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone and those artificially-made dental pieces would be useful as the natural ones. One of this methods stated that the artificial teeth would be held in place by tying them to the remaining solid teeth by pivots, using waxed thread or gold wire. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would","-25.668395369088103"],["the cell fluid tries to move to the outside pressure environment and burst. Water with table salt in it is damaging to the knocked out teeth.\nSaliva, that is placing the tooth under the accident victim’s tongue or in the cheek, has been recommended. Saliva, as a storage media, causes twice damage as water. Its osmolality is very low, causing bursting of the tooth root cells, but additionally, because saliva is filled with its normal flora of microorganisms, it will severely infect the tooth root cells. When the tooth is replanted, not only will the cells be necrotic but they will","-25.667638290397008"],["tooth and the obliteration of the PDL, the protective regulators released by the PDL to protect the root from resorption are no longer present. This results in the tooth tissue being resorbed by osteoclasts and replaced with bone like it was part of the continuous homeostatic process of bone turnover. Transient inflammatory resorption Also known as external surface resorption. It is a self-limiting process and is a often and incidental radiographic finding. Transient inflammatory resorption undergoes healing and should be monitored only.\nIt is caused by localised and limited injury to root surface or surrounding tissues. There is 2–3 weeks","-25.65911946131382"],["teeth, exposed root surfaces and areas of demineralization. If polishing does occur on these surfaces, fluoride therapy can minimize the risk of dental caries. Excessive pressure can lead to frictional heat that may cause pulpal discomfort or necrosis of the dental pulp. Restorations Surfaces of restorations may be damaged by conventional tooth polishing with prophylactic paste. Materials such as gold, amalgam, composite, porcelain and titanium implants can be polished by using specifically designed pastes such as those that contain rouge, tripoli, cuttle, emery, coarse pumice to prevent roughened or scratched surfaces. It is important to refer to manufacturer’s directions before","-25.6210754338681"],["because sometimes decay can be difficult to diagnose without tactile verification. Additionally, radiographs and other products designed to identify decay (such as measuring fluorescence from a laser) help the dental professional make a final diagnosis of tooth decay.\nThere are various types of explorers, though the most common one is the No. 23 explorer, which is also known as a \"shepherd's hook\". Other types include the 3CH (also known as \"cowhorn\" or \"pigtail\") and No. 17 explorers, which are useful for the interproximal areas between teeth.","-25.596282792306738"],["plaque removal effect\nthan toothpastes without it.\nSodium bicarbonate is also used as an ingredient in some mouthwashes. It has anticaries and abrasive properties. It works as a mechanical cleanser on the teeth and gums, neutralizes the production of acid in the mouth, and also acts as an antiseptic to help prevent infections. Sodium bicarbonate in combination with other ingredients can be used to make a dry or wet deodorant. Sodium bicarbonate may be used as a buffering agent, combined with table salt, when creating a solution for nasal irrigation.\nIt is used in eye hygiene to treat blepharitis. This is done by","-25.580759285396198"],["eliminated from the oral cavity. In general, the more effective one's brushing, flossing, and other oral homecare practices, the less plaque will accumulate on the teeth.\nHowever, if, after 24 hours in the oral environment, biofilm remains undisturbed by brushing or flossing, it begins to absorb the mineral content of saliva. Through this absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the saliva, oral biofilm is transformed from the soft, easily removable form into a hard substance known as calculus. Commonly known as 'tartar', calculus provides a base for new layers of plaque biofilm to settle on and builds up over time. Calculus","-25.565269614220597"],["Debridement (dental) Description Dental debridement is a procedure by which plaque and calculus (tartar) that have accumulated on the teeth is removed. Debridement may be performed in the process of personal or professional teeth cleaning. Professional debridement techniques include the use of ultrasonic instruments (which fracture the calculus, thereby facilitating its removal), as well as the use of hand tools, including periodontal scaler and curettes. Debridement may also be performed using saline solution. Procedures Periodontal Pockets\nA periodontal pocket is formed from a disease process; it is defined as the apical extension of the gingiva, resulting in detachment of the","-25.55978761962615"],["especially loss of guanine.\nThe dental plaque biofilm can result in the disease dental caries if it is allowed to develop over time. An ecologic shift away from balanced populations within the dental biofilm is driven by certain (cariogenic) microbiological populations beginning to dominate when the environment favours them. The shift to an acidogenic, aciduric, and cariogenic microbiological population develops and is maintained by frequent consumption of fermentable dietary carbohydrate. The resulting activity shift in the biofilm (and resulting acid production within the biofilm, at the tooth surface) is associated with an imbalance between demineralization and remineralisation leading to net mineral","-25.503122575348243"],["Biotene Regular The main active ingredient in its toothpastes is sodium monofluorophosphate, and prior to the GlaxoSmithKline acquisition it also contained enzymes including glucose oxidase, lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase and lysozyme. PBF The PBF ORAL RINSE (plaque biofilm) product contains the enzymes mutanase, dextranase, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, and glucose oxidase. Benefits People with xerostomia (dry mouth) may use Biotène to reduce the rate of recurrence of dental plaque. However, Biotene by itself does not significantly reduce the count of Streptococcus mutans which is the primary initiator of the formation of dental plaque.\nBiotène relieves symptoms of dry mouth by providing moisture. Dry mouth","-25.473944981233217"],["restored with a regular filling, either composite or amalgam, or a stainless steel crown. Due to the process of a pulpotomy causing the tooth to become slightly brittle, a stainless steel crown is normally indicated as the preferred choice of definitive restoration.\nA pulpotomy can be done to both permanent and primary teeth. Partial Pulpotomy for Carious Exposures In some cases, radicular pulp (pulp within the root of a tooth) may remain healthy despite carious exposure of the pulp chamber. In cases where root formation is incomplete (as during adolescent years), a partial pulpotomy may keep radicular pulp vital long enough","-25.472182704659645"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"mineral from enamel produces a cavity, through which bacteria can infect the inner tooth and destroy the latticework.This process requires many months or years. Although a key feature of tooth decay is the increase of bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus in dental plaque, it is not considered an infectious disease. Tooth Remineralisation Treatments & Preventative Strategies Besides professional dental care, there are other ways for promoting tooth remineralisation: Effect of fluoride The presence of fluoride in saliva and plaque fluid interacts with remineralisation process in many ways and thus exerts a topical or surface effect. A person\",\n \"-32.634002202306874\"\n ],\n [\n \"(decay preventative) dentifrice that can be of significant value when used in a conscientiously applied program of oral hygiene and regular professional care.\\\"\\nIn 1980, the Japanese company, Sangi Co., Ltd., launched APADENT, the world's first remineralizing toothpaste to use a nano-form of hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, rather than fluoride, to remineralize areas of mineral loss below the surface of tooth enamel (incipient caries lesions). After many years of laboratory experiments and field trials, its hydroxyapatite ingredient was approved as an active anti-caries agent by the Japanese Ministry of Health in 1993, and given the name Medical Hydroxyapatite\",\n \"-31.355165033775847\"\n ],\n [\n \"walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated by utilizing proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.\\nIn some circumstances, less tooth structure can be removed compared to preparation for other dental materials such as amalgam and many of the indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam\",\n \"-31.014523496851325\"\n ],\n [\n \"Remineralisation of teeth Tooth remineralisation is the natural repair process for non-cavitated tooth lesions, in which calcium, phosphate and sometimes fluoride ions are deposited into crystal voids in demineralised enamel. Remineralisation can contribute towards restoring strength and function within tooth structure.\\nDemineralization is the removal of minerals (mainly calcium) from any of the hard tissues: enamel, dentine, and cementum. It begins at the surface, and may progress into cavitation unless arrested or reversed by remineralisation. Tooth decay process When food or drinks containing fermentable sugars enter the mouth, the bacteria in dental plaque rapidly feed on the sugars and produce organic\",\n \"-30.913606506364886\"\n ],\n [\n \"may be left more vulnerable to decay because the enamel is not able to protect the tooth.\\nIn most people, disorders or diseases affecting teeth are not the primary cause of dental caries. Approximately 96% of tooth enamel is composed of minerals. These minerals, especially hydroxyapatite, will become soluble when exposed to acidic environments. Enamel begins to demineralize at a pH of 5.5. Dentin and cementum are more susceptible to caries than enamel because they have lower mineral content. Thus, when root surfaces of teeth are exposed from gingival recession or periodontal disease, caries can develop\",\n \"-30.830536107867374\"\n ],\n [\n \"decay, where healing is possible by the hardening process of remineralisation. Where a cavity has formed from excessive demineralisation, the decay has reached the point of no return where the tooth structure has been lost and the decay is permanent and non-reversible. In this situation of cavitated decay, the cavity will have to be filled to restore the tooth. Minimal intervention dentistry is focused on filling only cavitated regions, leaving non-cavitated decay to be remineralised, thus restoring the tooth while removing as little of the tooth structure as possible, enhancing the strength and aesthetics of the restoration. Classifications of the\",\n \"-30.466256376705132\"\n ],\n [\n \"decay. Changing the biochemical properties of saliva, potentially through the use of appropriate drugs, can help the buffering capacity of the saliva to resist changes in pH caused by plaque acid, resisting the acid attack caused by the active caries. Restoration Decay is the process or result of demineralisation (softening) of an area of dental tissue, creating a decayed lesion on the tooth. The process of restoring decay begins with an analysis of the decayed lesions together with their location and severity, with particular regard to the state of reversibility. Where decay is reversible, it is referred to as non-cavitated\",\n \"-30.36897229339229\"\n ],\n [\n \"air across the suspect surface, which removes moisture and changes the optical properties of the unmineralized enamel.\\nSome dental researchers have cautioned against the use of dental explorers to find caries, in particular sharp ended explorers. In cases where a small area of tooth has begun demineralizing but has not yet cavitated, the pressure from the dental explorer could cause a cavity. Since the carious process is reversible before a cavity is present, it may be possible to arrest caries with fluoride and remineralize the tooth surface. When a cavity is present, a restoration will be needed to replace the\",\n \"-30.20730171719333\"\n ],\n [\n \"the amount of bacteria in the mouth that are responsible for tooth decay. After a wave of empirical studies on the efficacy of Xylitol (a sugar alcohol) a consensus report in the British Dental Journal considered it to give a reduction in the risk of caries. There is also increasing use of newer technologies such as photo-activated disinfection and treating with ozone.\\nThere is also an aspect of minimising the effect of the caries to control the symptoms of decay. Constant remineralisation (hardening) with continuous application of fluoride toothpaste is highly common practice that reduces the impact of the caries on\",\n \"-29.799315297743306\"\n ],\n [\n \"removal of dental plaque and food from the teeth, it can aid in the elimination and/or masking of halitosis when tonsil stones are not the cause, and it can deliver active ingredients such as fluoride to prevent tooth and gum (gingiva) disease.\\nThere is evidence that the addition of xylitol to fluoride-containing toothpastes reduces incidence of tooth decay by about 13%. Tooth powder Tooth powder (or 'toothpaste powder') is an alternative to toothpaste. It may be recommended for people with sensitive teeth. Tooth powder typically does not contain the chemical sodium lauryl sulphate which can be a skin irritant.\",\n \"-29.71939053683309\"\n ],\n [\n \"be replanted with little signs of resorption. Hank's Balanced Salt Solution is found in a Save-A-Tooth, a storage device for the storage, preservation, and regeneration of tooth root cells.\\nHBSS also has been shown to be capable of replacing lost cell metabolites. Since a cell that has been cut off from its blood supply depletes its stored metabolites after fifteen minutes, a tooth that has been extra-oral for one hour has less vital cells to reconnect with the bone ligament cells.\\nSome studies in dental research have shown that knocked out teeth that have been dry for up to one hour will\",\n \"-29.068414390960243\"\n ],\n [\n \"selection of dentifrice should also be critically analysed and changed to include a less abrasive and gentler paste such as sensitive toothpaste as evidence suggests that a very abrasive toothpaste would lead to loss of tooth structure. A toothpaste containing increased fluoride will also help combat the increased sensitivity and risk to dental decay. Fluoride varnish is known to alleviate hypersensitivity in teeth and can be used as a preventive measure for high risk patients of dental erosion with abrasion because fluoride varnish is reported to have an effect on the surface and subsurface\",\n \"-29.04026748065371\"\n ],\n [\n \"tooth whitening were shown to have a beneficial effect in reducing extrinsic stains, irrespective of whether or not a chemical discoloration agent was added. However, the whitening process can permanently reduce the strength of the teeth, as the process scrapes away a protective outer layer of enamel. Herbal and natural toothpastes Companies such as Tom's of Maine, among others, manufacture natural and herbal toothpastes and market them to consumers who wish to avoid the artificial ingredients commonly found in regular toothpastes. Many herbal toothpastes do not contain fluoride or sodium lauryl sulfate. The ingredients found in natural toothpastes vary widely\",\n \"-29.010083325905725\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dental restoration Direct restorations This technique involves placing a soft or malleable filling into the prepared tooth and building up the tooth. The material is then set hard and the tooth is restored. The advantage of direct restorations is that they usually set quickly and can be placed in a single procedure. The dentist has a variety of different filling options to choose from. A decision is usually made based on the location and severity of the associated cavity. Since the material is required to set while in contact with the tooth, limited energy (heat) is passed to the tooth\",\n \"-28.721887168620015\"\n ],\n [\n \"cover part of the enamel of the tooth. Full-porcelain restorations are particularly desirable because their color and translucency mimic natural tooth enamel.\\nAnother type is known as porcelain-fused-to-metal, which is used to provide strength to a crown or bridge. These restorations are very strong, durable and resistant to wear, because the combination of porcelain and metal creates a stronger restoration than porcelain used alone.\\nOne of the advantages of computerized dentistry (CAD/CAM technologies) involves the use of machinable ceramics which are sold in a partially sintered, machinable state that is fired again after machining to form a hard ceramic. Some of the\",\n \"-28.636758191343688\"\n ],\n [\n \"forms. The minerals in the hard tissues of the teeth (enamel, dentin and cementum) are constantly undergoing processes of demineralization and remineralisation. Dental caries results when the demineralization rate is faster than the remineralisation and there is net mineral loss. This happens when there is an ecologic shift within the dental biofilm, from a balanced population of micro-organisms to a population that produce acids and can survive in an acid environment. Enamel Enamel is a highly mineralized acellular tissue, and caries act upon it through a chemical process brought on by the acidic environment produced by bacteria. As the\",\n \"-28.603989195107715\"\n ],\n [\n \"the long-term success of a restoration. Besides working as a retentive aid to prevent the fixed prosthesis from dislodging, it also plays the role of a seal, preventing bacteria from penetrating the tooth-restoration interface.\\nThe oldest material available is the zinc phosphate cement, which has been used in dentistry for more than 100 years. Following the introduction of adhesive resin systems to the market, there is now a wide range of dental materials available that can serve as luting agents. As such, they each have their own advantages and disadvantages, and can each be employed in different scenarios. The choice of\",\n \"-28.588324087264482\"\n ],\n [\n \"loss within dental hard tissues (enamel and then dentin), the sign and symptom being a carious lesion. By preventing the dental plaque biofilm from maturing or by returning it back to a non-cariogenic state, dental caries can be prevented and arrested. This can be achieved though the behavioural step of reducing the supply of fermentable carbohydrates (i.e. sugar intake) and frequent removal of the biofilm (i.e. toothbrushing).\\nA peptide pheromone quorum sensing signaling system in S. mutans includes the Competence Stimulating Peptide (CSP) that controls genetic competence. Genetic competence is the ability of a cell to take up DNA released by\",\n \"-28.54493410559371\"\n ],\n [\n \"grooves. Preservation of tooth structure Preparing a tooth to accept a full coverage crown is relatively destructive. The procedure can damage the pulp irreversibly, through mechanical, thermal and chemical trauma and making the pulp more susceptible to bacterial invasion. Therefore, preparations must be as conservative as possible, whilst producing a strong retentive restoration. Although it may be seen as contradictory to the previous statement, at times, sound tooth structure may need to be sacrificed in order to prevent further more substantial and uncontrolled loss of tooth structure. Structural durability In order to last, the crown must be made of enough\",\n \"-28.505839083125466\"\n ],\n [\n \"to enamel, were hard and structurally complex. The outer layers contained glass nanoparticles and aluminium oxide plates were aligned perpendicular to the surface. After the outer layers hardened, a second suspension was poured. It contained no glass, and the plates were aligned horizontally to the surface of the tooth. These deeper layers were tougher, resembling dentine. The tooth was then cooked at 1,600 degrees to compact and harden the material — a process known as sintering. The last step involved filling remaining pores with a synthetic monomer used in dentistry, which polymerizes after treatment. Hardness and durability approximated that\",\n \"-28.445656456897268\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sodium monofluorophosphate Tooth decay Tooth decay is caused by bacteria naturally present in one's mouth. These bacteria form a sticky, colorless soft film on the teeth called plaque. When foods containing carbohydrates (starches and sugars) are eaten, the bacteria that form plaque use the sugar as a form of energy. They also turn it into a glue-like substance that helps them stick to the surface of the tooth. The plaque produces acid, which attacks the enamel. Structure The structure of the fluorophosphate anion consists of phosphorus at the center of a tetrahedron defined by three oxygen atoms and one fluorine.\",\n \"-28.34817059535999\"\n ],\n [\n \"the reformation of enamel. Miscellaneous components Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as glycerol, sorbitol, or xylitol, or related derivatives, such as 1,2-propylene glycol and polyethyleneglycol. Strontium chloride or potassium nitrate is included in some toothpastes to reduce sensitivity. Two systemic meta-analysis reviews reported that arginine, and calcium sodium phosphosilicate - CSPS containing toothpastes are also effective in alleviating dentinal hypersensitivity respectively. Another randomized clinical trial found superior effects when both formulas were combined together.\\nSodium polyphosphate is added to minimize the formation of tartar. Other\",\n \"-28.24322072500945\"\n ],\n [\n \"tooth after it has undergone endodontic therapy. Its physical and chemical properties, including but not limited to its inertness and biocompatibility, melting point, ductility, and malleability, make it important in endodontics, e.g. as gutta-percha points. Zinc oxide is added to reduce brittleness and improve plasticity. Barium sulfate is added to provide radiopacity so that its presence and location can be verified in dental X-ray images. Substitutes Gutta-percha remained an industrial staple well into the 20th century, when it was gradually replaced with superior synthetic materials such as Bakelite, though a similar and cheaper natural material called balatá was often used\",\n \"-28.220558640314266\"\n ],\n [\n \"within days of a tooth's erupting into the mouth if the diet is sufficiently rich in suitable carbohydrates. Evidence suggests that the introduction of fluoride treatments has slowed the process. Proximal caries take an average of four years to pass through enamel in permanent teeth. Because the cementum enveloping the root surface is not nearly as durable as the enamel encasing the crown, root caries tends to progress much more rapidly than decay on other surfaces. The progression and loss of mineralization on the root surface is 2.5 times faster than caries in enamel. In very\",\n \"-28.172340906225145\"\n ],\n [\n \"Enamel microabrasion Enamel microabrasion is a procedure in cosmetic dentistry used to improve the appearance of the teeth. Like tooth whitening it is used to remove discolorations of the tooth surface but microabrasion is a mechanical, rather than chemical, procedure. History In the past, teeth with stains or other color changes were made to look better through the use of restorative materials, such as dental porcelain. These materials would create a thin veneer over the outer surface of the tooth. Although veneers looked better, these materials did not match the structure or characteristics of the tooth enamel and replacement\",\n \"-28.130210324190557\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tooth regeneration Tooth regeneration is a stem cell based regenerative medicine procedure in the field of tissue engineering and stem cell biology to replace damaged or lost teeth by regrowing them from autologous stem cells.\\nAs a source of the new bioengineered teeth somatic stem cells are collected and reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells which can be placed in the dental lamina directly or placed in a reabsorbable biopolymer in the shape of the new tooth History Young et al. first demonstrated in 2002 that teeth could be regenerated from cells.\",\n \"-28.00464922876563\"\n ],\n [\n \"for remineralisation of the non-cavitated areas. Remineralisation of non-cavitated lesions Various techniques exists for remineralisation, varying from simple application of fluoride to using special substances for filling materials that interact with the tooth to aid the process from within. Glass Ionomer Cements (GICs) have been shown to undergo ion exchange with the surrounding tooth structure, and also engage in fluoride feeding. Research by Prof. Hien Ngo and others has shown that these methods can in practice heal some non-cavitated lesions. Prevention The same methods for cure of the disease can be used for prevention, as well as other techniques such\",\n \"-28.0021931834126\"\n ],\n [\n \"cusps or incisal edges. These can be resolved by restoring and polishing sharp cusps. Then, desensitizing agents such as topical fluoride varnishes can be applied, and at home desensitising toothpastes recommended. Many restorative options have been proposed, such as direct composite restorations, bonded cast metal restorations, removable partial dentures, orthodontic treatment, crown lengthening procedures and protective splints. The decision to restore the dentition depends on the wants and needs of the patient, the severity of tooth surface loss and whether tooth surface loss is active. The use of adhesive materials to replace lost tooth structure can be performed as a\",\n \"-27.884751191566465\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dental technician Fixed restorations A fixed dental restoration is an appliance designed to replace a tooth or teeth that may have been lost or damaged by injury, caries or other oral diseases. These restorations are distinguished from other restorations by the fact that once they have been placed by a dentist the patient can not remove them.\\nSuch Restorations include; crowns, bridges, veneers, fixed implant restorations, inlays and onlays. Removable restorations Removable restorations are dental appliances to replace one or more teeth that have been completely lost. These restorations ideally remain stable in normal function but can be removed by\",\n \"-27.873385512444656\"\n ],\n [\n \"tooth can be replanted and the halves of the ligament will reattach and the tooth will remain vital. The half that stays on the socket wall, since it remains connected to the bone blood supply, is naturally kept alive. However, the ligament cells that remain on the tooth root lose their blood and nutrition supply and must be artificially maintained. They must be protected from two potentially destructive processes: cell crushing and loss of normal cell metabolism. All treatment between the time of the accident and the ultimate replantation must be focused on preventing these two possibilities. Prevention of cell\",\n \"-27.841797181521542\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dentifrice Toothpaste Toothpaste is a dentifrice used in conjunction with a toothbrush to help maintain oral hygiene. The essential components are an abrasive, binder, surfactant and humectant. Other ingredients are also used. The main purpose of the paste is to help remove debris and plaque with some marketed to serve accessory functions such as breath freshening and teeth whitening. Tooth powder Tooth powder is an alternative to toothpaste. Modern versions may be sold with or without fluoride.\\nTooth powder was historically used among the Romans to clean and whiten teeth, to fix them when loose, to strengthen the gums, and to\",\n \"-27.78289853516617\"\n ],\n [\n \" The Dental Papilla → will develop to become the dental pulp and the dentine\\n3) The Enamel Organ → will develop to create the enamel solely\\nIt is important to note that till this point, no dental tissues have been created yet.\\nWhen all of the individual components of the tooth germ have become developed, the entire cell mass would have appeared to have migrated deeper into the underlying connective tissues. This phenomenon, which will continue throughout the whole life of the teeth, is most possibly due to the cell mass moving towards a rich blood supply that can\",\n \"-27.70773334481055\"\n ],\n [\n \"Enamel infraction Enamel infractions are microcracks seen within the dental enamel of a tooth. They are commonly the result of dental trauma to the brittle enamel, which remains adherent to the underlying dentine. They can be seen more clearly when transillumination is used.\\nEnamel infractions are found more often in older teeth, as the accumulated trauma is greatest. Enamel infractions can also be found as a result of iatrogenic damage inadvertently caused by instrumentation during dental treatments. Treatment Minor infraction may not require any treatment, however major infraction may require treatment including smoothing, fluoride treatment and crown restoration.\",\n \"-27.699713866692036\"\n ],\n [\n \"Enamel matrix derivative In dentistry, enamel matrix derivative (EMD) is an extract of porcine fetal tooth material used to biomimetically stimulate the soft and hard tissues surrounding teeth to regrow (in a process known as regeneration) following tissue destruction. Discovery of EMP's role in cementogenesis There are three hard tissues that comprise human teeth: enamel, dentin and cementum. The majority of the tooth structure is formed from dentin, and the enamel serves as the superficial layer of the crown while the cementum serves to cover the root. In the mid-1990s, however, it was discovered that a very thin\",\n \"-27.597733789676568\"\n ],\n [\n \"GSK to withdraw its claim that Ribena Toothkind, a lower-sugar variety, did not encourage tooth decay. A company poster showed bottles of Toothkind in place of the bristles on a toothbrush. The ASA's ruling was upheld by the High Court. In 2007 GSK was fined $217,000 in New Zealand over its claim that ready-to-drink Ribena contained high levels of vitamin C, after it was found to contain no detectable vitamin C. In 2013 GSK sold Ribena and another drink, Lucozade, to the Japanese multinational Suntory for £1.35 billion. SB Pharmco Puerto Rico In 2010 the US Department of Justice announced\",\n \"-27.533544029211043\"\n ],\n [\n \"tooth cleaning methods, and reduction of sugar consumption, he called for the cessation of the caries epidemic.\\nNumerous research studies emanating from the Caries Research Station demonstrated which foodstuffs were responsible for rapid caries development. Mühlemann was able to demonstrate that topically applied fluoride reduced the acid solubility of tooth enamel and therewith incidence of dental caries. These studies led Mühlemann to the conclusion that fluoride incorporated into a dentifrice could exert a caries prophylactic effect. This conclusion was substantiated by numerous researchers at the University of Zurich Dental Institute. (Marthaler/Mühlemann/König: elmex® research). Over the course of 45 years, Prof. Thomas\",\n \"-27.477483898052014\"\n ],\n [\n \"a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed \\\"polishing\\\" action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus.\\nThe abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Too high RDA values are deleterious. Some dentists recommend toothpaste with an RDA value no higher than 50 for daily use. Fluorides Fluoride in various forms\",\n \"-27.466640211991034\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dental alveolus Socket preservation Socket preservation or alveolar ridge preservation (ARP) is a procedure to reduce bone loss after tooth extraction to preserve the dental alveolus (tooth socket) in the alveolar bone. A platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) membrane containing bone growth enhancing elements can be stitched over the wound or a graft material or scaffold is placed in the socket of an extracted tooth. The socket is then directly closed with stitches or covered with a non-resorbable or resorbable membrane and sutured. Pathology The swelling of the dental alveoli can result in alveolitis, causing pain and discomfort to the mouth.\",\n \"-27.439440838526934\"\n ],\n [\n \"in dentistry is on the mineral phase of dentin in order to understand its alteration with aging. These alterations lead to “transparent” dentin, which is also called sclerotic. It was shown that a ‘‘dissolution and reprecipitation’’ mechanism reigns the formation of transparent dentin. The causes and cures of these conditions can possibly be found from further studies on the role of the mineralized tissues involved. Bioinspired materials The attractive properties of mineralized tissues like nacre and bone have led to the creation of a large number of biomimetic materials. Although improvements can be made, there are several techniques used to\",\n \"-27.4271482527256\"\n ],\n [\n \"of tooth-to-restoration contact, and should be a smooth, well-defined delineation so that the restoration, no matter how it is fabricated, can be properly adapted and not allow for any openings visible to the naked eye, however slight. An acceptable distance from tooth margin to restoration margin is anywhere from 40-100 nm. However, the R.V. Tucker method of gold inlay and onlay restoration produces tooth-to-restoration adaptation of potentially only 2 nm, confirmed by scanning electron microscopy; this is less than the diameter of a single bacterium.\\nNaturally, the tooth-to-restoration margin is an unsightly thing to have exposed on the visible surface\",\n \"-27.423632669553626\"\n ],\n [\n \"formed over the remaining surface of the enamel; this veneer is much more acid-resistant than the original hydroxyapatite, and is formed more quickly than ordinary remineralised enamel would be. The cavity-prevention effect of fluoride is partly due to these surface effects, which occur during and after tooth eruption. Fluoride interferes with the process of tooth decay as fluoride intake during the period of enamel development for up to 7 years of age; the fluoride alters the structure of the developing enamel making it more resistant to acid attack. In children and adults when teeth are subjected to the alternating\",\n \"-27.369907158543356\"\n ],\n [\n \"tooth decay, attributed in advertisements to the supposed ingredient Irium. In a 1994 speech, the chairman of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission, Reed Hundt, claimed that the \\\"Irium\\\" mentioned in Pepsodent advertisements \\\"didn't exist\\\". \\\"Irium\\\" was being used as another name for sodium lauryl sulfate, an ionic surfactant.\\nAnother ingredient, \\\"I.M.P.\\\", which stood for \\\"Insoluble Meta-Phosphate\\\", was purported to whiten teeth. Radio program Pepsodent sponsored a radio program, The Pepsodent Show Starring Bob Hope that began airing in 1938 and ran for approximately 10 years on NBC. The show featured Bob Hope and his cast of regular characters such as Jerry\",\n \"-27.25614174292423\"\n ],\n [\n \"are at higher risk of tooth decay, and are usually placed as soon as the adult molar teeth come through. Background Dental caries is an upset of the balance between loss and gain of minerals from a tooth surface. The loss of minerals from the teeth occurs from the bacteria within the mouth, fermenting foods and producing acids, whereas the tooth gains minerals from our saliva and fluoride that is present within the mouth. When this balance is skewed due to frequent intake of fermentable carbohydrates, poor oral hygiene, and lack of fluoride consumption, there is a continuous loss and\",\n \"-27.25067418187973\"\n ],\n [\n \"removed tissue \\\"from behind the third molar\\\" and reattached it near the canine tooth, claiming the surgery to have been a success.\\nYounger practiced for some time in San Francisco, California.\",\n \"-27.223462614463642\"\n ],\n [\n \"tooth is removed, material (usually a bone substitute) is placed in the tooth socket, it is covered with a barrier membrane, and sutured closed. Roughly 30 days after socket preservation, the barrier membrane is either removed, or it resorbs, and the callous of bone covers with new gingiva. While there is good evidence that socket preservation prevents bone loss, there is no definitive proof that this leads to higher implants success or long-term health. Medical Uses After tooth extraction, the alveolar ridge has a mean loss of width of 3.8mm, and a height loss of 1.24mm within six\",\n \"-27.222608941840008\"\n ],\n [\n \"a failure can be as small as 1 mm of additional tooth structure that, when encased by a ferrule, provides great protection. When such a long-lasting, functional restoration cannot be predictably created, tooth extraction should be considered.\\\" Crown-to-root ratio The alveolar bone surrounding one tooth will naturally surround an adjacent tooth, and removing bone for a crown lengthening procedure will effectively damage the bony support of adjacent teeth to some inevitable extent, as well as unfavorably increase the crown-to-root ratio. Additionally, once bone is removed, it is almost impossible to regain it to previous levels, and in\",\n \"-27.161760304647032\"\n ],\n [\n \"If a tooth fragment is still available, it can be bonded to the tooth. For small or minor fractures, it can be smoothed to remove rough margins and edges. For a larger or major fractures, dental composite resin can be used to mask the defective enamel for aesthetic purpose. In archaeological samples enamel fractures can give insight into the diet and behaviour of past populations.\",\n \"-27.143932846724056\"\n ],\n [\n \"cells will die that rejection of the tooth by the body at a later time is the usual outcome. The method by which the body rejects the replanted tooth is a process called “replacement root resorption”. During this process, the tooth root cells become necrotic (dead) and will activate the immunologic mechanism of the body to attempt to remove this necrotic layer and literally eats away the tooth root. This is called “root resorption” It is a slow, but non-painful, process that is sometimes not observed by x-rays for years. Once this process starts, it is irreversible and the tooth\",\n \"-27.07864754498587\"\n ],\n [\n \"maintain the surrounding dental tissues.\\nRemovable dental prostheses (mainly dentures) are sometimes considered a form of indirect dental restoration, as they are made to replace missing teeth. There are numerous types of precision attachments (also known as combined restorations) to aid removable prosthetic attachment to teeth, including magnets, clips, hooks, and implants which may themselves be seen as a form of dental restoration.\\nThe CEREC method is a chairside CAD/CAM restorative procedure. An optical impression of the prepared tooth is taken using a camera. Next, the specific software takes the digital picture and converts it into a 3D virtual model on the\",\n \"-27.02800622896757\"\n ],\n [\n \"and flossing, if that's not possible, to prevent tooth decay and increase saliva production. Chewing gum can also help with the lack of saliva or xerostomia since it naturally stimulates saliva production. Saliva is made of chemicals, such as organic molecules, inorganic ions and macromolecules. 0.5% of saliva deals with dental health, since tooth enamel is made of calcium phosphate, those inorganic ions in saliva help repair the teeth and keep them in good condition. The pH of saliva is neutral, which having a pH of 7 allows it to remineralize tooth enamel. Falling below a pH of 5.5 (which\",\n \"-27.024043759563938\"\n ],\n [\n \"develop in bone deprived of a budding or growing tooth. Secondly, they provided evidence to prove that the dental follicle is involved in the process. Therefore, it is only when concurrent bone deposition can be confirmed at the base of the crypt and inhibition of such bone deposition can be demonstrated to show interference with tooth eruption, then the conclusion that an eruptive pathway forming within bone means that bony remodelling is the cause for tooth formation.\\nIn many studies, with the usage of tetracyclines as indicators of bone deposition have proven that bone resorption is principal activity in the fundus\",\n \"-27.014469594694674\"\n ],\n [\n \"certain lots of Sensodyne Repair & Protect toothpaste as well as Sensodyne Complete toothpaste due to the possible presence of wood fragments in the products. The recall also applied to the company's Biotene brand of toothpaste. The recall was a precautionary measure based on a small number of complaints, and no injuries have been reported. The recall applies to products manufactured between 2013 and September 2014, and shipped from June 2013 to April 2015.\",\n \"-26.92818842304405\"\n ],\n [\n \"extrinsic stain is present on the tooth surface. This suggests that tooth polishing should be based on the clients individual needs. Previously, tooth polishing was a service provided at every hygiene appointment, due to this many patients expect this as part of the routine care. This has placed dental professionals into an ethical dilemma on whether or not this service should be provided. Extrinsic Stain Many factors may lead to discoloration of the external layer of the tooth called the enamel. Foods and beverages such as coffee, tea, and red wine can stain the enamel. Chromogenic bacteria found in plaque\",\n \"-26.8628178005456\"\n ],\n [\n \"This, in turn, can lead to destruction of the gingival tissues, which may progress to destruction of the periodontal attachment apparatus. The plaque accumulates in the small gaps between teeth, in the gingival grooves and in areas known as plaque traps: locations that serve to accumulate and maintain plaque. Examples of plaque traps include bulky and overhanging restorative margins, clasps of removable partial dentures and calculus (tartar) that forms on teeth. Although these accumulations may be tiny, the bacteria in them produce chemicals, such as degradative enzymes, and toxins, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS, otherwise known as endotoxin) or\",\n \"-26.8310733094404\"\n ],\n [\n \"for its remineralizing effects on enamel, often repairing the tooth surface and reducing the risk of caries.\\nThe use of fluoridated toothpaste is highly recommended by dental professionals; whereby studies suggest that the correct daily use of fluoride on the dentition of children has a high caries-preventive effect and therefore prevents has potential to prevent ECC. However, it is important to use fluoridated toothpastes correctly; children below the age of two do not usually require toothpaste unless they are already at a high risk of ECC as diagnosed by a dental professional, and therefore it is it is recommended to use\",\n \"-26.814906605053693\"\n ],\n [\n \"professionals. Dental sealants have been shown to be more effective at preventing occlusal decay when compared to fluoride varnish applications.\\nCalcium, as found in food such as milk and green vegetables, is often recommended to protect against dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent decay of a tooth by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel. Streptococcus mutans is the leading cause of tooth decay. Low concentration fluoride ions act as bacteriostatic therapeutic agent and high concentration fluoride ions are bactericidal. The incorporated fluorine makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and, thus, resistant to decay. Fluoride can be found in either topical or\",\n \"-26.80573721375913\"\n ],\n [\n \"to correct crooked or excessively long teeth. The removed enamel is irreplaceable, and may sometimes expose dentin. It is also known as enameloplasty, odontoplasty, contouring, recontouring, slenderizing, stripping. This procedure offers fast results and can even be a substitute for braces under certain circumstances. Bonding Bonding is a process in which an enamel-like dental composite material is applied to a tooth's surface, sculpted into shape, hardened and then polished. An example of a bonding substance are inlays and onlays, which are used to repair decayed & cracked teeth. These are helped at those parts of teeth when a filling is\",\n \"-26.726466307765804\"\n ],\n [\n \"of dentures, artificial teeth, impression trays, maxillofacial / orthodontic appliances and temporary (provisional) restorations, however they can not be used as tooth filling materials because they can lead to pulpitis and periodontitis as they may generate heat and acids during (setting) curing, and in addition they shrink. Failure of dental restorations Fillings have a finite lifespan; composites appear to have a higher failure rate than amalgam over five to seven years. How well people keep their teeth clean and avoid cavities is probably a more important factor than the material chosen for the restoration. Evaluation and regulation of\",\n \"-26.709648907766677\"\n ],\n [\n \"introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. He asserted that sugar derivate acids like tartaric acid were responsible for dental decay, and also suggested that tumors surrounding the teeth and in the gums could appear in the later stages of tooth decay.\\nFauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he discovered many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would follow the pattern\",\n \"-26.625082368962467\"\n ],\n [\n \"materials to repair tooth decay and damage from osteoporosis.\",\n \"-26.61700273148017\"\n ],\n [\n \"tooth structure, as well as in \\\"enamel sites beyond the height of contour\\\". For cosmetic purposes, composite is preferred when a restoration is required on an immediately visible portion of a tooth. Bonded amalgam Dental amalgam does not by itself bond to tooth structure. This was recognized as a shortcoming by early practitioners such as Baldwin. He recommended that the prepared cavity be coated with zinc phosphate cement just prior to filling with amalgam, in order to improve the seal and retention. The practice did not become universally accepted and eventually fell into disuse. Until the 1980s, most amalgam restorations\",\n \"-26.567717358993832\"\n ],\n [\n \"bristled toothbrushes can damage tooth enamel and irritate gums as indicated by the American Dental Association. Toothbrushes are often made from synthetic fibers, although natural toothbrushes are also known in many parts of the world. Those with dentures may also brush their teeth with traditional tooth brushes, specially made denture brushes or denture cleaners. Toothpaste Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used to clean and improve the aesthetic appearance and health of teeth. It is almost always used in conjunction with a toothbrush. Toothpaste use can promote good oral hygiene: it can aid in the\",\n \"-26.556970235949848\"\n ],\n [\n \"acids as by-products. The glucose produced from starch by salivary amylase, is also digested by the bacteria. When enough acid is produced so that the pH goes below 5.5, the acid dissolves carbonated hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel. The plaque can hold the acids in contact with the tooth for up to two hours, before it is neutralised by saliva. Once the plaque acid has been neutralised, the minerals can return from the plaque and saliva to the enamel surface.\\nHowever, the capacity for remineralisation is limited, and if sugars enter the mouth too frequently a net loss of\",\n \"-26.507013451016974\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dental pellicle The dental pellicle, or acquired pellicle, is a protein film that forms on the surface enamel by selective binding of glycoproteins from saliva that prevents continuous deposition of salivary calcium phosphate. It forms in seconds after a tooth is cleaned or after chewing. It protects the tooth from the acids produced by oral microorganisms after consuming carbohydrates. Plaque formation Plaque is a biofilm composed of several different kinds of bacteria and their products that develop over the enamel on a layer known as pellicle. The process of plaque formation takes several days to weeks and will cause the\",\n \"-26.47813532067812\"\n ],\n [\n \"a tight seal between the internal structures of the tooth and the surrounding environment. Dental caries is caused by bacterial production of acid during their metabolic actions. The acid produced from this metabolism results in the breakdown of tooth enamel and subsequent inner structures of the tooth, if the disease is not intervened by a dental professional, or if the carious lesion does not arrest and/or the enamel re-mineralises by itself. Glass ionomer cements act as sealants when pits and fissures in the tooth occur and release fluoride to prevent further enamel demineralisation and promote remineralisation. Fluoride can also hinder\",\n \"-26.457417381112464\"\n ],\n [\n \"visit is required to complete crown and bridge work, and the additional time required for the procedure can be a disadvantage; the increased benefits of such a restoration, however, will generally offset these considerations. Dimensions of preparation When preparing a tooth for a crown, the preparation should, ideally, exist entirely in enamel. As elaborated on below, the amount of tooth structure required to be removed will depend on the material(s) being used to restore the tooth. If the tooth is to be restored with a full gold crown, the restoration need only be .5 mm in thickness (as gold\",\n \"-26.417455396040168\"\n ],\n [\n \"forces. Enamel fractures Some sources consider them to be of no clinical significance. However, they have been noted to be an important potential source of enamel fractures that arise after extended use or overloading. It appears that, although enamel easily starts to form the fracture defects of enamel tufts, they then enable enamel to resist the further progress of these fractures, ultimately preventing mechanical failure. This fracture resistance is why tooth enamel is three times stronger than its constituent hydroxyapatite crystallites that make up its enamel rods.\\nEnamel tufts do not normally lead to enamel failure, due to these defects stabilizing\",\n \"-26.338472354924306\"\n ],\n [\n \"Speirs, Neil found that the surface of tooth enamel is high in fluoride, a finding which never received the recognition it deserves, as it went unpublished in any dental journal. He also looked at the effects fluoride in water had on teeth, even going so far as to give himself tooth decay to show that it could be cured using fluoride. He lectured on the subject of water fluoridation across the world, becoming a key contributor to a controversial debate. During the Second World War, he served as a nutritional advisor to the government. Jenkins also acted as an associate\",\n \"-26.310082434676588\"\n ],\n [\n \"citrate have been available since at least 2000. It is believed that potassium ions diffuse along the dentinal tubules to inactivate intradental nerves. However, as of 2000, this has not been confirmed in intact human teeth and the desensitizing mechanism of potassium-containing toothpastes remains uncertain. Since 2000, several trials have shown that potassium-containing toothpastes can be effective in reducing dentin hypersensitivity, although rinsing the mouth after brushing may reduce their efficacy.\\nStudies have found that mouthwashes containing potassium salts and fluorides can reduce dentine hypersensitivity. A randomized clinical trial published in 2018 found promising results in controlling and reducing hypersensitivity when\",\n \"-26.271844419301488\"\n ],\n [\n \"stains. Whitening toothpaste cannot alter the natural color of teeth or reverse discoloration by penetrating surface stains or decay. To remove surface stains, whitening toothpaste may include abrasives to gently polish the teeth or additives such as sodium tripolyphosphate to break down or dissolve stains. When used twice a day, whitening toothpaste typically takes two to four weeks to make teeth appear whiter. Whitening toothpaste is generally safe for daily use, but excessive use might damage tooth enamel. Teeth whitening gels represent an alternative. A recent systematic review in 2017 concluded that nearly all dentifrices that are specifically formulated for\",\n \"-26.243322156369686\"\n ],\n [\n \"days. If teeth sensitivity is experienced after using a teeth whitening product, taking a break may help. Home treatment At-home treatments include desensitizing toothpastes or dentifrices, potassium salts, mouthwashes and chewing gums.\\nA variety of toothpastes are marketed for dentin hypersensitivity, including compounds such as strontium chloride, strontium acetate, arginine, calcium carbonate, hydroxyapatite and calcium sodium phosphosilicate. Desensitizing chewing gums and mouthwashes are also marketed.\\nPotassium-containing toothpastes are common; however, the mechanism by which they may reduce hypersensitivity is unclear. Animal research has demonstrated that potassium ions placed in deep dentin cavities cause nerve depolarization and prevent re-polarization. It is not known\",\n \"-26.215623963507824\"\n ],\n [\n \"obtained by burning extracted teeth, destroying the potential infection-causing material within the tooth, resulting in tooth ash Tooth ash has been shown to promote bone repair. Although recent studies have shown that calcine tooth powder- culture media (CTP-CM) does not affect proliferation, they have shown that CTP-CM has significantly increased levels of osteo/odontogenic markers in DPSCs. Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) are similar to DPSCs in the sense that they are both derived from the dental pulp, but SHED are derived from baby teeth, whereas DPSCs are derived from\",\n \"-26.127600614563562\"\n ],\n [\n \"eventually disintegrates into small clusters of epithelium and is reabsorbed. The dental lamina is first evidence of tooth development and begins at the sixth week in utero.\\nThis is responsible for the cap like structure of the enamel organ. It is important to note that enamel is an ectodermal product as it is originally derived from ectoderm which is the outermost of the three germ layers of the forming embryo. The other two are: the mesoderm and the endoderm. It gives rise to the nervous system, sense organs, outer layer of the skin, teeth and the membrane lining the oral cavity\",\n \"-26.1126784599619\"\n ],\n [\n \"In plaque, the cariogenic microorganisms are those that produce lactic acid as a by-product from fermentable carbohydrates. Examples of these fermentable carbohydrates include such as fructose, sucrose and glucose. Cariogenic bacteria thrive on these sugars and help them to weaken the adjacent tooth surface. A poor oral care routine and a diet that is high in fermentable carbohydrates favour acidic attack in the oral cavity. This prolonged acidic exposure allows the net loss of minerals from the tooth. This diminishes the strength of the tooth and is called demineralisation. For the outer layer of the tooth (enamel) to reach cavitation,\",\n \"-26.09774888382526\"\n ],\n [\n \"months. This loss of bone volume, can cause a denture to be loose, or an inadequate amount of bone width to place an implant. Historically, alveolar preservation was used to provide a base to retain conventional dentures. Advances in osseointegration have expanded the need of the procedure to maintain ridge width and height for dental implant placement. In some cases, where a tooth requires removal when other teeth still need to erupt, socket preservation may be used to maintain bone for the formative tooth to erupt into. Risks and complications While there are no absolute contraindications to\",\n \"-26.061389111637254\"\n ],\n [\n \"lactate to food. Calcium lactate added to toothpaste has reduced calculus formation. One study has shown that calcium lactate enhances enamel remineralization when added to xylitol-containing gum, but another study showed no additional remineralization benefit from calcium lactate or other calcium compounds in chewing-gum.\\nOther studies indicated that the caries preventive effect of chewing sugar-free gum is related to the chewing process itself rather than being an effect of gum sweeteners or additives, such as polyols and carbamide. A study investigated the in situ effect of casein phosphopeptide–amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP–ACP) found that its incorporation into a sugar-free gum increases the\",\n \"-25.98344197263941\"\n ],\n [\n \"Toothpaste Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it is an abrasive that aids in removing dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis, and delivers active ingredients (most commonly fluoride) to help prevent tooth decay (dental caries) and gum disease (gingivitis). Salt and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) are among materials that can be substituted for commercial toothpaste. Large amounts of swallowed toothpaste can be toxic. Ingredients In addition to 20%–42% water, toothpastes are derived from\",\n \"-25.937215212950832\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the setting process. Indirect restorations In this technique the restoration is fabricated outside of the mouth using the dental impressions of the prepared tooth. Common indirect restorations include inlays and onlays, crowns, bridges, and veneers. Usually a dental technician fabricates the indirect restoration from records the dentist has provided. The finished restoration is usually bonded permanently with a dental cement. It is often done in two separate visits to the dentist. Common indirect restorations are done using gold or ceramics.\\nWhile the indirect restoration is being prepared, a provisory/temporary restoration is sometimes used to cover the prepared tooth to help\",\n \"-25.937141518224962\"\n ],\n [\n \"but often include baking soda, aloe, eucalyptus oil, myrrh, plant extract (strawberry extract), and essential oils. A systemic review in 2014 found insufficient evidence to determine whether the aloe vera herbal dentifrice can reduce plaque or improve gingival health, as the randomized studies were found to be flawed with high risk of bias.\\nAccording to a study by the Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, many of the herbal toothpastes being sold in India were adulterated with nicotine.\\nCharcoal has also been incorporated in toothpaste formulas; however, there is no evidence to determine its safety and effectiveness. Early toothpastes Since 5000\",\n \"-25.927621861046646\"\n ],\n [\n \"demineralisation of teeth, and reversely increases opportunities for remineralisation. Diet Demineralization is caused by bacteria excreting acids as a product of their metabolism of carbohydrates. By reducing the intake frequency of carbohydrates in an individual's diet, remineralization is increased and demineralization is decreased. Diet control is an important aspect in promoting remineralization to occur naturally. A loss of the tooth enamel structure and cavitation may occur if the demineralization phase continues for a long period of time. This disturbance of demineralisation caused by the presence of fermentable carbohydrates continues until the saliva has returned to a normal pH and had\",\n \"-25.876652855600696\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gary Kiracofe, a scrimshander in Nantucket, Massachusetts, advises collectors that if a piece looks dry, one should fill the center of the tooth with unscented baby oil and allow it to remain until as much oil as possible is soaked into the microscopic pores of the ivory. Clear paste wax or high-end car wax will seal the surface after oiling. Bone items are even more fragile (more fibrous and porous) and may be treated the same way: with a light clear mineral oil. Organic oils are inadvisable, as they will eventually hasten discoloration, as on old piano keys subjected to\",\n \"-25.86767748813145\"\n ],\n [\n \"Temporary restoration Temporary restoration is a temporary filling of a prepared tooth until permanent restoration is carried out. It is used to cover the prepared part of the tooth, in order to maintain the occlusal space and the contact points, and insulation of the pulpal tissues and maintenance of the periodontal relationship. Sometimes permanent restoration is not done after tooth preparation; this may be to prepare for indirect restoration such as inlays and onlays. Temporary fillings are also used for 'stabilization' techniques where many restorations are needed, and the problem may become worse before it can be fully treated –\",\n \"-25.852359643904492\"\n ],\n [\n \"restore the tooth back to full chewing function, require no periodic removal for cleaning, have a long life-expectancy and are aesthetically pleasing.\",\n \"-25.85132926958613\"\n ],\n [\n \"teeth. Such stimulators help to increase circulation to the gum line and to clear away bacteria which might not be removed by brushing and flossing alone. Food and drink Foods that help muscles and bones also help teeth and gums. Vitamin C is necessary, for example, to prevent scurvy which manifests as serious gum disease.\\nEating a balanced diet and limiting sugar intake can help prevent tooth decay and periodontal disease. The Fédération dentaire internationale (FDI World Dental Federation) has promoted foods such as raw vegetables, plain yogurt, cheese, or fruit as dentally beneficial—this has been echoed by the American\",\n \"-25.82559420749749\"\n ],\n [\n \"tissue of which the dentin portion of the tooth is composed. The dental pulp helps complete formation of the secondary teeth (adult teeth) one to two years after eruption into the mouth. The dental pulp also nourishes and hydrates the tooth structure, making the tooth more resilient, less brittle and less prone to fracture from chewing hard foods. Additionally, the dental pulp provides a hot and cold sensory function. Variation Root canals presenting an oval cross-section are found in 50–70% of root canals. In addition, canals with a \\\"tear-shaped\\\" cross section are common when a single root contains two canals\",\n \"-25.784997450886294\"\n ],\n [\n \"time of extraction. After removal of the tooth, the gum is elevated away from the bone, the socket is thoroughly cleansed, and antibiotic powder may be used. A barrier membrane is then fastened to the gum, the socket is packed with bone grafting material and the wound closed over the barrier membrane. Where the barrier membrane does not dissolve, it is removed approximately 30 days after placement, and the graft becomes incorporated into the healing bone between 3–9 months later. Material types Bone grafting materials can be divided into several categories. Autografts (bone harvested from\",\n \"-25.718611840624362\"\n ],\n [\n \"scarcely time for the placement of adequate restorations. In the post-war years, children in Switzerland developed four carious teeth per year; frequently, the first permanent molars were extracted in 7 to 9-year olds for “prophylactic” reasons.\\nDuring his years in the United States, Mühlemann had learned that caries incidence could be significantly reduced through fluoridation of the communal water supply. The assumption at that time was that fluoride by way of the blood vascular system would be incorporated into tooth substance during tooth development, and positively affect caries resistance. Mühlemann was able to demonstrate that fluoride was also effective when applied\",\n \"-25.698026075027883\"\n ],\n [\n \"teeth, usually to remove sharp points or to balance out the mouth. However, the veterinarian must be careful not to take off too much of the surface, or there will not be enough roughened area on the tooth to allow it to properly tear apart food. Additionally, too much work on a tooth can cause thermal damage (which could lead to having to extract the tooth), or expose the sensitive interior of the tooth (pulp). A person without a veterinary degree who performs this service is called a horse floater or equine dental technician. In popular culture The common\",\n \"-25.69337325892411\"\n ],\n [\n \"mineral fluorapatite. However, more recent studies showed no difference in the frequency of caries (cavities) between teeth that were pre-fluoridated to different degrees. Current thinking is that fluoride prevents cavities primarily by helping teeth that are in the very early stages of tooth decay.\\nWhen teeth begin to decay from the acid produced by sugar-consuming bacteria, calcium is lost (demineralization). However, teeth have a limited ability to recover calcium if decay is not too far advanced (remineralization). Fluoride appears to reduce demineralization and increase remineralization. Also, there is some evidence that fluoride interferes with the bacteria that consume sugars in the\",\n \"-25.688811762141995\"\n ],\n [\n \"stages of tooth decay.\\nFauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he discovered many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone and those artificially-made dental pieces would be useful as the natural ones. One of this methods stated that the artificial teeth would be held in place by tying them to the remaining solid teeth by pivots, using waxed thread or gold wire. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would\",\n \"-25.668395369088103\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cell fluid tries to move to the outside pressure environment and burst. Water with table salt in it is damaging to the knocked out teeth.\\nSaliva, that is placing the tooth under the accident victim’s tongue or in the cheek, has been recommended. Saliva, as a storage media, causes twice damage as water. Its osmolality is very low, causing bursting of the tooth root cells, but additionally, because saliva is filled with its normal flora of microorganisms, it will severely infect the tooth root cells. When the tooth is replanted, not only will the cells be necrotic but they will\",\n \"-25.667638290397008\"\n ],\n [\n \"tooth and the obliteration of the PDL, the protective regulators released by the PDL to protect the root from resorption are no longer present. This results in the tooth tissue being resorbed by osteoclasts and replaced with bone like it was part of the continuous homeostatic process of bone turnover. Transient inflammatory resorption Also known as external surface resorption. It is a self-limiting process and is a often and incidental radiographic finding. Transient inflammatory resorption undergoes healing and should be monitored only.\\nIt is caused by localised and limited injury to root surface or surrounding tissues. There is 2–3 weeks\",\n \"-25.65911946131382\"\n ],\n [\n \"teeth, exposed root surfaces and areas of demineralization. If polishing does occur on these surfaces, fluoride therapy can minimize the risk of dental caries. Excessive pressure can lead to frictional heat that may cause pulpal discomfort or necrosis of the dental pulp. Restorations Surfaces of restorations may be damaged by conventional tooth polishing with prophylactic paste. Materials such as gold, amalgam, composite, porcelain and titanium implants can be polished by using specifically designed pastes such as those that contain rouge, tripoli, cuttle, emery, coarse pumice to prevent roughened or scratched surfaces. It is important to refer to manufacturer’s directions before\",\n \"-25.6210754338681\"\n ],\n [\n \"because sometimes decay can be difficult to diagnose without tactile verification. Additionally, radiographs and other products designed to identify decay (such as measuring fluorescence from a laser) help the dental professional make a final diagnosis of tooth decay.\\nThere are various types of explorers, though the most common one is the No. 23 explorer, which is also known as a \\\"shepherd's hook\\\". Other types include the 3CH (also known as \\\"cowhorn\\\" or \\\"pigtail\\\") and No. 17 explorers, which are useful for the interproximal areas between teeth.\",\n \"-25.596282792306738\"\n ],\n [\n \"plaque removal effect\\nthan toothpastes without it.\\nSodium bicarbonate is also used as an ingredient in some mouthwashes. It has anticaries and abrasive properties. It works as a mechanical cleanser on the teeth and gums, neutralizes the production of acid in the mouth, and also acts as an antiseptic to help prevent infections. Sodium bicarbonate in combination with other ingredients can be used to make a dry or wet deodorant. Sodium bicarbonate may be used as a buffering agent, combined with table salt, when creating a solution for nasal irrigation.\\nIt is used in eye hygiene to treat blepharitis. This is done by\",\n \"-25.580759285396198\"\n ],\n [\n \"eliminated from the oral cavity. In general, the more effective one's brushing, flossing, and other oral homecare practices, the less plaque will accumulate on the teeth.\\nHowever, if, after 24 hours in the oral environment, biofilm remains undisturbed by brushing or flossing, it begins to absorb the mineral content of saliva. Through this absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the saliva, oral biofilm is transformed from the soft, easily removable form into a hard substance known as calculus. Commonly known as 'tartar', calculus provides a base for new layers of plaque biofilm to settle on and builds up over time. Calculus\",\n \"-25.565269614220597\"\n ],\n [\n \"Debridement (dental) Description Dental debridement is a procedure by which plaque and calculus (tartar) that have accumulated on the teeth is removed. Debridement may be performed in the process of personal or professional teeth cleaning. Professional debridement techniques include the use of ultrasonic instruments (which fracture the calculus, thereby facilitating its removal), as well as the use of hand tools, including periodontal scaler and curettes. Debridement may also be performed using saline solution. Procedures Periodontal Pockets\\nA periodontal pocket is formed from a disease process; it is defined as the apical extension of the gingiva, resulting in detachment of the\",\n \"-25.55978761962615\"\n ],\n [\n \"especially loss of guanine.\\nThe dental plaque biofilm can result in the disease dental caries if it is allowed to develop over time. An ecologic shift away from balanced populations within the dental biofilm is driven by certain (cariogenic) microbiological populations beginning to dominate when the environment favours them. The shift to an acidogenic, aciduric, and cariogenic microbiological population develops and is maintained by frequent consumption of fermentable dietary carbohydrate. The resulting activity shift in the biofilm (and resulting acid production within the biofilm, at the tooth surface) is associated with an imbalance between demineralization and remineralisation leading to net mineral\",\n \"-25.503122575348243\"\n ],\n [\n \"Biotene Regular The main active ingredient in its toothpastes is sodium monofluorophosphate, and prior to the GlaxoSmithKline acquisition it also contained enzymes including glucose oxidase, lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase and lysozyme. PBF The PBF ORAL RINSE (plaque biofilm) product contains the enzymes mutanase, dextranase, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, and glucose oxidase. Benefits People with xerostomia (dry mouth) may use Biotène to reduce the rate of recurrence of dental plaque. However, Biotene by itself does not significantly reduce the count of Streptococcus mutans which is the primary initiator of the formation of dental plaque.\\nBiotène relieves symptoms of dry mouth by providing moisture. Dry mouth\",\n \"-25.473944981233217\"\n ],\n [\n \"restored with a regular filling, either composite or amalgam, or a stainless steel crown. Due to the process of a pulpotomy causing the tooth to become slightly brittle, a stainless steel crown is normally indicated as the preferred choice of definitive restoration.\\nA pulpotomy can be done to both permanent and primary teeth. Partial Pulpotomy for Carious Exposures In some cases, radicular pulp (pulp within the root of a tooth) may remain healthy despite carious exposure of the pulp chamber. In cases where root formation is incomplete (as during adolescent years), a partial pulpotomy may keep radicular pulp vital long enough\",\n \"-25.472182704659645\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":288,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"8qvyb2"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"I would have a difficult time describing my wife's face even though I see it every day. How can someone describe the face of a criminal suspect they only saw for a moment?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Actually [eyewitness testimony]( URL_0 ) isn't all that reliable. > Mistaken or flawed identification has assumed a newfound prominence in recent years: It's been cited as a factor in nearly 78 percent of the nation's first 130 convictions later overturned by DNA testing, according to the New York-based Innocence Project, which works to free the wrongly convicted. As a result, a number of researchers are turning their attention to helping police departments and juries better understand the circumstances under which eyewitnesses observe crimes and later identify a suspect","Eyewitness testimony is bullshit. Obligatory psych 101 anecdote: guy came in to class claiming to be from the bursar's office, looking for a student. Prof says he isn't here, then goes in to side room to set up a video. On the way out, guy takes prof's phone off of table. Lots of murmuring by class, did that just happen, was that prof's phone, wtf, who was that, etc. Prof says it was, but will call police after class and starts the video. Video is actually a presentation, first slide is about 8 mugshots, and we have to identify the guy who took her phone. Whole scenario was set up by her to show how unreliable memory is, especially for unexpected situations. Hardly anyone got the face right, or details such as clothing color, physical appearance, what fake student he was looking for, etc. Really eye opening considering how much our justice system relies on witnesses.","I think OP was saying he couldn't DESCRIBE his wife's face, not that he couldn't pull it up. I can absolutely remember what my Mom looks like, I can see her face in my \"minds eye\". I'd have absolutely no idea how to describe her.","There’s social pressure to describe a criminal to the police, but if I ask you to describe your wife to me I’m no-one and so there’s no pressure. I’m betting if she went missing and you needed to describe her to someone drawing a sketch you’d be able to. On a side note our memories are massively fallible. And it’s very normal not to be able to describe a face you see every day.","Sometimes, you just can't. Some people are really good with faces, and some are really bad with them, but a face is the easiest way to describe a person so they can be identified by others. That said, negative stimulus is more effective at creating a memory than positive ones, and sketch artists break down the face into parts to try and get a full picture. They'll ask about whether the jaw was square or round or pointed without worrying about the lips, then ask about the thickness of the lips without worrying about the jaw.","I can pull up the picture of some one in my brain, but my question and I think OP's is, how would you describe the face you are seeing in your mind so and artist knows the correct way to draw it on paper. For example what kinds of words would you use?","Here's an excerpt from a security guard sample/examination report I wrote: > Subject was a male roughly between 16-30 years of age, of average height and average body type. Had brown hair was short near the ears, perhaps curled or wavy, eye color dark, thin eyebrows, light pale complexion, no facial marks or features, has a sharp chin and profile, and may or may not have ear accessories. Things are broken down top-to-bottom and leaving most of the more distinguishing and unclear features to the end. Everything should be written down in points before submitting the report and then formatted to make some sense but if something is unknown given an approximation. I haven't ever had any of my reports go to court but I have done a settlement outside of court with my report infront of lawyers and my technique and what I was taught works well enough that I don't have to stay more than a hour most times. This is more generic rather than precise and I've never had to deal with any professional sketch artists or anything like that. But I imagine that a lot of examples and sketch lines are used to create multiple profiles that get fitted for more detailed parts.","It's more about vocabulary than memory. Try to describe a particular house to someone without knowing the right words to describe the features and you run into the same problem. If you know the difference between a ranch and a dutch colonial and a craftsmen - you're going to be much more accurate than if you're trying to describe the shape of the roof in your own words. If I show you pictures of those houses you can say \"Oh, it was like this one, but with bigger windows. And the door was in the middle instead of off to the edge.\" And... now you have a decent idea what the house looked like. So when an artist of any kind is trying to draw an image based on a description, the first thing they need to do is teach some vocabulary, either verbally or visually. \"Okay, here are 5 kinds of nose. Which one is closest. Now... we call this part the bridge. Was the bridge higher like this... or lower like that?\" etc. So the answer to your question is that you don't have the anatomical knowledge to describe your wife's face, which is why you have trouble. When a witness gives a good and useful description of a subject, it's usually because they were interviewed by someone who DID have the anatomical knowledge required to get a good description out of that witness.","Cop here: Generally, police will ask for basic descriptors on-scene. Sex, race, height, weight, clothing, hair, facial hair, etc. In the event that you're asked to help with a composite sketch (which is rare and only done in specific circumstances), you'll be put with a professional who will walk you through it. These days, it'll probably be a computer program. They'll ask you for a face shape, and give you several pre-set options. They'll then ask you what the mouth looks like, and give you different mouths to choose from. At the end, you have a portrait built. It's not intended to be a 100% accurate depiction- it's intended to be a reference."],"string":"[\n \"Actually [eyewitness testimony]( URL_0 ) isn't all that reliable. > Mistaken or flawed identification has assumed a newfound prominence in recent years: It's been cited as a factor in nearly 78 percent of the nation's first 130 convictions later overturned by DNA testing, according to the New York-based Innocence Project, which works to free the wrongly convicted. As a result, a number of researchers are turning their attention to helping police departments and juries better understand the circumstances under which eyewitnesses observe crimes and later identify a suspect\",\n \"Eyewitness testimony is bullshit. Obligatory psych 101 anecdote: guy came in to class claiming to be from the bursar's office, looking for a student. Prof says he isn't here, then goes in to side room to set up a video. On the way out, guy takes prof's phone off of table. Lots of murmuring by class, did that just happen, was that prof's phone, wtf, who was that, etc. Prof says it was, but will call police after class and starts the video. Video is actually a presentation, first slide is about 8 mugshots, and we have to identify the guy who took her phone. Whole scenario was set up by her to show how unreliable memory is, especially for unexpected situations. Hardly anyone got the face right, or details such as clothing color, physical appearance, what fake student he was looking for, etc. Really eye opening considering how much our justice system relies on witnesses.\",\n \"I think OP was saying he couldn't DESCRIBE his wife's face, not that he couldn't pull it up. I can absolutely remember what my Mom looks like, I can see her face in my \\\"minds eye\\\". I'd have absolutely no idea how to describe her.\",\n \"There’s social pressure to describe a criminal to the police, but if I ask you to describe your wife to me I’m no-one and so there’s no pressure. I’m betting if she went missing and you needed to describe her to someone drawing a sketch you’d be able to. On a side note our memories are massively fallible. And it’s very normal not to be able to describe a face you see every day.\",\n \"Sometimes, you just can't. Some people are really good with faces, and some are really bad with them, but a face is the easiest way to describe a person so they can be identified by others. That said, negative stimulus is more effective at creating a memory than positive ones, and sketch artists break down the face into parts to try and get a full picture. They'll ask about whether the jaw was square or round or pointed without worrying about the lips, then ask about the thickness of the lips without worrying about the jaw.\",\n \"I can pull up the picture of some one in my brain, but my question and I think OP's is, how would you describe the face you are seeing in your mind so and artist knows the correct way to draw it on paper. For example what kinds of words would you use?\",\n \"Here's an excerpt from a security guard sample/examination report I wrote: > Subject was a male roughly between 16-30 years of age, of average height and average body type. Had brown hair was short near the ears, perhaps curled or wavy, eye color dark, thin eyebrows, light pale complexion, no facial marks or features, has a sharp chin and profile, and may or may not have ear accessories. Things are broken down top-to-bottom and leaving most of the more distinguishing and unclear features to the end. Everything should be written down in points before submitting the report and then formatted to make some sense but if something is unknown given an approximation. I haven't ever had any of my reports go to court but I have done a settlement outside of court with my report infront of lawyers and my technique and what I was taught works well enough that I don't have to stay more than a hour most times. This is more generic rather than precise and I've never had to deal with any professional sketch artists or anything like that. But I imagine that a lot of examples and sketch lines are used to create multiple profiles that get fitted for more detailed parts.\",\n \"It's more about vocabulary than memory. Try to describe a particular house to someone without knowing the right words to describe the features and you run into the same problem. If you know the difference between a ranch and a dutch colonial and a craftsmen - you're going to be much more accurate than if you're trying to describe the shape of the roof in your own words. If I show you pictures of those houses you can say \\\"Oh, it was like this one, but with bigger windows. And the door was in the middle instead of off to the edge.\\\" And... now you have a decent idea what the house looked like. So when an artist of any kind is trying to draw an image based on a description, the first thing they need to do is teach some vocabulary, either verbally or visually. \\\"Okay, here are 5 kinds of nose. Which one is closest. Now... we call this part the bridge. Was the bridge higher like this... or lower like that?\\\" etc. So the answer to your question is that you don't have the anatomical knowledge to describe your wife's face, which is why you have trouble. When a witness gives a good and useful description of a subject, it's usually because they were interviewed by someone who DID have the anatomical knowledge required to get a good description out of that witness.\",\n \"Cop here: Generally, police will ask for basic descriptors on-scene. Sex, race, height, weight, clothing, hair, facial hair, etc. In the event that you're asked to help with a composite sketch (which is rare and only done in specific circumstances), you'll be put with a professional who will walk you through it. These days, it'll probably be a computer program. They'll ask you for a face shape, and give you several pre-set options. They'll then ask you what the mouth looks like, and give you different mouths to choose from. At the end, you have a portrait built. It's not intended to be a 100% accurate depiction- it's intended to be a reference.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["looking at her and smiling. The police, informed a few days later, monitored the building entrance. They noticed a man matching the facial composite. They questioned him, and he claimed that he is a marginal resident in a home near Wendy. The authorities printed on one sheet six anthropometric photos: that of the suspect, and those of five men resembling him. They went to Wendy's house and asked her if she could recognize her attacker among the pictures. She referred to Waxin's photo, who was not considered a suspect. Interlocated, the investigators asked her again and said its him. For","-30.126057755638612"],["The Woman With Four Faces Plot A woman who happens to be both a thief and a con artist cannot be arrested because she is faceless.","-30.009010946465423"],["canvasses\".\nAmerican film actress and dancer Louise Brooks: \"Sternberg, with his detachment, could look at a woman and say 'this is beautiful about her and I'll leave it ... and this is ugly about her and I'll eliminate it'. Take away the bad and leave what is beautiful so she's complete ... He was the greatest director of women that ever, ever was\".\nAmerican actor Edward Arnold: \"It may be true that [von Sternberg] is a destroyer of whatever egotism an actor possesses, and that he crushes the individuality of those he directs in pictures ... the first days filming Crime and","-29.407977691240376"],["\"suspicious\" looking individuals. The process for determining who was a potential suspect was the \"Facial Action Coding System\" which is a system to taxonomize human facial movements by their appearance on the face, based on a system originally developed by a Swedish anatomist named Carl-Herman Hjortsjö. It was later adopted by Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, and published in 1978. However, in a situation in which not only law enforcement, but also the general public are anxious, and assiduous, the potential for Othello errors to creep into the real world is high. In a review of these practices by","-29.17034024046734"],["appearance of a person stands out amongst the otherwise indistinctive crowd, then an eyewitness is more likely to select that person regardless of their own recollection of the criminal. According to Schuster (2007), the suspect, if he is in the in person lineup or in a picture lineup, should not stand out from the others in the lineup. People's eyes are drawn to what is different. If you make sure that all the men or women in the pictures have a similar appearance, have the same background in their picture, race, age, and are wearing the same or similar clothing,","-29.122985331370728"],["a very beautiful woman is asking for a ride. The cabbie then looks behind and sees the woman's face was full of blood and bruises, causing him to abandon his taxi in terror.\nIn other instances, it is said that when solitary people drive on that street in the early morning, they briefly see the face of a white-clad woman in the rear-view mirror before she quickly disappears. Some accidents on this road are blamed on apparitions of the White Lady.\nMany sources have said this legend was actually manufactured by a reporter in the 1950s, and also a possible combination of","-28.97254412707116"],["members of his own family. He was a young man of fine attainments, a profound scholar, and a musician of rare ability. His figure was remarkable for its grace, and his face – that is to say, his natural face – was that of an Antinous. But upon the back of his head was another face, that of a beautiful girl, \"lovely as a dream, hideous as a devil.\" The female face was a mere mask, \"occupying only a small portion of the posterior part of the skull, yet exhibiting every sign of intelligence, of a malignant sort, however.\" It would be","-28.619505478753126"],["the man was \"about 5 feet, 9 inches tall, weighing about 170 pounds, about 35 years old, and dressed in a light-colored fedora and a dark overcoat\". Due to the lack of light he could not make out this person's facial features. When the police showed him a photo of 18-year-old Heirens on July 11, he could not identify him as the man he saw. On July 16, during a hearing, he pointed to Heirens and said \"That's the man I saw!\" when he was brought into a courtroom and made the identification in person. The Chicago press stated that","-28.600389046572673"],["saleswoman and antiquities dealer. One witness said that she overheard the woman talking to a man in German in a Bergen hotel. Others who met her mentioned she also spoke Flemish and broken English and smelt of garlic. People who saw or met her also commented that she wore wigs. \nComposite sketches, based on witness descriptions and analysis of her body, were then circulated in many countries via Interpol. Despite the significant police resources deployed, the unknown woman was never identified and the case was quickly closed. While authorities concluded that she had committed suicide by ingestion of sleeping pills,","-28.171476038522087"],["images were publicized so that someone who knew the young woman in life could recognize her. Posters were distributed in Arizona with this image. Her DNA was also processed by the agency to establish a profile.\nIn 2011, further advances in technology enabled a partial DNA profile of a potential perpetrator to be generated from evidence collected from the victim's body at the crime scene. The profile matched that of William \"Bill\" Ross Knight, who had become known in the 1980s for spree robberies. In 1987 he was known to have used a .22 caliber pistol in one robbery, which was","-28.16378108804929"],["been dubbed the \"Badge Man\" as it seems to resemble a uniformed police officer wearing a badge. Others claim to see Gordon Arnold, a man who claimed to have filmed the assassination from that area, a man in a construction hard hat, and a hatted man behind the stockade fence.\nMoorman stated she heard a shot as the limousine passed her, then heard another two shots, \"pow pow,\" when the president's head exploded. She stated that she could not determine where the shots came from, and that she saw no one in the area that appeared to have possibly been the","-28.128960820788052"],["positively identified; no known photograph with her in frame captured her face because in all cases she was either facing away from the camera, or (as in the case of the Zapruder film) had her face obscured by her own camera. Beverly Oliver's claim In 1970, a woman named Beverly Oliver told conspiracy researcher Gary Shaw at a church revival meeting in Joshua, Texas, that she was the Babushka Lady. Oliver stated that she filmed the assassination with a Super 8 film Yashica and that she turned the undeveloped film over to two men who identified themselves to her as","-28.110942154566146"],["look of surprise on her face, and it is then made to look as if she lay in water. The next morning (as the song states), several people assist in arresting the male character in regard to her disappearance.\nWhile in the interrogation room, he is shown a white cloth, which the sheriff identifies as the item used to strangle Mary. He then denies that he and Mary were romantically involved, and the sheriff asks if Marx was jealous. At this point, the video reveals a larger picture of the protagonist's childhood: that after his mother's affair, his father leaves her","-28.092831143192598"],["women a voice for others to hear. He intends these messages to discourage other boys and girls from committing crimes and ending up in prison. Portraiture Yousef Khanfar has also captured the portraits of many influential figures including Sandra Day O'Connor and Emma Nicholson, Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne. Justice O'Connor has also praised Khanfar's portraiture work, stating that she was \"stunned and overcome with the beauty of your photograph\". Other notable portraits include that of David Wynne, Leona Mitchell, and Tariq Ramadan.","-28.092292030603858"],["\"in the face of rape, mutilation and murder\". As Mulvey argues, the female character \"exists only to be looked at.\" When female audiences gaze upon the screen and when the women on the screen are involved in the gaze, they see \"a distorted reflection of\" their own image. \"The monster is thus a particularly insidious form of the many mirrors patriarchal structure of seeing hold up to the woman.\" Linda William believes that the woman's gaze is \"so threatening to male power, it is violently punished.\" The female gaze Mary Ann Doane suggests that a woman can only actively participate","-27.987755571346497"],["man Another \"figure\" that has been the subject of conspiracy is the so-called \"black dog man\" figure who can be seen at the corner of a retaining wall in the Willis and Betzner photo of the assassination. In an interview, Marilyn Sitzman told Josiah Thompson that she saw a young black couple who were eating lunch and drinking Cokes on a bench behind the retaining wall and, therefore, it is possible that the \"black dog man\" figure is actually the black woman and her child. If so, the woman has never come forward to identify herself.\nIn The Killing of A","-27.965411332435906"],["Portrait of an Unknown Woman (film) Synopsis A potential scandal breaks out when an artists adds the head of the wife of a diplomat to a nude painting he is working on.","-27.922235484875273"],["\"You mean you can't fix her up enough so I could just get one picture of her?\" Sternly informed a second time he would not be allowed to view the body, the young man had wordlessly exited the funeral home.\nThe receptionist could not offer any clear description of the man beyond that he was a handsome young white male with dark hair, that he had driven a blue-grey Chevrolet, and that he had not been carrying a camera. Subsequent murders Almost one year later, on July 5, 1968, the partially decomposed, mutilated body of a 20-year-old art student named Joan","-27.901959171664203"],["attempt to defend herself. Her nails were all broken, and this seemed to indicate that her killer's face had been raked. She had been manually strangled, with the killer using one hand to throttle her, and her hands had been tied and lower clothing removed. The murder case quickly became national news, and Derbyshire police allocated 60 officers to try and track down her killer. Detective Superintendent Peter Burgess took a prominent part in the case.\nThe police initially looked without success at the film in Susan's camera to see if it could reveal any clues about her attacker. One of","-27.8473289446556"],["picture is still in its original frame.\nThe sitter has elegance and some delicate, fine, facial features-notable her shaven or plucked eyebrow and cheekbones, but she is not beautiful. Writer Jill Condra described her as \"harsh\" looking with a \"serious\" forehead. The woman has a distinctive nose, and seems to be flat chested, while her lower lip protrudes over the upper. However, she has an elongated, dignified neck, and attractive orange hair which lively spills to her shoulders, though the hair falling on her back may be false, a fashionable adornment. She wears pearls on her head and around her neck","-27.80828195059439"],["central characters. A \"crime scene\" is constructed and pictures of the \"body\" are taken and presented as crime scene photos. Sometimes all or part of an interview with a suspect or witness will be filmed and released along with the transcript of the interview. Actors can also play other roles such as television news anchors that report on the cases.\nThe site also has a web store that sells crime scene supplies, something which has garnered its own share of controversy over the years, with some people complaining that there isn't any reason why members of the public should have access","-27.797942662698915"],["woman, wife of a convict, on the bank of an isolated London reservoir, while also tracing a vanished employee of the Metropolitan Water Board. The politics within the CID interrupt his search, and he and a friend do some night skin diving on their own, with the happiest results. The title is a phrase from Hamlet III, 2,74.","-27.688448970744503"],["that the enemy is “near” and influential. In spite of so many complicated deceptive leads, he grows suspicious of the credibility of the photograph of the killer woman. The fact that the residence of the killer yielded no female fingerprints and there is an unidentified male fingerprint in the same apartment reveals to him that the photograph was a decoy. The killer is a male and the police kept chasing someone who isn't there. They learn the whereabouts of him, by strategic publicizing of a generated photograph of the man. They also apprehend the killer's accomplice. But, close to capturing","-27.621323778672377"],["\"you need some loving.\" She tells the officer that this man was the one who attacked her.\nPolice find a small blue book in Marilyn Miller's apartment, which they trace to a 28-year-old man with a criminal record named James Stone. The book was a notebook used and carried around by Stone. Stone is subsequently arrested; at his residence, police find clothing matching Miller's description of what the attacker wore. The police show Miss Miller a series of photographs, one of which is Stone's, asking if she can identify her attacker. Miller states that she thinks","-27.61116027754906"],["The Man with My Face (film) Plot The film is set in Puerto Rico, where Charles \"Chick\" Graham (Nelson) has settled down after the war to run a small business with his old army buddy (now his brother-in-law) Buster Cox (Harvey). Graham comes home one evening to find his wife, Cora (Ainley), acting as if he is an insane stranger.\nA man who looks exactly like him, Albert \"Bert\" Rand (Nelson), has taken his place and is playing cards and drinking in his living room. Neither Cora nor Buster—not even Graham's dog—recognizes Graham; they think that he, rather than Rand, is","-27.585500076049357"],["Believing her son had committed the murders, she called a police tip line and told police of her suspicion, based on her son's behavior and his resemblance to the composite sketch. She also showed police the labels of cardboard boxes used during her move to Medford with Acremant. Police matched the address labels to those on the boxes used to cover the women's bodies.\nShe later told The Oregonian, \"I called the police because I have to look God in the face. I will do anything in my power to make sure other people aren't hurt. But right now, he's sick.\"\nPolice","-27.571725708636222"],["packing tape. Some of her hair had been cut off. An autopsy revealed that she had been beaten and sexually assaulted before being asphyxiated. According to forensic psychologist Dr. Stephanie Stolinsky, the killer \"tried to dehumanize her completely. ... Whenever you hide someone's face, it means that you don't want to see them as a human being. You want to pretend that they're just an object\".\nThe murder case of Imette St. Guillen was handled by the Special Victims Squad of the NYPD. Arrest Darryl Littlejohn, one of two bouncers at The Falls where St. Guillen was seen the night she","-27.52381562287337"],["unable to remember any details about the woman, other than a large, flashy hat that she was wearing on the evening that they had spent together. In addition to that, no one who saw Henderson and the woman together is willing to admit to the police that they had seen the two together. Eventually, Henderson and his assistant, Carol, decide to begin their own investigation. They tour all throughout New York City to ultimately reveal that the murderer was Henderson's close friend, Marlowe.","-27.490533755364595"],["the photograph of Stone is her attacker, but wants to see him in person to be sure. A police officer then takes her to James Stone's arraignment, where he is escorted before the judge in the courtroom. Upon seeing James Stone, Marilyn Miller confirms that he was the one who attacked her.\nJames Stone admits that he was the one said \"you need some loving\" to Marilyn Miller at Rocco's the previous night, but he denies that he raped her, and insists that he lost his blue book at the bar. James Stone's friends, Thomas Mitchell and Edward","-27.461659670370864"],["found only in February 1998. A witness claimed to have seen the woman go into the car of a man. A good quality facial composite was created, but the police said that did not have evidence of a murder, and needed to investigate further.\nNemeskéri also owed money to his half-brother, Zsolt, who had previously loaned two million forints to his brother and had been asking him for repayment for a long time. Gusztáv was unable to return it, so his half-brother filed a lawsuit against him. The trial was scheduled for April 8, 1999 by the court. On April 7,","-27.379861102468567"],["The Lady in the Morgue Plot summary Throughout the novel the true identity of the young, attractive woman found hanging dripping wet from a rope in her hotel room remains a mystery. Neither her clothes nor the conspicuous lack of any shoes provides the police with any clue as to what has happened, and they assume the woman has committed suicide. At the same time a young woman from a prominent New York family goes missing, but when the stolen body is retrieved by Crane her relatives assert that these are not her human remains. Only in the final pages","-27.34537174765137"],["of the case:—\n\"I am not a woman who kills. Everything in my past life protests against such an accusation. All my works radiate with proof that I am a creatress. Being that, I cannot destroy.\" These were the words from Madame Bessarabo, suspected murderess of her first husband and confessed assassin of the second one.\nWhen a police investigator came upon an abandoned trunk at a railway station, as was the case with the trunk consigned by Hera Mirtel to Nancy; when, moreover, he espies blood trickling through the bottom onto the cement floor of the baggage room; and when on","-27.288534454841283"],["at Sarah's door, asking to use the telephone to call for help. Sarah lies that her husband is sleeping and she does not want to be disturbed, but the woman tells her that she knows that he is dead. When the visitor persists on coming in, Sarah, a professional photographer, attempts to take her photo through a window and telephones the police. When they arrive, the woman has already vanished. The police assure Sarah that she will be fine, but arrange to have a patrol car visit throughout the night.\nUpon developing her photos, Sarah recognizes the woman in the","-27.247558366376325"],["gun from her handbag and shoots him. 'I didn't mean to do that,' Nan remarks a moment later as David Slade falls to the floor with a bullet in his shoulder. 'Why, that's all right, Nan,' responds her husband-to-be. 'It's nothing.'\" [...] \"It is in the prison scenes that the film provides some interesting drama. 'Ladies They Talk About' is effective when it is describing the behavior of the prisoners, the variety of their misdemeanors, their positions in the social whirl outside, their ingenuity in giving an intimate domestic touch to the prison, and their frequently picturesque way of exhibiting","-27.223380854140487"],["Her Husband's Betrayal Synopsis A woman is suspicious of her husband, spies on him, and discovers that he committed a murder and framed her.","-27.221010098694023"],["been sold on 6 October 1979, which was found beneath the body. Police believe the woman was murdered but have never revealed how she died.\nAlthough the location was near to the entrance to Scawton Moor House Farm, a popular family picnic area, the body was so well concealed that it was highly improbable that it could have been discovered by accident. The anonymous caller became a suspect in the murder, but his identity was never established. Description of the victim In life, the woman was 5 feet 4 inches (1.63 m) tall. She had dark brown hair with a length of around 4-6","-27.193026745517273"],["come to a sudden stop.\nThe deputy explained to the man that there had been a report of a fight between the man and the young woman, and asked the man if he had any identification on him. The man protested that he had no reason to provide identification, and became ill-tempered when the deputy continued to press him for his identification. The man then asked the deputy what crime he was being accused of, as the deputy continued his requests for identification, stating that he was \"conducting an investigation\". The man persisted in his refusal to provide identification, asking instead","-27.180199119611643"],["of capturing the likeness and 'realness' of a person especially as seen in the hands. \"Everyone has a best angle, though, and my job is to analyze what these angles are. if posed properly, a person can be made a handsome figure. A person is entitled to this.\" - Wills. \nAdditional portraits include successful individuals such as golfer Ben Hogan, Indianapolis 500 Speedway owner Anton Hulman Jr., Detroit Tigers Baseball Club owner Walter Briggs, Jr., Philip Wrigley of Wrigley Gum Company, Clark Hungerford, railroad executive and Bessie Mae Pederson (wife of Roy Pederson) of Houston, Texas\nHe did not work by","-27.027973995922366"],["Cabrera was standing at her usual corner with a colleague at around 4:30 on the morning of 27 January 2004. She was approached by a client and walked toward him, away from her colleague. The colleague never saw the man's face and didn't recognize him. From behind, he appeared to be tall and thin, in light shorts. Cabrera and the client left together to go to her home.\nShe was found dead from a shot in the back of the neck. The investigation determined that the muzzle of the gun had been pushed against her neck and the gun was partially","-27.026499916159082"],["The Face (Koontz novel) Plot summary The main plot of the story follows Ethan Truman, an ex-cop who now works as the head of security for the most famous actor in Hollywood, Channing Manheim, a.k.a. \"The Face.\" Ethan is trying to track down the sender of several gruesome \"messages\" that were received in black boxes. Ethan now has six black boxes to figure out what the contents of the boxes mean. After chasing down leads and tracking the \"ghost\" of his dead friend Duncan \"Dunny\" Whistler (technically, Dunny is not a ghost, as he came back to life in","-27.024929581442848"],["the real woman had been killed. After going over the clues she had and looking at what evidence she had already uncovered and seeing Grace again, she realized that she had been suspecting the wrong person of murder all along. Who would have thought sweet, believable, weary, frightened Grace would have been a serial killer? Blanche White She is the central character on Blanche on the Lam. She is a black woman, who is a housekeeper and cook, on the run from a jail term for a minor offense. She hides out as a domestic worker for a","-27.01987213466782"],["is caught in the act by an unidentified man. He then bludgeons the man with a claw hammer and flees with the Bald Guy's money and photos. Upon returning to his flat, he finds that the photos are innocuous modeling shots.\nConfronting the Blonde, the Young Man learns that she and Cobb have been working together to manipulate him into mimicking Cobb's burglary methods. She tells him that Cobb had recently discovered a murdered woman's body during one of his burglaries and is attempting to deflect suspicion from himself by making it appear as though multiple burglars share his MO.\nThe Young","-26.99794575353735"],["her name on it and hightails it out of there.\nUnfortunately, she gets the wrong pictures. She has stolen plans for a new highway development that ends up in the hands of her estranged husband Vernon (Jeff Bridges), a handsome, wise-mouthed bum who owns a bar called the Blue Bonnet which no one goes to and that's not the worst of it. He's fooling around with a former Pecan Queen who works for the Lone Star Brewing company (Glenne Headly). He sees a way to make a bundle of money in all this.\nShady real estate kingpin Buford Pope (Rip","-26.982660922625655"],["indicating that she may have been a victim of rape prior to death. Investigation According to residents of the area, there were many \"suspicious people\" in the vicinity of the oil field where the body was discovered and some referred to the location as a \"killing ground.\"\nBecause of the condition of the body, the face was reconstructed three times—with clay, in a sketch by a forensic artist, and in January 2014, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children released a digital composite image produced from a CT scan after the remains were exhumed on October 2, 2013.\nDespite comparison with","-26.980694750876864"],["The Likeness Plot summary The story follows the efforts of detective Cassie Maddox to determine the circumstances surrounding the death of Lexie Madison, a young woman who is her doppelgänger. The dead woman not only resembles Cassie but also was living under an alias the detective used in an earlier undercover assignment. A senior police officer, Frank Mackey, convinces Cassie to impersonate the dead woman to investigate her death and to discover who she really was.\nAs the investigation proceeds, Cassie becomes consumed by her impersonation of the murder victim. She forms deep bonds with the dead girl’s four housemates, who","-26.968825244206528"],["in the whole place know who I am and be crackin' people upside the head with chairs and think nothin' gonna happen? That's crazy! And what kind of a man would I be to hit a girl in the head with a damn chair? I rather have 'em say I hit a man with a chair, not no damn woman.\n They waited eight months to try Iverson as an adult, and the lead detective lied on the stand about telling Iverson \"to take pictures\" when he went down to the courthouse. The count initially said that Iverson maimed three people","-26.93179193037213"],["she was found wearing. Claudina's father pressures investigators to actively pursue the case, but is repeatedly told that the case has been passed from one investigator to another.\nThis case and others in the film, like that of an unidentified woman found naked in a dry riverbed, showcase the pervasiveness of the murder of women in Guatemala, and point to numerous reasons that these murders are almost never solved. Witnesses and the family members of victims interviewed in the film speak on camera reluctantly and only as a last resort, and explain that they fear retaliation from the murderers, who are","-26.915072155592497"],["women that resemble her. On one such occasion he ends up becoming a witness to a woman's kidnapping. The man rescues her and in gratitude, the woman urges him to meet her one night. Unknown to him, the woman and her friends are all vampires who are being hunted by Van Helsing himself. Re-Membered A dirty cop (Christopher Darga) has been asked to serve as a hitman for a man's murder, which he does. He dismembers the body and stows it in his trunk for later disposal, but is shocked when he begins to find evidence that his victim is","-26.913854214566527"],["the three adult males, a car mirror showing blood spatters and a body in the car's back seat, and crosses nailed to trees. Others are more obvious, such as one of the men beginning to light a fire made up of several crucifixes. Eventually the photo reveals two additional people in the background, two priests holding a shotgun that appears to be ready to fire upon the group. As the short concludes it becomes apparent that the woman is not there of her own volition—her expression having become horrified in the most recent examination—and the film ends with the revelation","-26.911010025884025"],["deduces that she looks like she \"jumped off a cliff,\" although there are no cliffs nearby. The woman turns out to be someone Hoover knew very well, Allison Pond (Jennifer Connelly).\nThe detectives receive a film of Allison having sex in a motel room, taken by a secretly hidden camera behind a two-way mirror. Allison's friend Jimmy Fields (Andrew McCarthy) admits to making this film and more, including one with Hoover in it. Fields is murdered while being guarded by Hall and Relyea.\nRadioactive glass is found in Allison's foot, which leads the detectives to the Nevada Test Site, where they illegally","-26.90444444428431"],["leading the masked figure by a rope which binds his wrists, all the while carrying his brief case. The dilapidated doorway to the house is shown to have the number \"1334\" laid out in small bones at the top, otherwise adorned with dominoes, a crucifix, caution tape, a glove, a knife, and various photographs of someone's arms and head being bound.\nAs the camera zooms onto the door frame, the scene cuts to the victimized masked man's arms being tied with gauze tape, and then finally at the bottom of the doorway a box of dominoes opens up to reveal a","-26.893330412713112"],["Watson!\" he says, which amuses Lestrade. But Holmes refuses Lestrade's request: \"my sympathies are with the criminals, and I will not handle the case.\"\nLater, Holmes recognises the face of the woman who killed Milverton. He shows Watson her photograph displayed in a shop-window among those of other celebrities. Watson recognises the name of her famous husband, but Holmes signals silence with a finger to his lips. Watson assures his readers that the killer in question is beyond the reach of the law [i.e deceased] and that certain details have been disguised to hurt no one. Adaptations The story, along with","-26.87232007898274"],["catches sight of the wife, alive and unharmed, in a limo. He learns that his client was killed in an \"accident,\" and discovers the truth: the couple were talking about killing the woman's husband, and the murder Caul witnessed was actually that of his client and not the wife. Caul gets a phone call from his client's assistant, who tells him not to look any further into the matter, and says, \"We'll be listening to you.\" Caul goes on a frantic search for a listening device, tearing up his apartment to no avail. He sits amid the wreckage, playing the","-26.85712012439035"],["neck. Her hair was still tied in a ponytail with the same band and hairclips that she had been wearing when she disappeared. There was no evidence of a sexual assault, but the absence of her jacket and boots and the position of her underwear were among forensic evidence indicating a sexual motive. Police called in former SAS tracker \"Jungle Eddie\" McGee, who had helped track down murderer Barry Prudom in 1982, to identify the killer's most probable route through the woodland.\nThe state of decomposition of Tiernan's body led some forensic experts to believe that after her death she had","-26.849355049052974"],["but mentions \"patches on her face\" and in his picture her face is seen to be pock-marked. She went by a number of aliases: Bird, Howard, Blewitt and Trent are among those ascribed to her, although Mother Bird was also the name of another brothel-keeper who was committed to Newgate Prison with Needham in 1724. Needham was apparently ruthless with the girls and women who worked for her. They were forced to hire their dresses from her, and, if they were unable to pay the exorbitant rentals, she would force them to take more customers or have them committed to","-26.791232358843445"],["to his face. He also engages by telephone with Jesús Franco, Katja Bienert, Peter Martell, and David Hess, playing fictionalized versions of themselves.\nAfter a while he contacts a woman, Franziska (Alexandra Dumas), who read his advertisement in the supermarket, and meets him at his house. When he tells her what he is supposed to do in his film, the woman becomes scared. The man overwhelms the woman and kills her by strangling her with a telephone cord and beating her head. Afterwards he films himself as he is sexually aroused by her corpse. He cuts her nipples off in graphic","-26.786325188179035"],["our persona, and the actress and the woman are identified with that persona. People thought of me as being like her. And that was the unfortunate reality for me about this project.\n— Faye Dunaway Film, television, and theatre, 1982–1999 In 1982, Dunaway appeared in a television adaptation of Clifford Odets's dramatic play The Country Girl as the wife of a washed-up alcoholic singer played by Dick Van Dyke, whom she later described as \"one of the sweetest and funniest men in the world\", but admitted \"Though it was a valiant effort on all our parts, and there were moments I thought","-26.778655266040005"],["police found the naked dead body of a woman lying on a bed with cuts and bruises to her head. She was identified as Sally White, 38, a prostitute who had been living in London.\nForensic pathologist Freddy Patel subsequently concluded that White had died of a heart attack, in spite of the circumstances. Patel later came under scrutiny for this and other findings in his career, including the 2009 death of Ian Tomlinson, resulting in a suspension from the government's register of pathologists pending an inquiry. In 2012, his name was erased from the medical register by the General Medical","-26.764987849252066"],["approximately five feet four inches to five feet six inches (168 cm) tall, with a weight of 130 to 140 pounds (59 to 64 kg). She had a slight overbite and had some fillings in her teeth, showing that she had dental care in life. Her fingernails had pink polish. Because she had light brown to blond hair with red highlights, her case was thought to be possibly related to the Redhead murders. \nAuthorities hoped in late April 1985 that they would identify her body through fingerprints but were unsuccessful. Six missing women were ruled out as possible identities of the victim.\nShe was not","-26.70306062756572"],["men while Trump reported that he was unable to see them clearly. Police recovered unidentified fingerprints on and inside Heitholt's car as well as an unidentified hair in his hand. Police also recovered footprints in the blood at the crime scene. Ornt gave police a description of the men and a composite sketch was made.\nThe crime had been unsolved for two years when, in October 2003, local media again covered the murder. Erickson reportedly had several dreams about the crime after seeing an article in a newspaper and, a few days later, mentioned the murder to Ferguson asking him if","-26.662636087072315"],["see that a therapist facility connects the culprits of your cases.\n\"Discover the shocking truth behind the murder of a familiar face.\"\nYou work with Catherine Willows and Riley Adams.","-26.659096031013178"],["identified by Tina Gabler in a lineup, he denies ever having seen the woman. When he is visited by his girlfriend at the Colorado State Prison, he admits to her that charges are being brought against him for multiple murders but stresses the fact that there is no evidence, however, and that he will never be convicted; at this point she distances herself from him. Due to his wish to defend himself, he is granted access to the courthouse law library, and promptly escapes by jumping from an upper story window. He is jailed again after an auto theft, but","-26.647460143938588"],["separates from the outfit, and heads to the town of San Juan alone to try and locate the woman in the photograph.\nHe returns to the Inn where he previously stayed, to find to his surprise his friend and colleague Michael Crane. Crane has left the London newspaper, and arrived in Spain some months ago. With Crane's help, they track down the woman in the photograph, Eulelia Monti. Chase meets with Eulelia Monti, who he finds is Caveda's mistress, though is not in love with him. Meanwhile, Crane sees a man leave the building who he believes is Caveda and tracks","-26.63844180406886"],["following us and several family members several weeks before I was attacked. My husband also received a number of threats before I was attacked. The whole police had one agenda from Day One, and that was to get my husband.\" During her testimony, Sherrie Rossi wore a shirt with two doll figures labeled \"Rich\" and \"Sherrie\" and flashed the American Sign Language sign for love at her husband Richard. \nOver Rossi's wife's objections, prosecutors charged him with attempted murder and won a court ruling admitting her earlier testimony at trial. The parties argued whether the blood-soaked interior of","-26.616150666261092"],["woman's story has been corroborated by Andrew Thompson, a former Henderson Police officer, who picked up the witness after she was interviewed by detectives investigating the death of Deane Fuller-Sandys and drove her to the airport. Thompson said she told him during the drive that she and the other woman had lied to detectives about being present when the alleged murder took place. Tim McKinnel who has been looking into the case told the NZ Herald he believed Thompson's account because it was consistent with other information he has. Officer convicted of drug dealing Detective senior sergeant Mark Franklin smoked","-26.615137945045717"],["Once Over Nightly Plot A public relations man finds his picture in the newspaper with a curvaceous model wearing only his account's product.","-26.60108718011179"],["recognition from those who may have seen the victim in life, a composite drawing of the woman was created by a forensic artist from the Orange County Police Department. Despite these efforts the woman remained unidentified, and her death gradually became a cold case. Identification In May 2015, the Dana Point Jane Doe was formally identified as Holly Jo Glynn. This formal identification occurred after several high school friends of Holly's from Whittier, having been unable to regain contact with Holly via social media or any other conventional means of contact for several years, reported their suspicions to both the","-26.589756700210273"],["recognizes as being of the dead woman he saw the night before. Richie denies knowledge of her whereabouts. He calls Bill, who tells him to come in at 1:30 AM to discuss the situation.\nAs a favor to Richie, Gideon allows Maggie the use of his lawyer, Bruce Warham (Richard Schiff), who informs Maggie that in the public's eyes, she is a mistress, due to her having sexual relations to a married man, despite having been assaulted.\nRichie tells Sophia about flip books he made growing up about a character called \"Sophia\". He brings Sophia to his former apartment in a downtrodden","-26.588578447510372"],["whose physical features were not clear on the video. Investigators were disheartened to find that the best video capture of this subject, in three separate snapshots, was obscured by the complex fencing, the posts aligning to conceal the face. One journalist called the suspect \"The luckiest person of interest ever\". The FBI was called in to help determine the person's size and gender, but could only say that the person stood between 5'3\" and 5'5\". NASA also enhanced the video to help identify the suspect. Detectives interpreted the valuables left inside the car to imply that robbery was not a","-26.582102160231443"],["important personalities in their films. The list includes G.W. Abbe, Justus D. Barnes, Frank H. Crane, Irene Crane, Marie Eline, Violet Heming, Martin J. Faust, Thomas Fortune, George Middleton, Grace Moore, John W. Noble, Anna Rosemond, Mrs. George Walters. In one scene, the appearance of the wife was described as being facilitated by \"trick printing\", and was possibly created by a double exposure. Bowers notes that the sister was listed as the wife in the official synopsis, but it is unlikely that such a distinction in cast roles was ever made in the inter-titles due to the confusion. Bowers stated","-26.50845391167968"],["and in their thirties. One man had a beard; the other was clean-shaven with light colored (\"fair\") hair. The police had models of the suspects created in clay to assist the investigation. Initial investigations Later that year, a man in a bar in Greenwood bragged that he had been involved in the killings. Police subsequently questioned him, but he passed a polygraph claiming not to have been involved and officers were unable to bring charges on other grounds. The man provided the names of others whom he suggested belonged to a fast-food robbery gang, and whom investigators suspected may have","-26.50732016490656"],["with exactly the same face, who claims to be Nisha's husband.\nNow, Sher Singh can neither confess to being a bigamist nor sit silently, as a stranger stays with his wife Nisha. Meanwhile, he is implicated in a murder as well. Finally, it turns out that Vicky is not actually dead, as presumed, and has undergone facial reconstruction to have the same face as Sher Singh. After a lot of slapstick, all ends well.","-26.49009420159564"],["after she discovers Cross' body in his bathtub. When Jessie asks Incanto about her mother's whereabouts, he denies seeing her. However, Jessie smells her mother's perfume in Incanto's apartment and calls the police. When they arrive, Incanto is gone, but his computer gives a list of women he has been in contact with. After trying to contact each woman in the given list, only two are unreachable, one being Kaminsky.\nAfter Incanto comes to Kaminsky's apartment, she recognizes his facial composite distributed by the FBI. The agents arrive but after Mulder leaves in pursuit of who he believes to be Incanto,","-26.483936762356734"],["is reinforced by examining the details of a number of assaults on women since 1969 which, in some ways, clearly fall into the established pattern of Sutcliffe's overall modus operandi. I hasten to add that I feel sure that the senior police officers in the areas concerned are also mindful of this possibility but, in order to ensure full account is taken of all the information available, I have arranged for an effective liaison to take place.\nPolice identified a number of attacks which matched Sutcliffe's modus operandi and tried to question the killer, but he was never charged with other","-26.48065050612786"],["body A woman's body was found on 27 March 1975. It was quickly confirmed to be that of Sophia Weckert, after a Townsville dentist was able to identify her through dental x-rays.\nSophia Weckert's body was found near Kennedy Creek, approximately 30 kilometers north of where her husband had been shot dead. The person who found her body was a local Sarina man, who had stopped on the highway due to car trouble. At the time of discovery, her body was face down, and was lying at a distance of fifty meters from the highway. Police said they believed that she","-26.474612484511454"],["man suspected of kidnapping and killing several young women, shot himself in a confrontation with the police at a gas station in New Hampshire. Borsos remembers, “it seemed as though there were about 500 reporters in the office, and everybody was going insane.”\nIn order to prepare for the role, Kurt Russell followed around veteran Herald crime reporter Edna Buchanan and photographer Tim Chapman. At first, he couldn’t figure out \"how they justify what they do. But I found out that these are very caring people. They may be callous about how they do their jobs, but they're not callous about","-26.457096351892687"],["Murders. Common characteristics are her hair color, reddish or strawberry-blond, and being found along a highway. She was identified by a couple from Florida, who had allowed her to stay with them for a period of time. Nichols may have been murdered after leaving a truck stop along the highway and may have attempted to hitchhike. Tina Farmer On January 1, 1985, the bound body of a woman was found near Jellico, Tennessee, in Campbell County, down an embankment off the southbound side of Interstate 75. The body was in an advanced state of decomposition. The victim was estimated to","-26.449973868046072"],["up. She had refused to move or change her phone number in hopes that her daughter might return or try to contact her. Lyle Stevik In September 2001, a man was found to have hanged himself in a motel in Amanda Park, Washington, a town on the Olympic Peninsula. The man had checked in as \"Lyle Stevik,\" which appeared to be an alias. This name appeared drawn from \"Lyle Stevick\", a character in a Joyce Carol Oates's novel You Must Remember This (1987). \nThe Grays Harbor County Sheriff's Office spent countless hours in search of the man's true identity, but","-26.448009972795262"],["The Woman Under Cover Plot As described in a film magazine, Yvonne (La Rue), an actress, murders her husband following a quarrel, and upon threat of exposure promises to marry Billy (Spingler), a chorus man who has discovered her guilt. When she refuses to carry out her agreement and accepts the attentions of a wealthy broker, Billy (Spingler) tells his story to The Leader, a newspaper. Mac (McDaniel), the city editor, assigns Alma (Brunette), a woman reporter, the task of securing Yvonne's confession to verify the story that was given to the newspaper. She is a sister of Billy but","-26.444509702996584"],["where the face is dissected. Mohinder bumps a closet door, and what he finds is astonishing: a room lit by a string of light bulbs and a map identical to his father's, but with more pins stuck in and yarn links. However, going further in, he finds a more astounding sight. Painted up in red letters are the words \"Forgive Me.\" In smaller letters, all over the rough cement wall are written, \"I have sinned\", over and over. When they return to the apartment with the police, however, the apartment has been cleaned out, with no evidence to support Mohinder's","-26.43114775126014"],["sleeping in the photographer's bed, he develops the photographs only to find that each one has two faces: Tomie's face and a ghoul's face nearby. Convinced it is not his lens, he tells Tomie this and she tells him to kill her to prove she is not a ghost. If she was a ghost, she could not die. Naturally, she does die, but when the photographer is transporting her body in his car she comes back to life and scares him out of the car. His running takes him to the place where he saw the girl from his past,","-26.422768044001714"],["with many powerful men in Hollywood, making them suspects and the case a media frenzy. One of these men, multi-millionaire Richard Cross, whose mistress Julie Costello is Jessica's older sister, is arrested after the police have a security video of Richard in the building at the time of the murder. Ted is hired and quickly has the charges against Richard dismissed for lack of evidence.\nThe next suspect is Neil Avedon who begs Ted to defend him. The state has a vast amount of evidence against him: Neil's fingerprints were found all over the crime scene; his DNA was found inside","-26.41899987362558"],["her murderer was and approached her husband \"in the loving hope that he would be able to see her, smiling and consciously beautiful\". But the murderer, plagued by guilt, noticed only the strangulation marks he had left on her throat.\nAs Jack Sullivan pointed out, Bierce's story \"achieves an almost mind-numbing complexity by emerging from three fragmented points of view\". The truth can be deduced only from the combination of three accounts, because \"each of the characters is missing some vital element of the picture\".","-26.41661555808969"],["the red-haired woman appears taking pictures of the scenes and interrogates an officer to reveal information. During the use of the ability, Graham discovers one of the bodies is still alive.\nGraham returns to therapy with Lecter, who states that Hobbs may not be a problem for him and claims that maybe the killer wants a \"connection\". Their meeting is recorded by the red-haired woman, who is Lecter's next appointment. Despite using a false identity, Lecter correctly guesses that she is Freddie Lounds, a tabloid blogger. He then finds she recorded Graham's meeting with him and makes her delete the conversation.","-26.400447526597418"],["initially interviewed and had denied any connection with the offence, but later admitted his curiosity about seeing a woman naked.\nIn court, Smith admitted that there had been a family cover-up, with his brother supporting the claim that he had been at home at the time of the murder, and his mother saying that the scratches on his face had been caused by the family cat. The police had, in fact, questioned Smith earlier in the investigation over these scratches. In his summing up, Mr. Justice Caulfield was in little doubt about the enormity of the crime. He said that Susan","-26.381404868792742"],["The Man with My Face The Man with My Face is a 1948 mystery novel by Samuel W. Taylor that was the basis for the 1951 film of the same title. It was first serialized in Liberty magazine. Taylor wrote the screenplay for the film with others, including Edward Montagne.","-26.35585034484393"],["her husband in the night!\" While the police initially believe the young woman to be intoxicated, they eventually visit the boarding house to find that a young, married man has been stabbed in the back with a knife.\nThe police immediately begin an inspection of the scene of the crime. The lodgers of the boarding house are interviewed, all of whom prove to be eccentric, however, during the interviews, the young constable and his fellow officers become increasingly suspicious of Mr. Deluc, a smarmy cigar agent, who had made repeated amorous advances towards Mrs. Zebedee. Unfortunately, this suspicion is","-26.343718521049595"],["he saw a newspaper article on the case and realized the woman looked a lot like Judy. Discovery of body Jeffrey hired two other private investigators to look for his wife, and faxed and mailed copies of his wife's missing person flier to hospitals all over the country, asking them to look for her. Eventually those efforts helped locate her before the end of the year. However, she was not alive.\nOn September 7, 1997, a father and son hunting for deer out of season on a hillside in an area of North Carolina's Pisgah National Forest found what appeared to","-26.342297146366036"],["pretending to be the wife so that no one would know she was murdered, and everyone would believe that she perished in the house fire. The forensic linguists were able to figure this out by studying the husband's texting style, spelling errors, and more, and were able to come to the conclusion that the texts sent after the wife was thought to be deceased, was actually the husband texting off her phone pretending to be her. Without this knowledge, it would have been much more difficult to convict the husband of murder and get justice for the family. Linguistic fingerprinting","-26.33536895890211"],["all, including the media. It is there that they may take still or moving images of the defendant, and often ask questions of him or her. In high-profile cases, with major media interest, such as a crime which has received considerable public attention or in which the defendant is a celebrity, measures such as barricades or extra uniformed officers will be present to ensure there is space to get the defendant and escorting officers into the building. \"You naturally assume you're seeing a barbaric mob wreaking random havoc,\" writes New York Times columnist John Tierney of such scenes. \"But that's","-26.308504500651907"],["that he can tuck it up and give it the appearance of being short; small whiskers on the chin, redish color; small blue eyes, and have rather a glassy appearance; high, broad cheek bones. This man (MASON) lived at Fort Tejon about the year of '59 or '60, and says that he killed 1 man at that place; and says that his name is John J. MONROE. MASON is light complexion; front teeth are black or decayed; wearing new boots; blue overalls; check shirt; hat made of Cayote skin with tail standing in front; 1 6-shooter and butcher knife.\" Criminal","-26.307121281646687"],["decided her manner was too calm for a person who had experienced such a traumatic event. She also made a number of statements that both police and hospital workers considered highly inappropriate.\nSuspicions heightened when Downs, upon arrival at the hospital to visit her children, phoned Robert Knickerbocker, a married man and former coworker in Arizona with whom she had been having an extramarital affair. The forensic evidence did not match her story; there was no blood spatter on the driver's side of the car, nor was there any gunpowder residue on the driver's door or on the interior door panel.","-26.307041816675337"],["she had been killed elsewhere and left on the road after her death. They concluded this because her bare feet were clean, showing no indication of her having walked on dirt, and because Interstate 75 is just five miles (8 km) away, making the site a convenient and discreet nearby drop-off spot. Police and the media later speculated that she may have been a teenage runaway or a possible victim of a serial killer, who murdered multiple sex workers in the region during the 1980s and 1990s. But the scene and her body showed no signs of sexual assault, rape or","-26.291434392896917"],["of photography, thrown in them. The evidence later indicated Ida Place died from asphyxiation. Martha Place was hospitalized and arrested. Trial Place proclaimed her innocence while awaiting trial. One contemporary newspaper report described the defendant in this way:\nShe is rather tall and spare, with a pale, sharp face. Her nose is long and pointed, her chin sharp and prominent, her lips thin and her forehead retreating. There is something about her face that reminds one of a rat's, and the bright but changeless eyes somehow strengthen the impression.\nMartha Place was found guilty of the murder of her stepdaughter Ida and","-26.279754059389234"],["the following two nights, Thursday 3 May and Friday 4 May. The individual, who was believed to be male, was described as being 5ft tall, of medium build with a longish face and high cheekbones. Their face was clean shaven and they had long, dark hair hanging over their forehead. The person was wearing a light-coloured double breasted mackintosh fastened with a belt and grey trousers. The bicycle, which looked fairly new, was a light-blue racing bike with drop handlebars and white mudguards.\nNo arrests were ever made in connection with the murder. Subsequent investigations One weekend in February 1983, an","-26.277441645244835"],["evidence that they were doctored. By closely examining the photos, he finds the face of an old man as well as the shadow of the kidnapper, who appears to be abnormally tall.\nScully, finding a construction company referenced at both crime scenes, investigates the possible lead, meeting Gerry Schnauz (Pruitt Taylor Vince), who worked near both scenes of the kidnapping. Schnauz, who is wearing stilts that make him very tall, attempts to flee, but Scully pursues and arrests him. The agents interrogate Schnauz, who was once institutionalized for beating his father with an axe handle in retaliation for the abuse","-26.274453629828713"],["the picture is responsible for everything, and determines she is a jinniyah, or a female jinn. Mulder goes to the Stokes residence and asks Leslie to hand her over, presuming her to be kept in a box. It turns out, however, that she is not in the box, but is within the rug that Stokes found back in the storage facility, where Mulder also finds pictures of the jinniyah next to Benito Mussolini in the 1930s and next to Richard Nixon in the 1960s, two men that had a lot of power and lost it in a bad way.\nLeslie takes","-26.269818569504423"],["officer in charge of the investigation (Bhagyaraj) flips through the picture files of the deceased, Kannan's (Madhavan — the 2nd) face is shown, and the witness jumps. He tells the police he doesn't need to sketch anything when the face of the main murderer itself is staring them in the eye — he points to the photo of Kannan - it is the face of Shakti, only this one has light eyes. Investigations into the murder lead the police to Chennai. As luck would have it, Shakti is spotted, recognized, and arrested. Kannan, on the other hand, follows the murder investigation and","-26.25960384836071"],["be with him\". \"The man in my face showed me a big star affixed to his wallet that glinted in the sunlight. The lunch-hour crowd milled around us.\" She told them she needed to consult with her lawyer. The two agents on the sidewalk left without arresting her or telling her what was going to happen next. They did tell her that Jack Hock was in federal custody and he had requested that she never try to contact him again.\nShe immediately returned to her apartment and started to destroy all evidence of her crimes, discarding in public trash cans more","-26.237404130137293"],["women under the pretext of possible job opportunities. He obtained their contact details, and would later phone the victim, claiming to have secured them a job interview. Agreeing to meet on a specific date, he would ambush the victim in an isolated place, where he would rape, rob and kill them. In some instances, he used a plastic toy gun to force them into submission. He also confessed to murdering the women so they couldn't identify him later on. Taking into account all the charges against him, Justice John Hlope gave him seven life sentences, as well as an additional","-26.222857178076083"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"looking at her and smiling. The police, informed a few days later, monitored the building entrance. They noticed a man matching the facial composite. They questioned him, and he claimed that he is a marginal resident in a home near Wendy. The authorities printed on one sheet six anthropometric photos: that of the suspect, and those of five men resembling him. They went to Wendy's house and asked her if she could recognize her attacker among the pictures. She referred to Waxin's photo, who was not considered a suspect. Interlocated, the investigators asked her again and said its him. For\",\n \"-30.126057755638612\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Woman With Four Faces Plot A woman who happens to be both a thief and a con artist cannot be arrested because she is faceless.\",\n \"-30.009010946465423\"\n ],\n [\n \"canvasses\\\".\\nAmerican film actress and dancer Louise Brooks: \\\"Sternberg, with his detachment, could look at a woman and say 'this is beautiful about her and I'll leave it ... and this is ugly about her and I'll eliminate it'. Take away the bad and leave what is beautiful so she's complete ... He was the greatest director of women that ever, ever was\\\".\\nAmerican actor Edward Arnold: \\\"It may be true that [von Sternberg] is a destroyer of whatever egotism an actor possesses, and that he crushes the individuality of those he directs in pictures ... the first days filming Crime and\",\n \"-29.407977691240376\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"suspicious\\\" looking individuals. The process for determining who was a potential suspect was the \\\"Facial Action Coding System\\\" which is a system to taxonomize human facial movements by their appearance on the face, based on a system originally developed by a Swedish anatomist named Carl-Herman Hjortsjö. It was later adopted by Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, and published in 1978. However, in a situation in which not only law enforcement, but also the general public are anxious, and assiduous, the potential for Othello errors to creep into the real world is high. In a review of these practices by\",\n \"-29.17034024046734\"\n ],\n [\n \"appearance of a person stands out amongst the otherwise indistinctive crowd, then an eyewitness is more likely to select that person regardless of their own recollection of the criminal. According to Schuster (2007), the suspect, if he is in the in person lineup or in a picture lineup, should not stand out from the others in the lineup. People's eyes are drawn to what is different. If you make sure that all the men or women in the pictures have a similar appearance, have the same background in their picture, race, age, and are wearing the same or similar clothing,\",\n \"-29.122985331370728\"\n ],\n [\n \"a very beautiful woman is asking for a ride. The cabbie then looks behind and sees the woman's face was full of blood and bruises, causing him to abandon his taxi in terror.\\nIn other instances, it is said that when solitary people drive on that street in the early morning, they briefly see the face of a white-clad woman in the rear-view mirror before she quickly disappears. Some accidents on this road are blamed on apparitions of the White Lady.\\nMany sources have said this legend was actually manufactured by a reporter in the 1950s, and also a possible combination of\",\n \"-28.97254412707116\"\n ],\n [\n \"members of his own family. He was a young man of fine attainments, a profound scholar, and a musician of rare ability. His figure was remarkable for its grace, and his face – that is to say, his natural face – was that of an Antinous. But upon the back of his head was another face, that of a beautiful girl, \\\"lovely as a dream, hideous as a devil.\\\" The female face was a mere mask, \\\"occupying only a small portion of the posterior part of the skull, yet exhibiting every sign of intelligence, of a malignant sort, however.\\\" It would be\",\n \"-28.619505478753126\"\n ],\n [\n \"the man was \\\"about 5 feet, 9 inches tall, weighing about 170 pounds, about 35 years old, and dressed in a light-colored fedora and a dark overcoat\\\". Due to the lack of light he could not make out this person's facial features. When the police showed him a photo of 18-year-old Heirens on July 11, he could not identify him as the man he saw. On July 16, during a hearing, he pointed to Heirens and said \\\"That's the man I saw!\\\" when he was brought into a courtroom and made the identification in person. The Chicago press stated that\",\n \"-28.600389046572673\"\n ],\n [\n \"saleswoman and antiquities dealer. One witness said that she overheard the woman talking to a man in German in a Bergen hotel. Others who met her mentioned she also spoke Flemish and broken English and smelt of garlic. People who saw or met her also commented that she wore wigs. \\nComposite sketches, based on witness descriptions and analysis of her body, were then circulated in many countries via Interpol. Despite the significant police resources deployed, the unknown woman was never identified and the case was quickly closed. While authorities concluded that she had committed suicide by ingestion of sleeping pills,\",\n \"-28.171476038522087\"\n ],\n [\n \"images were publicized so that someone who knew the young woman in life could recognize her. Posters were distributed in Arizona with this image. Her DNA was also processed by the agency to establish a profile.\\nIn 2011, further advances in technology enabled a partial DNA profile of a potential perpetrator to be generated from evidence collected from the victim's body at the crime scene. The profile matched that of William \\\"Bill\\\" Ross Knight, who had become known in the 1980s for spree robberies. In 1987 he was known to have used a .22 caliber pistol in one robbery, which was\",\n \"-28.16378108804929\"\n ],\n [\n \"been dubbed the \\\"Badge Man\\\" as it seems to resemble a uniformed police officer wearing a badge. Others claim to see Gordon Arnold, a man who claimed to have filmed the assassination from that area, a man in a construction hard hat, and a hatted man behind the stockade fence.\\nMoorman stated she heard a shot as the limousine passed her, then heard another two shots, \\\"pow pow,\\\" when the president's head exploded. She stated that she could not determine where the shots came from, and that she saw no one in the area that appeared to have possibly been the\",\n \"-28.128960820788052\"\n ],\n [\n \"positively identified; no known photograph with her in frame captured her face because in all cases she was either facing away from the camera, or (as in the case of the Zapruder film) had her face obscured by her own camera. Beverly Oliver's claim In 1970, a woman named Beverly Oliver told conspiracy researcher Gary Shaw at a church revival meeting in Joshua, Texas, that she was the Babushka Lady. Oliver stated that she filmed the assassination with a Super 8 film Yashica and that she turned the undeveloped film over to two men who identified themselves to her as\",\n \"-28.110942154566146\"\n ],\n [\n \"look of surprise on her face, and it is then made to look as if she lay in water. The next morning (as the song states), several people assist in arresting the male character in regard to her disappearance.\\nWhile in the interrogation room, he is shown a white cloth, which the sheriff identifies as the item used to strangle Mary. He then denies that he and Mary were romantically involved, and the sheriff asks if Marx was jealous. At this point, the video reveals a larger picture of the protagonist's childhood: that after his mother's affair, his father leaves her\",\n \"-28.092831143192598\"\n ],\n [\n \"women a voice for others to hear. He intends these messages to discourage other boys and girls from committing crimes and ending up in prison. Portraiture Yousef Khanfar has also captured the portraits of many influential figures including Sandra Day O'Connor and Emma Nicholson, Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne. Justice O'Connor has also praised Khanfar's portraiture work, stating that she was \\\"stunned and overcome with the beauty of your photograph\\\". Other notable portraits include that of David Wynne, Leona Mitchell, and Tariq Ramadan.\",\n \"-28.092292030603858\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"in the face of rape, mutilation and murder\\\". As Mulvey argues, the female character \\\"exists only to be looked at.\\\" When female audiences gaze upon the screen and when the women on the screen are involved in the gaze, they see \\\"a distorted reflection of\\\" their own image. \\\"The monster is thus a particularly insidious form of the many mirrors patriarchal structure of seeing hold up to the woman.\\\" Linda William believes that the woman's gaze is \\\"so threatening to male power, it is violently punished.\\\" The female gaze Mary Ann Doane suggests that a woman can only actively participate\",\n \"-27.987755571346497\"\n ],\n [\n \"man Another \\\"figure\\\" that has been the subject of conspiracy is the so-called \\\"black dog man\\\" figure who can be seen at the corner of a retaining wall in the Willis and Betzner photo of the assassination. In an interview, Marilyn Sitzman told Josiah Thompson that she saw a young black couple who were eating lunch and drinking Cokes on a bench behind the retaining wall and, therefore, it is possible that the \\\"black dog man\\\" figure is actually the black woman and her child. If so, the woman has never come forward to identify herself.\\nIn The Killing of A\",\n \"-27.965411332435906\"\n ],\n [\n \"Portrait of an Unknown Woman (film) Synopsis A potential scandal breaks out when an artists adds the head of the wife of a diplomat to a nude painting he is working on.\",\n \"-27.922235484875273\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"You mean you can't fix her up enough so I could just get one picture of her?\\\" Sternly informed a second time he would not be allowed to view the body, the young man had wordlessly exited the funeral home.\\nThe receptionist could not offer any clear description of the man beyond that he was a handsome young white male with dark hair, that he had driven a blue-grey Chevrolet, and that he had not been carrying a camera. Subsequent murders Almost one year later, on July 5, 1968, the partially decomposed, mutilated body of a 20-year-old art student named Joan\",\n \"-27.901959171664203\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempt to defend herself. Her nails were all broken, and this seemed to indicate that her killer's face had been raked. She had been manually strangled, with the killer using one hand to throttle her, and her hands had been tied and lower clothing removed. The murder case quickly became national news, and Derbyshire police allocated 60 officers to try and track down her killer. Detective Superintendent Peter Burgess took a prominent part in the case.\\nThe police initially looked without success at the film in Susan's camera to see if it could reveal any clues about her attacker. One of\",\n \"-27.8473289446556\"\n ],\n [\n \"picture is still in its original frame.\\nThe sitter has elegance and some delicate, fine, facial features-notable her shaven or plucked eyebrow and cheekbones, but she is not beautiful. Writer Jill Condra described her as \\\"harsh\\\" looking with a \\\"serious\\\" forehead. The woman has a distinctive nose, and seems to be flat chested, while her lower lip protrudes over the upper. However, she has an elongated, dignified neck, and attractive orange hair which lively spills to her shoulders, though the hair falling on her back may be false, a fashionable adornment. She wears pearls on her head and around her neck\",\n \"-27.80828195059439\"\n ],\n [\n \"central characters. A \\\"crime scene\\\" is constructed and pictures of the \\\"body\\\" are taken and presented as crime scene photos. Sometimes all or part of an interview with a suspect or witness will be filmed and released along with the transcript of the interview. Actors can also play other roles such as television news anchors that report on the cases.\\nThe site also has a web store that sells crime scene supplies, something which has garnered its own share of controversy over the years, with some people complaining that there isn't any reason why members of the public should have access\",\n \"-27.797942662698915\"\n ],\n [\n \"woman, wife of a convict, on the bank of an isolated London reservoir, while also tracing a vanished employee of the Metropolitan Water Board. The politics within the CID interrupt his search, and he and a friend do some night skin diving on their own, with the happiest results. The title is a phrase from Hamlet III, 2,74.\",\n \"-27.688448970744503\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the enemy is “near” and influential. In spite of so many complicated deceptive leads, he grows suspicious of the credibility of the photograph of the killer woman. The fact that the residence of the killer yielded no female fingerprints and there is an unidentified male fingerprint in the same apartment reveals to him that the photograph was a decoy. The killer is a male and the police kept chasing someone who isn't there. They learn the whereabouts of him, by strategic publicizing of a generated photograph of the man. They also apprehend the killer's accomplice. But, close to capturing\",\n \"-27.621323778672377\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"you need some loving.\\\" She tells the officer that this man was the one who attacked her.\\nPolice find a small blue book in Marilyn Miller's apartment, which they trace to a 28-year-old man with a criminal record named James Stone. The book was a notebook used and carried around by Stone. Stone is subsequently arrested; at his residence, police find clothing matching Miller's description of what the attacker wore. The police show Miss Miller a series of photographs, one of which is Stone's, asking if she can identify her attacker. Miller states that she thinks\",\n \"-27.61116027754906\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Man with My Face (film) Plot The film is set in Puerto Rico, where Charles \\\"Chick\\\" Graham (Nelson) has settled down after the war to run a small business with his old army buddy (now his brother-in-law) Buster Cox (Harvey). Graham comes home one evening to find his wife, Cora (Ainley), acting as if he is an insane stranger.\\nA man who looks exactly like him, Albert \\\"Bert\\\" Rand (Nelson), has taken his place and is playing cards and drinking in his living room. Neither Cora nor Buster—not even Graham's dog—recognizes Graham; they think that he, rather than Rand, is\",\n \"-27.585500076049357\"\n ],\n [\n \"Believing her son had committed the murders, she called a police tip line and told police of her suspicion, based on her son's behavior and his resemblance to the composite sketch. She also showed police the labels of cardboard boxes used during her move to Medford with Acremant. Police matched the address labels to those on the boxes used to cover the women's bodies.\\nShe later told The Oregonian, \\\"I called the police because I have to look God in the face. I will do anything in my power to make sure other people aren't hurt. But right now, he's sick.\\\"\\nPolice\",\n \"-27.571725708636222\"\n ],\n [\n \"packing tape. Some of her hair had been cut off. An autopsy revealed that she had been beaten and sexually assaulted before being asphyxiated. According to forensic psychologist Dr. Stephanie Stolinsky, the killer \\\"tried to dehumanize her completely. ... Whenever you hide someone's face, it means that you don't want to see them as a human being. You want to pretend that they're just an object\\\".\\nThe murder case of Imette St. Guillen was handled by the Special Victims Squad of the NYPD. Arrest Darryl Littlejohn, one of two bouncers at The Falls where St. Guillen was seen the night she\",\n \"-27.52381562287337\"\n ],\n [\n \"unable to remember any details about the woman, other than a large, flashy hat that she was wearing on the evening that they had spent together. In addition to that, no one who saw Henderson and the woman together is willing to admit to the police that they had seen the two together. Eventually, Henderson and his assistant, Carol, decide to begin their own investigation. They tour all throughout New York City to ultimately reveal that the murderer was Henderson's close friend, Marlowe.\",\n \"-27.490533755364595\"\n ],\n [\n \"the photograph of Stone is her attacker, but wants to see him in person to be sure. A police officer then takes her to James Stone's arraignment, where he is escorted before the judge in the courtroom. Upon seeing James Stone, Marilyn Miller confirms that he was the one who attacked her.\\nJames Stone admits that he was the one said \\\"you need some loving\\\" to Marilyn Miller at Rocco's the previous night, but he denies that he raped her, and insists that he lost his blue book at the bar. James Stone's friends, Thomas Mitchell and Edward\",\n \"-27.461659670370864\"\n ],\n [\n \"found only in February 1998. A witness claimed to have seen the woman go into the car of a man. A good quality facial composite was created, but the police said that did not have evidence of a murder, and needed to investigate further.\\nNemeskéri also owed money to his half-brother, Zsolt, who had previously loaned two million forints to his brother and had been asking him for repayment for a long time. Gusztáv was unable to return it, so his half-brother filed a lawsuit against him. The trial was scheduled for April 8, 1999 by the court. On April 7,\",\n \"-27.379861102468567\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Lady in the Morgue Plot summary Throughout the novel the true identity of the young, attractive woman found hanging dripping wet from a rope in her hotel room remains a mystery. Neither her clothes nor the conspicuous lack of any shoes provides the police with any clue as to what has happened, and they assume the woman has committed suicide. At the same time a young woman from a prominent New York family goes missing, but when the stolen body is retrieved by Crane her relatives assert that these are not her human remains. Only in the final pages\",\n \"-27.34537174765137\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the case:—\\n\\\"I am not a woman who kills. Everything in my past life protests against such an accusation. All my works radiate with proof that I am a creatress. Being that, I cannot destroy.\\\" These were the words from Madame Bessarabo, suspected murderess of her first husband and confessed assassin of the second one.\\nWhen a police investigator came upon an abandoned trunk at a railway station, as was the case with the trunk consigned by Hera Mirtel to Nancy; when, moreover, he espies blood trickling through the bottom onto the cement floor of the baggage room; and when on\",\n \"-27.288534454841283\"\n ],\n [\n \"at Sarah's door, asking to use the telephone to call for help. Sarah lies that her husband is sleeping and she does not want to be disturbed, but the woman tells her that she knows that he is dead. When the visitor persists on coming in, Sarah, a professional photographer, attempts to take her photo through a window and telephones the police. When they arrive, the woman has already vanished. The police assure Sarah that she will be fine, but arrange to have a patrol car visit throughout the night.\\nUpon developing her photos, Sarah recognizes the woman in the\",\n \"-27.247558366376325\"\n ],\n [\n \"gun from her handbag and shoots him. 'I didn't mean to do that,' Nan remarks a moment later as David Slade falls to the floor with a bullet in his shoulder. 'Why, that's all right, Nan,' responds her husband-to-be. 'It's nothing.'\\\" [...] \\\"It is in the prison scenes that the film provides some interesting drama. 'Ladies They Talk About' is effective when it is describing the behavior of the prisoners, the variety of their misdemeanors, their positions in the social whirl outside, their ingenuity in giving an intimate domestic touch to the prison, and their frequently picturesque way of exhibiting\",\n \"-27.223380854140487\"\n ],\n [\n \"Her Husband's Betrayal Synopsis A woman is suspicious of her husband, spies on him, and discovers that he committed a murder and framed her.\",\n \"-27.221010098694023\"\n ],\n [\n \"been sold on 6 October 1979, which was found beneath the body. Police believe the woman was murdered but have never revealed how she died.\\nAlthough the location was near to the entrance to Scawton Moor House Farm, a popular family picnic area, the body was so well concealed that it was highly improbable that it could have been discovered by accident. The anonymous caller became a suspect in the murder, but his identity was never established. Description of the victim In life, the woman was 5 feet 4 inches (1.63 m) tall. She had dark brown hair with a length of around 4-6\",\n \"-27.193026745517273\"\n ],\n [\n \"come to a sudden stop.\\nThe deputy explained to the man that there had been a report of a fight between the man and the young woman, and asked the man if he had any identification on him. The man protested that he had no reason to provide identification, and became ill-tempered when the deputy continued to press him for his identification. The man then asked the deputy what crime he was being accused of, as the deputy continued his requests for identification, stating that he was \\\"conducting an investigation\\\". The man persisted in his refusal to provide identification, asking instead\",\n \"-27.180199119611643\"\n ],\n [\n \"of capturing the likeness and 'realness' of a person especially as seen in the hands. \\\"Everyone has a best angle, though, and my job is to analyze what these angles are. if posed properly, a person can be made a handsome figure. A person is entitled to this.\\\" - Wills. \\nAdditional portraits include successful individuals such as golfer Ben Hogan, Indianapolis 500 Speedway owner Anton Hulman Jr., Detroit Tigers Baseball Club owner Walter Briggs, Jr., Philip Wrigley of Wrigley Gum Company, Clark Hungerford, railroad executive and Bessie Mae Pederson (wife of Roy Pederson) of Houston, Texas\\nHe did not work by\",\n \"-27.027973995922366\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cabrera was standing at her usual corner with a colleague at around 4:30 on the morning of 27 January 2004. She was approached by a client and walked toward him, away from her colleague. The colleague never saw the man's face and didn't recognize him. From behind, he appeared to be tall and thin, in light shorts. Cabrera and the client left together to go to her home.\\nShe was found dead from a shot in the back of the neck. The investigation determined that the muzzle of the gun had been pushed against her neck and the gun was partially\",\n \"-27.026499916159082\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Face (Koontz novel) Plot summary The main plot of the story follows Ethan Truman, an ex-cop who now works as the head of security for the most famous actor in Hollywood, Channing Manheim, a.k.a. \\\"The Face.\\\" Ethan is trying to track down the sender of several gruesome \\\"messages\\\" that were received in black boxes. Ethan now has six black boxes to figure out what the contents of the boxes mean. After chasing down leads and tracking the \\\"ghost\\\" of his dead friend Duncan \\\"Dunny\\\" Whistler (technically, Dunny is not a ghost, as he came back to life in\",\n \"-27.024929581442848\"\n ],\n [\n \"the real woman had been killed. After going over the clues she had and looking at what evidence she had already uncovered and seeing Grace again, she realized that she had been suspecting the wrong person of murder all along. Who would have thought sweet, believable, weary, frightened Grace would have been a serial killer? Blanche White She is the central character on Blanche on the Lam. She is a black woman, who is a housekeeper and cook, on the run from a jail term for a minor offense. She hides out as a domestic worker for a\",\n \"-27.01987213466782\"\n ],\n [\n \"is caught in the act by an unidentified man. He then bludgeons the man with a claw hammer and flees with the Bald Guy's money and photos. Upon returning to his flat, he finds that the photos are innocuous modeling shots.\\nConfronting the Blonde, the Young Man learns that she and Cobb have been working together to manipulate him into mimicking Cobb's burglary methods. She tells him that Cobb had recently discovered a murdered woman's body during one of his burglaries and is attempting to deflect suspicion from himself by making it appear as though multiple burglars share his MO.\\nThe Young\",\n \"-26.99794575353735\"\n ],\n [\n \"her name on it and hightails it out of there.\\nUnfortunately, she gets the wrong pictures. She has stolen plans for a new highway development that ends up in the hands of her estranged husband Vernon (Jeff Bridges), a handsome, wise-mouthed bum who owns a bar called the Blue Bonnet which no one goes to and that's not the worst of it. He's fooling around with a former Pecan Queen who works for the Lone Star Brewing company (Glenne Headly). He sees a way to make a bundle of money in all this.\\nShady real estate kingpin Buford Pope (Rip\",\n \"-26.982660922625655\"\n ],\n [\n \"indicating that she may have been a victim of rape prior to death. Investigation According to residents of the area, there were many \\\"suspicious people\\\" in the vicinity of the oil field where the body was discovered and some referred to the location as a \\\"killing ground.\\\"\\nBecause of the condition of the body, the face was reconstructed three times—with clay, in a sketch by a forensic artist, and in January 2014, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children released a digital composite image produced from a CT scan after the remains were exhumed on October 2, 2013.\\nDespite comparison with\",\n \"-26.980694750876864\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Likeness Plot summary The story follows the efforts of detective Cassie Maddox to determine the circumstances surrounding the death of Lexie Madison, a young woman who is her doppelgänger. The dead woman not only resembles Cassie but also was living under an alias the detective used in an earlier undercover assignment. A senior police officer, Frank Mackey, convinces Cassie to impersonate the dead woman to investigate her death and to discover who she really was.\\nAs the investigation proceeds, Cassie becomes consumed by her impersonation of the murder victim. She forms deep bonds with the dead girl’s four housemates, who\",\n \"-26.968825244206528\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the whole place know who I am and be crackin' people upside the head with chairs and think nothin' gonna happen? That's crazy! And what kind of a man would I be to hit a girl in the head with a damn chair? I rather have 'em say I hit a man with a chair, not no damn woman.\\n They waited eight months to try Iverson as an adult, and the lead detective lied on the stand about telling Iverson \\\"to take pictures\\\" when he went down to the courthouse. The count initially said that Iverson maimed three people\",\n \"-26.93179193037213\"\n ],\n [\n \"she was found wearing. Claudina's father pressures investigators to actively pursue the case, but is repeatedly told that the case has been passed from one investigator to another.\\nThis case and others in the film, like that of an unidentified woman found naked in a dry riverbed, showcase the pervasiveness of the murder of women in Guatemala, and point to numerous reasons that these murders are almost never solved. Witnesses and the family members of victims interviewed in the film speak on camera reluctantly and only as a last resort, and explain that they fear retaliation from the murderers, who are\",\n \"-26.915072155592497\"\n ],\n [\n \"women that resemble her. On one such occasion he ends up becoming a witness to a woman's kidnapping. The man rescues her and in gratitude, the woman urges him to meet her one night. Unknown to him, the woman and her friends are all vampires who are being hunted by Van Helsing himself. Re-Membered A dirty cop (Christopher Darga) has been asked to serve as a hitman for a man's murder, which he does. He dismembers the body and stows it in his trunk for later disposal, but is shocked when he begins to find evidence that his victim is\",\n \"-26.913854214566527\"\n ],\n [\n \"the three adult males, a car mirror showing blood spatters and a body in the car's back seat, and crosses nailed to trees. Others are more obvious, such as one of the men beginning to light a fire made up of several crucifixes. Eventually the photo reveals two additional people in the background, two priests holding a shotgun that appears to be ready to fire upon the group. As the short concludes it becomes apparent that the woman is not there of her own volition—her expression having become horrified in the most recent examination—and the film ends with the revelation\",\n \"-26.911010025884025\"\n ],\n [\n \"deduces that she looks like she \\\"jumped off a cliff,\\\" although there are no cliffs nearby. The woman turns out to be someone Hoover knew very well, Allison Pond (Jennifer Connelly).\\nThe detectives receive a film of Allison having sex in a motel room, taken by a secretly hidden camera behind a two-way mirror. Allison's friend Jimmy Fields (Andrew McCarthy) admits to making this film and more, including one with Hoover in it. Fields is murdered while being guarded by Hall and Relyea.\\nRadioactive glass is found in Allison's foot, which leads the detectives to the Nevada Test Site, where they illegally\",\n \"-26.90444444428431\"\n ],\n [\n \"leading the masked figure by a rope which binds his wrists, all the while carrying his brief case. The dilapidated doorway to the house is shown to have the number \\\"1334\\\" laid out in small bones at the top, otherwise adorned with dominoes, a crucifix, caution tape, a glove, a knife, and various photographs of someone's arms and head being bound.\\nAs the camera zooms onto the door frame, the scene cuts to the victimized masked man's arms being tied with gauze tape, and then finally at the bottom of the doorway a box of dominoes opens up to reveal a\",\n \"-26.893330412713112\"\n ],\n [\n \"Watson!\\\" he says, which amuses Lestrade. But Holmes refuses Lestrade's request: \\\"my sympathies are with the criminals, and I will not handle the case.\\\"\\nLater, Holmes recognises the face of the woman who killed Milverton. He shows Watson her photograph displayed in a shop-window among those of other celebrities. Watson recognises the name of her famous husband, but Holmes signals silence with a finger to his lips. Watson assures his readers that the killer in question is beyond the reach of the law [i.e deceased] and that certain details have been disguised to hurt no one. Adaptations The story, along with\",\n \"-26.87232007898274\"\n ],\n [\n \"catches sight of the wife, alive and unharmed, in a limo. He learns that his client was killed in an \\\"accident,\\\" and discovers the truth: the couple were talking about killing the woman's husband, and the murder Caul witnessed was actually that of his client and not the wife. Caul gets a phone call from his client's assistant, who tells him not to look any further into the matter, and says, \\\"We'll be listening to you.\\\" Caul goes on a frantic search for a listening device, tearing up his apartment to no avail. He sits amid the wreckage, playing the\",\n \"-26.85712012439035\"\n ],\n [\n \"neck. Her hair was still tied in a ponytail with the same band and hairclips that she had been wearing when she disappeared. There was no evidence of a sexual assault, but the absence of her jacket and boots and the position of her underwear were among forensic evidence indicating a sexual motive. Police called in former SAS tracker \\\"Jungle Eddie\\\" McGee, who had helped track down murderer Barry Prudom in 1982, to identify the killer's most probable route through the woodland.\\nThe state of decomposition of Tiernan's body led some forensic experts to believe that after her death she had\",\n \"-26.849355049052974\"\n ],\n [\n \"but mentions \\\"patches on her face\\\" and in his picture her face is seen to be pock-marked. She went by a number of aliases: Bird, Howard, Blewitt and Trent are among those ascribed to her, although Mother Bird was also the name of another brothel-keeper who was committed to Newgate Prison with Needham in 1724. Needham was apparently ruthless with the girls and women who worked for her. They were forced to hire their dresses from her, and, if they were unable to pay the exorbitant rentals, she would force them to take more customers or have them committed to\",\n \"-26.791232358843445\"\n ],\n [\n \"to his face. He also engages by telephone with Jesús Franco, Katja Bienert, Peter Martell, and David Hess, playing fictionalized versions of themselves.\\nAfter a while he contacts a woman, Franziska (Alexandra Dumas), who read his advertisement in the supermarket, and meets him at his house. When he tells her what he is supposed to do in his film, the woman becomes scared. The man overwhelms the woman and kills her by strangling her with a telephone cord and beating her head. Afterwards he films himself as he is sexually aroused by her corpse. He cuts her nipples off in graphic\",\n \"-26.786325188179035\"\n ],\n [\n \"our persona, and the actress and the woman are identified with that persona. People thought of me as being like her. And that was the unfortunate reality for me about this project.\\n— Faye Dunaway Film, television, and theatre, 1982–1999 In 1982, Dunaway appeared in a television adaptation of Clifford Odets's dramatic play The Country Girl as the wife of a washed-up alcoholic singer played by Dick Van Dyke, whom she later described as \\\"one of the sweetest and funniest men in the world\\\", but admitted \\\"Though it was a valiant effort on all our parts, and there were moments I thought\",\n \"-26.778655266040005\"\n ],\n [\n \"police found the naked dead body of a woman lying on a bed with cuts and bruises to her head. She was identified as Sally White, 38, a prostitute who had been living in London.\\nForensic pathologist Freddy Patel subsequently concluded that White had died of a heart attack, in spite of the circumstances. Patel later came under scrutiny for this and other findings in his career, including the 2009 death of Ian Tomlinson, resulting in a suspension from the government's register of pathologists pending an inquiry. In 2012, his name was erased from the medical register by the General Medical\",\n \"-26.764987849252066\"\n ],\n [\n \"approximately five feet four inches to five feet six inches (168 cm) tall, with a weight of 130 to 140 pounds (59 to 64 kg). She had a slight overbite and had some fillings in her teeth, showing that she had dental care in life. Her fingernails had pink polish. Because she had light brown to blond hair with red highlights, her case was thought to be possibly related to the Redhead murders. \\nAuthorities hoped in late April 1985 that they would identify her body through fingerprints but were unsuccessful. Six missing women were ruled out as possible identities of the victim.\\nShe was not\",\n \"-26.70306062756572\"\n ],\n [\n \"men while Trump reported that he was unable to see them clearly. Police recovered unidentified fingerprints on and inside Heitholt's car as well as an unidentified hair in his hand. Police also recovered footprints in the blood at the crime scene. Ornt gave police a description of the men and a composite sketch was made.\\nThe crime had been unsolved for two years when, in October 2003, local media again covered the murder. Erickson reportedly had several dreams about the crime after seeing an article in a newspaper and, a few days later, mentioned the murder to Ferguson asking him if\",\n \"-26.662636087072315\"\n ],\n [\n \"see that a therapist facility connects the culprits of your cases.\\n\\\"Discover the shocking truth behind the murder of a familiar face.\\\"\\nYou work with Catherine Willows and Riley Adams.\",\n \"-26.659096031013178\"\n ],\n [\n \"identified by Tina Gabler in a lineup, he denies ever having seen the woman. When he is visited by his girlfriend at the Colorado State Prison, he admits to her that charges are being brought against him for multiple murders but stresses the fact that there is no evidence, however, and that he will never be convicted; at this point she distances herself from him. Due to his wish to defend himself, he is granted access to the courthouse law library, and promptly escapes by jumping from an upper story window. He is jailed again after an auto theft, but\",\n \"-26.647460143938588\"\n ],\n [\n \"separates from the outfit, and heads to the town of San Juan alone to try and locate the woman in the photograph.\\nHe returns to the Inn where he previously stayed, to find to his surprise his friend and colleague Michael Crane. Crane has left the London newspaper, and arrived in Spain some months ago. With Crane's help, they track down the woman in the photograph, Eulelia Monti. Chase meets with Eulelia Monti, who he finds is Caveda's mistress, though is not in love with him. Meanwhile, Crane sees a man leave the building who he believes is Caveda and tracks\",\n \"-26.63844180406886\"\n ],\n [\n \"following us and several family members several weeks before I was attacked. My husband also received a number of threats before I was attacked. The whole police had one agenda from Day One, and that was to get my husband.\\\" During her testimony, Sherrie Rossi wore a shirt with two doll figures labeled \\\"Rich\\\" and \\\"Sherrie\\\" and flashed the American Sign Language sign for love at her husband Richard. \\nOver Rossi's wife's objections, prosecutors charged him with attempted murder and won a court ruling admitting her earlier testimony at trial. The parties argued whether the blood-soaked interior of\",\n \"-26.616150666261092\"\n ],\n [\n \"woman's story has been corroborated by Andrew Thompson, a former Henderson Police officer, who picked up the witness after she was interviewed by detectives investigating the death of Deane Fuller-Sandys and drove her to the airport. Thompson said she told him during the drive that she and the other woman had lied to detectives about being present when the alleged murder took place. Tim McKinnel who has been looking into the case told the NZ Herald he believed Thompson's account because it was consistent with other information he has. Officer convicted of drug dealing Detective senior sergeant Mark Franklin smoked\",\n \"-26.615137945045717\"\n ],\n [\n \"Once Over Nightly Plot A public relations man finds his picture in the newspaper with a curvaceous model wearing only his account's product.\",\n \"-26.60108718011179\"\n ],\n [\n \"recognition from those who may have seen the victim in life, a composite drawing of the woman was created by a forensic artist from the Orange County Police Department. Despite these efforts the woman remained unidentified, and her death gradually became a cold case. Identification In May 2015, the Dana Point Jane Doe was formally identified as Holly Jo Glynn. This formal identification occurred after several high school friends of Holly's from Whittier, having been unable to regain contact with Holly via social media or any other conventional means of contact for several years, reported their suspicions to both the\",\n \"-26.589756700210273\"\n ],\n [\n \"recognizes as being of the dead woman he saw the night before. Richie denies knowledge of her whereabouts. He calls Bill, who tells him to come in at 1:30 AM to discuss the situation.\\nAs a favor to Richie, Gideon allows Maggie the use of his lawyer, Bruce Warham (Richard Schiff), who informs Maggie that in the public's eyes, she is a mistress, due to her having sexual relations to a married man, despite having been assaulted.\\nRichie tells Sophia about flip books he made growing up about a character called \\\"Sophia\\\". He brings Sophia to his former apartment in a downtrodden\",\n \"-26.588578447510372\"\n ],\n [\n \"whose physical features were not clear on the video. Investigators were disheartened to find that the best video capture of this subject, in three separate snapshots, was obscured by the complex fencing, the posts aligning to conceal the face. One journalist called the suspect \\\"The luckiest person of interest ever\\\". The FBI was called in to help determine the person's size and gender, but could only say that the person stood between 5'3\\\" and 5'5\\\". NASA also enhanced the video to help identify the suspect. Detectives interpreted the valuables left inside the car to imply that robbery was not a\",\n \"-26.582102160231443\"\n ],\n [\n \"important personalities in their films. The list includes G.W. Abbe, Justus D. Barnes, Frank H. Crane, Irene Crane, Marie Eline, Violet Heming, Martin J. Faust, Thomas Fortune, George Middleton, Grace Moore, John W. Noble, Anna Rosemond, Mrs. George Walters. In one scene, the appearance of the wife was described as being facilitated by \\\"trick printing\\\", and was possibly created by a double exposure. Bowers notes that the sister was listed as the wife in the official synopsis, but it is unlikely that such a distinction in cast roles was ever made in the inter-titles due to the confusion. Bowers stated\",\n \"-26.50845391167968\"\n ],\n [\n \"and in their thirties. One man had a beard; the other was clean-shaven with light colored (\\\"fair\\\") hair. The police had models of the suspects created in clay to assist the investigation. Initial investigations Later that year, a man in a bar in Greenwood bragged that he had been involved in the killings. Police subsequently questioned him, but he passed a polygraph claiming not to have been involved and officers were unable to bring charges on other grounds. The man provided the names of others whom he suggested belonged to a fast-food robbery gang, and whom investigators suspected may have\",\n \"-26.50732016490656\"\n ],\n [\n \"with exactly the same face, who claims to be Nisha's husband.\\nNow, Sher Singh can neither confess to being a bigamist nor sit silently, as a stranger stays with his wife Nisha. Meanwhile, he is implicated in a murder as well. Finally, it turns out that Vicky is not actually dead, as presumed, and has undergone facial reconstruction to have the same face as Sher Singh. After a lot of slapstick, all ends well.\",\n \"-26.49009420159564\"\n ],\n [\n \"after she discovers Cross' body in his bathtub. When Jessie asks Incanto about her mother's whereabouts, he denies seeing her. However, Jessie smells her mother's perfume in Incanto's apartment and calls the police. When they arrive, Incanto is gone, but his computer gives a list of women he has been in contact with. After trying to contact each woman in the given list, only two are unreachable, one being Kaminsky.\\nAfter Incanto comes to Kaminsky's apartment, she recognizes his facial composite distributed by the FBI. The agents arrive but after Mulder leaves in pursuit of who he believes to be Incanto,\",\n \"-26.483936762356734\"\n ],\n [\n \"is reinforced by examining the details of a number of assaults on women since 1969 which, in some ways, clearly fall into the established pattern of Sutcliffe's overall modus operandi. I hasten to add that I feel sure that the senior police officers in the areas concerned are also mindful of this possibility but, in order to ensure full account is taken of all the information available, I have arranged for an effective liaison to take place.\\nPolice identified a number of attacks which matched Sutcliffe's modus operandi and tried to question the killer, but he was never charged with other\",\n \"-26.48065050612786\"\n ],\n [\n \"body A woman's body was found on 27 March 1975. It was quickly confirmed to be that of Sophia Weckert, after a Townsville dentist was able to identify her through dental x-rays.\\nSophia Weckert's body was found near Kennedy Creek, approximately 30 kilometers north of where her husband had been shot dead. The person who found her body was a local Sarina man, who had stopped on the highway due to car trouble. At the time of discovery, her body was face down, and was lying at a distance of fifty meters from the highway. Police said they believed that she\",\n \"-26.474612484511454\"\n ],\n [\n \"man suspected of kidnapping and killing several young women, shot himself in a confrontation with the police at a gas station in New Hampshire. Borsos remembers, “it seemed as though there were about 500 reporters in the office, and everybody was going insane.”\\nIn order to prepare for the role, Kurt Russell followed around veteran Herald crime reporter Edna Buchanan and photographer Tim Chapman. At first, he couldn’t figure out \\\"how they justify what they do. But I found out that these are very caring people. They may be callous about how they do their jobs, but they're not callous about\",\n \"-26.457096351892687\"\n ],\n [\n \"Murders. Common characteristics are her hair color, reddish or strawberry-blond, and being found along a highway. She was identified by a couple from Florida, who had allowed her to stay with them for a period of time. Nichols may have been murdered after leaving a truck stop along the highway and may have attempted to hitchhike. Tina Farmer On January 1, 1985, the bound body of a woman was found near Jellico, Tennessee, in Campbell County, down an embankment off the southbound side of Interstate 75. The body was in an advanced state of decomposition. The victim was estimated to\",\n \"-26.449973868046072\"\n ],\n [\n \"up. She had refused to move or change her phone number in hopes that her daughter might return or try to contact her. Lyle Stevik In September 2001, a man was found to have hanged himself in a motel in Amanda Park, Washington, a town on the Olympic Peninsula. The man had checked in as \\\"Lyle Stevik,\\\" which appeared to be an alias. This name appeared drawn from \\\"Lyle Stevick\\\", a character in a Joyce Carol Oates's novel You Must Remember This (1987). \\nThe Grays Harbor County Sheriff's Office spent countless hours in search of the man's true identity, but\",\n \"-26.448009972795262\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Woman Under Cover Plot As described in a film magazine, Yvonne (La Rue), an actress, murders her husband following a quarrel, and upon threat of exposure promises to marry Billy (Spingler), a chorus man who has discovered her guilt. When she refuses to carry out her agreement and accepts the attentions of a wealthy broker, Billy (Spingler) tells his story to The Leader, a newspaper. Mac (McDaniel), the city editor, assigns Alma (Brunette), a woman reporter, the task of securing Yvonne's confession to verify the story that was given to the newspaper. She is a sister of Billy but\",\n \"-26.444509702996584\"\n ],\n [\n \"where the face is dissected. Mohinder bumps a closet door, and what he finds is astonishing: a room lit by a string of light bulbs and a map identical to his father's, but with more pins stuck in and yarn links. However, going further in, he finds a more astounding sight. Painted up in red letters are the words \\\"Forgive Me.\\\" In smaller letters, all over the rough cement wall are written, \\\"I have sinned\\\", over and over. When they return to the apartment with the police, however, the apartment has been cleaned out, with no evidence to support Mohinder's\",\n \"-26.43114775126014\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleeping in the photographer's bed, he develops the photographs only to find that each one has two faces: Tomie's face and a ghoul's face nearby. Convinced it is not his lens, he tells Tomie this and she tells him to kill her to prove she is not a ghost. If she was a ghost, she could not die. Naturally, she does die, but when the photographer is transporting her body in his car she comes back to life and scares him out of the car. His running takes him to the place where he saw the girl from his past,\",\n \"-26.422768044001714\"\n ],\n [\n \"with many powerful men in Hollywood, making them suspects and the case a media frenzy. One of these men, multi-millionaire Richard Cross, whose mistress Julie Costello is Jessica's older sister, is arrested after the police have a security video of Richard in the building at the time of the murder. Ted is hired and quickly has the charges against Richard dismissed for lack of evidence.\\nThe next suspect is Neil Avedon who begs Ted to defend him. The state has a vast amount of evidence against him: Neil's fingerprints were found all over the crime scene; his DNA was found inside\",\n \"-26.41899987362558\"\n ],\n [\n \"her murderer was and approached her husband \\\"in the loving hope that he would be able to see her, smiling and consciously beautiful\\\". But the murderer, plagued by guilt, noticed only the strangulation marks he had left on her throat.\\nAs Jack Sullivan pointed out, Bierce's story \\\"achieves an almost mind-numbing complexity by emerging from three fragmented points of view\\\". The truth can be deduced only from the combination of three accounts, because \\\"each of the characters is missing some vital element of the picture\\\".\",\n \"-26.41661555808969\"\n ],\n [\n \"the red-haired woman appears taking pictures of the scenes and interrogates an officer to reveal information. During the use of the ability, Graham discovers one of the bodies is still alive.\\nGraham returns to therapy with Lecter, who states that Hobbs may not be a problem for him and claims that maybe the killer wants a \\\"connection\\\". Their meeting is recorded by the red-haired woman, who is Lecter's next appointment. Despite using a false identity, Lecter correctly guesses that she is Freddie Lounds, a tabloid blogger. He then finds she recorded Graham's meeting with him and makes her delete the conversation.\",\n \"-26.400447526597418\"\n ],\n [\n \"initially interviewed and had denied any connection with the offence, but later admitted his curiosity about seeing a woman naked.\\nIn court, Smith admitted that there had been a family cover-up, with his brother supporting the claim that he had been at home at the time of the murder, and his mother saying that the scratches on his face had been caused by the family cat. The police had, in fact, questioned Smith earlier in the investigation over these scratches. In his summing up, Mr. Justice Caulfield was in little doubt about the enormity of the crime. He said that Susan\",\n \"-26.381404868792742\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Man with My Face The Man with My Face is a 1948 mystery novel by Samuel W. Taylor that was the basis for the 1951 film of the same title. It was first serialized in Liberty magazine. Taylor wrote the screenplay for the film with others, including Edward Montagne.\",\n \"-26.35585034484393\"\n ],\n [\n \"her husband in the night!\\\" While the police initially believe the young woman to be intoxicated, they eventually visit the boarding house to find that a young, married man has been stabbed in the back with a knife.\\nThe police immediately begin an inspection of the scene of the crime. The lodgers of the boarding house are interviewed, all of whom prove to be eccentric, however, during the interviews, the young constable and his fellow officers become increasingly suspicious of Mr. Deluc, a smarmy cigar agent, who had made repeated amorous advances towards Mrs. Zebedee. Unfortunately, this suspicion is\",\n \"-26.343718521049595\"\n ],\n [\n \"he saw a newspaper article on the case and realized the woman looked a lot like Judy. Discovery of body Jeffrey hired two other private investigators to look for his wife, and faxed and mailed copies of his wife's missing person flier to hospitals all over the country, asking them to look for her. Eventually those efforts helped locate her before the end of the year. However, she was not alive.\\nOn September 7, 1997, a father and son hunting for deer out of season on a hillside in an area of North Carolina's Pisgah National Forest found what appeared to\",\n \"-26.342297146366036\"\n ],\n [\n \"pretending to be the wife so that no one would know she was murdered, and everyone would believe that she perished in the house fire. The forensic linguists were able to figure this out by studying the husband's texting style, spelling errors, and more, and were able to come to the conclusion that the texts sent after the wife was thought to be deceased, was actually the husband texting off her phone pretending to be her. Without this knowledge, it would have been much more difficult to convict the husband of murder and get justice for the family. Linguistic fingerprinting\",\n \"-26.33536895890211\"\n ],\n [\n \"all, including the media. It is there that they may take still or moving images of the defendant, and often ask questions of him or her. In high-profile cases, with major media interest, such as a crime which has received considerable public attention or in which the defendant is a celebrity, measures such as barricades or extra uniformed officers will be present to ensure there is space to get the defendant and escorting officers into the building. \\\"You naturally assume you're seeing a barbaric mob wreaking random havoc,\\\" writes New York Times columnist John Tierney of such scenes. \\\"But that's\",\n \"-26.308504500651907\"\n ],\n [\n \"that he can tuck it up and give it the appearance of being short; small whiskers on the chin, redish color; small blue eyes, and have rather a glassy appearance; high, broad cheek bones. This man (MASON) lived at Fort Tejon about the year of '59 or '60, and says that he killed 1 man at that place; and says that his name is John J. MONROE. MASON is light complexion; front teeth are black or decayed; wearing new boots; blue overalls; check shirt; hat made of Cayote skin with tail standing in front; 1 6-shooter and butcher knife.\\\" Criminal\",\n \"-26.307121281646687\"\n ],\n [\n \"decided her manner was too calm for a person who had experienced such a traumatic event. She also made a number of statements that both police and hospital workers considered highly inappropriate.\\nSuspicions heightened when Downs, upon arrival at the hospital to visit her children, phoned Robert Knickerbocker, a married man and former coworker in Arizona with whom she had been having an extramarital affair. The forensic evidence did not match her story; there was no blood spatter on the driver's side of the car, nor was there any gunpowder residue on the driver's door or on the interior door panel.\",\n \"-26.307041816675337\"\n ],\n [\n \"she had been killed elsewhere and left on the road after her death. They concluded this because her bare feet were clean, showing no indication of her having walked on dirt, and because Interstate 75 is just five miles (8 km) away, making the site a convenient and discreet nearby drop-off spot. Police and the media later speculated that she may have been a teenage runaway or a possible victim of a serial killer, who murdered multiple sex workers in the region during the 1980s and 1990s. But the scene and her body showed no signs of sexual assault, rape or\",\n \"-26.291434392896917\"\n ],\n [\n \"of photography, thrown in them. The evidence later indicated Ida Place died from asphyxiation. Martha Place was hospitalized and arrested. Trial Place proclaimed her innocence while awaiting trial. One contemporary newspaper report described the defendant in this way:\\nShe is rather tall and spare, with a pale, sharp face. Her nose is long and pointed, her chin sharp and prominent, her lips thin and her forehead retreating. There is something about her face that reminds one of a rat's, and the bright but changeless eyes somehow strengthen the impression.\\nMartha Place was found guilty of the murder of her stepdaughter Ida and\",\n \"-26.279754059389234\"\n ],\n [\n \"the following two nights, Thursday 3 May and Friday 4 May. The individual, who was believed to be male, was described as being 5ft tall, of medium build with a longish face and high cheekbones. Their face was clean shaven and they had long, dark hair hanging over their forehead. The person was wearing a light-coloured double breasted mackintosh fastened with a belt and grey trousers. The bicycle, which looked fairly new, was a light-blue racing bike with drop handlebars and white mudguards.\\nNo arrests were ever made in connection with the murder. Subsequent investigations One weekend in February 1983, an\",\n \"-26.277441645244835\"\n ],\n [\n \"evidence that they were doctored. By closely examining the photos, he finds the face of an old man as well as the shadow of the kidnapper, who appears to be abnormally tall.\\nScully, finding a construction company referenced at both crime scenes, investigates the possible lead, meeting Gerry Schnauz (Pruitt Taylor Vince), who worked near both scenes of the kidnapping. Schnauz, who is wearing stilts that make him very tall, attempts to flee, but Scully pursues and arrests him. The agents interrogate Schnauz, who was once institutionalized for beating his father with an axe handle in retaliation for the abuse\",\n \"-26.274453629828713\"\n ],\n [\n \"the picture is responsible for everything, and determines she is a jinniyah, or a female jinn. Mulder goes to the Stokes residence and asks Leslie to hand her over, presuming her to be kept in a box. It turns out, however, that she is not in the box, but is within the rug that Stokes found back in the storage facility, where Mulder also finds pictures of the jinniyah next to Benito Mussolini in the 1930s and next to Richard Nixon in the 1960s, two men that had a lot of power and lost it in a bad way.\\nLeslie takes\",\n \"-26.269818569504423\"\n ],\n [\n \"officer in charge of the investigation (Bhagyaraj) flips through the picture files of the deceased, Kannan's (Madhavan — the 2nd) face is shown, and the witness jumps. He tells the police he doesn't need to sketch anything when the face of the main murderer itself is staring them in the eye — he points to the photo of Kannan - it is the face of Shakti, only this one has light eyes. Investigations into the murder lead the police to Chennai. As luck would have it, Shakti is spotted, recognized, and arrested. Kannan, on the other hand, follows the murder investigation and\",\n \"-26.25960384836071\"\n ],\n [\n \"be with him\\\". \\\"The man in my face showed me a big star affixed to his wallet that glinted in the sunlight. The lunch-hour crowd milled around us.\\\" She told them she needed to consult with her lawyer. The two agents on the sidewalk left without arresting her or telling her what was going to happen next. They did tell her that Jack Hock was in federal custody and he had requested that she never try to contact him again.\\nShe immediately returned to her apartment and started to destroy all evidence of her crimes, discarding in public trash cans more\",\n \"-26.237404130137293\"\n ],\n [\n \"women under the pretext of possible job opportunities. He obtained their contact details, and would later phone the victim, claiming to have secured them a job interview. Agreeing to meet on a specific date, he would ambush the victim in an isolated place, where he would rape, rob and kill them. In some instances, he used a plastic toy gun to force them into submission. He also confessed to murdering the women so they couldn't identify him later on. Taking into account all the charges against him, Justice John Hlope gave him seven life sentences, as well as an additional\",\n \"-26.222857178076083\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":289,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"4vyy5z"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why does it feel almost required to sleep with our eyes closed? What does closing our eyes do that promotes the act of falling asleep?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["There are two things at work that would make it a good idea for your body to close its eyes for sleep. The first being that during the day we are constantly blinking to lubricate and moisten our eyes. At night, keeping your eyes closed protects them from drying out and getting irritation and from building up mucus in the eye ducts. The second has to do with a chemical known as melatonin. Melatonin is dependent upon the light and dark rhythms around your body. When it is nighttime and the light around you begins to disappear, your body begins to produce melatonin which is a signal to your brain that it is time to sleep. The darker it is, the more melatonin your body will produce. Once it lightens again, your body stops producing melatonin and it signals your brain again that it is time to awaken. It is best for your body to close its eyes so that they can sense as little light as possible, produce more melatonin and thereby convince your brain to sleep.","Keeping them hydrated, and allowing [R.E.M.]( URL_0 ) sleep. Also, the blank slate helps to draw focus from reality, in order to allow the sandman to sweep the blur across your mind's eye. Some people sleep with their eyes open; my friend Macias bunked next to me in boot camp, and any time I woke up in the night and looked over, he would just stare at the ceiling. After two nights of wondering why he was ignoring me, I finally asked him and he burst out laughing. He forgot he did this, and had no idea I was talking to him. We started having fun with that for the remainder of our time there. TL;DR: Eyes dry out, and need to be in a dormant state to allow the brain to sleep. They shut off when not being used.","1) closed eyes block light reducing stimulation to your brain. Reduction of data feeding into the brain facilitates the drop in consciousness 2) keeps eyes from drying out 3) keeps stuff from touching your eyeballs while you sleep. If you scratch your butt and touch your pillow then rub your eyeball on the pillow, you could get pink eye. Just sayin...","Ooh! I'll add to this something I have been wondering for 4.5 years now... as an adult, when I lay down in bed to go to sleep, I close my eyes right away. My kids, however, keep their eyes open until the moment they fall asleep and have since infancy. Is that just that they are fighting sleep? Is it that they fall asleep in minutes and I take 30+ minutes? Have they been faking being asleep the second they close their eyes for 4 years and I haven't noticed?","The same reason we like quiet and a comfortable temperature when we sleep... reduced sensory stimulation","Melatonin build-up is what promotes sleep. It allows the brain to enter into it's sleep cycles. Melatonin is broken up, through a series of reactions, when light hits the back of your eye, therefore darkness = sleepyness, then eventually sleep source: Medical School","The pineal gland is stimulated by Darkness so when you close your eyes, and obviously not always, the pineal gland begins to secrete melatonin. That is what induces sleep. Closing your eyes protects them from dehydration and debris.","No all of us sleep with our eyes closed. I start out that way, but at some point in my death slumber my eye lids roll back...Major Payne style. My wife threw water on me one night when we first started dating, she thought I was dead (we had been drinking).","For people who don't close their eyes when they sleep do their eye's roll back ? How exactly does it work are the pupils dilated? Because if they were wouldn't it damage the fovea ?","If closing the eyes is helpful for sleeping for a number of reasons why do some people (my son) sleep with their eyes open and is it in any way detrimental?","It further decreases ability of incoming light to get to the back of the eye(retina) and go to the areas of the brain that send message to the pineal gland that amps up melatonin production making you sleepier. Also i read somewhere that light is an acute stressor that literally raises stress hormones especially if close up. Any form of stress is not conducive to sleep. That is why the natural circadian rhythm has stress lowest at night and highest in the morning to wake you up. On the topic of decreased sympathetic nervous system output rate, you wont feel the need to blink and keep dust out of your eyes. Also the lacrminal gland (lubrication) and the many muscles that control the eye get the message to turn down sharply(work mcuh less).","I used to sleep with my eyes open as a kid, scared the shit outta my mom a couple of times.","Closing our eyes helps reduce sensory input, and protects the eyes. If you think of your eyes as a visual input, and compare it with others... like hearing, feeling, smelling. Then it's easier to understand why it's important to limit these inputs to the brain. Just try sleeping with a loud concert playing in your ears, somebody poking you, or a nasty foul odor in the air. Makes it significantly harder to sleep, but possible. There are people that can still sleep with their eyes open. It's a matter of training, and it's almost a meditative rest more than a full and deep sleep. However, most of us are trained or conditioned into feeling like eyes closed means shutting down or sleeping. How often do we close our eyes for anything else after all.","I actually end up sleeping with my eyes open. I close them when I'm trying to sleep but I inevitably open them through the night. My whole family does. One problem that I have run into because of this, is my eye will dry out and I will get a corneal abrasion. These hurt like hell and not the most fun to wake up to.","Your eyes require a LOT of energy and consequently, bloodflow. By weight they consume almost 8x more energy than any other tissues in the body! Shutting them down while sleeping allows for tissues to rest, regenerate, and rebuild the wear and tear of the day.","Can someone answer why I can only sleep with the light on and with consistent noise in the background? It seems to be a bad way to sleep but I've done it my whole life and its the only way I can sleep.","How do we choose to go to sleep? Like, at the end of the day, I may feel relaxed but not necessarily exhausted to the point of passing out. I just lay down, lie still, close my eyes and let my thoughts drift. Next thing I know, the alarm is going off. What about lower animals, like cats or dogs. Do they just consciously lay down their heads and close their eyes waiting for unconsciousness to sweep over them like us?","i would presume by having your eyes open you are being presented with visual stimulus , thus your brain has to concentrate on what you're seeing. By the brain having to decipher what your eyes are looking it, it can't rest or go into an unconscious state. So we find it easier to close our eyes and usually sleep in silence as it means our brains aren't working as hard at trying to interpret stimuli, making it easier to rest","For the same reason that it's easier to fall asleep in a dark room than a light room, or it being easier to sleep without having had caffeine recently. Less stimulus for the brain.","TL;DR It's so your brain can better recuperate due to the sensory receptor being hindered.","Why can't we close just one eye and get \"half a sleep\" when needed?"],"string":"[\n \"There are two things at work that would make it a good idea for your body to close its eyes for sleep. The first being that during the day we are constantly blinking to lubricate and moisten our eyes. At night, keeping your eyes closed protects them from drying out and getting irritation and from building up mucus in the eye ducts. The second has to do with a chemical known as melatonin. Melatonin is dependent upon the light and dark rhythms around your body. When it is nighttime and the light around you begins to disappear, your body begins to produce melatonin which is a signal to your brain that it is time to sleep. The darker it is, the more melatonin your body will produce. Once it lightens again, your body stops producing melatonin and it signals your brain again that it is time to awaken. It is best for your body to close its eyes so that they can sense as little light as possible, produce more melatonin and thereby convince your brain to sleep.\",\n \"Keeping them hydrated, and allowing [R.E.M.]( URL_0 ) sleep. Also, the blank slate helps to draw focus from reality, in order to allow the sandman to sweep the blur across your mind's eye. Some people sleep with their eyes open; my friend Macias bunked next to me in boot camp, and any time I woke up in the night and looked over, he would just stare at the ceiling. After two nights of wondering why he was ignoring me, I finally asked him and he burst out laughing. He forgot he did this, and had no idea I was talking to him. We started having fun with that for the remainder of our time there. TL;DR: Eyes dry out, and need to be in a dormant state to allow the brain to sleep. They shut off when not being used.\",\n \"1) closed eyes block light reducing stimulation to your brain. Reduction of data feeding into the brain facilitates the drop in consciousness 2) keeps eyes from drying out 3) keeps stuff from touching your eyeballs while you sleep. If you scratch your butt and touch your pillow then rub your eyeball on the pillow, you could get pink eye. Just sayin...\",\n \"Ooh! I'll add to this something I have been wondering for 4.5 years now... as an adult, when I lay down in bed to go to sleep, I close my eyes right away. My kids, however, keep their eyes open until the moment they fall asleep and have since infancy. Is that just that they are fighting sleep? Is it that they fall asleep in minutes and I take 30+ minutes? Have they been faking being asleep the second they close their eyes for 4 years and I haven't noticed?\",\n \"The same reason we like quiet and a comfortable temperature when we sleep... reduced sensory stimulation\",\n \"Melatonin build-up is what promotes sleep. It allows the brain to enter into it's sleep cycles. Melatonin is broken up, through a series of reactions, when light hits the back of your eye, therefore darkness = sleepyness, then eventually sleep source: Medical School\",\n \"The pineal gland is stimulated by Darkness so when you close your eyes, and obviously not always, the pineal gland begins to secrete melatonin. That is what induces sleep. Closing your eyes protects them from dehydration and debris.\",\n \"No all of us sleep with our eyes closed. I start out that way, but at some point in my death slumber my eye lids roll back...Major Payne style. My wife threw water on me one night when we first started dating, she thought I was dead (we had been drinking).\",\n \"For people who don't close their eyes when they sleep do their eye's roll back ? How exactly does it work are the pupils dilated? Because if they were wouldn't it damage the fovea ?\",\n \"If closing the eyes is helpful for sleeping for a number of reasons why do some people (my son) sleep with their eyes open and is it in any way detrimental?\",\n \"It further decreases ability of incoming light to get to the back of the eye(retina) and go to the areas of the brain that send message to the pineal gland that amps up melatonin production making you sleepier. Also i read somewhere that light is an acute stressor that literally raises stress hormones especially if close up. Any form of stress is not conducive to sleep. That is why the natural circadian rhythm has stress lowest at night and highest in the morning to wake you up. On the topic of decreased sympathetic nervous system output rate, you wont feel the need to blink and keep dust out of your eyes. Also the lacrminal gland (lubrication) and the many muscles that control the eye get the message to turn down sharply(work mcuh less).\",\n \"I used to sleep with my eyes open as a kid, scared the shit outta my mom a couple of times.\",\n \"Closing our eyes helps reduce sensory input, and protects the eyes. If you think of your eyes as a visual input, and compare it with others... like hearing, feeling, smelling. Then it's easier to understand why it's important to limit these inputs to the brain. Just try sleeping with a loud concert playing in your ears, somebody poking you, or a nasty foul odor in the air. Makes it significantly harder to sleep, but possible. There are people that can still sleep with their eyes open. It's a matter of training, and it's almost a meditative rest more than a full and deep sleep. However, most of us are trained or conditioned into feeling like eyes closed means shutting down or sleeping. How often do we close our eyes for anything else after all.\",\n \"I actually end up sleeping with my eyes open. I close them when I'm trying to sleep but I inevitably open them through the night. My whole family does. One problem that I have run into because of this, is my eye will dry out and I will get a corneal abrasion. These hurt like hell and not the most fun to wake up to.\",\n \"Your eyes require a LOT of energy and consequently, bloodflow. By weight they consume almost 8x more energy than any other tissues in the body! Shutting them down while sleeping allows for tissues to rest, regenerate, and rebuild the wear and tear of the day.\",\n \"Can someone answer why I can only sleep with the light on and with consistent noise in the background? It seems to be a bad way to sleep but I've done it my whole life and its the only way I can sleep.\",\n \"How do we choose to go to sleep? Like, at the end of the day, I may feel relaxed but not necessarily exhausted to the point of passing out. I just lay down, lie still, close my eyes and let my thoughts drift. Next thing I know, the alarm is going off. What about lower animals, like cats or dogs. Do they just consciously lay down their heads and close their eyes waiting for unconsciousness to sweep over them like us?\",\n \"i would presume by having your eyes open you are being presented with visual stimulus , thus your brain has to concentrate on what you're seeing. By the brain having to decipher what your eyes are looking it, it can't rest or go into an unconscious state. So we find it easier to close our eyes and usually sleep in silence as it means our brains aren't working as hard at trying to interpret stimuli, making it easier to rest\",\n \"For the same reason that it's easier to fall asleep in a dark room than a light room, or it being easier to sleep without having had caffeine recently. Less stimulus for the brain.\",\n \"TL;DR It's so your brain can better recuperate due to the sensory receptor being hindered.\",\n \"Why can't we close just one eye and get \\\"half a sleep\\\" when needed?\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to","-29.34370787977241"],["inability to fall asleep and experience marked decrease in sleep efficiency. There may also be some changes in circadian rhythms. Studies are ongoing about what causes these changes and how they may be reduced to ensure comfortable sleep of old adults. Brain activity during sleep Understanding the activity of different parts of the brain during sleep can give a clue to the functions of sleep. It has been observed that mental activity is present during all stages of sleep, though from different regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular understanding, the brain never completely shuts down during sleep. Also,","-29.163881422718987"],["person may lay on the floor face up and eyes closed for several seconds to several hours in some cases.\nPeople who have experienced the phenomenon report different degrees of awareness ranging from total consciousness to complete unconsciousness. They also report feelings of peace and relaxation. While lying down, they may speak in tongues, laugh, weep or speak praises to God. According to anthropologist Thomas Csordas:\nIn Charismatic ritual life, resting in the Spirit can serve the purposes of demonstrating divine power; of exhibiting the faith of those who are \"open\" to such power; of allowing a person to be close to,","-28.614408202352934"],["On Dreams Content Aristotle explains that during sleep there is an absence of external sensory stimulation. While sleeping with our eyes closed, the eyes are unable to see, and so in this respect we perceive nothing while asleep. He compares hallucinations to dreams, saying \"...the faculty by which, in waking hours, we are subject to illusion when affected by disease, is identical with that which produces illusory effects in sleep.\" When awake and perceiving, to see or hear something incorrectly only occurs when one actually sees or hears something, thinking it to be something else. But in sleep, if it","-28.45664764661342"],["the start of an activity that requires concentration, establishing a deliberate objective to remain focused, such as \"I am going to let my mind be steady.\"\n• Remaining awake and alert to the environment - the brain cannot pay attention when sleep-deprived. For example, sitting up in a straight posture helps as this sends information to the reticular formation, which is involved in consciousness, telling it to stay vigilant to environmental stimuli. Another technique is taking deep breaths. This increases oxygen in the brain, which keeps it awake.\n• Silencing the mind. When the mind is silenced, there are fewer things to","-28.30746019099024"],["exacerbated by smoky environments, dust and air conditioning and by our natural tendency to reduce our blink rate when concentrating. Purposefully blinking, especially during computer use and resting tired eyes are basic steps that can be taken to minimise discomfort. Rubbing one's eyes can irritate them further, so should be avoided. Conditions such as blepharitis can often co-exist and paying particular attention to cleaning the eyelids morning and night with mild soaps and warm compresses can improve both conditions. Environmental control Dry, drafty environments and those with smoke and dust should be avoided. This includes avoiding hair dryers, heaters, air","-27.9860777806025"],["quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time","-27.85310311417561"],["in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their","-27.23828823189251"],[" A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The","-26.647933672124054"],["In fact, the vestibular system is not necessary at all to maintain standing balance unless information from the other two systems becomes inadequate.\nKeeping one foot flat on the ground while trying to sleep is one popular self-treatment for people whose dizziness is exacerbated by lying down with eyes closed. There is no direct scientific evidence to support this treatment, however it is consistent with studies showing that postural balance responses to high and low speed tilts are primarily driven by force and velocity receptors in the muscles with relatively little input from the vestibular system.\nOne way to mask the symptoms","-26.523165489546955"],["also our browsing - also when we are not conscious about it.","-26.463092632009648"],["as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.\nParadoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method","-26.28502283443231"],["is almost completely attenuated, allowing the tongue and soft palate/oropharynx to relax, and in the case of sleep apnea, to impede the flow of air to a degree ranging from light snoring to complete collapse. In the cases where airflow is reduced to a degree where blood oxygen levels fall, or the physical exertion to breathe is too great, neurological mechanisms trigger a sudden interruption of sleep, called a neurological arousal. These arousals rarely result in complete awakening but can have a significant negative effect on the restorative quality of sleep. In significant cases of OSA, one consequence","-26.28220311010955"],["attempting to sleep, it is a good idea to create a comfortable sleeping environment by eliminating daytime noise and light.","-26.271593115117867"],["vents, direct air from a fan). Therapy Asthenopic (eye strain) symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS. Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Observations from persons experiencing chronic eye strain have shown that most people who claim to be getting enough sleep are actually not. This, unaware to them, causes the eye strain to build up over a period of time, when if they had obtained seven to eight hours of uninterrupted sleep, their eye muscles would have recovered during the sleep and the","-25.996281926287338"],["any other safety-critical activity), may not be because natural sleep rarely overcomes an ordinary person without warning.\nIn many countries, it is presumed that someone who is less than fully conscious cannot give consent to anything. This can be relevant in cases of sexual behavior, euthanasia or patients giving informed consent with regard to starting or stopping a treatment.","-25.99169727906701"],["there are no chest movements and no muscular struggling, although when awakening occurs in the middle of a pause, the inability to immediately operate the breathing muscles often results in cognitive struggle accompanied by a feeling of panic exacerbated by the feeling associated with excessive blood CO₂ levels. Even in severe cases of central sleep apnea, however, the effects almost always result in pauses that make breathing irregular rather than cause the total cessation of breathing over the medium term. After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster and/or more intense (hyperpnea) for a period of time,","-25.984563630307093"],["between tasks and default brain states, and also distinguishes between background and foreground processing. Being awake allows the person to not only be aware of themselves and the world, but also to have conscious motor coordination and understand the difference between need and want that comes from secondary consciousness. Difference between sleep and dream There is a difference between being just asleep and in a state of mind called dreaming. Sleeping can be described as the lack of conscious awareness of the outside world, meaning large portions of the brain that receive and interpret signals are deactivated during this time,","-25.977950949629303"],["while sitting with the eyes closed. The technique has been described as both religious and non-religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism, and as a non-religious practice for self-development.\nSri Chinmoy, an athlete and flautist, advocated meditation both for silent sitting and for use when running, performing music or making artworks, as described in his book 222 Meditation Techniques. He also made use of mantric singing. Modern Denominational Yoga Modern Denominational Yoga is a form of yoga centred around Neo-Hindu gurus; each school places emphasis on its own teachings, and provides its own belief system","-25.95002762065269"],["that can produce stress and mental health issues. Relaxation may help reduce insomnia in those who have sleeping disorders. Those with insomnia may even give up sleeping aids just by practicing relaxation techniques. Being off of unnecessary medication or sleep aids will help health as an over all. Even though relaxation cannot get rid of chronic diseases, it may help dull of the symptoms one may have. Many cancer and AIDS patients are taught relaxation techniques. Physical Physical health is also something that needs to be worked on daily, whether it is exercise, healthy eating, or relaxation. states that blood","-25.927664904971607"],["the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions. Sleep function The need and function of sleep are among the least clearly understood areas in sleep research. When asked, after 50 years of research, what he knew about the reason people sleep, William C. Dement, founder of Stanford University's Sleep Research Center, answered, \"As far as I know, the only reason we need to sleep that is really, really solid is because we get sleepy.\" It","-25.85446344387674"],["environment, trying to clear one's mind of any internal distractions and taking short breaks during prolonged periods of focus. Directed attention fatigue can be reduced by getting a sufficient amount of sleep each night because during sleep, inhibitory attention chemicals are replenished.\nAn aesthetic environment may also serve a restorative function in fostering recovery from mental fatigue. Research has shown that restorative experiences, such as clearing one's head and reflecting on one's life and priorities, may help combat Directed Attention Fatigue. As investigated by attention restoration theory, natural environments, such as forests, mountain landscapes or beaches, appear to be particularly effective","-25.802892064442858"],["Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of","-25.77071414591046"],["increased rate and depth of respiration (hyperventilation, yawning). Obstructive sleep apnea Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a form of sleep apnea that occurs more frequently and is most severe when individuals are sleeping in the supine position. Studies and evidence show that OSA related to sleeping in the supine position is related to the airway positioning, reduced lung volume, and the inability of airway muscles to dilate enough to compensate as the airway collapses. With individuals who have OSA, many health care providers encourage their patients to avoid the supine position while asleep and sleep laterally or sleep with the","-25.68658209417481"],["patient had slumped one way while falling asleep they woke up and immediately corrected, if not overcorrected), oral automatisms, and head turns. In most of the patients their eyes remained open. Sixty percent of the patients reported having visual and auditory hallucinations.","-25.61407949749264"],["at the right type of day.\nNightlights are also helpful in reducing falls and injuries and, at the same time, help the elderly to maintain sleep. Falls are a major concern with the elderly; they threaten their independence and risk further health complications. Lighting systems can help seniors maintain balance and stability. Furthermore, sleep deprivation can contribute to decreased postural control. Nightlights that accent horizontal and vertical spaces, such as soft lighting above a doorway or at the foot of a bed, can reduce the risk of falls without disturbing sleep.","-25.60894754753099"],["system enables people to keep their balance by signalling when a physical correction is necessary. Some medical conditions, known as balance disorders, also induce the sensation of falling. In the early stages of sleep, a falling sensation may be perceived in connection with a hypnic jerk, sometimes awaking the sleeper abruptly. Labyrinth The vestibular system works with other sensorimotor systems in the body, such as the visual system (eyes) and skeletal system (bones and joints), to check and maintain the position of our body at rest or in motion. The vestibular apparatus functions by detecting forces that act upon bodies","-25.60778459958965"],["is referred to as Process S. The balance between sleeping and waking is regulated by a process called homeostasis. Induced or perceived lack of sleep is called sleep deprivation.\nProcess S is driven by the depletion of glycogen and accumulation of adenosine in the forebrain that disinhibits the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, allowing for inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system.\nSleep deprivation tends to cause slower brain waves in the frontal cortex, shortened attention span, higher anxiety, impaired memory, and a grouchy mood. Conversely, a well-rested organism tends to have improved memory and mood. Neurophysiological and functional imaging studies have demonstrated that","-25.537782919534948"],["this regulating part of the brain, which in turn disturbs the \"overall level\" of consciousness. This system of a sort of general activation of consciousness is referred to as \"arousal\" or \"wakefulness\".\nIt is not necessarily accompanied by drowsiness, however. Patients may be awake (not sleepy) yet still have a clouded consciousness (disorder of wakefulness). Paradoxically, sufferers declare that they are \"awake but, in another way, not\". Lipowski points out that decreased \"wakefulness\" as used here is not exactly synonymous with drowsiness. One is a stage on the way to coma, the other on the way to sleep which is very","-25.526267964130966"],["when attention is focused upon something other than the act of walking.\nProprioception is occasionally impaired spontaneously, especially when one is tired. Similar effects can be felt during the hypnagogic state of consciousness, during the onset of sleep. One's body may feel too large or too small, or parts of the body may feel distorted in size. Similar effects can sometimes occur during epilepsy or migraine auras. These effects are presumed to arise from abnormal stimulation of the part of the parietal cortex of the brain involved with integrating information from different parts of the body.\nProprioceptive illusions can also be induced,","-25.49243477839991"],["focuses on Japanese culture, writes that sleeping at work is considered a sign of dedication to the job, such that one has stayed up late doing work or worked to the point of complete exhaustion, and may therefore be excusable.","-25.460368857951835"],["to sleep, reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep. For individuals with allergies or asthma, additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment. Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways, so there must be careful management of decongestants, asthma controllers, and antihistamines. Implementation Sleep hygiene strategies include advice about timing of sleep and food intake in relationship to exercise and sleeping environment. Recommendations depend on knowledge of the individual situation; counselling is presented as a form of patient education.\nAs attention to the role","-25.430675092880847"],["mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).\nREM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to","-25.36937295534881"],["of sleep overlap during sleep paralysis, and definitely explains the muscle paralysis experienced on awakening. If the effects of sleep “on” neural populations cannot be counteracted, characteristics of REM sleep are retained upon awakening. Common consequences of sleep paralysis include headaches, muscle pains or weakness and/or paranoia. As the correlation with REM sleep suggests, the paralysis is not complete: use of EOG traces shows that eye movement is still possible during such episodes; however, the individual experiencing sleep paralysis is unable to speak.\nResearch has found a genetic component in sleep paralysis. The characteristic fragmentation of REM sleep, hypnopompic, and hypnagogic","-25.34323186572874"],["limit stimulating activity such as watching television, using a computer or being around bright lights. Relaxation training Relaxation training is a collection of practices that can help people to relax throughout the day and particularly close to bedtime. It is useful for insomnia patients with difficulty falling asleep. However it is unclear whether or not it is useful for those who tend to wake up in the middle of the night or very early in the morning. Techniques include hypnosis, guided imagery and meditation. Paradoxical Intention Paradoxical Intention is a treatment method which involves around telling the patient to","-25.319113252684474"],["as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in","-25.280913405382307"],["while sleeping, he added.\nCo-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also","-25.230868267593905"],["REM sleep, muscular paralysis, occurs at an inappropriate time. This loss of tonus is caused by massive inhibition of motor neurons in the spinal cord. When this happens during waking, the victim of a cataplectic attack loses control of his or her muscles. As in REM sleep, the person continues to breathe and is able to control eye movements. Hypocretin The hypothalamus region of the brain regulates basic functions of hormone release, emotional expression and sleep. A study in 2006 in \"Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine\" concluded that the neurochemical hypocretin, which is regulated by the hypothalamus, was significantly reduced","-25.225051410787273"],["raised, and that this impact becomes observable in the form of complaints such as headaches.[『週刊朝日』2003年4月18日号、p37]\nConversely, it can be considered that if the eye-opening muscles are in a continually relaxed state, the activity of the sympathetic nervous system is reduced and parasympathetic dominance is attained. Matsuo raises the example of meditation, in which loosening the eyelids can result in a relaxation effect.[『文藝春秋』1998年12月17日号、p95] It is known that peristalsis of the digestive tract involves inhibitory action by the sympathetic nervous system and stimulatory action by the parasympathetic nervous system. Matsuo believes that because a person reading a book while standing in a bookstore","-25.217632779364067"],["for sleep could be to restore signal strength in synapses that are activated while awake to a \"baseline\" level, weakening unnecessary connections that to better facilitate learning and memory functions again the next day; this means the brain is forgetting some of the things we learn each day. Endocrine function The secretion of many hormones is affected by sleep-wake cycles. For example, melatonin, a hormonal timekeeper, is considered a strongly circadian hormone, whose secretion increases at dim light and peaks during nocturnal sleep, diminishing with bright light to the eyes. In some organisms melatonin secretion depends on sleep, but in","-25.19734965596581"],["restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time","-25.194056911714142"],["theorizes that the phenomenon may be due to focusing one's attention on books without interference from other people and the resulting mental state of relaxation making one want to go to the toilet.[『マンガでわかる心理学入門』、p9] Posture when browse-reading while standing The posture or gaze of a person while they browse-read a book while standing is often focused on as a contributory cause of the defecation urge. This is based on an interpretive model in which a defecation urge arises due to focusing one's gaze on a single point while adopting an upright or a slightly head-down posture.[『季刊 本とコンピュータ第二期』2004年冬号、p59] It has","-25.167615979211405"],["He asserted that \"all errors of refraction and all functional disturbances of the eye disappear when it sees by central fixation\" and that other conditions were often relieved as well. Palming Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation. He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by \"palming\", or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands, without putting pressure on the eyeballs. If the covered eyes did not strain, he said, they would see \"a field so black that it is impossible to remember, imagine, or","-25.143099392036675"],["which do not occur in any other modes of sleeping or waking. The body abruptly loses muscle tone, a state known as REM atonia.\nProfessor Nathaniel Kleitman and his student Eugene Aserinsky defined rapid eye movement and linked it to dreams in 1953. REM sleep was further described by researchers including William Dement and Michel Jouvet. Many experiments have involved awakening test subjects whenever they begin to enter the REM phase, thereby producing a state known as REM deprivation. Subjects allowed to sleep normally again usually experience a modest REM rebound. Techniques of neurosurgery, chemical injection, electroencephalography, positron emission tomography, and","-25.110195628425572"],["very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \nThere are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep","-25.108637547353283"],["writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically","-25.050765573629178"],["have become so addicted to their phones that they are almost dependent on them. Humans are not meant to be constantly staring at a screen as time is needed to relax their eyes and more importantly their minds. Colier states: \"Without open spaces and downtime, the nervous system never shuts down—it's in constant fight-or-flight mode. We're wired and tired all the time. Even computers reboot, but we’re not doing it.\"\nThe amount of time spent on screens appears to have a correlation with happiness levels. A nationally representative study of American 12th graders funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse","-25.03384729281788"],["relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher","-25.017252206336707"],["awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\nAccording to the article, \"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be","-25.013741608563578"],["is that by not voluntarily making oneself go to sleep, it relieves the performance anxiety that arises from the need or requirement to fall asleep, which is meant to be a passive act. This technique has been shown to reduce sleep effort and performance anxiety and also lower subjective assessment of sleep-onset latency and overestimation of the sleep deficit (a quality found in many insomniacs). Sleep hygiene Sleep hygiene is a common term for all of the behaviors which relate to the promotion of good sleep. These behaviors are used as the basis of sleep interventions and are the primary","-24.9569830870023"],["and more a private, silent one—and as sleeping increasingly moved from communal sleeping areas to individual bedrooms, some raised concern that reading in bed presented various dangers, such as fires caused by bedside candles. Some modern critics, however, speculate that these concerns were based on the fear that readers—especially women—could escape familial and communal obligations and transgress moral boundaries through the private fantasy worlds in books.","-24.93913217150839"],["Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone","-24.938200770906406"],["time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of","-24.92148927319795"],["paradoxical sleep. Heart rate, cardiac pressure, cardiac output, arterial pressure, and breathing rate quickly become irregular when the body moves into REM sleep. In general, respiratory reflexes such as response to hypoxia diminish. Overall, the brain exerts less control over breathing; electrical stimulation of respiration-linked brain areas does not influence the lungs, as it does during non-REM sleep and in waking. The fluctuations of heart rate and arterial pressure tend to coincide with PGO waves and rapid eye movements, twitches, or sudden changes in breathing.\nErections of the penis (nocturnal penile tumescence or NPT) normally accompany REM sleep in rats and","-24.836202382924967"],["a disorder in which a patient has difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep. Behavior modification and a reduction in neurologically active substances such as caffeine and alcohol seem to be among the most promising treatments. Although the mechanism is unknown, brain plasticity and behavior modification are utilized to train patients to only go to bed when tired, associating the bed itself with a sleepy state.\nNarcolepsy is a condition characterized by abnormal transitions between REM and non-REM cycles during sleep and the awake cycle. Cataplexy, on the other hand, is an involuntary loss of muscle tone during wakefulness. The mechanism of narcolepsy","-24.774327221697604"],["perceptual input does not automatically engender conscious experience. In support of the independence of consciousness from perception, Revonsuo cites Stephen LaBerge's case study on a lucid dreamer performing previously agreed upon eye movements to signal to the experimenters that he had become conscious of the fact that he was dreaming. A second study that supports Revonsuo's view of dreams was conducted by Allan Rechtschaffen and Foulkes (1965). In this study, subjects were made to sleep with their eyelids open, thus allowing the visual cortex to receive visual stimuli. Though their eyes were open, and the perceptual input was accessible,","-24.755554200266488"],["hypersomnia or excessive sleepiness should only go to bed to sleep or for sexual activity. All other activities such as eating or watching television should be done elsewhere. For those patients, it is also important to go to bed only when they feel tired, than trying to fall asleep for hours. In that case, they probably should get out of bed and read or watch television until they get sleepy. Epidemiology Hypersomnia affects approximately 5% - 10% of the general population, \"with a higher prevalence for men due to the sleep apnea syndromes\".","-24.719056456291582"],["as the military or police. Hunting is another good example. Sleep Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\nTo determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to","-24.709991875104606"],["partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,","-24.70852715172805"],["influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep","-24.676388025924098"],["immediate attempt to quickly enter REM stages and long-term effects on motor coordination and habitual motor habits, eventually leading to the death of the animal. It has also been shown that homeothermic animals might require sleep to maintain body weight and temperature. Waking The waking consciousness is the awareness of the world, our bodies, and ourselves. This includes humans experiencing the awareness of being aware of ourselves, an intrinsic ability to humans. It's the ability to look in a mirror and know that you are looking at yourself, and not just another human being. Being awake allows the distinction","-24.635688343201764"],["heavy weight is felt on the chest. Yet, people cannot wake up from that state. Some of the causes are sleeping without adequately covering the body (especially women) and eating in bed. Scientific explanations Victims may have been experiencing waking dreams or sleep paralysis. The phenomenon of sleep paralysis is well-established. During the fourth phase of sleep (also known as REM sleep), motor centers in the brain are inhibited, producing paralysis. The reason for this is ultimately unknown but the most common explanation is that this prevents one from acting out one's dreams. Malfunctions of this process can either result","-24.61966086202301"],["experience somnambulism.\nNormal sleep cycles include states varying from drowsiness all the way to deep sleep. Every time an individual sleeps, he or she goes through various sequences of non-REM and REM sleep. Anxiety and fatigue are often connected with sleepwalking. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking. Sleep walking may involve sitting up and looking awake when the individual is actually asleep, and getting up and walking around, moving items or undressing themselves. They will also be confused when waking up or opening their eyes during sleep. Sleep walking can be associated","-24.61802223860286"],["the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after","-24.603649152999424"],["sleeplessness brought upon by stress. The long-term goal of this relaxation technique is to be able to identify when your body's muscles are suffering the effects of stress and to be able to relax the individual and the individuals muscles when directed. Mental technique Meditation has long been practiced in other regions around the world. However, it is a practice that is fairly new to North America and it is gaining attention quickly for the physical and psychological benefits it provides to your body. Studies have shown that in addition to reducing physiological and psychological stresses placed on your body,","-24.52982461899228"],["sleep for creative problem solving by thinking of a problem right before we fall asleep, as well as possible tools needed to solve the issue (not the solution itself). This may improve the chance of dreaming about the problem without the normal restraints. When waking up, participants can take notes of the dreams to see if new solutions towards solving have arisen.\nThe third and last method to boost creativity in adults, is also related to randomness. Onarheim claims that as adults we tend to associate one word with other words and things. When faced with a problem we can make","-24.49633304856252"],["which the child sleeps. Windows should be closed and potentially dangerous items should be removed from the bedroom, and additionally, alarms can be installed and the child placed in a downstairs bedroom.\nHypnosis could be efficient. Sleepers could become less sensitive to their sleep terrors.\nOne technique is to wake up just before the sleep terrors begin. When they appear regularly, this method can prevent their appearance.\nPsychotherapy or counseling can be helpful in many cases. There is some evidence to suggest that night terrors can result from lack of sleep or poor sleeping habits. In these cases, it can be helpful to","-24.481134457164444"],["sleeping on one's back. Primary snoring is also known as \"simple\" or \"benign\" snoring, and is not associated with sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea (including hypopnea) syndrome Obstructive sleep apnea is apnea either as the result of obstruction of the air passages or inadequate respiratory muscle activity. Central sleep apnea syndrome Sleep apnea (or sleep apnoea in British English; /æpˈniːə/) is a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or instances of shallow or infrequent breathing during sleep. Each pause in breathing, called an apnea, can last for several seconds to several minutes, and may occur 5 to 30 times","-24.466714396025054"],["naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions","-24.452881092205644"],["of metabolic activity in the brain with many hours of sleep debt. Some studies have also shown that the attention network in the brain is particularly affected by lack of sleep, and though some of the effects on attention may be masked by alternate activities (like standing or walking) or caffeine consumption, attention deficit cannot be completely avoided.\nSleep deprivation has been shown to have a detrimental effect on cognitive tasks, especially involving divergent functions or multitasking. It also has effects on mood and emotion, and there have been multiple reports of increased tendency for rage, fear or depression with sleep","-24.4420250589028"],["could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.\nSome dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. “Light sleepers” can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas “deep sleepers”, upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report “thinking” but not “dreaming”. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have","-24.342683623587618"],["do the exact opposite of what they have been doing in bed: They shall stay awake and avoid falling asleep. The goal of this method is to decrease performance anxiety which may inhibit sleep onset. Paradoxal Intention has been shown to be an effective treatment for sleep initiation insomnia but might not be effective for sleep maintenance or mixed insomnia. Indication CBT-I is indicated when the following criteria is met:\n1.The patient must complain about difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep. These difficulties must cause a significant distress and/or impact daily functioning. Complaints of non-restorative sleep without troubles of initiating or","-24.321979755943175"],["ISS, the latter is still often a cause of stress, such as when NASA Astronaut Daniel Tani's mother died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child. Sleep The amount and quality of sleep experienced in space is poor due to highly variable light and dark cycles on flight decks and poor illumination during daytime hours in the space craft. Even the habit of looking out of the window before retiring can send the wrong messages to the brain, resulting in poor sleep patterns. These disturbances in circadian rhythm have","-24.281856757123023"],["movement (REM) sleep—the stage in which dreaming occurs—may be quick to arrive and intense in depressed people. REM sleep depends on decreased serotonin levels in the brain stem, and is impaired by compounds, such as antidepressants, that increase serotonergic tone in brain stem structures. Overall, the serotonergic system is least active during sleep and most active during wakefulness. Prolonged wakefulness due to sleep deprivation activates serotonergic neurons, leading to processes similar to the therapeutic effect of antidepressants, such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Depressed individuals can exhibit a significant lift in mood after a night of sleep deprivation.","-24.27629173824971"],["sleep, however, especially when purely behavioral criteria are used to define sleep. For example, zebrafish, tilapia, tench, brown bullhead, and swell shark become motionless and unresponsive at night (or by day, in the case of the swell shark); Spanish hogfish and blue-headed wrasse can even be lifted by hand all the way to the surface without evoking a response. On the other hand, sleep patterns are easily disrupted and may even disappear during periods of migration, spawning, and parental care. Behavioural sleep Instead of examining brain activity for sleep patterns, an alternate approach is to examine any rest/activity cycles that","-24.254735532565974"],["Homicidal sleepwalking Causes Sleepwalking and other forms of disorders of arousal occur from deep non-REM slow wave sleep (SWS). There are parasomnias that occur from rapid eye movement sleep. It is caused by an inappropriate physiological event where the brain tries to exit SWS and go straight to wake. In normal sleep, the brain transitions from sleep either from stages 1 or 2 of NREM or REM sleep, but almost never from SWS. As a result, the brain gets “stuck” between a sleep and wake state. In the case of Kenneth Parks, his EEG showed that his brain tried to","-24.15587134915404"],["but the efforts are still ineffective. Normally, the muscles at the level of the throat relax and dilate while asleep in order to open up airway however, patients with obstructive apnea may have decreased neuromuscular tone of the muscles responsible for dilating the pharynx during sleep. The inability of the vocal cords to move and the presence of a foreign body may also cause obstructive apnea. Cases of obstructive apnea are rarely found in infants that are healthy. Mixed Apnea Mixed apnea is a combination of both central and obstructive factors. The majority of premature infants with sleep apnea have","-23.992131500970572"],["close to their parents and not in a different room, where they can sense another's presence. According to the Natural Child Project, co-sleeping is an unquestioned practice in much of southern Europe, Asia, Africa and Central and South America. However, one of the most common types of co-sleeping is bedsharing, which can be dangerous.\nThe American Academy of Pediatrics encourages room-sharing (sleeping in the same room but on separate surfaces), but it recommends against bed-sharing with infants, due to instances of SIDS. In a study of 321 SIDS cases, the British Medical Journal indicated that the largest percentage of SIDS cases","-23.95776220515836"],["Since one of the main results of chamber REST is a state of relaxation, the effects of chamber REST on arousal are less clear-cut, which can be attributed to the nature of the solution.\nAlso, due to the inherent immobilization that is experienced in flotation REST (by not being able to roll over), which can become uncomfortable after several hours, the subject is unable to experience the session durations of chamber REST. This may not allow the subject to experience the changes in attitudes and thinking that are associated with chamber REST.\nAdditionally, the research questions asked between each technique are different.","-23.95409166160971"],["the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to","-23.940960750464"],["understand language. Hospital noise, at any volume level, is credited with being the primary cause of sleep deprivation, a contributing factor in delirium, and a risk factor for errors. The current pressure to reduce noise at night has been mistakenly understood to mean undue quiet at night when patients most need cues that people are around them and available if they need help. Just s lighting must be designed to serve both day and night, so much the auditory environment be designed to support activity,cognition, rest, and sleep.\nAdding to the above, patients need positive visual and auditory","-23.910419313353486"],["healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking","-23.907168428209843"],["a lack of sleep can impact cognitive performance. For example, it might become difficult to stay focused and concentrate, and reaction times might also be slowed down. All these factors can affect work efficiency and cause accidents. All these consequences are dangerous for the individual but also for others, as many jobs involve taking care of or protecting others. In addition, SWSD might interfere with making decisions quickly, driving, or flying safely.\nTo promote a healthy lifestyle, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommended that an adult have 7 or more hours of sleep per day. Each year there are","-23.90385281178169"],["used to breath during sleep) are associated with daytime symptoms such as concentration and learning difficulties and irritability, neurocognitive development impairment, decreased school performance and behaviour difficulties. For example, SDB such as OSA contribute to hyperactive behaviour that can lead to the diagnosis and treatment of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, once the SDB is treated, the hyperactive behaviour can improve, and the treatment can be stopped. Obesity also has an impact on the consequences of OSA and lead to different manifestations or severity. Studies have shown that, contrary to adults, children with obstructive sleep-disordered breathing are able to","-23.893929065437987"],[" It has been argued that one function of sleep is to allow the brain to consolidate into memory the things it has learned during the animal's normal period of activity. The brain might not be able to do this while still assailed by new stimuli and new information to process. Therefore, the role of sleep would be to periodically shut down sensory input to allow the brain to form memories. Pelagic species swim in an environment that is rather boring (kilometers upon kilometers of open water with not much happening in it). In such species, the sensory input is","-23.889798941949266"],["of these children to crawl into their parent's bed in ages past infancy. Safety and health Health care professionals disagree about bed-sharing techniques, effectiveness and ethics. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission and the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly discourage bed-sharing because of the risk of suffocation or strangulation, but some pediatricians and breast-feeding advocates have opposed this position. Advantages One study reported mothers getting more sleep and breast-feeding by co-sleeping than other arrangements. Parents also experience less exhaustion with such ease in feeding and comforting their child by simply reaching over to the child. As a result, co-sleeping also","-23.878061003924813"],["to the cognitive and motor deficits that may be present. Napping When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia","-23.86454707151279"],["they do not experience a defecation urge.[『本心と抵抗 自発性の精神病理』、p24]\nOn the other hand, psychiatrist Yu Yuki holds that the experiential fact that reading books makes people sleepy is proof of the relaxation effect of bookstores. He considers it a likely explanation that smells and movement and other such external stimuli as well as psychological factors bring about a relaxation effect, and that the resulting parasympathetic dominance in the autonomic nervous system induces effects such as intestinal peristalsis or contraction of the bladder.[『レック』3号、p21]\nJapanese social psychologist Shozo Shibuya, describing bookstores as places where our mutual disinterest in each other is naturally on display,","-23.850229686591774"],["is profoundly influenced by changes in light, since these are its main clues about what time it is. Exposure to even small amounts of light during the night can suppress melatonin secretion, and increase body temperature and wakefulness. Short pulses of light, at the right moment in the circadian cycle, can significantly 'reset' the internal clock. Blue light, in particular, exerts the strongest effect, leading to concerns that electronic media use before bed may interfere with sleep.\nModern humans often find themselves desynchronized from their internal circadian clock, due to the requirements of work (especially night shifts), long-distance travel, and the","-23.832260939176194"],["serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times. Second, inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of melatonin. Inflammation causes a great deal of oxidative stress and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time. Nutrition and diet Overnutrition is associated with diseases such as diabetes and obesity, which are known to affect immune function. More moderate malnutrition, as well as certain specific trace mineral and nutrient deficiencies, can also compromise the immune response.\nFoods rich in certain fatty acids may foster a healthy","-23.814925049431622"],["established. There is some evidence that pathology in this area plays a role in restless legs syndrome, a condition in which people have difficulty sleeping due to an overwhelming compulsion to constantly move parts of the body, especially the legs.\nThe arcuate nucleus and the periventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus have dopamine neurons that form an important projection—the tuberoinfundibular pathway which goes to the pituitary gland, where it influences the secretion of the hormone prolactin. Dopamine is the primary neuroendocrine inhibitor of the secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland. Dopamine produced by neurons in the arcuate nucleus is","-23.812210262902227"],["improve patient sleep. Natural daylight in patient rooms help to maintain circadian rhythms and improve sleep.\nAccording to Heerwagen, an environmental psychologist, medical models of health integrate behavioral, social, psychological, and mental processes. Contact with nature and daylight has been found to enhance emotional functioning; drawing on research from studies (EBD) on well-being outcomes and building features. Positive feelings such as calmness increase, while anxiety, anger, or other negative emotions diminish with views of nature. In contrast there is also convincing evidence that stress could be worsened and ineffective in fostering restoration in built environments that lack nature. Few studies","-23.80952841193357"],["Sleep Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns.\nSleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two distinct modes: REM sleep and non-REM sleep. Although REM stands for \"rapid eye movement\", this mode of sleep","-23.801139835559297"],["in those having withdrawn successfully from benzodiazepines, whereas those having remained on benzodiazepines experienced worsening symptoms. People having withdrawn from benzodiazepines also felt their sleep was more refreshing, making statements such as \"I feel sharper when I wake up\" or \"I feel better, more awake\", or \"It used to take me an hour to fully wake up.\" This suggests that benzodiazepines may actually make insomnia worse in the elderly. Cause Tolerance occurs to the muscle-relaxant, anticonvulsant, and sleep-inducing effects of benzodiazepines, and upon cessation a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome occurs. This can lead to benzodiazepines being taken for longer than originally","-23.784135684836656"],["imagery. This is the basis for the suggestion that dreaming involves a reversed sequence of perceptual events. Instead of bottom-up it is top-down (higher levels activating lower levels instead lower to higher). Activation of the motivational mechanisms in the brain would normally be directed toward goal-oriented actions. However, during sleep access to the motor system is blocked (by inactivation of the dorsolateral frontal convexity). As a result, activation moves backwards toward the perceptual areas. This is why the dreamer doesn't engage in motivated behaviours but imagines them. Furthermore, there is inactivation of the reflective system in the limbic brain which","-23.76531742690713"],["from becoming either corrupt or incomplete. It also explains why it is important to forget dreams most of the time. Dreaming and depression It is well known that depressed people spend far more of their sleep time in REM sleep than non-depressed people, entering it earlier – and it has been shown, experimentally, that depressed people show improvement when deprived of REM sleep. This accords with Griffin’s theory, as depressed people spend much of their waking time arousing themselves physiologically through rumination and worry. All this arousal has to be discharged in dreams. Dreaming takes up a large amount of","-23.705190988461254"],["noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\nThere is support","-23.7038696136442"],["quality, or timing of sleep, caused by a physiological activation in which the brain is caught between the stages of falling asleep and waking. The autonomous nervous system, cognitive process, and motor system are activated during sleep or while the person wakes up from sleep.\nSome examples of parasomnias are somnambulism (sleep walking), somniloquy (sleep talking), sleep eating, nightmares or night terrors, sleep paralysis, and sexsomnia (or \"sleep sex\"). Many of these have a genetic component, and can be quite damaging to the person with the behavior or their bed partner. Parasomnias are most common in children, but most children have","-23.6922339402372"],["wakefulness, and sometimes occurs between periods of deeper sleep and periods of REM. The muscles are active, and the eyes roll slowly, opening and closing moderately. The brain transitions from alpha waves having a frequency of 8–13 Hz (common in the awake state) to theta waves having a frequency of 4–7 Hz. Sudden twitches and hypnic jerks, also known as positive myoclonus, may be associated with the onset of sleep during N1. Some people may also experience hypnagogic hallucinations during this stage. During Non-REM1, humans lose some muscle tone and most conscious awareness of the external environment. NREM 2 NREM Stage 2","-23.650024668080732"],["movements follow the ponto-geniculo-occipital waves originating in the brain stem. The eye movements themselves may relate to the sense of vision experienced in the dream, but a direct relationship remains to be clearly established. Congenitally blind people, who do not typically have visual imagery in their dreams, still move their eyes in REM sleep. An alternative explanation suggests that the functional purpose of REM sleep is for procedural memory processing, and the rapid eye movement is only a side effect of the brain processing the eye-related procedural memory. Circulation, respiration, and thermoregulation Generally speaking, the body suspends homeostasis during","-23.63836868814542"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to\",\n \"-29.34370787977241\"\n ],\n [\n \"inability to fall asleep and experience marked decrease in sleep efficiency. There may also be some changes in circadian rhythms. Studies are ongoing about what causes these changes and how they may be reduced to ensure comfortable sleep of old adults. Brain activity during sleep Understanding the activity of different parts of the brain during sleep can give a clue to the functions of sleep. It has been observed that mental activity is present during all stages of sleep, though from different regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular understanding, the brain never completely shuts down during sleep. Also,\",\n \"-29.163881422718987\"\n ],\n [\n \"person may lay on the floor face up and eyes closed for several seconds to several hours in some cases.\\nPeople who have experienced the phenomenon report different degrees of awareness ranging from total consciousness to complete unconsciousness. They also report feelings of peace and relaxation. While lying down, they may speak in tongues, laugh, weep or speak praises to God. According to anthropologist Thomas Csordas:\\nIn Charismatic ritual life, resting in the Spirit can serve the purposes of demonstrating divine power; of exhibiting the faith of those who are \\\"open\\\" to such power; of allowing a person to be close to,\",\n \"-28.614408202352934\"\n ],\n [\n \"On Dreams Content Aristotle explains that during sleep there is an absence of external sensory stimulation. While sleeping with our eyes closed, the eyes are unable to see, and so in this respect we perceive nothing while asleep. He compares hallucinations to dreams, saying \\\"...the faculty by which, in waking hours, we are subject to illusion when affected by disease, is identical with that which produces illusory effects in sleep.\\\" When awake and perceiving, to see or hear something incorrectly only occurs when one actually sees or hears something, thinking it to be something else. But in sleep, if it\",\n \"-28.45664764661342\"\n ],\n [\n \"the start of an activity that requires concentration, establishing a deliberate objective to remain focused, such as \\\"I am going to let my mind be steady.\\\"\\n• Remaining awake and alert to the environment - the brain cannot pay attention when sleep-deprived. For example, sitting up in a straight posture helps as this sends information to the reticular formation, which is involved in consciousness, telling it to stay vigilant to environmental stimuli. Another technique is taking deep breaths. This increases oxygen in the brain, which keeps it awake.\\n• Silencing the mind. When the mind is silenced, there are fewer things to\",\n \"-28.30746019099024\"\n ],\n [\n \"exacerbated by smoky environments, dust and air conditioning and by our natural tendency to reduce our blink rate when concentrating. Purposefully blinking, especially during computer use and resting tired eyes are basic steps that can be taken to minimise discomfort. Rubbing one's eyes can irritate them further, so should be avoided. Conditions such as blepharitis can often co-exist and paying particular attention to cleaning the eyelids morning and night with mild soaps and warm compresses can improve both conditions. Environmental control Dry, drafty environments and those with smoke and dust should be avoided. This includes avoiding hair dryers, heaters, air\",\n \"-27.9860777806025\"\n ],\n [\n \"quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time\",\n \"-27.85310311417561\"\n ],\n [\n \"in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their\",\n \"-27.23828823189251\"\n ],\n [\n \" A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The\",\n \"-26.647933672124054\"\n ],\n [\n \"In fact, the vestibular system is not necessary at all to maintain standing balance unless information from the other two systems becomes inadequate.\\nKeeping one foot flat on the ground while trying to sleep is one popular self-treatment for people whose dizziness is exacerbated by lying down with eyes closed. There is no direct scientific evidence to support this treatment, however it is consistent with studies showing that postural balance responses to high and low speed tilts are primarily driven by force and velocity receptors in the muscles with relatively little input from the vestibular system.\\nOne way to mask the symptoms\",\n \"-26.523165489546955\"\n ],\n [\n \"also our browsing - also when we are not conscious about it.\",\n \"-26.463092632009648\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.\\nParadoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method\",\n \"-26.28502283443231\"\n ],\n [\n \"is almost completely attenuated, allowing the tongue and soft palate/oropharynx to relax, and in the case of sleep apnea, to impede the flow of air to a degree ranging from light snoring to complete collapse. In the cases where airflow is reduced to a degree where blood oxygen levels fall, or the physical exertion to breathe is too great, neurological mechanisms trigger a sudden interruption of sleep, called a neurological arousal. These arousals rarely result in complete awakening but can have a significant negative effect on the restorative quality of sleep. In significant cases of OSA, one consequence\",\n \"-26.28220311010955\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempting to sleep, it is a good idea to create a comfortable sleeping environment by eliminating daytime noise and light.\",\n \"-26.271593115117867\"\n ],\n [\n \"vents, direct air from a fan). Therapy Asthenopic (eye strain) symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS. Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Observations from persons experiencing chronic eye strain have shown that most people who claim to be getting enough sleep are actually not. This, unaware to them, causes the eye strain to build up over a period of time, when if they had obtained seven to eight hours of uninterrupted sleep, their eye muscles would have recovered during the sleep and the\",\n \"-25.996281926287338\"\n ],\n [\n \"any other safety-critical activity), may not be because natural sleep rarely overcomes an ordinary person without warning.\\nIn many countries, it is presumed that someone who is less than fully conscious cannot give consent to anything. This can be relevant in cases of sexual behavior, euthanasia or patients giving informed consent with regard to starting or stopping a treatment.\",\n \"-25.99169727906701\"\n ],\n [\n \"there are no chest movements and no muscular struggling, although when awakening occurs in the middle of a pause, the inability to immediately operate the breathing muscles often results in cognitive struggle accompanied by a feeling of panic exacerbated by the feeling associated with excessive blood CO₂ levels. Even in severe cases of central sleep apnea, however, the effects almost always result in pauses that make breathing irregular rather than cause the total cessation of breathing over the medium term. After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster and/or more intense (hyperpnea) for a period of time,\",\n \"-25.984563630307093\"\n ],\n [\n \"between tasks and default brain states, and also distinguishes between background and foreground processing. Being awake allows the person to not only be aware of themselves and the world, but also to have conscious motor coordination and understand the difference between need and want that comes from secondary consciousness. Difference between sleep and dream There is a difference between being just asleep and in a state of mind called dreaming. Sleeping can be described as the lack of conscious awareness of the outside world, meaning large portions of the brain that receive and interpret signals are deactivated during this time,\",\n \"-25.977950949629303\"\n ],\n [\n \"while sitting with the eyes closed. The technique has been described as both religious and non-religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism, and as a non-religious practice for self-development.\\nSri Chinmoy, an athlete and flautist, advocated meditation both for silent sitting and for use when running, performing music or making artworks, as described in his book 222 Meditation Techniques. He also made use of mantric singing. Modern Denominational Yoga Modern Denominational Yoga is a form of yoga centred around Neo-Hindu gurus; each school places emphasis on its own teachings, and provides its own belief system\",\n \"-25.95002762065269\"\n ],\n [\n \"that can produce stress and mental health issues. Relaxation may help reduce insomnia in those who have sleeping disorders. Those with insomnia may even give up sleeping aids just by practicing relaxation techniques. Being off of unnecessary medication or sleep aids will help health as an over all. Even though relaxation cannot get rid of chronic diseases, it may help dull of the symptoms one may have. Many cancer and AIDS patients are taught relaxation techniques. Physical Physical health is also something that needs to be worked on daily, whether it is exercise, healthy eating, or relaxation. states that blood\",\n \"-25.927664904971607\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions. Sleep function The need and function of sleep are among the least clearly understood areas in sleep research. When asked, after 50 years of research, what he knew about the reason people sleep, William C. Dement, founder of Stanford University's Sleep Research Center, answered, \\\"As far as I know, the only reason we need to sleep that is really, really solid is because we get sleepy.\\\" It\",\n \"-25.85446344387674\"\n ],\n [\n \"environment, trying to clear one's mind of any internal distractions and taking short breaks during prolonged periods of focus. Directed attention fatigue can be reduced by getting a sufficient amount of sleep each night because during sleep, inhibitory attention chemicals are replenished.\\nAn aesthetic environment may also serve a restorative function in fostering recovery from mental fatigue. Research has shown that restorative experiences, such as clearing one's head and reflecting on one's life and priorities, may help combat Directed Attention Fatigue. As investigated by attention restoration theory, natural environments, such as forests, mountain landscapes or beaches, appear to be particularly effective\",\n \"-25.802892064442858\"\n ],\n [\n \"Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of\",\n \"-25.77071414591046\"\n ],\n [\n \"increased rate and depth of respiration (hyperventilation, yawning). Obstructive sleep apnea Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a form of sleep apnea that occurs more frequently and is most severe when individuals are sleeping in the supine position. Studies and evidence show that OSA related to sleeping in the supine position is related to the airway positioning, reduced lung volume, and the inability of airway muscles to dilate enough to compensate as the airway collapses. With individuals who have OSA, many health care providers encourage their patients to avoid the supine position while asleep and sleep laterally or sleep with the\",\n \"-25.68658209417481\"\n ],\n [\n \"patient had slumped one way while falling asleep they woke up and immediately corrected, if not overcorrected), oral automatisms, and head turns. In most of the patients their eyes remained open. Sixty percent of the patients reported having visual and auditory hallucinations.\",\n \"-25.61407949749264\"\n ],\n [\n \"at the right type of day.\\nNightlights are also helpful in reducing falls and injuries and, at the same time, help the elderly to maintain sleep. Falls are a major concern with the elderly; they threaten their independence and risk further health complications. Lighting systems can help seniors maintain balance and stability. Furthermore, sleep deprivation can contribute to decreased postural control. Nightlights that accent horizontal and vertical spaces, such as soft lighting above a doorway or at the foot of a bed, can reduce the risk of falls without disturbing sleep.\",\n \"-25.60894754753099\"\n ],\n [\n \"system enables people to keep their balance by signalling when a physical correction is necessary. Some medical conditions, known as balance disorders, also induce the sensation of falling. In the early stages of sleep, a falling sensation may be perceived in connection with a hypnic jerk, sometimes awaking the sleeper abruptly. Labyrinth The vestibular system works with other sensorimotor systems in the body, such as the visual system (eyes) and skeletal system (bones and joints), to check and maintain the position of our body at rest or in motion. The vestibular apparatus functions by detecting forces that act upon bodies\",\n \"-25.60778459958965\"\n ],\n [\n \"is referred to as Process S. The balance between sleeping and waking is regulated by a process called homeostasis. Induced or perceived lack of sleep is called sleep deprivation.\\nProcess S is driven by the depletion of glycogen and accumulation of adenosine in the forebrain that disinhibits the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, allowing for inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system.\\nSleep deprivation tends to cause slower brain waves in the frontal cortex, shortened attention span, higher anxiety, impaired memory, and a grouchy mood. Conversely, a well-rested organism tends to have improved memory and mood. Neurophysiological and functional imaging studies have demonstrated that\",\n \"-25.537782919534948\"\n ],\n [\n \"this regulating part of the brain, which in turn disturbs the \\\"overall level\\\" of consciousness. This system of a sort of general activation of consciousness is referred to as \\\"arousal\\\" or \\\"wakefulness\\\".\\nIt is not necessarily accompanied by drowsiness, however. Patients may be awake (not sleepy) yet still have a clouded consciousness (disorder of wakefulness). Paradoxically, sufferers declare that they are \\\"awake but, in another way, not\\\". Lipowski points out that decreased \\\"wakefulness\\\" as used here is not exactly synonymous with drowsiness. One is a stage on the way to coma, the other on the way to sleep which is very\",\n \"-25.526267964130966\"\n ],\n [\n \"when attention is focused upon something other than the act of walking.\\nProprioception is occasionally impaired spontaneously, especially when one is tired. Similar effects can be felt during the hypnagogic state of consciousness, during the onset of sleep. One's body may feel too large or too small, or parts of the body may feel distorted in size. Similar effects can sometimes occur during epilepsy or migraine auras. These effects are presumed to arise from abnormal stimulation of the part of the parietal cortex of the brain involved with integrating information from different parts of the body.\\nProprioceptive illusions can also be induced,\",\n \"-25.49243477839991\"\n ],\n [\n \"focuses on Japanese culture, writes that sleeping at work is considered a sign of dedication to the job, such that one has stayed up late doing work or worked to the point of complete exhaustion, and may therefore be excusable.\",\n \"-25.460368857951835\"\n ],\n [\n \"to sleep, reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep. For individuals with allergies or asthma, additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment. Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways, so there must be careful management of decongestants, asthma controllers, and antihistamines. Implementation Sleep hygiene strategies include advice about timing of sleep and food intake in relationship to exercise and sleeping environment. Recommendations depend on knowledge of the individual situation; counselling is presented as a form of patient education.\\nAs attention to the role\",\n \"-25.430675092880847\"\n ],\n [\n \"mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).\\nREM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to\",\n \"-25.36937295534881\"\n ],\n [\n \"of sleep overlap during sleep paralysis, and definitely explains the muscle paralysis experienced on awakening. If the effects of sleep “on” neural populations cannot be counteracted, characteristics of REM sleep are retained upon awakening. Common consequences of sleep paralysis include headaches, muscle pains or weakness and/or paranoia. As the correlation with REM sleep suggests, the paralysis is not complete: use of EOG traces shows that eye movement is still possible during such episodes; however, the individual experiencing sleep paralysis is unable to speak.\\nResearch has found a genetic component in sleep paralysis. The characteristic fragmentation of REM sleep, hypnopompic, and hypnagogic\",\n \"-25.34323186572874\"\n ],\n [\n \"limit stimulating activity such as watching television, using a computer or being around bright lights. Relaxation training Relaxation training is a collection of practices that can help people to relax throughout the day and particularly close to bedtime. It is useful for insomnia patients with difficulty falling asleep. However it is unclear whether or not it is useful for those who tend to wake up in the middle of the night or very early in the morning. Techniques include hypnosis, guided imagery and meditation. Paradoxical Intention Paradoxical Intention is a treatment method which involves around telling the patient to\",\n \"-25.319113252684474\"\n ],\n [\n \"as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in\",\n \"-25.280913405382307\"\n ],\n [\n \"while sleeping, he added.\\nCo-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also\",\n \"-25.230868267593905\"\n ],\n [\n \"REM sleep, muscular paralysis, occurs at an inappropriate time. This loss of tonus is caused by massive inhibition of motor neurons in the spinal cord. When this happens during waking, the victim of a cataplectic attack loses control of his or her muscles. As in REM sleep, the person continues to breathe and is able to control eye movements. Hypocretin The hypothalamus region of the brain regulates basic functions of hormone release, emotional expression and sleep. A study in 2006 in \\\"Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine\\\" concluded that the neurochemical hypocretin, which is regulated by the hypothalamus, was significantly reduced\",\n \"-25.225051410787273\"\n ],\n [\n \"raised, and that this impact becomes observable in the form of complaints such as headaches.[『週刊朝日』2003年4月18日号、p37]\\nConversely, it can be considered that if the eye-opening muscles are in a continually relaxed state, the activity of the sympathetic nervous system is reduced and parasympathetic dominance is attained. Matsuo raises the example of meditation, in which loosening the eyelids can result in a relaxation effect.[『文藝春秋』1998年12月17日号、p95] It is known that peristalsis of the digestive tract involves inhibitory action by the sympathetic nervous system and stimulatory action by the parasympathetic nervous system. Matsuo believes that because a person reading a book while standing in a bookstore\",\n \"-25.217632779364067\"\n ],\n [\n \"for sleep could be to restore signal strength in synapses that are activated while awake to a \\\"baseline\\\" level, weakening unnecessary connections that to better facilitate learning and memory functions again the next day; this means the brain is forgetting some of the things we learn each day. Endocrine function The secretion of many hormones is affected by sleep-wake cycles. For example, melatonin, a hormonal timekeeper, is considered a strongly circadian hormone, whose secretion increases at dim light and peaks during nocturnal sleep, diminishing with bright light to the eyes. In some organisms melatonin secretion depends on sleep, but in\",\n \"-25.19734965596581\"\n ],\n [\n \"restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time\",\n \"-25.194056911714142\"\n ],\n [\n \"theorizes that the phenomenon may be due to focusing one's attention on books without interference from other people and the resulting mental state of relaxation making one want to go to the toilet.[『マンガでわかる心理学入門』、p9] Posture when browse-reading while standing The posture or gaze of a person while they browse-read a book while standing is often focused on as a contributory cause of the defecation urge. This is based on an interpretive model in which a defecation urge arises due to focusing one's gaze on a single point while adopting an upright or a slightly head-down posture.[『季刊 本とコンピュータ第二期』2004年冬号、p59] It has\",\n \"-25.167615979211405\"\n ],\n [\n \"He asserted that \\\"all errors of refraction and all functional disturbances of the eye disappear when it sees by central fixation\\\" and that other conditions were often relieved as well. Palming Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation. He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by \\\"palming\\\", or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands, without putting pressure on the eyeballs. If the covered eyes did not strain, he said, they would see \\\"a field so black that it is impossible to remember, imagine, or\",\n \"-25.143099392036675\"\n ],\n [\n \"which do not occur in any other modes of sleeping or waking. The body abruptly loses muscle tone, a state known as REM atonia.\\nProfessor Nathaniel Kleitman and his student Eugene Aserinsky defined rapid eye movement and linked it to dreams in 1953. REM sleep was further described by researchers including William Dement and Michel Jouvet. Many experiments have involved awakening test subjects whenever they begin to enter the REM phase, thereby producing a state known as REM deprivation. Subjects allowed to sleep normally again usually experience a modest REM rebound. Techniques of neurosurgery, chemical injection, electroencephalography, positron emission tomography, and\",\n \"-25.110195628425572\"\n ],\n [\n \"very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \\nThere are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep\",\n \"-25.108637547353283\"\n ],\n [\n \"writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically\",\n \"-25.050765573629178\"\n ],\n [\n \"have become so addicted to their phones that they are almost dependent on them. Humans are not meant to be constantly staring at a screen as time is needed to relax their eyes and more importantly their minds. Colier states: \\\"Without open spaces and downtime, the nervous system never shuts down—it's in constant fight-or-flight mode. We're wired and tired all the time. Even computers reboot, but we’re not doing it.\\\"\\nThe amount of time spent on screens appears to have a correlation with happiness levels. A nationally representative study of American 12th graders funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse\",\n \"-25.03384729281788\"\n ],\n [\n \"relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher\",\n \"-25.017252206336707\"\n ],\n [\n \"awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\\nAccording to the article, \\\"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\\\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be\",\n \"-25.013741608563578\"\n ],\n [\n \"is that by not voluntarily making oneself go to sleep, it relieves the performance anxiety that arises from the need or requirement to fall asleep, which is meant to be a passive act. This technique has been shown to reduce sleep effort and performance anxiety and also lower subjective assessment of sleep-onset latency and overestimation of the sleep deficit (a quality found in many insomniacs). Sleep hygiene Sleep hygiene is a common term for all of the behaviors which relate to the promotion of good sleep. These behaviors are used as the basis of sleep interventions and are the primary\",\n \"-24.9569830870023\"\n ],\n [\n \"and more a private, silent one—and as sleeping increasingly moved from communal sleeping areas to individual bedrooms, some raised concern that reading in bed presented various dangers, such as fires caused by bedside candles. Some modern critics, however, speculate that these concerns were based on the fear that readers—especially women—could escape familial and communal obligations and transgress moral boundaries through the private fantasy worlds in books.\",\n \"-24.93913217150839\"\n ],\n [\n \"Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone\",\n \"-24.938200770906406\"\n ],\n [\n \"time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of\",\n \"-24.92148927319795\"\n ],\n [\n \"paradoxical sleep. Heart rate, cardiac pressure, cardiac output, arterial pressure, and breathing rate quickly become irregular when the body moves into REM sleep. In general, respiratory reflexes such as response to hypoxia diminish. Overall, the brain exerts less control over breathing; electrical stimulation of respiration-linked brain areas does not influence the lungs, as it does during non-REM sleep and in waking. The fluctuations of heart rate and arterial pressure tend to coincide with PGO waves and rapid eye movements, twitches, or sudden changes in breathing.\\nErections of the penis (nocturnal penile tumescence or NPT) normally accompany REM sleep in rats and\",\n \"-24.836202382924967\"\n ],\n [\n \"a disorder in which a patient has difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep. Behavior modification and a reduction in neurologically active substances such as caffeine and alcohol seem to be among the most promising treatments. Although the mechanism is unknown, brain plasticity and behavior modification are utilized to train patients to only go to bed when tired, associating the bed itself with a sleepy state.\\nNarcolepsy is a condition characterized by abnormal transitions between REM and non-REM cycles during sleep and the awake cycle. Cataplexy, on the other hand, is an involuntary loss of muscle tone during wakefulness. The mechanism of narcolepsy\",\n \"-24.774327221697604\"\n ],\n [\n \"perceptual input does not automatically engender conscious experience. In support of the independence of consciousness from perception, Revonsuo cites Stephen LaBerge's case study on a lucid dreamer performing previously agreed upon eye movements to signal to the experimenters that he had become conscious of the fact that he was dreaming. A second study that supports Revonsuo's view of dreams was conducted by Allan Rechtschaffen and Foulkes (1965). In this study, subjects were made to sleep with their eyelids open, thus allowing the visual cortex to receive visual stimuli. Though their eyes were open, and the perceptual input was accessible,\",\n \"-24.755554200266488\"\n ],\n [\n \"hypersomnia or excessive sleepiness should only go to bed to sleep or for sexual activity. All other activities such as eating or watching television should be done elsewhere. For those patients, it is also important to go to bed only when they feel tired, than trying to fall asleep for hours. In that case, they probably should get out of bed and read or watch television until they get sleepy. Epidemiology Hypersomnia affects approximately 5% - 10% of the general population, \\\"with a higher prevalence for men due to the sleep apnea syndromes\\\".\",\n \"-24.719056456291582\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the military or police. Hunting is another good example. Sleep Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\\nTo determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to\",\n \"-24.709991875104606\"\n ],\n [\n \"partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,\",\n \"-24.70852715172805\"\n ],\n [\n \"influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\\\"sleep debt\\\"). This driver of sleep\",\n \"-24.676388025924098\"\n ],\n [\n \"immediate attempt to quickly enter REM stages and long-term effects on motor coordination and habitual motor habits, eventually leading to the death of the animal. It has also been shown that homeothermic animals might require sleep to maintain body weight and temperature. Waking The waking consciousness is the awareness of the world, our bodies, and ourselves. This includes humans experiencing the awareness of being aware of ourselves, an intrinsic ability to humans. It's the ability to look in a mirror and know that you are looking at yourself, and not just another human being. Being awake allows the distinction\",\n \"-24.635688343201764\"\n ],\n [\n \"heavy weight is felt on the chest. Yet, people cannot wake up from that state. Some of the causes are sleeping without adequately covering the body (especially women) and eating in bed. Scientific explanations Victims may have been experiencing waking dreams or sleep paralysis. The phenomenon of sleep paralysis is well-established. During the fourth phase of sleep (also known as REM sleep), motor centers in the brain are inhibited, producing paralysis. The reason for this is ultimately unknown but the most common explanation is that this prevents one from acting out one's dreams. Malfunctions of this process can either result\",\n \"-24.61966086202301\"\n ],\n [\n \"experience somnambulism.\\nNormal sleep cycles include states varying from drowsiness all the way to deep sleep. Every time an individual sleeps, he or she goes through various sequences of non-REM and REM sleep. Anxiety and fatigue are often connected with sleepwalking. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking. Sleep walking may involve sitting up and looking awake when the individual is actually asleep, and getting up and walking around, moving items or undressing themselves. They will also be confused when waking up or opening their eyes during sleep. Sleep walking can be associated\",\n \"-24.61802223860286\"\n ],\n [\n \"the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after\",\n \"-24.603649152999424\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleeplessness brought upon by stress. The long-term goal of this relaxation technique is to be able to identify when your body's muscles are suffering the effects of stress and to be able to relax the individual and the individuals muscles when directed. Mental technique Meditation has long been practiced in other regions around the world. However, it is a practice that is fairly new to North America and it is gaining attention quickly for the physical and psychological benefits it provides to your body. Studies have shown that in addition to reducing physiological and psychological stresses placed on your body,\",\n \"-24.52982461899228\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleep for creative problem solving by thinking of a problem right before we fall asleep, as well as possible tools needed to solve the issue (not the solution itself). This may improve the chance of dreaming about the problem without the normal restraints. When waking up, participants can take notes of the dreams to see if new solutions towards solving have arisen.\\nThe third and last method to boost creativity in adults, is also related to randomness. Onarheim claims that as adults we tend to associate one word with other words and things. When faced with a problem we can make\",\n \"-24.49633304856252\"\n ],\n [\n \"which the child sleeps. Windows should be closed and potentially dangerous items should be removed from the bedroom, and additionally, alarms can be installed and the child placed in a downstairs bedroom.\\nHypnosis could be efficient. Sleepers could become less sensitive to their sleep terrors.\\nOne technique is to wake up just before the sleep terrors begin. When they appear regularly, this method can prevent their appearance.\\nPsychotherapy or counseling can be helpful in many cases. There is some evidence to suggest that night terrors can result from lack of sleep or poor sleeping habits. In these cases, it can be helpful to\",\n \"-24.481134457164444\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleeping on one's back. Primary snoring is also known as \\\"simple\\\" or \\\"benign\\\" snoring, and is not associated with sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea (including hypopnea) syndrome Obstructive sleep apnea is apnea either as the result of obstruction of the air passages or inadequate respiratory muscle activity. Central sleep apnea syndrome Sleep apnea (or sleep apnoea in British English; /æpˈniːə/) is a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or instances of shallow or infrequent breathing during sleep. Each pause in breathing, called an apnea, can last for several seconds to several minutes, and may occur 5 to 30 times\",\n \"-24.466714396025054\"\n ],\n [\n \"naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions\",\n \"-24.452881092205644\"\n ],\n [\n \"of metabolic activity in the brain with many hours of sleep debt. Some studies have also shown that the attention network in the brain is particularly affected by lack of sleep, and though some of the effects on attention may be masked by alternate activities (like standing or walking) or caffeine consumption, attention deficit cannot be completely avoided.\\nSleep deprivation has been shown to have a detrimental effect on cognitive tasks, especially involving divergent functions or multitasking. It also has effects on mood and emotion, and there have been multiple reports of increased tendency for rage, fear or depression with sleep\",\n \"-24.4420250589028\"\n ],\n [\n \"could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.\\nSome dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. “Light sleepers” can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas “deep sleepers”, upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report “thinking” but not “dreaming”. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have\",\n \"-24.342683623587618\"\n ],\n [\n \"do the exact opposite of what they have been doing in bed: They shall stay awake and avoid falling asleep. The goal of this method is to decrease performance anxiety which may inhibit sleep onset. Paradoxal Intention has been shown to be an effective treatment for sleep initiation insomnia but might not be effective for sleep maintenance or mixed insomnia. Indication CBT-I is indicated when the following criteria is met:\\n1.The patient must complain about difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep. These difficulties must cause a significant distress and/or impact daily functioning. Complaints of non-restorative sleep without troubles of initiating or\",\n \"-24.321979755943175\"\n ],\n [\n \"ISS, the latter is still often a cause of stress, such as when NASA Astronaut Daniel Tani's mother died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child. Sleep The amount and quality of sleep experienced in space is poor due to highly variable light and dark cycles on flight decks and poor illumination during daytime hours in the space craft. Even the habit of looking out of the window before retiring can send the wrong messages to the brain, resulting in poor sleep patterns. These disturbances in circadian rhythm have\",\n \"-24.281856757123023\"\n ],\n [\n \"movement (REM) sleep—the stage in which dreaming occurs—may be quick to arrive and intense in depressed people. REM sleep depends on decreased serotonin levels in the brain stem, and is impaired by compounds, such as antidepressants, that increase serotonergic tone in brain stem structures. Overall, the serotonergic system is least active during sleep and most active during wakefulness. Prolonged wakefulness due to sleep deprivation activates serotonergic neurons, leading to processes similar to the therapeutic effect of antidepressants, such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Depressed individuals can exhibit a significant lift in mood after a night of sleep deprivation.\",\n \"-24.27629173824971\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleep, however, especially when purely behavioral criteria are used to define sleep. For example, zebrafish, tilapia, tench, brown bullhead, and swell shark become motionless and unresponsive at night (or by day, in the case of the swell shark); Spanish hogfish and blue-headed wrasse can even be lifted by hand all the way to the surface without evoking a response. On the other hand, sleep patterns are easily disrupted and may even disappear during periods of migration, spawning, and parental care. Behavioural sleep Instead of examining brain activity for sleep patterns, an alternate approach is to examine any rest/activity cycles that\",\n \"-24.254735532565974\"\n ],\n [\n \"Homicidal sleepwalking Causes Sleepwalking and other forms of disorders of arousal occur from deep non-REM slow wave sleep (SWS). There are parasomnias that occur from rapid eye movement sleep. It is caused by an inappropriate physiological event where the brain tries to exit SWS and go straight to wake. In normal sleep, the brain transitions from sleep either from stages 1 or 2 of NREM or REM sleep, but almost never from SWS. As a result, the brain gets “stuck” between a sleep and wake state. In the case of Kenneth Parks, his EEG showed that his brain tried to\",\n \"-24.15587134915404\"\n ],\n [\n \"but the efforts are still ineffective. Normally, the muscles at the level of the throat relax and dilate while asleep in order to open up airway however, patients with obstructive apnea may have decreased neuromuscular tone of the muscles responsible for dilating the pharynx during sleep. The inability of the vocal cords to move and the presence of a foreign body may also cause obstructive apnea. Cases of obstructive apnea are rarely found in infants that are healthy. Mixed Apnea Mixed apnea is a combination of both central and obstructive factors. The majority of premature infants with sleep apnea have\",\n \"-23.992131500970572\"\n ],\n [\n \"close to their parents and not in a different room, where they can sense another's presence. According to the Natural Child Project, co-sleeping is an unquestioned practice in much of southern Europe, Asia, Africa and Central and South America. However, one of the most common types of co-sleeping is bedsharing, which can be dangerous.\\nThe American Academy of Pediatrics encourages room-sharing (sleeping in the same room but on separate surfaces), but it recommends against bed-sharing with infants, due to instances of SIDS. In a study of 321 SIDS cases, the British Medical Journal indicated that the largest percentage of SIDS cases\",\n \"-23.95776220515836\"\n ],\n [\n \"Since one of the main results of chamber REST is a state of relaxation, the effects of chamber REST on arousal are less clear-cut, which can be attributed to the nature of the solution.\\nAlso, due to the inherent immobilization that is experienced in flotation REST (by not being able to roll over), which can become uncomfortable after several hours, the subject is unable to experience the session durations of chamber REST. This may not allow the subject to experience the changes in attitudes and thinking that are associated with chamber REST.\\nAdditionally, the research questions asked between each technique are different.\",\n \"-23.95409166160971\"\n ],\n [\n \"the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to\",\n \"-23.940960750464\"\n ],\n [\n \"understand language. Hospital noise, at any volume level, is credited with being the primary cause of sleep deprivation, a contributing factor in delirium, and a risk factor for errors. The current pressure to reduce noise at night has been mistakenly understood to mean undue quiet at night when patients most need cues that people are around them and available if they need help. Just s lighting must be designed to serve both day and night, so much the auditory environment be designed to support activity,cognition, rest, and sleep.\\nAdding to the above, patients need positive visual and auditory\",\n \"-23.910419313353486\"\n ],\n [\n \"healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking\",\n \"-23.907168428209843\"\n ],\n [\n \"a lack of sleep can impact cognitive performance. For example, it might become difficult to stay focused and concentrate, and reaction times might also be slowed down. All these factors can affect work efficiency and cause accidents. All these consequences are dangerous for the individual but also for others, as many jobs involve taking care of or protecting others. In addition, SWSD might interfere with making decisions quickly, driving, or flying safely.\\nTo promote a healthy lifestyle, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommended that an adult have 7 or more hours of sleep per day. Each year there are\",\n \"-23.90385281178169\"\n ],\n [\n \"used to breath during sleep) are associated with daytime symptoms such as concentration and learning difficulties and irritability, neurocognitive development impairment, decreased school performance and behaviour difficulties. For example, SDB such as OSA contribute to hyperactive behaviour that can lead to the diagnosis and treatment of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, once the SDB is treated, the hyperactive behaviour can improve, and the treatment can be stopped. Obesity also has an impact on the consequences of OSA and lead to different manifestations or severity. Studies have shown that, contrary to adults, children with obstructive sleep-disordered breathing are able to\",\n \"-23.893929065437987\"\n ],\n [\n \" It has been argued that one function of sleep is to allow the brain to consolidate into memory the things it has learned during the animal's normal period of activity. The brain might not be able to do this while still assailed by new stimuli and new information to process. Therefore, the role of sleep would be to periodically shut down sensory input to allow the brain to form memories. Pelagic species swim in an environment that is rather boring (kilometers upon kilometers of open water with not much happening in it). In such species, the sensory input is\",\n \"-23.889798941949266\"\n ],\n [\n \"of these children to crawl into their parent's bed in ages past infancy. Safety and health Health care professionals disagree about bed-sharing techniques, effectiveness and ethics. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission and the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly discourage bed-sharing because of the risk of suffocation or strangulation, but some pediatricians and breast-feeding advocates have opposed this position. Advantages One study reported mothers getting more sleep and breast-feeding by co-sleeping than other arrangements. Parents also experience less exhaustion with such ease in feeding and comforting their child by simply reaching over to the child. As a result, co-sleeping also\",\n \"-23.878061003924813\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the cognitive and motor deficits that may be present. Napping When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia\",\n \"-23.86454707151279\"\n ],\n [\n \"they do not experience a defecation urge.[『本心と抵抗 自発性の精神病理』、p24]\\nOn the other hand, psychiatrist Yu Yuki holds that the experiential fact that reading books makes people sleepy is proof of the relaxation effect of bookstores. He considers it a likely explanation that smells and movement and other such external stimuli as well as psychological factors bring about a relaxation effect, and that the resulting parasympathetic dominance in the autonomic nervous system induces effects such as intestinal peristalsis or contraction of the bladder.[『レック』3号、p21]\\nJapanese social psychologist Shozo Shibuya, describing bookstores as places where our mutual disinterest in each other is naturally on display,\",\n \"-23.850229686591774\"\n ],\n [\n \"is profoundly influenced by changes in light, since these are its main clues about what time it is. Exposure to even small amounts of light during the night can suppress melatonin secretion, and increase body temperature and wakefulness. Short pulses of light, at the right moment in the circadian cycle, can significantly 'reset' the internal clock. Blue light, in particular, exerts the strongest effect, leading to concerns that electronic media use before bed may interfere with sleep.\\nModern humans often find themselves desynchronized from their internal circadian clock, due to the requirements of work (especially night shifts), long-distance travel, and the\",\n \"-23.832260939176194\"\n ],\n [\n \"serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times. Second, inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of melatonin. Inflammation causes a great deal of oxidative stress and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time. Nutrition and diet Overnutrition is associated with diseases such as diabetes and obesity, which are known to affect immune function. More moderate malnutrition, as well as certain specific trace mineral and nutrient deficiencies, can also compromise the immune response.\\nFoods rich in certain fatty acids may foster a healthy\",\n \"-23.814925049431622\"\n ],\n [\n \"established. There is some evidence that pathology in this area plays a role in restless legs syndrome, a condition in which people have difficulty sleeping due to an overwhelming compulsion to constantly move parts of the body, especially the legs.\\nThe arcuate nucleus and the periventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus have dopamine neurons that form an important projection—the tuberoinfundibular pathway which goes to the pituitary gland, where it influences the secretion of the hormone prolactin. Dopamine is the primary neuroendocrine inhibitor of the secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland. Dopamine produced by neurons in the arcuate nucleus is\",\n \"-23.812210262902227\"\n ],\n [\n \"improve patient sleep. Natural daylight in patient rooms help to maintain circadian rhythms and improve sleep.\\nAccording to Heerwagen, an environmental psychologist, medical models of health integrate behavioral, social, psychological, and mental processes. Contact with nature and daylight has been found to enhance emotional functioning; drawing on research from studies (EBD) on well-being outcomes and building features. Positive feelings such as calmness increase, while anxiety, anger, or other negative emotions diminish with views of nature. In contrast there is also convincing evidence that stress could be worsened and ineffective in fostering restoration in built environments that lack nature. Few studies\",\n \"-23.80952841193357\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sleep Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns.\\nSleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two distinct modes: REM sleep and non-REM sleep. Although REM stands for \\\"rapid eye movement\\\", this mode of sleep\",\n \"-23.801139835559297\"\n ],\n [\n \"in those having withdrawn successfully from benzodiazepines, whereas those having remained on benzodiazepines experienced worsening symptoms. People having withdrawn from benzodiazepines also felt their sleep was more refreshing, making statements such as \\\"I feel sharper when I wake up\\\" or \\\"I feel better, more awake\\\", or \\\"It used to take me an hour to fully wake up.\\\" This suggests that benzodiazepines may actually make insomnia worse in the elderly. Cause Tolerance occurs to the muscle-relaxant, anticonvulsant, and sleep-inducing effects of benzodiazepines, and upon cessation a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome occurs. This can lead to benzodiazepines being taken for longer than originally\",\n \"-23.784135684836656\"\n ],\n [\n \"imagery. This is the basis for the suggestion that dreaming involves a reversed sequence of perceptual events. Instead of bottom-up it is top-down (higher levels activating lower levels instead lower to higher). Activation of the motivational mechanisms in the brain would normally be directed toward goal-oriented actions. However, during sleep access to the motor system is blocked (by inactivation of the dorsolateral frontal convexity). As a result, activation moves backwards toward the perceptual areas. This is why the dreamer doesn't engage in motivated behaviours but imagines them. Furthermore, there is inactivation of the reflective system in the limbic brain which\",\n \"-23.76531742690713\"\n ],\n [\n \"from becoming either corrupt or incomplete. It also explains why it is important to forget dreams most of the time. Dreaming and depression It is well known that depressed people spend far more of their sleep time in REM sleep than non-depressed people, entering it earlier – and it has been shown, experimentally, that depressed people show improvement when deprived of REM sleep. This accords with Griffin’s theory, as depressed people spend much of their waking time arousing themselves physiologically through rumination and worry. All this arousal has to be discharged in dreams. Dreaming takes up a large amount of\",\n \"-23.705190988461254\"\n ],\n [\n \"noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\\nThere is support\",\n \"-23.7038696136442\"\n ],\n [\n \"quality, or timing of sleep, caused by a physiological activation in which the brain is caught between the stages of falling asleep and waking. The autonomous nervous system, cognitive process, and motor system are activated during sleep or while the person wakes up from sleep.\\nSome examples of parasomnias are somnambulism (sleep walking), somniloquy (sleep talking), sleep eating, nightmares or night terrors, sleep paralysis, and sexsomnia (or \\\"sleep sex\\\"). Many of these have a genetic component, and can be quite damaging to the person with the behavior or their bed partner. Parasomnias are most common in children, but most children have\",\n \"-23.6922339402372\"\n ],\n [\n \"wakefulness, and sometimes occurs between periods of deeper sleep and periods of REM. The muscles are active, and the eyes roll slowly, opening and closing moderately. The brain transitions from alpha waves having a frequency of 8–13 Hz (common in the awake state) to theta waves having a frequency of 4–7 Hz. Sudden twitches and hypnic jerks, also known as positive myoclonus, may be associated with the onset of sleep during N1. Some people may also experience hypnagogic hallucinations during this stage. During Non-REM1, humans lose some muscle tone and most conscious awareness of the external environment. NREM 2 NREM Stage 2\",\n \"-23.650024668080732\"\n ],\n [\n \"movements follow the ponto-geniculo-occipital waves originating in the brain stem. The eye movements themselves may relate to the sense of vision experienced in the dream, but a direct relationship remains to be clearly established. Congenitally blind people, who do not typically have visual imagery in their dreams, still move their eyes in REM sleep. An alternative explanation suggests that the functional purpose of REM sleep is for procedural memory processing, and the rapid eye movement is only a side effect of the brain processing the eye-related procedural memory. Circulation, respiration, and thermoregulation Generally speaking, the body suspends homeostasis during\",\n \"-23.63836868814542\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":290,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3b7qwh"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do we need legal recognition of marriage? What will be the result if state stops recognizing ALL marriages?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Marriage is a legal contract between two people regarding property rights, debts, affairs of the spouse should the spouse become incapacitated and guardianship of children. Marriage laws are necessary to manage how these are played out in a jurisdiction.","Marriage is a very special form of contract between people that grants extended rights and privileges between the married couple. If the state stopped recognizing marriages, it would be very difficult to handle issues involving children, medical visitation, power of attorney, probate, etc as the spousal relationship defines a de facto set of rights in these types of disputes.","A lot of laws are set up so that marriage is important. Divorce law sets a legal protection so that the stuff married people own is split up fairly. Taxes are set up so married people are taxed differently. A lot of laws would need to be changed if states stopped recognizing marriages.","Many people of a libertarian bent propose doing exactly. Let people enter into private contracts that confer property and other rights to each others, and leave the gov't out of it. However, as a matter of public policy, marriage is necessary to protect spouses who forgo their careers to maintain a household and/or raise children."],"string":"[\n \"Marriage is a legal contract between two people regarding property rights, debts, affairs of the spouse should the spouse become incapacitated and guardianship of children. Marriage laws are necessary to manage how these are played out in a jurisdiction.\",\n \"Marriage is a very special form of contract between people that grants extended rights and privileges between the married couple. If the state stopped recognizing marriages, it would be very difficult to handle issues involving children, medical visitation, power of attorney, probate, etc as the spousal relationship defines a de facto set of rights in these types of disputes.\",\n \"A lot of laws are set up so that marriage is important. Divorce law sets a legal protection so that the stuff married people own is split up fairly. Taxes are set up so married people are taxed differently. A lot of laws would need to be changed if states stopped recognizing marriages.\",\n \"Many people of a libertarian bent propose doing exactly. Let people enter into private contracts that confer property and other rights to each others, and leave the gov't out of it. However, as a matter of public policy, marriage is necessary to protect spouses who forgo their careers to maintain a household and/or raise children.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["recognized, even if that marriage was not recognized by one or more states, as was the case until 1967 with interracial marriage, which some states banned by statute.\nPrior to 2004, same-sex marriage was not performed or recognized in any U.S. jurisdiction, but subsequently began to be performed and recognized by law in different jurisdictions through legislation, court rulings, tribal council rulings, and popular referenda.\nThe Supreme Court's ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges ended all inter-state legal complications surrounding same-sex marriage, as it orders states to both perform the marriages of same-sex couples and to recognize the marriages of same-sex couples performed","-34.47791528276866"],["for the legal systems, it is now very difficult to identify states with no local system for the celebration and registration of marriages, and even more difficult for the courts of one state to justify a decision to support the prejudices of two of its citizens against the laws of the second state. However, other states permit informal marriages to acquire legal status and, where this happens, there is no reason in principle why international recognition should not follow.\nCanada allows married persons to retain multiple spouses in legally recognized family law, but only in one province. Saskatchewan utilizes S.51 of","-34.35939479258377"],["state from defining or recognizing marriage only as the legal union between a man and a woman.\nPlaintiffs' attorneys said they would support the state's request for consideration by the Supreme Court and filed a brief in support of the state's petition for certiorari on August 28, framing the question differently:\nWhether a state violates the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution by prohibiting same-sex couples from marrying and by refusing to recognize their lawful, out-of-state marriages.\nNeal Katyal, a former Justice Department official with extensive experience arguing before the Supreme Court, joined the plaintiffs' legal team in August.\nThe Tenth Circuit's ruling is","-34.128900071111275"],["grounds. State recognition In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. In most American states, a wedding must be officiated by the justice of the peace in order for it to be recognized. However, priests, ministers, rabbis, and many other religious authorities can act as viable agents of the state. In some countries, such as France, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Argentina, Japan and Russia, it is necessary to be married by government authority separately from any religious ceremony, with the state ceremony being the legally binding one. In","-34.00688461912796"],["Federal Marriage Amendment Role of states In the United States, civil marriage is governed by state law. Each state is free to set the conditions for a valid marriage, subject to limits set by the state's own constitution and the U.S. Constitution. Traditionally, a marriage was considered valid if the requirements of the marriage law of the state where the marriage took place were fulfilled. (First Restatement of Conflicts on Marriage and Legitimacy s.121 (1934)). However, a state can refuse to recognize a marriage if the marriage violates a strong public policy of the state, even if the marriage was","-33.444085058850305"],["ceremony—leave the state out of it—and create a business- or domestic-partner contract aligning the couple legally.\nProfessor Gary Becker, a winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, has said that:\nWith marriage contracts that set out the couple's commitments, there is little reason why judges should retain their current involvement in marriage.\nAs of 2015, the only known members of US Congress to support privatization of state marriage are Sen. Rand Paul, Rep. Justin Amash (R–Michigan) and Rep. Gary Palmer (R–Alabama). Religious advocacy Pepperdine University law professor Douglas Kmiec told the Catholic News Agency that churches that do not accept same-sex","-33.43071817536838"],["same-sex relationship even if recognized as marriage by another state. It purports to relieve a state of its reciprocal obligation to honor the laws of other states as required by the Constitution's Full Faith and Credit Clause. Even before DOMA, however, states sometimes refused to recognize a marriage from another jurisdiction if it was counter to its \"strongly held public policies\". Most lawsuits that sought to require a state to recognize a marriage established in another jurisdiction argue on the basis of equal protection and due process, not the Full Faith and Credit Clause.\nDOMA's Section 3 defined marriage for the","-33.4172222368652"],["of any marriage) but it will be difficult for the parties to justify their failure to comply with the local laws that unambiguously would have created a valid marriage. Common law In some states, the legal acceptability of common law marriage is very limited. Some couples, whether because there are no local formalities relevant to them or because they have strongly held prejudices against compliance with the local forms, decide to create a marriage either by a simple public exchange of vows (per verbis inter praesentes), or by habit and repute. Because the need for conformity between states requires respect","-33.39583895012038"],["legal in the state where it was performed. (Restatement (Second) Of Conflict of Laws § 283(2) (1971).) States historically exercised this \"public policy exception\" by refusing to recognize out-of-state polygamous marriages, underage marriages, incestuous marriages, and interracial marriages. Following the Windsor decision in 2013, nearly all courts that have addressed the issue have held that states with laws defining marriage as a one-man, one-woman union cannot refuse to recognize same-sex marriages that were legally performed elsewhere and must permit all people, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, the right to marry.\nSame-sex marriage is currently legal in all US States. ","-33.20629925583489"],["Although some couples have registered relationships because they are prohibited from marrying under the federal Marriage Act 1961 as amended by the Marriage Amendment Act 2004, other couples have registered as an alternative to marriage, thus reducing the marriage rate.","-33.110415030198055"],["that federal courts and administrators would need to determine the validity for federal purposes of a marriage that is recognized in one state and not another, or in a foreign country and not by every U.S. state, it created two tests. If celebrated in a state of the U.S., a marriage is valid for federal purposes if valid in that state. If celebrated elsewhere, a marriage is valid for federal purposes if it is valid in at least one U.S. state.\nLegal scholars disputed whether the language of the Respect for Marriage Act was an appropriate solution to the problem. Lynn","-33.08106714650057"],["marriages performed in brief periods, though it did recognize them once the respective states announced they would do so. It had not taken a position with respect to similar marriages in Arkansas prior to the Obergefell decision legalizing and recognizing same-sex marriages in all fifty states.\nOpponents of same-sex marriage have worked to prevent individual states from recognizing same-sex unions by attempting to amend the United States Constitution to restrict marriage to heterosexual unions. In 2006, the Federal Marriage Amendment, which would have prohibited states from recognizing same-sex marriages, was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee on a party-line vote and","-33.059419423691"],["the U.S. to invalidate a state marriage amendment defining marriage as between a man and a woman on federal constitutional grounds. In July, 2006, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit reversed his decision on all three arguments and held that \"laws limiting the state-recognized institution of marriage to heterosexual couples ... do not violate the Constitution of the United States.\" In 2015, the Eighth Circuit's ruling was invalidated by the United States Supreme Court's decision in Obergefell v. Hodges.","-33.011402391653974"],["Respect for Marriage Act Background Until 1996, the federal government of the United States customarily recognized marriages conducted legally in any state for the purpose of federal legislation. Following an unsuccessful lawsuit aimed at legalizing same-sex marriage in Hawaii, the United States Congress passed the Defense of Marriage Act, one section of which forbids the federal government from recognizing same-sex marriages. Choice of law problem In addition to repealing DOMA, the legislation would have established a method for the federal government to determine whether a marriage is valid for federal purposes, a legal dilemma known as choice of laws. Anticipating","-32.95685496990336"],["license a marriage between two people of the same sex? 2) Does the Fourteenth Amendment require a state to recognize a marriage between two people of the same sex when their marriage was lawfully licensed and performed out-of-state?\" The plaintiff-petitioners told the court that Douglas Hallward-Driemeier of the law firm of Ropes & Gray would represent them at oral argument.\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on the case, which had been consolidated with three other cases from Michigan, Ohio, and Kentucky, in Obergefell v. Hodges. In a 5-4 decision written by Justice Kennedy and joined by Justices","-32.598085675621405"],["not be recognised if, for example, a person was already married (or the overseas divorce is not recognised in Australia), a person was aged under 18 (subject to some exceptions), the persons were direct descendants or siblings, or there was duress or fraud. Marriage education Part IA authorises the government to make grants to approved organisations for marriage counselling. Amendments to the Marriage Act Two amendments of note to the Act have been made with respect to the legal definition of marriage in Australia, both of which relate to same-sex marriage. Marriage Amendment Act 2004 Before 2004, there was no","-32.54020040988689"],["union of one man and one woman, to the exclusion of all others. In their December 2013 ruling striking down the ACT's same-sex marriage law, the High Court effectively determined that all laws with respect to marriage were an exclusive power of the Commonwealth and that no state or territory law legalising same-sex marriage or creating any type of marriage could operate concurrently with the federal Marriage Act; \"the kind of marriage provided for by the [Marriage] Act is the only kind of marriage that may be formed or recognised in Australia\". As a result, the only possible method for","-32.53612083941698"],["Government) immediately challenged the law in the High Court of Australia. The High Court ruled on the matter in December 2013, five days after the first same-sex weddings were celebrated in the ACT, striking down the ACT's same-sex marriage law. The court determined that all laws with respect to marriage were an exclusive power of the Commonwealth and that no state or territory law creating any other type of marriage could operate concurrently with the federal Marriage Act; \"the kind of marriage provided for by the [Marriage] Act is the only kind of marriage that may be formed or recognised","-32.363511240284424"],["two methods of receiving state recognition of a marriage: common-law marriage and obtaining a marriage license. Common-law marriage is no longer permitted in most states. Though federal law does not regulate state marriage law, it does provide for rights and responsibilities of married couples that differ from those of unmarried couples. Reports published by the General Accounting Office in 1997 and 2004 identified over 1000 such laws. Age of marriage The age at which a person can marry varies by state. The marriage age is generally 18 years, with the exception of Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21). In addition, all","-32.32609664871052"],["country of residence and the nationality of the parties. Marriages with less than the normal amount of notice require the permission of the Registrar General. United States In the United States, until the mid-19th century, common-law marriages were recognized as valid, but thereafter some states began to invalidate common-law marriages. Common-law marriages, if recognized, are valid, notwithstanding the absence of a marriage license. North Carolina and Tennessee (which was originally western North Carolina) never recognized marriage at the common law as valid without a license unless entered into in other states. They have always recognized otherwise valid marriages (except bigamous,","-32.241969148663884"],["and a woman is valid or recognized in California\". Prop 8 was later found to be unconstitutional and marriage equality took effect. Thirty states passed state constitutional amendments defining marriage as being between one man and one woman. On June 26, 2015, all amendments banning sex-same marriage were invalidated by the Supreme Court's ruling on Obergefell v. Hodges. Federal statutes regulating marriage Although individual U.S. states have the primary regulatory power with regard to marriage, the United States Congress has occasionally regulated marriage. The 1862 Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, which made bigamy a punishable federal offense in U.S. territories,","-32.20040196401533"],["in the year that the legislative calendar had no room for the issue. 2010 As of January 2010, 29 states had constitutional provisions restricting marriage to one man and one woman, while 12 others had statutes that did so. Nineteen states banned any legal recognition of same-sex unions that would be equivalent to civil marriage. Voters had approved 28 out of 30 popular referenda in which states asked voters to adopt a constitutional amendment or initiative defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman. Arizonans voted down one such amendment in 2006, but approved a different amendment to","-32.16076121237711"],["as for another. For example, a marriage may be recognised civilly, but not by a church, and vice versa. Normally a marriage entered into in one country will be recognised in other countries. Sometimes, however, a religious ceremony or a marriage entered into in one country is not recognized by another, such as a same-sex marriage. International recognition Some countries give legal recognition to marriages performed in another country under the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978). For this to apply, both the country of marriage and the country where recognition is sought need to be members of this convention.\nIf the","-32.15082248626277"],["the right to marry in 2013, and this right extends to a right to get married in the Church of Denmark, although individual priests have the right to refuse to perform such marriages. On June 26, 2015, Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the ban on same-sex marriages were de jure unconstitutional, which de facto legalized the same-sex marriage process in the United States. Europe To avoid the use of the term \"marriage\", some governments provide civil unions, which are open to couples of the same sex, and in some jurisdictions also to those of opposite sexes who","-32.14325004781131"],["rulings allowing same-sex marriages or civil unions. In August 2004, same-sex marriage was officially prohibited when the Marriage Act 1961 and the Family Law Act were amended in order to define marriage as a \"union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life\". Amendments were also made to prevent the recognition in Australia of marriages conducted in other countries between a man and another man or a woman and another woman. \nThe passage of the legislation was made possible because the Australian Labor Party supported the Howard Government's proposed ban on","-32.104688051775156"],["to hear appeals from that circuit's decision.\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down all state bans on same-sex marriage, legalized it in all fifty states, and required states to honor out-of-state same-sex marriage licenses in the case Obergefell v. Hodges. Legal issues The legal issues surrounding same-sex marriage in the United States are determined by the nation's federal system of government, in which the status of a person, including marital status, is determined in large measure by the individual states. Prior to 1996, the Federal Government did not define marriage; any marriage recognized by a state was","-32.094232426490635"],["law marriage or their eventual heirs may have difficulty proving their relationship to be marriage. Some states provide for registration of an informal or common-law marriage based on the declaration of each of the spouses on a state-issued form. Marriage law and race Anti-miscegenation laws which prohibited interracial marriage date back to Colonial America. The earliest were established in Maryland and Virginia in the 1660s. After independence, seven of the original colonies and many new states, particularly those in the West and the South, also implemented anti-miscegenation laws. Despite a number of repeals in the 19th century, in 1948, 30","-32.02205127442721"],["having Church weddings whereas most other nations on that continent insist on civil registrations leaving it up to the couple if they choose to have a religious ceremony as well.\nThe 1984 English Anglican booklet Forward to Marriage showed a tolerance of premarital sex but strongly endorsed marriage as \"a necessary commitment for a long-term relationship\".\nIn 1987, the American Bishop John Shelby Spong's Newark Diocese had commissioned a report that concluded that the \"Episcopal Church should recognize and bless committed non-marital sexual relationships between homosexuals, young adults, the divorced and widowed...\" The report aimed \"to ignite a new debate on sexual","-31.990388262303895"],["the state is required. Some US states have started citing the state specifically as a party in the marriage contract which is seen by some as an infringement.\nMarriage licenses have also been the subject of controversy for affected minority groups. California's Proposition 8 has been the subject of heavy criticism by advocates of same-sex marriage, including the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community whose ability to marry is often limited by the aforementioned state intervention. This changed on June 26, 2015, with the Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges. However, the state and federal intervention still continues to","-31.896402142418083"],["Supreme Court on May 5, 1993, ordered a trial court to consider whether the state could demonstrate that denying marriage licenses to same-sex couples \"furthers compelling state interests and is narrowly drawn to avoid unnecessary abridgments of constitutional rights.\"\nCongressional reaction to that ruling, partly in anticipation of the approaching presidential election, resulted in the enactment of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages. President Bill Clinton signed it into law on September 21, 1996. In November 1998, Hawaii voters approved a state constitutional amendment allowing their legislature to ban same-sex marriage, and Alaska voters","-31.792395368513098"],["lesbian couples could not be denied the right to marry because of the Equal Protection Clause of the state constitution. This decision made Connecticut the third state (along with Massachusetts and California) to legalize same-sex marriage through judicial decree of the state supreme court. The majority opinion was written by Justice Richard N. Palmer, and joined by Justices Norcott, Joette Katz, and Judge Lubbie Harper Jr.; Justices Peter T. Zarella, Christine S. Vertefeuille, and David Borden dissented.\nMost recently, Justice Norcott wrote the Court's opinion in Bysiewicz v. DiNardo, holding that Secretary of State Susan Bysiewicz did not fulfill the statutory","-31.772673578583635"],["annulled, could choose whom she wanted to live with. The Court ruled that \"an adult couple has a right to live together without marriage\", and held that live-in relationships (cohabitation between unmarried couples) are now recognized by the law. Pending court cases In 2019, two women from Hamirpur, Uttar Pradesh, who married symbolically, tried to get their marriage recognised at the registrar's office, who denied citing lack of relevant provisions. The couple's lawyer, Daya Shankar Tiwari, has said they will challenge the registrar's decision to not legally recognise the marriage.\nIn July 2019, the Delhi High Court dismissed a legal challenge","-31.759160659159534"],["relationships\". It also prohibited state recognition of out of state same-sex marriages.\nOn November 2, 2004, Ohio voters approved State Issue 1, a state initiated constitutional amendment that prohibited the recognition of same-sex marriage, as well as any \"legal status for relationships of unmarried individuals that intends to approximate the design, qualities, significance or effect of marriage\" in the state of Ohio. The amendment went into effect on December 2, 2004. Initiative to repeal constitutional ban In 2013, FreedomOhio and Equality Ohio sought state officials' approval of a ballot initiative that would replace the constitutional amendment and allow same-sex marriage. Two","-31.663218463028898"],["under the jurisdiction of the state in which the ceremony is performed; however, the marriage is generally recognized across the country. The state in which they are married holds the record of that marriage. Traditionally, working with law enforcement was the only means of searching and accessing marriage license information across state lines. Controversy in the U.S. Some groups and individuals believe that the requirement to obtain a marriage license is unnecessary or immoral. The Libertarian Party, for instance, believes that marriage should be a matter of personal liberty, not requiring permission from the state. \nIndividuals who align with this","-31.65261285076849"],["legally valid and to be recognised as a marriage, meaning that couples who have entered into such unions since 20 June 2013 need not remarry as a result of the court's April 2016 ruling. The ruling was officially published on 7 July 2016.\nPresiding Judge Maria Victoria Calle told the court; \"all people are free to choose independently to start a family in keeping with their sexual orientation... receiving equal treatment under the constitution and the law.\" The court's ruling informed state judges, notaries and clerks that they \"must ensure that citizens' fundamental rights are observed and that they are all","-31.618414415366715"],["In addition, Article 20 of the Constitution allows a Contracting State to file a reservation stating that that state will not recognize a divorce if at the date of the divorce, “one of the spouses was a national of a state whose laws did not provide for divorce.”\nThere are 19 states that are parties the Convention, all of which are in Europe. Many states, including the United States, which is not a Contracting State to the Convention, recognize divorces obtained abroad through the above-mentioned legal principle of comity. The convention also applies to Hong Kong, to which it was extended","-31.539881151664304"],["2013 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Windsor striking down the law barring federal recognition of same-sex marriage gave significant impetus to the progress of lawsuits that challenged state bans on same-sex marriage in federal court. Since that decision, with only a few exceptions, U.S. District Courts and Courts of Appeals have found state bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional, as have several state courts. The exceptions have been a state court in Tennessee, U.S. district courts in Louisiana and Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. The U.S. Supreme Court agreed","-31.511031452333555"],["celebration\" rule when federal statutes do not specify how to determine the validity of a marriage even though \"[t]hese agencies have no inherent legal authority to define marriage.\" He contended that a state's control of the definition of marriage \"within its borders, for the common good\" was fundamental to its sovereignty, while the \"extent to which any state's marriages travel to other states is a comparatively minor matter.\"","-31.483329712878913"],["prosecution under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.\nAll U.S. jurisdictions recognize common-law marriages that were validly contracted in the originating jurisdiction, because they are valid marriages in the jurisdiction where they were contracted. see: Full Faith and Credit Clause. However, absent legal registration or similar notice of the marriage, the parties to a common law marriage or their eventual heirs may have difficulty proving their relationship to be marriage. Some states provide for registration of an informal or common-law marriage based on the declaration of each of the spouses on a state-issued form. English-speaking Caribbean Due to their colonial past,","-31.467043565236963"],["resulted in a 61.6% \"Yes\" vote in favour of legalisation. Consequently, the Federal Parliament passed a law amending the Marriage Act 1961 (Australia) to allow same-sex couples to marry in December 2017.","-31.441220688160683"],["institution of marriage, an institution which the State not only must allow, but which always and in every age it has fostered and protected. It is one thing when the State exerts its power either to forbid extramarital sexuality altogether, or to say who may marry, but it is quite another when, having acknowledged a marriage and the intimacies inherent in it, it undertakes to regulate by means of the criminal law the details of that intimacy. Impact Justice Harlan's general view has had enormous influence on the modern Supreme Court; Justice David Souter endorsed the general reasoning behind Justice","-31.433358560781926"],["by the ruling of the Supreme Court on June 26, 2015 that same-sex marriages are legal across the entirety of the United States. Privately held religious belief was given as the reason for non-compliance with the Court's ruling and with the state governor's executive order of June 26 instructing all state agencies and clerks to comply with it.","-31.43175631869599"],["Abbott.\nIn February 2015, two state judges in Travis County held the state's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. One ordered the recognition of a common-law marriage between two women and the other order the county clerk to issue a marriage license to two women. They obtained their license and wed before Attorney General Ken Paxton obtained stays from the Texas Supreme Court and asked that court to void the marriage license.\nOn June 26, 2015, the United States legalized same-sex marriage nationwide due to the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Obergefell v. Hodges. Since then, same-sex marriage has been legal in the","-31.418401505507063"],["enjoined the marriage, then the same for the state the couple resides in, and finally they have to determine whether the marriage is valid under the DOMA. Although this resolved the issue of immigration for heterosexual couples from states and countries where they could get married, same-sex couples remained barred from immigration based on marriage just as other same-sex couples.\nThe rules let to the advise from lawyers to postpone transitioning in order to gain permanent residence based on marriage when the couples would be a same-sex couple after transitioning even when they have a valid heterosexual marriage. In 2012, this","-31.382474636659026"],["which made it impossible to challenge the state's ban on same-sex marriage. The state had enacted a statute defining marriage as an institution for \"one man and one woman\" in 1994, following the first state court decision that questioned the state's denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples. Both the statute and the constitutional amendment were passed around the same time as the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA; Hawaiian: Kānāwai Kūpale Male o ka makahiki 1996) was enacted into law by the United States Congress. Civil unions (2009–2011) Bills creating \"civil unions\" (Hawaiian: uniona kīwila) were considered several times, but","-31.37234415160492"],["Constitution.\" State agency response As of November 19, 2014, state executive agencies such as the Division of Vehicles continued to deny recognition to same-sex marriages. The Governor's office said policies would not change as long the state was appealing the ruling in Marie, citing income tax filing as an example. A spokesperson for the Governor said state agencies would \"take the necessary legal actions once this issue is resolved.\" The Department of Health and Environment, on the other hand, under the U.S. district court's order not to enforce the state's ban, has modified its marriage license application forms to accommodate","-31.339411918859696"],["are currently not authorized to solemnize marriage in any province or territory. United States In the United States, the requirements for entering into marriage are determined by state law. In most states, the ULC clearly falls under the statutes setting forth the requirements for ordination of ministers to perform marriages. In a small number of states, this issue has been litigated, with determinations made by courts at various levels. In Mississippi, for example, it ultimately fell to the Mississippi Supreme Court to recognize the power of a minister of the Universal Life Church to solemnize marriages. although some states allow","-31.315025527437683"],["Several states have chosen to ignore or delay the implementation of same-sex marriage.\nA different procedure exists. If officials in a given state repeatedly appeal amparo cases to a federal appeals court and lose five times in a row (note that since 2015 no court in Mexico is allowed to rule against same-sex marriage), and if the appellate court then forwards the results to the Supreme Court (SCJN), the SCJN can force the state legislature to repeal its ban. The Court gives the state a deadline by which it must modify its laws, usually 90 or 180 business days. If the","-31.278661918157013"],["jurisdiction' to prohibit recognition of a marriage that would have been invalid if solemnized in New York.... The Legislature has not enacted legislation to prohibit the recognition of same-sex marriages validly entered into outside of New York, and we thus conclude that the positive law exception to the general rule of foreign marriage recognition is not applicable in this case.\nOn May 14, 2008, Governor David A. Peterson's legal counsel, David Nocenti, instructed New York state agencies that same-sex couples married elsewhere \"should be afforded the same recognition as any other legally performed union,\" and directed all state agencies to begin","-31.24674218799919"],["other states of the United States and other nation-states. \nProposition 22, an initiative passed by voters in 2000, forbade the state from recognizing same-sex marriages. This initiative was struck down in May 2008 by the California Supreme Court in In re Marriage Cases, but a few months later, Proposition 8 reinstated California's ban on marriages for same-sex couples. During the time between the California Supreme Court decision and passage of Proposition 8, the state allowed for tens of thousands of marriage licenses to be issued to same-sex couples. Strauss v. Horton affirmed that those marriages were still valid after the","-31.223301138801617"],["to apply the common law definition. The Marriage Amendment Act 2004 defined, for the first time by statute, marriage as \"the union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life.\" The 2004 Act also expressly declared same-sex marriages entered into abroad were not to be recognised in Australia. This was in response to a lesbian couple getting married in Canada and applying for their marriage to be recognised in Australia. \nSince 2009, same-sex couples were included in Australia's de facto relationship laws, unions which provide couples with most, though not all,","-31.213502085767686"],["Ct 37 (1972), \"is of paramount importance because a state court judgment prohibiting two people of the same sex from marrying each other was appealed to the U. S. Supreme Court on various constitutional grounds, including due process and equal protection. The High Court dismissed the appeal for want of a substantial federal question. Such a dismissal is an important adjudication on the merits.\" The court rejected the counterargument \"that some persons are allowed to marry and their union is given full recognition and constitutional protection even though the above stated justification—procreation—is not possible\" because \"if the classification of the","-31.19318944500992"],["of the same sex to get married. Rather, these citizens now have the ability to organize their lives according to marital and familial norms and demands. There is no threat to the institution of marriage, but precisely the opposite: this law recognizes and values marriage.\nAware that some people and institutions profoundly disagree with this legal change, I wish to say that like other reforms to the marriage code that preceded this one, this law will not generate bad results, that its only consequence will be to avoid senseless suffering of human beings. A society that avoids senseless suffering of its","-31.16907202533912"],["Divorce of same-sex couples United States Before the federal government recognized same-sex marriages in 2013, through the Supreme Court's decision in United States v. Windsor, same-sex couples who legally married in one state could find themselves unable to divorce after relocating to another state that did not recognize their marriage as valid. That could result in the need for a costly civil lawsuit to attempt to resolve issues of property rights, and property settlements that were negotiated outside of court could potentially trigger federal gift tax requirements..\nBefore the Supreme Court's 2015 decision in Obergefell v. Hodges, couples in same-sex marriages","-31.165965113788843"],["entered into for life.\nIt also repealed Section 88EA, which banned the recognition of overseas same-sex marriages. Consequently, when the Act went into effect on 9 December 2017, such couples became automatically recognised as married under the law.\nThe original Act and the amendment also applies to Australia's external territories. Same-sex marriage in the ACT In October 2013, same-sex marriage was legalised in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). The ACT legislation was overturned by the High Court for being inconsistent with the Marriage Act. This was due to the definition of the term \"marriage\" in the Marriage Act, which at that time","-31.163034451106796"],["grounds that it was too vague. This amendment to Ohio's Constitution was later invalidated by the United States Supreme Court in Obergefell v. Hodges. Obergefell v. Hodges On June 26, 2015 the United States Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that Ohio (along with Michigan, Kentucky and Tennessee) could not deny same-sex couples the right to marry, or refuse to recognize their marriages performed elsewhere; protected under the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. This ruling reversed a November 2014 decision by the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, effectively legalizing same-sex marriage in","-31.15144689648332"],["on 14 March 1978 and entered into force on 1 May 1991. Article 9 of the Convention holds that, “A marriage validly entered into under the law of the State of celebration or which subsequently becomes valid under that law shall be considered as such in all Contracting States, subject to the provisions of this Chapter.” In short, one Contracting State must recognize a marriage legally performed in another contracting state. Currently only three states (Australia, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) have ratified the Convention. Another three (Egypt, Finland, and Portugal) have signed it. One of the reasons that the Convention","-31.068552496726625"],["the Obergefell decision has rendered them unenforceable insofar as they prevented same-sex couples from marrying.\nConservative activists who favor such amendments may refer to them as \"defense of marriage amendments\" or \"marriage protection amendments.\" These state amendments are different from the proposed Federal Marriage Amendment, which would ban same-sex marriage in every U.S. state, and Section 2 of the Defense of Marriage Act, more commonly known as DOMA, which allowed the states not to recognize same-sex marriages from other states. History The idea of extending marriage rights to same-sex couples did not become a political issue in the United States until","-31.019025876186788"],["and Mike Lee of Utah. The Act would, for federal purposes, prohibit the term \"marriage\" from referring to any relationship that an individual's state of residence does not recognize, and prohibits the term \"spouse\" from including anyone whose marriage is not recognized by their state of residence.\nSupporters of the proposed legislation take a states' rights approach. One fellow of the Family Research Council offered the example of a same-sex couple married in Massachusetts who live in South Carolina, which does not recognize their marriage: \"When a federal agency such as the Internal Revenue Service begins treating that South","-30.966226184391417"],["(ACT), that the federal Marriage Act, which defined marriage as the union of a man and woman, precluded states and territories from legislating for same-sex marriage. As a result, only the federal parliament can legislate for same-sex marriage, whilst states and territories almost certainly cannot.\nSince the Commonwealth introduced the Marriage Act Cth. 1961, marriage laws in Australia have been regarded as an exclusive Commonwealth power. The precise rights of states and territories with respect to creating state-based same-sex marriage laws have been complicated since the Howard Government amendment to the Marriage Act in 2004 to define marriage as the exclusive","-30.95544642151799"],["13, 2015, two same-sex couples in \"window marriages\", married during May 2014 while a state court's order enjoining enforcement of the state's same-sex marriage ban was in force, brought suit in state court seeking to require the state to recognize their marriages. They named three state officials as defendants. They asked the court to rule on behalf of all same-sex couples married in May. After Obergefell v. Hodges On February 2, 2017, a resolution calling for a ban on same-sex marriage in the United States Constitution was introduced in the Arkansas Legislature. It was sponsored by 21 lawmakers, all of","-30.945722480886616"],["that took effect immediately. The state's appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals was mooted when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on June 26, 2015 that Ohio's ban on same-sex marriage is unconstitutional, striking down every remaining state ban.\nMontana voters had adopted a constitutional amendment in November 2004 that defines marriage as the union of a man and a woman. Similar restrictions appear in the state statutes. Adoption and parenting Montana permits adoption by individuals. There are no explicit prohibitions on adoption by same-sex couples or on second-parent adoption by a person of the same sex as the first","-30.94130850257352"],["state fails to change its laws to allow same-sex marriage by that date, the SCJN will issue a \"General Declaration of Unconstitutionality\" (Spanish: Declaratoria General de Inconstitucionalidad) and struck the law down. In these cases, the amparo is also called a \"resolution\". In November 2016, Sinaloa became the first state to reach five identical resolutions in a row, followed by Chihuahua in February 2017, Nuevo León in October 2018, and Tamaulipas in November 2018. However, state authorities in several of these states have intentionally delayed and blocked attempts to legalize same-sex marriage in their civil codes, stating among others that","-30.9392427848652"],["Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017 Background Same-sex marriage legislation had been presented to the Parliament of Australia on 22 occasions between September 2004 and May 2017, though on each occasion the legislation failed to pass either the House of Representatives or the Senate. These attempts followed the Howard Government's 2004 amendment to the Marriage Act which explicitly defined marriage as a union between only a man and a woman and banned the recognition of same-sex marriages conducted lawfully in foreign jurisdictions. Prior to the legalisation of same-sex marriage, same-sex relationships could only be treated as de facto","-30.93165335385129"],["country of marriage is not a member of the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978), then the marriage documents will need to be certified following the Apostille convention. This certification is usually performed in the country of marriage by the embassy of the country whose recognition is sought. License A marriage license is a document issued, either by a church or state authority, authorizing a couple to marry. The procedure for obtaining a license varies between jurisdictions and has changed over time. Ending a marriage In the United Kingdom, if somebody refuses to recognise someone's marriage, then that marriage will be","-30.917369741306175"],["many times\"). The ruling examined various dubious bases often allowed by States for marriage, and the extent of sanctimonious expressions used in discussing and practicing marriage, and the deference owed to individual states' legislative power to examine such questions at their own pace, and the fact that just one year had passed from the first legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States to the matters leading to this case. It concluded that \"what we are left with, is [that] by creating a status (marriage) and subsidizing it (with privileges) the States created an incentive for two people who procreate","-30.89719391230028"],["a religious rite with a civil ceremony. Marriages performed outside of the United States are legally binding if officially recognized by the government of the country in which they are performed. Countries with mandatory civil marriage In most European countries there is a civil ceremony requirement. Following the civil marriage ceremony, couples are free to marry in a religious ceremony. Such ceremonies, however, only serve to provide a religious recognition of the marriage, since the state's recognition has already been given. In some of these countries (e.g. Belgium, the Netherlands and Turkey) most couples marry\nwithout any religious ceremony","-30.895540599245578"],["not invalidate any state laws, meaning same-sex couples denied the right to wed would still have to seek individual injunctions. The ruling standardized the procedures for judges and courts throughout Mexico to approve all applications for same-sex marriages, and made the approval mandatory. The ruling was published in the country's Judicial Gazette on 19 June 2015 and became binding on 22 June 2015. Some have suggested the ruling \"effectively legalizes\" same-sex marriage in Mexico, though without legislative change, civil registrars are still bound to follow state laws. Indeed, the Supreme Court does not have the legal power to strike down","-30.888501207053196"],["marriage Statutes and Domestic Violence Laws. Separation of church and state Some religious groups argue that having the government decide whether a same-sex marriage should be legally binding on the grounds of the ideology of other religious groups restricts their religious freedom. They argue that marriage is a religious term that should not be defined by the government. Where same-sex marriage is recognized in the United States, no church or other religious institution is forced to perform same-sex marriages, but the FMA would deny the opportunity for religions which approve of same-sex marriage to perform legally binding same-sex marriages. Unnecessary","-30.87971419330279"],["the Interior told registries in the country not to allow such marriages if one of the spouses comes from a country that has not legalised same-sex marriage. In June 2019, the Social Democrats (SPÖ) pledged to repeal this directive. The Austrian LGBT association Legal Committee Lambda (Rechtskomitee Lambda; RKL) had already filed a constitutional complaint against the ban. On 26 June, the Judiciary Committee of the National Council passed a bill presented by Deputy Irmgard Griss from NEOS – The New Austria and Liberal Forum to amend the Private International Law Act (German: Gesetz über das internationale Privatrecht) in order","-30.87656396627426"],["had heard oral arguments on April 28, 2015.\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court held in a 5–4 decision that the Fourteenth Amendment requires all states to grant same-sex marriages and recognize same-sex marriages granted in other states. The Court overturned its prior decision in Baker v. Nelson, which the Sixth Circuit had invoked as precedent.\nThe Obergefell v. Hodges decision came on the second anniversary of the United States v. Windsor ruling that struck down Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages. It also came on the twelfth anniversary of","-30.876226101259817"],["to eliminate marital status as a factor.\nOn June 26, 2015, in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court ruled that marriage is a fundamental right guaranteed to all citizens, and thus legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. Since at least 1993, it has been explicitly recognised that neither spouse has a right to force the other spouse to engage in sexual activities without the ongoing consent of that other spouse. Such behaviour now constitutes marital rape, which in many cases is regarded and treated in the same manner as non-marital rape. States In addition, community-property states frequently have forms of","-30.859954948769882"],["in a foreign country between: \n(a) a man and another man; or \n(b) a woman and another woman;\nmust not be recognised as a marriage in Australia.\nThe amendment was argued by Ruddock and Liberal MPs to be necessary to protect the institution of marriage, and to ensure that the definition would be beyond legal challenge through the application of common law. Several years later, then-prime minister John Howard admitted that the government was motivated by the prospect of overseas same-sex marriages being recognised under Australian law via the judiciary. Labor Party shadow attorney-general Nicola Roxon said that the Labor Party would","-30.851584571326384"],["became the fifth state to afford legal recognition to same-sex marriages, though only three other states–Connecticut, Iowa and Massachusetts–did so without limitation. California as of that date only recognized same-sex marriages established between June 16 and November 5, 2008, when it was forced to stop issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples by voter approval of Proposition 8. Vermont was the first state to establish the legal recognition of same-sex marriage by legislation rather than as the result of a court ruling. Since September 2009, the definition of marriage in the state of Vermont has been the following:\nMarriage is the legally","-30.849520653137006"],["the church, but such marriages must be legal according to the government where the marriage is performed, and must not be a same-sex marriage, polygamous marriage, common law marriage, or other type of non-ceremonial marriages in non–common law countries. Moreover, such marriages are thought to last only for the mortal life, and not into the next. In countries where the church's celestial marriages are not recognized by the government, the church requires that it be preceded by a civil marriage.\nIn the United States, the LDS Church has expressed support for a constitutional ban on same-sex and polygamous marriage and","-30.84812946132297"],["interpretations, and its drafters acknowledged that it was specifically worded so state legislators could create civil unions and domestic partnerships, because the CWA opposes any legal recognition of same-sex couples. CWA preferred the Institution of Marriage Amendment crafted by Home School Legal Defense Association President Michael Farris. That amendment, which has not been introduced by any member of Congress, states:\nMarriage in the United States shall consist only of the union of a man and a woman. Neither the United States nor any State shall recognize or grant to any unmarried person the legal rights or status of a spouse. Restriction","-30.842054133565398"],["marriage laws, which must adhere to rulings by the Supreme Court of the United States that recognize marriage as a fundamental right that is guaranteed by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, as first established in the 1967 landmark civil rights case of Loving v. Virginia.\nCivil rights campaigning in support of marriage without distinction as to sex or sexual orientation began in the 1970s. In 1972, the now overturned Baker v. Nelson saw the Supreme Court of the United States decline to become involved. The issue became","-30.829432035781792"],["important public policy issue of whether to alter the traditional definition of marriage as between one man and one woman.\" District Court Judge Timothy Burgess heard oral arguments on October 10.\nOn October 12, 2014, less than a week after the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review similar cases from the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Latta v. Otter and Sevcik v. Sandoval, Judge Burgess ruled for the plaintiffs and declared Alaska's statutory and constitutional bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. He issued an injunction effective immediately. The same day, Governor Parnell announced that he would appeal the ruling and \"defend our","-30.81734546665666"],["marry in the state, and the first to do so since the new ruling. Earlier, a lesbian couple had been able to have their civil union converted into a marriage.","-30.79813848400954"],["those cases, the marriage is usually legalized before the ceremony. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions.\nMarriage relationships may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law marriage, sometimes called \"marriage by habit and repute.\" This is a judicial recognition that two people who have been living as domestic partners are subject to the rights and obligations of a legal marriage, even without formally marrying. However, in the UK at least, common-law marriage has been abolished and there are no","-30.79633730801288"],["the law to prevent Australian recognition of same-sex marriages, rendering the cases pointless.\nIn an attempt to prevent any judicial imposition of same-sex unions in Australia, the Howard Government introduced the Marriage Amendment Act in the Parliament on 27 May 2004. The amendment specified that marriage, undefined in the Act, would be defined as a \"union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others\" and that foreign same-sex marriages would not be recognised as such in Australia. Additional reforms to the Family Law Act prevented same-sex couples from being eligible adoptive parents for children in inter-country adoption","-30.773566060321173"],["was changed to include same-sex marriage, so that it differed from the church's own definition, they could no longer perform civil functions at weddings.\nIn the predominantly Catholic countries of Italy and Croatia, the Catholic Church has been the main opponent to either the introduction of civil unions or marriage for same-sex-couples. In July 2013, 750,000 petition signatures were collected by the conservative group \"In the Name of the Family\", strongly supported by Catholic church leaders. This directly led to the 2013 referendum whereby the constitution was amended to state that marriage is only a union between a man and a","-30.770066557219252"],["some couples married under the laws of their State, but not other couples, of both rights and responsibilities. By creating two contradictory marriage regimes within the same State, DOMA forces same-sex couples to live as married for the purpose of state law but unmarried for the purpose of federal law, thus diminishing the stability and predictability of basic personal relations the State has found it proper to acknowledge and protect. By this dynamic DOMA undermines both the public and private significance of state-sanctioned same-sex marriages; for it tells those couples, and all the world, that their otherwise valid marriages are","-30.73756610250348"],["because there is no rational basis for limiting the designation of 'marriage' to opposite-sex couples.\" The court also stayed the ruling; the voter initiative was to remain in effect pending appeal. On August 12, Walker announced his decision to lift the stay (which would have allowed same-sex marriages to be performed) as of August 18, 2010.\nHowever, on August 16, 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit indefinitely extended the District Court's stay, stopping new same-sex marriages in the state of California pending appeal. It also scheduled an accelerated time table for hearing an appeal of Walker's","-30.680335449171253"],["marriages have only been legal since 2014. United States Massachusetts, the first U.S. state to allow same-sex marriage, does not track how many of the divorces in the state are between same-sex couples. A 2011 study for states with available data initially reported that the dissolution rates for same-sex couples were slightly lower on average (on average, 1.1% of all same-sex couples were said to divorce each year, ranging from 0% to 1.8% in various jurisdictions) than divorce rates of different-sex couples (2% of whom divorce annually). The Washington Post retracted a headline about this report because the study had","-30.67761183460243"],["states, including Wisconsin, in October 2014, allowing same-sex marriages to continue, Walker stated: \"I think it's resolved.\" In April 2015, in New Hampshire, Walker stated that marriage is \"defined as between a man and a woman\", and in Iowa said a federal constitutional amendment allowing states to define marriage was reasonable. Walker called the U.S. Supreme Court's Obergefell v. Hodges decision to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide a \"grave mistake\". Unions Walker said public-union collective-bargaining rights frustrate balancing the state budget. Walker signed right-to-work legislation he said would contribute to economic growth. The Atlantic has written that \"anti-union politics\" have defined","-30.6716914603021"],["matter. The Court's decision was that the law shall be put out of effect at a date specified by the Court. The Court also provided Parliament with the necessary number of representatives which must confirm the Act to make it legitimate. 2013 referendum and same-sex unions On November 14, 2013, Constitutional Court in a 13–0 statement sent to the State Election Commission stated that there is no constitutional obstacle to hold a 2013 referendum on defining marriage as a union between men and a woman, in the same time pointing out that the referendum revealed numerous problems in the Referendum","-30.669511697167763"],["legally solemnized in a foreign jurisdiction in any context other than divorce. The question of recognition of such same-sex marriages for any other reason, being not properly before us, is left for another day.\" Courage v. Wyoming On March 5, 2014, four same-sex couples and Wyoming Equality filed a lawsuit, Courage v. Wyoming, in the First Judicial District, challenging Wyoming's statutory ban on same-sex marriage and the recognition of same-sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions. The plaintiffs were couples that married in Canada and Iowa, as well as two couples who were denied marriages licenses by the Laramie County Clerk.","-30.66663352586329"],["20 injunctions were carried out. Several states have simply chosen to ignore or delay the implementation of same-sex marriage, some times even at the cost of fines (in Tamaulipas legislators were fined for about 100 days due to their failure to legalize it).\nOn 14 June 2015, the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation declared it unconstitutional to deny marriage licenses to same-sex couples in all states. This did not legalize same-sex marriages nationwide, but in turn means that whenever a state government has an injunction taken out by a couple looking to get marital recognition, they will have to","-30.648120448866393"],["2005 Texas Proposition 2 Full text Article 1, Section 32 of the Texas Constitution, as amended, states:\n(a) Marriage in this state shall consist only of the union of one man and one woman.\n(b) This state or a political subdivision of this state may not create or recognize any legal status identical or similar to marriage.\nThe joint resolution proposing the amendment included additional language about rights that the ban on same-sex marriage was not meant to restrict:\nThis state recognizes that through the designation of guardians, the appointment of agents, and the use of private contracts, persons may adequately and properly appoint","-30.645608220249414"],["one woman, and Article 294, which stated that marriage existed solely for the purpose of procreation, were unconstitutional. In late January 2018, after multiple attempts from Congress to delay enactment of the ruling, the Civil Registry announced that it would abide by the ruling, bypassing the Congress' authority. The Civil Registry's announcement also followed a ruling of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights which states that countries signatory to the American Convention on Human Rights must legalise same-sex marriage. Mexico has ratified the Convention. The ruling officially took effect on 16 February 2018, after it was published in the Diario","-30.64207983436063"],["June 2015.\nIn many states, it is illegal to cross state lines to obtain a marriage that would be illegal in the home state. The typical wedding involves a couple proclaiming their commitment to one another in front of their close relatives and friends, often presided over by a religious figure such as a minister, priest, or rabbi, depending upon the faith of the couple. In traditional Christian ceremonies, the bride's father will \"give away\" (hand off) the bride to the groom. Secular weddings are also common, often presided over by a judge, Justice of the Peace, or other municipal official.\nDivorce","-30.621551089250715"],["marriage has been performed in a state that legally allows it many states will recognize it fully or will recognize it as a common law marriage. The exception to this is the state of Iowa where it is completely unrecognized. Germany Germany does not allow proxy marriages within its jurisdiction (§ 1311 BGB). It recognizes proxy marriages contracted elsewhere where this is possible, subject to the usual rules of private international law, unless the foreign law should be incompatible with German ordre public (art. 6 EGBGB): this is not the case with the marriage by proxy per se, would be","-30.613530765287578"],["at full marriage equality — when two consenting adults appear for a marriage license and apply for that license, civil society is required to respond. And so persons of the same-sex can be married in the U.S. Virgin Islands.... \nThe Supreme Court has made a decision that affects the entire nation. It is not for me to express what my personal feelings are. It is for me to do the business of governance and the business of governance, given the Supreme Court’s ruling, says that if an individual in the Virgin Islands is married to a person of the same","-30.611549750203267"],["the state to recognize their marriages established in California and New York. On March 14, 2014, U.S. District Judge Aleta Trauger granted a preliminary injunction requiring the state to recognize the marriages of the plaintiff couples. The state defendants appealed Tanco to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, which granted a stay. A three-judge panel heard oral arguments in the case on August 6, 2014, along with same-sex marriage cases originating from Michigan, Ohio, and Kentucky. The Sixth Circuit ultimately ruled in favor of the states and upheld the bans on November 6, 2014.\nTanco was incorporated into","-30.6047651123954"],["by Subdivision A. As a result, ministers of religion are not necessarily subject to the same obligations or code of practice. Recognition of foreign marriages Part VA deals with recognition of foreign marriages.\nThis division reflects the Act's tendency to seek to uphold the validity of marriages. Marriages will be recognised if they were valid in the country where they were performed and if the marriage would be legal under Australian law. The foreign marriage certificate is proof of marriage and such marriages need not be registered in Australia.\nAs a marriage must be legal under Australian law, a foreign marriage will","-30.58721942846023"],["group who may validly marry is overinclusive, it does not affect the validity of the classification\". Appeal On appeal, a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit affirmed the District Court's opinion on alternative grounds on February 25, 1982. They decided that it was unnecessary for them to determine if the Adams-Sullivan union qualified as a marriage under Colorado law. They noted that it was clear that \"Congress did not intend the mere validity of a marriage under state law to be controlling\" and that \"even though two persons contract a marriage valid under state law and are recognized as spouses","-30.584777674586803"],["the Supreme Court ruled against same-sex couples seeking to be legally married. In a 5-2 decision, the court ruled that it was not required by the country's Constitution to recognize same-sex marriage in family law.\nOn March 19, 2015, a bill to legalize same-sex marriage was introduced to the Legislative Assembly by Deputy Ligia Elena Fallas Rodríguez from the Broad Front. On December 10, 2015, the organization Front for Equal Rights (Frente por los Derechos Igualitarios) and a group of deputies from the Citizens' Action Party, the National Liberation Party and the Broad Front presented another bill. The bill was submitted","-30.57180545966912"],["removal of a judge and three more judges having their terms expired.\nIn 2005, a challenge before the Court was presented denouncing the Same-sex Marriage Act of 2005 arguing that the Constitution says that «men and women have the right to marry with full legal equality» and this didn't allow same-sex marriages. In 2012, after seven years of study, the Court rule that the Constitution allows same-sex marriages because the social concept of marriage it has evolved so the Constitution must to be interpreted according to the current cultural values.\nIn 2017, the court ordered those responsible for the referendum on November","-30.559132454829523"],["by state legislatures On April 2, 2014, the Alabama House of Representatives adopted a joint resolution calling for an Article V convention to draft an amendment to the federal Constitution to define marriage as the union of only one man and only one woman in all jurisdictions of the United States. Nationwide polling Polling on the subject has fluctuated widely, with opposition for such an amendment increasing steadily for more than a decade. Beginning in 2010 polls have found majority support for legal recognition of same-sex marriage. A Gallup poll conducted in May 2014 found that 55% of Americans","-30.533194502437254"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"recognized, even if that marriage was not recognized by one or more states, as was the case until 1967 with interracial marriage, which some states banned by statute.\\nPrior to 2004, same-sex marriage was not performed or recognized in any U.S. jurisdiction, but subsequently began to be performed and recognized by law in different jurisdictions through legislation, court rulings, tribal council rulings, and popular referenda.\\nThe Supreme Court's ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges ended all inter-state legal complications surrounding same-sex marriage, as it orders states to both perform the marriages of same-sex couples and to recognize the marriages of same-sex couples performed\",\n \"-34.47791528276866\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the legal systems, it is now very difficult to identify states with no local system for the celebration and registration of marriages, and even more difficult for the courts of one state to justify a decision to support the prejudices of two of its citizens against the laws of the second state. However, other states permit informal marriages to acquire legal status and, where this happens, there is no reason in principle why international recognition should not follow.\\nCanada allows married persons to retain multiple spouses in legally recognized family law, but only in one province. Saskatchewan utilizes S.51 of\",\n \"-34.35939479258377\"\n ],\n [\n \"state from defining or recognizing marriage only as the legal union between a man and a woman.\\nPlaintiffs' attorneys said they would support the state's request for consideration by the Supreme Court and filed a brief in support of the state's petition for certiorari on August 28, framing the question differently:\\nWhether a state violates the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution by prohibiting same-sex couples from marrying and by refusing to recognize their lawful, out-of-state marriages.\\nNeal Katyal, a former Justice Department official with extensive experience arguing before the Supreme Court, joined the plaintiffs' legal team in August.\\nThe Tenth Circuit's ruling is\",\n \"-34.128900071111275\"\n ],\n [\n \"grounds. State recognition In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. In most American states, a wedding must be officiated by the justice of the peace in order for it to be recognized. However, priests, ministers, rabbis, and many other religious authorities can act as viable agents of the state. In some countries, such as France, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Argentina, Japan and Russia, it is necessary to be married by government authority separately from any religious ceremony, with the state ceremony being the legally binding one. In\",\n \"-34.00688461912796\"\n ],\n [\n \"Federal Marriage Amendment Role of states In the United States, civil marriage is governed by state law. Each state is free to set the conditions for a valid marriage, subject to limits set by the state's own constitution and the U.S. Constitution. Traditionally, a marriage was considered valid if the requirements of the marriage law of the state where the marriage took place were fulfilled. (First Restatement of Conflicts on Marriage and Legitimacy s.121 (1934)). However, a state can refuse to recognize a marriage if the marriage violates a strong public policy of the state, even if the marriage was\",\n \"-33.444085058850305\"\n ],\n [\n \"ceremony—leave the state out of it—and create a business- or domestic-partner contract aligning the couple legally.\\nProfessor Gary Becker, a winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, has said that:\\nWith marriage contracts that set out the couple's commitments, there is little reason why judges should retain their current involvement in marriage.\\nAs of 2015, the only known members of US Congress to support privatization of state marriage are Sen. Rand Paul, Rep. Justin Amash (R–Michigan) and Rep. Gary Palmer (R–Alabama). Religious advocacy Pepperdine University law professor Douglas Kmiec told the Catholic News Agency that churches that do not accept same-sex\",\n \"-33.43071817536838\"\n ],\n [\n \"same-sex relationship even if recognized as marriage by another state. It purports to relieve a state of its reciprocal obligation to honor the laws of other states as required by the Constitution's Full Faith and Credit Clause. Even before DOMA, however, states sometimes refused to recognize a marriage from another jurisdiction if it was counter to its \\\"strongly held public policies\\\". Most lawsuits that sought to require a state to recognize a marriage established in another jurisdiction argue on the basis of equal protection and due process, not the Full Faith and Credit Clause.\\nDOMA's Section 3 defined marriage for the\",\n \"-33.4172222368652\"\n ],\n [\n \"of any marriage) but it will be difficult for the parties to justify their failure to comply with the local laws that unambiguously would have created a valid marriage. Common law In some states, the legal acceptability of common law marriage is very limited. Some couples, whether because there are no local formalities relevant to them or because they have strongly held prejudices against compliance with the local forms, decide to create a marriage either by a simple public exchange of vows (per verbis inter praesentes), or by habit and repute. Because the need for conformity between states requires respect\",\n \"-33.39583895012038\"\n ],\n [\n \"legal in the state where it was performed. (Restatement (Second) Of Conflict of Laws § 283(2) (1971).) States historically exercised this \\\"public policy exception\\\" by refusing to recognize out-of-state polygamous marriages, underage marriages, incestuous marriages, and interracial marriages. Following the Windsor decision in 2013, nearly all courts that have addressed the issue have held that states with laws defining marriage as a one-man, one-woman union cannot refuse to recognize same-sex marriages that were legally performed elsewhere and must permit all people, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, the right to marry.\\nSame-sex marriage is currently legal in all US States. \",\n \"-33.20629925583489\"\n ],\n [\n \"Although some couples have registered relationships because they are prohibited from marrying under the federal Marriage Act 1961 as amended by the Marriage Amendment Act 2004, other couples have registered as an alternative to marriage, thus reducing the marriage rate.\",\n \"-33.110415030198055\"\n ],\n [\n \"that federal courts and administrators would need to determine the validity for federal purposes of a marriage that is recognized in one state and not another, or in a foreign country and not by every U.S. state, it created two tests. If celebrated in a state of the U.S., a marriage is valid for federal purposes if valid in that state. If celebrated elsewhere, a marriage is valid for federal purposes if it is valid in at least one U.S. state.\\nLegal scholars disputed whether the language of the Respect for Marriage Act was an appropriate solution to the problem. Lynn\",\n \"-33.08106714650057\"\n ],\n [\n \"marriages performed in brief periods, though it did recognize them once the respective states announced they would do so. It had not taken a position with respect to similar marriages in Arkansas prior to the Obergefell decision legalizing and recognizing same-sex marriages in all fifty states.\\nOpponents of same-sex marriage have worked to prevent individual states from recognizing same-sex unions by attempting to amend the United States Constitution to restrict marriage to heterosexual unions. In 2006, the Federal Marriage Amendment, which would have prohibited states from recognizing same-sex marriages, was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee on a party-line vote and\",\n \"-33.059419423691\"\n ],\n [\n \"the U.S. to invalidate a state marriage amendment defining marriage as between a man and a woman on federal constitutional grounds. In July, 2006, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit reversed his decision on all three arguments and held that \\\"laws limiting the state-recognized institution of marriage to heterosexual couples ... do not violate the Constitution of the United States.\\\" In 2015, the Eighth Circuit's ruling was invalidated by the United States Supreme Court's decision in Obergefell v. Hodges.\",\n \"-33.011402391653974\"\n ],\n [\n \"Respect for Marriage Act Background Until 1996, the federal government of the United States customarily recognized marriages conducted legally in any state for the purpose of federal legislation. Following an unsuccessful lawsuit aimed at legalizing same-sex marriage in Hawaii, the United States Congress passed the Defense of Marriage Act, one section of which forbids the federal government from recognizing same-sex marriages. Choice of law problem In addition to repealing DOMA, the legislation would have established a method for the federal government to determine whether a marriage is valid for federal purposes, a legal dilemma known as choice of laws. Anticipating\",\n \"-32.95685496990336\"\n ],\n [\n \"license a marriage between two people of the same sex? 2) Does the Fourteenth Amendment require a state to recognize a marriage between two people of the same sex when their marriage was lawfully licensed and performed out-of-state?\\\" The plaintiff-petitioners told the court that Douglas Hallward-Driemeier of the law firm of Ropes & Gray would represent them at oral argument.\\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on the case, which had been consolidated with three other cases from Michigan, Ohio, and Kentucky, in Obergefell v. Hodges. In a 5-4 decision written by Justice Kennedy and joined by Justices\",\n \"-32.598085675621405\"\n ],\n [\n \"not be recognised if, for example, a person was already married (or the overseas divorce is not recognised in Australia), a person was aged under 18 (subject to some exceptions), the persons were direct descendants or siblings, or there was duress or fraud. Marriage education Part IA authorises the government to make grants to approved organisations for marriage counselling. Amendments to the Marriage Act Two amendments of note to the Act have been made with respect to the legal definition of marriage in Australia, both of which relate to same-sex marriage. Marriage Amendment Act 2004 Before 2004, there was no\",\n \"-32.54020040988689\"\n ],\n [\n \"union of one man and one woman, to the exclusion of all others. In their December 2013 ruling striking down the ACT's same-sex marriage law, the High Court effectively determined that all laws with respect to marriage were an exclusive power of the Commonwealth and that no state or territory law legalising same-sex marriage or creating any type of marriage could operate concurrently with the federal Marriage Act; \\\"the kind of marriage provided for by the [Marriage] Act is the only kind of marriage that may be formed or recognised in Australia\\\". As a result, the only possible method for\",\n \"-32.53612083941698\"\n ],\n [\n \"Government) immediately challenged the law in the High Court of Australia. The High Court ruled on the matter in December 2013, five days after the first same-sex weddings were celebrated in the ACT, striking down the ACT's same-sex marriage law. The court determined that all laws with respect to marriage were an exclusive power of the Commonwealth and that no state or territory law creating any other type of marriage could operate concurrently with the federal Marriage Act; \\\"the kind of marriage provided for by the [Marriage] Act is the only kind of marriage that may be formed or recognised\",\n \"-32.363511240284424\"\n ],\n [\n \"two methods of receiving state recognition of a marriage: common-law marriage and obtaining a marriage license. Common-law marriage is no longer permitted in most states. Though federal law does not regulate state marriage law, it does provide for rights and responsibilities of married couples that differ from those of unmarried couples. Reports published by the General Accounting Office in 1997 and 2004 identified over 1000 such laws. Age of marriage The age at which a person can marry varies by state. The marriage age is generally 18 years, with the exception of Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21). In addition, all\",\n \"-32.32609664871052\"\n ],\n [\n \"country of residence and the nationality of the parties. Marriages with less than the normal amount of notice require the permission of the Registrar General. United States In the United States, until the mid-19th century, common-law marriages were recognized as valid, but thereafter some states began to invalidate common-law marriages. Common-law marriages, if recognized, are valid, notwithstanding the absence of a marriage license. North Carolina and Tennessee (which was originally western North Carolina) never recognized marriage at the common law as valid without a license unless entered into in other states. They have always recognized otherwise valid marriages (except bigamous,\",\n \"-32.241969148663884\"\n ],\n [\n \"and a woman is valid or recognized in California\\\". Prop 8 was later found to be unconstitutional and marriage equality took effect. Thirty states passed state constitutional amendments defining marriage as being between one man and one woman. On June 26, 2015, all amendments banning sex-same marriage were invalidated by the Supreme Court's ruling on Obergefell v. Hodges. Federal statutes regulating marriage Although individual U.S. states have the primary regulatory power with regard to marriage, the United States Congress has occasionally regulated marriage. The 1862 Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, which made bigamy a punishable federal offense in U.S. territories,\",\n \"-32.20040196401533\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the year that the legislative calendar had no room for the issue. 2010 As of January 2010, 29 states had constitutional provisions restricting marriage to one man and one woman, while 12 others had statutes that did so. Nineteen states banned any legal recognition of same-sex unions that would be equivalent to civil marriage. Voters had approved 28 out of 30 popular referenda in which states asked voters to adopt a constitutional amendment or initiative defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman. Arizonans voted down one such amendment in 2006, but approved a different amendment to\",\n \"-32.16076121237711\"\n ],\n [\n \"as for another. For example, a marriage may be recognised civilly, but not by a church, and vice versa. Normally a marriage entered into in one country will be recognised in other countries. Sometimes, however, a religious ceremony or a marriage entered into in one country is not recognized by another, such as a same-sex marriage. International recognition Some countries give legal recognition to marriages performed in another country under the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978). For this to apply, both the country of marriage and the country where recognition is sought need to be members of this convention.\\nIf the\",\n \"-32.15082248626277\"\n ],\n [\n \"the right to marry in 2013, and this right extends to a right to get married in the Church of Denmark, although individual priests have the right to refuse to perform such marriages. On June 26, 2015, Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the ban on same-sex marriages were de jure unconstitutional, which de facto legalized the same-sex marriage process in the United States. Europe To avoid the use of the term \\\"marriage\\\", some governments provide civil unions, which are open to couples of the same sex, and in some jurisdictions also to those of opposite sexes who\",\n \"-32.14325004781131\"\n ],\n [\n \"rulings allowing same-sex marriages or civil unions. In August 2004, same-sex marriage was officially prohibited when the Marriage Act 1961 and the Family Law Act were amended in order to define marriage as a \\\"union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life\\\". Amendments were also made to prevent the recognition in Australia of marriages conducted in other countries between a man and another man or a woman and another woman. \\nThe passage of the legislation was made possible because the Australian Labor Party supported the Howard Government's proposed ban on\",\n \"-32.104688051775156\"\n ],\n [\n \"to hear appeals from that circuit's decision.\\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down all state bans on same-sex marriage, legalized it in all fifty states, and required states to honor out-of-state same-sex marriage licenses in the case Obergefell v. Hodges. Legal issues The legal issues surrounding same-sex marriage in the United States are determined by the nation's federal system of government, in which the status of a person, including marital status, is determined in large measure by the individual states. Prior to 1996, the Federal Government did not define marriage; any marriage recognized by a state was\",\n \"-32.094232426490635\"\n ],\n [\n \"law marriage or their eventual heirs may have difficulty proving their relationship to be marriage. Some states provide for registration of an informal or common-law marriage based on the declaration of each of the spouses on a state-issued form. Marriage law and race Anti-miscegenation laws which prohibited interracial marriage date back to Colonial America. The earliest were established in Maryland and Virginia in the 1660s. After independence, seven of the original colonies and many new states, particularly those in the West and the South, also implemented anti-miscegenation laws. Despite a number of repeals in the 19th century, in 1948, 30\",\n \"-32.02205127442721\"\n ],\n [\n \"having Church weddings whereas most other nations on that continent insist on civil registrations leaving it up to the couple if they choose to have a religious ceremony as well.\\nThe 1984 English Anglican booklet Forward to Marriage showed a tolerance of premarital sex but strongly endorsed marriage as \\\"a necessary commitment for a long-term relationship\\\".\\nIn 1987, the American Bishop John Shelby Spong's Newark Diocese had commissioned a report that concluded that the \\\"Episcopal Church should recognize and bless committed non-marital sexual relationships between homosexuals, young adults, the divorced and widowed...\\\" The report aimed \\\"to ignite a new debate on sexual\",\n \"-31.990388262303895\"\n ],\n [\n \"the state is required. Some US states have started citing the state specifically as a party in the marriage contract which is seen by some as an infringement.\\nMarriage licenses have also been the subject of controversy for affected minority groups. California's Proposition 8 has been the subject of heavy criticism by advocates of same-sex marriage, including the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community whose ability to marry is often limited by the aforementioned state intervention. This changed on June 26, 2015, with the Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges. However, the state and federal intervention still continues to\",\n \"-31.896402142418083\"\n ],\n [\n \"Supreme Court on May 5, 1993, ordered a trial court to consider whether the state could demonstrate that denying marriage licenses to same-sex couples \\\"furthers compelling state interests and is narrowly drawn to avoid unnecessary abridgments of constitutional rights.\\\"\\nCongressional reaction to that ruling, partly in anticipation of the approaching presidential election, resulted in the enactment of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages. President Bill Clinton signed it into law on September 21, 1996. In November 1998, Hawaii voters approved a state constitutional amendment allowing their legislature to ban same-sex marriage, and Alaska voters\",\n \"-31.792395368513098\"\n ],\n [\n \"lesbian couples could not be denied the right to marry because of the Equal Protection Clause of the state constitution. This decision made Connecticut the third state (along with Massachusetts and California) to legalize same-sex marriage through judicial decree of the state supreme court. The majority opinion was written by Justice Richard N. Palmer, and joined by Justices Norcott, Joette Katz, and Judge Lubbie Harper Jr.; Justices Peter T. Zarella, Christine S. Vertefeuille, and David Borden dissented.\\nMost recently, Justice Norcott wrote the Court's opinion in Bysiewicz v. DiNardo, holding that Secretary of State Susan Bysiewicz did not fulfill the statutory\",\n \"-31.772673578583635\"\n ],\n [\n \"annulled, could choose whom she wanted to live with. The Court ruled that \\\"an adult couple has a right to live together without marriage\\\", and held that live-in relationships (cohabitation between unmarried couples) are now recognized by the law. Pending court cases In 2019, two women from Hamirpur, Uttar Pradesh, who married symbolically, tried to get their marriage recognised at the registrar's office, who denied citing lack of relevant provisions. The couple's lawyer, Daya Shankar Tiwari, has said they will challenge the registrar's decision to not legally recognise the marriage.\\nIn July 2019, the Delhi High Court dismissed a legal challenge\",\n \"-31.759160659159534\"\n ],\n [\n \"relationships\\\". It also prohibited state recognition of out of state same-sex marriages.\\nOn November 2, 2004, Ohio voters approved State Issue 1, a state initiated constitutional amendment that prohibited the recognition of same-sex marriage, as well as any \\\"legal status for relationships of unmarried individuals that intends to approximate the design, qualities, significance or effect of marriage\\\" in the state of Ohio. The amendment went into effect on December 2, 2004. Initiative to repeal constitutional ban In 2013, FreedomOhio and Equality Ohio sought state officials' approval of a ballot initiative that would replace the constitutional amendment and allow same-sex marriage. Two\",\n \"-31.663218463028898\"\n ],\n [\n \"under the jurisdiction of the state in which the ceremony is performed; however, the marriage is generally recognized across the country. The state in which they are married holds the record of that marriage. Traditionally, working with law enforcement was the only means of searching and accessing marriage license information across state lines. Controversy in the U.S. Some groups and individuals believe that the requirement to obtain a marriage license is unnecessary or immoral. The Libertarian Party, for instance, believes that marriage should be a matter of personal liberty, not requiring permission from the state. \\nIndividuals who align with this\",\n \"-31.65261285076849\"\n ],\n [\n \"legally valid and to be recognised as a marriage, meaning that couples who have entered into such unions since 20 June 2013 need not remarry as a result of the court's April 2016 ruling. The ruling was officially published on 7 July 2016.\\nPresiding Judge Maria Victoria Calle told the court; \\\"all people are free to choose independently to start a family in keeping with their sexual orientation... receiving equal treatment under the constitution and the law.\\\" The court's ruling informed state judges, notaries and clerks that they \\\"must ensure that citizens' fundamental rights are observed and that they are all\",\n \"-31.618414415366715\"\n ],\n [\n \"In addition, Article 20 of the Constitution allows a Contracting State to file a reservation stating that that state will not recognize a divorce if at the date of the divorce, “one of the spouses was a national of a state whose laws did not provide for divorce.”\\nThere are 19 states that are parties the Convention, all of which are in Europe. Many states, including the United States, which is not a Contracting State to the Convention, recognize divorces obtained abroad through the above-mentioned legal principle of comity. The convention also applies to Hong Kong, to which it was extended\",\n \"-31.539881151664304\"\n ],\n [\n \"2013 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Windsor striking down the law barring federal recognition of same-sex marriage gave significant impetus to the progress of lawsuits that challenged state bans on same-sex marriage in federal court. Since that decision, with only a few exceptions, U.S. District Courts and Courts of Appeals have found state bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional, as have several state courts. The exceptions have been a state court in Tennessee, U.S. district courts in Louisiana and Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. The U.S. Supreme Court agreed\",\n \"-31.511031452333555\"\n ],\n [\n \"celebration\\\" rule when federal statutes do not specify how to determine the validity of a marriage even though \\\"[t]hese agencies have no inherent legal authority to define marriage.\\\" He contended that a state's control of the definition of marriage \\\"within its borders, for the common good\\\" was fundamental to its sovereignty, while the \\\"extent to which any state's marriages travel to other states is a comparatively minor matter.\\\"\",\n \"-31.483329712878913\"\n ],\n [\n \"prosecution under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.\\nAll U.S. jurisdictions recognize common-law marriages that were validly contracted in the originating jurisdiction, because they are valid marriages in the jurisdiction where they were contracted. see: Full Faith and Credit Clause. However, absent legal registration or similar notice of the marriage, the parties to a common law marriage or their eventual heirs may have difficulty proving their relationship to be marriage. Some states provide for registration of an informal or common-law marriage based on the declaration of each of the spouses on a state-issued form. English-speaking Caribbean Due to their colonial past,\",\n \"-31.467043565236963\"\n ],\n [\n \"resulted in a 61.6% \\\"Yes\\\" vote in favour of legalisation. Consequently, the Federal Parliament passed a law amending the Marriage Act 1961 (Australia) to allow same-sex couples to marry in December 2017.\",\n \"-31.441220688160683\"\n ],\n [\n \"institution of marriage, an institution which the State not only must allow, but which always and in every age it has fostered and protected. It is one thing when the State exerts its power either to forbid extramarital sexuality altogether, or to say who may marry, but it is quite another when, having acknowledged a marriage and the intimacies inherent in it, it undertakes to regulate by means of the criminal law the details of that intimacy. Impact Justice Harlan's general view has had enormous influence on the modern Supreme Court; Justice David Souter endorsed the general reasoning behind Justice\",\n \"-31.433358560781926\"\n ],\n [\n \"by the ruling of the Supreme Court on June 26, 2015 that same-sex marriages are legal across the entirety of the United States. Privately held religious belief was given as the reason for non-compliance with the Court's ruling and with the state governor's executive order of June 26 instructing all state agencies and clerks to comply with it.\",\n \"-31.43175631869599\"\n ],\n [\n \"Abbott.\\nIn February 2015, two state judges in Travis County held the state's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. One ordered the recognition of a common-law marriage between two women and the other order the county clerk to issue a marriage license to two women. They obtained their license and wed before Attorney General Ken Paxton obtained stays from the Texas Supreme Court and asked that court to void the marriage license.\\nOn June 26, 2015, the United States legalized same-sex marriage nationwide due to the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Obergefell v. Hodges. Since then, same-sex marriage has been legal in the\",\n \"-31.418401505507063\"\n ],\n [\n \"enjoined the marriage, then the same for the state the couple resides in, and finally they have to determine whether the marriage is valid under the DOMA. Although this resolved the issue of immigration for heterosexual couples from states and countries where they could get married, same-sex couples remained barred from immigration based on marriage just as other same-sex couples.\\nThe rules let to the advise from lawyers to postpone transitioning in order to gain permanent residence based on marriage when the couples would be a same-sex couple after transitioning even when they have a valid heterosexual marriage. In 2012, this\",\n \"-31.382474636659026\"\n ],\n [\n \"which made it impossible to challenge the state's ban on same-sex marriage. The state had enacted a statute defining marriage as an institution for \\\"one man and one woman\\\" in 1994, following the first state court decision that questioned the state's denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples. Both the statute and the constitutional amendment were passed around the same time as the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA; Hawaiian: Kānāwai Kūpale Male o ka makahiki 1996) was enacted into law by the United States Congress. Civil unions (2009–2011) Bills creating \\\"civil unions\\\" (Hawaiian: uniona kīwila) were considered several times, but\",\n \"-31.37234415160492\"\n ],\n [\n \"Constitution.\\\" State agency response As of November 19, 2014, state executive agencies such as the Division of Vehicles continued to deny recognition to same-sex marriages. The Governor's office said policies would not change as long the state was appealing the ruling in Marie, citing income tax filing as an example. A spokesperson for the Governor said state agencies would \\\"take the necessary legal actions once this issue is resolved.\\\" The Department of Health and Environment, on the other hand, under the U.S. district court's order not to enforce the state's ban, has modified its marriage license application forms to accommodate\",\n \"-31.339411918859696\"\n ],\n [\n \"are currently not authorized to solemnize marriage in any province or territory. United States In the United States, the requirements for entering into marriage are determined by state law. In most states, the ULC clearly falls under the statutes setting forth the requirements for ordination of ministers to perform marriages. In a small number of states, this issue has been litigated, with determinations made by courts at various levels. In Mississippi, for example, it ultimately fell to the Mississippi Supreme Court to recognize the power of a minister of the Universal Life Church to solemnize marriages. although some states allow\",\n \"-31.315025527437683\"\n ],\n [\n \"Several states have chosen to ignore or delay the implementation of same-sex marriage.\\nA different procedure exists. If officials in a given state repeatedly appeal amparo cases to a federal appeals court and lose five times in a row (note that since 2015 no court in Mexico is allowed to rule against same-sex marriage), and if the appellate court then forwards the results to the Supreme Court (SCJN), the SCJN can force the state legislature to repeal its ban. The Court gives the state a deadline by which it must modify its laws, usually 90 or 180 business days. If the\",\n \"-31.278661918157013\"\n ],\n [\n \"jurisdiction' to prohibit recognition of a marriage that would have been invalid if solemnized in New York.... The Legislature has not enacted legislation to prohibit the recognition of same-sex marriages validly entered into outside of New York, and we thus conclude that the positive law exception to the general rule of foreign marriage recognition is not applicable in this case.\\nOn May 14, 2008, Governor David A. Peterson's legal counsel, David Nocenti, instructed New York state agencies that same-sex couples married elsewhere \\\"should be afforded the same recognition as any other legally performed union,\\\" and directed all state agencies to begin\",\n \"-31.24674218799919\"\n ],\n [\n \"other states of the United States and other nation-states. \\nProposition 22, an initiative passed by voters in 2000, forbade the state from recognizing same-sex marriages. This initiative was struck down in May 2008 by the California Supreme Court in In re Marriage Cases, but a few months later, Proposition 8 reinstated California's ban on marriages for same-sex couples. During the time between the California Supreme Court decision and passage of Proposition 8, the state allowed for tens of thousands of marriage licenses to be issued to same-sex couples. Strauss v. Horton affirmed that those marriages were still valid after the\",\n \"-31.223301138801617\"\n ],\n [\n \"to apply the common law definition. The Marriage Amendment Act 2004 defined, for the first time by statute, marriage as \\\"the union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life.\\\" The 2004 Act also expressly declared same-sex marriages entered into abroad were not to be recognised in Australia. This was in response to a lesbian couple getting married in Canada and applying for their marriage to be recognised in Australia. \\nSince 2009, same-sex couples were included in Australia's de facto relationship laws, unions which provide couples with most, though not all,\",\n \"-31.213502085767686\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ct 37 (1972), \\\"is of paramount importance because a state court judgment prohibiting two people of the same sex from marrying each other was appealed to the U. S. Supreme Court on various constitutional grounds, including due process and equal protection. The High Court dismissed the appeal for want of a substantial federal question. Such a dismissal is an important adjudication on the merits.\\\" The court rejected the counterargument \\\"that some persons are allowed to marry and their union is given full recognition and constitutional protection even though the above stated justification—procreation—is not possible\\\" because \\\"if the classification of the\",\n \"-31.19318944500992\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the same sex to get married. Rather, these citizens now have the ability to organize their lives according to marital and familial norms and demands. There is no threat to the institution of marriage, but precisely the opposite: this law recognizes and values marriage.\\nAware that some people and institutions profoundly disagree with this legal change, I wish to say that like other reforms to the marriage code that preceded this one, this law will not generate bad results, that its only consequence will be to avoid senseless suffering of human beings. A society that avoids senseless suffering of its\",\n \"-31.16907202533912\"\n ],\n [\n \"Divorce of same-sex couples United States Before the federal government recognized same-sex marriages in 2013, through the Supreme Court's decision in United States v. Windsor, same-sex couples who legally married in one state could find themselves unable to divorce after relocating to another state that did not recognize their marriage as valid. That could result in the need for a costly civil lawsuit to attempt to resolve issues of property rights, and property settlements that were negotiated outside of court could potentially trigger federal gift tax requirements..\\nBefore the Supreme Court's 2015 decision in Obergefell v. Hodges, couples in same-sex marriages\",\n \"-31.165965113788843\"\n ],\n [\n \"entered into for life.\\nIt also repealed Section 88EA, which banned the recognition of overseas same-sex marriages. Consequently, when the Act went into effect on 9 December 2017, such couples became automatically recognised as married under the law.\\nThe original Act and the amendment also applies to Australia's external territories. Same-sex marriage in the ACT In October 2013, same-sex marriage was legalised in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). The ACT legislation was overturned by the High Court for being inconsistent with the Marriage Act. This was due to the definition of the term \\\"marriage\\\" in the Marriage Act, which at that time\",\n \"-31.163034451106796\"\n ],\n [\n \"grounds that it was too vague. This amendment to Ohio's Constitution was later invalidated by the United States Supreme Court in Obergefell v. Hodges. Obergefell v. Hodges On June 26, 2015 the United States Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that Ohio (along with Michigan, Kentucky and Tennessee) could not deny same-sex couples the right to marry, or refuse to recognize their marriages performed elsewhere; protected under the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. This ruling reversed a November 2014 decision by the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, effectively legalizing same-sex marriage in\",\n \"-31.15144689648332\"\n ],\n [\n \"on 14 March 1978 and entered into force on 1 May 1991. Article 9 of the Convention holds that, “A marriage validly entered into under the law of the State of celebration or which subsequently becomes valid under that law shall be considered as such in all Contracting States, subject to the provisions of this Chapter.” In short, one Contracting State must recognize a marriage legally performed in another contracting state. Currently only three states (Australia, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) have ratified the Convention. Another three (Egypt, Finland, and Portugal) have signed it. One of the reasons that the Convention\",\n \"-31.068552496726625\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Obergefell decision has rendered them unenforceable insofar as they prevented same-sex couples from marrying.\\nConservative activists who favor such amendments may refer to them as \\\"defense of marriage amendments\\\" or \\\"marriage protection amendments.\\\" These state amendments are different from the proposed Federal Marriage Amendment, which would ban same-sex marriage in every U.S. state, and Section 2 of the Defense of Marriage Act, more commonly known as DOMA, which allowed the states not to recognize same-sex marriages from other states. History The idea of extending marriage rights to same-sex couples did not become a political issue in the United States until\",\n \"-31.019025876186788\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Mike Lee of Utah. The Act would, for federal purposes, prohibit the term \\\"marriage\\\" from referring to any relationship that an individual's state of residence does not recognize, and prohibits the term \\\"spouse\\\" from including anyone whose marriage is not recognized by their state of residence.\\nSupporters of the proposed legislation take a states' rights approach. One fellow of the Family Research Council offered the example of a same-sex couple married in Massachusetts who live in South Carolina, which does not recognize their marriage: \\\"When a federal agency such as the Internal Revenue Service begins treating that South\",\n \"-30.966226184391417\"\n ],\n [\n \"(ACT), that the federal Marriage Act, which defined marriage as the union of a man and woman, precluded states and territories from legislating for same-sex marriage. As a result, only the federal parliament can legislate for same-sex marriage, whilst states and territories almost certainly cannot.\\nSince the Commonwealth introduced the Marriage Act Cth. 1961, marriage laws in Australia have been regarded as an exclusive Commonwealth power. The precise rights of states and territories with respect to creating state-based same-sex marriage laws have been complicated since the Howard Government amendment to the Marriage Act in 2004 to define marriage as the exclusive\",\n \"-30.95544642151799\"\n ],\n [\n \"13, 2015, two same-sex couples in \\\"window marriages\\\", married during May 2014 while a state court's order enjoining enforcement of the state's same-sex marriage ban was in force, brought suit in state court seeking to require the state to recognize their marriages. They named three state officials as defendants. They asked the court to rule on behalf of all same-sex couples married in May. After Obergefell v. Hodges On February 2, 2017, a resolution calling for a ban on same-sex marriage in the United States Constitution was introduced in the Arkansas Legislature. It was sponsored by 21 lawmakers, all of\",\n \"-30.945722480886616\"\n ],\n [\n \"that took effect immediately. The state's appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals was mooted when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on June 26, 2015 that Ohio's ban on same-sex marriage is unconstitutional, striking down every remaining state ban.\\nMontana voters had adopted a constitutional amendment in November 2004 that defines marriage as the union of a man and a woman. Similar restrictions appear in the state statutes. Adoption and parenting Montana permits adoption by individuals. There are no explicit prohibitions on adoption by same-sex couples or on second-parent adoption by a person of the same sex as the first\",\n \"-30.94130850257352\"\n ],\n [\n \"state fails to change its laws to allow same-sex marriage by that date, the SCJN will issue a \\\"General Declaration of Unconstitutionality\\\" (Spanish: Declaratoria General de Inconstitucionalidad) and struck the law down. In these cases, the amparo is also called a \\\"resolution\\\". In November 2016, Sinaloa became the first state to reach five identical resolutions in a row, followed by Chihuahua in February 2017, Nuevo León in October 2018, and Tamaulipas in November 2018. However, state authorities in several of these states have intentionally delayed and blocked attempts to legalize same-sex marriage in their civil codes, stating among others that\",\n \"-30.9392427848652\"\n ],\n [\n \"Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017 Background Same-sex marriage legislation had been presented to the Parliament of Australia on 22 occasions between September 2004 and May 2017, though on each occasion the legislation failed to pass either the House of Representatives or the Senate. These attempts followed the Howard Government's 2004 amendment to the Marriage Act which explicitly defined marriage as a union between only a man and a woman and banned the recognition of same-sex marriages conducted lawfully in foreign jurisdictions. Prior to the legalisation of same-sex marriage, same-sex relationships could only be treated as de facto\",\n \"-30.93165335385129\"\n ],\n [\n \"country of marriage is not a member of the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978), then the marriage documents will need to be certified following the Apostille convention. This certification is usually performed in the country of marriage by the embassy of the country whose recognition is sought. License A marriage license is a document issued, either by a church or state authority, authorizing a couple to marry. The procedure for obtaining a license varies between jurisdictions and has changed over time. Ending a marriage In the United Kingdom, if somebody refuses to recognise someone's marriage, then that marriage will be\",\n \"-30.917369741306175\"\n ],\n [\n \"many times\\\"). The ruling examined various dubious bases often allowed by States for marriage, and the extent of sanctimonious expressions used in discussing and practicing marriage, and the deference owed to individual states' legislative power to examine such questions at their own pace, and the fact that just one year had passed from the first legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States to the matters leading to this case. It concluded that \\\"what we are left with, is [that] by creating a status (marriage) and subsidizing it (with privileges) the States created an incentive for two people who procreate\",\n \"-30.89719391230028\"\n ],\n [\n \"a religious rite with a civil ceremony. Marriages performed outside of the United States are legally binding if officially recognized by the government of the country in which they are performed. Countries with mandatory civil marriage In most European countries there is a civil ceremony requirement. Following the civil marriage ceremony, couples are free to marry in a religious ceremony. Such ceremonies, however, only serve to provide a religious recognition of the marriage, since the state's recognition has already been given. In some of these countries (e.g. Belgium, the Netherlands and Turkey) most couples marry\\nwithout any religious ceremony\",\n \"-30.895540599245578\"\n ],\n [\n \"not invalidate any state laws, meaning same-sex couples denied the right to wed would still have to seek individual injunctions. The ruling standardized the procedures for judges and courts throughout Mexico to approve all applications for same-sex marriages, and made the approval mandatory. The ruling was published in the country's Judicial Gazette on 19 June 2015 and became binding on 22 June 2015. Some have suggested the ruling \\\"effectively legalizes\\\" same-sex marriage in Mexico, though without legislative change, civil registrars are still bound to follow state laws. Indeed, the Supreme Court does not have the legal power to strike down\",\n \"-30.888501207053196\"\n ],\n [\n \"marriage Statutes and Domestic Violence Laws. Separation of church and state Some religious groups argue that having the government decide whether a same-sex marriage should be legally binding on the grounds of the ideology of other religious groups restricts their religious freedom. They argue that marriage is a religious term that should not be defined by the government. Where same-sex marriage is recognized in the United States, no church or other religious institution is forced to perform same-sex marriages, but the FMA would deny the opportunity for religions which approve of same-sex marriage to perform legally binding same-sex marriages. Unnecessary\",\n \"-30.87971419330279\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Interior told registries in the country not to allow such marriages if one of the spouses comes from a country that has not legalised same-sex marriage. In June 2019, the Social Democrats (SPÖ) pledged to repeal this directive. The Austrian LGBT association Legal Committee Lambda (Rechtskomitee Lambda; RKL) had already filed a constitutional complaint against the ban. On 26 June, the Judiciary Committee of the National Council passed a bill presented by Deputy Irmgard Griss from NEOS – The New Austria and Liberal Forum to amend the Private International Law Act (German: Gesetz über das internationale Privatrecht) in order\",\n \"-30.87656396627426\"\n ],\n [\n \"had heard oral arguments on April 28, 2015.\\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court held in a 5–4 decision that the Fourteenth Amendment requires all states to grant same-sex marriages and recognize same-sex marriages granted in other states. The Court overturned its prior decision in Baker v. Nelson, which the Sixth Circuit had invoked as precedent.\\nThe Obergefell v. Hodges decision came on the second anniversary of the United States v. Windsor ruling that struck down Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages. It also came on the twelfth anniversary of\",\n \"-30.876226101259817\"\n ],\n [\n \"to eliminate marital status as a factor.\\nOn June 26, 2015, in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court ruled that marriage is a fundamental right guaranteed to all citizens, and thus legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. Since at least 1993, it has been explicitly recognised that neither spouse has a right to force the other spouse to engage in sexual activities without the ongoing consent of that other spouse. Such behaviour now constitutes marital rape, which in many cases is regarded and treated in the same manner as non-marital rape. States In addition, community-property states frequently have forms of\",\n \"-30.859954948769882\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a foreign country between: \\n(a) a man and another man; or \\n(b) a woman and another woman;\\nmust not be recognised as a marriage in Australia.\\nThe amendment was argued by Ruddock and Liberal MPs to be necessary to protect the institution of marriage, and to ensure that the definition would be beyond legal challenge through the application of common law. Several years later, then-prime minister John Howard admitted that the government was motivated by the prospect of overseas same-sex marriages being recognised under Australian law via the judiciary. Labor Party shadow attorney-general Nicola Roxon said that the Labor Party would\",\n \"-30.851584571326384\"\n ],\n [\n \"became the fifth state to afford legal recognition to same-sex marriages, though only three other states–Connecticut, Iowa and Massachusetts–did so without limitation. California as of that date only recognized same-sex marriages established between June 16 and November 5, 2008, when it was forced to stop issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples by voter approval of Proposition 8. Vermont was the first state to establish the legal recognition of same-sex marriage by legislation rather than as the result of a court ruling. Since September 2009, the definition of marriage in the state of Vermont has been the following:\\nMarriage is the legally\",\n \"-30.849520653137006\"\n ],\n [\n \"the church, but such marriages must be legal according to the government where the marriage is performed, and must not be a same-sex marriage, polygamous marriage, common law marriage, or other type of non-ceremonial marriages in non–common law countries. Moreover, such marriages are thought to last only for the mortal life, and not into the next. In countries where the church's celestial marriages are not recognized by the government, the church requires that it be preceded by a civil marriage.\\nIn the United States, the LDS Church has expressed support for a constitutional ban on same-sex and polygamous marriage and\",\n \"-30.84812946132297\"\n ],\n [\n \"interpretations, and its drafters acknowledged that it was specifically worded so state legislators could create civil unions and domestic partnerships, because the CWA opposes any legal recognition of same-sex couples. CWA preferred the Institution of Marriage Amendment crafted by Home School Legal Defense Association President Michael Farris. That amendment, which has not been introduced by any member of Congress, states:\\nMarriage in the United States shall consist only of the union of a man and a woman. Neither the United States nor any State shall recognize or grant to any unmarried person the legal rights or status of a spouse. Restriction\",\n \"-30.842054133565398\"\n ],\n [\n \"marriage laws, which must adhere to rulings by the Supreme Court of the United States that recognize marriage as a fundamental right that is guaranteed by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, as first established in the 1967 landmark civil rights case of Loving v. Virginia.\\nCivil rights campaigning in support of marriage without distinction as to sex or sexual orientation began in the 1970s. In 1972, the now overturned Baker v. Nelson saw the Supreme Court of the United States decline to become involved. The issue became\",\n \"-30.829432035781792\"\n ],\n [\n \"important public policy issue of whether to alter the traditional definition of marriage as between one man and one woman.\\\" District Court Judge Timothy Burgess heard oral arguments on October 10.\\nOn October 12, 2014, less than a week after the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review similar cases from the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Latta v. Otter and Sevcik v. Sandoval, Judge Burgess ruled for the plaintiffs and declared Alaska's statutory and constitutional bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. He issued an injunction effective immediately. The same day, Governor Parnell announced that he would appeal the ruling and \\\"defend our\",\n \"-30.81734546665666\"\n ],\n [\n \"marry in the state, and the first to do so since the new ruling. Earlier, a lesbian couple had been able to have their civil union converted into a marriage.\",\n \"-30.79813848400954\"\n ],\n [\n \"those cases, the marriage is usually legalized before the ceremony. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions.\\nMarriage relationships may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law marriage, sometimes called \\\"marriage by habit and repute.\\\" This is a judicial recognition that two people who have been living as domestic partners are subject to the rights and obligations of a legal marriage, even without formally marrying. However, in the UK at least, common-law marriage has been abolished and there are no\",\n \"-30.79633730801288\"\n ],\n [\n \"the law to prevent Australian recognition of same-sex marriages, rendering the cases pointless.\\nIn an attempt to prevent any judicial imposition of same-sex unions in Australia, the Howard Government introduced the Marriage Amendment Act in the Parliament on 27 May 2004. The amendment specified that marriage, undefined in the Act, would be defined as a \\\"union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others\\\" and that foreign same-sex marriages would not be recognised as such in Australia. Additional reforms to the Family Law Act prevented same-sex couples from being eligible adoptive parents for children in inter-country adoption\",\n \"-30.773566060321173\"\n ],\n [\n \"was changed to include same-sex marriage, so that it differed from the church's own definition, they could no longer perform civil functions at weddings.\\nIn the predominantly Catholic countries of Italy and Croatia, the Catholic Church has been the main opponent to either the introduction of civil unions or marriage for same-sex-couples. In July 2013, 750,000 petition signatures were collected by the conservative group \\\"In the Name of the Family\\\", strongly supported by Catholic church leaders. This directly led to the 2013 referendum whereby the constitution was amended to state that marriage is only a union between a man and a\",\n \"-30.770066557219252\"\n ],\n [\n \"some couples married under the laws of their State, but not other couples, of both rights and responsibilities. By creating two contradictory marriage regimes within the same State, DOMA forces same-sex couples to live as married for the purpose of state law but unmarried for the purpose of federal law, thus diminishing the stability and predictability of basic personal relations the State has found it proper to acknowledge and protect. By this dynamic DOMA undermines both the public and private significance of state-sanctioned same-sex marriages; for it tells those couples, and all the world, that their otherwise valid marriages are\",\n \"-30.73756610250348\"\n ],\n [\n \"because there is no rational basis for limiting the designation of 'marriage' to opposite-sex couples.\\\" The court also stayed the ruling; the voter initiative was to remain in effect pending appeal. On August 12, Walker announced his decision to lift the stay (which would have allowed same-sex marriages to be performed) as of August 18, 2010.\\nHowever, on August 16, 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit indefinitely extended the District Court's stay, stopping new same-sex marriages in the state of California pending appeal. It also scheduled an accelerated time table for hearing an appeal of Walker's\",\n \"-30.680335449171253\"\n ],\n [\n \"marriages have only been legal since 2014. United States Massachusetts, the first U.S. state to allow same-sex marriage, does not track how many of the divorces in the state are between same-sex couples. A 2011 study for states with available data initially reported that the dissolution rates for same-sex couples were slightly lower on average (on average, 1.1% of all same-sex couples were said to divorce each year, ranging from 0% to 1.8% in various jurisdictions) than divorce rates of different-sex couples (2% of whom divorce annually). The Washington Post retracted a headline about this report because the study had\",\n \"-30.67761183460243\"\n ],\n [\n \"states, including Wisconsin, in October 2014, allowing same-sex marriages to continue, Walker stated: \\\"I think it's resolved.\\\" In April 2015, in New Hampshire, Walker stated that marriage is \\\"defined as between a man and a woman\\\", and in Iowa said a federal constitutional amendment allowing states to define marriage was reasonable. Walker called the U.S. Supreme Court's Obergefell v. Hodges decision to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide a \\\"grave mistake\\\". Unions Walker said public-union collective-bargaining rights frustrate balancing the state budget. Walker signed right-to-work legislation he said would contribute to economic growth. The Atlantic has written that \\\"anti-union politics\\\" have defined\",\n \"-30.6716914603021\"\n ],\n [\n \"matter. The Court's decision was that the law shall be put out of effect at a date specified by the Court. The Court also provided Parliament with the necessary number of representatives which must confirm the Act to make it legitimate. 2013 referendum and same-sex unions On November 14, 2013, Constitutional Court in a 13–0 statement sent to the State Election Commission stated that there is no constitutional obstacle to hold a 2013 referendum on defining marriage as a union between men and a woman, in the same time pointing out that the referendum revealed numerous problems in the Referendum\",\n \"-30.669511697167763\"\n ],\n [\n \"legally solemnized in a foreign jurisdiction in any context other than divorce. The question of recognition of such same-sex marriages for any other reason, being not properly before us, is left for another day.\\\" Courage v. Wyoming On March 5, 2014, four same-sex couples and Wyoming Equality filed a lawsuit, Courage v. Wyoming, in the First Judicial District, challenging Wyoming's statutory ban on same-sex marriage and the recognition of same-sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions. The plaintiffs were couples that married in Canada and Iowa, as well as two couples who were denied marriages licenses by the Laramie County Clerk.\",\n \"-30.66663352586329\"\n ],\n [\n \"20 injunctions were carried out. Several states have simply chosen to ignore or delay the implementation of same-sex marriage, some times even at the cost of fines (in Tamaulipas legislators were fined for about 100 days due to their failure to legalize it).\\nOn 14 June 2015, the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation declared it unconstitutional to deny marriage licenses to same-sex couples in all states. This did not legalize same-sex marriages nationwide, but in turn means that whenever a state government has an injunction taken out by a couple looking to get marital recognition, they will have to\",\n \"-30.648120448866393\"\n ],\n [\n \"2005 Texas Proposition 2 Full text Article 1, Section 32 of the Texas Constitution, as amended, states:\\n(a) Marriage in this state shall consist only of the union of one man and one woman.\\n(b) This state or a political subdivision of this state may not create or recognize any legal status identical or similar to marriage.\\nThe joint resolution proposing the amendment included additional language about rights that the ban on same-sex marriage was not meant to restrict:\\nThis state recognizes that through the designation of guardians, the appointment of agents, and the use of private contracts, persons may adequately and properly appoint\",\n \"-30.645608220249414\"\n ],\n [\n \"one woman, and Article 294, which stated that marriage existed solely for the purpose of procreation, were unconstitutional. In late January 2018, after multiple attempts from Congress to delay enactment of the ruling, the Civil Registry announced that it would abide by the ruling, bypassing the Congress' authority. The Civil Registry's announcement also followed a ruling of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights which states that countries signatory to the American Convention on Human Rights must legalise same-sex marriage. Mexico has ratified the Convention. The ruling officially took effect on 16 February 2018, after it was published in the Diario\",\n \"-30.64207983436063\"\n ],\n [\n \"June 2015.\\nIn many states, it is illegal to cross state lines to obtain a marriage that would be illegal in the home state. The typical wedding involves a couple proclaiming their commitment to one another in front of their close relatives and friends, often presided over by a religious figure such as a minister, priest, or rabbi, depending upon the faith of the couple. In traditional Christian ceremonies, the bride's father will \\\"give away\\\" (hand off) the bride to the groom. Secular weddings are also common, often presided over by a judge, Justice of the Peace, or other municipal official.\\nDivorce\",\n \"-30.621551089250715\"\n ],\n [\n \"marriage has been performed in a state that legally allows it many states will recognize it fully or will recognize it as a common law marriage. The exception to this is the state of Iowa where it is completely unrecognized. Germany Germany does not allow proxy marriages within its jurisdiction (§ 1311 BGB). It recognizes proxy marriages contracted elsewhere where this is possible, subject to the usual rules of private international law, unless the foreign law should be incompatible with German ordre public (art. 6 EGBGB): this is not the case with the marriage by proxy per se, would be\",\n \"-30.613530765287578\"\n ],\n [\n \"at full marriage equality — when two consenting adults appear for a marriage license and apply for that license, civil society is required to respond. And so persons of the same-sex can be married in the U.S. Virgin Islands.... \\nThe Supreme Court has made a decision that affects the entire nation. It is not for me to express what my personal feelings are. It is for me to do the business of governance and the business of governance, given the Supreme Court’s ruling, says that if an individual in the Virgin Islands is married to a person of the same\",\n \"-30.611549750203267\"\n ],\n [\n \"the state to recognize their marriages established in California and New York. On March 14, 2014, U.S. District Judge Aleta Trauger granted a preliminary injunction requiring the state to recognize the marriages of the plaintiff couples. The state defendants appealed Tanco to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, which granted a stay. A three-judge panel heard oral arguments in the case on August 6, 2014, along with same-sex marriage cases originating from Michigan, Ohio, and Kentucky. The Sixth Circuit ultimately ruled in favor of the states and upheld the bans on November 6, 2014.\\nTanco was incorporated into\",\n \"-30.6047651123954\"\n ],\n [\n \"by Subdivision A. As a result, ministers of religion are not necessarily subject to the same obligations or code of practice. Recognition of foreign marriages Part VA deals with recognition of foreign marriages.\\nThis division reflects the Act's tendency to seek to uphold the validity of marriages. Marriages will be recognised if they were valid in the country where they were performed and if the marriage would be legal under Australian law. The foreign marriage certificate is proof of marriage and such marriages need not be registered in Australia.\\nAs a marriage must be legal under Australian law, a foreign marriage will\",\n \"-30.58721942846023\"\n ],\n [\n \"group who may validly marry is overinclusive, it does not affect the validity of the classification\\\". Appeal On appeal, a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit affirmed the District Court's opinion on alternative grounds on February 25, 1982. They decided that it was unnecessary for them to determine if the Adams-Sullivan union qualified as a marriage under Colorado law. They noted that it was clear that \\\"Congress did not intend the mere validity of a marriage under state law to be controlling\\\" and that \\\"even though two persons contract a marriage valid under state law and are recognized as spouses\",\n \"-30.584777674586803\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Supreme Court ruled against same-sex couples seeking to be legally married. In a 5-2 decision, the court ruled that it was not required by the country's Constitution to recognize same-sex marriage in family law.\\nOn March 19, 2015, a bill to legalize same-sex marriage was introduced to the Legislative Assembly by Deputy Ligia Elena Fallas Rodríguez from the Broad Front. On December 10, 2015, the organization Front for Equal Rights (Frente por los Derechos Igualitarios) and a group of deputies from the Citizens' Action Party, the National Liberation Party and the Broad Front presented another bill. The bill was submitted\",\n \"-30.57180545966912\"\n ],\n [\n \"removal of a judge and three more judges having their terms expired.\\nIn 2005, a challenge before the Court was presented denouncing the Same-sex Marriage Act of 2005 arguing that the Constitution says that «men and women have the right to marry with full legal equality» and this didn't allow same-sex marriages. In 2012, after seven years of study, the Court rule that the Constitution allows same-sex marriages because the social concept of marriage it has evolved so the Constitution must to be interpreted according to the current cultural values.\\nIn 2017, the court ordered those responsible for the referendum on November\",\n \"-30.559132454829523\"\n ],\n [\n \"by state legislatures On April 2, 2014, the Alabama House of Representatives adopted a joint resolution calling for an Article V convention to draft an amendment to the federal Constitution to define marriage as the union of only one man and only one woman in all jurisdictions of the United States. Nationwide polling Polling on the subject has fluctuated widely, with opposition for such an amendment increasing steadily for more than a decade. Beginning in 2010 polls have found majority support for legal recognition of same-sex marriage. A Gallup poll conducted in May 2014 found that 55% of Americans\",\n \"-30.533194502437254\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":291,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"l37v8"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If a star is 5 million light years away, then are we looking into the past?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["You are \"looking into the past\" whenever you look at *anything*. Sure, that star is 5 million light years away, so what you're seeing is as it was 5 million years ago. The sun is ~8 light minutes away. You're seeing it as it was 8 minutes ago. The moon? ~2 seconds. Your monitor? A very tiny amount, but more than zero. Edit: As an addendum: the stars you generally see in the sky are not as far as 5M light years. Our galaxy is only about 100 000 light years in diameter.","Yes. It would take 5 millions years for the light to reach us, so you are seeing light sent from that star 5 million years ago. Yes, it is possible it no longer exists.","Yup. There are, in fact, several big, unstable stars that are far enough away that they might have already exploded. Eta Carinae is an example.","I'd give anything to be on a space ship that could do a large fraction of the speed of light, a spaceship that had GIANT windows of course... Imagine what you would see..."],"string":"[\n \"You are \\\"looking into the past\\\" whenever you look at *anything*. Sure, that star is 5 million light years away, so what you're seeing is as it was 5 million years ago. The sun is ~8 light minutes away. You're seeing it as it was 8 minutes ago. The moon? ~2 seconds. Your monitor? A very tiny amount, but more than zero. Edit: As an addendum: the stars you generally see in the sky are not as far as 5M light years. Our galaxy is only about 100 000 light years in diameter.\",\n \"Yes. It would take 5 millions years for the light to reach us, so you are seeing light sent from that star 5 million years ago. Yes, it is possible it no longer exists.\",\n \"Yup. There are, in fact, several big, unstable stars that are far enough away that they might have already exploded. Eta Carinae is an example.\",\n \"I'd give anything to be on a space ship that could do a large fraction of the speed of light, a spaceship that had GIANT windows of course... Imagine what you would see...\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["be one of the last remaining stars when the Universe is much older than it is now, when the gas needed to form new stars will be exhausted, and the remaining ones begin to die off.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 18.8. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.\nThe star is not just very small, and far away, it also emits comparatively little visible light, mainly shining in the invisible infrared. Even, from the close in proximity of TRAPPIST-1d, about 50 times closer than Earth is from the","-37.73229346070002"],["to time into the past. A galaxy measured at ten billion light years in distance appears to us as it was ten billion years ago, because the light has taken that long to travel to the observer. If one were to look at a galaxy ten billion light years away in one direction and another in the opposite direction, the total distance between them is twenty billion light years. This means that the light from the first has not yet reached the second, because the approximately 13.8 billion years that the universe has existed is not a long enough time to","-35.36195298025268"],["proximity at 19.8 parsecs (64.6 light years) away from the Earth, it cannot be seen with the unaided eye. The star is of a similar distance from Earth as planet-bearing 51 Pegasi, which lies at a distance of 14.7 parsecs (47.95 light years).","-35.03222802426171"],["any line of sight from Earth is unlikely to reach a star.\nHowever, the Big Bang theory seems to introduce a new problem: it states that the sky was much brighter in the past, especially at the end of the recombination era, when it first became transparent. All points of the local sky at that era were comparable in brightness to the surface of the Sun, due to the high temperature of the universe in that era; and most light rays will originate not from a star but the relic of the Big Bang.\nThis problem is addressed by the fact that","-33.726893894905515"],["that it was actually 60 light-years away.","-33.70293542091531"],["be about 150 parsecs away and with an age in the range 1.2 – 2.3 billion years, is younger than our own star which has an age of 4.6 billion years. The rotation period of the star, inferred by the lightcurve obtained by COROT, is around 23 days.","-33.59305616968777"],["red stars older than one billion years.\nThe Hubble data suggest that I Zwicky 18 is 59 million light-years from Earth. The galaxy's larger-than-expected distance may explain why astronomers have had difficulty detecting older, fainter stars within the galaxy. The faint, old stars in I Zwicky 18 are almost at the limit of Hubble's resolution and sensitivity. Classification I Zwicky 18 is classified as a dwarf irregular galaxy and also a blue compact galaxy and a starburst galaxy. I Zwicky 18 is much smaller than our Milky Way and a mere 3,000 light-years across. I Zwicky 18 may still be creating","-33.33211636276974"],["relatively close to the Sun. This is indeed the case for Barnard's Star, located at a distance of about 6 light-years. After the Sun and the Alpha Centauri system, it is the nearest known star to Earth. Because it is a red dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 9.54, it is too faint to see without a telescope or powerful binoculars. Of the stars visible to the naked eye (by convention, limiting visual magnitude of 6.0), 61 Cygni A (magnitude V=5.20) has the highest proper motion at 5.281 arcsec/a, although Groombridge 1830 (magnitude V=6.42), proper motion 7.058 arcsec/a, might be","-33.27923840355652"],["the Sun around 11,800 AD, when it will approach to within about 3.75 light-years.\nProxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a position currently 4.24 light-years distant from it. However, despite Barnard's Star's even closer pass to the Sun in 11,800 AD, it will still not then be the nearest star, since by that time Proxima Centauri will have moved to a yet-nearer proximity to the Sun. At the time of the star's closest pass by the Sun, Barnard's Star will still be too dim to be seen with the naked eye, since its apparent magnitude will only have","-32.95927240027959"],["light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images. Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger, due to the finite speed of light, allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars, of galaxies, and of the universe itself.\nAstronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light-years, especially in popular science publications and media. A light-year is the distance light travels in one year, around 9461 billion kilometres,","-32.864086003821285"],["be in a part of the sky different from its present location. The probe will no longer be operational. Also, given the star's inherent low brightness, even at that distance it would be barely visible to the naked eye of a hypothetical human being, with an apparent magnitude of only 5.72. Solar encounter While the Voyager probe moves through space towards a 1.6-light-year minimum distance from Gliese 445, the star is rapidly approaching our Sun. At the time the probe passes Gliese 445, the star will be about 1.059 parsecs (3.45 light-years) from our Sun, but with less than half","-32.726449441215664"],["star that caused it exploded when the universe was only 630 million years old. The burst happened approximately 13 billion years ago, so a distance of about 13 billion light-years was widely quoted in the media (or sometimes a more precise figure of 13.035 billion light-years), though this would be the \"light travel distance\" (see Distance measures (cosmology)) rather than the \"proper distance\" used in both Hubble's law and in defining the size of the observable universe (cosmologist Ned Wright argues against the common use of light travel distance in astronomical press releases on this page, and at the bottom","-32.603571036794165"],["on to the stars. In about 40,000 years, Voyager 1 will be within 1.6 light years (ly) of AC+79 3888, also known as Gliese 445, which is approaching the Sun. In 40,000 years Voyager 2 will be within 1.7 ly of Ross 248 (another star which is approaching the Sun) and in 296,000 years it will pass within 4.6 ly of Sirius which is the brightest star in the night sky. Voyager Golden Record Both spacecraft carry a 12-inch (30 cm) golden phonograph record that contains pictures and sounds of Earth, symbolic directions on the cover for playing the record, and","-32.59039577005751"],["along with two other stars both at 735 30 pc which exhibit spectral features indicating they must lie behind the remnant, leads to new distance of 735 25 pc or around 2400 light-years. (Note: The Gaia estimated distance to the sdOB star KPD 2055+3111 is 793 pc (2600 ly). This new distance, surprisingly close to the value estimated some 60 yrs ago by Minkowski, means the Cygnus Loop is physically some 40 pc (130 ly) in diameter and has an age of around 21,000 years. Astronomical ultraviolet source The brightest far-ultraviolet sources of the Cygnus Loop occur in the","-32.56209369968565"],["every 20.3 years, are too faint to be observed with the unaided eye. T Cephei, also a red giant, is a Mira variable with a minimum magnitude of 11.3 and a maximum magnitude of 5.2, 685 light-years from Earth. It has a period of 13 months and a diameter of between 329 to 500 solar diameters.\nThere are several prominent double stars and binary stars in Cepheus. Omicron Cephei is a binary star with a period of 800 years. The system, 211 light-years from Earth, consists of an orange-hued giant primary of magnitude 4.9 and a secondary of magnitude 7.1. Xi","-32.39296378660765"],["Gliese 445 Location It is currently 17.6 light-years from Earth and has an apparent magnitude of 10.8. It is visible from north of the Tropic of Cancer all night long, but not to the naked eye. Because the star is a red dwarf with a mass only a quarter to a third of that of our Sun, scientists question the ability of this system to support life. Gliese 445 is also a known X-ray source.\nThe Voyager 1 probe and Gliese 445 will pass one another within 1.6 light-years in about 40,000 years. By that time Gliese 445 will","-32.2805039762643"],["which is unusually high for what is considered a young star. It is thought to be a member of the ε Indi moving group of at least sixteen population I stars. This is an association of stars that have similar space velocity vectors, and therefore most likely formed at the same time and location. ε Indi will make its closest approach to the Sun in about 17,500 years when it makes perihelion passage at a distance of around 10.58 light-years (3.245 pc).\nAs seen from ε Indi, the Sun is a 2.6-magnitude star in Ursa Major, near the bowl of the Big","-32.13130975238164"],["could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Group (see Cepheids). However, outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies, neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed. The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located at a distance of one billion light years—ten times further than the most distant star cluster previously observed.\nIn February 2018, astronomers reported, for the first time, a signal of the reionization epoch, an indirect detection of light from the earliest stars formed—about 180 million years after the Big Bang.\nIn April, 2018,","-32.13090454050689"],["parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light-years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light-years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent","-32.060597089046496"],["the relatively large angular distance the components can only be resolved in large telescopes, since the primary is approximately 250 times brighter than its companion.\nA few million years ago, ε Canis Majoris was much closer to the Sun than it is at present, causing it to be a much brighter star in the night sky. About 4.7 million years ago, Adhara was 34 light-years from the Sun, and was the brightest star in the sky with a magnitude of –3.99. No other star has attained this brightness since, nor will any other star attain this brightness for at least five","-31.880591020180873"],["Shing, oppressors of Earth, and returns to fetch help. Presumably he succeeds: Genly Ai in The Left Hand of Darkness comes from Earth and remembers the 'Age of the Enemy' as something terrible, but also now over. Science The long orbit is scientifically correct, since Gamma Draconis is a giant star and a habitable world would have to be much further away from its sun. The name Eltanin given in City of Illusions is one of the star's traditional names. Its distance from Earth is given as 142 light-years, which is close to the current estimate.\nOn the other hand, giant stars","-31.79214497978137"],["million years to get to the inner Solar System. At closest approach the system would have had an apparent magnitude of about 11.4, and would have been best viewed from high latitudes in the northern hemisphere. A star is expected to pass through the Oort Cloud every 100,000 years or so. An approach as close or closer than 52,000 AU is expected to occur about every 9 million years. \nIn a recent estimate, WISE J0720−0846AB passed within 68.7±2.0 kAU of the Sun 80.5±0.7 kyr ago\nIn about 1.4 million years, Gliese 710 will come to a perihelion of between 8,800 and","-31.72165077999307"],["5879 billion miles, or 0.3066 parsecs. In round figures, a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles. Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth after the Sun, is around 4.2 light-years away. Distance measurement Radar systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio-wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target: the distance to the target is half the round-trip transit time multiplied by the speed of light. A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver measures its distance to GPS satellites based on how long it takes for","-31.715045639790333"],["of the star, or how bright it appears from Earth, is around 5. Therefore, it is only just visible to the unaided eye.","-31.67305710904475"],["about 6,500 light-years, reached Earth in the year 1054. A type Ia supernova at a distance of 3,300 light-years would have an apparent magnitude of around -9.3, about as bright as the brightest Iridium (satellite) flares.\nRecent data indicates his distance estimate is five times too close. Astronomers used NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to observe the light emitted during its latest outburst in April 2011. The team also used the light echo to refine estimates of the nova's distance from Earth. The new distance is 15,600 light-years (4780 pc) from Earth. Previous estimates were between 6,500 and 16,000 light-years (2000 and","-31.618659104049584"],["of spectral type K5 and magnitude 8.5, which with a separation of 5.7 arcseconds is only discernible with a telescope. The distance between the two stars is 260 AU and they take 2600 years to rotate around a common centre of gravity. The second brightest star is Beta Circini, a white main sequence star of spectral type A3Va and a magnitude of 4.07, about 100 light-years away. It has around 1.8 times the diameter of the Sun.\nGamma Circini is a binary star 450 light-years away, whose components need a telescope of 150 mm to be seen, as they are only 0.8 arcseconds apart. The brighter component is","-31.549669969470415"],["16 billion light years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event were less than 16 billion light years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event were more than 16 billion light years away.\nAs galaxies approach the point of crossing this cosmological event horizon, the light from them will become more and more redshifted, to the point where the wavelength becomes too large to detect in practice and the galaxies appear to vanish completely (see Future of an expanding universe). Planet","-31.4940032686427"],["There are stars that are millions of years older than the sun. There may be a civilization that is millions of years more advanced than man's. We have gone from Kitty Hawk to the moon in some seventy years, but it's possible that a million-year-old civilization may know something that we don't ... I hypothesize an 'M&M' technology encompassing the mental and material realms. The psychic realms, so mysterious to us today, may be an ordinary part of an advanced technology.\"\nIn Hynek and Vallee's 1975 book The Edge of Reality, Hynek published a stereoscopic photograph of a UFO he took","-31.492036949537578"],["the triggered star formation theory. Scientists analyzing the photo have been able to show that the ages of the stars become progressively and systematically younger with distance from the center of the cavities.","-31.43491368062314"],["of possibly inhabited planets around this and other nearby stars at that time, as this novel preceded his announcement of planets in this system by a decade. Later research Gatewood continued to be active in astronomy up through 2009. In 2009 he published his last papers; one is a refinement of the distances to several dim nearby stars, including the best current value for the distance to Teegarden's star of 12.578 light years.","-31.396154893605853"],["magnitude of +5.05 in V, the star is rather difficult to make out with the naked eye, especially since its close neighbour Atlas is 3.7 times brighter and located less than 5 arcminutes away. Beginning in October of each year, Pleione along with the rest of the cluster can be seen rising in the east in the early morning before dawn. To see it after sunset, one will need to wait until December. By mid-February, the star is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe, with only those south of 66° unable to see it. Even in cities","-31.351797538027313"],["apparent magnitude, the absolute magnitude can be used to estimate the age of the stars. The stars in the moving group appear to have a common age of about 500 million years. Non-members The Big Dipper stars Dubhe (α UMa) and Alkaid (η UMa) are not members of the group, both being somewhat further away and moving in very different directions.\nThe bright, nearby star Sirius was long believed to be a member of the group, but may not be, according to research in 2003 by Jeremy King et al. at Clemson University. This research seems to indicate that it","-31.271626121735608"],["when its parent star became a red giant. About 1.3 million years ago the object may have passed within a distance of 0.16 parsecs (0.52 light-years) to the nearby star TYC 4742-1027-1, but its velocity is too high to have originated from that star system, and it probably just passed through the system's Oort cloud at a relative speed of about 15 km/s (34,000 mph; 54,000 km/h). A more recent study (August 2018) using Gaia Data Release 2 has updated the possible past close encounters and has identified four stars that ʻOumuamua passed relatively close to and at moderately low velocities in the past","-31.27020914052264"],["amateur telescope. At magnitude 14.4, it appears star-like, though it is at a distance of 12.9 billion light-years. The light of Q1634+706 has taken 8.6 billion years to reach Earth, a discrepancy attributable to the expansion of the universe.\nThe Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, possibly the largest known structure in the universe, covers a part of the southern region of Draco. Mythology Dragons in Greek mythology that may have inspired the constellation's name include Ladon, the dragon who guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides. Heracles killed Ladon during his 12 labors; he was tasked with stealing the golden apples. The","-31.23662117085405"],["light years away.","-31.2181934627406"],["telescopes, 470 light-years from Earth. The primary is a silvery giant of magnitude 4.9, and the secondary is an old, reddish giant star of magnitude 5.2. The star HD164669 near the primary may be an optical double. 100 Herculis is a double star easily divisible in small amateur telescopes. Both components are magnitude 5.8 blue-white stars; they are 165 and 230 light-years from Earth.\nMu Herculis is 27.4 light-years from Earth. The solar apex, i.e., the point on the sky which marks the direction that the Sun is moving in its orbit around the center of the Milky Way, is located","-31.20849263672426"],["are correct in the report, the star must have formed soon after the Big Bang and is one of the oldest stars known. The search for such very iron-poor stars has shown they are almost all anomalies in globular clusters and the Galactic Halo. This concords with a narrative that they are rare survivors of their generation. If so, the apparent visual data of the oldest of these enables us to longstop-date the reionization (first star formation) phase of the Universe independently of theories and evidence of the first few million years after the Big Bang. Most stars from Population II","-31.17257396207424"],["0.43 ± 0.13 arcseconds. This would have placed its distance at only 7.50 light-years, making Teegarden's Star only the third star system in order of distance from the Sun, ranking between Barnard's Star and Wolf 359. However, even at that time the anomalously low luminosity (the absolute magnitude would have been 18.5) and high uncertainty in the parallax suggested that it was in fact somewhat farther away, still one of the Sun's nearest neighbors but not nearly as high in the ranking in order of distance. A more accurate parallax measurement of 0.2593 arcseconds was made by George Gatewood in","-31.13261398414761"],["is dimmed by 30% due to interstellar dust, so would have a brighter magnitude of 3.31 if not for this. The second brightest star at magnitude 3.97 is Beta Pyxidis, a yellow bright giant or supergiant of spectral type G7Ib-II that is around 435 times as luminous as the Sun, lying 420 ± 10 light-years distant away from Earth. It has a companion star of magnitude 12.5 separated by 9 arcseconds. Gamma Pyxidis is a star of magnitude 4.02 that lies 207 ± 2 light-years distant. It is an orange giant of spectral type K3III that has cooled and swollen","-31.12031232335721"],["to be missing. However, R.T.A. Innes found an uncatalogued star about 15 arc seconds away from the absent star's position. It became clear that the star had a very high proper motion of more than 8 arc seconds per year and had moved significantly. Later, CPD-44 612 came to be referred to as Kapteyn's Star although equal credit should be accorded to Robert Innes. At the time of its discovery it had the highest proper motion of any star known, dethroning Groombridge 1830. In 1916, Barnard's Star was found to have an even larger proper motion. In 2014, two super-Earth","-31.086559557741566"],["to contain at least one \"dark\" star, we could search for and catalogue as many double-star systems as possible, and identify cases where only a single circling star was visible. This would then provide a statistical baseline for calculating the amount of other unseen stellar matter that might exist in addition to the visible stars. Dark stars and gravitational shifts Michell also suggested that future astronomers might be able to identify the surface gravity of a distant star by seeing how far the star's light was shifted to the weaker end of the spectrum, a precursor of Einstein's 1911 gravity-shift","-31.070081149358884"],["11.95. M13 is about 22,200 light-years away from Earth.\nIt wasn't until 1779 that the single stars in this globular cluster were resolved. Compared to the stars in the neighborhood of the Sun, the stars in M13's stellar population are more than a hundred times denser. They are so densely packed together that they sometimes collide and produce new stars. The newly-formed, young stars, so-called \"blue stragglers,\" are particularly interesting to astronomers.\nThe Arecibo message of 1974, which contained encoded information about the human race, DNA, atomic numbers, Earth's position and other information, was beamed from the Arecibo Observatory radio telescope towards","-31.060041871722206"],["the brightness necessary to be seen with the naked eye. At that time, Gliese 445 will be approximately tied with Ross 248 for being the closest star to our Sun (see List of nearest stars#Future and past).","-31.007253813957504"],["the same patch of sky from Earth's perspective. This group has an estimated age of about (500 ± 100) million years. As the members of this group share a common origin and motion through space, this yields an estimate for the age of Beta Ursae Majoris. Two stars are known to be located in relatively close proximity: 37 Ursae Majoris at 5.2 light-years (1.6 pc) and Gamma Ursae Majoris at 11.0 light-years (3.4 pc); much closer to each other than these stars are to the Earth. Nomenclature β Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Beta Ursae Majoris) is the star's Bayer designation.\nIt bore the traditional","-30.94422927231426"],["star was seen. By night, it was the brightest star in the sky, and it was visible during the day for more than three weeks, before eventually dimming. In 1606, Delle Colombe published his discourse on the phenomenon, dedicated to Alessandro Marzi Medici, the Archbishop of Florence. In his work delle Colombe argued that the star was not new, but permanent, though only occasionally visible. This argument echoed that of Johannes van Heeck in supporting the generally-accepted model of the universe, known as the Aristotelian model or the Ptolemaic system. This held that the stars were fixed in their","-30.925707125745248"],["Rabolu's ideas to bolster her claims.\nBarnard's star has been directly measured to be 5.98 ± 0.003 light years (56.6 Pm) from Earth . While it is approaching Earth, Barnard's Star will not make its closest approach to the Sun until around 11,700 AD, when it will approach to within some 3.8 light-years. This is only slightly closer than the closest star to the Sun (Proxima Centauri) lies today. Nemesis Believers in Planet X/Nibiru have often confused it with Nemesis, a hypothetical star first proposed by physicist Richard A. Muller. In 1984, Muller postulated that mass extinctions were not random, but appeared","-30.91035214113799"],["the very first stars. The discovery of the star in the Milky Way galaxy suggests that the galaxy may be at least 3 billion years older than previously thought.\nSeveral individual stars have been found in the Milky Way's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80-billion-year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523-0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using","-30.891924348419707"],["star generally is the first to evolve into a giant or supergiant. Calculations show that its mass loss then will become so large that in a comparatively very short time (less than half a million years) this star, that was once the heaviest, now becomes the lighter of the two components. Part of its mass is transferred to the companion star, the rest is lost in space. Light curves The light curves of beta Lyrae variables are quite smooth: eclipses start and end so gradually that the exact moments are impossible to tell. This is because the flow of mass","-30.811775490388754"],["billion years old based on its evolution and mass. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 9.63. Therefore, BD+14 4559 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be viewed using good binoculars. Orbit BD+14 4559 b orbits its star with about 25% of the Sun's luminosity every 268 days at a distance of 0.77 AU (close to Venus's orbital distance from the Sun, which is 0.72 AU). It has a mildly eccentric","-30.80775275551423"],["period began to gradually decrease until its light curve only showed one peak per period. This was because the secondary star began orbiting faster than the envelope of the primary star could keep up with. Because the stars are in contact, the velocity difference begins to dissipate as energy at their point of contact. Thus when the secondary star was approaching the line of sight, it appeared brighter and when it was moving away from the line of sight, it appeared fainter. By 2007, the two stars were so close to merging, that its magnitude, as measured on Earth, appeared","-30.75715612363274"],["faster than the galaxy's escape velocity.\nThe star is about 200,000 light years from the galaxy's center. Some doubt has surrounded the previous studies based on the speed and position of HE 0437-5439. The star would have to be at least 100 million years old to have traveled that distance from the galactic core, yet its mass and blue color indicate that it had burned only for 20 million years. These observations led to the explanation that it was part of a triple-star system consisting of two closely bound stars and one outer star. The black hole pulled the outer star","-30.753646397286502"],["time the light was emitted is estimated to have been about 15% of the Milky Way's current mass. The galaxy was making new stars at roughly 80 times the rate of the current Milky Way, or equivalent to 800 M☉ worth of material turning to stars every year. The light reaching Earth was made by stars in EGS-zs8-1 that were 100 million to 300 million years old at the time they emitted the light. The age of EGS-zs8-1 places it in the reionization phase of creation, a time when hydrogen outside the galaxies was switching from a neutral to ionized","-30.728321480040904"],["years have passed, but according to those on Earth, the ship comes back 76 years after launch.\nFrom the viewpoint of the astronaut, onboard clocks seem to be running normally. The star ahead seems to be approaching at a speed of 0.87 light years per ship-year. The universe would appear contracted along the direction of travel to half the size it had when the ship was at rest; the distance between that star and the Sun would seem to be 16 light years as measured by the astronaut.\nAt higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, so the astronaut","-30.699277884326875"],["universe. Presently the earth is only an invisible point among all the stars, because, at this distance, it is lost through its infinite smallness in the vicinity of the sun, which itself is by far only a small star. In the future, when the end of things will arrive on this earth, the event will then pass completely unperceived in the universe. The stars will continue to shine after the extinction of our sun, as they already shone before our existence. When there will no longer be on the earth a sole concern to contemplate, the","-30.69328781877266"],["light-years distant from Earth. At apparent magnitude 11.27, it is much too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. A small star, it has around 23% the mass and radius of the Sun, but only 0.7% its luminosity. VHS 1256-1257 is a brown dwarf of spectral type M7.5 located 41 ± 3 light-years distant from Earth. Around 73 times as massive as Jupiter, it is just under the mass boundary separating brown dwarves from stars. It has a companion that was first identified and documented by the 2MASS survey in 2015. It orbits at a distance of 102 ±","-30.62193757806017"],["5 million years, for example, this star will be separated from the Sun by more than 500 light years. A Type Ia supernova within a thousand parsecs (3300 light-years) is thought to be able to affect the Earth, but it must be closer than about 10 parsecs (around thirty light-years) to cause a major harm to the terrestrial biosphere.\nFollowing a supernova explosion, the remnant of the donor star (IK Pegasus A) would continue with the final velocity it possessed when it was a member of a close orbiting binary system. The resulting relative velocity could be as high as 100–200 km/s, which would place it","-30.564533328288235"],["years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which typically can only see objects with a magnitude around 6 or less. Discovery In 2009, NASA's Kepler spacecraft was completing observing stars on its photometer, the instrument it uses to detect transit events, in which a planet crosses in front of and dims its host star for a brief and roughly regular period of time. In this last test, Kepler observed 50000 stars in the","-30.53196457328886"],["would be more than a thousand times lower than the faintest stars currently existing and their lifetimes would also be sensibly longer.","-30.51075150905308"],["if light came from our eyes at a constant velocity it would take much too long to illuminate the stars for us to see them while we are still looking at them, because they are so far away. Therefore, the illumination must be coming from the stars so we can see them as soon as we open our eyes. Astronomy The Islamic understanding of the astronomical model was based on the Greek Ptolemaic system. However many early astronomers had started to question the model. It was not always accurate in its predictions and was over complicated because astronomers were trying","-30.46596992497507"],["only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years. Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright. Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth. As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible. As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black.\nThe daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in","-30.453308142519745"],["light coming from the star RX J1856.5-3754, the closest discovered neutron star to Earth.\nRoberto Mignani at the National Institute for Astrophysics in Milan who led the team of astronomers has commented that \"“When Einstein came up with the theory of general relativity 100 years ago, he had no idea that it would be used for navigational systems. The consequences of this discovery probably will also have to be realised on a longer timescale.” The team found that visible light from the star had undergone linear polarisation of around 16%. If the birefringence had been caused by light passing through interstellar","-30.439425623000716"],["of that of the solar luminosity, respectively.\nThe apparent magnitude of the star system, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is about 15.4. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which can typically detect objects with a magnitude less than 6.5.","-30.429703949452232"],["including 163 single stars. It is estimated that a further 130 systems within this range have not yet been identified. Out to 81.5 ly, there may be up to 7,500 stars, of which around 2,600 are known. The number of substellar objects in that volume are expected to be comparable to the number of stars. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being the red dwarf Proxima Centauri at approximately 4.2 light-years), the Sun ranks fourth in mass. Coronal heating problem The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona","-30.41436559903741"],["was Frank B. McDonald. The discovery of Teegarden's star The discovery of Teegarden's star came as somewhat of a surprise as no close-by stars had been discovered for many decades. Teegarden's team found this star in data taken years earlier by an unrelated program searching for near-Earth asteroids.\nThe real excitement was from the initial measurements the team made for the parallax of this star. These initial measurements indicated that the star may be very close at a distance of about seven light-years. This would have made it the third-closest star system. This excitement resulted in numerous popular press articles and","-30.39179337269161"],["Over 3600 light-years away, this system would outshine Venus at magnitude −4.8 if it were 32 light-years (10 parsecs) distant. The two main components are separated by 50 arcseconds, resolvable to the naked eye for individuals with good vision and easily discernible with a telescope.\nEta Circini is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III and magnitude 5.17, located around 276 light-years distant, and Zeta Circini is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B3V and magnitude 6.09, located around 1273 light-years away.\n493 variable stars have been recorded in Circinus, but most have a very small range or are quite dim. Three prominent examples are","-30.354434766333725"],["2.6 and 5.1 billion years.\nThe star's surface gravity, logg = 4.15, and its low levels of lithium helped derive the star's age, and revealed that it most likely evolved away from the zero age main sequence.","-30.30277802034834"],["Earth's sky, with an apparent magnitude of −26.74. This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. The mean distance of the Sun's center to Earth's center is approximately 1 astronomical unit (about 150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi), though the distance varies as Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July. At this average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. The energy of","-30.275593818339985"],["of 0.68 R☉. It has a surface temperature of 4640 K and is 7 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 8.96. Therefore, HIP 57274 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be seen with good binoculars. Orbit HIP 57274 d orbits its star every 432 days at a distance of 1.01 AU. This is very similar to that of Earth's orbital period and distance. Habitability HIP 57274 d","-30.26944295506837"],["that their median age is 6.4 ± 0.7 Ga. Moreover, 75% of stars in the galactic habitable zone are older than the Sun. This makes the existence of potential planets with evolved intelligent life more likely than not to be older than that of the Earth (4.54 Ga). This creates an observational dilemma since interstellar travel, (even of the \"slow\" kind that is nearly within the reach of present Earth technology) could in theory, if this had arisen elsewhere, take from only 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the galaxy. This leads to a conundrum first posed in","-30.248216025152942"],["that of the Sun and is 8.6 light-years away. Canopus and the next fixed star Toliman (α Centauri), 4.2 light-years away, are also located in the Southern Sky, having declinations around –60° – too close to the south celestial pole that neither are visible from Central Europe.","-30.24122572549095"],["star that is divisible into two stars 5.4\" apart by small amateur telescopes, 280 light-years from Earth. The pair, both white stars, is visible to the naked eye at magnitude 5.2; the primary is of magnitude 5.9 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0.\nThe raven's breast is marked by Beta Corvi (the proper name is Kraz), a star of magnitude 2.7 located 146 ± 1 light-years from Earth. Roughly 206 million years old and 3.7 ± 1 times as massive as the Sun, it has exhausted its core hydrogen and expanded and cooled to a surface temperature of around 5,100 K","-30.228348652908608"],["extremely difficult to observe. Therefore, secular aberration is usually ignored when considering the positions of stars. In other words, star maps show the observed apparent positions of the stars, not their calculated true positions after accounting for secular aberration.\nFor stars significantly less than 230 million light years away, the Solar System may be approximated as an inertial frame and so the effect of secular aberration is equivalent to a light-time correction. This includes stars in the Milky Way, since the Milky Way is about 100,000 light years in diameter. For these stars the true position of the star is then","-30.224954481258465"],["miles (17.7 million km). Astronomical observations also suggest that there may be additional stars in the Spica system. In the story, Asumi mentions Spica's distance to Earth as 350 light-years. This figure is also cited by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency; however, other sources indicate a distance of approximately 260 light-years.\nKou Yaginuma's initial inspiration for the story came from a statement he once read describing the Hohner Little Lady harmonica as one of the first musical instruments taken into space. However, as an aspiring manga artist, Yaginuma had neither resources to conduct research on nor knowledge pertaining to spaceflight. He","-30.220351464384294"],["the primary and 401 ± 13 light-years (123 ± 4 pc) for the secondary. More recently the Gaia mission has measured distances of about 330–390 light years (100–120 parsecs) for both components, but noise in the astrometric measurements for the stars means that data from Gaia's second data release is not yet sufficient to determine whether the stars are physically associated.\nThere are a further 10 faint companions listed in the Washington Double Star catalogue, all fainter than magnitude 10. Only one is closer to the primary than Albireo B, with the others up to 142\" away. Albireo A The spectrum of Beta Cygni A was","-30.196932815611945"],["to their peak in 2025. The system, 35 light-years from Earth, has a period of 34.5 years. The primary is a yellow-tinged star of magnitude 2.9 and the secondary is an orange star of magnitude 5.7.\nThere are several dimmer variable stars in Hercules. 30 Herculis, also called g Herculis, is a semiregular red giant with a period of 3 months. 361 light-years from Earth, it has a minimum magnitude of 6.3 and a maximum magnitude of 4.3. 68 Herculis, also called u Herculis, is a Beta Lyrae-type eclipsing binary star. 865 light-years from Earth, it has a period of 2","-30.193799207525444"],["HD 155358 Observation With a visual magnitude of 7.5, this star can not be observed with the unaided eye. Hence it was discovered only after the introduction of the telescope. In 1859 it was catalogued in the Bonner Durchmusterung by the Prussian astronomer F. W. Argelander, who listed an estimated visual magnitude of 7.2. In 1958 it was identified as a star with a relatively large proper motion by the Nizamiah Observatory, Hyderabad. It was suggested in 1979 that this star may lie within 25 parsecs of the Sun. (Up to that time it had never been catalogued as a","-30.17330491614848"],["Digital Sky Survey. Both of these stars being cool red giants, they are extremely bright which is one of the key factors in their discovery. Their distance was estimated with a number of different techniques, which all pointed towards 900,000 light years away. Distance ULAS J0015+01 is, at the current time, 900,000 light years away from the Milky Way galaxy. The Milky Way's disk is 180,000 light years in diameter, putting it far beyond the Milky Way stellar disk, or only 3 times closer than the Andromeda galaxy. In comparison, in distance to the Milky Way's satellite galaxy, the Large","-30.172145402571914"],["old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a temperature of 5778 K. The star is metal-rich, with a metallicity ([Fe/H]) of 0.16, or 144% the solar amount. This is particularly odd for a star as old as HD 164922. Its luminosity (L☉) is 70% of the solar luminosity.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 7.01. Therefore, HD 164922 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be viewed using good binoculars. Orbit HD 164922 b orbits its star every 1,155 days at a distance","-30.168278006414766"],["data of its planet's atmospheric composition. It would take 4.22 years for the information collected to be sent back to Earth.\nFrom Proxima Centauri, the Sun would appear as a bright 0.4-magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia, similar to that of Achernar from Earth.","-30.109470021352536"],["mass of the Milky Way's stars. According to Lehnert (of the Observatoire de Paris), it was forming the same number of stars per year as our galaxy, but they were much smaller and less massive, making it \"intensely star forming\".\nThe light travel distance of the light that we observe from UDFy-38135539 (HUF.YD3) is more than 4 billion parsecs (13.1 billion light years), and it has a luminosity distance of 86.9 billion parsecs (about 283 billion light years). There are a number of different distance measures in cosmology, and both \"light travel distance\" and \"luminosity distance\" are different from the comoving","-30.077176249822514"],["borders. Appearing to be of magnitude 3.97, a telescope reveals a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F4V of magnitude 4.11 and a star very similar to the Sun of spectral type G5V and magnitude 6.18. The two are 10.6 astronomical units (au) apart and orbit each other every 21.78 years. The system is 52.4 ± 0.6 light-years distant from Earth. Likewise 16 Lyncis was originally known as Psi¹⁰ Aurigae and conversely, 37, 39, 41 and 44 Lyncis became part of Ursa Major.\nY Lyncis is a popular target among amateur astronomers, as it is a semiregular variable ranging in brightness from","-30.07630578037788"],["probe to the nearest star.\nAstrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones. Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and","-30.07390244835551"],["correction of −0.2 mag dex⁻¹ in (O/H), an estimate of 2.57 ± 0.06 million light-years (1.625×10¹¹ ± 3.8×10⁹ astronomical units) was derived. A 2004 Cepheid variable method estimated the distance to be 2.51 ± 0.13 million light-years (770 ± 40 kpc). In 2005, an eclipsing binary star was discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy. The binary is two hot blue stars of types O and B. By studying the eclipses of the stars, astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars, they were able to measure their absolute magnitude. When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance","-30.051302718253282"],["The two stars are 0.05 AU from each other, while a third star is around 600 AU away from the pair, and has an orbital period exceeding 5000 years. The system is around 300 light years distant. In 1976, researchers Clausen, Gyldenkerne, and Grønbech calculated that a nearby 8th magnitude star is a fourth member of the system.\nGamma Phoenicis is a red giant of spectral type M0IIIa and varies between magnitudes 3.39 and 3.49. It lies 235 light years away. Psi Phoenicis is another red giant, this time of spectral type M4III, and has an apparent magnitude that ranges","-30.04167118342957"],["faint, and of the colour of Jupiter, but similar to many others which generally are reckoned of the eighth magnitude. Therefore I had no doubt of its being any other than a fixed star. In the evening of the second I repeated my observations, and having found that it did not correspond either in time or in distance from the zenith with the former observation, I began to entertain some doubts of its accuracy. I conceived afterwards a great suspicion that it might be a new star. The evening of the third, my suspicion was converted into certainty, being assured","-30.0312785265196"],["old star. At 13.53 Gyr, the star is the oldest known thin-disk star, and several billion years older than most estimates for the age of the Milky Way's thin disk. Primary star The primary component of the binary star system, 2MASS J18082002−5104378 A, is a subgiant, cooler than the Sun, but larger and more luminous. Secondary star The secondary unseen companion, 2MASS J18082002−5104378 B, thought to be a red dwarf, has an orbital period P = 34.757+0.010\n−0.010 days and a mass of 0.14 M☉. It is the first low-mass UMP star to be discovered, and one of the oldest stars in the","-30.010932917786704"],["248 will bring it closer to the Solar System. In 1993, Matthews projected that in about 33,000 years it would enter a period of about 9,000 years as the closest star to the Sun, as close as 3.024 light-years (0.927 parsecs) in 36,000 years.\nAny future spacecraft that escaped the Solar System with a velocity of 25.4 km/s would reach this star 37,000 years from now, when the star just passes its nearest approach. By comparison, the Voyager 1 has an escape velocity of 16.6 km/s.","-29.960920616809744"],["stars, are of magnitude 4.8 and 6.2, respectively. The unrelated tertiary component is of magnitude 6.9. Though the tertiary component is divisible in binoculars, the primary and secondary currently require a medium-sized amateur telescope to split, as they will through the year 2020. The two stars will be closest between 2043 and 2050, when they will require a telescope with larger aperture to split. The stars 30 and 31 Cygni form a contrasting double star similar to the brighter Albireo. The two are divisible in binoculars. The primary, 31 Cygni, is an orange-hued star of magnitude 3.8, 1400 light-years from","-29.950232242768834"],["The faint (magnitude 12.23) Gliese 754, a red dwarf of spectral type M4.5V, is one of the nearest 100 stars to Earth at 19.3 light-years distant. Its eccentric orbit around the Galaxy indicates that it may have originated in the Milky Way's thick disk.\nAt least four of the fifteen stars visible to the unaided eye are orange giants of spectral class K. The second brightest star in the constellation—at apparent magnitude 4.1—is Zeta Telescopii, an orange subgiant of spectral type K1III-IV. Around 1.53 times as massive as the Sun, it shines with 512 times its luminosity. Located 127 light years","-29.905956798655097"],["Light-year History The light-year unit appeared a few years after the first successful measurement of the distance to a star other than the Sun, by Friedrich Bessel in 1838. The star was 61 Cygni, and he used a 6.2-inch (160 mm) heliometer designed by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The largest unit for expressing distances across space at that time was the astronomical unit, equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit (1.50×10⁸ km or 9.30×10⁷ mi). In those terms, trigonometric calculations based on 61 Cygni's parallax of 0.314 arcseconds, showed the distance to the star to be 660000 astronomical units (9.9×10¹³ km or 6.1×10¹³ mi). Bessel","-29.90135615383042"],["the first-magnitude star Deneb. This is near the midpoint of the imaginary line between the 3rd-magnitude stars Xi Cygni and Rho Cygni. The star can also be found by continuing north along the line between the stars Zeta Cygni, Upsilon Cygni, Tau Cygni, and Sigma Cygni, as 68 Cygni is the first easily visible naked-eye star one will come to. Properties According to the star's measured parallax of 0.70 milliarcseconds, it is located approximately 1,400 parsecs (4,600 ly) distant, although such low parallax values are subject to low precision. With taking into account the error estimate of 0.23 milliarcseconds, the star's","-29.899932155654824"],["and its kinematics and age show its unlikely it had formed in any of the previous three star-forming regions mentioned.\nAssuming the distance given above and a surface temperature of 3,300 K, IRC-10414 is 160,000 times brighter than the Sun and its diameter in the order of 1,200 times the solar one, which places this star among the largest known. Stellar evolution models suggest in that case an initial mass between 20 and 25 solar masses and an age between 6 and 10 million years. Variability IRC-10414 has been reported as a likely variable with a period of 768 days and","-29.879374853584522"],["or 440 light years. However, when the Hipparcos Catalogue was published in 1997, the new parallax measurement indicated a much closer distance of about 119 ± 1.0 pc (388 ± 3.2 ly), triggering substantial controversy among astronomers. If the Hipparcos estimate were accurate, some astronomers contend, then stars in the cluster would have to be fainter than Sun-like stars—a notion that would challenge some of the fundamental precepts of stellar structure. Interferometric measurements taken in 2004 by the Hubble Telescope's Fine Guidance Sensors and corroborated by studies from Caltech and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory showed the original estimate of 135","-29.854712732398184"],["disclosed the risings and settings of the stars, how the fiery brightness of the sun is darkened, and how the stars retreat at fixed times.\"","-29.85148442765785"],["apparent magnitude of 5.90. Known as 35 Leo, this star is separated from Adhafera by 325.9 arcseconds along a position angle of 340°. The two stars do not form a binary star system as 35 Leo is only 100 light years from Earth, thus separating the two stars by approximately 174 light-years (53 parsecs).","-29.834515190319507"],["HD 12661 Properties The apparent visual magnitude of this star is 7.42, making it too faint to be viewed by the naked eye even under ideal viewing conditions. However, it can be readily observed using a small telescope with an aperture of 6 cm (2 in) or more. Parallax measurements of HD 12661 place it at a distance of about 123.6 light-years (37.9 parsecs) from the Earth, with a margin of error of ±0.2 light years. It has a stellar classification of G6 V, indicating that it is a main sequence star that is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at","-29.82156909033074"],["distant an object, the longer it takes light to reach Earth as a result of the speed of light being finite. In general, this allows astronomers to study objects as they were many millions or even billions of years ago. Spinrad originally selected targets by looking at the position of members of the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources, as the catalogue included many radio galaxies that he thought would be at high redshift. The search was successful, and Spinrad found the galaxy with the highest identified redshift in 1975, and then found several more with greater redshifts, including the","-29.805140366515843"],["no more than a few light years in diameter and may hypothetically contain a small number of other suns. But Lagash is located in the center of a \"giant cluster,\" and during the eclipse, the night sky—the first that people have ever seen—is filled with the dazzling light of more than 30,000 newly visible stars.\nLearning that the universe is far more vast—and Lagash far more insignificant—than they believed causes everyone, including the scientists, to go insane. Outside the observatory, in the direction of the city, the horizon begins glowing with the light of spreading fires as \"the long night\" returns","-29.796317519270815"],["an age of less than two billion years. However, this technique becomes less accurate for ages beyond about 5.6 billion years. Based upon the chromosphere emission of HD 12661, it is older than the Sun with an estimated age of roughly seven billion years. It has a low projected rotational velocity of 1.20 km/s, consistent with it being an older star. The age of a star can also be estimated by the abundance of lithium, as this element is destroyed through thermonuclear fusion at the core. However, this is less accurate technique. For HD 12661, the lithium abundance gives an age","-29.795516020159994"],["lifetimes. Stars were thought therefore to radiate energy by converting gravitational energy into radiation through the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. This mechanism resulted in an age for the Sun of only tens of millions of years, creating a conflict over the age of the Solar System between astronomers, and biologists and geologists who had evidence that the Earth was far older than that. This conflict was only resolved in the 1930s when nuclear fusion was identified as the source of stellar energy.\nFollowing Russell's presentation of the diagram to a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1912, Arthur Eddington was inspired to","-29.792198845643725"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"be one of the last remaining stars when the Universe is much older than it is now, when the gas needed to form new stars will be exhausted, and the remaining ones begin to die off.\\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 18.8. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.\\nThe star is not just very small, and far away, it also emits comparatively little visible light, mainly shining in the invisible infrared. Even, from the close in proximity of TRAPPIST-1d, about 50 times closer than Earth is from the\",\n \"-37.73229346070002\"\n ],\n [\n \"to time into the past. A galaxy measured at ten billion light years in distance appears to us as it was ten billion years ago, because the light has taken that long to travel to the observer. If one were to look at a galaxy ten billion light years away in one direction and another in the opposite direction, the total distance between them is twenty billion light years. This means that the light from the first has not yet reached the second, because the approximately 13.8 billion years that the universe has existed is not a long enough time to\",\n \"-35.36195298025268\"\n ],\n [\n \"proximity at 19.8 parsecs (64.6 light years) away from the Earth, it cannot be seen with the unaided eye. The star is of a similar distance from Earth as planet-bearing 51 Pegasi, which lies at a distance of 14.7 parsecs (47.95 light years).\",\n \"-35.03222802426171\"\n ],\n [\n \"any line of sight from Earth is unlikely to reach a star.\\nHowever, the Big Bang theory seems to introduce a new problem: it states that the sky was much brighter in the past, especially at the end of the recombination era, when it first became transparent. All points of the local sky at that era were comparable in brightness to the surface of the Sun, due to the high temperature of the universe in that era; and most light rays will originate not from a star but the relic of the Big Bang.\\nThis problem is addressed by the fact that\",\n \"-33.726893894905515\"\n ],\n [\n \"that it was actually 60 light-years away.\",\n \"-33.70293542091531\"\n ],\n [\n \"be about 150 parsecs away and with an age in the range 1.2 – 2.3 billion years, is younger than our own star which has an age of 4.6 billion years. The rotation period of the star, inferred by the lightcurve obtained by COROT, is around 23 days.\",\n \"-33.59305616968777\"\n ],\n [\n \"red stars older than one billion years.\\nThe Hubble data suggest that I Zwicky 18 is 59 million light-years from Earth. The galaxy's larger-than-expected distance may explain why astronomers have had difficulty detecting older, fainter stars within the galaxy. The faint, old stars in I Zwicky 18 are almost at the limit of Hubble's resolution and sensitivity. Classification I Zwicky 18 is classified as a dwarf irregular galaxy and also a blue compact galaxy and a starburst galaxy. I Zwicky 18 is much smaller than our Milky Way and a mere 3,000 light-years across. I Zwicky 18 may still be creating\",\n \"-33.33211636276974\"\n ],\n [\n \"relatively close to the Sun. This is indeed the case for Barnard's Star, located at a distance of about 6 light-years. After the Sun and the Alpha Centauri system, it is the nearest known star to Earth. Because it is a red dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 9.54, it is too faint to see without a telescope or powerful binoculars. Of the stars visible to the naked eye (by convention, limiting visual magnitude of 6.0), 61 Cygni A (magnitude V=5.20) has the highest proper motion at 5.281 arcsec/a, although Groombridge 1830 (magnitude V=6.42), proper motion 7.058 arcsec/a, might be\",\n \"-33.27923840355652\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Sun around 11,800 AD, when it will approach to within about 3.75 light-years.\\nProxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a position currently 4.24 light-years distant from it. However, despite Barnard's Star's even closer pass to the Sun in 11,800 AD, it will still not then be the nearest star, since by that time Proxima Centauri will have moved to a yet-nearer proximity to the Sun. At the time of the star's closest pass by the Sun, Barnard's Star will still be too dim to be seen with the naked eye, since its apparent magnitude will only have\",\n \"-32.95927240027959\"\n ],\n [\n \"light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images. Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger, due to the finite speed of light, allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars, of galaxies, and of the universe itself.\\nAstronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light-years, especially in popular science publications and media. A light-year is the distance light travels in one year, around 9461 billion kilometres,\",\n \"-32.864086003821285\"\n ],\n [\n \"be in a part of the sky different from its present location. The probe will no longer be operational. Also, given the star's inherent low brightness, even at that distance it would be barely visible to the naked eye of a hypothetical human being, with an apparent magnitude of only 5.72. Solar encounter While the Voyager probe moves through space towards a 1.6-light-year minimum distance from Gliese 445, the star is rapidly approaching our Sun. At the time the probe passes Gliese 445, the star will be about 1.059 parsecs (3.45 light-years) from our Sun, but with less than half\",\n \"-32.726449441215664\"\n ],\n [\n \"star that caused it exploded when the universe was only 630 million years old. The burst happened approximately 13 billion years ago, so a distance of about 13 billion light-years was widely quoted in the media (or sometimes a more precise figure of 13.035 billion light-years), though this would be the \\\"light travel distance\\\" (see Distance measures (cosmology)) rather than the \\\"proper distance\\\" used in both Hubble's law and in defining the size of the observable universe (cosmologist Ned Wright argues against the common use of light travel distance in astronomical press releases on this page, and at the bottom\",\n \"-32.603571036794165\"\n ],\n [\n \"on to the stars. In about 40,000 years, Voyager 1 will be within 1.6 light years (ly) of AC+79 3888, also known as Gliese 445, which is approaching the Sun. In 40,000 years Voyager 2 will be within 1.7 ly of Ross 248 (another star which is approaching the Sun) and in 296,000 years it will pass within 4.6 ly of Sirius which is the brightest star in the night sky. Voyager Golden Record Both spacecraft carry a 12-inch (30 cm) golden phonograph record that contains pictures and sounds of Earth, symbolic directions on the cover for playing the record, and\",\n \"-32.59039577005751\"\n ],\n [\n \"along with two other stars both at 735 30 pc which exhibit spectral features indicating they must lie behind the remnant, leads to new distance of 735 25 pc or around 2400 light-years. (Note: The Gaia estimated distance to the sdOB star KPD 2055+3111 is 793 pc (2600 ly). This new distance, surprisingly close to the value estimated some 60 yrs ago by Minkowski, means the Cygnus Loop is physically some 40 pc (130 ly) in diameter and has an age of around 21,000 years. Astronomical ultraviolet source The brightest far-ultraviolet sources of the Cygnus Loop occur in the\",\n \"-32.56209369968565\"\n ],\n [\n \"every 20.3 years, are too faint to be observed with the unaided eye. T Cephei, also a red giant, is a Mira variable with a minimum magnitude of 11.3 and a maximum magnitude of 5.2, 685 light-years from Earth. It has a period of 13 months and a diameter of between 329 to 500 solar diameters.\\nThere are several prominent double stars and binary stars in Cepheus. Omicron Cephei is a binary star with a period of 800 years. The system, 211 light-years from Earth, consists of an orange-hued giant primary of magnitude 4.9 and a secondary of magnitude 7.1. Xi\",\n \"-32.39296378660765\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gliese 445 Location It is currently 17.6 light-years from Earth and has an apparent magnitude of 10.8. It is visible from north of the Tropic of Cancer all night long, but not to the naked eye. Because the star is a red dwarf with a mass only a quarter to a third of that of our Sun, scientists question the ability of this system to support life. Gliese 445 is also a known X-ray source.\\nThe Voyager 1 probe and Gliese 445 will pass one another within 1.6 light-years in about 40,000 years. By that time Gliese 445 will\",\n \"-32.2805039762643\"\n ],\n [\n \"which is unusually high for what is considered a young star. It is thought to be a member of the ε Indi moving group of at least sixteen population I stars. This is an association of stars that have similar space velocity vectors, and therefore most likely formed at the same time and location. ε Indi will make its closest approach to the Sun in about 17,500 years when it makes perihelion passage at a distance of around 10.58 light-years (3.245 pc).\\nAs seen from ε Indi, the Sun is a 2.6-magnitude star in Ursa Major, near the bowl of the Big\",\n \"-32.13130975238164\"\n ],\n [\n \"could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Group (see Cepheids). However, outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies, neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed. The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located at a distance of one billion light years—ten times further than the most distant star cluster previously observed.\\nIn February 2018, astronomers reported, for the first time, a signal of the reionization epoch, an indirect detection of light from the earliest stars formed—about 180 million years after the Big Bang.\\nIn April, 2018,\",\n \"-32.13090454050689\"\n ],\n [\n \"parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light-years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light-years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent\",\n \"-32.060597089046496\"\n ],\n [\n \"the relatively large angular distance the components can only be resolved in large telescopes, since the primary is approximately 250 times brighter than its companion.\\nA few million years ago, ε Canis Majoris was much closer to the Sun than it is at present, causing it to be a much brighter star in the night sky. About 4.7 million years ago, Adhara was 34 light-years from the Sun, and was the brightest star in the sky with a magnitude of –3.99. No other star has attained this brightness since, nor will any other star attain this brightness for at least five\",\n \"-31.880591020180873\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shing, oppressors of Earth, and returns to fetch help. Presumably he succeeds: Genly Ai in The Left Hand of Darkness comes from Earth and remembers the 'Age of the Enemy' as something terrible, but also now over. Science The long orbit is scientifically correct, since Gamma Draconis is a giant star and a habitable world would have to be much further away from its sun. The name Eltanin given in City of Illusions is one of the star's traditional names. Its distance from Earth is given as 142 light-years, which is close to the current estimate.\\nOn the other hand, giant stars\",\n \"-31.79214497978137\"\n ],\n [\n \"million years to get to the inner Solar System. At closest approach the system would have had an apparent magnitude of about 11.4, and would have been best viewed from high latitudes in the northern hemisphere. A star is expected to pass through the Oort Cloud every 100,000 years or so. An approach as close or closer than 52,000 AU is expected to occur about every 9 million years. \\nIn a recent estimate, WISE J0720−0846AB passed within 68.7±2.0 kAU of the Sun 80.5±0.7 kyr ago\\nIn about 1.4 million years, Gliese 710 will come to a perihelion of between 8,800 and\",\n \"-31.72165077999307\"\n ],\n [\n \"5879 billion miles, or 0.3066 parsecs. In round figures, a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles. Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth after the Sun, is around 4.2 light-years away. Distance measurement Radar systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio-wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target: the distance to the target is half the round-trip transit time multiplied by the speed of light. A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver measures its distance to GPS satellites based on how long it takes for\",\n \"-31.715045639790333\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the star, or how bright it appears from Earth, is around 5. Therefore, it is only just visible to the unaided eye.\",\n \"-31.67305710904475\"\n ],\n [\n \"about 6,500 light-years, reached Earth in the year 1054. A type Ia supernova at a distance of 3,300 light-years would have an apparent magnitude of around -9.3, about as bright as the brightest Iridium (satellite) flares.\\nRecent data indicates his distance estimate is five times too close. Astronomers used NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to observe the light emitted during its latest outburst in April 2011. The team also used the light echo to refine estimates of the nova's distance from Earth. The new distance is 15,600 light-years (4780 pc) from Earth. Previous estimates were between 6,500 and 16,000 light-years (2000 and\",\n \"-31.618659104049584\"\n ],\n [\n \"of spectral type K5 and magnitude 8.5, which with a separation of 5.7 arcseconds is only discernible with a telescope. The distance between the two stars is 260 AU and they take 2600 years to rotate around a common centre of gravity. The second brightest star is Beta Circini, a white main sequence star of spectral type A3Va and a magnitude of 4.07, about 100 light-years away. It has around 1.8 times the diameter of the Sun.\\nGamma Circini is a binary star 450 light-years away, whose components need a telescope of 150 mm to be seen, as they are only 0.8 arcseconds apart. The brighter component is\",\n \"-31.549669969470415\"\n ],\n [\n \"16 billion light years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event were less than 16 billion light years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event were more than 16 billion light years away.\\nAs galaxies approach the point of crossing this cosmological event horizon, the light from them will become more and more redshifted, to the point where the wavelength becomes too large to detect in practice and the galaxies appear to vanish completely (see Future of an expanding universe). Planet\",\n \"-31.4940032686427\"\n ],\n [\n \"There are stars that are millions of years older than the sun. There may be a civilization that is millions of years more advanced than man's. We have gone from Kitty Hawk to the moon in some seventy years, but it's possible that a million-year-old civilization may know something that we don't ... I hypothesize an 'M&M' technology encompassing the mental and material realms. The psychic realms, so mysterious to us today, may be an ordinary part of an advanced technology.\\\"\\nIn Hynek and Vallee's 1975 book The Edge of Reality, Hynek published a stereoscopic photograph of a UFO he took\",\n \"-31.492036949537578\"\n ],\n [\n \"the triggered star formation theory. Scientists analyzing the photo have been able to show that the ages of the stars become progressively and systematically younger with distance from the center of the cavities.\",\n \"-31.43491368062314\"\n ],\n [\n \"of possibly inhabited planets around this and other nearby stars at that time, as this novel preceded his announcement of planets in this system by a decade. Later research Gatewood continued to be active in astronomy up through 2009. In 2009 he published his last papers; one is a refinement of the distances to several dim nearby stars, including the best current value for the distance to Teegarden's star of 12.578 light years.\",\n \"-31.396154893605853\"\n ],\n [\n \"magnitude of +5.05 in V, the star is rather difficult to make out with the naked eye, especially since its close neighbour Atlas is 3.7 times brighter and located less than 5 arcminutes away. Beginning in October of each year, Pleione along with the rest of the cluster can be seen rising in the east in the early morning before dawn. To see it after sunset, one will need to wait until December. By mid-February, the star is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe, with only those south of 66° unable to see it. Even in cities\",\n \"-31.351797538027313\"\n ],\n [\n \"apparent magnitude, the absolute magnitude can be used to estimate the age of the stars. The stars in the moving group appear to have a common age of about 500 million years. Non-members The Big Dipper stars Dubhe (α UMa) and Alkaid (η UMa) are not members of the group, both being somewhat further away and moving in very different directions.\\nThe bright, nearby star Sirius was long believed to be a member of the group, but may not be, according to research in 2003 by Jeremy King et al. at Clemson University. This research seems to indicate that it\",\n \"-31.271626121735608\"\n ],\n [\n \"when its parent star became a red giant. About 1.3 million years ago the object may have passed within a distance of 0.16 parsecs (0.52 light-years) to the nearby star TYC 4742-1027-1, but its velocity is too high to have originated from that star system, and it probably just passed through the system's Oort cloud at a relative speed of about 15 km/s (34,000 mph; 54,000 km/h). A more recent study (August 2018) using Gaia Data Release 2 has updated the possible past close encounters and has identified four stars that ʻOumuamua passed relatively close to and at moderately low velocities in the past\",\n \"-31.27020914052264\"\n ],\n [\n \"amateur telescope. At magnitude 14.4, it appears star-like, though it is at a distance of 12.9 billion light-years. The light of Q1634+706 has taken 8.6 billion years to reach Earth, a discrepancy attributable to the expansion of the universe.\\nThe Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, possibly the largest known structure in the universe, covers a part of the southern region of Draco. Mythology Dragons in Greek mythology that may have inspired the constellation's name include Ladon, the dragon who guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides. Heracles killed Ladon during his 12 labors; he was tasked with stealing the golden apples. The\",\n \"-31.23662117085405\"\n ],\n [\n \"light years away.\",\n \"-31.2181934627406\"\n ],\n [\n \"telescopes, 470 light-years from Earth. The primary is a silvery giant of magnitude 4.9, and the secondary is an old, reddish giant star of magnitude 5.2. The star HD164669 near the primary may be an optical double. 100 Herculis is a double star easily divisible in small amateur telescopes. Both components are magnitude 5.8 blue-white stars; they are 165 and 230 light-years from Earth.\\nMu Herculis is 27.4 light-years from Earth. The solar apex, i.e., the point on the sky which marks the direction that the Sun is moving in its orbit around the center of the Milky Way, is located\",\n \"-31.20849263672426\"\n ],\n [\n \"are correct in the report, the star must have formed soon after the Big Bang and is one of the oldest stars known. The search for such very iron-poor stars has shown they are almost all anomalies in globular clusters and the Galactic Halo. This concords with a narrative that they are rare survivors of their generation. If so, the apparent visual data of the oldest of these enables us to longstop-date the reionization (first star formation) phase of the Universe independently of theories and evidence of the first few million years after the Big Bang. Most stars from Population II\",\n \"-31.17257396207424\"\n ],\n [\n \"0.43 ± 0.13 arcseconds. This would have placed its distance at only 7.50 light-years, making Teegarden's Star only the third star system in order of distance from the Sun, ranking between Barnard's Star and Wolf 359. However, even at that time the anomalously low luminosity (the absolute magnitude would have been 18.5) and high uncertainty in the parallax suggested that it was in fact somewhat farther away, still one of the Sun's nearest neighbors but not nearly as high in the ranking in order of distance. A more accurate parallax measurement of 0.2593 arcseconds was made by George Gatewood in\",\n \"-31.13261398414761\"\n ],\n [\n \"is dimmed by 30% due to interstellar dust, so would have a brighter magnitude of 3.31 if not for this. The second brightest star at magnitude 3.97 is Beta Pyxidis, a yellow bright giant or supergiant of spectral type G7Ib-II that is around 435 times as luminous as the Sun, lying 420 ± 10 light-years distant away from Earth. It has a companion star of magnitude 12.5 separated by 9 arcseconds. Gamma Pyxidis is a star of magnitude 4.02 that lies 207 ± 2 light-years distant. It is an orange giant of spectral type K3III that has cooled and swollen\",\n \"-31.12031232335721\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be missing. However, R.T.A. Innes found an uncatalogued star about 15 arc seconds away from the absent star's position. It became clear that the star had a very high proper motion of more than 8 arc seconds per year and had moved significantly. Later, CPD-44 612 came to be referred to as Kapteyn's Star although equal credit should be accorded to Robert Innes. At the time of its discovery it had the highest proper motion of any star known, dethroning Groombridge 1830. In 1916, Barnard's Star was found to have an even larger proper motion. In 2014, two super-Earth\",\n \"-31.086559557741566\"\n ],\n [\n \"to contain at least one \\\"dark\\\" star, we could search for and catalogue as many double-star systems as possible, and identify cases where only a single circling star was visible. This would then provide a statistical baseline for calculating the amount of other unseen stellar matter that might exist in addition to the visible stars. Dark stars and gravitational shifts Michell also suggested that future astronomers might be able to identify the surface gravity of a distant star by seeing how far the star's light was shifted to the weaker end of the spectrum, a precursor of Einstein's 1911 gravity-shift\",\n \"-31.070081149358884\"\n ],\n [\n \"11.95. M13 is about 22,200 light-years away from Earth.\\nIt wasn't until 1779 that the single stars in this globular cluster were resolved. Compared to the stars in the neighborhood of the Sun, the stars in M13's stellar population are more than a hundred times denser. They are so densely packed together that they sometimes collide and produce new stars. The newly-formed, young stars, so-called \\\"blue stragglers,\\\" are particularly interesting to astronomers.\\nThe Arecibo message of 1974, which contained encoded information about the human race, DNA, atomic numbers, Earth's position and other information, was beamed from the Arecibo Observatory radio telescope towards\",\n \"-31.060041871722206\"\n ],\n [\n \"the brightness necessary to be seen with the naked eye. At that time, Gliese 445 will be approximately tied with Ross 248 for being the closest star to our Sun (see List of nearest stars#Future and past).\",\n \"-31.007253813957504\"\n ],\n [\n \"the same patch of sky from Earth's perspective. This group has an estimated age of about (500 ± 100) million years. As the members of this group share a common origin and motion through space, this yields an estimate for the age of Beta Ursae Majoris. Two stars are known to be located in relatively close proximity: 37 Ursae Majoris at 5.2 light-years (1.6 pc) and Gamma Ursae Majoris at 11.0 light-years (3.4 pc); much closer to each other than these stars are to the Earth. Nomenclature β Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Beta Ursae Majoris) is the star's Bayer designation.\\nIt bore the traditional\",\n \"-30.94422927231426\"\n ],\n [\n \"star was seen. By night, it was the brightest star in the sky, and it was visible during the day for more than three weeks, before eventually dimming. In 1606, Delle Colombe published his discourse on the phenomenon, dedicated to Alessandro Marzi Medici, the Archbishop of Florence. In his work delle Colombe argued that the star was not new, but permanent, though only occasionally visible. This argument echoed that of Johannes van Heeck in supporting the generally-accepted model of the universe, known as the Aristotelian model or the Ptolemaic system. This held that the stars were fixed in their\",\n \"-30.925707125745248\"\n ],\n [\n \"Rabolu's ideas to bolster her claims.\\nBarnard's star has been directly measured to be 5.98 ± 0.003 light years (56.6 Pm) from Earth . While it is approaching Earth, Barnard's Star will not make its closest approach to the Sun until around 11,700 AD, when it will approach to within some 3.8 light-years. This is only slightly closer than the closest star to the Sun (Proxima Centauri) lies today. Nemesis Believers in Planet X/Nibiru have often confused it with Nemesis, a hypothetical star first proposed by physicist Richard A. Muller. In 1984, Muller postulated that mass extinctions were not random, but appeared\",\n \"-30.91035214113799\"\n ],\n [\n \"the very first stars. The discovery of the star in the Milky Way galaxy suggests that the galaxy may be at least 3 billion years older than previously thought.\\nSeveral individual stars have been found in the Milky Way's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80-billion-year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523-0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using\",\n \"-30.891924348419707\"\n ],\n [\n \"star generally is the first to evolve into a giant or supergiant. Calculations show that its mass loss then will become so large that in a comparatively very short time (less than half a million years) this star, that was once the heaviest, now becomes the lighter of the two components. Part of its mass is transferred to the companion star, the rest is lost in space. Light curves The light curves of beta Lyrae variables are quite smooth: eclipses start and end so gradually that the exact moments are impossible to tell. This is because the flow of mass\",\n \"-30.811775490388754\"\n ],\n [\n \"billion years old based on its evolution and mass. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 9.63. Therefore, BD+14 4559 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be viewed using good binoculars. Orbit BD+14 4559 b orbits its star with about 25% of the Sun's luminosity every 268 days at a distance of 0.77 AU (close to Venus's orbital distance from the Sun, which is 0.72 AU). It has a mildly eccentric\",\n \"-30.80775275551423\"\n ],\n [\n \"period began to gradually decrease until its light curve only showed one peak per period. This was because the secondary star began orbiting faster than the envelope of the primary star could keep up with. Because the stars are in contact, the velocity difference begins to dissipate as energy at their point of contact. Thus when the secondary star was approaching the line of sight, it appeared brighter and when it was moving away from the line of sight, it appeared fainter. By 2007, the two stars were so close to merging, that its magnitude, as measured on Earth, appeared\",\n \"-30.75715612363274\"\n ],\n [\n \"faster than the galaxy's escape velocity.\\nThe star is about 200,000 light years from the galaxy's center. Some doubt has surrounded the previous studies based on the speed and position of HE 0437-5439. The star would have to be at least 100 million years old to have traveled that distance from the galactic core, yet its mass and blue color indicate that it had burned only for 20 million years. These observations led to the explanation that it was part of a triple-star system consisting of two closely bound stars and one outer star. The black hole pulled the outer star\",\n \"-30.753646397286502\"\n ],\n [\n \"time the light was emitted is estimated to have been about 15% of the Milky Way's current mass. The galaxy was making new stars at roughly 80 times the rate of the current Milky Way, or equivalent to 800 M☉ worth of material turning to stars every year. The light reaching Earth was made by stars in EGS-zs8-1 that were 100 million to 300 million years old at the time they emitted the light. The age of EGS-zs8-1 places it in the reionization phase of creation, a time when hydrogen outside the galaxies was switching from a neutral to ionized\",\n \"-30.728321480040904\"\n ],\n [\n \"years have passed, but according to those on Earth, the ship comes back 76 years after launch.\\nFrom the viewpoint of the astronaut, onboard clocks seem to be running normally. The star ahead seems to be approaching at a speed of 0.87 light years per ship-year. The universe would appear contracted along the direction of travel to half the size it had when the ship was at rest; the distance between that star and the Sun would seem to be 16 light years as measured by the astronaut.\\nAt higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, so the astronaut\",\n \"-30.699277884326875\"\n ],\n [\n \"universe. Presently the earth is only an invisible point among all the stars, because, at this distance, it is lost through its infinite smallness in the vicinity of the sun, which itself is by far only a small star. In the future, when the end of things will arrive on this earth, the event will then pass completely unperceived in the universe. The stars will continue to shine after the extinction of our sun, as they already shone before our existence. When there will no longer be on the earth a sole concern to contemplate, the\",\n \"-30.69328781877266\"\n ],\n [\n \"light-years distant from Earth. At apparent magnitude 11.27, it is much too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. A small star, it has around 23% the mass and radius of the Sun, but only 0.7% its luminosity. VHS 1256-1257 is a brown dwarf of spectral type M7.5 located 41 ± 3 light-years distant from Earth. Around 73 times as massive as Jupiter, it is just under the mass boundary separating brown dwarves from stars. It has a companion that was first identified and documented by the 2MASS survey in 2015. It orbits at a distance of 102 ±\",\n \"-30.62193757806017\"\n ],\n [\n \"5 million years, for example, this star will be separated from the Sun by more than 500 light years. A Type Ia supernova within a thousand parsecs (3300 light-years) is thought to be able to affect the Earth, but it must be closer than about 10 parsecs (around thirty light-years) to cause a major harm to the terrestrial biosphere.\\nFollowing a supernova explosion, the remnant of the donor star (IK Pegasus A) would continue with the final velocity it possessed when it was a member of a close orbiting binary system. The resulting relative velocity could be as high as 100–200 km/s, which would place it\",\n \"-30.564533328288235\"\n ],\n [\n \"years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which typically can only see objects with a magnitude around 6 or less. Discovery In 2009, NASA's Kepler spacecraft was completing observing stars on its photometer, the instrument it uses to detect transit events, in which a planet crosses in front of and dims its host star for a brief and roughly regular period of time. In this last test, Kepler observed 50000 stars in the\",\n \"-30.53196457328886\"\n ],\n [\n \"would be more than a thousand times lower than the faintest stars currently existing and their lifetimes would also be sensibly longer.\",\n \"-30.51075150905308\"\n ],\n [\n \"if light came from our eyes at a constant velocity it would take much too long to illuminate the stars for us to see them while we are still looking at them, because they are so far away. Therefore, the illumination must be coming from the stars so we can see them as soon as we open our eyes. Astronomy The Islamic understanding of the astronomical model was based on the Greek Ptolemaic system. However many early astronomers had started to question the model. It was not always accurate in its predictions and was over complicated because astronomers were trying\",\n \"-30.46596992497507\"\n ],\n [\n \"only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years. Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright. Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth. As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible. As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black.\\nThe daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in\",\n \"-30.453308142519745\"\n ],\n [\n \"light coming from the star RX J1856.5-3754, the closest discovered neutron star to Earth.\\nRoberto Mignani at the National Institute for Astrophysics in Milan who led the team of astronomers has commented that \\\"“When Einstein came up with the theory of general relativity 100 years ago, he had no idea that it would be used for navigational systems. The consequences of this discovery probably will also have to be realised on a longer timescale.” The team found that visible light from the star had undergone linear polarisation of around 16%. If the birefringence had been caused by light passing through interstellar\",\n \"-30.439425623000716\"\n ],\n [\n \"of that of the solar luminosity, respectively.\\nThe apparent magnitude of the star system, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is about 15.4. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which can typically detect objects with a magnitude less than 6.5.\",\n \"-30.429703949452232\"\n ],\n [\n \"including 163 single stars. It is estimated that a further 130 systems within this range have not yet been identified. Out to 81.5 ly, there may be up to 7,500 stars, of which around 2,600 are known. The number of substellar objects in that volume are expected to be comparable to the number of stars. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being the red dwarf Proxima Centauri at approximately 4.2 light-years), the Sun ranks fourth in mass. Coronal heating problem The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona\",\n \"-30.41436559903741\"\n ],\n [\n \"was Frank B. McDonald. The discovery of Teegarden's star The discovery of Teegarden's star came as somewhat of a surprise as no close-by stars had been discovered for many decades. Teegarden's team found this star in data taken years earlier by an unrelated program searching for near-Earth asteroids.\\nThe real excitement was from the initial measurements the team made for the parallax of this star. These initial measurements indicated that the star may be very close at a distance of about seven light-years. This would have made it the third-closest star system. This excitement resulted in numerous popular press articles and\",\n \"-30.39179337269161\"\n ],\n [\n \"Over 3600 light-years away, this system would outshine Venus at magnitude −4.8 if it were 32 light-years (10 parsecs) distant. The two main components are separated by 50 arcseconds, resolvable to the naked eye for individuals with good vision and easily discernible with a telescope.\\nEta Circini is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III and magnitude 5.17, located around 276 light-years distant, and Zeta Circini is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B3V and magnitude 6.09, located around 1273 light-years away.\\n493 variable stars have been recorded in Circinus, but most have a very small range or are quite dim. Three prominent examples are\",\n \"-30.354434766333725\"\n ],\n [\n \"2.6 and 5.1 billion years.\\nThe star's surface gravity, logg = 4.15, and its low levels of lithium helped derive the star's age, and revealed that it most likely evolved away from the zero age main sequence.\",\n \"-30.30277802034834\"\n ],\n [\n \"Earth's sky, with an apparent magnitude of −26.74. This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. The mean distance of the Sun's center to Earth's center is approximately 1 astronomical unit (about 150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi), though the distance varies as Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July. At this average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. The energy of\",\n \"-30.275593818339985\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 0.68 R☉. It has a surface temperature of 4640 K and is 7 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 8.96. Therefore, HIP 57274 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be seen with good binoculars. Orbit HIP 57274 d orbits its star every 432 days at a distance of 1.01 AU. This is very similar to that of Earth's orbital period and distance. Habitability HIP 57274 d\",\n \"-30.26944295506837\"\n ],\n [\n \"that their median age is 6.4 ± 0.7 Ga. Moreover, 75% of stars in the galactic habitable zone are older than the Sun. This makes the existence of potential planets with evolved intelligent life more likely than not to be older than that of the Earth (4.54 Ga). This creates an observational dilemma since interstellar travel, (even of the \\\"slow\\\" kind that is nearly within the reach of present Earth technology) could in theory, if this had arisen elsewhere, take from only 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the galaxy. This leads to a conundrum first posed in\",\n \"-30.248216025152942\"\n ],\n [\n \"that of the Sun and is 8.6 light-years away. Canopus and the next fixed star Toliman (α Centauri), 4.2 light-years away, are also located in the Southern Sky, having declinations around –60° – too close to the south celestial pole that neither are visible from Central Europe.\",\n \"-30.24122572549095\"\n ],\n [\n \"star that is divisible into two stars 5.4\\\" apart by small amateur telescopes, 280 light-years from Earth. The pair, both white stars, is visible to the naked eye at magnitude 5.2; the primary is of magnitude 5.9 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0.\\nThe raven's breast is marked by Beta Corvi (the proper name is Kraz), a star of magnitude 2.7 located 146 ± 1 light-years from Earth. Roughly 206 million years old and 3.7 ± 1 times as massive as the Sun, it has exhausted its core hydrogen and expanded and cooled to a surface temperature of around 5,100 K\",\n \"-30.228348652908608\"\n ],\n [\n \"extremely difficult to observe. Therefore, secular aberration is usually ignored when considering the positions of stars. In other words, star maps show the observed apparent positions of the stars, not their calculated true positions after accounting for secular aberration.\\nFor stars significantly less than 230 million light years away, the Solar System may be approximated as an inertial frame and so the effect of secular aberration is equivalent to a light-time correction. This includes stars in the Milky Way, since the Milky Way is about 100,000 light years in diameter. For these stars the true position of the star is then\",\n \"-30.224954481258465\"\n ],\n [\n \"miles (17.7 million km). Astronomical observations also suggest that there may be additional stars in the Spica system. In the story, Asumi mentions Spica's distance to Earth as 350 light-years. This figure is also cited by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency; however, other sources indicate a distance of approximately 260 light-years.\\nKou Yaginuma's initial inspiration for the story came from a statement he once read describing the Hohner Little Lady harmonica as one of the first musical instruments taken into space. However, as an aspiring manga artist, Yaginuma had neither resources to conduct research on nor knowledge pertaining to spaceflight. He\",\n \"-30.220351464384294\"\n ],\n [\n \"the primary and 401 ± 13 light-years (123 ± 4 pc) for the secondary. More recently the Gaia mission has measured distances of about 330–390 light years (100–120 parsecs) for both components, but noise in the astrometric measurements for the stars means that data from Gaia's second data release is not yet sufficient to determine whether the stars are physically associated.\\nThere are a further 10 faint companions listed in the Washington Double Star catalogue, all fainter than magnitude 10. Only one is closer to the primary than Albireo B, with the others up to 142\\\" away. Albireo A The spectrum of Beta Cygni A was\",\n \"-30.196932815611945\"\n ],\n [\n \"to their peak in 2025. The system, 35 light-years from Earth, has a period of 34.5 years. The primary is a yellow-tinged star of magnitude 2.9 and the secondary is an orange star of magnitude 5.7.\\nThere are several dimmer variable stars in Hercules. 30 Herculis, also called g Herculis, is a semiregular red giant with a period of 3 months. 361 light-years from Earth, it has a minimum magnitude of 6.3 and a maximum magnitude of 4.3. 68 Herculis, also called u Herculis, is a Beta Lyrae-type eclipsing binary star. 865 light-years from Earth, it has a period of 2\",\n \"-30.193799207525444\"\n ],\n [\n \"HD 155358 Observation With a visual magnitude of 7.5, this star can not be observed with the unaided eye. Hence it was discovered only after the introduction of the telescope. In 1859 it was catalogued in the Bonner Durchmusterung by the Prussian astronomer F. W. Argelander, who listed an estimated visual magnitude of 7.2. In 1958 it was identified as a star with a relatively large proper motion by the Nizamiah Observatory, Hyderabad. It was suggested in 1979 that this star may lie within 25 parsecs of the Sun. (Up to that time it had never been catalogued as a\",\n \"-30.17330491614848\"\n ],\n [\n \"Digital Sky Survey. Both of these stars being cool red giants, they are extremely bright which is one of the key factors in their discovery. Their distance was estimated with a number of different techniques, which all pointed towards 900,000 light years away. Distance ULAS J0015+01 is, at the current time, 900,000 light years away from the Milky Way galaxy. The Milky Way's disk is 180,000 light years in diameter, putting it far beyond the Milky Way stellar disk, or only 3 times closer than the Andromeda galaxy. In comparison, in distance to the Milky Way's satellite galaxy, the Large\",\n \"-30.172145402571914\"\n ],\n [\n \"old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a temperature of 5778 K. The star is metal-rich, with a metallicity ([Fe/H]) of 0.16, or 144% the solar amount. This is particularly odd for a star as old as HD 164922. Its luminosity (L☉) is 70% of the solar luminosity.\\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 7.01. Therefore, HD 164922 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be viewed using good binoculars. Orbit HD 164922 b orbits its star every 1,155 days at a distance\",\n \"-30.168278006414766\"\n ],\n [\n \"data of its planet's atmospheric composition. It would take 4.22 years for the information collected to be sent back to Earth.\\nFrom Proxima Centauri, the Sun would appear as a bright 0.4-magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia, similar to that of Achernar from Earth.\",\n \"-30.109470021352536\"\n ],\n [\n \"mass of the Milky Way's stars. According to Lehnert (of the Observatoire de Paris), it was forming the same number of stars per year as our galaxy, but they were much smaller and less massive, making it \\\"intensely star forming\\\".\\nThe light travel distance of the light that we observe from UDFy-38135539 (HUF.YD3) is more than 4 billion parsecs (13.1 billion light years), and it has a luminosity distance of 86.9 billion parsecs (about 283 billion light years). There are a number of different distance measures in cosmology, and both \\\"light travel distance\\\" and \\\"luminosity distance\\\" are different from the comoving\",\n \"-30.077176249822514\"\n ],\n [\n \"borders. Appearing to be of magnitude 3.97, a telescope reveals a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F4V of magnitude 4.11 and a star very similar to the Sun of spectral type G5V and magnitude 6.18. The two are 10.6 astronomical units (au) apart and orbit each other every 21.78 years. The system is 52.4 ± 0.6 light-years distant from Earth. Likewise 16 Lyncis was originally known as Psi¹⁰ Aurigae and conversely, 37, 39, 41 and 44 Lyncis became part of Ursa Major.\\nY Lyncis is a popular target among amateur astronomers, as it is a semiregular variable ranging in brightness from\",\n \"-30.07630578037788\"\n ],\n [\n \"probe to the nearest star.\\nAstrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones. Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and\",\n \"-30.07390244835551\"\n ],\n [\n \"correction of −0.2 mag dex⁻¹ in (O/H), an estimate of 2.57 ± 0.06 million light-years (1.625×10¹¹ ± 3.8×10⁹ astronomical units) was derived. A 2004 Cepheid variable method estimated the distance to be 2.51 ± 0.13 million light-years (770 ± 40 kpc). In 2005, an eclipsing binary star was discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy. The binary is two hot blue stars of types O and B. By studying the eclipses of the stars, astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars, they were able to measure their absolute magnitude. When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance\",\n \"-30.051302718253282\"\n ],\n [\n \"The two stars are 0.05 AU from each other, while a third star is around 600 AU away from the pair, and has an orbital period exceeding 5000 years. The system is around 300 light years distant. In 1976, researchers Clausen, Gyldenkerne, and Grønbech calculated that a nearby 8th magnitude star is a fourth member of the system.\\nGamma Phoenicis is a red giant of spectral type M0IIIa and varies between magnitudes 3.39 and 3.49. It lies 235 light years away. Psi Phoenicis is another red giant, this time of spectral type M4III, and has an apparent magnitude that ranges\",\n \"-30.04167118342957\"\n ],\n [\n \"faint, and of the colour of Jupiter, but similar to many others which generally are reckoned of the eighth magnitude. Therefore I had no doubt of its being any other than a fixed star. In the evening of the second I repeated my observations, and having found that it did not correspond either in time or in distance from the zenith with the former observation, I began to entertain some doubts of its accuracy. I conceived afterwards a great suspicion that it might be a new star. The evening of the third, my suspicion was converted into certainty, being assured\",\n \"-30.0312785265196\"\n ],\n [\n \"old star. At 13.53 Gyr, the star is the oldest known thin-disk star, and several billion years older than most estimates for the age of the Milky Way's thin disk. Primary star The primary component of the binary star system, 2MASS J18082002−5104378 A, is a subgiant, cooler than the Sun, but larger and more luminous. Secondary star The secondary unseen companion, 2MASS J18082002−5104378 B, thought to be a red dwarf, has an orbital period P = 34.757+0.010\\n−0.010 days and a mass of 0.14 M☉. It is the first low-mass UMP star to be discovered, and one of the oldest stars in the\",\n \"-30.010932917786704\"\n ],\n [\n \"248 will bring it closer to the Solar System. In 1993, Matthews projected that in about 33,000 years it would enter a period of about 9,000 years as the closest star to the Sun, as close as 3.024 light-years (0.927 parsecs) in 36,000 years.\\nAny future spacecraft that escaped the Solar System with a velocity of 25.4 km/s would reach this star 37,000 years from now, when the star just passes its nearest approach. By comparison, the Voyager 1 has an escape velocity of 16.6 km/s.\",\n \"-29.960920616809744\"\n ],\n [\n \"stars, are of magnitude 4.8 and 6.2, respectively. The unrelated tertiary component is of magnitude 6.9. Though the tertiary component is divisible in binoculars, the primary and secondary currently require a medium-sized amateur telescope to split, as they will through the year 2020. The two stars will be closest between 2043 and 2050, when they will require a telescope with larger aperture to split. The stars 30 and 31 Cygni form a contrasting double star similar to the brighter Albireo. The two are divisible in binoculars. The primary, 31 Cygni, is an orange-hued star of magnitude 3.8, 1400 light-years from\",\n \"-29.950232242768834\"\n ],\n [\n \"The faint (magnitude 12.23) Gliese 754, a red dwarf of spectral type M4.5V, is one of the nearest 100 stars to Earth at 19.3 light-years distant. Its eccentric orbit around the Galaxy indicates that it may have originated in the Milky Way's thick disk.\\nAt least four of the fifteen stars visible to the unaided eye are orange giants of spectral class K. The second brightest star in the constellation—at apparent magnitude 4.1—is Zeta Telescopii, an orange subgiant of spectral type K1III-IV. Around 1.53 times as massive as the Sun, it shines with 512 times its luminosity. Located 127 light years\",\n \"-29.905956798655097\"\n ],\n [\n \"Light-year History The light-year unit appeared a few years after the first successful measurement of the distance to a star other than the Sun, by Friedrich Bessel in 1838. The star was 61 Cygni, and he used a 6.2-inch (160 mm) heliometer designed by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The largest unit for expressing distances across space at that time was the astronomical unit, equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit (1.50×10⁸ km or 9.30×10⁷ mi). In those terms, trigonometric calculations based on 61 Cygni's parallax of 0.314 arcseconds, showed the distance to the star to be 660000 astronomical units (9.9×10¹³ km or 6.1×10¹³ mi). Bessel\",\n \"-29.90135615383042\"\n ],\n [\n \"the first-magnitude star Deneb. This is near the midpoint of the imaginary line between the 3rd-magnitude stars Xi Cygni and Rho Cygni. The star can also be found by continuing north along the line between the stars Zeta Cygni, Upsilon Cygni, Tau Cygni, and Sigma Cygni, as 68 Cygni is the first easily visible naked-eye star one will come to. Properties According to the star's measured parallax of 0.70 milliarcseconds, it is located approximately 1,400 parsecs (4,600 ly) distant, although such low parallax values are subject to low precision. With taking into account the error estimate of 0.23 milliarcseconds, the star's\",\n \"-29.899932155654824\"\n ],\n [\n \"and its kinematics and age show its unlikely it had formed in any of the previous three star-forming regions mentioned.\\nAssuming the distance given above and a surface temperature of 3,300 K, IRC-10414 is 160,000 times brighter than the Sun and its diameter in the order of 1,200 times the solar one, which places this star among the largest known. Stellar evolution models suggest in that case an initial mass between 20 and 25 solar masses and an age between 6 and 10 million years. Variability IRC-10414 has been reported as a likely variable with a period of 768 days and\",\n \"-29.879374853584522\"\n ],\n [\n \"or 440 light years. However, when the Hipparcos Catalogue was published in 1997, the new parallax measurement indicated a much closer distance of about 119 ± 1.0 pc (388 ± 3.2 ly), triggering substantial controversy among astronomers. If the Hipparcos estimate were accurate, some astronomers contend, then stars in the cluster would have to be fainter than Sun-like stars—a notion that would challenge some of the fundamental precepts of stellar structure. Interferometric measurements taken in 2004 by the Hubble Telescope's Fine Guidance Sensors and corroborated by studies from Caltech and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory showed the original estimate of 135\",\n \"-29.854712732398184\"\n ],\n [\n \"disclosed the risings and settings of the stars, how the fiery brightness of the sun is darkened, and how the stars retreat at fixed times.\\\"\",\n \"-29.85148442765785\"\n ],\n [\n \"apparent magnitude of 5.90. Known as 35 Leo, this star is separated from Adhafera by 325.9 arcseconds along a position angle of 340°. The two stars do not form a binary star system as 35 Leo is only 100 light years from Earth, thus separating the two stars by approximately 174 light-years (53 parsecs).\",\n \"-29.834515190319507\"\n ],\n [\n \"HD 12661 Properties The apparent visual magnitude of this star is 7.42, making it too faint to be viewed by the naked eye even under ideal viewing conditions. However, it can be readily observed using a small telescope with an aperture of 6 cm (2 in) or more. Parallax measurements of HD 12661 place it at a distance of about 123.6 light-years (37.9 parsecs) from the Earth, with a margin of error of ±0.2 light years. It has a stellar classification of G6 V, indicating that it is a main sequence star that is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at\",\n \"-29.82156909033074\"\n ],\n [\n \"distant an object, the longer it takes light to reach Earth as a result of the speed of light being finite. In general, this allows astronomers to study objects as they were many millions or even billions of years ago. Spinrad originally selected targets by looking at the position of members of the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources, as the catalogue included many radio galaxies that he thought would be at high redshift. The search was successful, and Spinrad found the galaxy with the highest identified redshift in 1975, and then found several more with greater redshifts, including the\",\n \"-29.805140366515843\"\n ],\n [\n \"no more than a few light years in diameter and may hypothetically contain a small number of other suns. But Lagash is located in the center of a \\\"giant cluster,\\\" and during the eclipse, the night sky—the first that people have ever seen—is filled with the dazzling light of more than 30,000 newly visible stars.\\nLearning that the universe is far more vast—and Lagash far more insignificant—than they believed causes everyone, including the scientists, to go insane. Outside the observatory, in the direction of the city, the horizon begins glowing with the light of spreading fires as \\\"the long night\\\" returns\",\n \"-29.796317519270815\"\n ],\n [\n \"an age of less than two billion years. However, this technique becomes less accurate for ages beyond about 5.6 billion years. Based upon the chromosphere emission of HD 12661, it is older than the Sun with an estimated age of roughly seven billion years. It has a low projected rotational velocity of 1.20 km/s, consistent with it being an older star. The age of a star can also be estimated by the abundance of lithium, as this element is destroyed through thermonuclear fusion at the core. However, this is less accurate technique. For HD 12661, the lithium abundance gives an age\",\n \"-29.795516020159994\"\n ],\n [\n \"lifetimes. Stars were thought therefore to radiate energy by converting gravitational energy into radiation through the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. This mechanism resulted in an age for the Sun of only tens of millions of years, creating a conflict over the age of the Solar System between astronomers, and biologists and geologists who had evidence that the Earth was far older than that. This conflict was only resolved in the 1930s when nuclear fusion was identified as the source of stellar energy.\\nFollowing Russell's presentation of the diagram to a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1912, Arthur Eddington was inspired to\",\n \"-29.792198845643725\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":292,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"6mgb35"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do some vegetarians sight morals reasons for not eating meat/animals when animals eating other animals has persisted throughout history?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Animals rape each other in the wild, does that justify rape? Basing your morality off of what wild animals do isn't sound logic.","Ethics specifically deals with the fact that humanity is sapient, and can reason before making choices. What other animals do really doesn't have an impact on ethics, because as far as we know, none of them can make a conscious decision to act differently.","Animals in the wild are not intelligent like humans, not capable of morality like humans, and most of all don't really have a choice... predators are built by evolution to kill and eat, and in an environment where that's their only survival option. Humans, however, are omnivores and capable of eating a wide variety of things to survive. Furthermore, we've constructed a huge society that makes getting access to tons and tons of different food options pretty easy. Tigers don't have a choice, Humans do, and ergo humans **choose** to eat meat.","Lots of valid points here, but it's also worth noting that we are the only species that does factory farming. If you're a deer and get eaten by a wolf, you've probably lived your life with a lot of freedom but just died pretty brutally. If you're a chicken and get eaten by a human, your life was very likely spent in a tiny environment with a huge amount of other chickens eating food laden with supplements to force more growth and so on. This is why many vegans will argue that being vegetarian isn't enough, a chicken that lays eggs or a cow that produces milk will have the same poor quality of life up until their death whether or not they get eaten at the end of it. While I'm a meat eater myself, I'm strongly of the belief that the debate needs to move on from \"are we ethically **eating** meat\" to \"are we ethically **farming** meat\".","Because what other animals do is irrelevant. We typically don't base the ethics of our behavior and actions on that of other animals, and for good reasons: we would find ourselves in societies where it was perfectly fine for a man to kill another man for hitting on his girlfriend; societies where a mother would be justified in killing and eating her own baby.","Because animals aren't considered to have moral agency, so we do ascribe morality to any of their actions. Animals in the wild commit all kinds of acts that humans consider to be morally repugnant, including rape and murder. The is absolutely no reasons we should look to the wild kingdom as our guide on morality.","Lots of things commonly occur in nature that are morally reprehensible. Mothers eat their own young as a survival strategy, rape is a common way males can pass on their genes. It's the Naturalistic fallacy to assume something is right or good because it occurs in nature.","The way animals are raised, fed and slaughtered is often very barbaric whereas animals in the wild get to roam freely."],"string":"[\n \"Animals rape each other in the wild, does that justify rape? Basing your morality off of what wild animals do isn't sound logic.\",\n \"Ethics specifically deals with the fact that humanity is sapient, and can reason before making choices. What other animals do really doesn't have an impact on ethics, because as far as we know, none of them can make a conscious decision to act differently.\",\n \"Animals in the wild are not intelligent like humans, not capable of morality like humans, and most of all don't really have a choice... predators are built by evolution to kill and eat, and in an environment where that's their only survival option. Humans, however, are omnivores and capable of eating a wide variety of things to survive. Furthermore, we've constructed a huge society that makes getting access to tons and tons of different food options pretty easy. Tigers don't have a choice, Humans do, and ergo humans **choose** to eat meat.\",\n \"Lots of valid points here, but it's also worth noting that we are the only species that does factory farming. If you're a deer and get eaten by a wolf, you've probably lived your life with a lot of freedom but just died pretty brutally. If you're a chicken and get eaten by a human, your life was very likely spent in a tiny environment with a huge amount of other chickens eating food laden with supplements to force more growth and so on. This is why many vegans will argue that being vegetarian isn't enough, a chicken that lays eggs or a cow that produces milk will have the same poor quality of life up until their death whether or not they get eaten at the end of it. While I'm a meat eater myself, I'm strongly of the belief that the debate needs to move on from \\\"are we ethically **eating** meat\\\" to \\\"are we ethically **farming** meat\\\".\",\n \"Because what other animals do is irrelevant. We typically don't base the ethics of our behavior and actions on that of other animals, and for good reasons: we would find ourselves in societies where it was perfectly fine for a man to kill another man for hitting on his girlfriend; societies where a mother would be justified in killing and eating her own baby.\",\n \"Because animals aren't considered to have moral agency, so we do ascribe morality to any of their actions. Animals in the wild commit all kinds of acts that humans consider to be morally repugnant, including rape and murder. The is absolutely no reasons we should look to the wild kingdom as our guide on morality.\",\n \"Lots of things commonly occur in nature that are morally reprehensible. Mothers eat their own young as a survival strategy, rape is a common way males can pass on their genes. It's the Naturalistic fallacy to assume something is right or good because it occurs in nature.\",\n \"The way animals are raised, fed and slaughtered is often very barbaric whereas animals in the wild get to roam freely.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["controversy and debate have arisen over the ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo, such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms, or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns","-38.74606883950764"],["justified in extreme circumstances; consuming a living creature just for its taste, for convenience, or out of habit is not justifiable. Some ethicists have added that humans, unlike other animals, are morally conscious of their behavior and have a choice; this is why there are laws governing human behavior, and why it is subject to moral standards.\nEthical vegetarian concerns have become more widespread in developed countries, particularly because of the spread of factory farming, more open and graphic documentation of what human meat-eating entails for the animal, and environmental consciousness. Some proponents of meat-eating argue that the current mass demand","-38.377269424003316"],["word \"vegetarianism\", vegetarians were referred to in English as \"Pythagoreans\".\nThe question of whether there are any ethical duties toward animals was hotly debated, and the arguments in dispute were quite similar to the ones familiar in modern discussions on animal rights. Vegetarianism was usually part and parcel of religious convictions connected with the concept of transmigration of the soul (metempsychosis). There was a widely held belief, popular among both vegetarians and non-vegetarians, that in the Golden Age of the beginning of humanity mankind was strictly non-violent. In that utopian state of the world hunting, livestock breeding, and meat-eating, as well","-37.74165047759743"],["in distributing the spoils afterwards. In a 2003 paper, psychologist Matteo Marneli proposed that these pressures created the basic principles of human moral judgements: put simply, he argued, \"meat made us moral.\"\nSeveral studies have found that both omnivores and vegetarians tend to consider vegetarians slightly more moral and virtuous than omnivores. Ethical principles are often cited among reasons to stop eating meat. Some evidence suggests meat-eaters may consider vegetarianism an implicit moral reproach, and respond defensively to vegetarian ideas.\nA 2015 study found that Belgian omnivores, semi-vegetarians (flexitarians), and vegetarians have fundamentally different moral outlooks on animal welfare concerns. However, the","-37.25599647974013"],["in the Vegetarian Society's magazine in 1851 as evidence of the existence of a group that sought to avoid animal products entirely. There was increasing unease within the Society from the start of the 20th century onwards with regards to egg and milk consumption, and in 1923 its magazine wrote that the \"ideal position for vegetarians is [complete] abstinence from animal products.\"\nMahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) argued in 1931 before a meeting of the Society in London that vegetarianism should be pursued in the interests of animals, and not only as a human health issue. He met both Henry Salt and Anna","-37.084604038420366"],["History of vegetarianism The earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people are from ancient India and the ancient Greek civilizations in southern Italy and Greece. In both instances, the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence toward animals (called ahimsa in India), and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.\nFollowing the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity (4th–6th centuries), vegetarianism nearly disappeared from Europe. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them abstained from the","-37.06402262552001"],["a vegan diet (no animal products).\nAs of March 2016, 11.2% of people living in Australia, 2.1 million people, said \"The food I eat is all, or almost all, vegetarian.\" The report also found that vegetarians were likely to be slimmer; while 60.7% of Australian adults have a Body Mass Index that qualifies as overweight or obese, this figure drops to 45.4% of those whose diet is mostly or totally vegetarian. Humane slaughter Animals Australia and RSPCA Victoria state that all animals should be stunned prior to slaughter because of the suffering they experience during their slaughter. According to the Australian","-37.06309086277906"],["diet of grain, or injected with any artificial hormones. However, since the necessary act of killing a deer to procure the venison is generally much more apparent to anyone who encounters this sort of meat, some people can be even more uncomfortable with eating this than meat from animals raised on factory farms. Many ethical vegetarians and ethical meat-eaters argue that it is behaviour rather than supporting beliefs that should be adjusted. Environmental argument Some people choose to be vegetarian or vegan for environmental reasons.\nAccording to a 2006 report by LEAD Livestock's Long Shadow, \"the livestock sector emerges","-36.94333330367226"],["consumption of fish; these monks were not vegetarians, but some were pescetarians. Vegetarianism was to reemerge somewhat in Europe during the Renaissance and became a more widespread practice during the 19th and 20th centuries. The figures for the percentage of the Western world which is vegetarian varies between 0.5% and 4% per Mintel data in September 2006. Early Jainism and Buddhism Jain and Buddhist sources show that the principle of nonviolence toward animals was an established rule in both religions as early as the 6th-century BCE. The Jain concept, which is particularly strict, may be even older. Parshva, the earliest","-36.83320530454512"],["underpins using animals for food, and particularly killing them for meat. Joy compares carnism to patriarchy, arguing that both are dominant normative ideologies that go unrecognized because of their ubiquity:\nWe don't see meat eating as we do vegetarianism – as a choice, based on a set of assumptions about animals, our world, and ourselves. Rather, we see it as a given, the \"natural\" thing to do, the way things have always been and the way things will always be. We eat animals without thinking about what we are doing and why, because the belief system that underlies this behavior is invisible.","-36.73334684345173"],["animals have immortal souls, and that a diet of mostly grain is the healthiest for humans.\nIn Chinese folk religions, as well as the aforementioned faiths, people often eat vegan on the 1st and 15th of the month, as well as the eve of Chinese New Year. Some nonreligious people do this as well. This is similar to the Christian practice of lent and not eating meat on Friday. The percentage of people permanently being pure vegetarian is about the same as the modern English-speaking world, but this percentage has not really changed for a very long time. Many people eat","-36.72963618144058"],["the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns. Henry Stephens Salt (1851-1939) and George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) were famous vegetarian activists.\nIn 1910, physician J. L. Buttner authored the vegetarian book, A Fleshless Diet which argued that meat is dangerous and unnecessary. \nCranks opened in Carnaby Street, London, in 1961, as the first successful vegetarian restaurant in the UK. Eventually there were five Cranks restaurants in London which closed in 2001.\nThe Indian concept of nonviolence had a growing impact in the Western world. The model of","-36.44577224466775"],["the prevalence of vegetarianism among a segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, and the Hindi-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains. Among these groups, strong discomfort is felt at thoughts of eating meat, and contributes to the low proportional consumption of meat to overall diet in India. Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption accompanying higher economic growth.\nIn the last millennium,","-36.04115226252179"],["vegan for a certain amount of time in order to make up for the belief that they have sinned.\nFoods like seitan, tofu skin, meat alternatives made from seaweeds, root vegetable starch, and tofu originate in China and became popularized because so many people periodically abstain from meat. In China, one can find an eggless vegetarian substitute for items ranging from seafood to ham. Also, the Thai (เจ) and Vietnamese (chay) terms for vegetarianism originate from the Chinese term for a lenten diet. Japan In 675, the use of livestock and the consumption of some wild animals (horse, cattle, dogs, monkeys,","-35.88509226121823"],["not a vegetarian), but they all had critical views of meat-eating.\nIt was of some importance at the time. As Jon Gregerson wrote in Vegetarianism: A History, “Not unimportant in the momentum gathered by the Vegetarian Movement in late Victorian England was a book by one Howard Williams entitled The Ethics of Diet, which was published in 1890”. It was read by Indian spiritual leader Mohandas Gandhi, Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, English social reformer Henry Stephens Salt, and Portuguese philosopher Jaime de Magalhães Lima (as he mentioned in his conference O Vegetarismo e a Moralidade das Raças).\nGandhi, who met Williams in","-35.837596648147155"],["to observe vegetarianism. Most Hindus do not eat beef, and some Hindus apply the concept of ahimsa (non-violence) to their diet and consider vegetarianism as ideal, and practice forms of vegetarianism. In some cases, the process of preparation rather than the food itself comes under scrutiny. For instance, in early medieval Christianity, certain uncooked foods were of dubious status: a penitential ascribed to Bede outlined a (mild) penance for those who ate uncooked foods, and Saint Boniface wrote to Pope Zachary (in a letter preserved in the Boniface correspondence, no. 87) asking him how long bacon would have to be","-35.780191009427654"],["questioned the morality of eating animals when it was not necessary for health. Statements from his notebook and a comment by a contemporary have led to the widely held view that he was vegetarian. Additionally, he categorized humans as being in the same set of species as apes and monkeys, just as he did with other animals in their respective genus. He also dissected dead animals for the purpose of comparative anatomy.\nEdward MacCurdy (one of the two translators and compilers of Leonardo's notebooks into English) wrote:\n...The mere idea of permitting the existence of unnecessary suffering, still more that of taking","-35.65879978390876"],["vegetarian diet, but took that further and decided that raw food was what humans were really meant to eat; he was influenced by Charles Darwin's ideas that humans were just another kind of animal and Bircher-Benner noted that other animals do not cook their food. In 1904 he opened a sanatorium in the mountains outside of Zurich called \"Lebendinge Kraft\" or \"Vital Force,\" a technical term in the Lebensreform movement that referred especially to sunlight; he and others believed that this energy was more \"concentrated\" in plants than in meat, and was diminished by cooking. Patients in the clinic","-35.555075813652365"],["Carnism History Analyzing the history of vegetarianism and opposition to it from ancient Greece to the present day, literary scholar Renan Larue found certain commonalities in what he described as carnist arguments. According to him, carnists typically held that vegetarianism is a ludicrous idea unworthy of attention, that mankind is invested with dominion over animals by divine authority, and that abstaining from violence against animals would pose a threat to humans. He found that the views that farmed animals do not suffer, and that slaughter is preferable to death by disease or predation, gained currency in the nineteenth century, but","-35.491851775905616"],["defenses of vegetarianism like those offered by Peter Singer. Singer acknowledges that, on consequentialist grounds, it might seem as if there is little reason for individuals to be concerned about their dietary choices, since few of those choices will actually have consequences for any actual animals. But Singer maintains that some few dietary choices will, by crossing certain demand thresholds, dramatically increase production of animals for food and that taking this possibility into account provides good reason to avoid purchasing meat, since there is a small chance that a single meat purchase might lead to substantial negative consequences for many","-35.48579553505988"],["2013 reported that male undergraduates in the US denied animal suffering to justify eating meat.\nThe denial of animal pain and suffering is often inconsistent between related species. Such beliefs have led to the publication of books such as Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows written by social psychologist Melanie Joy in which she popularised the term carnism.\nDenial of animal pain and suffering can also lead to denial of broader concepts, such as denial of moral status or the existence of \"mind\" in non-human animals. Among those who eat meat, it can lead to their experiencing the meat","-35.337955435419644"],["is an appropriate ethical value. It states that one's guiding principle should be conscientious atmaupamya (literally, \"to-respect-others-as-oneself\").\nAccording to Ludwig Alsdorf, \"Indian vegetarianism is unequivocally based on ahimsa (non-violence)\" as evidenced by ancient smritis and other ancient texts of Hinduism. He adds that the endearment and respect for cattle in Hinduism is more than a commitment to vegetarianism, it has become integral to its theology. The respect for cattle is widespread but not universal. According to Christopher Fuller, animal sacrifices have been rare among the Hindus outside a few eastern states and Himalayan regions of the Indian subcontinent. To the majority","-35.292906899168884"],["based on the dual bases of refraining from killing and subduing one's own subservience to the senses. Because of this, two types of \"vegetarianism\" came to be—one where one refrained from eating meat, the other being refraining from eating meat as well as garlic, onions, and other such strongly flavored foods. This Buddhism-influenced vegetarianism has been known and practiced by some since at least the 7th century. People who are Buddhist may also avoid eating eggs. \nThe early 20th century saw some intellectuals espousing vegetarianism as part of their program for reforming China culturally, not just politically. The","-35.21878326092701"],["Ethics of eating meat The question of whether it is right to eat animal flesh is among the most prominent topics in food ethics. People choose not to eat meat for various reasons such as concern for animal welfare, the environmental impact of meat production (environmental vegetarianism), and health considerations. Some argue that slaughtering animals solely because people enjoy the taste of meat is morally wrong or unjustifiable. Vegans often abstain from other animal products for similar reasons.\nEthical vegetarians and ethical vegans may also object to the practices underlying the production of meat, or cite concerns about animal welfare, animal","-35.19775243184995"],["rights, environmental ethics, and religious reasons. In response, some proponents of meat-eating have adduced various scientific, nutritional, cultural, and religious arguments in support of the practice. Some meat-eaters only object to rearing animals in certain ways, such as in factory farms, or killing them with cruelty; others avoid only certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Overview of the argument against meat eating Peter Singer—Princeton University and University of Melbourne professor and pioneer of the animal liberation movement—has long argued that, if it is possible to survive and be healthy without eating meat, fish, dairy, or eggs, one ought","-35.064491697296035"],["about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat because meat production is claimed to place a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein. Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat. Dairy and eggs One of the main differences between a vegan and a typical vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter","-35.00820176623529"],["much larger history of vegetarianism. Clubb, who was president of the \"Vegetarian Society of America\" published Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian in 1903, at 1023 Foulkrod Street, Frankford Station, Philadelphia. It was entered in the Library of Congress on September 8, 1903.\nIt was one of several pamphlets published by The Vegetarian society of America which Clubb authored on the subject of vegetarianism, including Unpolished rice among others. Content Among the reasons Clubb gives for a vegetarian lifestyle are that he is \"an optimist\" and that \"eating a lamb does not make a man lamb-like in his character any","-34.997234078269685"],["was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE–50 CE) in the northern Thracian region by the Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese.\nIn Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat and non-killing. Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians, and others, vegetarianism had medical or ritual","-34.92587762733456"],["what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance, vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and antioxidants. Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing heart disease, diabetes, cancer and many other diseases. More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from genetically modified food. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (grains) on","-34.88916650263127"],["purification purposes.\nFollowing the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish. Moreover, the medieval definition of \"fish\" included such animals as seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers. Vegetarianism re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom; Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the","-34.861348995997105"],["a custom to serve the guests any non-vegetarian dish at least once in their term of stay.\nBut after the decline of Vedic Hinduism and uprising of Modern Hinduism along with direct influences from newborn religions like Buddhism and Jainism resulted in decrease of heavy dependence upon meat and ended up with only few kinds of meat yielding animals being edible like goat, sheep and swine, and because Cows got an auspicious position in modern Hinduism, the meat of cows, oxen and bulls became taboo. Later on after the influence of Islam, swine also became a taboo. But still many Hindu","-34.810359572351445"],["remains a controversial issue. Animal farming and consumption A 2007 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations found that Indians had the lowest rate of meat consumption of any country. Roughly one-third of Indians are vegetarian (the largest percentage of vegetarians in the world), but few are vegan. Despite having the highest rate of vegetarianism in the world, Indian consumption of dairy, eggs, and meat - especially chicken - is increasing rapidly.\nDespite restrictions on killing and eating cows throughout most of the country, India became the world's largest exporter of beef in 2012.","-34.764058175805985"],["about 1000 CE vegetarianism, along with a taboo against beef, became a well accepted mainstream Hindu tradition. This practice was inspired by the belief in Hinduism that a soul is present in all living beings, life in all its forms is interconnected, and non-violence towards all creatures is the highest ethical value. Vegetarianism is a part of the Hindu culture. God Krishna, one of the incarnations (Avatar) of Vishnu, is associated with cows, adding to its endearment.\nMany ancient and medieval Hindu texts debate the rationale for a voluntary stop to cow slaughter and the pursuit of vegetarianism as a part","-34.6725088992971"],["Eating live animals Eating live animals is the practice of humans eating animals that are still alive. It is a traditional practice in many Asian food cultures as well as in Western television game shows. Eating live animals, or parts of live animals, may be unlawful in certain jurisdictions under animal cruelty laws. Religious prohibitions on the eating of live animals by humans are also present in various world religions. Animals are also eaten alive for shock value. For shock value Several television game shows such as Fear Factor, Survivor and I'm a Celebrity feature segments where contestants must eat","-34.650057954277145"],["argue that commodifying and slaughtering animals is incompatible with the definition of \"humane\". Animal ethicists such as Gary Francione have argued that reducing animal suffering is not enough; it needs to be made illegal and abolished. Non-chordates Peter Singer has pointed out that the ethical argument for vegetarianism may not apply to all non-vegetarian food. For example, any arguments against causing pain to animals would not apply to animals that do not feel pain. It has also often been noted that, while it takes a lot more grain to feed some animals such as cows for human consumption than","-34.57591460700496"],["crops, most of it for use as animal feed, and a minor percentage for edible oil processing (being direct human consumption for use as food nearly negligible), claims that are widely known to have a basis.\nAs in Canada, vegetarianismo ([veʒiˌtaɾjɐ̃ˈnizmu]) is usually synonymous with lacto-ovo-vegetarianism, and vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pescetarians and/or pollotarians who tolerate the flesh of fish or poultry, respectively. Nevertheless, veganism, and freeganism, have now become mainstream in the country, being present in nearly every family. Brazilian vegetarians reportedly tend to be urban, of middle or upper class and live in the Central-Southern half","-34.56909666385036"],["get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the belief that meat is required persists.\nBuilding on Joy's work, psychologists conducted a series of studies in the United States and Australia, published in 2015, that found the great majority of meat-eaters' stated justifications for consuming meat were based on the \"Four Ns\" – \"natural, normal, necessary, and nice\". The arguments were that humans are omnivores (natural), that most people eat meat (normal), that vegetarian diets are lacking in nutrients (necessary), and that meat tastes good (nice).\nMeat-eaters who endorsed these arguments more strongly reported less guilt about their dietary habits.","-34.55708380730357"],["Hodson observes that vegetarians and vegans frequently face discrimination where eating meat is held as a cultural norm. Gender A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation concluded that \"of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are male\".\nAt least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 \"found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to","-34.52757983992342"],["and food companies are taking advantage of the growing number of vegetarians by producing meat-free alternatives of popular dishes, including sausages and mash and spaghetti Bolognese.\nA 2000 Newspoll survey (commissioned by Sanitarium) shows 44% of Australians report eating at least one meat-free evening meal a week, while 18% said they prefer plant-based meals. New Zealand Similar to Australia, in New Zealand the term \"vegetarian\" refers to individuals who eat no animal meat such as pork, chicken, and fish; they may consume animal products such as milk and eggs. In contrast, the term \"vegan\" is used to describe those who do","-34.518560823387816"],["(5.27-44), a particularly renowned traditional Hindu law book (Dharmaśāstra). These texts strongly condemn the slaughter of animals and meat eating. Early Brahmins of South India Some of the south Indian Brahmins during the sutra period, like those of North India were not meat eaters. Buddhism and Jainism Starting from the last few centuries B.C., Buddhism and Jainism contributed much to the belief that nonviolence is supremely valued which stimulated growing hostility to the slaughter of live animals. The non-influence As opposed to the popular views propagated by non-practicing Western and Indian sociologists and Indologists, the notion of Brahmin vegetarianism is","-34.51169585946627"],["arguments in favor of the morality of eating meat. One such line of argument holds that sentience and individual welfare are less important to morality than the greater ecological good. Following environmentalist Aldo Leopold's principle that the sole criterion for morality is preserving the \"integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community\", this position asserts that sustainable hunting and animal agriculture are environmentally healthy and therefore good. Religious traditions of eating meat Hinduism holds vegetarianism as an ideal for three reasons: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals; the intention to offer only \"pure\" (vegetarian) or sattvic food to","-34.49769361680001"],["is not compliant with Jewish law is called treif. Causing unnecessary pain to animals is prohibited by the principle of tza'ar ba'alei chayim. While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, a number of medieval scholars of Judaism, such as Joseph Albo and Isaac Arama, regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal.\nIn Christianity as practised by members of Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, Greek Catholic Church, and others, it is prohibited to eat meat in times of fasting. Rules of fasting also vary. There are also Christian monastic orders that practice vegetarianism. Morals It has been","-34.4648181029479"],["animals are slaughtered for their meat every year in the U.S., yet most of the animals are never seen—they are kept in confined animal feeding operations, invisible to the public and off limits to the media. Joy maintains that the choice to eat meat is not natural or a given as proponents of meat claim, but influenced by social conditioning. The majority of people, Joy claims, care deeply about animals and do not want them to suffer.\nJoy argues there is a neurological basis for empathy; most people care about nonhuman animals and want to prevent their suffering. ","-34.425180011749035"],["vegetarian. The percentage of vegetarians was higher among those 65–75 years old (10%) than those aged 20–24 (7%). The study did not measure the number of vegans. Animals used for clothing Brazil is one of the biggest producers of chinchilla fur in the world.\nIn 2014 the state of Sao Paulo banned most fur farming, imposing a fine of at least 10,000 reais (approximately 2880 USD) for offenders. Animals used in science A total of 3,497,653 animals were used in research published in 18 journals in the State of Paraná in 2006. From this the authors conclude that","-34.37086019846902"],["more than eating a missionary converts a savage into a Christian,\" which contributors to Unity found \"interesting.\" Though not stated in Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian, Clubb has been quoted as saying meat-eating \"tends to excite anger, to bring out the brutal, and weaken the gentle and kindly traits.\"\nClubb quotes William Axon in the section \"Historical\" citing part of a hymn:\n Bright creatures of the air and earth\n\n We seek not to destroy,\n\n But share with them the gifts of life,\n\n Of duty and of joy.\nAdditionally, he mentions other contemporaries, such as Wesley, Swedenborg, Linneas, Graham, Alcott, Trail, and Kellogg. He also","-34.30171783307742"],["an advocate of vegetarianism, and the Church has recommended a meatless diet ever since. Dr. John Harvey Kellogg (of corn flakes fame), a Seventh-Day Adventist, promoted vegetarianism at his Battle Creek Sanitarium as part of his theory of \"biologic living\".\nAmerican vegetarians such as Isaac Jennings, Susanna W. Dodds, M. L. Holbrook and Russell T. Trall were associated with the natural hygiene movement. Other countries In Russia, Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) was the most outstanding supporter of vegetarianism.\nIn Germany, the well-known politician, publicist and revolutionist Gustav Struve (1805–1870) was a leading figure in the initial stage of the vegetarian movement. He was","-34.29492044525978"],["hold people accountable to awaken their consciences and exercise their free will.\" Kearns also notes that not only are there many empathic people who choose to eat meat, but many vegetarians who base their diet on health, not moral reasons.\nHelena Pedersen of Malmö University questions whether it is accurate for Joy to treat meat eaters as an homogenous group as there may be many different types of meat eaters all of whom have different reasons for eating meat. Proponents of the abolitionist theory of animal rights, such as Gary L. Francione, do not accept the concept of carnism as","-34.26800524047576"],["Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare.\nSome cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source. Adulterated food Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food product fails to meet the legal standards.","-34.24721177961328"],["Animal rights in Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism The respect for animal rights in Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism derives from the doctrine of ahimsa.\nIn Hinduism, animals contain a soul just like humans; when sentient beings die, they can either be reincarnated as a human or as an animal.\nThese beliefs have resulted in many Hindus practicing vegetarianism, while Jain doctrine mandates vegetarianism based on its strict interpretation of the doctrine of ahimsa. Mahayana Buddhists similarly practice vegetarianism and Mahayana Buddhism prohibits the killing of animals. Jainism Almost every Jain community in India has established animal hospitals to care for injured and abandoned","-34.23222782549419"],["be vegetarian. Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that fools argue over this issue. Guru Nanak said that overconsumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, prohibited the Sikhs from the consumption of halal or Kutha (any ritually slaughtered meat) meat because of the Sikh belief that sacrificing an animal in the name of God is mere ritualism (something to be avoided).\nOn the views that eating vegetation would be eating flesh, first Sikh Guru","-34.22968000380206"],["vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns. Health effects Studies on the health effects of vegetarian diets observe mixed effects on mortality. One review found a decreased overall risk of all cause mortality, cancer (except breast) and cardiovascular disease; however, a meta-analysis found lower risk for ischemic heart disease and cancer but no effect","-34.225107343139825"],["Environmental vegetarianism Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism when motivated by the desire to not contribute to the negative environmental impact of meat production. Livestock as a whole is estimated to be responsible for around 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, significant reduction in meat consumption has been advocated by, among others, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their 2019 special report and as part of the 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity.\nOther than climate change, environmental concerns about the production of animal products may also relate to pollution, deforestation, unsustainability and the use","-34.21537411445752"],["of raw foodism and objected to the disuse of flavourings and salt. He commented that \"the number of dogmatic prohibitions against everything that makes food palatable will soon ruin our society if not firmly resisted.\" In 1877, Newman criticized a raw food book of Gustav Schlickeysen. \nHe made an associate membership possible for people who were not completely vegetarian, such as those who ate chicken or fish. Between 1875-1896 membership for the Vegetarian Society was 2,159 and associate membership 1,785. \nNewman did not like the term \"vegetarian\" because it implied someone who ate only vegetables. Instead, he preferred the","-34.21365630307264"],["rabbits into waste containers due to over-production, animals with open wounds or infections left in cages without veterinary treatment, cannibalism among some animals due to over-crowding, farms which had never received health and bio-security inspections, and dead animals rotting in cages next to live animals. Veganism Figures on the number of vegans in Spain are not readily available. However, in 2007 the EU estimated that 4% of the Spanish population was vegetarian, while a 2012 article placed the proportion at 0.5%. Plant-based diets appear to be gaining in popularity; the number of vegan or vegetarian restaurants listed in","-34.17867784239934"],["becomes wealthier, more people are owning pets, which increases opposition to animal cruelty. In April 2012, activists rescued 505 dogs that were headed to slaughter from a truck where they had endured harsh conditions.\nChinese activists prevented introduction of a bullfighting project in 2010 and rodeos in 2011. Activists have pre-empted a foie gras factory, ended live feeding in zoos, and rescued thousands of dogs and cats from being killed for meat. Vegetarian restaurants are increasing, though partly because of fashion rather than ethics.\nA 2011 survey of about 6000 Chinese found that while about 2/3 of respondents had never previously heard","-34.171367088325496"],["1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, from which time the institution began to publish its own pamphlet entitled The Healthian, which provides some of the earliest appearances of the term \"vegetarian\". History The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from the 7th century BCE, inculcating tolerance towards all living beings. Parshwanatha and Mahavira, the 23rd & 24th tirthankaras in Jainism respectively revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism in 8th to 6th century BC; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism. Vegetarianism was also practiced in ancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian","-34.03001029868392"],["vegetarians, starting with the semi-mythical Epimenides. For him, the origin of vegetarianism was Demeter's gift of wheat to Triptolemus so that he could teach agriculture to humanity. His three commandments were: \"Honour your parents\", \"Honour the gods with fruit\", and \"Spare the animals\". Athlete diets Aelian claims that the first athlete to submit to a formal diet was Ikkos of Tarentum, a victor in the Olympic pentathlon (perhaps in 444 BC). However, Olympic wrestling champion (62nd through 66th Olympiads) Milo of Croton was already said to eat twenty pounds of meat and twenty pounds of bread and to drink","-33.895339484282886"],["Vegetarian Society of the modern western world was established in England in 1847. The Society was founded by the 140 participants of a conference at Ramsgate and by 1853 had 889 members. By the end of the century, the group had attracted almost 4,000 members. After its first year, alone, the group grew to 265 members that ranged from ages 14 to 76. English vegetarians were a small but highly motivated and active group. Many of them believed in a simple life and \"pure\" food, humanitarian ideals and strict moral principles. Not all members of the Vegetarian Society were \"Cowherdites\",","-33.886101184056315"],["and strove to improve public health. Great Britain During the Age of Enlightenment and in the early nineteenth century, England was the place where vegetarian ideas were more welcome than anywhere else Europe, and the English vegetarians were particularly enthusiastic about the practical implementation of their principles. In England, vegetarianism was strongest in the northern and middle regions, specifically urbanized areas. As the movement spread across the country, more working-class people began to identify as vegetarians, though still a small number in comparison to the number of meat eaters. Groups were established all across England,","-33.861217345664045"],["consumption of meat, especially beef, is \"caught in cultural, political, and group identity struggles in India\". China In China, consumption of meat is rapidly increasing while a small but growing number of young people in large cities are vegan. An estimated 4 to 5 percent of Chinese are vegetarian. However, in a survey conducted by SJTU researchers, only 0.77 percent of respondents labeled themselves vegetarian.\nChinese folk religion, which is distinct from Taoism, Chinese salvationist religions, and New Religious Movements is similar to Shintoism in Japan insofar as while the killing and eating of animals is not forbidden, it is considered","-33.85773856560263"],["or accident is not allowed. Beef is a sought after meat among Muslims, but they strictly avoid pork and alcohol.\nHinduism, with its emphasis on non-violence against all creatures, tends to be vegetarian, and lacto-vegetarian meals are common. However, food habits are left as a choice for Hindus and alcohol consumption is accepted. There are varied opinions regarding the permissibility of eating meat in Hinduism, depending upon the interpretation of the Hindu scriptures. Vegetarianism is a choice for most Hindus, although some sects emphasize vegetarianism. Some Hindus consider violence against animals, that is used to produce any meat, so unacceptable that","-33.849799323797924"],["consumption. Since deer are inherently wild animals living on grass and wild plants, their meat can be consumed as part of a naturally healthy diet. Venison is higher in moisture and protein, and the protein is more diverse in amino acids and lower in calories, cholesterol, and fat than most cuts of grain-fed beef, pork, or lamb. Health concerns Since it is unknown whether chronic wasting disease (CWD), a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy among deer (similar to mad cow disease), scientifically known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, can pass from deer to humans through the consumption of venison, there have been some","-33.80757135881868"],["people would eat twigs, roots of plants, bark from trees, and each other as a last resort. Food shortages were frequent but didn’t last long enough to generate famine. People of Interest Pythagoras (570 BC – 495 BC) was a Greek philosopher, mathematician, and is also considered to be “the Father of Ethical Vegetarianism”. He believed that in order to obtain the highest level of spiritual and physical health it was necessary to follow a lifestyle that included a vegetarian diet which excluded meats and other flesh foods. Anaxagoras (500 BC – 428 BC) was also a Greek philosopher, he","-33.77975505014183"],["eateries.\nVegetarianism had been regarded as an alternative lifestyle for many years; but became more mainstream during the 1980s even though consistent vegetarians are still rare. Despite exhortations by the Ministry of Health and their allies for people to eat less meat, and more cereals, fruits, and vegetables, a highly meat-based diet remains a part of New Zealand culture, albeit with decrease of red meat consumption and intake of fish and chicken has been on the rise due to their relative affordability compared to red meat.\nGluten free foodstuffs have become part of the dietary trends in New Zealand, with cafes and","-33.712334607011144"],["The Vegan News. He chose the word vegan himself, based on \"the first three and last two letters of 'vegetarian'\" because it marked, in Mr Watson's words, \"the beginning and end of vegetarian\", Current situation Today Indian vegetarians, primarily lacto-vegetarians, are estimated to make up more than 70 percent of the world's vegetarians. They make up 20–42 percent of the population in India, while less than 30 percent are regular meat-eaters.\nSurveys in the U.S. have found that roughly 1–2.8 percent of adults eat no meat, poultry, or fish.\nIn 2013, PS 244 in Queens became the first public school in New","-33.68323714946746"],["question of biology, but of public policy and principle\" and also stating that \"Efforts to extend legal rights to chimpanzees are thus understandable; some day they may even succeed.\" Religions Robert Garner writes that both Hindu and Buddhist societies abandoned animal sacrifice and embraced vegetarianism from the 3rd century BCE. Several kings in India built hospitals for animals, and the emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE) issued orders against hunting and animal slaughter, in line with ahimsa, the doctrine of non-violence. Garner writes that Jainism took this idea further. Jains believe that no living creature should be harmed, and they are known","-33.6354800993613"],["the victim's \"fundamental equality.\" Hinduism and Buddhism Both Hindu and Buddhist societies saw widespread vegetarianism from the 3rd century BCE, in line with ahimsa, the doctrine of non-violence. Ryder writes that animals were thought to possess the same feelings as human beings, and several kings of ancient India built hospitals for sick animals. Human souls could be reborn as animals if they had behaved badly, with all souls regarded as part of the Supreme Being. Failing to observe the duty to care could lead to bad karma, which increased the likelihood of returning as an animal next time round. Islam","-33.506679796715616"],["vegetarians perceived vegetarians as less masculine.\nCultural associations between meat and masculinity are reflected in individuals' attitudes and choices. Across Western societies, women eat significantly less meat than men on average and are more likely to be vegetarian. Women are also more likely than men to avoid meat for ethical reasons. A 2016 review found that male Germans eat more meat than females, linking the discrepancy to the finding that meat in Western culture has symbolic connections to strength and power, which are associated with male gender roles. \nStudies have also examined meat eating in the context of attempts to manage","-33.46738516253026"],["conveys that some animal-based ingredients (meat, egg, etc.) were used. Products like honey, milk, or its direct derivatives are categorized under the green mark.\nAccording to the 2006 Hindu-CNN-IBN State of the Nation Survey, 31% of Indians are vegetarian, while another 9% also consume eggs (ovo-vegetarian). Among the various communities, vegetarianism was most common among the Brahmins, Lingayat, Vaishnav Community, Jain community, and, less frequent among Muslims (3%) and residents of coastal states. Other surveys cited by FAO and USDA estimate 40% of the Indian population as being vegetarian. These surveys indicate that even Indians who do eat meat, do so","-33.457512470295114"],["poorly studied, even though important variations exist from region to region; for example, approximately one third of Indians are vegetarian. Research has indicated that, relative to Western vegetarians, Indian vegetarians are more likely to endorse the moral values of purity, legitimate authority, and respect for ingroup and tradition.","-33.44764237973868"],["vegetarianism is unknown, most meals are eaten without meat due to its high price.\nFish are plentiful along the River Congo, its tributaries, and various lakes; and are baked, boiled or fried for immediate consumption; or smoked or salted when preserved. Markets often sell ready-to-eat peppered fish baked in banana leaves. Goat is the most widely consumed meat. Mwambe is a common way of cooking chicken with peanut sauce. Edible insects such as grasshoppers and caterpillars are eaten; they tend to have a nutty flavour.\nSauces to mix with the ingredients above can be made with tomatoes, onions, and the local aromatic","-33.44527399438084"],["with omnivores holding much more positive views. Vegetarians may express either revulsion or nostalgia at the thought of eating meat.\nConsumer behavior towards meat may be modeled by distinguishing the effects of intrinsic factors (properties of the physical product itself, such as color) and extrinsic factors (everything else, including price and brand). Intrinsic factors Taste and texture are self-reported to be important factors in food choice, although this may not accurately reflect consumer behavior. Consumers describe meat as \"chewy\", \"tender\", and \"rich\". In the United Kingdom, meat is traditionally considered to taste good. People experience the taste and texture of meat","-33.41771641449304"],["overlap, environmental vegetarians and vegans can be contrasted with those who are primarily motivated by concerns about animal welfare (one kind of ethical vegetarianism), health, or who avoid meat to save money or out of necessity (economic vegetarianism). Some also believe vegetarianism will improve global food security, or curb starvation. Health A study in Climate Change concluded \"if ... average diets among UK adults conformed to WHO recommendations, their associated GHG emissions would be reduced by 17%. Further GHG emission reductions of around 40% could be achieved by making realistic modifications to diets so that they contain fewer animal products","-33.41372261947254"],["Vegetarianism Etymology The first written use of the term \"vegetarian\" originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to a vegetable regimen diet. Modern dictionaries explain its origin as a compound of vegetable (adjective) and the suffix -arian (in the sense of agrarian). The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847, although it may have appeared in print before 1847. The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House—a school on the north side of Ham Common, London—which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. From","-33.412322584947105"],["recently in some countries humans started seeing them as a nuisance and became hostile to them. In India, feeding feral animals in cities is considered a noble act. Academicians say that how humans treat animals is related to how humans treat each other and thus raise concerns about the cultural shift from seeing feral city pigeons as harmless in the 1800s to seeing them a undesirable in some countries in the 2000s.\nIn zoos, giving food to the animals is discouraged due to the strict dietary controls in place. More generally, artificial feeding can result in, for example, vitamin deficiencies and","-33.40829463461705"],["century, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women, and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.\nAcross the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus. Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Ahimsa. In","-33.401582219037664"],["Peter Singer argues that it is fallacious to say that eating meat is morally acceptable simply because it is part of the \"natural way”, as the way that humans and other animals do behave naturally has no bearing on how we should behave. Thus, Singer claims, the moral permissibility or impermissibility of eating meat must be assessed on its own merits, not by appealing to what is \"natural\".","-33.38465242652455"],["groups of Christian vegetarians in the 18th century. The best known of them was Ephrata Cloister in Pennsylvania, a religious community founded by Conrad Beissel in 1732. Benjamin Franklin became a vegetarian at the age of 16, but later on he reluctantly returned to meat eating. He later introduced tofu to America in 1770.\n Colonel Thomas Crafts Jr. was a vegetarian. 19th century Vegetarianism was frequently associated with cultural reform movements, such as temperance and anti-vivisection. It was propagated as an essential part of \"the natural way of life.\" Some of its champions sharply criticized the civilization of their age","-33.33976878138492"],["of a general abstention from violence against others and all killing of animals. Some significant debates between pro-non-vegetarianism and pro-vegetarianism, with mention of cattle meat as food, are found in several books of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, particularly its Book III, XII, XIII and XIV. It is also found in the Ramayana. These two epics are not only literary classics, but they have also been popular religious classics.\nThe Mahabharata debate presents one meat-producing hunter who defends his profession as dharmic. The hunter, in this ancient Sanskrit text, states that meat consumption should be okay because animal sacrifice was practiced","-33.28184873960345"],["meat paradox generates a negative interpersonal state, which then motivates an individual to find the means to alleviate it. Recent studies in this area suggest that people can facilitate their practices of meat eating by attributing lower intelligence and capacity for suffering to meat animals, by thinking of these animals as more dissimilar to humans, by caring less about animal welfare and social inequality, and by dissociating meat products from the animals they come from. Perceptions of meat animals Ethical conflicts arise when eating animals if they are considered to have moral status. Perceptions of animals' moral status vary greatly,","-33.27693899575388"],["tended to prevent such concerns from influencing consumer behavior.\nPeople in many cultures do not like to be reminded of the connection between animals and meat, and tend to \"de-animalize\" meat when necessary to reduce feelings of guilt or of disgust. Meat in Western countries is often packaged and served so as to minimize its resemblance to live animals, without eyes, faces, or tails, and the market share of such products has increased in recent decades; however, meat in many other cultures is sold with these body parts.\nSome authors have suggested that the use of non-animal words such as \"sirloin\" and","-33.259061786258826"],["was made easier because he had eaten little meat for aesthetic reasons as a child, and he readily adopted his wife's vegetarianism because she does much of the cooking in their household. Speaking in 1990, he said that with the increasing availability of meat substitutes, \"It might take 20 years. But eventually there will no longer be a reason for most people to eat meat. And animals will breathe a sigh of relief.\" To avoid causing others discomfort, he is willing to occasionally eat chicken or turkey, although he finds eating pork highly unpleasant.","-33.2241805251324"],["Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows Background Joy, a social psychologist and author, was concerned about linguistic bias inherent in terms like carnivore, which were inaccurate and failed to account for the \"beliefs beneath the behavior\". Carnivores require meat in their diet for survival, but carnists choose to eat meat based on their beliefs. There was no label, Joy discovered, for the beliefs of people who produce, consume, and promote meat eating. She created the term carnism (Latin carn, flesh or body) to name and describe this dominant cultural belief system. \"We assume","-33.17895798633981"],["(tsom, Ge'ez: ጾም ṣōm, excluding any kind of animal products, including dairy products and eggs) periods, including Wednesdays, Fridays, and the entire Lenten season, so Ethiopian cuisine contains many dishes that are vegan. Early modern period It was not before the European Renaissance that vegetarianism reemerged in Europe as a philosophical concept based on an ethical motivation. Among the first celebrities who supported it were Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655). In the 17th century the paramount theorist of the meatless or Pythagorean diet was the English writer Thomas Tryon (1634–1703) and subsequently the Romantic poets. On the","-33.16400129770045"],["vegetables, and whole grains which are good sources of protein. The risks associated with vegetarianism, that is to say the problems vegetarians face, can generally be lessened by a careful diet. These problems that many associate with vegetarianism, such as anaemia, are in fact not due to the vegetarian diet alone, but more so to the fact that the subject in question has failed to supplement their body with the nutrition they require. When cutting out meats, some vegetarians fail to intake any other kinds of protein. To intake protein is very important during pregnancy as one of the cause","-33.150278374319896"],["some vegan or even vegetarian diets, if those diets are driven by animal rights rather than health motivations.\nFor those vegetarians and vegans who seek to minimize animal exploitation wherever feasible, wine filtered with animal products such as isinglass or gelatin would not be suitable for a vegetarian diet. Similarly, the use of any animal products or byproducts in the fining process would not be suitable for a vegan diet of similar motivation. For those vegans motivated by perceived health benefits of avoiding consumption of animal protein, the use of these agents would not be problematic. Non-vegetarian/vegan additives Examples of common","-33.14646884490503"],["has more vegetarians than the rest of the world put together. In India, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto vegetarianism. Most restaurants in India clearly distinguish and market themselves as being either \"non-vegetarian\", \"vegetarian\", or \"pure vegetarian\". Vegetarian restaurants abound, and many vegetarian options are usually available. Animal-based ingredients (other than milk and honey) such as lard, gelatin, and meat stock are not used in the traditional cuisine. India has devised a system of marking edible products made from only vegetarian ingredients, with a green dot in a green square. A mark of a brown dot in a brown square","-33.094574134156574"],["the world's strictest, because around 2 million Taiwanese people eat vegetarian food.\nA popular movement of \"one day vegetarian every week\" has been advocated on a national level, and on a local level, even government bodies are involved, such as the Taipei City Board of Education. Thailand There are more than 908 vegetarian eating establishments in Thailand.]. Europe The definition of vegetarianism throughout Europe is not uniform, creating the potential for products to be labelled inaccurately. Throughout Europe the use of non-vegetarian ingredients are in use in products such as beer (isinglass among others), wine (gelatine and crustacean shells among others)","-33.07706279026752"],["elevation. It is also practiced because as strict adherents to natural living, Rastafarians often believe the human being is a natural vegetarian based on human physiology and anatomy. Some adherents to Ital diets are strict vegans, as they do not consider dairy to be natural for human consumption either.\nThe most strict interpretations also avoid the consumption of rock salt (sea salt can be substituted), and food that has been preserved by canning or drying, and even prohibit the use of metal cooking utensils. In this case, only clay and wood cooking pots, crockery, and cutlery are used. Few adherents of","-33.06851350811485"],["tradition, devotees keep to a diet without any animal products during these times. As a result, vegan foods are abundant in stores and restaurants; however, Romanians may not be familiar with a vegan or vegetarian diet as a full-time lifestyle choice. Many recipes below have vegan versions, and the Vegetables section below contains many common fasting foods.","-33.06667730972913"],["reduces suffering to the animal. The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish. Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.\nThere are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid","-33.03294176221243"],["The Vegetarian Myth The Vegetarian Myth: Food, Justice, and Sustainability is a 2009 book by Lierre Keith.\nKeith is an ex-vegan who believes veganism has damaged her health and others'. Keith argues that agriculture is destroying not only human health but entire ecosystems, such as the North American prairie, and destroying topsoil. Keith also considers modern agriculture to be the root cause of slavery, imperialism, militarism, chronic hunger and disease.\nKeith argues humans should accept death as a necessary precursor to food. in that \"everyone will get eaten, sooner or later\". In sum. Her proposition is that herbivores eat grass, humans eat","-32.99237057499704"],["as neutral arbiters (Panchayat).\nRegarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar. People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime. In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of","-32.98540676596167"],["has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks and nuns do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.\nJains fast on different occasions throughout the year, particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa,","-32.981862887580064"],["so long as an animal's death was quick, men would suffer more by not eating meat than animals would suffer by being eaten. Schopenhauer also theorized that the reason people succumbed to the \"unnatural diet\" of meat-eating was because of the unnatural, cold climate they emigrated to and the necessity of meat for survival in such a climate, for fruits and vegetables could not be dependably cultivated at those times. He applauded the animal protection movement in England—\"To the honor, then, of the English, be it said that they are the first people who have, in downright earnest, extended","-32.97973671917862"],["of only clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking, and the use of narcotics.\nIn India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and Hindus abstain from eating meat and fish (basically, all living animals) on the grounds both of health and of reverence for all sentient forms of life. Total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism. In addition, lay and monastic Buddhists refrain from killing any living creature and from consuming intoxicants, and bhikkhus keep vows of chastity. In Theravada Buddhism, bhikkhus also refrain from eating in the afternoon, and","-32.94964389584493"],["Ashoka's animal welfare policies only restricted the species of animals that can be killed for food in addition to banning ritual sacrifices of animals on the premise that it is wasteful. Vegetarianism never was a principle to be strictly adhered to in Buddhism and no social stigma was attached to Buddhists who ate meat even in India, the land of its origin. This is reasonably clear from the fact that the austerities of Jainism which includes the strictest form of vegetarianism long pre-dated Buddha's birth and did not apparently influence Buddha's eating habits after his enlightenment. Buddha and Buddhists continued","-32.948737844024436"],["Ethical omnivorism Rationale This diet tries to increase consumer support for more ethical meat production with the aim that it might be able to give incentive for more restaurants and stores to use ethical sources. Criticism The vegan philosophy criticises and rejects the very concept of ethical omnivorism. Vegans think that breeding animals for the purpose of consumption is inherently unethical, and view the terms \"free range\" or \"organic\" as labels applied by the agriculture industry that lack true animal concern.","-32.92993874651438"],["meat was regarded as a sign of paganism and prohibited. A reluctance to eat horse meat is common in these countries even today. Opposition to production The killing of horses for human consumption is widely opposed in countries such as the U.S., UK and Australia. where horses are generally considered to be companion and sporting animals only. Almost all equine medications and treatments are labeled as being not intended for human consumption. In the European Union, horses intended for slaughter cannot be treated with many medications commonly used for U.S. horses. For horses going to slaughter, no period of withdrawal,","-32.91396451817127"],["school children. However, some communities are vegetarians for religious or cultural reasons. Efforts must be made to develop culturally appropriate interventions to address the micronutrient deficiencies in these populations, such as through food fortification. Animal source food production According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global.\" As such, using plant-derived foods is typically considered better for the interests of the environment. Despite this, the raising of certain animals can be more environmentally","-32.912995655293344"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"controversy and debate have arisen over the ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo, such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms, or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns\",\n \"-38.74606883950764\"\n ],\n [\n \"justified in extreme circumstances; consuming a living creature just for its taste, for convenience, or out of habit is not justifiable. Some ethicists have added that humans, unlike other animals, are morally conscious of their behavior and have a choice; this is why there are laws governing human behavior, and why it is subject to moral standards.\\nEthical vegetarian concerns have become more widespread in developed countries, particularly because of the spread of factory farming, more open and graphic documentation of what human meat-eating entails for the animal, and environmental consciousness. Some proponents of meat-eating argue that the current mass demand\",\n \"-38.377269424003316\"\n ],\n [\n \"word \\\"vegetarianism\\\", vegetarians were referred to in English as \\\"Pythagoreans\\\".\\nThe question of whether there are any ethical duties toward animals was hotly debated, and the arguments in dispute were quite similar to the ones familiar in modern discussions on animal rights. Vegetarianism was usually part and parcel of religious convictions connected with the concept of transmigration of the soul (metempsychosis). There was a widely held belief, popular among both vegetarians and non-vegetarians, that in the Golden Age of the beginning of humanity mankind was strictly non-violent. In that utopian state of the world hunting, livestock breeding, and meat-eating, as well\",\n \"-37.74165047759743\"\n ],\n [\n \"in distributing the spoils afterwards. In a 2003 paper, psychologist Matteo Marneli proposed that these pressures created the basic principles of human moral judgements: put simply, he argued, \\\"meat made us moral.\\\"\\nSeveral studies have found that both omnivores and vegetarians tend to consider vegetarians slightly more moral and virtuous than omnivores. Ethical principles are often cited among reasons to stop eating meat. Some evidence suggests meat-eaters may consider vegetarianism an implicit moral reproach, and respond defensively to vegetarian ideas.\\nA 2015 study found that Belgian omnivores, semi-vegetarians (flexitarians), and vegetarians have fundamentally different moral outlooks on animal welfare concerns. However, the\",\n \"-37.25599647974013\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the Vegetarian Society's magazine in 1851 as evidence of the existence of a group that sought to avoid animal products entirely. There was increasing unease within the Society from the start of the 20th century onwards with regards to egg and milk consumption, and in 1923 its magazine wrote that the \\\"ideal position for vegetarians is [complete] abstinence from animal products.\\\"\\nMahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) argued in 1931 before a meeting of the Society in London that vegetarianism should be pursued in the interests of animals, and not only as a human health issue. He met both Henry Salt and Anna\",\n \"-37.084604038420366\"\n ],\n [\n \"History of vegetarianism The earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people are from ancient India and the ancient Greek civilizations in southern Italy and Greece. In both instances, the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence toward animals (called ahimsa in India), and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.\\nFollowing the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity (4th–6th centuries), vegetarianism nearly disappeared from Europe. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them abstained from the\",\n \"-37.06402262552001\"\n ],\n [\n \"a vegan diet (no animal products).\\nAs of March 2016, 11.2% of people living in Australia, 2.1 million people, said \\\"The food I eat is all, or almost all, vegetarian.\\\" The report also found that vegetarians were likely to be slimmer; while 60.7% of Australian adults have a Body Mass Index that qualifies as overweight or obese, this figure drops to 45.4% of those whose diet is mostly or totally vegetarian. Humane slaughter Animals Australia and RSPCA Victoria state that all animals should be stunned prior to slaughter because of the suffering they experience during their slaughter. According to the Australian\",\n \"-37.06309086277906\"\n ],\n [\n \"diet of grain, or injected with any artificial hormones. However, since the necessary act of killing a deer to procure the venison is generally much more apparent to anyone who encounters this sort of meat, some people can be even more uncomfortable with eating this than meat from animals raised on factory farms. Many ethical vegetarians and ethical meat-eaters argue that it is behaviour rather than supporting beliefs that should be adjusted. Environmental argument Some people choose to be vegetarian or vegan for environmental reasons.\\nAccording to a 2006 report by LEAD Livestock's Long Shadow, \\\"the livestock sector emerges\",\n \"-36.94333330367226\"\n ],\n [\n \"consumption of fish; these monks were not vegetarians, but some were pescetarians. Vegetarianism was to reemerge somewhat in Europe during the Renaissance and became a more widespread practice during the 19th and 20th centuries. The figures for the percentage of the Western world which is vegetarian varies between 0.5% and 4% per Mintel data in September 2006. Early Jainism and Buddhism Jain and Buddhist sources show that the principle of nonviolence toward animals was an established rule in both religions as early as the 6th-century BCE. The Jain concept, which is particularly strict, may be even older. Parshva, the earliest\",\n \"-36.83320530454512\"\n ],\n [\n \"underpins using animals for food, and particularly killing them for meat. Joy compares carnism to patriarchy, arguing that both are dominant normative ideologies that go unrecognized because of their ubiquity:\\nWe don't see meat eating as we do vegetarianism – as a choice, based on a set of assumptions about animals, our world, and ourselves. Rather, we see it as a given, the \\\"natural\\\" thing to do, the way things have always been and the way things will always be. We eat animals without thinking about what we are doing and why, because the belief system that underlies this behavior is invisible.\",\n \"-36.73334684345173\"\n ],\n [\n \"animals have immortal souls, and that a diet of mostly grain is the healthiest for humans.\\nIn Chinese folk religions, as well as the aforementioned faiths, people often eat vegan on the 1st and 15th of the month, as well as the eve of Chinese New Year. Some nonreligious people do this as well. This is similar to the Christian practice of lent and not eating meat on Friday. The percentage of people permanently being pure vegetarian is about the same as the modern English-speaking world, but this percentage has not really changed for a very long time. Many people eat\",\n \"-36.72963618144058\"\n ],\n [\n \"the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns. Henry Stephens Salt (1851-1939) and George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) were famous vegetarian activists.\\nIn 1910, physician J. L. Buttner authored the vegetarian book, A Fleshless Diet which argued that meat is dangerous and unnecessary. \\nCranks opened in Carnaby Street, London, in 1961, as the first successful vegetarian restaurant in the UK. Eventually there were five Cranks restaurants in London which closed in 2001.\\nThe Indian concept of nonviolence had a growing impact in the Western world. The model of\",\n \"-36.44577224466775\"\n ],\n [\n \"the prevalence of vegetarianism among a segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, and the Hindi-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains. Among these groups, strong discomfort is felt at thoughts of eating meat, and contributes to the low proportional consumption of meat to overall diet in India. Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption accompanying higher economic growth.\\nIn the last millennium,\",\n \"-36.04115226252179\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegan for a certain amount of time in order to make up for the belief that they have sinned.\\nFoods like seitan, tofu skin, meat alternatives made from seaweeds, root vegetable starch, and tofu originate in China and became popularized because so many people periodically abstain from meat. In China, one can find an eggless vegetarian substitute for items ranging from seafood to ham. Also, the Thai (เจ) and Vietnamese (chay) terms for vegetarianism originate from the Chinese term for a lenten diet. Japan In 675, the use of livestock and the consumption of some wild animals (horse, cattle, dogs, monkeys,\",\n \"-35.88509226121823\"\n ],\n [\n \"not a vegetarian), but they all had critical views of meat-eating.\\nIt was of some importance at the time. As Jon Gregerson wrote in Vegetarianism: A History, “Not unimportant in the momentum gathered by the Vegetarian Movement in late Victorian England was a book by one Howard Williams entitled The Ethics of Diet, which was published in 1890”. It was read by Indian spiritual leader Mohandas Gandhi, Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, English social reformer Henry Stephens Salt, and Portuguese philosopher Jaime de Magalhães Lima (as he mentioned in his conference O Vegetarismo e a Moralidade das Raças).\\nGandhi, who met Williams in\",\n \"-35.837596648147155\"\n ],\n [\n \"to observe vegetarianism. Most Hindus do not eat beef, and some Hindus apply the concept of ahimsa (non-violence) to their diet and consider vegetarianism as ideal, and practice forms of vegetarianism. In some cases, the process of preparation rather than the food itself comes under scrutiny. For instance, in early medieval Christianity, certain uncooked foods were of dubious status: a penitential ascribed to Bede outlined a (mild) penance for those who ate uncooked foods, and Saint Boniface wrote to Pope Zachary (in a letter preserved in the Boniface correspondence, no. 87) asking him how long bacon would have to be\",\n \"-35.780191009427654\"\n ],\n [\n \"questioned the morality of eating animals when it was not necessary for health. Statements from his notebook and a comment by a contemporary have led to the widely held view that he was vegetarian. Additionally, he categorized humans as being in the same set of species as apes and monkeys, just as he did with other animals in their respective genus. He also dissected dead animals for the purpose of comparative anatomy.\\nEdward MacCurdy (one of the two translators and compilers of Leonardo's notebooks into English) wrote:\\n...The mere idea of permitting the existence of unnecessary suffering, still more that of taking\",\n \"-35.65879978390876\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegetarian diet, but took that further and decided that raw food was what humans were really meant to eat; he was influenced by Charles Darwin's ideas that humans were just another kind of animal and Bircher-Benner noted that other animals do not cook their food. In 1904 he opened a sanatorium in the mountains outside of Zurich called \\\"Lebendinge Kraft\\\" or \\\"Vital Force,\\\" a technical term in the Lebensreform movement that referred especially to sunlight; he and others believed that this energy was more \\\"concentrated\\\" in plants than in meat, and was diminished by cooking. Patients in the clinic\",\n \"-35.555075813652365\"\n ],\n [\n \"Carnism History Analyzing the history of vegetarianism and opposition to it from ancient Greece to the present day, literary scholar Renan Larue found certain commonalities in what he described as carnist arguments. According to him, carnists typically held that vegetarianism is a ludicrous idea unworthy of attention, that mankind is invested with dominion over animals by divine authority, and that abstaining from violence against animals would pose a threat to humans. He found that the views that farmed animals do not suffer, and that slaughter is preferable to death by disease or predation, gained currency in the nineteenth century, but\",\n \"-35.491851775905616\"\n ],\n [\n \"defenses of vegetarianism like those offered by Peter Singer. Singer acknowledges that, on consequentialist grounds, it might seem as if there is little reason for individuals to be concerned about their dietary choices, since few of those choices will actually have consequences for any actual animals. But Singer maintains that some few dietary choices will, by crossing certain demand thresholds, dramatically increase production of animals for food and that taking this possibility into account provides good reason to avoid purchasing meat, since there is a small chance that a single meat purchase might lead to substantial negative consequences for many\",\n \"-35.48579553505988\"\n ],\n [\n \"2013 reported that male undergraduates in the US denied animal suffering to justify eating meat.\\nThe denial of animal pain and suffering is often inconsistent between related species. Such beliefs have led to the publication of books such as Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows written by social psychologist Melanie Joy in which she popularised the term carnism.\\nDenial of animal pain and suffering can also lead to denial of broader concepts, such as denial of moral status or the existence of \\\"mind\\\" in non-human animals. Among those who eat meat, it can lead to their experiencing the meat\",\n \"-35.337955435419644\"\n ],\n [\n \"is an appropriate ethical value. It states that one's guiding principle should be conscientious atmaupamya (literally, \\\"to-respect-others-as-oneself\\\").\\nAccording to Ludwig Alsdorf, \\\"Indian vegetarianism is unequivocally based on ahimsa (non-violence)\\\" as evidenced by ancient smritis and other ancient texts of Hinduism. He adds that the endearment and respect for cattle in Hinduism is more than a commitment to vegetarianism, it has become integral to its theology. The respect for cattle is widespread but not universal. According to Christopher Fuller, animal sacrifices have been rare among the Hindus outside a few eastern states and Himalayan regions of the Indian subcontinent. To the majority\",\n \"-35.292906899168884\"\n ],\n [\n \"based on the dual bases of refraining from killing and subduing one's own subservience to the senses. Because of this, two types of \\\"vegetarianism\\\" came to be—one where one refrained from eating meat, the other being refraining from eating meat as well as garlic, onions, and other such strongly flavored foods. This Buddhism-influenced vegetarianism has been known and practiced by some since at least the 7th century. People who are Buddhist may also avoid eating eggs. \\nThe early 20th century saw some intellectuals espousing vegetarianism as part of their program for reforming China culturally, not just politically. The\",\n \"-35.21878326092701\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ethics of eating meat The question of whether it is right to eat animal flesh is among the most prominent topics in food ethics. People choose not to eat meat for various reasons such as concern for animal welfare, the environmental impact of meat production (environmental vegetarianism), and health considerations. Some argue that slaughtering animals solely because people enjoy the taste of meat is morally wrong or unjustifiable. Vegans often abstain from other animal products for similar reasons.\\nEthical vegetarians and ethical vegans may also object to the practices underlying the production of meat, or cite concerns about animal welfare, animal\",\n \"-35.19775243184995\"\n ],\n [\n \"rights, environmental ethics, and religious reasons. In response, some proponents of meat-eating have adduced various scientific, nutritional, cultural, and religious arguments in support of the practice. Some meat-eaters only object to rearing animals in certain ways, such as in factory farms, or killing them with cruelty; others avoid only certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Overview of the argument against meat eating Peter Singer—Princeton University and University of Melbourne professor and pioneer of the animal liberation movement—has long argued that, if it is possible to survive and be healthy without eating meat, fish, dairy, or eggs, one ought\",\n \"-35.064491697296035\"\n ],\n [\n \"about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat because meat production is claimed to place a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein. Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat. Dairy and eggs One of the main differences between a vegan and a typical vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter\",\n \"-35.00820176623529\"\n ],\n [\n \"much larger history of vegetarianism. Clubb, who was president of the \\\"Vegetarian Society of America\\\" published Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian in 1903, at 1023 Foulkrod Street, Frankford Station, Philadelphia. It was entered in the Library of Congress on September 8, 1903.\\nIt was one of several pamphlets published by The Vegetarian society of America which Clubb authored on the subject of vegetarianism, including Unpolished rice among others. Content Among the reasons Clubb gives for a vegetarian lifestyle are that he is \\\"an optimist\\\" and that \\\"eating a lamb does not make a man lamb-like in his character any\",\n \"-34.997234078269685\"\n ],\n [\n \"was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE–50 CE) in the northern Thracian region by the Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese.\\nIn Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat and non-killing. Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians, and others, vegetarianism had medical or ritual\",\n \"-34.92587762733456\"\n ],\n [\n \"what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance, vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and antioxidants. Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing heart disease, diabetes, cancer and many other diseases. More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from genetically modified food. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (grains) on\",\n \"-34.88916650263127\"\n ],\n [\n \"purification purposes.\\nFollowing the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish. Moreover, the medieval definition of \\\"fish\\\" included such animals as seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers. Vegetarianism re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom; Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the\",\n \"-34.861348995997105\"\n ],\n [\n \"a custom to serve the guests any non-vegetarian dish at least once in their term of stay.\\nBut after the decline of Vedic Hinduism and uprising of Modern Hinduism along with direct influences from newborn religions like Buddhism and Jainism resulted in decrease of heavy dependence upon meat and ended up with only few kinds of meat yielding animals being edible like goat, sheep and swine, and because Cows got an auspicious position in modern Hinduism, the meat of cows, oxen and bulls became taboo. Later on after the influence of Islam, swine also became a taboo. But still many Hindu\",\n \"-34.810359572351445\"\n ],\n [\n \"remains a controversial issue. Animal farming and consumption A 2007 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations found that Indians had the lowest rate of meat consumption of any country. Roughly one-third of Indians are vegetarian (the largest percentage of vegetarians in the world), but few are vegan. Despite having the highest rate of vegetarianism in the world, Indian consumption of dairy, eggs, and meat - especially chicken - is increasing rapidly.\\nDespite restrictions on killing and eating cows throughout most of the country, India became the world's largest exporter of beef in 2012.\",\n \"-34.764058175805985\"\n ],\n [\n \"about 1000 CE vegetarianism, along with a taboo against beef, became a well accepted mainstream Hindu tradition. This practice was inspired by the belief in Hinduism that a soul is present in all living beings, life in all its forms is interconnected, and non-violence towards all creatures is the highest ethical value. Vegetarianism is a part of the Hindu culture. God Krishna, one of the incarnations (Avatar) of Vishnu, is associated with cows, adding to its endearment.\\nMany ancient and medieval Hindu texts debate the rationale for a voluntary stop to cow slaughter and the pursuit of vegetarianism as a part\",\n \"-34.6725088992971\"\n ],\n [\n \"Eating live animals Eating live animals is the practice of humans eating animals that are still alive. It is a traditional practice in many Asian food cultures as well as in Western television game shows. Eating live animals, or parts of live animals, may be unlawful in certain jurisdictions under animal cruelty laws. Religious prohibitions on the eating of live animals by humans are also present in various world religions. Animals are also eaten alive for shock value. For shock value Several television game shows such as Fear Factor, Survivor and I'm a Celebrity feature segments where contestants must eat\",\n \"-34.650057954277145\"\n ],\n [\n \"argue that commodifying and slaughtering animals is incompatible with the definition of \\\"humane\\\". Animal ethicists such as Gary Francione have argued that reducing animal suffering is not enough; it needs to be made illegal and abolished. Non-chordates Peter Singer has pointed out that the ethical argument for vegetarianism may not apply to all non-vegetarian food. For example, any arguments against causing pain to animals would not apply to animals that do not feel pain. It has also often been noted that, while it takes a lot more grain to feed some animals such as cows for human consumption than\",\n \"-34.57591460700496\"\n ],\n [\n \"crops, most of it for use as animal feed, and a minor percentage for edible oil processing (being direct human consumption for use as food nearly negligible), claims that are widely known to have a basis.\\nAs in Canada, vegetarianismo ([veʒiˌtaɾjɐ̃ˈnizmu]) is usually synonymous with lacto-ovo-vegetarianism, and vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pescetarians and/or pollotarians who tolerate the flesh of fish or poultry, respectively. Nevertheless, veganism, and freeganism, have now become mainstream in the country, being present in nearly every family. Brazilian vegetarians reportedly tend to be urban, of middle or upper class and live in the Central-Southern half\",\n \"-34.56909666385036\"\n ],\n [\n \"get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the belief that meat is required persists.\\nBuilding on Joy's work, psychologists conducted a series of studies in the United States and Australia, published in 2015, that found the great majority of meat-eaters' stated justifications for consuming meat were based on the \\\"Four Ns\\\" – \\\"natural, normal, necessary, and nice\\\". The arguments were that humans are omnivores (natural), that most people eat meat (normal), that vegetarian diets are lacking in nutrients (necessary), and that meat tastes good (nice).\\nMeat-eaters who endorsed these arguments more strongly reported less guilt about their dietary habits.\",\n \"-34.55708380730357\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hodson observes that vegetarians and vegans frequently face discrimination where eating meat is held as a cultural norm. Gender A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation concluded that \\\"of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are male\\\".\\nAt least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 \\\"found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to\",\n \"-34.52757983992342\"\n ],\n [\n \"and food companies are taking advantage of the growing number of vegetarians by producing meat-free alternatives of popular dishes, including sausages and mash and spaghetti Bolognese.\\nA 2000 Newspoll survey (commissioned by Sanitarium) shows 44% of Australians report eating at least one meat-free evening meal a week, while 18% said they prefer plant-based meals. New Zealand Similar to Australia, in New Zealand the term \\\"vegetarian\\\" refers to individuals who eat no animal meat such as pork, chicken, and fish; they may consume animal products such as milk and eggs. In contrast, the term \\\"vegan\\\" is used to describe those who do\",\n \"-34.518560823387816\"\n ],\n [\n \"(5.27-44), a particularly renowned traditional Hindu law book (Dharmaśāstra). These texts strongly condemn the slaughter of animals and meat eating. Early Brahmins of South India Some of the south Indian Brahmins during the sutra period, like those of North India were not meat eaters. Buddhism and Jainism Starting from the last few centuries B.C., Buddhism and Jainism contributed much to the belief that nonviolence is supremely valued which stimulated growing hostility to the slaughter of live animals. The non-influence As opposed to the popular views propagated by non-practicing Western and Indian sociologists and Indologists, the notion of Brahmin vegetarianism is\",\n \"-34.51169585946627\"\n ],\n [\n \"arguments in favor of the morality of eating meat. One such line of argument holds that sentience and individual welfare are less important to morality than the greater ecological good. Following environmentalist Aldo Leopold's principle that the sole criterion for morality is preserving the \\\"integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community\\\", this position asserts that sustainable hunting and animal agriculture are environmentally healthy and therefore good. Religious traditions of eating meat Hinduism holds vegetarianism as an ideal for three reasons: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals; the intention to offer only \\\"pure\\\" (vegetarian) or sattvic food to\",\n \"-34.49769361680001\"\n ],\n [\n \"is not compliant with Jewish law is called treif. Causing unnecessary pain to animals is prohibited by the principle of tza'ar ba'alei chayim. While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, a number of medieval scholars of Judaism, such as Joseph Albo and Isaac Arama, regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal.\\nIn Christianity as practised by members of Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, Greek Catholic Church, and others, it is prohibited to eat meat in times of fasting. Rules of fasting also vary. There are also Christian monastic orders that practice vegetarianism. Morals It has been\",\n \"-34.4648181029479\"\n ],\n [\n \"animals are slaughtered for their meat every year in the U.S., yet most of the animals are never seen—they are kept in confined animal feeding operations, invisible to the public and off limits to the media. Joy maintains that the choice to eat meat is not natural or a given as proponents of meat claim, but influenced by social conditioning. The majority of people, Joy claims, care deeply about animals and do not want them to suffer.\\nJoy argues there is a neurological basis for empathy; most people care about nonhuman animals and want to prevent their suffering. \",\n \"-34.425180011749035\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegetarian. The percentage of vegetarians was higher among those 65–75 years old (10%) than those aged 20–24 (7%). The study did not measure the number of vegans. Animals used for clothing Brazil is one of the biggest producers of chinchilla fur in the world.\\nIn 2014 the state of Sao Paulo banned most fur farming, imposing a fine of at least 10,000 reais (approximately 2880 USD) for offenders. Animals used in science A total of 3,497,653 animals were used in research published in 18 journals in the State of Paraná in 2006. From this the authors conclude that\",\n \"-34.37086019846902\"\n ],\n [\n \"more than eating a missionary converts a savage into a Christian,\\\" which contributors to Unity found \\\"interesting.\\\" Though not stated in Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian, Clubb has been quoted as saying meat-eating \\\"tends to excite anger, to bring out the brutal, and weaken the gentle and kindly traits.\\\"\\nClubb quotes William Axon in the section \\\"Historical\\\" citing part of a hymn:\\n Bright creatures of the air and earth\\n\\n We seek not to destroy,\\n\\n But share with them the gifts of life,\\n\\n Of duty and of joy.\\nAdditionally, he mentions other contemporaries, such as Wesley, Swedenborg, Linneas, Graham, Alcott, Trail, and Kellogg. He also\",\n \"-34.30171783307742\"\n ],\n [\n \"an advocate of vegetarianism, and the Church has recommended a meatless diet ever since. Dr. John Harvey Kellogg (of corn flakes fame), a Seventh-Day Adventist, promoted vegetarianism at his Battle Creek Sanitarium as part of his theory of \\\"biologic living\\\".\\nAmerican vegetarians such as Isaac Jennings, Susanna W. Dodds, M. L. Holbrook and Russell T. Trall were associated with the natural hygiene movement. Other countries In Russia, Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) was the most outstanding supporter of vegetarianism.\\nIn Germany, the well-known politician, publicist and revolutionist Gustav Struve (1805–1870) was a leading figure in the initial stage of the vegetarian movement. He was\",\n \"-34.29492044525978\"\n ],\n [\n \"hold people accountable to awaken their consciences and exercise their free will.\\\" Kearns also notes that not only are there many empathic people who choose to eat meat, but many vegetarians who base their diet on health, not moral reasons.\\nHelena Pedersen of Malmö University questions whether it is accurate for Joy to treat meat eaters as an homogenous group as there may be many different types of meat eaters all of whom have different reasons for eating meat. Proponents of the abolitionist theory of animal rights, such as Gary L. Francione, do not accept the concept of carnism as\",\n \"-34.26800524047576\"\n ],\n [\n \"Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare.\\nSome cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source. Adulterated food Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food product fails to meet the legal standards.\",\n \"-34.24721177961328\"\n ],\n [\n \"Animal rights in Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism The respect for animal rights in Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism derives from the doctrine of ahimsa.\\nIn Hinduism, animals contain a soul just like humans; when sentient beings die, they can either be reincarnated as a human or as an animal.\\nThese beliefs have resulted in many Hindus practicing vegetarianism, while Jain doctrine mandates vegetarianism based on its strict interpretation of the doctrine of ahimsa. Mahayana Buddhists similarly practice vegetarianism and Mahayana Buddhism prohibits the killing of animals. Jainism Almost every Jain community in India has established animal hospitals to care for injured and abandoned\",\n \"-34.23222782549419\"\n ],\n [\n \"be vegetarian. Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that fools argue over this issue. Guru Nanak said that overconsumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, prohibited the Sikhs from the consumption of halal or Kutha (any ritually slaughtered meat) meat because of the Sikh belief that sacrificing an animal in the name of God is mere ritualism (something to be avoided).\\nOn the views that eating vegetation would be eating flesh, first Sikh Guru\",\n \"-34.22968000380206\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns. Health effects Studies on the health effects of vegetarian diets observe mixed effects on mortality. One review found a decreased overall risk of all cause mortality, cancer (except breast) and cardiovascular disease; however, a meta-analysis found lower risk for ischemic heart disease and cancer but no effect\",\n \"-34.225107343139825\"\n ],\n [\n \"Environmental vegetarianism Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism when motivated by the desire to not contribute to the negative environmental impact of meat production. Livestock as a whole is estimated to be responsible for around 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, significant reduction in meat consumption has been advocated by, among others, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their 2019 special report and as part of the 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity.\\nOther than climate change, environmental concerns about the production of animal products may also relate to pollution, deforestation, unsustainability and the use\",\n \"-34.21537411445752\"\n ],\n [\n \"of raw foodism and objected to the disuse of flavourings and salt. He commented that \\\"the number of dogmatic prohibitions against everything that makes food palatable will soon ruin our society if not firmly resisted.\\\" In 1877, Newman criticized a raw food book of Gustav Schlickeysen. \\nHe made an associate membership possible for people who were not completely vegetarian, such as those who ate chicken or fish. Between 1875-1896 membership for the Vegetarian Society was 2,159 and associate membership 1,785. \\nNewman did not like the term \\\"vegetarian\\\" because it implied someone who ate only vegetables. Instead, he preferred the\",\n \"-34.21365630307264\"\n ],\n [\n \"rabbits into waste containers due to over-production, animals with open wounds or infections left in cages without veterinary treatment, cannibalism among some animals due to over-crowding, farms which had never received health and bio-security inspections, and dead animals rotting in cages next to live animals. Veganism Figures on the number of vegans in Spain are not readily available. However, in 2007 the EU estimated that 4% of the Spanish population was vegetarian, while a 2012 article placed the proportion at 0.5%. Plant-based diets appear to be gaining in popularity; the number of vegan or vegetarian restaurants listed in\",\n \"-34.17867784239934\"\n ],\n [\n \"becomes wealthier, more people are owning pets, which increases opposition to animal cruelty. In April 2012, activists rescued 505 dogs that were headed to slaughter from a truck where they had endured harsh conditions.\\nChinese activists prevented introduction of a bullfighting project in 2010 and rodeos in 2011. Activists have pre-empted a foie gras factory, ended live feeding in zoos, and rescued thousands of dogs and cats from being killed for meat. Vegetarian restaurants are increasing, though partly because of fashion rather than ethics.\\nA 2011 survey of about 6000 Chinese found that while about 2/3 of respondents had never previously heard\",\n \"-34.171367088325496\"\n ],\n [\n \"1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, from which time the institution began to publish its own pamphlet entitled The Healthian, which provides some of the earliest appearances of the term \\\"vegetarian\\\". History The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from the 7th century BCE, inculcating tolerance towards all living beings. Parshwanatha and Mahavira, the 23rd & 24th tirthankaras in Jainism respectively revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism in 8th to 6th century BC; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism. Vegetarianism was also practiced in ancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian\",\n \"-34.03001029868392\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegetarians, starting with the semi-mythical Epimenides. For him, the origin of vegetarianism was Demeter's gift of wheat to Triptolemus so that he could teach agriculture to humanity. His three commandments were: \\\"Honour your parents\\\", \\\"Honour the gods with fruit\\\", and \\\"Spare the animals\\\". Athlete diets Aelian claims that the first athlete to submit to a formal diet was Ikkos of Tarentum, a victor in the Olympic pentathlon (perhaps in 444 BC). However, Olympic wrestling champion (62nd through 66th Olympiads) Milo of Croton was already said to eat twenty pounds of meat and twenty pounds of bread and to drink\",\n \"-33.895339484282886\"\n ],\n [\n \"Vegetarian Society of the modern western world was established in England in 1847. The Society was founded by the 140 participants of a conference at Ramsgate and by 1853 had 889 members. By the end of the century, the group had attracted almost 4,000 members. After its first year, alone, the group grew to 265 members that ranged from ages 14 to 76. English vegetarians were a small but highly motivated and active group. Many of them believed in a simple life and \\\"pure\\\" food, humanitarian ideals and strict moral principles. Not all members of the Vegetarian Society were \\\"Cowherdites\\\",\",\n \"-33.886101184056315\"\n ],\n [\n \"and strove to improve public health. Great Britain During the Age of Enlightenment and in the early nineteenth century, England was the place where vegetarian ideas were more welcome than anywhere else Europe, and the English vegetarians were particularly enthusiastic about the practical implementation of their principles. In England, vegetarianism was strongest in the northern and middle regions, specifically urbanized areas. As the movement spread across the country, more working-class people began to identify as vegetarians, though still a small number in comparison to the number of meat eaters. Groups were established all across England,\",\n \"-33.861217345664045\"\n ],\n [\n \"consumption of meat, especially beef, is \\\"caught in cultural, political, and group identity struggles in India\\\". China In China, consumption of meat is rapidly increasing while a small but growing number of young people in large cities are vegan. An estimated 4 to 5 percent of Chinese are vegetarian. However, in a survey conducted by SJTU researchers, only 0.77 percent of respondents labeled themselves vegetarian.\\nChinese folk religion, which is distinct from Taoism, Chinese salvationist religions, and New Religious Movements is similar to Shintoism in Japan insofar as while the killing and eating of animals is not forbidden, it is considered\",\n \"-33.85773856560263\"\n ],\n [\n \"or accident is not allowed. Beef is a sought after meat among Muslims, but they strictly avoid pork and alcohol.\\nHinduism, with its emphasis on non-violence against all creatures, tends to be vegetarian, and lacto-vegetarian meals are common. However, food habits are left as a choice for Hindus and alcohol consumption is accepted. There are varied opinions regarding the permissibility of eating meat in Hinduism, depending upon the interpretation of the Hindu scriptures. Vegetarianism is a choice for most Hindus, although some sects emphasize vegetarianism. Some Hindus consider violence against animals, that is used to produce any meat, so unacceptable that\",\n \"-33.849799323797924\"\n ],\n [\n \"consumption. Since deer are inherently wild animals living on grass and wild plants, their meat can be consumed as part of a naturally healthy diet. Venison is higher in moisture and protein, and the protein is more diverse in amino acids and lower in calories, cholesterol, and fat than most cuts of grain-fed beef, pork, or lamb. Health concerns Since it is unknown whether chronic wasting disease (CWD), a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy among deer (similar to mad cow disease), scientifically known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, can pass from deer to humans through the consumption of venison, there have been some\",\n \"-33.80757135881868\"\n ],\n [\n \"people would eat twigs, roots of plants, bark from trees, and each other as a last resort. Food shortages were frequent but didn’t last long enough to generate famine. People of Interest Pythagoras (570 BC – 495 BC) was a Greek philosopher, mathematician, and is also considered to be “the Father of Ethical Vegetarianism”. He believed that in order to obtain the highest level of spiritual and physical health it was necessary to follow a lifestyle that included a vegetarian diet which excluded meats and other flesh foods. Anaxagoras (500 BC – 428 BC) was also a Greek philosopher, he\",\n \"-33.77975505014183\"\n ],\n [\n \"eateries.\\nVegetarianism had been regarded as an alternative lifestyle for many years; but became more mainstream during the 1980s even though consistent vegetarians are still rare. Despite exhortations by the Ministry of Health and their allies for people to eat less meat, and more cereals, fruits, and vegetables, a highly meat-based diet remains a part of New Zealand culture, albeit with decrease of red meat consumption and intake of fish and chicken has been on the rise due to their relative affordability compared to red meat.\\nGluten free foodstuffs have become part of the dietary trends in New Zealand, with cafes and\",\n \"-33.712334607011144\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Vegan News. He chose the word vegan himself, based on \\\"the first three and last two letters of 'vegetarian'\\\" because it marked, in Mr Watson's words, \\\"the beginning and end of vegetarian\\\", Current situation Today Indian vegetarians, primarily lacto-vegetarians, are estimated to make up more than 70 percent of the world's vegetarians. They make up 20–42 percent of the population in India, while less than 30 percent are regular meat-eaters.\\nSurveys in the U.S. have found that roughly 1–2.8 percent of adults eat no meat, poultry, or fish.\\nIn 2013, PS 244 in Queens became the first public school in New\",\n \"-33.68323714946746\"\n ],\n [\n \"question of biology, but of public policy and principle\\\" and also stating that \\\"Efforts to extend legal rights to chimpanzees are thus understandable; some day they may even succeed.\\\" Religions Robert Garner writes that both Hindu and Buddhist societies abandoned animal sacrifice and embraced vegetarianism from the 3rd century BCE. Several kings in India built hospitals for animals, and the emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE) issued orders against hunting and animal slaughter, in line with ahimsa, the doctrine of non-violence. Garner writes that Jainism took this idea further. Jains believe that no living creature should be harmed, and they are known\",\n \"-33.6354800993613\"\n ],\n [\n \"the victim's \\\"fundamental equality.\\\" Hinduism and Buddhism Both Hindu and Buddhist societies saw widespread vegetarianism from the 3rd century BCE, in line with ahimsa, the doctrine of non-violence. Ryder writes that animals were thought to possess the same feelings as human beings, and several kings of ancient India built hospitals for sick animals. Human souls could be reborn as animals if they had behaved badly, with all souls regarded as part of the Supreme Being. Failing to observe the duty to care could lead to bad karma, which increased the likelihood of returning as an animal next time round. Islam\",\n \"-33.506679796715616\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegetarians perceived vegetarians as less masculine.\\nCultural associations between meat and masculinity are reflected in individuals' attitudes and choices. Across Western societies, women eat significantly less meat than men on average and are more likely to be vegetarian. Women are also more likely than men to avoid meat for ethical reasons. A 2016 review found that male Germans eat more meat than females, linking the discrepancy to the finding that meat in Western culture has symbolic connections to strength and power, which are associated with male gender roles. \\nStudies have also examined meat eating in the context of attempts to manage\",\n \"-33.46738516253026\"\n ],\n [\n \"conveys that some animal-based ingredients (meat, egg, etc.) were used. Products like honey, milk, or its direct derivatives are categorized under the green mark.\\nAccording to the 2006 Hindu-CNN-IBN State of the Nation Survey, 31% of Indians are vegetarian, while another 9% also consume eggs (ovo-vegetarian). Among the various communities, vegetarianism was most common among the Brahmins, Lingayat, Vaishnav Community, Jain community, and, less frequent among Muslims (3%) and residents of coastal states. Other surveys cited by FAO and USDA estimate 40% of the Indian population as being vegetarian. These surveys indicate that even Indians who do eat meat, do so\",\n \"-33.457512470295114\"\n ],\n [\n \"poorly studied, even though important variations exist from region to region; for example, approximately one third of Indians are vegetarian. Research has indicated that, relative to Western vegetarians, Indian vegetarians are more likely to endorse the moral values of purity, legitimate authority, and respect for ingroup and tradition.\",\n \"-33.44764237973868\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegetarianism is unknown, most meals are eaten without meat due to its high price.\\nFish are plentiful along the River Congo, its tributaries, and various lakes; and are baked, boiled or fried for immediate consumption; or smoked or salted when preserved. Markets often sell ready-to-eat peppered fish baked in banana leaves. Goat is the most widely consumed meat. Mwambe is a common way of cooking chicken with peanut sauce. Edible insects such as grasshoppers and caterpillars are eaten; they tend to have a nutty flavour.\\nSauces to mix with the ingredients above can be made with tomatoes, onions, and the local aromatic\",\n \"-33.44527399438084\"\n ],\n [\n \"with omnivores holding much more positive views. Vegetarians may express either revulsion or nostalgia at the thought of eating meat.\\nConsumer behavior towards meat may be modeled by distinguishing the effects of intrinsic factors (properties of the physical product itself, such as color) and extrinsic factors (everything else, including price and brand). Intrinsic factors Taste and texture are self-reported to be important factors in food choice, although this may not accurately reflect consumer behavior. Consumers describe meat as \\\"chewy\\\", \\\"tender\\\", and \\\"rich\\\". In the United Kingdom, meat is traditionally considered to taste good. People experience the taste and texture of meat\",\n \"-33.41771641449304\"\n ],\n [\n \"overlap, environmental vegetarians and vegans can be contrasted with those who are primarily motivated by concerns about animal welfare (one kind of ethical vegetarianism), health, or who avoid meat to save money or out of necessity (economic vegetarianism). Some also believe vegetarianism will improve global food security, or curb starvation. Health A study in Climate Change concluded \\\"if ... average diets among UK adults conformed to WHO recommendations, their associated GHG emissions would be reduced by 17%. Further GHG emission reductions of around 40% could be achieved by making realistic modifications to diets so that they contain fewer animal products\",\n \"-33.41372261947254\"\n ],\n [\n \"Vegetarianism Etymology The first written use of the term \\\"vegetarian\\\" originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to a vegetable regimen diet. Modern dictionaries explain its origin as a compound of vegetable (adjective) and the suffix -arian (in the sense of agrarian). The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847, although it may have appeared in print before 1847. The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House—a school on the north side of Ham Common, London—which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. From\",\n \"-33.412322584947105\"\n ],\n [\n \"recently in some countries humans started seeing them as a nuisance and became hostile to them. In India, feeding feral animals in cities is considered a noble act. Academicians say that how humans treat animals is related to how humans treat each other and thus raise concerns about the cultural shift from seeing feral city pigeons as harmless in the 1800s to seeing them a undesirable in some countries in the 2000s.\\nIn zoos, giving food to the animals is discouraged due to the strict dietary controls in place. More generally, artificial feeding can result in, for example, vitamin deficiencies and\",\n \"-33.40829463461705\"\n ],\n [\n \"century, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women, and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.\\nAcross the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus. Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Ahimsa. In\",\n \"-33.401582219037664\"\n ],\n [\n \"Peter Singer argues that it is fallacious to say that eating meat is morally acceptable simply because it is part of the \\\"natural way”, as the way that humans and other animals do behave naturally has no bearing on how we should behave. Thus, Singer claims, the moral permissibility or impermissibility of eating meat must be assessed on its own merits, not by appealing to what is \\\"natural\\\".\",\n \"-33.38465242652455\"\n ],\n [\n \"groups of Christian vegetarians in the 18th century. The best known of them was Ephrata Cloister in Pennsylvania, a religious community founded by Conrad Beissel in 1732. Benjamin Franklin became a vegetarian at the age of 16, but later on he reluctantly returned to meat eating. He later introduced tofu to America in 1770.\\n Colonel Thomas Crafts Jr. was a vegetarian. 19th century Vegetarianism was frequently associated with cultural reform movements, such as temperance and anti-vivisection. It was propagated as an essential part of \\\"the natural way of life.\\\" Some of its champions sharply criticized the civilization of their age\",\n \"-33.33976878138492\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a general abstention from violence against others and all killing of animals. Some significant debates between pro-non-vegetarianism and pro-vegetarianism, with mention of cattle meat as food, are found in several books of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, particularly its Book III, XII, XIII and XIV. It is also found in the Ramayana. These two epics are not only literary classics, but they have also been popular religious classics.\\nThe Mahabharata debate presents one meat-producing hunter who defends his profession as dharmic. The hunter, in this ancient Sanskrit text, states that meat consumption should be okay because animal sacrifice was practiced\",\n \"-33.28184873960345\"\n ],\n [\n \"meat paradox generates a negative interpersonal state, which then motivates an individual to find the means to alleviate it. Recent studies in this area suggest that people can facilitate their practices of meat eating by attributing lower intelligence and capacity for suffering to meat animals, by thinking of these animals as more dissimilar to humans, by caring less about animal welfare and social inequality, and by dissociating meat products from the animals they come from. Perceptions of meat animals Ethical conflicts arise when eating animals if they are considered to have moral status. Perceptions of animals' moral status vary greatly,\",\n \"-33.27693899575388\"\n ],\n [\n \"tended to prevent such concerns from influencing consumer behavior.\\nPeople in many cultures do not like to be reminded of the connection between animals and meat, and tend to \\\"de-animalize\\\" meat when necessary to reduce feelings of guilt or of disgust. Meat in Western countries is often packaged and served so as to minimize its resemblance to live animals, without eyes, faces, or tails, and the market share of such products has increased in recent decades; however, meat in many other cultures is sold with these body parts.\\nSome authors have suggested that the use of non-animal words such as \\\"sirloin\\\" and\",\n \"-33.259061786258826\"\n ],\n [\n \"was made easier because he had eaten little meat for aesthetic reasons as a child, and he readily adopted his wife's vegetarianism because she does much of the cooking in their household. Speaking in 1990, he said that with the increasing availability of meat substitutes, \\\"It might take 20 years. But eventually there will no longer be a reason for most people to eat meat. And animals will breathe a sigh of relief.\\\" To avoid causing others discomfort, he is willing to occasionally eat chicken or turkey, although he finds eating pork highly unpleasant.\",\n \"-33.2241805251324\"\n ],\n [\n \"Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows Background Joy, a social psychologist and author, was concerned about linguistic bias inherent in terms like carnivore, which were inaccurate and failed to account for the \\\"beliefs beneath the behavior\\\". Carnivores require meat in their diet for survival, but carnists choose to eat meat based on their beliefs. There was no label, Joy discovered, for the beliefs of people who produce, consume, and promote meat eating. She created the term carnism (Latin carn, flesh or body) to name and describe this dominant cultural belief system. \\\"We assume\",\n \"-33.17895798633981\"\n ],\n [\n \"(tsom, Ge'ez: ጾም ṣōm, excluding any kind of animal products, including dairy products and eggs) periods, including Wednesdays, Fridays, and the entire Lenten season, so Ethiopian cuisine contains many dishes that are vegan. Early modern period It was not before the European Renaissance that vegetarianism reemerged in Europe as a philosophical concept based on an ethical motivation. Among the first celebrities who supported it were Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655). In the 17th century the paramount theorist of the meatless or Pythagorean diet was the English writer Thomas Tryon (1634–1703) and subsequently the Romantic poets. On the\",\n \"-33.16400129770045\"\n ],\n [\n \"vegetables, and whole grains which are good sources of protein. The risks associated with vegetarianism, that is to say the problems vegetarians face, can generally be lessened by a careful diet. These problems that many associate with vegetarianism, such as anaemia, are in fact not due to the vegetarian diet alone, but more so to the fact that the subject in question has failed to supplement their body with the nutrition they require. When cutting out meats, some vegetarians fail to intake any other kinds of protein. To intake protein is very important during pregnancy as one of the cause\",\n \"-33.150278374319896\"\n ],\n [\n \"some vegan or even vegetarian diets, if those diets are driven by animal rights rather than health motivations.\\nFor those vegetarians and vegans who seek to minimize animal exploitation wherever feasible, wine filtered with animal products such as isinglass or gelatin would not be suitable for a vegetarian diet. Similarly, the use of any animal products or byproducts in the fining process would not be suitable for a vegan diet of similar motivation. For those vegans motivated by perceived health benefits of avoiding consumption of animal protein, the use of these agents would not be problematic. Non-vegetarian/vegan additives Examples of common\",\n \"-33.14646884490503\"\n ],\n [\n \"has more vegetarians than the rest of the world put together. In India, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto vegetarianism. Most restaurants in India clearly distinguish and market themselves as being either \\\"non-vegetarian\\\", \\\"vegetarian\\\", or \\\"pure vegetarian\\\". Vegetarian restaurants abound, and many vegetarian options are usually available. Animal-based ingredients (other than milk and honey) such as lard, gelatin, and meat stock are not used in the traditional cuisine. India has devised a system of marking edible products made from only vegetarian ingredients, with a green dot in a green square. A mark of a brown dot in a brown square\",\n \"-33.094574134156574\"\n ],\n [\n \"the world's strictest, because around 2 million Taiwanese people eat vegetarian food.\\nA popular movement of \\\"one day vegetarian every week\\\" has been advocated on a national level, and on a local level, even government bodies are involved, such as the Taipei City Board of Education. Thailand There are more than 908 vegetarian eating establishments in Thailand.]. Europe The definition of vegetarianism throughout Europe is not uniform, creating the potential for products to be labelled inaccurately. Throughout Europe the use of non-vegetarian ingredients are in use in products such as beer (isinglass among others), wine (gelatine and crustacean shells among others)\",\n \"-33.07706279026752\"\n ],\n [\n \"elevation. It is also practiced because as strict adherents to natural living, Rastafarians often believe the human being is a natural vegetarian based on human physiology and anatomy. Some adherents to Ital diets are strict vegans, as they do not consider dairy to be natural for human consumption either.\\nThe most strict interpretations also avoid the consumption of rock salt (sea salt can be substituted), and food that has been preserved by canning or drying, and even prohibit the use of metal cooking utensils. In this case, only clay and wood cooking pots, crockery, and cutlery are used. Few adherents of\",\n \"-33.06851350811485\"\n ],\n [\n \"tradition, devotees keep to a diet without any animal products during these times. As a result, vegan foods are abundant in stores and restaurants; however, Romanians may not be familiar with a vegan or vegetarian diet as a full-time lifestyle choice. Many recipes below have vegan versions, and the Vegetables section below contains many common fasting foods.\",\n \"-33.06667730972913\"\n ],\n [\n \"reduces suffering to the animal. The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish. Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.\\nThere are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid\",\n \"-33.03294176221243\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Vegetarian Myth The Vegetarian Myth: Food, Justice, and Sustainability is a 2009 book by Lierre Keith.\\nKeith is an ex-vegan who believes veganism has damaged her health and others'. Keith argues that agriculture is destroying not only human health but entire ecosystems, such as the North American prairie, and destroying topsoil. Keith also considers modern agriculture to be the root cause of slavery, imperialism, militarism, chronic hunger and disease.\\nKeith argues humans should accept death as a necessary precursor to food. in that \\\"everyone will get eaten, sooner or later\\\". In sum. Her proposition is that herbivores eat grass, humans eat\",\n \"-32.99237057499704\"\n ],\n [\n \"as neutral arbiters (Panchayat).\\nRegarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar. People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime. In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of\",\n \"-32.98540676596167\"\n ],\n [\n \"has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks and nuns do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.\\nJains fast on different occasions throughout the year, particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa,\",\n \"-32.981862887580064\"\n ],\n [\n \"so long as an animal's death was quick, men would suffer more by not eating meat than animals would suffer by being eaten. Schopenhauer also theorized that the reason people succumbed to the \\\"unnatural diet\\\" of meat-eating was because of the unnatural, cold climate they emigrated to and the necessity of meat for survival in such a climate, for fruits and vegetables could not be dependably cultivated at those times. He applauded the animal protection movement in England—\\\"To the honor, then, of the English, be it said that they are the first people who have, in downright earnest, extended\",\n \"-32.97973671917862\"\n ],\n [\n \"of only clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking, and the use of narcotics.\\nIn India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and Hindus abstain from eating meat and fish (basically, all living animals) on the grounds both of health and of reverence for all sentient forms of life. Total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism. In addition, lay and monastic Buddhists refrain from killing any living creature and from consuming intoxicants, and bhikkhus keep vows of chastity. In Theravada Buddhism, bhikkhus also refrain from eating in the afternoon, and\",\n \"-32.94964389584493\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ashoka's animal welfare policies only restricted the species of animals that can be killed for food in addition to banning ritual sacrifices of animals on the premise that it is wasteful. Vegetarianism never was a principle to be strictly adhered to in Buddhism and no social stigma was attached to Buddhists who ate meat even in India, the land of its origin. This is reasonably clear from the fact that the austerities of Jainism which includes the strictest form of vegetarianism long pre-dated Buddha's birth and did not apparently influence Buddha's eating habits after his enlightenment. Buddha and Buddhists continued\",\n \"-32.948737844024436\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ethical omnivorism Rationale This diet tries to increase consumer support for more ethical meat production with the aim that it might be able to give incentive for more restaurants and stores to use ethical sources. Criticism The vegan philosophy criticises and rejects the very concept of ethical omnivorism. Vegans think that breeding animals for the purpose of consumption is inherently unethical, and view the terms \\\"free range\\\" or \\\"organic\\\" as labels applied by the agriculture industry that lack true animal concern.\",\n \"-32.92993874651438\"\n ],\n [\n \"meat was regarded as a sign of paganism and prohibited. A reluctance to eat horse meat is common in these countries even today. Opposition to production The killing of horses for human consumption is widely opposed in countries such as the U.S., UK and Australia. where horses are generally considered to be companion and sporting animals only. Almost all equine medications and treatments are labeled as being not intended for human consumption. In the European Union, horses intended for slaughter cannot be treated with many medications commonly used for U.S. horses. For horses going to slaughter, no period of withdrawal,\",\n \"-32.91396451817127\"\n ],\n [\n \"school children. However, some communities are vegetarians for religious or cultural reasons. Efforts must be made to develop culturally appropriate interventions to address the micronutrient deficiencies in these populations, such as through food fortification. Animal source food production According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global.\\\" As such, using plant-derived foods is typically considered better for the interests of the environment. Despite this, the raising of certain animals can be more environmentally\",\n \"-32.912995655293344\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":293,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"49pr8i"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"why does it take 30 mins for my dogs bloodwork to come back yet mine takes 24 hours?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Thank you all for the answers. Sadly this 30 min test basically told it's time put down my dog. I'll be crying in my room if you need me. EDIT: I'll add on to this so hopefully more see this, took her to the vet and turns out it was really bad case of [DKA]( URL_0 ). All the symptoms she had we assumed she was just getting slower with old age. She pulled through today and has another big day ahead of her tomorrow. If the levels fall she'll make it and we will do insulin the rest of her days, if not.... Basically don't be a cheapo like me and do the blood work at the yearly check ups. It's worth it and I feel like the worst human ever for not doing it.","Probably depends upon the workload of the lab techs and/or the urgency of your results. I'm Aircrew in the military (not U.S.) and my blood work comes back within a week for my yearly medical, but if I'm sick and possibly medically grounded, my results have come back as quick as 1 hour. Also, certain tests require more time. Perhaps your dogs tests are simple and yours are not...","Many hospitals will send your blood off to a reference laboratory for the actual tests, whereas many vet offices are able to run tests right there in their own facility. In the average community, there aren't so many animals needing blood tests at any given time that it becomes problematic or impractical to do right there in the vet office. On the other hand, if you live in a city of average size, there may be thousands of human blood samples from the community to test on any given day. Ultimately it becomes far more efficient to send the blood samples off in batches to other labs and facilities that specialize in this kind of thing. Also, some of these testing laboratories don't only cover your immediate city; oftentimes they are regional, covering numerous cities and towns in the area, leading to higher workloads and increased turnaround on results. Blood tests can be expedited if there is some urgency, but typically yours will be placed at the end of the line. And there may be hundreds or thousands of tests waiting in line ahead of you.","i did research on blood transport for the FDA a decade ago. dog blood is not regulated as much as human blood. people handling it require less training. there is less documentation required, and fewer controls. it's easier to get dog blood through the process because there are fewer barcodes to scan, fewer things to enter in a computer.","With few exceptions, your tests can be completed quite quickly, but there are other factors that interfere. 1. Many doctors send blood and other specimen (feces, urine, etc) offsite for analysis rather than doing it in their office, as it can require specialized equipment/facilities. 2. If it's done on-site, your tests may be delayed due to other, higher-priority patients. If you're getting your cholesterol checked, it can wait a day or two, but if someone *might* be having a heart attack, the test results are needed ASAP to determine the appropriate treatment, as the patient's life may be at stake.","Simple answer is backlog. There are way more people that need labs done than there are animals. If your hospital or clinic has their own lab, then chances are you'll be able to get your labs done faster than if it has to be sent out. Not to mention the lab might take orders from outside sources. You are probably number 249 on their list by the time your order gets inputted. You dog is probably number 29. Priority as well. Blood work in ER visits take priority over someone who's in for their yearly lipid test. Literally a matter of life or death in some cases.","Vet blood work is usually simple and doesn't require high levels of accuracy. Simple finger prick blood tests are almost instantaneous while actual lab tests take a while based on priority and workload. After I broke my leg, they drew blood and had results in less than an hour.","Your blood test takes a very short amount of time. It's just the workload of the lab you go to. I've had results back in 20 minutes.","It's marked up as explained, but just to add to this topic. The vast majority of blood work has a very short turn around time regardless of species. Time delays really only occur when samples have to be sent to a local laboratory for either confirmation or if the practice doesn't have the equipment to run the required test. As a couple examples a veterinary practice might have a biochemistry and a haematology analyser which will allow a vet or vet nurse to provide results within 5 minutes. These analysers are quite accurate and provide a decent snap shot typically of liver/kidney parameters along with a full blood count. These results will help a clinician to in the least start treatment, continue therapy, confirm health status. They may send the same samples on to a reference laboratory to confirm/get more detailed results. Typically a vet practice lab will have a few other smaller point of care analysers or tests that they can perform (haemoglobin, blood glucose, blood typing or simple snap ELISA). When sending a sample to a reference laboratory the samples will arrive by courier and/or local postal delivery. This obviously takes more time, but the larger laboratories endeavour to provide either same day or within 24 hours for the vast majority of samples/tests. The advantage of sending to a reference lab are specialised analysers with higher accuracy, wider range of available testing and the ability of having specialised areas (for example the company that I work for has recently developed tests for early kidney disease markers, has exclusive tests for pancreatic inflammation etc which are only available by testing at our reference laboratories). As for human testing (and this is more specific to the UK), when you have your bloods taken at your GP, they may have some simpler point of care testing machines (Blood glucose, haemoglobin, cholesterol etc) but they will be far less likely to have their own laboratory. These will be couriered to a laboratory (usually hospital based) and tested within an hour or two. The results are then transmitted (fax, email, or posted results) back to the GP surgery. Obviously if your bloods are taken at the hospital, then turn around of results will be massively reduced, but even they may have to send samples on to a specialised reference laboratory as it is generally not cost effective to provide every service under the sun if the sample numbers are low. If you'd like to know more about reference laboratories ask away. Source: Laboratory Scientist at a veterinary reference lab.","It depends on what the \"bloodwork\" is. I can send for certain labs from my emergency department, set the timing to \"stat\" in the computer, and get results back within 30 minutes for certain tests. Electrolytes, cancer markets, blood counts, etc don't take too long. Cultures take longer because you're literally waiting for bacterial colonies to grow, so we like to wait 24 hours. If you're in the hospital due to an infection, we like to make sure you have negative cultures for 48 hours before we send you home. If we send for a biopsy, need sections mounted on slides for a cell morphology study (eg, seeing if your cells are cancerous), or anything that a pathologist would have to set up, it really depends on how many pathologists are in at the time, what their workload is, etc. At our hospital they take sections of every placenta after every birth, lots of biopsies for suspected cancers, etc, so things can get quite backed up. Your \"priority\" also matters a lot. Nobody is going to rush to take a look at your cancer markers because cancer doesn't change hour to hour, day to day, etc, but something like.. idk, an ABG for a hypercapnic patient who's barely breathing is definitely higher on the list. Some of these answers are a little off. Even small community hospitals usually have some sort of lab. If you come into the ER with an acute condition, no hospital is going to be able to send out for labs to some other place, that simply doesn't make sense. There are a lot of factors, but I hope this helps. edit - I just saw you posted about your dog and the circumstances surrounding your question. I'm really sorry :( I have two dogs that I absolutely adore and don't know what I'm gonna do when the time comes.","Simple. It takes your dog's bloodwork 30 minutes because there are like 20 tests maximum that you can get, all performed on two little machines your vet has in the back room. (Think like a bigger version of the glucose strip reader that a diabetic would use). Add that to the number of people who pay for pet blood work being relatively small, means that the back log of samples waiting to get into that machine is small to none. Quick, 30 minutes. In fact, 30 minutes is a long time to wait for that -- realistically, the tests could be done in five, and prettied up in ten. It takes YOUR bloodwork 24 hours to a week to get back to you because there are thousands of possible tests your doctor could want, and not all hospitals are able to test them all. What they do is they divide the less common ones up, so to save on machinery and supply cost. That may mean your blood needs to get shipped to four different addresses before all the tests your doctor wants done are resulted. That takes time. I could go into more detail of how things are prioritized within that system causing the difference between 1 hour results back and weeks results back, but above is the basics. (source: I'm certified to run both animal lab and human lab blood work)","Sorry for your loss mate. After my buddy passed I spent a lot of time cursing out vet and wondering why after so many tests nothing was ever diagnosed. Took me time to realize I should have focused on the good times we shared and the joy he provided instead of anger and resentment. Cherish the time you guys shared. I'm glad science has made it easy to receive such prompt results. Beats seeing your buddy in pain with no clear answers.","If the place where you get your blood tested gets an i-STAT ( URL_0 ) for about $10000, and $20 per blood bottle, then you can have the most common tests done and back in 10 minutes. If they send it to a large lab then it costs about $5 for almost all the tests you could want, except for rare tests which need expensive reagents.","I just had a lot of blood work done and I already had the email with the results by the time I got home from the lab."],"string":"[\n \"Thank you all for the answers. Sadly this 30 min test basically told it's time put down my dog. I'll be crying in my room if you need me. EDIT: I'll add on to this so hopefully more see this, took her to the vet and turns out it was really bad case of [DKA]( URL_0 ). All the symptoms she had we assumed she was just getting slower with old age. She pulled through today and has another big day ahead of her tomorrow. If the levels fall she'll make it and we will do insulin the rest of her days, if not.... Basically don't be a cheapo like me and do the blood work at the yearly check ups. It's worth it and I feel like the worst human ever for not doing it.\",\n \"Probably depends upon the workload of the lab techs and/or the urgency of your results. I'm Aircrew in the military (not U.S.) and my blood work comes back within a week for my yearly medical, but if I'm sick and possibly medically grounded, my results have come back as quick as 1 hour. Also, certain tests require more time. Perhaps your dogs tests are simple and yours are not...\",\n \"Many hospitals will send your blood off to a reference laboratory for the actual tests, whereas many vet offices are able to run tests right there in their own facility. In the average community, there aren't so many animals needing blood tests at any given time that it becomes problematic or impractical to do right there in the vet office. On the other hand, if you live in a city of average size, there may be thousands of human blood samples from the community to test on any given day. Ultimately it becomes far more efficient to send the blood samples off in batches to other labs and facilities that specialize in this kind of thing. Also, some of these testing laboratories don't only cover your immediate city; oftentimes they are regional, covering numerous cities and towns in the area, leading to higher workloads and increased turnaround on results. Blood tests can be expedited if there is some urgency, but typically yours will be placed at the end of the line. And there may be hundreds or thousands of tests waiting in line ahead of you.\",\n \"i did research on blood transport for the FDA a decade ago. dog blood is not regulated as much as human blood. people handling it require less training. there is less documentation required, and fewer controls. it's easier to get dog blood through the process because there are fewer barcodes to scan, fewer things to enter in a computer.\",\n \"With few exceptions, your tests can be completed quite quickly, but there are other factors that interfere. 1. Many doctors send blood and other specimen (feces, urine, etc) offsite for analysis rather than doing it in their office, as it can require specialized equipment/facilities. 2. If it's done on-site, your tests may be delayed due to other, higher-priority patients. If you're getting your cholesterol checked, it can wait a day or two, but if someone *might* be having a heart attack, the test results are needed ASAP to determine the appropriate treatment, as the patient's life may be at stake.\",\n \"Simple answer is backlog. There are way more people that need labs done than there are animals. If your hospital or clinic has their own lab, then chances are you'll be able to get your labs done faster than if it has to be sent out. Not to mention the lab might take orders from outside sources. You are probably number 249 on their list by the time your order gets inputted. You dog is probably number 29. Priority as well. Blood work in ER visits take priority over someone who's in for their yearly lipid test. Literally a matter of life or death in some cases.\",\n \"Vet blood work is usually simple and doesn't require high levels of accuracy. Simple finger prick blood tests are almost instantaneous while actual lab tests take a while based on priority and workload. After I broke my leg, they drew blood and had results in less than an hour.\",\n \"Your blood test takes a very short amount of time. It's just the workload of the lab you go to. I've had results back in 20 minutes.\",\n \"It's marked up as explained, but just to add to this topic. The vast majority of blood work has a very short turn around time regardless of species. Time delays really only occur when samples have to be sent to a local laboratory for either confirmation or if the practice doesn't have the equipment to run the required test. As a couple examples a veterinary practice might have a biochemistry and a haematology analyser which will allow a vet or vet nurse to provide results within 5 minutes. These analysers are quite accurate and provide a decent snap shot typically of liver/kidney parameters along with a full blood count. These results will help a clinician to in the least start treatment, continue therapy, confirm health status. They may send the same samples on to a reference laboratory to confirm/get more detailed results. Typically a vet practice lab will have a few other smaller point of care analysers or tests that they can perform (haemoglobin, blood glucose, blood typing or simple snap ELISA). When sending a sample to a reference laboratory the samples will arrive by courier and/or local postal delivery. This obviously takes more time, but the larger laboratories endeavour to provide either same day or within 24 hours for the vast majority of samples/tests. The advantage of sending to a reference lab are specialised analysers with higher accuracy, wider range of available testing and the ability of having specialised areas (for example the company that I work for has recently developed tests for early kidney disease markers, has exclusive tests for pancreatic inflammation etc which are only available by testing at our reference laboratories). As for human testing (and this is more specific to the UK), when you have your bloods taken at your GP, they may have some simpler point of care testing machines (Blood glucose, haemoglobin, cholesterol etc) but they will be far less likely to have their own laboratory. These will be couriered to a laboratory (usually hospital based) and tested within an hour or two. The results are then transmitted (fax, email, or posted results) back to the GP surgery. Obviously if your bloods are taken at the hospital, then turn around of results will be massively reduced, but even they may have to send samples on to a specialised reference laboratory as it is generally not cost effective to provide every service under the sun if the sample numbers are low. If you'd like to know more about reference laboratories ask away. Source: Laboratory Scientist at a veterinary reference lab.\",\n \"It depends on what the \\\"bloodwork\\\" is. I can send for certain labs from my emergency department, set the timing to \\\"stat\\\" in the computer, and get results back within 30 minutes for certain tests. Electrolytes, cancer markets, blood counts, etc don't take too long. Cultures take longer because you're literally waiting for bacterial colonies to grow, so we like to wait 24 hours. If you're in the hospital due to an infection, we like to make sure you have negative cultures for 48 hours before we send you home. If we send for a biopsy, need sections mounted on slides for a cell morphology study (eg, seeing if your cells are cancerous), or anything that a pathologist would have to set up, it really depends on how many pathologists are in at the time, what their workload is, etc. At our hospital they take sections of every placenta after every birth, lots of biopsies for suspected cancers, etc, so things can get quite backed up. Your \\\"priority\\\" also matters a lot. Nobody is going to rush to take a look at your cancer markers because cancer doesn't change hour to hour, day to day, etc, but something like.. idk, an ABG for a hypercapnic patient who's barely breathing is definitely higher on the list. Some of these answers are a little off. Even small community hospitals usually have some sort of lab. If you come into the ER with an acute condition, no hospital is going to be able to send out for labs to some other place, that simply doesn't make sense. There are a lot of factors, but I hope this helps. edit - I just saw you posted about your dog and the circumstances surrounding your question. I'm really sorry :( I have two dogs that I absolutely adore and don't know what I'm gonna do when the time comes.\",\n \"Simple. It takes your dog's bloodwork 30 minutes because there are like 20 tests maximum that you can get, all performed on two little machines your vet has in the back room. (Think like a bigger version of the glucose strip reader that a diabetic would use). Add that to the number of people who pay for pet blood work being relatively small, means that the back log of samples waiting to get into that machine is small to none. Quick, 30 minutes. In fact, 30 minutes is a long time to wait for that -- realistically, the tests could be done in five, and prettied up in ten. It takes YOUR bloodwork 24 hours to a week to get back to you because there are thousands of possible tests your doctor could want, and not all hospitals are able to test them all. What they do is they divide the less common ones up, so to save on machinery and supply cost. That may mean your blood needs to get shipped to four different addresses before all the tests your doctor wants done are resulted. That takes time. I could go into more detail of how things are prioritized within that system causing the difference between 1 hour results back and weeks results back, but above is the basics. (source: I'm certified to run both animal lab and human lab blood work)\",\n \"Sorry for your loss mate. After my buddy passed I spent a lot of time cursing out vet and wondering why after so many tests nothing was ever diagnosed. Took me time to realize I should have focused on the good times we shared and the joy he provided instead of anger and resentment. Cherish the time you guys shared. I'm glad science has made it easy to receive such prompt results. Beats seeing your buddy in pain with no clear answers.\",\n \"If the place where you get your blood tested gets an i-STAT ( URL_0 ) for about $10000, and $20 per blood bottle, then you can have the most common tests done and back in 10 minutes. If they send it to a large lab then it costs about $5 for almost all the tests you could want, except for rare tests which need expensive reagents.\",\n \"I just had a lot of blood work done and I already had the email with the results by the time I got home from the lab.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["determine how dogs can run up to 10 hours without fatigue.\nDogs dropped at the checkpoints during the race were flown to one of the regional hubs at Unalakleet, McGrath, or Anchorage and then to Hiland Mountain-Meadow Creek Correctional Center in Eagle River, where they were cared for by minimum security inmates who volunteered for the responsibility.\nThe race averages 3 dog deaths per year.","-29.239982425278868"],["the blood into the animal's circulation. After several minutes, the heart fibrillates, then restarts a normal rhythm. Respiration likewise resumes and the machine is removed. Over the ensuing ten days, the dog recovers from the procedure and continues living a healthy life. According to the film, several dogs were brought back to life using this method, including one which is an offspring of parents who were both also resuscitated. Reaction Brukhonenko's decapitation experiment was remarked upon by George Bernard Shaw, who stated, \"I am even tempted to have my own head cut off so that I can continue to dictate","-29.09483737248229"],["lasts five hours, during which time the dog is connected to a blood oxygenator and the heart is bypassed. The defective heart valve is removed and the replacement valve, typically from bovine pericardium, is precisely sewn into place. The dog’s heart is then restarted and monitored for at least two hours after the surgery is completed. Due to the expense, this is not a common procedure. Prosthetic limbs While small dogs and cats can survive comfortably with three legs, larger dogs, horses, and farm animals require the limb to support their weight. Surgery has also been","-28.863770293770358"],["2005, scientists at the University of Pittsburgh's Safar Center for Resuscitation Research announced they had managed to place dogs in suspended animation and bring them back to life, most of them without brain damage, by draining the blood out of the dogs' bodies and injecting a low temperature solution into their circulatory systems, which in turn keeps the bodies alive in stasis. After three hours of being clinically dead, the dogs' blood was returned to their circulatory systems, and the animals were revived by delivering an electric shock to their hearts. The heart started pumping the blood around the body,","-28.15032437921036"],["each year, even though about 4000 dogs are in need of one. There are no pacemakers made specifically for use in dogs, but human pacemaker users are often outlasted by their pacemakers, leaving behind a functioning pacemaker with less battery power left than a new pacemaker which could be implanted into a dog. One difficulty in implanting used pacemakers is the removal from the deceased human - the pacemaker leads often experience accumulation of surrounding heart muscle tissue and become difficult to remove after death. If the leads are cut in order to remove the pacemaker donation is not possible.","-27.937953356537037"],["blood to the heart is impeded, causing a drop in blood pressure and the dog will go into shock. Without immediate medical attention, the dog may die. Some symptoms of GDV are: distended abdomen, excessive salivation, retching without throwing up, restlessness, depression, lethargy, and weakness. Precautions against GVD include: refraining from feeding immediately before or after exercise, feeding several smaller meals throughout the day instead of a single large meal, and avoiding the consumption of large amounts of water with dry food.\nAs with any other hunting dog, contact with game can cause the spread of fungi and bacteria that can","-27.333370670778095"],["the mushers to communicate their checkpoint times and ranks to the media. The stop numbers and places were uncontrolled, so stewards were placed at each stop along the journey to resupply teams.\nMushers were required to finish the race with as many dogs as they started with, whether they were alive, injured or dead. This rule encouraged participants to take adequate care of their dogs, since an injured or dead dog would be a great drawback. To help minimize the weight on each sled, a minimum amount of items such as clothes, water and shoes for the dogs was loaded.","-26.798365659517003"],["turned back immediately. Their scanty provisions forced them to eat their remaining sled dogs, unwittingly causing a quick deterioration in the men's physical condition. The liver of one dog contains enough vitamin A to produce the condition called Hypervitaminosis A. Mertz became incapacitated and incoherent; in an attempt to nurse him back to health, Mawson fed him most of the dog livers, which he considered more nourishing than the tough muscle tissue. After Mertz died, Mawson continued alone for 30 days. He cut his sled in half with a pen knife and dragged the sled with geological specimens but minimal","-26.57028822330176"],["26 minutes and has slipped from the top 10, but he is still more than a checkpoint ahead of Louis Nelson, Sr., the next rookie.\nThe teams are getting smaller as fatigued and poorly performing dogs are left behind. The top 10 are running with between 9 and 12 dogs, down from 16, and the majority have either 10 or 11. A fair number of dogs have been dropped with fatigue or sprains caused by the poor conditions of the trail. Teams with less than 9 dogs lack power. There has been a fair amount of rain, which helps keep the dogs","-26.493844612617977"],["days, eclipsing the previously reported survival time.\nThe results were so surprising, in fact, that the researchers asked Penn Vet pathologists to recheck the dogs’ tissue biopsies to make sure that the dogs really had the disease.\n“They reread the samples and said, yes, it’s really hemangiosarcoma,” Cimino Brown said.\nChemotherapy is available for treating hemangiosarcoma, but many owners opt not to pursue that treatment once their dog is diagnosed.\n\n“It doesn’t hugely increase survival, it’s expensive and it means a lot of back and forth to the vet for the dog,” Cimino Brown said. “So you have to figure in quality of life.”\nThis","-26.24618614811334"],["in adult races, whilst those under 1 year of age race in puppy races. Adult races are approximately 10 miles (16 km) long and the hounds in the adult races typically take 30 minutes to finish; times outside 25 and 45 minutes are declared void. Puppy races are approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) long. When racing, the hounds' coats are closely shaved to prevent them from overheating during the race.\nUnlike in other forms of hunting, humans do not follow the hounds, instead the hounds conduct the course unassisted and spectators can observe parts of the race from vantage points through binoculars. The","-26.238517440622672"],["If a pacemaker has not been used by a human but has reached its expiry date it will not be suitable for use in a human but could still be used in a dog. Blood transfusion For a blood transfusion to take place, the donor and recipient must be of compatible blood types. Dogs have eleven blood types but are born without antibodies in their blood. For this reason, first time transfusions will not have a reaction, but further transfusions will cause severe reactions if the dog has a mismatch in the DEA1.1 blood type. Because the immune","-26.047436678782105"],["change between 2,000 and 3,000 booties during the course of the race. Changing booties is necessary when they become wet or fly off a dog's paws.\nSometimes dog booties are worn for hiking, especially on rocky ground.\nLike shoes, booties wear out with use. In long sled dog races or over an extended period of time, booties need to be replaced due to wear.","-26.028131458559074"],["lasting 30 seconds, and would score points based on their performance. Doggy Decathlon The final round was the \"Doggy Decathlon\", an obstacle course. In the first season, the dog would have 60 seconds to complete 8 obstacles; in the second and third seasons, the number of obstacles was reduced to 7. In the last three seasons, the dog would have 100 seconds to complete 10 obstacles. The course varied from week to week, but always (starting late 1992) ended with the dog leaping through the big letter \"O\" in the \"That's My DOG\" sign. Each completed obstacle earned 10 points;","-25.84235148964217"],["the race with fewer than 12 dogs, and cannot finish with fewer than 5. Tired and injured dogs are left with volunteers, to be transported by truck back to the finish line. There are many rules ensuring safe and fair conduct by the mushers.\nSome of the activities of race weekend include a vet check, to make sure all dogs are fit to run a 200-mile race; a musher’s meeting, to inform mushers of rules and hazards on the trail; and a pre-race banquet, where mushers pick their bib numbers and meet members of the public. Children who","-25.82296745450003"],["the entire range of motion. Dogs are almost always able to weight bear on their surgical leg within 24 hours and are expected to begin a comprehensive rehabilitation program, including controlled leash walks the day they go home.\nLameness scores and stifle range of motion improve improve rapidly and significantly. Most dogs are expected to recover within four months of surgery.","-25.74508389038965"],["at least one year old to compete; the hard fast turns are tough on a dog's developing joints, and intense and frequent competitive lure coursing before the age of 12 months may cause joint problems later in life. Dogs at an earlier age do require a moderate but essential introduction to the artificial chase to: stimulate their normal mental and physical development, to prepare and improve their capacity to perform physically with enthusiasm without hurting themselves - as is the case with the mutual, voluntary athletic play of littermates. Qualifying to compete In American Sighthound Field Association (ASFA) competitions, a","-25.724114281940274"],["cell counts due to bone marrow suppression. The second stage, called the subclinical phase, has no outward signs and can last for the remainder of the dog's life, during which the dog remains infected with the organism. Some dogs are able to successfully eliminate the disease during this time. In some dogs the third and most serious stage of infection, the chronic phase, will commence. Very low blood cell counts (pancytopenia), bleeding, bacterial infection, lameness, neurological and ophthalmic disorders, and kidney disease, can result. Chronic ehrlichiosis can be fatal. Signs and symptoms The acute stage of the disease, occurring most","-25.68404762580758"],["of 7 dogs surviving, after their kidneys had been stored for 7 days followed by reimplantation and immediate contralateral nephrectomy. Their best dog had a peak post reimplantation creatinine of 50 mg/l (0.44 mmol/l). Liu used well hydrated dogs undergoing a mannitol diuresis and stored the kidneys at 9 °C – 10 °C using a perfusate derived from human PPF. The PPF was further fractionated by using a highly water-soluble polymer (Pluronic F-38), and sodium acetyl tryptophanate and sodium caprylate were added to the PPF as stabilisers to permit pasteurisation. To this solution were added human albumin, heparin, mannitol, glucose, magnesium sulphate, potassium chloride,","-25.349317547515966"],["found that when dogs lost a large amount of blood, they exhibited symptoms similar to anemia. Once they established this experimental model, they could test experimental therapies. They tested diets based on different organs: spleen, lung, liver, intestines, etc. They found that dogs fed a diet of liver recovered the quickest, suggesting that anemia is associated with malfunctioning livers.\nPreliminary research was conducted in the early 1920s at the George William Hooper Foundation, University of California, where apricots were found to be valuable in treating induced anaemia in dogs. This result was so surprising to the researchers that","-25.112047765112948"],["reported 8 dogs surviving after their kidneys had been stored at 2-4 °C for 28 hours, followed by auto-transplantation and delayed contralateral nephrectomy. Although Lapchinsky gave no details in his paper, Humphries reported that these experiments had involved cooling the kidneys for 1 hour with cold blood, and then storage at 2-4 °C, followed by rewarming of the kidneys over 1 hour with warm blood at the time of reimplantation. The contralateral nephrectomies were delayed for 2 months.\nHumphries developed this storage technique by continuously perfusing the kidney throughout the period of storage. He used diluted plasma or serum as the","-24.97483214654494"],["certification process. A dog must run cleanly against another dog of similar running style in order to earn a QC (Qualified Courser, not a title, but the hound is now qualified to compete in Open competition). Dogs can still earn their JC (junior courser) title by running a minimum of 600 yards (550 m) with four turns twice, in two separate trials, under two different qualified AKC judges. The dogs run alone, and once they complete both runs, they earn a Junior Courser (JC) title. The JC title, however, no longer allows them to compete against other dogs.\nIn Europe, competing dogs","-24.706730056437664"],["consequence of S. Lupi infection in this species.⁷ Life cycle within the dog Once ingested, the L3 excyst in the stomach acid of the dog within hours and break through to the serosal surface within a day or two. The L3 larvae take about a week to 10 days reach the thoracic aorta via the coeliac arteries. Once in the aorta, they reside here for up to 3 months, maturing to the L4 stage, before migrating over the next few months to the caudal thoracic aorta. They migrate in the wall of the aorta, causing it","-24.424038578785257"],["first team departed from Willow Lake. The remaining teams left, staggered by two-minute intervals, until the last departed at 4:36 pm. Each departing team had up to the maximum of 16 dogs, and no more can be added during the race.\nIn 2004, the starting time of the race was pushed back from 10 am. Sled dogs perform better in temperatures close to 0 °F (−18 °C), and this allows mushers to run their teams through the cold of the night until they cross the Alaska Range into the Interior. Among the last three to leave were previous Iditarod winners Martin Buser and Jeff King,","-24.311305186129175"],["and the top 30 are within 21 hours. At this stage, all the pacesetters have taken their mandatory 24- and 8-hour layovers.\nThe temperatures are just above freezing, and a freezing rain advisory has been issued for Kaltag. On March 16, Scdoris scratched after several of her dogs came down with a viral diarrhea, saying \"it was not an eye thing. It was a my-dogs-are-sick thing\". Another concern was weight loss: her dogs were fed canned dog food, with some kibble, salmon and fat, which did not help maintain their weight as well as the heavy meat diet most dogs are fed.","-24.249118462379556"],["Biliary fever Presentation The peracute (very sudden and severe) form causes death within a few hours and treatment is of little avail. More commonly dogs suffer from the acute or subacute form. This is recognised by the dog being listless or lethargic, losing its appetite and running a temperature. If your dog is off its food, take a rectal temperature reading. If this is 39 °C or higher you should have the dog examined – do not wait until its mucous membranes become pale, white or yellow, which commonly suggests a more advanced stage of the disease. Fever is present","-24.244920478617132"],["Tor des Géants Description It provides prizes for all participants who complete the run before the cutoff. The start and the finish are in Courmayeur. The total length of the race is 330 km (205mi) which must be completed in less than 150 hours. There are 43 refreshment points at which the runners can eat, sleep and, if needed, obtain medical care. There are also 7 life bases, which are bigger than refreshment points. They are placed about every 50 km (31mi). Because of its difficulty, many athletes do not complete the trail. The completion rate is about 60%. Around 2000 volunteers","-24.209316682710778"],["drastically shorten the gestation period: to this end, he uses an experimental growth hormone made from human placental lactogen, which speeds up the embryo's growth. The dog grows to adult size in a few days, and Holliston passes it off as the mother to disguise his secret experiments. Thanks to the serum, it learns incredibly fast and soon becomes a well-trained dog. However, Holliston fails to notice that the animal's aggression is increasing commensurately: while he is out on an errand, it kills an annoying small dog and conceals the carcass.\nEager to use his discovery for the good of mankind,","-24.151672281699575"],["conducted to diagnose the condition, in which the bones around the jaw thicken; additionally, the blood may show increased calcium levels and enzyme levels. The condition often stops progressing by the time the dog is a year old, and in some cases can recede. It is normally treated with anti-inflammatory medications, and the feeding of soft foods. In some cases, tube feeding may be necessary. However, if the animal still cannot eat and is in uncontrolled pain, then euthanasia may be the only medical option remaining.\nThe breed is prone to skin disorders. About a quarter of Westies surveyed are affected","-24.11331037490163"],["Canine parvovirus Signs Dogs that develop the disease show signs of the illness within 3 to 7 days. The signs may include lethargy, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea (usually bloody). Generally, the first sign of CPV is lethargy. Secondary signs are loss of weight and appetite or diarrhea followed by vomiting. Diarrhea and vomiting result in dehydration that upsets the electrolyte balance and this may affect the dog critically. Secondary infections occur as a result of the weakened immune system. Because the normal intestinal lining is also compromised, blood and protein leak into the intestines, leading to anemia and loss of","-24.051281000487506"],["6–8 hours, before it is capable of transferring disease. Disease transmission can occur as quickly as 3-6 hours after a bite occurs. Therefore, the earlier the tick is removed from a host, the less likely it is to contract the illness. Treatments and prevention in dogs The American dog tick is a rather colorful tick and is commonly found in highly wooded, shrubby, and long-grass areas. Tick numbers can be reduced by cutting the grass, which creates a low-humidity environment, which is undesirable to ticks. Pesticides can also be used and are most effective when applied to vegetation that has","-24.002203394600656"],["the organization, the dog and handler is directed to the track and find the tracklayer and articles as required. The dog is usually worked on a 10-meter or (30-foot) lead, but the length of lead actually used depends on the terrain.\nIn general, a dog must work continually as if genuinely looking for a lost person without assistance from the handler, and find the required number of lost articles and the tracklayer at the end of the track, for the dog to be awarded a pass. This pass can also be graded on the quality of the work. After the required","-23.985560628119856"],["regular cleaning and plucking of hair within the ear canal. A veterinarian should be consulted if the dog shows signs of an ear infection.\nStandard Poodles in UK, Denmark and USA/Canada surveys had a median lifespan of 11.5 to 12 years. In a UK survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (30%), old age (18%), GDV (6%), and cardiac disease (5%).\nMiniature and Toy Poodles in UK surveys had median lifespans of 14 to 14.5 years. In Miniatures, the leading cause of death was old age (39%). In Toys, the leading causes of death were old age (25%), and kidney","-23.930877831124235"],["dog's owner can greatly enhance quality of life. Prognosis According to Blue Cross, pet owners can expect for their pet to live about 12 months with current treatments. If the owner opts for palliative care instead of treatment, the dog will live about 3 months, although if the tumor is partially removed this can be extended. The survival time may be longer in large dogs, and the cure rate is 20%. If a tumor is completely removed, usually the pet will receive small doses of radiation in hopes of preventing recurrence. The survival rates are: 1 year: 59%, 3 year:","-23.825931567465886"],["of subsequent dogs on the runner will be assessed in the order in which they are tried. Missed game that is picked by the second or subsequent dog constitutes an \"eye wipe.\" All \"eye wipes\" will be treated on their merits but dogs that have had their \"eye wiped\" during the body of the stake will be discarded by the judges. Where a dog shows ability by acknowledging the fall of game and making a workmanlike job of the line to the fall, it should not be barred from the awards by failing to retrieve","-23.792477728362428"],["a plan that would break even at about seven months. DNA samples would be required when pet licenses come up for renewal. Within a year, a database of some 12,500 registration-required canine residents would be available to sanitation workers with sample-test kits. Evidence would be submitted to a forensics laboratory where technicians could readily match the waste to its dog. The prospect of a prompt fine equivalent to $600 US (at 2005 exchange rate) would help assure preventive compliance, as well as cover costs.\nIn adult dogs, the infection by Toxocara canis is usually asymptomatic but can","-23.67730999281048"],["night under clear conditions. The start was delayed due to an incident during practice for the first Road to Le Mans race in which a major crash necessitated barrier repairs to the Porsche Curves and the session was shortened by twenty minutes. Slow zones and yellow flags limited the amount of quick running, and the rapidly cooling track meant the best chance to set the fastest lap times was missed. The first timed laps of the session had Porsche lead early on with a benchmark effort from Jani, followed by Bernhard's 3 minutes and 19.710 seconds lap. Fifteen minutes later,","-23.628315675072372"],["to 24 hours after ingestion. In rare cases, an animal will survive the initial period only to drop dead months later of heart failure - so-called chronic gifblaar poisoning. On post-mortem, leaves may be found in the rumen, cyanosis may be seen, as well as signs of heart failure - congestion, haemorrhage, and myocardial necrosis (on histopathology). Diagnosis is based on these as well as the presence of gifblaar in the camp, particularly if signs of consumption are seen. Tests can be done for monofluoroacetate in rumen fluid, kidneys and liver. Pattern of toxicity Cattle are mostly affected, with sheep,","-23.560230026138015"],["is important because elderly individuals often have multiple chronic disease conditions.\nThe Dog Aging Project commenced in 2016 using a US $200,000 seed grant from the University of Washington, with subsequent funding from small private donors. It is an example of crowdfunding. Initially there was a 10 week trial showing that dogs that received rapamycin had better heart function than the control group. As of 2018, the National Institute on Aging has awarded the Dog Aging Project a five year grant to support its studies.","-23.554296462752973"],["liver disease in June 2000. According to Chosun Ilbo, the dog accompanied his dead owner for three days until other people came to find the body, followed the owner to his funeral, and came back home, not eating anything for four days. The Korean Jindo Dog Research Institute (진돗개 시험연구소) brought him under its care, but a person related to the Institute announced that the dog would not interact with anyone except for his feeder as of 2005.","-23.554212201968767"],["from approximately 300,000 in 2000 to 25,000 in 2004, and thus reducing the number of dog bite injuries from 1,500 a month to under 200 a month. This campaign was controversial, as many opposed large-scale dog euthanasia. On the other hand, there were also numerous cases of people asking the authorities to take the stray dogs away, but after this was done, neighbors, who had been feeding the dogs, would show up at the shelter to take them back to their neighborhoods. The campaign resulted in nearly 48,000 dogs being put down in 2001, with reduced numbers in the following","-23.519397389958613"],["was reduced to just six entries for the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Testing and practice A pre-Le Mans testing day was held at the circuit on 4 June, and mandated all entrants for the race to participate in eight hours of track time divided into two sessions. The morning session, held on a dirty track with lap times improving throughout, was led by pre-race favourites Toyota, with Nakajima's No. 8 car setting a lap time of 3 minutes and 20.778 seconds. The second Toyota of Kobayashi followed almost seven-tenths of a second in arrears, and José María López completed","-23.512426971574314"],["winner by Race Marshal Mark Norman, with a time of 9 days, 18 hours, 39 minutes, and 31 seconds and won US$72,066.67 and a new truck. When asked how it felt to win a second time, Sørlie said \"it feels good, I'm ready for breakfast.\" His team of dogs averaged 4.65 mi/h (7.58 km/h). The Red Lantern in last was Phil Morgan, an Alaska Airlines pilot, and when he crossed the finish line on March 21 at 8:02 pm AKST (March 22, 5:02 UTC), the Widow's Lantern hanging on the burled arch was extinguished, which signaled the end of the race.\nSørlie became the first non-U.S. resident","-23.507584375314764"],["early and treated with lifelong medication, most dogs can live a relatively normal life. Gastric dilatation volvulus There is a high incidence of gastric dilatation volvulus (GDV) in this breed, which occurs when twisting of the stomach (volvulus or torsion) causes or is caused by excess gas. Symptoms include restlessness, inability to get comfortable, pacing, or retching without being able to bring up anything. The dog's abdomen may be visibly swollen, but bloat or torsion can occur without visible swelling. A dog with GDV requires immediate veterinary care. The dog's survival usually depends on whether the owner can get to","-23.49583735782653"],["a pet will need to set aside plenty of time to spend with their dog. Health McNabs are hardy dogs with no breed specific health problems. Their average life span is 13–15 years.\nMcNab dogs may carry the MDR1 mutant gene and can be very sensitive to Ivermectin, which is a common ingredient in heartworm prevention medications. This drug and others can cause serious health problems or even death. A DNA test that demonstrates whether a dog has the mutation is available through the Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine. The test can be completed by sending them a cheek","-23.444643379021727"],["first English-language commentary of the race, however, unlike the Le Mans commentary this did not run for the full 24 hours but stopped for six hours during the night. That year the race itself stopped for a time during the night as thick fog caused a red flag period.\nThe Nürburgring 24 hours was successful enough that it has been repeated in 2008 and 2009, but using the same format of covering the first ten, and final eight hours of the race, rather than the full 24 hours. However, in 2010 the entire race was broadcast live with John Hindhaugh, Paul","-23.437685253913514"],["dogs generally begin to show signs of the disease at two to three months of age, with proteinuria. By three to four months of age, symptoms include for affected male dogs: bodily wasting and loss of weight, proteinuria & hypoalbuminemia. Past nine months of age, hypercholesterolemia may be seen. In the final stages of the disease, at around 15 months of age for affected males, symptoms are reported as being renal failure, hearing loss and death. Since the condition is genetically dominant, diagnosis would also include analysis of the health of the sire and dam of the suspected affected progeny","-23.362124065635726"],["due to anatoxin-a have been reported since its discovery. Domestic dog deaths due to the cyanotoxin, as determined by analysis of stomach contents, have been observed at the lower North Island in New Zealand in 2005, in eastern France in 2003, in California of the United States in 2002 and 2006, in Scotland in 1992, and in Ireland in 1997 and 2005. In each case the dogs began showing muscle convulsions within minutes, and were dead within a matter of hours. Numerous cattle fatalities arising from the consumption of water contaminated with cyanobacteria that produce anatoxin-a have been reported in","-23.31355642247945"],["recessive hereditary disorder, and can cause discomfort to the dog when it attempts to chew. The progression of the condition usually slows down between eleven and thirteen months of age, and is sometimes followed by a slow partial or complete regression.\nThis condition has also been seen in other breeds of dog, such as the West Highland White Terrier, Cairn Terrier, Boston Terrier, as well as some larger breeds such as Bullmastiffs. von Willebrand's disease Von Willebrand's disease is a hereditary bleeding disorder found in both dogs and humans. It is caused by a lack of von Willebrand factor which plays","-23.310873619899212"],["using borrowed sled dogs from Lance Mackey's Comeback Kennel. Marshall had been training with Mackey for this race.\nNewton came in 47th place in 12 days, 4 hours, 27 minutes, and 28 seconds. 2011 Iditarod Marshall returned to compete the next year. His bib number was 6. However, he withdrew from the race on 12 February at 1:01 pm. He had taken both his \"layovers\" and scratched at the checkpoint Anvik. He had 11 dogs when he scratched 2013 Iditarod After a 1-year absence Marshall returned to compete in the 2013 Iditarod independent of any major sponsorship, he ran a team","-23.30522325367201"],["rest for three to four weeks and received extra food to recover the blood loss. In this period the horses were especially weak and prone to disease and infection.\nWithin a few years, with experience and observation of the horses, a rouleaux formation of the blood sample was placed back into the animal's body. This procedure is called plasmapheresis.","-23.28701905501657"],["also take a 42-hour break in Nome to recuperate before they start making their return. Sleds are impounded during the break, ensuring that they rest since they are not able to work on their sleds. As of 2016 the race had never had a fatality, although there had been close calls.","-23.27809305023402"],["or go outside to urinate or defecate. These cases must receive supportive therapy of intravenous fluids and nutrition; a light sedative is sometimes administered, as the dog may be very stressed by the experience. Heart disease Older, small breeds of dogs are prone to congestive heart failure due to degeneration of the mitral valve. This condition is known to be inherited in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels. Degenerative valve disease is the most common form of heart disease in dogs. Mitral regurgitation leads to turbulent blood flow and increased pressure in the left atrium. This causes increased pressure in","-23.208946386257594"],["be 257 laps, or 1000 km (620 mi) long. However, under WEC rules, with the exception of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, races had a time limit of 6 hours. The six-hour mark was reached when the Bellof/Bell Porsche had run only 206 laps (803.4 km), thus the race was declared at the time limit some 51 laps short of the 1000 km distance.","-23.20576126378728"],["not be repaired in time for the race and the Mark Bell Racing Ford BF Falcon XR8 did not start after only one of its three drivers had lapped during Practice or Qualifying within the mandatory 130% of the fastest time set during Qualifying. Race The Phoenix Racing Audi won by 1 minute and 13 seconds over the Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG jointly run by international team Black Falcon and Australian team Erebus Racing. The Mercedes was driven by Dutch driver Jeroen Bleekemolen, American Bret Curtis and Australians Peter Hackett and Tim Slade. The two leading cars finished two laps","-23.199118126824033"],["the Anatolian Shepherd was retracted in Australia. Life span Apparently, only one health survey of Anatolian Shepherds was done in 2004 by the UK Kennel Club. The median lifespan for the 23 deceased dogs (a small sample size) in the survey was 10.75 years. This is 3–4 years longer than other breeds of their size, which have median longevities of 6–8 years. The leading causes of death of the dogs in the survey were cancer (22%), \"combinations\" (17%), cardiac (13%), and old age (13%). Health issues Based on a small sample of 24 still-living dogs, the most common health","-23.169228501967154"],["bypass surgery, performed an experiment in which he grafted a dog's head and upper body including the front legs, onto another dog; the effort was focused on how to provide blood supply to the donor head and upper body and not on grafting the nervous systems. The dogs generally survived a few days; one survived 29 days. The grafted body parts were able to move and react to stimulus. The animals died due to transplant rejection.\nIn the 1950s and '60s, immunosuppressive drugs and organ transplantation techniques were developed that eventually made transplantation of kidneys, livers, and other organs standard medical","-23.163488255115226"],["the 2008 Göteborgsvarvet half marathon, Mikael Ekvall finished the race in 21st place in spite of being stained with his own excrement. A reporter asked him if he had ever considered stopping to clean off. He explained: \"No, I'd lose time. […] If you quit once, it's easy to do it again and again and again. It becomes a habit.\"\nAt the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men's 50 kilometres walk, Yohann Diniz led the race, but due to gastrointestinal issues, he fainted multiple times midrace. Nevertheless, he was able to recover and finished in 8th place, six minutes behind the winner","-23.129349762399215"],["donations through Crowd-funding and Social Media. With a small team of Volunteers and a borrowed mixed team of dogs from the kennels of Kathleen Fredricks & fellow competitor Wade Marrs. Newton Marshall finished the race in the 43rd position out of 69 mushers, on a trail that was called the toughest in the 42-year history of the race, and saw many veterans and past champions not make it to the finish line. He finished the race in 12 days 1 hour 5 min. 52 seconds with 13 dogs in harness and was presented with the \"Herbie Nayokpuk Award\"","-23.12805180682335"],["too young, especially before 8 months, they can damage their bone growth, leading to a painful limp and possibly badly bowed legs. Jumping up and down from objects, climbing over objects, running, even long walks, are all things to be avoided for the first 8 to 10 months to prevent later problems and allow for correct closure of the growth plate.\nDegenerative disc disease is also a common problem in short-legged dogs; as many as 10% of Skyes will suffer from it.\nMammary cancer is the leading cause of Skye Terrier deaths, with hemangiosarcomas (a malignant tumour of the blood vessels), autoimmune","-23.07155589017202"],["Gobi (dog) Gobi is a small, female border terrier mix dog that began following ultra marathon runner Dion Leonard at the beginning of Stage II of the Gobi Desert Run in China in June 2016. Some vets have now told Dion that the dog could be a mix of Shih Tzu, and Chihuahua.\nLeonard noticed the stray dog at the start of the second day of the race. He did not expect the dog to follow him. The dog ran a 23 mile leg of the race with him. At the end of the day, the dog joined Leonard in his","-23.062430183475954"],["cattle require up to two minutes to bleed to death when halal or kosher means of slaughter are used on cattle: \"This is a major incision into the animal and to say that it doesn't suffer is quite ridiculous.\" In response, Majid Katme of the Muslim Council of Britain stated that \"[i]t's a sudden and quick haemorrhage. A quick loss of blood pressure and the brain is instantaneously starved of blood and there is no time to start feeling any pain.\"\nIn permitting dhabiha, the German Constitutional Court cited the 1978 study led by Professor Wilhelm Schulze at the University of","-23.041998100699857"],["dogs passed away within a week of infection while the others were ill but able to recover. One of the bodies underwent laboratory analysis and necroscopy to determine the infectious agent(s). By using RT-PCR techniques and sequencing, the liver and gut samples tested positive for the presence of the CaCV replicase gene. All other pathogens that were screened for came up negative. Prevalence of CaCV in Taiwan was also studied in which dogs with diarrhea were approximately three times more likely to be infected with CaCV than healthy dogs. This contrasted the study run by Li et al. in the","-23.02412189875031"],["or care for sick pets, and half of those admitted taking a whole week off, and according to Direct Line one in four pet owners \"said they have been too upset to go into the workplace when their four legged friend died\" and \"many of those who did go into work after the death of their pet said they were unproductive.\" The latter survey also noted that pet owners in the UK take \"around 8 days off\" due to grief at the death of a pet, and that \"seventy-nine percent of people responding to the survey admitted they did","-23.00884010998152"],["retired with just three hours left with a gearbox problem. The team entered the Spa 24 Hours with just one car with the same line up as car No. 76 at Le Mans. Strangely, the team was forced to retire the car with three hours to go, like at Le Mans although this time it was due to an engine failure. 2010 2010 got off to a great start with the team winning the Dubai 24 Hour in January 2010. The trio of Narac, Pilet and German Marco Holzer won the race overall finishing three laps ahead of the second","-22.990203589899465"],["twenty minutes, only to be surpassed by Lewis Hamilton in the final minute. There was much attention given to Red Bull Racing, following team principal Christian Horner's claims that the team had not done any qualifying simulations. Their plans were thrown into disarray when Sebastian Vettel spun off at Turn 5 shortly after switching to soft tyres, and Mark Webber's fastest lap was ruined when Michael Schumacher spun off at Turn 9. Pedro de la Rosa managed to set his first timed lap of the weekend, but was forced to return to the pits with power steering problems. Projected lap","-22.983617298013996"],["secure. \nAfter 1-2 weeks, a dog's results will be uploaded and published on Avelsdata, a publicly free to access website. This allows owners and breeders to compare related dogs such as litter mates or parents, and dogs within a breed.\nWhen 200 Swedish-born dogs of a breed have completed a BPH assessment, the data is aggregated into an individual breed analysis and sent to the breed club, with tips on how to use the information. At 500 dogs, a more detailed analysis is created, including an examination on the effectiveness of the BPH on measuring everyday behaviours of dogs. As of","-22.9538063351647"],["fallen before the session and only eased off halfway into the sixty minute practice, leading to the cars staying inside the garages until fifteen minutes in. It was not until thirty minutes in that Räikkönen was the first to set a timed lap. Vettel did not head onto the track until there were just 22 minutes remaining. By this stage, the surface had dried out enough for intermediate tyres. Eventually, Vettel set a time of 1:57.351, seven-tenths of a second ahead of Valtteri Bottas and more than a second faster than third placed Sergio Pérez. Only 14 drivers set a","-22.90274349394531"],["veteran indicated he had problems with sled quality, his lead dogs, and personal health ever since the restart in Willow. March 8 Nikolai: Sørlie continues to set the pace by arriving first at Nikolai on March 8 at 11:16 am, followed by Brooks and Jonrowe about an hour later. Sørlie is also the first to depart, at 5:09 pm. The 10 fastest mushers follow quickly, in just over 3 hours, but the top 30 now lag up to 11 hours apart. Sørlie has insomnia, just like he did when he won in 2003, though his dogs are resting well.\nMcGrath:. Sørlie wins the Spirit of","-22.881171675398946"],["it remains legal, it is usually practiced because it is required as part of a breed standard for exhibition at dog shows.\nThe veterinary procedure is known as \"cosmetic otoplasty\". It is usually performed on puppies at 7 to 12 weeks of age. After 16 weeks, the procedure is more painful and the animal has greater pain memory. Up to 2/3 of the ear flap may be removed in a cropping operation, and the wound edges are closed with stitches. The ears are then bandaged and taped until they heal into the proper shape. The procedure is recommended to be","-22.83235964324558"],["expanded the vector from currently or recently infected dogs to half the dog population as carriers. To put the relative levels of shedding bacteria into perspective, a study analyzing the shedding kinetics of B. bronchiseptica presents the highest levels of bacterial shedding one week post-exposure, with an order of magnitude decrease in shedding observed every week. This projection places negligible levels of shedding to be expected six weeks post-exposure (or approximately five weeks post-onset of symptoms). Dogs which had been administered intranasal vaccine four weeks prior to virulent B. bronchiseptica challenge displayed little to no bacterial shedding within","-22.79539226605266"],["1960 24 Hours of Le Mans Practice After the success last year, the ACO was again able to close the public roads on 9 April. Fourteen cars took advantage of the 10 hours of extended testing time.\nOfficial qualifying was held over two sessions for a total of 540 minutes over the two days and there were two major accidents. On Wednesday evening after having just done a fast qualifying lap, Dan Gurney in his Jaguar E2A collided at 150 mph (240 km/h) with Fritz d’Orey's Sc. Serenissima Ferrari GT. D’Orey's car speared off the track and hit a roadside tree with such","-22.770934267318808"],["a very important race, they receive a dog, Cerberus as a reward.\nThey decide to test out Cerberus' ability and enter him in a race. However, instead of racing, Cerberus lies down inside the box and does not move, losing the boys some money. Outside the track after the race, the boys argue over what to do with the dog, when they are kidnapped and put in the back of a van. When they wake up, they find themselves hung up in a dog-food processing plant with the bookie and his henchman, Mooney in front of them. The bookie says that","-22.769568478455767"],["in the first season, a 20-point bonus was awarded if the dog completed all 8 obstacles within the time limit but during the second and third seasons, it was increased to a 30-point bonus if the dog completed all 7 obstacles before time ran out; in any case, a perfectly completed course would yield a total of 100 points. A dog could skip an obstacle, but jumping through the sign would always end the run, regardless of time remaining. Winning The team with the most points won the game. The winning family received prizes, while the winning dog won a","-22.767891876923386"],["be run in order to earn money for his dognappers as the dog had won all of his last six races. This was Britain's first recorded dognapping. The dognapping law By the mid-1960s, calls were being made for laws to prevent dognapping. The United States Congress was already working on legislation to restrict the handling and sale of animals for research when a pet Dalmatian was taken in Pennsylvania during June 1965, and ten days later a Dalmatian was reported to have died during experimental heart surgery in a New York hospital. The dog was thought to be the same","-22.71350417920621"],["does not survive in the environment for more than a few hours at room temperature (20–25 °C), but can survive for a few weeks in shady environments at temperatures slightly above freezing. It, along with other labile viruses, can also persist longer in serum and tissue debris.\nDespite extensive vaccination in many regions, it remains a major disease of dogs.\nTo prevent canine distemper, puppies should begin vaccination at 6-8 weeks of age and then continue getting the “booster shot” every 2-4 weeks until they are 16 weeks of age. Without the full series of shots, the vaccination does not provide protection","-22.70654836250469"],["long, and the rules state that dogs must run the course at a rate of at least 3 yards (or meters) per second, the standard course time would be 50 seconds. Other organizations, though, leave the decision on course time to the judge's discretion Running a course and determining results The judge often holds a briefing for competitors before each class, to review the rules and explain specific requirements for a particular course. For Standard courses for experienced competitors, the judge's briefing is often minimal or dispensed with altogether. For novice handlers in classes with complex rules, the briefings can","-22.69375338900136"],["by monthly treatments for up to six months of age.\nPregnant bitches: to prevent transmission to the puppies, pregnant females can be given macrocyclic lactones on the 40th and 55th day of pregnancy or genbendazole daily from the 40th day of pregnancy continuing until the 14th day postpartum.\nLactating bitches: should be treated concurrently with the first treatment of puppies.\nDogs with increased risk of infection: i.e. those used in sports, competitions, shows, or those kept in kennels can be given two treatments 4 weeks before and 2-4 weeks after the event.\nProfessional dogs: i.e. therapy, rescue, or police dogs: 12 times a year,","-22.692900356574683"],["dogs realize they owe nothing to their owner and everything to Shasta and the Buddies, and so, slow down and refuse to run any further, causing Jean George to lose the race.\nAdam is victorious and the Buddies reunite with Buddy and Molly. Jean George gives out to his dogs and they respond in kind by chasing him around the Arctic. The Buddies sadly say goodbye to their new best friend, Shasta, as well as Adam. All seven Buddies return home via airplane and are greeted by their owners Sam, Bartleby, Billy, Alice, Pete, Henry and Noah; who were waiting for","-22.680404164653737"],["which is operated by bellows that oxygenate the blood.\nFollowing the lung scene, the audience is then shown a heart-lung machine, composed of a pair of diaphragm linear pumps, venous and arterial, exchanging oxygen with a water reservoir. It is then seen supplying a canine head with oxygenated blood. The head is presented with external stimuli, which it responds to. Finally, a dog is brought to clinical death (depicted mostly via a graphical plot of lung and heart activity) by draining all blood from it. It is then left for ten minutes and connected to the heart-lung machine, which gradually returns","-22.667562115515466"],["Surveys of handlers indicates that about 1 in 3 dogs incur injuries from agility related activities. The most common types of injuries were (in order) strains, sprains and contusions. Locations most commonly injured were shoulders, back, phalanges (forelimb/hindlimb) and neck. Injuries were most commonly perceived as being caused by interactions with bar jumps (contact), A-frames and dog walk obstacles (contact and/or fall). There were no relationship between the use of warm-up and cool-down exercises and injuries.","-22.651650329469703"],["59 minutes and 20 seconds.\nIn October 2010, PJ Pat Gallagher,\nEnter the lifestyle-sports-adidas-dublin-marathonas \nAs Patrick Gallagher, \nWho become the fastast runner dressed as a leprechaun to run a marathon, with the time of 3 hours 8 minutes and 55 seconds. \nAnd raising money for the Downs Syndrome Association.","-22.619415904773632"],["criticized DogsBite.org for counting as a death caused by pit bulls the death of a man who died in 2007 from atherosclerosis and problems with alcohol four months after he was severely injured by pit bulls.","-22.595145070168655"],["take the sport seriously until the '90s. His competed in the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race for the first time in 1995, taking 13 days, 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 9 seconds to complete the course and coming in 40th place. To date, his best time is 10 days, 15 hours, 25 minutes, and 15 seconds, a time he achieved in 2006, and his highest position was achieved in 1997, when he placed 27th. According to the Iditarod's official website, he has won a combined total of $14,607.88 in prize money and he is sponsored by St. Elias Specialty Hospital,","-22.580612468227628"],["dogs a year and house 1,400 dogs at any one time. It also operates a sanctuary for dogs that are unadoptable.\nIn 2012 the RSPCA announced plans to end the euthanasia of any rehomeable animals in their care by 2017. However, the charity recognizes that this cannot be done without major changes in the public's behaviour, including spaying and neutering owned animals and making long term commitments to animal companions.\nThe Scottish SPCA operate on a no kill basis unless given veterinary advice that an animal is so ill or in such pain that the kindest decision is to end their suffering","-22.56171045723022"],["completing the race in under four hours are awarded with an engraved whisky glass and those who have completed the race twenty-one times are presented with a George Broderick Plaque.","-22.538488303485792"],["ages of six weeks to seven months old. The signs and symptoms include a 12- to 48-hour onset of loss of appetite, decreased energy level, vomiting, and difficulty breathing. Some pups have no physical signs or symptoms at all, may just collapse and die, or are found dead by the breeder or new owner. At this time, there is no known cure or treatment but there is a way to prevent producing puppies affected by juvenile dilated cardiomyopathy.\nBreeders now have a DNA gene based test, based on a cheek swab or a blood sample, which will determine if a dog","-22.535686021408765"],["three years after the initial puppy series and a booster 1 year later.\nA dog that successfully recovers from CPV2 generally remains contagious for up to three weeks, but it is possible they may remain contagious for up to six. Ongoing infection risk is primarily from fecal contamination of the environment due to the virus's ability to survive many months in the environment. Neighbours and family members with dogs should be notified of infected animals so that they can ensure that their dogs are vaccinated or tested for immunity. A modified live vaccine many confer protection in 3 to 5 days;","-22.527058354578912"],["42 min later at 4:42 pm. The teams were increased to 16 dogs each. No additional dogs could be added, but they could be left behind at any of the checkpoints along the route.\nYentna: Ramy Brooks (bib 5) departed Yentna in first place on March 4 at 5:20 pm. the remainder of the top 5 were Jim Lanier, Zack Steer, Cim Smyth, and Paul Gebhardt\nSkwentna: Aaron Burmeister who started in 47th position departed Skwentna in first place, on March 4 at 9:44 pm. The remainder of the top 5 were Robert Sorlie, Jason Barron, Rick Swenson, and three-time Yukon Quest","-22.468778286478482"],["annually who started the race and 80% to 95% of them finished before the 13-hour cutoff. The overall course record is 6 hours, 8 minutes and 14 seconds, set by Matt Woods (31) in 2011.","-22.462805127957836"],["to FAWC it can take up to two minutes for cattle to bleed to death, thus amounting to animal abuse. Compassion in World Farming also supported the recommendation saying \"We believe that the law must be changed to require all animals to be stunned before slaughter.\" The UK government rejected its recommendations.\nVarious research papers on cattle slaughter collected by Compassion In World Farming mention that \"after the throat is cut, large clots can form at the severed ends of the carotid arteries, leading to occlusion of the wound (or \"ballooning\" as it is known in the slaughtering trade). Nick","-22.439727505319752"],["that T-Dog (IronE Singleton) has contracted a blood infection from the wound he received in the previous episode, and both search for antibiotics, but they fail to find any.\nAt the Greene farm, Hershel reveals that Carl needs major surgery to live, and that he will need a respirator. Otis suggests that they might find supplies at a nearby high school—where the Federal Emergency Management Agency has set up a trailer—although the place is likely overrun with walkers. Otis and Shane decide to get the supplies, while Maggie retrieves Lori from the group and brings her to the Greene home. Rick","-22.43613799189916"],["stop can easily last well more than a minute.\nUnlike most other forms of racing, the practice of \"double-stinting\" or even \"triple-stinting\" tyres is commonplace in longer races; tyres hard enough to withstand the rigours of racing in the heat of the daytime may be so hard that they do not wear significantly during the nighttime hours. In a race where this is an issue, significant time can be gained by choosing to leave worn tyres on the car during the first stop after they were put on the car; if the temperature drops low enough, teams may even be able","-22.431836345287593"],["remain active up until around twelve years old. Health The Swedish breed club for the Smålandsstövare commissioned genetic tests on a number of dogs between 1994 and 2008. The tests showed that there were no specific health issues unique to the breed, nor any major generic issues. They recommended that where rare health issues present themselves, that the dog involved should not be bred from in order to prevent that health issue from spreading through the breed. They have an average life expectancy of twelve to fifteen years.","-22.430831853103882"],["being looked after by a local vet in Cannes. Duncan visited the vet and was informed that the condition could not be cured, and the vet was no longer feeding him. Duncan sought a second opinion, taking back the dog, he drove it to Stuttgart, Germany, where he found a vet who was willing to treat Lump. The treatment took several months, but Lump would go on to live for another ten years, albeit walking as Duncan would describe \"a bit like a drunken sailor\". He died ten days before Picasso, on 29 March 1973. Legacy The painted plate that","-22.424859096267028"],["8. The three dogs died shortly after Shannon returned for them, and a fourth may have perished as well. Arrival in Minto Half-Athabaskan Edgar Kalland arrived in Minto the night before, and was sent back to Tolovana, traveling 70 mi (110 km) the day before the relay. Shannon and his team arrived in bad shape at 11 am, and handed over the serum. After warming the serum in the roadhouse, Kalland headed into the forest. The temperature had risen to −56 °F (−49 °C), and according to at least one report the owner of the roadhouse at Manley Hot Springs had to pour water over","-22.411221501068212"],["was the first to arrive, on March 9 at 9:midnight, followed by Buser, then Brooks. Sørlie departs 13 minutes later. The top 10 follow within 11 hours, and the top 30 within 22 hours.\nAfter leaving Ophir in 8th place, Zack Steer became the fifth musher to scratch when he returned on March 9\nfor undisclosed personal reasons. Steer's wife is pregnant and due later this month. Scott Smith from Wyoming scratched at Ophir on March 12, citing concerns for his team which only had nine dogs left.\nThe trail between Ophir and Iditarod was in poor shape, and efforts to improve it were too late","-22.404184061510023"],["1995 distance runner Scott Turner set a record for running the trail end-to-end in 14 days, 5 hours and 58 minutes. Several runners have tried to beat the record. On July 2, 2010, Charlotte Vasarhelyi surpassed this performance by completing an end to end run finishing with a final time of 13 days, 10 hours 51 min.\nOn September 18, 2014, cancer survivor Jim Willett set a solo record completing the entire Bruce Trail in 10 days, 13 hours, and 57 minutes. His run was to raise funds and awareness for CPAWS (The Canadian Parks And Wilderness Society).","-22.39196645433549"],["1987 record (of 9 minutes 30 seconds, which stood for 21 years) on his March 24, 2008 visit. On May 26, 2014, he was bested by 125-pound competitive eater Molly Schuyler, who polished off the meal in just 4 minutes 58 seconds, and came back for seconds (14 minutes and 57 seconds for two meals). She did not, however, eat a third steak meal in the same hour. Schuyler returned on April 19, 2015 and would finish her first meal in 4 minutes 18 seconds, beating her own record by 40 seconds. She had defeated four other teams of competitors","-22.39123097236734"],["$1,000. From 1916-1931, the dog race took place over a distance of between 140 and 200 miles, with the race usually running from one town to another, and included Carrot River, Cranberry Portage, Flin Flon, and Cumberland House.\nWhen the Trappers Festival was revived in 1948 until 1976, the dog race was run in three daily laps of 50 miles each. Today, the race is run in three 35-mile heats held over a three-day period. Racers begin each day at 10 a.m. on Halcrow Lake for a mass start. Mushers who achieve the lowest combined time score in each category over","-22.38637421815656"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"determine how dogs can run up to 10 hours without fatigue.\\nDogs dropped at the checkpoints during the race were flown to one of the regional hubs at Unalakleet, McGrath, or Anchorage and then to Hiland Mountain-Meadow Creek Correctional Center in Eagle River, where they were cared for by minimum security inmates who volunteered for the responsibility.\\nThe race averages 3 dog deaths per year.\",\n \"-29.239982425278868\"\n ],\n [\n \"the blood into the animal's circulation. After several minutes, the heart fibrillates, then restarts a normal rhythm. Respiration likewise resumes and the machine is removed. Over the ensuing ten days, the dog recovers from the procedure and continues living a healthy life. According to the film, several dogs were brought back to life using this method, including one which is an offspring of parents who were both also resuscitated. Reaction Brukhonenko's decapitation experiment was remarked upon by George Bernard Shaw, who stated, \\\"I am even tempted to have my own head cut off so that I can continue to dictate\",\n \"-29.09483737248229\"\n ],\n [\n \"lasts five hours, during which time the dog is connected to a blood oxygenator and the heart is bypassed. The defective heart valve is removed and the replacement valve, typically from bovine pericardium, is precisely sewn into place. The dog’s heart is then restarted and monitored for at least two hours after the surgery is completed. Due to the expense, this is not a common procedure. Prosthetic limbs While small dogs and cats can survive comfortably with three legs, larger dogs, horses, and farm animals require the limb to support their weight. Surgery has also been\",\n \"-28.863770293770358\"\n ],\n [\n \"2005, scientists at the University of Pittsburgh's Safar Center for Resuscitation Research announced they had managed to place dogs in suspended animation and bring them back to life, most of them without brain damage, by draining the blood out of the dogs' bodies and injecting a low temperature solution into their circulatory systems, which in turn keeps the bodies alive in stasis. After three hours of being clinically dead, the dogs' blood was returned to their circulatory systems, and the animals were revived by delivering an electric shock to their hearts. The heart started pumping the blood around the body,\",\n \"-28.15032437921036\"\n ],\n [\n \"each year, even though about 4000 dogs are in need of one. There are no pacemakers made specifically for use in dogs, but human pacemaker users are often outlasted by their pacemakers, leaving behind a functioning pacemaker with less battery power left than a new pacemaker which could be implanted into a dog. One difficulty in implanting used pacemakers is the removal from the deceased human - the pacemaker leads often experience accumulation of surrounding heart muscle tissue and become difficult to remove after death. If the leads are cut in order to remove the pacemaker donation is not possible.\",\n \"-27.937953356537037\"\n ],\n [\n \"blood to the heart is impeded, causing a drop in blood pressure and the dog will go into shock. Without immediate medical attention, the dog may die. Some symptoms of GDV are: distended abdomen, excessive salivation, retching without throwing up, restlessness, depression, lethargy, and weakness. Precautions against GVD include: refraining from feeding immediately before or after exercise, feeding several smaller meals throughout the day instead of a single large meal, and avoiding the consumption of large amounts of water with dry food.\\nAs with any other hunting dog, contact with game can cause the spread of fungi and bacteria that can\",\n \"-27.333370670778095\"\n ],\n [\n \"the mushers to communicate their checkpoint times and ranks to the media. The stop numbers and places were uncontrolled, so stewards were placed at each stop along the journey to resupply teams.\\nMushers were required to finish the race with as many dogs as they started with, whether they were alive, injured or dead. This rule encouraged participants to take adequate care of their dogs, since an injured or dead dog would be a great drawback. To help minimize the weight on each sled, a minimum amount of items such as clothes, water and shoes for the dogs was loaded.\",\n \"-26.798365659517003\"\n ],\n [\n \"turned back immediately. Their scanty provisions forced them to eat their remaining sled dogs, unwittingly causing a quick deterioration in the men's physical condition. The liver of one dog contains enough vitamin A to produce the condition called Hypervitaminosis A. Mertz became incapacitated and incoherent; in an attempt to nurse him back to health, Mawson fed him most of the dog livers, which he considered more nourishing than the tough muscle tissue. After Mertz died, Mawson continued alone for 30 days. He cut his sled in half with a pen knife and dragged the sled with geological specimens but minimal\",\n \"-26.57028822330176\"\n ],\n [\n \"26 minutes and has slipped from the top 10, but he is still more than a checkpoint ahead of Louis Nelson, Sr., the next rookie.\\nThe teams are getting smaller as fatigued and poorly performing dogs are left behind. The top 10 are running with between 9 and 12 dogs, down from 16, and the majority have either 10 or 11. A fair number of dogs have been dropped with fatigue or sprains caused by the poor conditions of the trail. Teams with less than 9 dogs lack power. There has been a fair amount of rain, which helps keep the dogs\",\n \"-26.493844612617977\"\n ],\n [\n \"days, eclipsing the previously reported survival time.\\nThe results were so surprising, in fact, that the researchers asked Penn Vet pathologists to recheck the dogs’ tissue biopsies to make sure that the dogs really had the disease.\\n“They reread the samples and said, yes, it’s really hemangiosarcoma,” Cimino Brown said.\\nChemotherapy is available for treating hemangiosarcoma, but many owners opt not to pursue that treatment once their dog is diagnosed.\\n\\n“It doesn’t hugely increase survival, it’s expensive and it means a lot of back and forth to the vet for the dog,” Cimino Brown said. “So you have to figure in quality of life.”\\nThis\",\n \"-26.24618614811334\"\n ],\n [\n \"in adult races, whilst those under 1 year of age race in puppy races. Adult races are approximately 10 miles (16 km) long and the hounds in the adult races typically take 30 minutes to finish; times outside 25 and 45 minutes are declared void. Puppy races are approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) long. When racing, the hounds' coats are closely shaved to prevent them from overheating during the race.\\nUnlike in other forms of hunting, humans do not follow the hounds, instead the hounds conduct the course unassisted and spectators can observe parts of the race from vantage points through binoculars. The\",\n \"-26.238517440622672\"\n ],\n [\n \"If a pacemaker has not been used by a human but has reached its expiry date it will not be suitable for use in a human but could still be used in a dog. Blood transfusion For a blood transfusion to take place, the donor and recipient must be of compatible blood types. Dogs have eleven blood types but are born without antibodies in their blood. For this reason, first time transfusions will not have a reaction, but further transfusions will cause severe reactions if the dog has a mismatch in the DEA1.1 blood type. Because the immune\",\n \"-26.047436678782105\"\n ],\n [\n \"change between 2,000 and 3,000 booties during the course of the race. Changing booties is necessary when they become wet or fly off a dog's paws.\\nSometimes dog booties are worn for hiking, especially on rocky ground.\\nLike shoes, booties wear out with use. In long sled dog races or over an extended period of time, booties need to be replaced due to wear.\",\n \"-26.028131458559074\"\n ],\n [\n \"lasting 30 seconds, and would score points based on their performance. Doggy Decathlon The final round was the \\\"Doggy Decathlon\\\", an obstacle course. In the first season, the dog would have 60 seconds to complete 8 obstacles; in the second and third seasons, the number of obstacles was reduced to 7. In the last three seasons, the dog would have 100 seconds to complete 10 obstacles. The course varied from week to week, but always (starting late 1992) ended with the dog leaping through the big letter \\\"O\\\" in the \\\"That's My DOG\\\" sign. Each completed obstacle earned 10 points;\",\n \"-25.84235148964217\"\n ],\n [\n \"the race with fewer than 12 dogs, and cannot finish with fewer than 5. Tired and injured dogs are left with volunteers, to be transported by truck back to the finish line. There are many rules ensuring safe and fair conduct by the mushers.\\nSome of the activities of race weekend include a vet check, to make sure all dogs are fit to run a 200-mile race; a musher’s meeting, to inform mushers of rules and hazards on the trail; and a pre-race banquet, where mushers pick their bib numbers and meet members of the public. Children who\",\n \"-25.82296745450003\"\n ],\n [\n \"the entire range of motion. Dogs are almost always able to weight bear on their surgical leg within 24 hours and are expected to begin a comprehensive rehabilitation program, including controlled leash walks the day they go home.\\nLameness scores and stifle range of motion improve improve rapidly and significantly. Most dogs are expected to recover within four months of surgery.\",\n \"-25.74508389038965\"\n ],\n [\n \"at least one year old to compete; the hard fast turns are tough on a dog's developing joints, and intense and frequent competitive lure coursing before the age of 12 months may cause joint problems later in life. Dogs at an earlier age do require a moderate but essential introduction to the artificial chase to: stimulate their normal mental and physical development, to prepare and improve their capacity to perform physically with enthusiasm without hurting themselves - as is the case with the mutual, voluntary athletic play of littermates. Qualifying to compete In American Sighthound Field Association (ASFA) competitions, a\",\n \"-25.724114281940274\"\n ],\n [\n \"cell counts due to bone marrow suppression. The second stage, called the subclinical phase, has no outward signs and can last for the remainder of the dog's life, during which the dog remains infected with the organism. Some dogs are able to successfully eliminate the disease during this time. In some dogs the third and most serious stage of infection, the chronic phase, will commence. Very low blood cell counts (pancytopenia), bleeding, bacterial infection, lameness, neurological and ophthalmic disorders, and kidney disease, can result. Chronic ehrlichiosis can be fatal. Signs and symptoms The acute stage of the disease, occurring most\",\n \"-25.68404762580758\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 7 dogs surviving, after their kidneys had been stored for 7 days followed by reimplantation and immediate contralateral nephrectomy. Their best dog had a peak post reimplantation creatinine of 50 mg/l (0.44 mmol/l). Liu used well hydrated dogs undergoing a mannitol diuresis and stored the kidneys at 9 °C – 10 °C using a perfusate derived from human PPF. The PPF was further fractionated by using a highly water-soluble polymer (Pluronic F-38), and sodium acetyl tryptophanate and sodium caprylate were added to the PPF as stabilisers to permit pasteurisation. To this solution were added human albumin, heparin, mannitol, glucose, magnesium sulphate, potassium chloride,\",\n \"-25.349317547515966\"\n ],\n [\n \"found that when dogs lost a large amount of blood, they exhibited symptoms similar to anemia. Once they established this experimental model, they could test experimental therapies. They tested diets based on different organs: spleen, lung, liver, intestines, etc. They found that dogs fed a diet of liver recovered the quickest, suggesting that anemia is associated with malfunctioning livers.\\nPreliminary research was conducted in the early 1920s at the George William Hooper Foundation, University of California, where apricots were found to be valuable in treating induced anaemia in dogs. This result was so surprising to the researchers that\",\n \"-25.112047765112948\"\n ],\n [\n \"reported 8 dogs surviving after their kidneys had been stored at 2-4 °C for 28 hours, followed by auto-transplantation and delayed contralateral nephrectomy. Although Lapchinsky gave no details in his paper, Humphries reported that these experiments had involved cooling the kidneys for 1 hour with cold blood, and then storage at 2-4 °C, followed by rewarming of the kidneys over 1 hour with warm blood at the time of reimplantation. The contralateral nephrectomies were delayed for 2 months.\\nHumphries developed this storage technique by continuously perfusing the kidney throughout the period of storage. He used diluted plasma or serum as the\",\n \"-24.97483214654494\"\n ],\n [\n \"certification process. A dog must run cleanly against another dog of similar running style in order to earn a QC (Qualified Courser, not a title, but the hound is now qualified to compete in Open competition). Dogs can still earn their JC (junior courser) title by running a minimum of 600 yards (550 m) with four turns twice, in two separate trials, under two different qualified AKC judges. The dogs run alone, and once they complete both runs, they earn a Junior Courser (JC) title. The JC title, however, no longer allows them to compete against other dogs.\\nIn Europe, competing dogs\",\n \"-24.706730056437664\"\n ],\n [\n \"consequence of S. Lupi infection in this species.⁷ Life cycle within the dog Once ingested, the L3 excyst in the stomach acid of the dog within hours and break through to the serosal surface within a day or two. The L3 larvae take about a week to 10 days reach the thoracic aorta via the coeliac arteries. Once in the aorta, they reside here for up to 3 months, maturing to the L4 stage, before migrating over the next few months to the caudal thoracic aorta. They migrate in the wall of the aorta, causing it\",\n \"-24.424038578785257\"\n ],\n [\n \"first team departed from Willow Lake. The remaining teams left, staggered by two-minute intervals, until the last departed at 4:36 pm. Each departing team had up to the maximum of 16 dogs, and no more can be added during the race.\\nIn 2004, the starting time of the race was pushed back from 10 am. Sled dogs perform better in temperatures close to 0 °F (−18 °C), and this allows mushers to run their teams through the cold of the night until they cross the Alaska Range into the Interior. Among the last three to leave were previous Iditarod winners Martin Buser and Jeff King,\",\n \"-24.311305186129175\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the top 30 are within 21 hours. At this stage, all the pacesetters have taken their mandatory 24- and 8-hour layovers.\\nThe temperatures are just above freezing, and a freezing rain advisory has been issued for Kaltag. On March 16, Scdoris scratched after several of her dogs came down with a viral diarrhea, saying \\\"it was not an eye thing. It was a my-dogs-are-sick thing\\\". Another concern was weight loss: her dogs were fed canned dog food, with some kibble, salmon and fat, which did not help maintain their weight as well as the heavy meat diet most dogs are fed.\",\n \"-24.249118462379556\"\n ],\n [\n \"Biliary fever Presentation The peracute (very sudden and severe) form causes death within a few hours and treatment is of little avail. More commonly dogs suffer from the acute or subacute form. This is recognised by the dog being listless or lethargic, losing its appetite and running a temperature. If your dog is off its food, take a rectal temperature reading. If this is 39 °C or higher you should have the dog examined – do not wait until its mucous membranes become pale, white or yellow, which commonly suggests a more advanced stage of the disease. Fever is present\",\n \"-24.244920478617132\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tor des Géants Description It provides prizes for all participants who complete the run before the cutoff. The start and the finish are in Courmayeur. The total length of the race is 330 km (205mi) which must be completed in less than 150 hours. There are 43 refreshment points at which the runners can eat, sleep and, if needed, obtain medical care. There are also 7 life bases, which are bigger than refreshment points. They are placed about every 50 km (31mi). Because of its difficulty, many athletes do not complete the trail. The completion rate is about 60%. Around 2000 volunteers\",\n \"-24.209316682710778\"\n ],\n [\n \"drastically shorten the gestation period: to this end, he uses an experimental growth hormone made from human placental lactogen, which speeds up the embryo's growth. The dog grows to adult size in a few days, and Holliston passes it off as the mother to disguise his secret experiments. Thanks to the serum, it learns incredibly fast and soon becomes a well-trained dog. However, Holliston fails to notice that the animal's aggression is increasing commensurately: while he is out on an errand, it kills an annoying small dog and conceals the carcass.\\nEager to use his discovery for the good of mankind,\",\n \"-24.151672281699575\"\n ],\n [\n \"conducted to diagnose the condition, in which the bones around the jaw thicken; additionally, the blood may show increased calcium levels and enzyme levels. The condition often stops progressing by the time the dog is a year old, and in some cases can recede. It is normally treated with anti-inflammatory medications, and the feeding of soft foods. In some cases, tube feeding may be necessary. However, if the animal still cannot eat and is in uncontrolled pain, then euthanasia may be the only medical option remaining.\\nThe breed is prone to skin disorders. About a quarter of Westies surveyed are affected\",\n \"-24.11331037490163\"\n ],\n [\n \"Canine parvovirus Signs Dogs that develop the disease show signs of the illness within 3 to 7 days. The signs may include lethargy, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea (usually bloody). Generally, the first sign of CPV is lethargy. Secondary signs are loss of weight and appetite or diarrhea followed by vomiting. Diarrhea and vomiting result in dehydration that upsets the electrolyte balance and this may affect the dog critically. Secondary infections occur as a result of the weakened immune system. Because the normal intestinal lining is also compromised, blood and protein leak into the intestines, leading to anemia and loss of\",\n \"-24.051281000487506\"\n ],\n [\n \"6–8 hours, before it is capable of transferring disease. Disease transmission can occur as quickly as 3-6 hours after a bite occurs. Therefore, the earlier the tick is removed from a host, the less likely it is to contract the illness. Treatments and prevention in dogs The American dog tick is a rather colorful tick and is commonly found in highly wooded, shrubby, and long-grass areas. Tick numbers can be reduced by cutting the grass, which creates a low-humidity environment, which is undesirable to ticks. Pesticides can also be used and are most effective when applied to vegetation that has\",\n \"-24.002203394600656\"\n ],\n [\n \"the organization, the dog and handler is directed to the track and find the tracklayer and articles as required. The dog is usually worked on a 10-meter or (30-foot) lead, but the length of lead actually used depends on the terrain.\\nIn general, a dog must work continually as if genuinely looking for a lost person without assistance from the handler, and find the required number of lost articles and the tracklayer at the end of the track, for the dog to be awarded a pass. This pass can also be graded on the quality of the work. After the required\",\n \"-23.985560628119856\"\n ],\n [\n \"regular cleaning and plucking of hair within the ear canal. A veterinarian should be consulted if the dog shows signs of an ear infection.\\nStandard Poodles in UK, Denmark and USA/Canada surveys had a median lifespan of 11.5 to 12 years. In a UK survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (30%), old age (18%), GDV (6%), and cardiac disease (5%).\\nMiniature and Toy Poodles in UK surveys had median lifespans of 14 to 14.5 years. In Miniatures, the leading cause of death was old age (39%). In Toys, the leading causes of death were old age (25%), and kidney\",\n \"-23.930877831124235\"\n ],\n [\n \"dog's owner can greatly enhance quality of life. Prognosis According to Blue Cross, pet owners can expect for their pet to live about 12 months with current treatments. If the owner opts for palliative care instead of treatment, the dog will live about 3 months, although if the tumor is partially removed this can be extended. The survival time may be longer in large dogs, and the cure rate is 20%. If a tumor is completely removed, usually the pet will receive small doses of radiation in hopes of preventing recurrence. The survival rates are: 1 year: 59%, 3 year:\",\n \"-23.825931567465886\"\n ],\n [\n \"of subsequent dogs on the runner will be assessed in the order in which they are tried. Missed game that is picked by the second or subsequent dog constitutes an \\\"eye wipe.\\\" All \\\"eye wipes\\\" will be treated on their merits but dogs that have had their \\\"eye wiped\\\" during the body of the stake will be discarded by the judges. Where a dog shows ability by acknowledging the fall of game and making a workmanlike job of the line to the fall, it should not be barred from the awards by failing to retrieve\",\n \"-23.792477728362428\"\n ],\n [\n \"a plan that would break even at about seven months. DNA samples would be required when pet licenses come up for renewal. Within a year, a database of some 12,500 registration-required canine residents would be available to sanitation workers with sample-test kits. Evidence would be submitted to a forensics laboratory where technicians could readily match the waste to its dog. The prospect of a prompt fine equivalent to $600 US (at 2005 exchange rate) would help assure preventive compliance, as well as cover costs.\\nIn adult dogs, the infection by Toxocara canis is usually asymptomatic but can\",\n \"-23.67730999281048\"\n ],\n [\n \"night under clear conditions. The start was delayed due to an incident during practice for the first Road to Le Mans race in which a major crash necessitated barrier repairs to the Porsche Curves and the session was shortened by twenty minutes. Slow zones and yellow flags limited the amount of quick running, and the rapidly cooling track meant the best chance to set the fastest lap times was missed. The first timed laps of the session had Porsche lead early on with a benchmark effort from Jani, followed by Bernhard's 3 minutes and 19.710 seconds lap. Fifteen minutes later,\",\n \"-23.628315675072372\"\n ],\n [\n \"to 24 hours after ingestion. In rare cases, an animal will survive the initial period only to drop dead months later of heart failure - so-called chronic gifblaar poisoning. On post-mortem, leaves may be found in the rumen, cyanosis may be seen, as well as signs of heart failure - congestion, haemorrhage, and myocardial necrosis (on histopathology). Diagnosis is based on these as well as the presence of gifblaar in the camp, particularly if signs of consumption are seen. Tests can be done for monofluoroacetate in rumen fluid, kidneys and liver. Pattern of toxicity Cattle are mostly affected, with sheep,\",\n \"-23.560230026138015\"\n ],\n [\n \"is important because elderly individuals often have multiple chronic disease conditions.\\nThe Dog Aging Project commenced in 2016 using a US $200,000 seed grant from the University of Washington, with subsequent funding from small private donors. It is an example of crowdfunding. Initially there was a 10 week trial showing that dogs that received rapamycin had better heart function than the control group. As of 2018, the National Institute on Aging has awarded the Dog Aging Project a five year grant to support its studies.\",\n \"-23.554296462752973\"\n ],\n [\n \"liver disease in June 2000. According to Chosun Ilbo, the dog accompanied his dead owner for three days until other people came to find the body, followed the owner to his funeral, and came back home, not eating anything for four days. The Korean Jindo Dog Research Institute (진돗개 시험연구소) brought him under its care, but a person related to the Institute announced that the dog would not interact with anyone except for his feeder as of 2005.\",\n \"-23.554212201968767\"\n ],\n [\n \"from approximately 300,000 in 2000 to 25,000 in 2004, and thus reducing the number of dog bite injuries from 1,500 a month to under 200 a month. This campaign was controversial, as many opposed large-scale dog euthanasia. On the other hand, there were also numerous cases of people asking the authorities to take the stray dogs away, but after this was done, neighbors, who had been feeding the dogs, would show up at the shelter to take them back to their neighborhoods. The campaign resulted in nearly 48,000 dogs being put down in 2001, with reduced numbers in the following\",\n \"-23.519397389958613\"\n ],\n [\n \"was reduced to just six entries for the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Testing and practice A pre-Le Mans testing day was held at the circuit on 4 June, and mandated all entrants for the race to participate in eight hours of track time divided into two sessions. The morning session, held on a dirty track with lap times improving throughout, was led by pre-race favourites Toyota, with Nakajima's No. 8 car setting a lap time of 3 minutes and 20.778 seconds. The second Toyota of Kobayashi followed almost seven-tenths of a second in arrears, and José María López completed\",\n \"-23.512426971574314\"\n ],\n [\n \"winner by Race Marshal Mark Norman, with a time of 9 days, 18 hours, 39 minutes, and 31 seconds and won US$72,066.67 and a new truck. When asked how it felt to win a second time, Sørlie said \\\"it feels good, I'm ready for breakfast.\\\" His team of dogs averaged 4.65 mi/h (7.58 km/h). The Red Lantern in last was Phil Morgan, an Alaska Airlines pilot, and when he crossed the finish line on March 21 at 8:02 pm AKST (March 22, 5:02 UTC), the Widow's Lantern hanging on the burled arch was extinguished, which signaled the end of the race.\\nSørlie became the first non-U.S. resident\",\n \"-23.507584375314764\"\n ],\n [\n \"early and treated with lifelong medication, most dogs can live a relatively normal life. Gastric dilatation volvulus There is a high incidence of gastric dilatation volvulus (GDV) in this breed, which occurs when twisting of the stomach (volvulus or torsion) causes or is caused by excess gas. Symptoms include restlessness, inability to get comfortable, pacing, or retching without being able to bring up anything. The dog's abdomen may be visibly swollen, but bloat or torsion can occur without visible swelling. A dog with GDV requires immediate veterinary care. The dog's survival usually depends on whether the owner can get to\",\n \"-23.49583735782653\"\n ],\n [\n \"a pet will need to set aside plenty of time to spend with their dog. Health McNabs are hardy dogs with no breed specific health problems. Their average life span is 13–15 years.\\nMcNab dogs may carry the MDR1 mutant gene and can be very sensitive to Ivermectin, which is a common ingredient in heartworm prevention medications. This drug and others can cause serious health problems or even death. A DNA test that demonstrates whether a dog has the mutation is available through the Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine. The test can be completed by sending them a cheek\",\n \"-23.444643379021727\"\n ],\n [\n \"first English-language commentary of the race, however, unlike the Le Mans commentary this did not run for the full 24 hours but stopped for six hours during the night. That year the race itself stopped for a time during the night as thick fog caused a red flag period.\\nThe Nürburgring 24 hours was successful enough that it has been repeated in 2008 and 2009, but using the same format of covering the first ten, and final eight hours of the race, rather than the full 24 hours. However, in 2010 the entire race was broadcast live with John Hindhaugh, Paul\",\n \"-23.437685253913514\"\n ],\n [\n \"dogs generally begin to show signs of the disease at two to three months of age, with proteinuria. By three to four months of age, symptoms include for affected male dogs: bodily wasting and loss of weight, proteinuria & hypoalbuminemia. Past nine months of age, hypercholesterolemia may be seen. In the final stages of the disease, at around 15 months of age for affected males, symptoms are reported as being renal failure, hearing loss and death. Since the condition is genetically dominant, diagnosis would also include analysis of the health of the sire and dam of the suspected affected progeny\",\n \"-23.362124065635726\"\n ],\n [\n \"due to anatoxin-a have been reported since its discovery. Domestic dog deaths due to the cyanotoxin, as determined by analysis of stomach contents, have been observed at the lower North Island in New Zealand in 2005, in eastern France in 2003, in California of the United States in 2002 and 2006, in Scotland in 1992, and in Ireland in 1997 and 2005. In each case the dogs began showing muscle convulsions within minutes, and were dead within a matter of hours. Numerous cattle fatalities arising from the consumption of water contaminated with cyanobacteria that produce anatoxin-a have been reported in\",\n \"-23.31355642247945\"\n ],\n [\n \"recessive hereditary disorder, and can cause discomfort to the dog when it attempts to chew. The progression of the condition usually slows down between eleven and thirteen months of age, and is sometimes followed by a slow partial or complete regression.\\nThis condition has also been seen in other breeds of dog, such as the West Highland White Terrier, Cairn Terrier, Boston Terrier, as well as some larger breeds such as Bullmastiffs. von Willebrand's disease Von Willebrand's disease is a hereditary bleeding disorder found in both dogs and humans. It is caused by a lack of von Willebrand factor which plays\",\n \"-23.310873619899212\"\n ],\n [\n \"using borrowed sled dogs from Lance Mackey's Comeback Kennel. Marshall had been training with Mackey for this race.\\nNewton came in 47th place in 12 days, 4 hours, 27 minutes, and 28 seconds. 2011 Iditarod Marshall returned to compete the next year. His bib number was 6. However, he withdrew from the race on 12 February at 1:01 pm. He had taken both his \\\"layovers\\\" and scratched at the checkpoint Anvik. He had 11 dogs when he scratched 2013 Iditarod After a 1-year absence Marshall returned to compete in the 2013 Iditarod independent of any major sponsorship, he ran a team\",\n \"-23.30522325367201\"\n ],\n [\n \"rest for three to four weeks and received extra food to recover the blood loss. In this period the horses were especially weak and prone to disease and infection.\\nWithin a few years, with experience and observation of the horses, a rouleaux formation of the blood sample was placed back into the animal's body. This procedure is called plasmapheresis.\",\n \"-23.28701905501657\"\n ],\n [\n \"also take a 42-hour break in Nome to recuperate before they start making their return. Sleds are impounded during the break, ensuring that they rest since they are not able to work on their sleds. As of 2016 the race had never had a fatality, although there had been close calls.\",\n \"-23.27809305023402\"\n ],\n [\n \"or go outside to urinate or defecate. These cases must receive supportive therapy of intravenous fluids and nutrition; a light sedative is sometimes administered, as the dog may be very stressed by the experience. Heart disease Older, small breeds of dogs are prone to congestive heart failure due to degeneration of the mitral valve. This condition is known to be inherited in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels. Degenerative valve disease is the most common form of heart disease in dogs. Mitral regurgitation leads to turbulent blood flow and increased pressure in the left atrium. This causes increased pressure in\",\n \"-23.208946386257594\"\n ],\n [\n \"be 257 laps, or 1000 km (620 mi) long. However, under WEC rules, with the exception of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, races had a time limit of 6 hours. The six-hour mark was reached when the Bellof/Bell Porsche had run only 206 laps (803.4 km), thus the race was declared at the time limit some 51 laps short of the 1000 km distance.\",\n \"-23.20576126378728\"\n ],\n [\n \"not be repaired in time for the race and the Mark Bell Racing Ford BF Falcon XR8 did not start after only one of its three drivers had lapped during Practice or Qualifying within the mandatory 130% of the fastest time set during Qualifying. Race The Phoenix Racing Audi won by 1 minute and 13 seconds over the Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG jointly run by international team Black Falcon and Australian team Erebus Racing. The Mercedes was driven by Dutch driver Jeroen Bleekemolen, American Bret Curtis and Australians Peter Hackett and Tim Slade. The two leading cars finished two laps\",\n \"-23.199118126824033\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Anatolian Shepherd was retracted in Australia. Life span Apparently, only one health survey of Anatolian Shepherds was done in 2004 by the UK Kennel Club. The median lifespan for the 23 deceased dogs (a small sample size) in the survey was 10.75 years. This is 3–4 years longer than other breeds of their size, which have median longevities of 6–8 years. The leading causes of death of the dogs in the survey were cancer (22%), \\\"combinations\\\" (17%), cardiac (13%), and old age (13%). Health issues Based on a small sample of 24 still-living dogs, the most common health\",\n \"-23.169228501967154\"\n ],\n [\n \"bypass surgery, performed an experiment in which he grafted a dog's head and upper body including the front legs, onto another dog; the effort was focused on how to provide blood supply to the donor head and upper body and not on grafting the nervous systems. The dogs generally survived a few days; one survived 29 days. The grafted body parts were able to move and react to stimulus. The animals died due to transplant rejection.\\nIn the 1950s and '60s, immunosuppressive drugs and organ transplantation techniques were developed that eventually made transplantation of kidneys, livers, and other organs standard medical\",\n \"-23.163488255115226\"\n ],\n [\n \"the 2008 Göteborgsvarvet half marathon, Mikael Ekvall finished the race in 21st place in spite of being stained with his own excrement. A reporter asked him if he had ever considered stopping to clean off. He explained: \\\"No, I'd lose time. […] If you quit once, it's easy to do it again and again and again. It becomes a habit.\\\"\\nAt the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men's 50 kilometres walk, Yohann Diniz led the race, but due to gastrointestinal issues, he fainted multiple times midrace. Nevertheless, he was able to recover and finished in 8th place, six minutes behind the winner\",\n \"-23.129349762399215\"\n ],\n [\n \"donations through Crowd-funding and Social Media. With a small team of Volunteers and a borrowed mixed team of dogs from the kennels of Kathleen Fredricks & fellow competitor Wade Marrs. Newton Marshall finished the race in the 43rd position out of 69 mushers, on a trail that was called the toughest in the 42-year history of the race, and saw many veterans and past champions not make it to the finish line. He finished the race in 12 days 1 hour 5 min. 52 seconds with 13 dogs in harness and was presented with the \\\"Herbie Nayokpuk Award\\\"\",\n \"-23.12805180682335\"\n ],\n [\n \"too young, especially before 8 months, they can damage their bone growth, leading to a painful limp and possibly badly bowed legs. Jumping up and down from objects, climbing over objects, running, even long walks, are all things to be avoided for the first 8 to 10 months to prevent later problems and allow for correct closure of the growth plate.\\nDegenerative disc disease is also a common problem in short-legged dogs; as many as 10% of Skyes will suffer from it.\\nMammary cancer is the leading cause of Skye Terrier deaths, with hemangiosarcomas (a malignant tumour of the blood vessels), autoimmune\",\n \"-23.07155589017202\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gobi (dog) Gobi is a small, female border terrier mix dog that began following ultra marathon runner Dion Leonard at the beginning of Stage II of the Gobi Desert Run in China in June 2016. Some vets have now told Dion that the dog could be a mix of Shih Tzu, and Chihuahua.\\nLeonard noticed the stray dog at the start of the second day of the race. He did not expect the dog to follow him. The dog ran a 23 mile leg of the race with him. At the end of the day, the dog joined Leonard in his\",\n \"-23.062430183475954\"\n ],\n [\n \"cattle require up to two minutes to bleed to death when halal or kosher means of slaughter are used on cattle: \\\"This is a major incision into the animal and to say that it doesn't suffer is quite ridiculous.\\\" In response, Majid Katme of the Muslim Council of Britain stated that \\\"[i]t's a sudden and quick haemorrhage. A quick loss of blood pressure and the brain is instantaneously starved of blood and there is no time to start feeling any pain.\\\"\\nIn permitting dhabiha, the German Constitutional Court cited the 1978 study led by Professor Wilhelm Schulze at the University of\",\n \"-23.041998100699857\"\n ],\n [\n \"dogs passed away within a week of infection while the others were ill but able to recover. One of the bodies underwent laboratory analysis and necroscopy to determine the infectious agent(s). By using RT-PCR techniques and sequencing, the liver and gut samples tested positive for the presence of the CaCV replicase gene. All other pathogens that were screened for came up negative. Prevalence of CaCV in Taiwan was also studied in which dogs with diarrhea were approximately three times more likely to be infected with CaCV than healthy dogs. This contrasted the study run by Li et al. in the\",\n \"-23.02412189875031\"\n ],\n [\n \"or care for sick pets, and half of those admitted taking a whole week off, and according to Direct Line one in four pet owners \\\"said they have been too upset to go into the workplace when their four legged friend died\\\" and \\\"many of those who did go into work after the death of their pet said they were unproductive.\\\" The latter survey also noted that pet owners in the UK take \\\"around 8 days off\\\" due to grief at the death of a pet, and that \\\"seventy-nine percent of people responding to the survey admitted they did\",\n \"-23.00884010998152\"\n ],\n [\n \"retired with just three hours left with a gearbox problem. The team entered the Spa 24 Hours with just one car with the same line up as car No. 76 at Le Mans. Strangely, the team was forced to retire the car with three hours to go, like at Le Mans although this time it was due to an engine failure. 2010 2010 got off to a great start with the team winning the Dubai 24 Hour in January 2010. The trio of Narac, Pilet and German Marco Holzer won the race overall finishing three laps ahead of the second\",\n \"-22.990203589899465\"\n ],\n [\n \"twenty minutes, only to be surpassed by Lewis Hamilton in the final minute. There was much attention given to Red Bull Racing, following team principal Christian Horner's claims that the team had not done any qualifying simulations. Their plans were thrown into disarray when Sebastian Vettel spun off at Turn 5 shortly after switching to soft tyres, and Mark Webber's fastest lap was ruined when Michael Schumacher spun off at Turn 9. Pedro de la Rosa managed to set his first timed lap of the weekend, but was forced to return to the pits with power steering problems. Projected lap\",\n \"-22.983617298013996\"\n ],\n [\n \"secure. \\nAfter 1-2 weeks, a dog's results will be uploaded and published on Avelsdata, a publicly free to access website. This allows owners and breeders to compare related dogs such as litter mates or parents, and dogs within a breed.\\nWhen 200 Swedish-born dogs of a breed have completed a BPH assessment, the data is aggregated into an individual breed analysis and sent to the breed club, with tips on how to use the information. At 500 dogs, a more detailed analysis is created, including an examination on the effectiveness of the BPH on measuring everyday behaviours of dogs. As of\",\n \"-22.9538063351647\"\n ],\n [\n \"fallen before the session and only eased off halfway into the sixty minute practice, leading to the cars staying inside the garages until fifteen minutes in. It was not until thirty minutes in that Räikkönen was the first to set a timed lap. Vettel did not head onto the track until there were just 22 minutes remaining. By this stage, the surface had dried out enough for intermediate tyres. Eventually, Vettel set a time of 1:57.351, seven-tenths of a second ahead of Valtteri Bottas and more than a second faster than third placed Sergio Pérez. Only 14 drivers set a\",\n \"-22.90274349394531\"\n ],\n [\n \"veteran indicated he had problems with sled quality, his lead dogs, and personal health ever since the restart in Willow. March 8 Nikolai: Sørlie continues to set the pace by arriving first at Nikolai on March 8 at 11:16 am, followed by Brooks and Jonrowe about an hour later. Sørlie is also the first to depart, at 5:09 pm. The 10 fastest mushers follow quickly, in just over 3 hours, but the top 30 now lag up to 11 hours apart. Sørlie has insomnia, just like he did when he won in 2003, though his dogs are resting well.\\nMcGrath:. Sørlie wins the Spirit of\",\n \"-22.881171675398946\"\n ],\n [\n \"it remains legal, it is usually practiced because it is required as part of a breed standard for exhibition at dog shows.\\nThe veterinary procedure is known as \\\"cosmetic otoplasty\\\". It is usually performed on puppies at 7 to 12 weeks of age. After 16 weeks, the procedure is more painful and the animal has greater pain memory. Up to 2/3 of the ear flap may be removed in a cropping operation, and the wound edges are closed with stitches. The ears are then bandaged and taped until they heal into the proper shape. The procedure is recommended to be\",\n \"-22.83235964324558\"\n ],\n [\n \"expanded the vector from currently or recently infected dogs to half the dog population as carriers. To put the relative levels of shedding bacteria into perspective, a study analyzing the shedding kinetics of B. bronchiseptica presents the highest levels of bacterial shedding one week post-exposure, with an order of magnitude decrease in shedding observed every week. This projection places negligible levels of shedding to be expected six weeks post-exposure (or approximately five weeks post-onset of symptoms). Dogs which had been administered intranasal vaccine four weeks prior to virulent B. bronchiseptica challenge displayed little to no bacterial shedding within\",\n \"-22.79539226605266\"\n ],\n [\n \"1960 24 Hours of Le Mans Practice After the success last year, the ACO was again able to close the public roads on 9 April. Fourteen cars took advantage of the 10 hours of extended testing time.\\nOfficial qualifying was held over two sessions for a total of 540 minutes over the two days and there were two major accidents. On Wednesday evening after having just done a fast qualifying lap, Dan Gurney in his Jaguar E2A collided at 150 mph (240 km/h) with Fritz d’Orey's Sc. Serenissima Ferrari GT. D’Orey's car speared off the track and hit a roadside tree with such\",\n \"-22.770934267318808\"\n ],\n [\n \"a very important race, they receive a dog, Cerberus as a reward.\\nThey decide to test out Cerberus' ability and enter him in a race. However, instead of racing, Cerberus lies down inside the box and does not move, losing the boys some money. Outside the track after the race, the boys argue over what to do with the dog, when they are kidnapped and put in the back of a van. When they wake up, they find themselves hung up in a dog-food processing plant with the bookie and his henchman, Mooney in front of them. The bookie says that\",\n \"-22.769568478455767\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the first season, a 20-point bonus was awarded if the dog completed all 8 obstacles within the time limit but during the second and third seasons, it was increased to a 30-point bonus if the dog completed all 7 obstacles before time ran out; in any case, a perfectly completed course would yield a total of 100 points. A dog could skip an obstacle, but jumping through the sign would always end the run, regardless of time remaining. Winning The team with the most points won the game. The winning family received prizes, while the winning dog won a\",\n \"-22.767891876923386\"\n ],\n [\n \"be run in order to earn money for his dognappers as the dog had won all of his last six races. This was Britain's first recorded dognapping. The dognapping law By the mid-1960s, calls were being made for laws to prevent dognapping. The United States Congress was already working on legislation to restrict the handling and sale of animals for research when a pet Dalmatian was taken in Pennsylvania during June 1965, and ten days later a Dalmatian was reported to have died during experimental heart surgery in a New York hospital. The dog was thought to be the same\",\n \"-22.71350417920621\"\n ],\n [\n \"does not survive in the environment for more than a few hours at room temperature (20–25 °C), but can survive for a few weeks in shady environments at temperatures slightly above freezing. It, along with other labile viruses, can also persist longer in serum and tissue debris.\\nDespite extensive vaccination in many regions, it remains a major disease of dogs.\\nTo prevent canine distemper, puppies should begin vaccination at 6-8 weeks of age and then continue getting the “booster shot” every 2-4 weeks until they are 16 weeks of age. Without the full series of shots, the vaccination does not provide protection\",\n \"-22.70654836250469\"\n ],\n [\n \"long, and the rules state that dogs must run the course at a rate of at least 3 yards (or meters) per second, the standard course time would be 50 seconds. Other organizations, though, leave the decision on course time to the judge's discretion Running a course and determining results The judge often holds a briefing for competitors before each class, to review the rules and explain specific requirements for a particular course. For Standard courses for experienced competitors, the judge's briefing is often minimal or dispensed with altogether. For novice handlers in classes with complex rules, the briefings can\",\n \"-22.69375338900136\"\n ],\n [\n \"by monthly treatments for up to six months of age.\\nPregnant bitches: to prevent transmission to the puppies, pregnant females can be given macrocyclic lactones on the 40th and 55th day of pregnancy or genbendazole daily from the 40th day of pregnancy continuing until the 14th day postpartum.\\nLactating bitches: should be treated concurrently with the first treatment of puppies.\\nDogs with increased risk of infection: i.e. those used in sports, competitions, shows, or those kept in kennels can be given two treatments 4 weeks before and 2-4 weeks after the event.\\nProfessional dogs: i.e. therapy, rescue, or police dogs: 12 times a year,\",\n \"-22.692900356574683\"\n ],\n [\n \"dogs realize they owe nothing to their owner and everything to Shasta and the Buddies, and so, slow down and refuse to run any further, causing Jean George to lose the race.\\nAdam is victorious and the Buddies reunite with Buddy and Molly. Jean George gives out to his dogs and they respond in kind by chasing him around the Arctic. The Buddies sadly say goodbye to their new best friend, Shasta, as well as Adam. All seven Buddies return home via airplane and are greeted by their owners Sam, Bartleby, Billy, Alice, Pete, Henry and Noah; who were waiting for\",\n \"-22.680404164653737\"\n ],\n [\n \"which is operated by bellows that oxygenate the blood.\\nFollowing the lung scene, the audience is then shown a heart-lung machine, composed of a pair of diaphragm linear pumps, venous and arterial, exchanging oxygen with a water reservoir. It is then seen supplying a canine head with oxygenated blood. The head is presented with external stimuli, which it responds to. Finally, a dog is brought to clinical death (depicted mostly via a graphical plot of lung and heart activity) by draining all blood from it. It is then left for ten minutes and connected to the heart-lung machine, which gradually returns\",\n \"-22.667562115515466\"\n ],\n [\n \"Surveys of handlers indicates that about 1 in 3 dogs incur injuries from agility related activities. The most common types of injuries were (in order) strains, sprains and contusions. Locations most commonly injured were shoulders, back, phalanges (forelimb/hindlimb) and neck. Injuries were most commonly perceived as being caused by interactions with bar jumps (contact), A-frames and dog walk obstacles (contact and/or fall). There were no relationship between the use of warm-up and cool-down exercises and injuries.\",\n \"-22.651650329469703\"\n ],\n [\n \"59 minutes and 20 seconds.\\nIn October 2010, PJ Pat Gallagher,\\nEnter the lifestyle-sports-adidas-dublin-marathonas \\nAs Patrick Gallagher, \\nWho become the fastast runner dressed as a leprechaun to run a marathon, with the time of 3 hours 8 minutes and 55 seconds. \\nAnd raising money for the Downs Syndrome Association.\",\n \"-22.619415904773632\"\n ],\n [\n \"criticized DogsBite.org for counting as a death caused by pit bulls the death of a man who died in 2007 from atherosclerosis and problems with alcohol four months after he was severely injured by pit bulls.\",\n \"-22.595145070168655\"\n ],\n [\n \"take the sport seriously until the '90s. His competed in the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race for the first time in 1995, taking 13 days, 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 9 seconds to complete the course and coming in 40th place. To date, his best time is 10 days, 15 hours, 25 minutes, and 15 seconds, a time he achieved in 2006, and his highest position was achieved in 1997, when he placed 27th. According to the Iditarod's official website, he has won a combined total of $14,607.88 in prize money and he is sponsored by St. Elias Specialty Hospital,\",\n \"-22.580612468227628\"\n ],\n [\n \"dogs a year and house 1,400 dogs at any one time. It also operates a sanctuary for dogs that are unadoptable.\\nIn 2012 the RSPCA announced plans to end the euthanasia of any rehomeable animals in their care by 2017. However, the charity recognizes that this cannot be done without major changes in the public's behaviour, including spaying and neutering owned animals and making long term commitments to animal companions.\\nThe Scottish SPCA operate on a no kill basis unless given veterinary advice that an animal is so ill or in such pain that the kindest decision is to end their suffering\",\n \"-22.56171045723022\"\n ],\n [\n \"completing the race in under four hours are awarded with an engraved whisky glass and those who have completed the race twenty-one times are presented with a George Broderick Plaque.\",\n \"-22.538488303485792\"\n ],\n [\n \"ages of six weeks to seven months old. The signs and symptoms include a 12- to 48-hour onset of loss of appetite, decreased energy level, vomiting, and difficulty breathing. Some pups have no physical signs or symptoms at all, may just collapse and die, or are found dead by the breeder or new owner. At this time, there is no known cure or treatment but there is a way to prevent producing puppies affected by juvenile dilated cardiomyopathy.\\nBreeders now have a DNA gene based test, based on a cheek swab or a blood sample, which will determine if a dog\",\n \"-22.535686021408765\"\n ],\n [\n \"three years after the initial puppy series and a booster 1 year later.\\nA dog that successfully recovers from CPV2 generally remains contagious for up to three weeks, but it is possible they may remain contagious for up to six. Ongoing infection risk is primarily from fecal contamination of the environment due to the virus's ability to survive many months in the environment. Neighbours and family members with dogs should be notified of infected animals so that they can ensure that their dogs are vaccinated or tested for immunity. A modified live vaccine many confer protection in 3 to 5 days;\",\n \"-22.527058354578912\"\n ],\n [\n \"42 min later at 4:42 pm. The teams were increased to 16 dogs each. No additional dogs could be added, but they could be left behind at any of the checkpoints along the route.\\nYentna: Ramy Brooks (bib 5) departed Yentna in first place on March 4 at 5:20 pm. the remainder of the top 5 were Jim Lanier, Zack Steer, Cim Smyth, and Paul Gebhardt\\nSkwentna: Aaron Burmeister who started in 47th position departed Skwentna in first place, on March 4 at 9:44 pm. The remainder of the top 5 were Robert Sorlie, Jason Barron, Rick Swenson, and three-time Yukon Quest\",\n \"-22.468778286478482\"\n ],\n [\n \"annually who started the race and 80% to 95% of them finished before the 13-hour cutoff. The overall course record is 6 hours, 8 minutes and 14 seconds, set by Matt Woods (31) in 2011.\",\n \"-22.462805127957836\"\n ],\n [\n \"to FAWC it can take up to two minutes for cattle to bleed to death, thus amounting to animal abuse. Compassion in World Farming also supported the recommendation saying \\\"We believe that the law must be changed to require all animals to be stunned before slaughter.\\\" The UK government rejected its recommendations.\\nVarious research papers on cattle slaughter collected by Compassion In World Farming mention that \\\"after the throat is cut, large clots can form at the severed ends of the carotid arteries, leading to occlusion of the wound (or \\\"ballooning\\\" as it is known in the slaughtering trade). Nick\",\n \"-22.439727505319752\"\n ],\n [\n \"that T-Dog (IronE Singleton) has contracted a blood infection from the wound he received in the previous episode, and both search for antibiotics, but they fail to find any.\\nAt the Greene farm, Hershel reveals that Carl needs major surgery to live, and that he will need a respirator. Otis suggests that they might find supplies at a nearby high school—where the Federal Emergency Management Agency has set up a trailer—although the place is likely overrun with walkers. Otis and Shane decide to get the supplies, while Maggie retrieves Lori from the group and brings her to the Greene home. Rick\",\n \"-22.43613799189916\"\n ],\n [\n \"stop can easily last well more than a minute.\\nUnlike most other forms of racing, the practice of \\\"double-stinting\\\" or even \\\"triple-stinting\\\" tyres is commonplace in longer races; tyres hard enough to withstand the rigours of racing in the heat of the daytime may be so hard that they do not wear significantly during the nighttime hours. In a race where this is an issue, significant time can be gained by choosing to leave worn tyres on the car during the first stop after they were put on the car; if the temperature drops low enough, teams may even be able\",\n \"-22.431836345287593\"\n ],\n [\n \"remain active up until around twelve years old. Health The Swedish breed club for the Smålandsstövare commissioned genetic tests on a number of dogs between 1994 and 2008. The tests showed that there were no specific health issues unique to the breed, nor any major generic issues. They recommended that where rare health issues present themselves, that the dog involved should not be bred from in order to prevent that health issue from spreading through the breed. They have an average life expectancy of twelve to fifteen years.\",\n \"-22.430831853103882\"\n ],\n [\n \"being looked after by a local vet in Cannes. Duncan visited the vet and was informed that the condition could not be cured, and the vet was no longer feeding him. Duncan sought a second opinion, taking back the dog, he drove it to Stuttgart, Germany, where he found a vet who was willing to treat Lump. The treatment took several months, but Lump would go on to live for another ten years, albeit walking as Duncan would describe \\\"a bit like a drunken sailor\\\". He died ten days before Picasso, on 29 March 1973. Legacy The painted plate that\",\n \"-22.424859096267028\"\n ],\n [\n \"8. The three dogs died shortly after Shannon returned for them, and a fourth may have perished as well. Arrival in Minto Half-Athabaskan Edgar Kalland arrived in Minto the night before, and was sent back to Tolovana, traveling 70 mi (110 km) the day before the relay. Shannon and his team arrived in bad shape at 11 am, and handed over the serum. After warming the serum in the roadhouse, Kalland headed into the forest. The temperature had risen to −56 °F (−49 °C), and according to at least one report the owner of the roadhouse at Manley Hot Springs had to pour water over\",\n \"-22.411221501068212\"\n ],\n [\n \"was the first to arrive, on March 9 at 9:midnight, followed by Buser, then Brooks. Sørlie departs 13 minutes later. The top 10 follow within 11 hours, and the top 30 within 22 hours.\\nAfter leaving Ophir in 8th place, Zack Steer became the fifth musher to scratch when he returned on March 9\\nfor undisclosed personal reasons. Steer's wife is pregnant and due later this month. Scott Smith from Wyoming scratched at Ophir on March 12, citing concerns for his team which only had nine dogs left.\\nThe trail between Ophir and Iditarod was in poor shape, and efforts to improve it were too late\",\n \"-22.404184061510023\"\n ],\n [\n \"1995 distance runner Scott Turner set a record for running the trail end-to-end in 14 days, 5 hours and 58 minutes. Several runners have tried to beat the record. On July 2, 2010, Charlotte Vasarhelyi surpassed this performance by completing an end to end run finishing with a final time of 13 days, 10 hours 51 min.\\nOn September 18, 2014, cancer survivor Jim Willett set a solo record completing the entire Bruce Trail in 10 days, 13 hours, and 57 minutes. His run was to raise funds and awareness for CPAWS (The Canadian Parks And Wilderness Society).\",\n \"-22.39196645433549\"\n ],\n [\n \"1987 record (of 9 minutes 30 seconds, which stood for 21 years) on his March 24, 2008 visit. On May 26, 2014, he was bested by 125-pound competitive eater Molly Schuyler, who polished off the meal in just 4 minutes 58 seconds, and came back for seconds (14 minutes and 57 seconds for two meals). She did not, however, eat a third steak meal in the same hour. Schuyler returned on April 19, 2015 and would finish her first meal in 4 minutes 18 seconds, beating her own record by 40 seconds. She had defeated four other teams of competitors\",\n \"-22.39123097236734\"\n ],\n [\n \"$1,000. From 1916-1931, the dog race took place over a distance of between 140 and 200 miles, with the race usually running from one town to another, and included Carrot River, Cranberry Portage, Flin Flon, and Cumberland House.\\nWhen the Trappers Festival was revived in 1948 until 1976, the dog race was run in three daily laps of 50 miles each. Today, the race is run in three 35-mile heats held over a three-day period. Racers begin each day at 10 a.m. on Halcrow Lake for a mass start. Mushers who achieve the lowest combined time score in each category over\",\n \"-22.38637421815656\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":294,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"6doq51"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why does Afghanistan seem to be a hotbed for Islamic extremism while neighboring countries like Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan have remained relatively unaffected by similar unrest?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Afghanistan was one of the stages the cold war was fought on. The US and the soviet union both toppled their government like 4 times in the last hundred years. Largely by alternating funding rebel groups. Having no stable government and a long history of well funded terrorism ended up not vanishing when the cold war ended (and we once again toppled and replaced their government which I bet in 5 years will end up getting toppled again by russia backed syrians or something just to keep up the tradition)","There really are a lot of factors, some of them mentioned already, I'll try to explain a few more. Culturally, there is something in Afghanistan called 'pastunwali' which is a set of rules that are followed by nearly all Afghans. It has many facets, one of them is to welcome and protect visitors. This will come into play later. To really understand the issue in Afghanistan, you have to know the historical connotations to what went on. So, in the mid 80's, the Russian's were pushed out of Afghanistan. Like many other countries (Britian, and eventually the US) they found that it would just cost too much money to stay. For around 8 years or so, there was somewhat of an ad hoc communist government, although it was limited to really the main cities (Kabul, Jalalbad, Herat, Konduz, Kandahar). The rest of Afghanistan (80-90%) was run by warlords. To make a long story short, there ended up being two factions. The pro government forces, and the Taliban, which emerged from one of the warlords (Mullah Mohammad Omar). To fight the government, the Taliban needed money and training, and it called upon al Qaeda to do so. Although they supplied funding and training, Afghanistan became the 'place to jihad', only because at the time, there other place was Chechnya fighting the Russians, and the Russians were using 'scorch earth' policies...which consisted of of carpet bombing whole villages and areas that were deemed enemy terrority. So, while there was money and training involved, these members of al Qaeda were coming in droves to Afghanistan, but really didn't care about the fight going on. Eventually, the fight became a stalemate, and areas were set up for both sides.... and al Qaeda never left, but after 9/11, there was the cultural practice to protect their 'visitors', which did happen. Pakistan While the Afghans do protect their visitors, they are very 'eye for an eye', so after about a month of refusing to turn over Bin Laden, the US just started a bombing campaign, and most Afghans were really ok with it. The majority of al Qaeda was holed up in the Tora Bora mountains, which is in eastern Afghanistan near Jalalabad. (If you're going to be a terrorist, that's a really beautiful place, as well as Nuristan where the rest remain today). The idea was to start bombing, push the al Qaeda forces east to the awaiting Pakistan border, where their army would either capture or kill the renaming forces. Essentially, the Pakistan army opened up, and allowed them safe haven in Pakistan, and the US was kinda stuck. There are a myriad of terrorist organizations that are allowed safe haven in Pakistan. The Haqqani (which sees its self as the Taliban, although the DIA has been trying to make them their own organization for years) is stationed in Miram Shah Pakistan. This was the organization that had Bergdahl. The Lashkar-e-Tabia is based in Pakistan, and they are fighting the dispute between Pakistan and India over the Kashmir Area. There's a whole bunch, and I'm on mobile, but many believe these various forces are the military action army of the Pakistan intelligence service (ISI). Uzbekistan Uzbekistan kinda of took a hard stance against Islam. Captured everyone that was coming and going to a mosque, put them in swimming pools and shot them all. This in turn formed the IMU (Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan) which operated out of Northern Afghanistan. In there end, there are a ton of factions that can operate freely in Afghanistan, and do so, as well as Pakistan. And although some has changed, the Afghan people still operate under Pashtunwali, and both host and protect these various organizations. To note, many of the other responses are also true, its really a hodgepodge of reasons for their situation.","those countries have had their problems with extremism, but they are led by authoritarian leaders who crack down on any and all dissent. Afghanistan is a considered a hotbed because the Taliban won the Afghan civil war and allowed Osama Bin Laden to set up camps there. Ever since the US invasion there has not been a strong central government that can control the rural areas where the Taliban have strong support due to ethnic ties, and support from elements in Pakistan.","Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan were constituent republics of the Soviet Union for some 70 years and, thus, heavily controlled. The Soviets had no patience for religious freedom and stamped it out whenever and wherever they felt it threatening to the absolute authority of the state. When the Soviet Union fell apart in 1991-92, those republics became independent and have largely remained controlled by dictatorial strongmen who feel about as kindly towards Islamist extremism as the Soviets did. Afghanistan, by contrast, has been a factional, semi-lawless psuedo-state off and on for many decades with well-funded** and organized Islamist militants vying for control against the various Afghan nationalist clans and, for a while, the Soviets. So for a long time it's been highly fertile ground for that hotbed of religious extremism to develop. ** By the U.S., mainly, until the Islamists started to bite the hand that was feeding them.","Afghanistan has had many wars and no time for stability. The Soviets invaded, civil war and then the American invasions. Also there's geopolitics involved like Pakistan using the Taliban as a proxy and aiding them. So think about being a kid in the 1970s and being in constant war. You will grow up with basically no education other than knowing how to fight wars. Then there's also a booming drug trade, where there's money involved with drugs. Also cultural stuff. So don't assume that because Afhghans are Muslim the violence is because of Islamic extremism and not Pashtun values. The majority of Taliban are Pashtuns. They practice badal which is basically a hardcore version for an eye for an eye.","There's a lot of comments talking about the invasions and toppling of governments by various world powers, but I think that's a symptom more than a root cause. IMHO, the root cause is more like that Afghanistan never really developed a firm, centralized power structure. I don't know as much about this as I'd like, and it doesn't seem to be super well documented, but the process of increasing amounts of power being held by central National governments at the expense of tribes, cities, and regions seems to have mostly happened in Europe through the course of the Renaissance times. It took a while, and had a lot of hiccups, conflicts, etc, but eventually, the National-level government got to the point of being able to reliably exercise authority over all of the more regional governments within its territory. This goes hand-in-hand with many facets of modernism, like unifying language and minimizing accents, establishing a national currency, standardizing on weights and measures, building roads and keeping them open, etc. This has happened at various levels over most of the planet, though at different times and in different ways in many places. For some reason, this never seems to have happened in Afghanistan at all. There's a central government, but it basically only exists in the big cities, and not necessarily even all of those. The majority of the country is only dimly aware of the existence of the supposed national government, and it as essentially no meaning to their lives. This goes the same for all of the trappings of having a strong national government of any ideology or structure. All of the stuff I mentioned in the previous paragraph, plus things like being aware of or participating in the global media cycle, being connected to the global economy, being exposed to the sort of cultural mish-mash that is the modern world. It's kind of a natural fit for many sects of radical Islamic ideology. The ancient culture and lack of connection to the global economy kinda fits in with a lot of what many of these extremist ideologies seem to think. The National government is barely aware of the existence of most of these tribes and villages, and has no real power to do much of anything in them. The people who live there only really care about their tribe and maybe the next few over, and talk of things like the Nation of Afghanistan, America, New York, jetliners and skyscrapers, it might as well be on Mars. For that matter, most modern Westerners have probably thought a lot more about Mars than these villagers would think of any of these things. A great place to hide out of you are wanted basically in the entire civilized world - the idea of you being found, or of someone reporting you, would be basically crazy. So all of this was already the case before any of the modern foreign invasions really got started. But they sure didn't help. It's hard enough to get villagers used to bowing to the power of a national government when it's a national government run by your people. It's a whole different matter when the national government is run by what to you seems like a dizzying array of alien cultures from the other side of the planet. Just when a few people start to think that maybe these foreigners have something going and participating in the global economy might not be so bad, they get tired of it and leave you right back where you were, validating the people who wanted to have nothing to do with them. It's easy to send a foreign army into one or a handful of villages, but controlling all of them all the time is impossible. So Afghanistan is basically ungovernable now, and there's not much incentive for that to change anytime in the near future. Meanwhile, most of the surrounding countries seem to have more or less successfully centralized power, so while they may have problems, they don't have the kind of problems that Afghanistan has. And the reason why that is, I don't know, and I'm not so sure anybody knows.","Those countries all had time to develop their authoritarian regimes such that extremism could be suppressed. Same reason Syria remained stable for so long -- the gov't would jail anyone and everyone they deemed even slightly a threat. That is, until they couldn't handle it anymore, which is why we have war. Afghanistan's regimes have been toppled by Soviets and Americans alike so many times that no entity could consolidate power. So you have a bunch of different groups and a joke of a gov't fighting for power. edit: i should also mention that, even though authoritarian regimes suck, they can provide more than illegitimate govts like in Afghanistan. less public grievance = less extremism, but idk if this could be considered a major factor cuz foreign powers are definitely to blame in the case of Afghanistan","The short of it, the US funded and armed a bunch of a'holes there to become makeshift rebels and help us out against the Russians back in the day. After the Cold War ended, we didn't bother cleaning that shit up so the same a'holes got bored and ... the devil will find work for idle hands. Also, being nomadic desert rats without access to education and information for the past several decades hasn't helped. It's not a \"Islamic\" (not a word) problem as much as it is a vacuum of authority in the region with perfect conditions problem. It's like if you left some deadly bacteria in a moist, warm, dark place for 30 years ...","I don't see this in any of the top comments and it may be a misconception, but from my understanding Afghanistan is very very unincorporated. The repeated thing I've read is when the government or U.S. troops show up to bring order and the people in the outlying territories are like \"what the heck is Afghanistan?\". Its pretty big on the map but a lot of its is ungoverned and not incorporated or linked to the rest of the country(the Taliban being the first/biggest governing body for a lot of territorial people). Definitely not the biggest factor if my knowledge is true, but definitely a factor.","Because those are former Soviet republics. The USSR was officially an atheist state, and cracked down on any form of religion. After the union dissolved, the strongmen remained/came to power, and continued this policy to a degree, as they didn't want Islamists to emerge and rouse the people with their ideology or challenge the government. IIRC, most of those leaders push for nationalism instead, there were civil wars fought over this in the 90s, but they were for the most part of secular nature.","Historical factors - it's a somewhat isolated area, but has been a heated battleground in recent history, particularly during he 1980s when the USSR invaded and drove many in the Mujahideen movement to radicalism. Osama bin Laden was an American informant/ally during the war before he formed al-Qaeda. Cultural factors - Afghanistan has never had a democratic government before US involvement, nor did they really want it. They would prefer one strong leader over a republic-style government system. The proxy Afghan government set up by the US was a failure - partially due to Hamid Karzai, but mainly because it never would've worked in the first place. Most Afghan people still see their own government as being controlled by Washington - fueling distrust, disloyalty, and anti-western sentiment among the people, making them easier to recruit than in most other Islamic countries. Geographical factors - it's a densely wooded and mountainous country, makes it ideal for insurgent/terrorism groups. It's landlocked, which is a major disadvantage to the United States and most other world powers, who tend to rely heavily on naval power to fuel wars and conflicts. Economic factors - heroin. The poppy fields of Afghanistan supply a massive quantity of heroin in the world. When the United States invaded, a number of commanders wanted to rip up the fields and plant cotton instead, which is about the only other thing that would grow in abundance there. The FDA, however, would never allow government funding to be put towards a project that would lead to competition with the American cotton industry, so the US left the fields alone. Stupid, I know. Anyways, the irony is that since America left the poppy fields, the heroin market has remained one of al-Qaeda's main sources of income, in addition to the Taliban and other radical groups. So instead of allowing a very small amount of competition in the cotton industry, the US would rather leave the primary source of funding for a global terror network intact.","Probably doesn't help that they produce almost all of the world's heroin. Having a significant portion of your entire economy based on supplying the entire world with illegal drugs tends to attract unsavory people.","Not sure about Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, but Tajikistan is currently wrestling with it. They've got a rise in support for fundamentalist Islam that they're trying to keep in control and at the moment it looks like a fight they're slowly losing.","Rule of law. It is the defining characteristic of a successful society. That doesn't necessarily mean the government is cruel, but that justice is meted out appropriately. That is why western civilization has been so successful for so long. It isn't perfect, but it's pretty damn good.","It's a bit like Poland - it's the part of the world you have to stomp through to get to where you actually want to conquer. Check out for instance the history of the Khyber pass: > Well known invasions of the area have been predominantly through the Khyber Pass, such as the invasions by Darius I, Genghis Khan and later Mongols such as Duwa, Qutlugh Khwaja and Kebek. Prior to the Kushan era, the Khyber Pass was not a widely used trade route.[1] Among the Muslim invasions of ancient India, the famous invaders coming through the Khyber Pass are Mahmud Ghaznavi, and the Afghan Muhammad Ghori and the Turkic-Mongols. (Ancient Canaan also served a similar function with the Egyptian Empire on one side and various Empires such as the Mittani, Hittites, Assyrians and Sumerians on the other side) More recently the British Empire tried to go in and do their thing (which they were copying from the Romans) of \"let's you and him fight\" AKA divide and conquer - but the Afghans were already heavily divided along tribal lines to start with so that went nowhere. Then when the pesky Russians invaded in the 80s 'Murica was in its 'Communism must not win at all costs' phase, so they funnelled massive amounts of cash, guns and sent in CIA agents to train the locals up in how to be terrorists. Yep, at one stage the Taliban and Al Quaeda were 'the good guys, fighting the good fight'. Remember kiddies: it's not being a state sponsor of terror if it's us doing it. *cough* Eventually the Russians ran out of money and willpower to stick their willies into that meat grinder and withdrew. So the region started to recover. And by recover I mean they started growing a lot of poppies. And by poppies I don't mean tulips. Drugs. Lots and lots of drugs (opium). So then, having won the war on Communism, 'Murica decided that they would start a series of wars against other abstractions - hence the war on drugs. (NB: the following is sourced from an article in Time magazine from back when Senator Obama was teasing thinking about running for the big chair) So 'Murica went to Afghanistan and said to the farmers 'drugs is bad, m'kay'. And the farmers said 'okay, we see your point, but what's our alternative?'. So then 'Murica promised them that if they stopped growing poppies 'Murica would give them heaps of aid to transition over to much less valuable crops (peas and corn and beans and shit). And the Afghani farmers were like 'well, we'll make a lot less money but okay, we'll give it a go'. So they didn't plant poppies, and then 'Murica, having got what it wanted from the relationship, reneged on the deal to help the Afghani farmers transition to food crops. No food crops equals no food equals famine. So as you can imagine the 'Muricans were somewhat unpopular. (end bit sourced from Time magazine) Then some of the CIA trained ~~terrorists~~ ~~freedom fighters~~ terrorists got together with the Saudis and decided that a bunch of Saudis should hijack some planes and blow up some buildings in New York. In retaliation for the Saudis committing a terror attack on 'Murican soil the 'Muricans re-invaded Iraq, which had ostensibly been their ally in the region (but probably they weren't flavour of the month after Iraq asked permission to invade Kuwait and 'Murica said 'go ahead we DGAF' and then turned around and bombed Iraq back into the stone age) (NB see also Iran-Contra affair AKA 'selling guns to both sides' AKA 'lets you and him fight'). Then when everyone went 'Bwuh?' the 'Muricans said 'Oh yeah? Well we're going to invade Afghanistan and get those Al Quaeda mofos'. At which point everyone in Russia let out a hearty guffaw and said 'Yeah, good luck with that'. And the war in Iraq and Afghanistan sucked 2 Trillion dollars out of the 'Murican economy, which then went into a meltdown and there was a big housing crisis where the economy came up about 2 Trillion dollars short (funny that) and so the White House punished Wall Street by giving them a 30 billion dollar bailout ... and that year the Wall Street firms that had been bailed out paid out 30 billion dollars in bonuses to their top executives (funny that). TLDR: the short answer is famine, the long answer is that Afghanistan is a meat grinder, and every Empire on Earth has stepped up to jam their dick into it.","Without going into more detail than I possess, I think a great deal of the answer to the second part of your question \"while neighboring...remained relatively unaffected by similar unrest.\" Can be attributed to greater cultural homogeneity in the countries you mentioned, which in turn makes it easier for strongmen to consolidate power within the (not really very arbitrary) borders of their countries. Afghanistan has really never been \"ruled\" by anyone, at least, not in the kind of top-down rule that we call \"ruling\" in the West. About the most any given ruler has been able to do is control some (varying number) of the major cities and important geographical regions, but within the fragmented regions being \"ruled\" under any given leader, tribal power has historically been the real governing power in Afghanistan. It is attributed to Alexander the Great that \"Afghanistan is easy to march into, but hard to march out of.\" You'd think Western governments from the British to the Russians to the USA would have paid attention to history, but, no, they largely have not.","Okay I don't agree with top response. I am from the region. I know a good amount especially about Pakistan. Many, many neighboring countries of Afghanistan were under Soviet domination. Soviets were against all religions especially Islam because Islam makes the most trouble for governments: demanding sharia, ummah concept, etc. The Soviets deislamized the countries. Even today this influence is heavy. The sermons in mosques are tightly controlled, women don't hear hijabs, governments are secular, governments perceive Islamists as biggest threat, thus are brutal when dealing with them (Uzbeks boil terrorists according to USG secret cables -- wikileaks.) Because of an extremely unfriendly influence to promote \"real\" Islam (which even Anjem Choudary enjoys in UK), these Islamists who are just terrorists not yet ready to fight for whatever excuse, make \"hijra\". Many of them now joined ISIS, before they were joining Taliban in big numbers. Afghanistan was too under Soviet influence. Due to distance it was more difficult to project and control Afghans. (You can see women \"free mixing\" -- with males -- not covering hair, going to universities in pictures prior to Taliban takeover.) Along with lesser Soviet influence, Afghanistan has a very bad neighbor. Pakistan wants to control Afghanistan. Afghanistan doesn't recognize its border with Pakistan called the Durrand line (named after Britisher who negotiated with a weak Afghan king.) The British conquered all the lands and decided to use Afghans as puppets against Russians. British attacked and took Kabul but withdrew. The Durrand line separates the ethnic majority group of Afghanistan: Pashtuns who're 20% of Pakistan too. Historically Pashtun areas of Pakistan is Afghan (see Ahmad Shah Abdali Empire.) Pakistanis are scared of a movement to reunite Pashtuns. Because of this Pakistan always interferes with internal affairs of Afghanistan. When Americans approached them with beating back the Soviets, they gleefully accepted as their allies the Islamists of Afghanistan were under pressure. Taliban agreed to ally with Pakistan because they wrongly believe Pak military was \"real\" Muslim. Pakistanis convinced them they were brothers, however this has now changed big time. Now there exists TTP which is a wing of Taliban that attacks Pakistan. Afghanistan isn't like its neighbors because of lesser Russian influence, Pakistan's alliance with Islamists (Haqanni network -- a branch of Taliban -- formerly they allied with all of Taliban until Taliban turned against them for being not-true-Muslims.) A population that hasn't been secularized because of weaker and less stable governments.","Most of these answers are fairly bs. It can be largely explained by geography and recent history. Afghanistan is bordered by three great powers: Iran, Pakistan, and China, and at one point by the USSR as well. This makes it of great strategic importance geopolitically, which is why both the USSR and America have attempted nation building efforts there in the last 40 years in order to bring the country within their respective spheres of influence. In the 80's, the USSR invaded Afghanistan in order to help consolidate power for a new socialist government there. As part of a greater ramp up of the cold war during the 80s after a long period of detente, the CIA helped fund and arm the Mujahideen, rebel militias of both foreign fighters and rural Afghanis to combat the Soviets. The Soviets became mired in a decade long war in Afghanistan as basically their version of Vietnam. In much the same way that Vietnam caused political instability in the US, the Afghan war helped drive the instability that caused the Soviet Union to collapse completely, and they eventually pulled out. After the Soviets left, certain factions within the Mujahideen evolved into the Taliban, a hardline theocratic regime that swept in to fill the power vacuum in Afghanistan. Another Mujahideen fighter, Osama Bin Laden, formed the terrorist group Al Qaeda. Al Qaeda was not really a thing during the Soviet occupation like the top rated post says, it emerged after the occupation ended. Both Al Qaeda and the Taliban built their doctrines on the tenets of Wahhabism, an extremely conservative strain of Sunni Islam that serves as the state religion of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia, a key US ally due entirely to their control of oil prices, has a policy of sending young radicals to other countries as foreign fighters, both to spread wahhabism and in order to keep them from turning on the Saudi royal family and causing trouble at home. The influence of this ideology proved especially prominent in Afghanistan due to the instability there and the fractured nature of its society, which is largely rural and tribal. Outside of a few large cities, many Afghanis have lived the same way in tight knit ethnic communities for hundreds of years. Fast forward to 2001, Osama Bin Laden and Al Qaeda carry out the 9/11 attacks and the US begins their own decade long quagmire, overthrowing the Taliban in an attempt to introduce Democracy and a free market to the country. The US did not need to overthrow the Taliban in order to capture Osama Bin Laden. In fact, they offered to turn him over. But, like the USSR twenty years earlier, elements within the American government saw an opportunity to take control of an important strategic region. The vast amounts of foreign money pouring in from both the USSR and the US over the course of several decades have largely ended up in the hands of extremist warlords who knew how to game the system and suck up to whoever was in power. All of this has contributed to an overwhelming climate of graft and corruption in the new democratically elected government, which is largely impotent compared to regional warlords and dependent on the US military for support and protection. This has made many Afghans miss the Taliban, which still exists as an insurgent military force that carries out attacks on the American occupiers and the Afghan government. It is rumored that many of these elements have varying degrees of backing from the Saudis, Pakistanis, and Iranians, again in order to give those nations a foothold in such an important strategic area. Add to all of this that Afghanistan is the world's foremost producer of Opium, providing yet another source of money for local extremists, and you end up with a country which has been screwed over by decades of geopolitical tug of war and failed attempts to modernize its society. It has such a problem with terrorism because so many powerful actors have a vested interest in funding terrorists there, starting with the US and the Mujahideen. This is a pretty vague overview, but if you want to know more about Afghanistan and how it ended up the way it is, I highly recommend the documentary \"The Bitter Lake\" by Adam Curtis. You can find it online for free.","Because all the three former republics of the Soviet Union were much better off infrastructure-wise (thanks to the Soviet colonization) and had governments based on sovietized, centralised, \"enlightened\" islam since forever (1920ies), the promotion of which was the Soviet Union's way to quash various nationalisms worldwide, instead helping install internationalist socially liberal, economically authoritarian soviets or councils of the people, and especially destroy the Panturkism which was a long-hated enemy of the Russian empire and later its inheritor - the Soviet Union. That's one half of the modern problem with Islam, the other half is the Western powers funding Muslim religious fundamentalists who wanted to return to the pure Islam of raping stoning and cutting off parts of bodies, but also of the universal care for every Muslim (which is why it was so easy for all the disempowered to become communist and then Muslim, and for all those second-generation Middle Eastern immigrants disenchanted in the Western crony capitalist system to fall back in the familiar and quite attractive message of \"freedom and equality for all, under Allah\") , so between two internationalist or globalist Islams, if you will, there's no other choice for the poor guys from the Middle East to develop themselves in an organic, independent, profitable way.","A less extreme example is how the US seems like a hotbed of gun violence when compared to Canada. We're neighbors and in a lot of ways the same yet we differ a lot on this issue. When a cop shoots a suspect in Canada it's all over the news and people wonder how such a thing can happen here. I think that's something that's not newsworthy in the US.","Key word \"seem\". Afghanistan has problem with domestic islamic extremism, yes. However, the country can't compete with the great exporters of terrorism; Uzbekistan, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iraq and Syria. When was any major act of terror against the western world done by an afghan? Never? Bin Laden and his bunch of washed up Mujaheedin friends were Saudis mainly, armed with training from USA and experience from fighting Soviet.","Also, Afghanistan has many different ethnic groups (Pashto, Turkmen, Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara to name a few). It's not always just religion fuelling extremism in Afghanistan but also fighting between ethnic groups. The other countries you mentioned probably have a more homogenous ethnic make up.","Because of America. My understanding is there were no extremists in Iraq either during Saddam regime, until the US invasion.","Alexander the Great settled briefly in Afghanistan andhelped shape their culture. Afghanistan was a stable republic long before the United States was born. It reached all the way to India and the Indian Ocean. Under the British Raj, the mountainous area now referred to as West Pakistan was declared a neutal buffer state by paying an annual tribute to the ruler of Afghanistan. When the Brits left India, they created Pakistan in the neutral Afghan territory, as a revenge. Still, in the 1960s, Kabul was called the Paris of Central Asia. There are many poms, grapes and melon varietals that originated there, ...stolen by the West, of course. Then CIA overthrew Iran, and went head to head with the Soviets in Afghanistan. The Soviets invaded to push the CIA-backed coup leader out. That was 30 years of continuous machine warfare ago. Massive genocide. Historical buildings older than Britain's are pockmarked with tank shells and bullet holes. Their culture has been decimated by the deliberate assassination of their village elders. An American-style Executive Corporate was imposed on Afghans, complete with a fake flag, fake currency, a fake national anthem and new Federal Afghan National Army, which like the Afghan National Police, is wholly, brutally, corrupt. The Karzai mob was forced on the Afghans by Cheney, hoping to steal their strategic mineral wealth. Ironically, Karzai betrayed Cheney, and awarded all the mineral leases to India and China, enraging Cheney and launching The Surge, which Obama, to his great discredit, gave the final go-ahead to. Revenge mass murder for betrayed mineral lease promises (and extortion) is a new low in US foreign policy. Afghanistan is now an empty resource space. Read Peter Torbay's 'Diminution and Development' on Scribd, written with the assistance of Afghan business and political leaders.","Afghanistan as a country really shouldn't exist, Afghans as a people is a kind of controversial idea. It's too diverse for an Islamic country, theologically, linguistically and ethnically. There is no loyalty to one another as they're the Tajiks and this other guy is the Pashtun or this or that, and the focus becomes instead on Tribal lines. Where as all those Stan countries are proper nation states for their respective peoples. The USA's most dependable allies have been Tajiks and Hazaras (Afghan Iranians), and a a lot of the Islamic terrorists have been Pashtuns, the main ethnic group of the Taliban and other radical Sunni Insurgent groups, and one of the main ethnic groups of Pakistan. It's a country where a lot of the problems can lie on the failures of multiculturalism.","If you look at pictures of Afghanistan pre-Soviet invasion, it definitely had set a pace to be similar in makeup to those countries. However, as stated, Cold War feuding led to Afghanistan becoming a recipient of collateral damage which has only intensified, instead of receded, like in Vietnam due to various elements including the re-emergence of Islamic radicalism","Afghanistan and Pakistan have a really bad inbreeding problem. In these areas cousin marriages have been going on for generations. One of the symptoms of inbreeding is a predisposition towards violence.","Those 3 peaceful are under great influence of Russia, and Afghanistan is under influence of USA. Afghan government called Soviets to help them fight jihadists in the early 80s (west calls it invasion, but it was not), and USA financed jihadists to fight Soviets. Soviets went out, and we see what happened to Afghanistan afterwards... Secular government was replaced with extremists. The same thing is happening in Syria right now.","Afghanistan is controlled by the US, who likes to control terrorists and fund terrorist acts to gain support for things like the Patriot Act. Almost every terrorist act on American interests has either been caused by the American government, or caused massive group orgasms when it happened.","Afghanistan was a strategic fighting ground between Russia and the USA. It was destabilized by CIA due to fostered radical Islamism. In this regard, it is similar to Chechnya. Although Ladin was Saudi, he fought in Afghanistan thanks to CIA. The swamp drew all kinds of mujahideen from all around the world. Just like Syria now. Afghanistan has border to Pakistan which was founded because of religious differences with India. They shared various aspects that fostered religious extremism. Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and ~~Tajikistan~~ Kyrgyzstan have different social, ethnic and religious backgrounds. They are considered relatively Turkish, although after centuries of Russian influence they are more Russian than Turkish. Being satellite states of the Soviets, they were deliberately hold back and closely monitored. There was no religious extremism to begin with and was not imported by foreign powers. China and Russia played vital roles for keeping Islam in check albeit for not good intentions. During Bosnian war, some Muslims tried to get there and fight Serbians. Yet there was no political backup for such thing. They didn't get a hold there. Or today, Myanmar is a place of religious feud and killings are significant but there is no active armed fundamentalism as far as I know. But when it comes to countries such as Libya, armed rebels emerge suddenly and doesn't go away easily. You see the pattern?","Cause Pakistan one of its neighbors, recognizes the Taliban. They support and fund extremists elements to wage war against Afghani national army, the NATO forces and us forces. The Taliban find safe Haven inside Pakistan after it bombs places inside Afghanistan.","Watch or read Charlies War. In a nutshell. Russia invades. US supplys arms through a convoluted method because it's not really legal. Afghans win. US politicians that made money off arms sales refuse to fund rebuilding infrastructure. < End of Charlie's story > In the aftermath Afghan farmers have limited options so turn to poppy farming for opium trade. Becomes the country's biggest crop. Hard core Muslim community doesn't like how this signals a lack of community morals and take over declaring sharia law. Becomes magnet to disaffected Muslims that want to change the world order.","Was the US in these 3 countries? Was the US in afghanistan? Theres your answer. The US encouraged radical nationalist Islam during the 70's to resist soviet influence.","One of the biggest reason is the Soviet Union. All of those other central asian countries were under Soviet Rule for decades and at that time religion was supressed violently. Today we still have an overwhelming majority being muslim there, but more secular as a result. However, they still do have Islamic extremist groups in those countries, but to a much lesser degree than Afghanistan. The reason Afghanistan has so much extremism is because of the Soviet invasion. There weren't really any extremist groups before the invasion, but many resistance groups sprang up to oppose them. Since the Communist were hardcore atheist who hated religion, the rebels tended to be hardcore muslims who hated atheist. When the communist regime in Afghanistan fell, a lot of the more secular people and atheist either left, went into hiding or were killed, which led to the country being even more religious. However, this still wasn't the biggest reason for the islamic extremism. The biggest is Pakistan's fault. They helped the rebels but tended to give the most help to more extremists rebels. And after the communists fell they created the Taliban to take over the nation with. The taliban were mostly made up of people who had lost everything to the Soviets and taught a very extreme form of Islam in the refugee camps. They took over most of the country and proceded to enact harsh islamic laws and force their view of Islam on people. When the Americans came most saw them the same as the Soviets, and there were no shortage of people who hated invaders and could easily be turned to extremism.","Post soviet states tended to have better infrastructure and more organized power structure. Also specifically with Afghanistan is that the soviets invaded and toppled the government giving rise to the mujahideen. Who banned the growing of poppies and enacted some other conservative social policies. Which allowed for the rise of the taliban who where very conservative but at the same time wanted to make the growing of poppies mandatory as a way to raise large amounts of capital. This resulted in a civil war in which the taliban essentially destroyed almost all of Afghanistan's recorded cultural history. Basically the nation was destabilized in the 80s creating a vacuum which wrecked their cultural history.","In addition to other factors mentioned, the Soviet Union was actively cracking down religious influence in political and social life to replace it with its own ideology. It was also the first country to institutionalise gender equality and women's rights (voting, running for office, divorce, custody, maternal leave, equal pay, inheritance etc) while the US was propping up the islamists to fight against the Soviets. These legacies carried on after the Cold War.","Why do they target civilians on either side though? In fact why are civilians ever targeted? It's not like civilians have much say in any of these countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, etc. They're always blowing themselves up in market places or schools. I don't understand. They're not even strategic or tactical targets. What message are they trying to say and what outcome are they trying to obtain by killing civs?","Poverty and lack of stability. That country has been screwed six ways to Sunday ever since the soviet invasion. Look at the pre invasion photos. Women in skirts, rock bands, smoking and drinking was a big part of the afghan youth. Some similarities to Iran pre-revolution. Between Russia and us, we have done more long term damage than any massive bombings could ever do.","And don't get it twisted many of Isis and taliban members come from those areas to join them. Chechnya now too I'm sure consider Russia's involvement. Watch the al jeezera \"ISIL and Russia\" or something like that. I watched it this morning so more of this is fresh. Plus I'm reading Ghost Wars about the CIA's involvement in Afghanistan and so on.","The latter countries are also dealing with extremists. Afghanistan's issues are much different than the other three, as has been pointed out repeatedly. [This link is good for Uzbekistan,]( URL_1 ) [this for Tajikistan,]( URL_2 ) [and Central Asia at large.]( URL_0 ) The core issue, like a lot of Middle Eastern countries, isn't a power vacuum, but political expression.","Something that is not often mentioned is that a lot of the citizens still live in isolated tribal cultures that want no part of whatever war is being fought at the time. There are many reports of American soldiers encountering these groups and are mistaken for Russian because they have no idea about the current conflict.","I've been to Turkmenistan. The reason why there is no unrest, is because the government is a brutal and callous dictatorship. Step out of line and you could get killed. Very North Korea-esque. The only major difference is they are oil rich. Having said that. The people were lovely. Imagine the Iranians, only even more attractive.","American invasion! Wherever American troops land, they destroy infrastructure, culture, people's lives. And sadly they also take all their hands can reach... they leave destruction, poverty, chaos and failed states.. That is the reason why Afghanistan is fucked up but not Turkmenistan or any other country.. very simple Look at Iraq, Vietnam, Somalia etc..","Lol all these answers even the guilded one are incorrect. The reason you don't hear much is because of the media, these countries do suffer from ISIS and affiliate groups. Check out wikipedia for some info they have to categorize all the worldwide suicide bombings by month cause there are so many.","Well, the central asian states are more or less all run as total autocracies (Kyrgyzstan is slightly more democratic than the others, but not by a whole lot). Essentially, the leaders assumed total power and killed off any Islamist opposition (Islam Karimov, who just died, comes to mind).","Afghanistan produces 90% of the world's opium. This is an open secret which is unfortunately supported by their government. Too lazy to type out how this contributes to terrorism but I encourage reading up on it (if you can find a source outside of an academic journal).","Afghanistan has always been a hole. The British Empire had tons of trouble there. Alexander the Great had trouble there. I somehow knew when the Taliban destroyed the historic Buddhas there that shit would hit the fan eventually. This was before 9/11.","I'd like to point to Chechnya and their recent entry into the news via concentration camps for gays. Lots of people assume it's Putin being a homophobe but quite frankly Russians and Chechnyans hate one another and Chechnya is most certainly Islamic.","The others are under varying degrees (to the degree necessary) of Moscow's whip. Any that feel seduced by the enticements, inducements and temptations offered by a certain former British colony only have to look at Afghanistan to see how that works out.","Simple answer: proximity of Pakistan. An even larger toilet than Afghanistan and the real home of the Taliban and a great number of insurgent \"training\" camps. Conveniently, many of which are a short distance from the Afghan/Pakistan border....","Because it contains poppy, i.e. opium, which the CIA liies to sell to fund covert wars. We care about Iraq and Syria because of oil, and the Arab Spring incident was about shutting down the gold dinar.","Strong dictators are what keep islamic countries from becoming terrorist hellholes. Look what happened when Saddam and Gaddafi fell. Complete Chaos. There hasn't been strong authoritarian leadership in Afghanistan in decades, so muslim extremism has thrived.","Oh they really do have their issues, dictators and religious feud, but afghanistan has american troops and was gunned by the US due to 9/11. So much higher interest to report.","It is mainly a mix of three things. 1: Epic amounts of inbreeding. (google it.) 2: Virtually no education. (google it.) 3: Extreme religious zealotry. (google it.)","Afghanistan has basically been a battleground since the Cold War. The Soviet Union took it over and we fought. They have been very unstable since","I think it has to do more with the amount of dead animals and plants that died in the area millions of years ago.","In my opinion (probably less than factual) because the western world fucked around less with the other non-afghanistan countries you listed"],"string":"[\n \"Afghanistan was one of the stages the cold war was fought on. The US and the soviet union both toppled their government like 4 times in the last hundred years. Largely by alternating funding rebel groups. Having no stable government and a long history of well funded terrorism ended up not vanishing when the cold war ended (and we once again toppled and replaced their government which I bet in 5 years will end up getting toppled again by russia backed syrians or something just to keep up the tradition)\",\n \"There really are a lot of factors, some of them mentioned already, I'll try to explain a few more. Culturally, there is something in Afghanistan called 'pastunwali' which is a set of rules that are followed by nearly all Afghans. It has many facets, one of them is to welcome and protect visitors. This will come into play later. To really understand the issue in Afghanistan, you have to know the historical connotations to what went on. So, in the mid 80's, the Russian's were pushed out of Afghanistan. Like many other countries (Britian, and eventually the US) they found that it would just cost too much money to stay. For around 8 years or so, there was somewhat of an ad hoc communist government, although it was limited to really the main cities (Kabul, Jalalbad, Herat, Konduz, Kandahar). The rest of Afghanistan (80-90%) was run by warlords. To make a long story short, there ended up being two factions. The pro government forces, and the Taliban, which emerged from one of the warlords (Mullah Mohammad Omar). To fight the government, the Taliban needed money and training, and it called upon al Qaeda to do so. Although they supplied funding and training, Afghanistan became the 'place to jihad', only because at the time, there other place was Chechnya fighting the Russians, and the Russians were using 'scorch earth' policies...which consisted of of carpet bombing whole villages and areas that were deemed enemy terrority. So, while there was money and training involved, these members of al Qaeda were coming in droves to Afghanistan, but really didn't care about the fight going on. Eventually, the fight became a stalemate, and areas were set up for both sides.... and al Qaeda never left, but after 9/11, there was the cultural practice to protect their 'visitors', which did happen. Pakistan While the Afghans do protect their visitors, they are very 'eye for an eye', so after about a month of refusing to turn over Bin Laden, the US just started a bombing campaign, and most Afghans were really ok with it. The majority of al Qaeda was holed up in the Tora Bora mountains, which is in eastern Afghanistan near Jalalabad. (If you're going to be a terrorist, that's a really beautiful place, as well as Nuristan where the rest remain today). The idea was to start bombing, push the al Qaeda forces east to the awaiting Pakistan border, where their army would either capture or kill the renaming forces. Essentially, the Pakistan army opened up, and allowed them safe haven in Pakistan, and the US was kinda stuck. There are a myriad of terrorist organizations that are allowed safe haven in Pakistan. The Haqqani (which sees its self as the Taliban, although the DIA has been trying to make them their own organization for years) is stationed in Miram Shah Pakistan. This was the organization that had Bergdahl. The Lashkar-e-Tabia is based in Pakistan, and they are fighting the dispute between Pakistan and India over the Kashmir Area. There's a whole bunch, and I'm on mobile, but many believe these various forces are the military action army of the Pakistan intelligence service (ISI). Uzbekistan Uzbekistan kinda of took a hard stance against Islam. Captured everyone that was coming and going to a mosque, put them in swimming pools and shot them all. This in turn formed the IMU (Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan) which operated out of Northern Afghanistan. In there end, there are a ton of factions that can operate freely in Afghanistan, and do so, as well as Pakistan. And although some has changed, the Afghan people still operate under Pashtunwali, and both host and protect these various organizations. To note, many of the other responses are also true, its really a hodgepodge of reasons for their situation.\",\n \"those countries have had their problems with extremism, but they are led by authoritarian leaders who crack down on any and all dissent. Afghanistan is a considered a hotbed because the Taliban won the Afghan civil war and allowed Osama Bin Laden to set up camps there. Ever since the US invasion there has not been a strong central government that can control the rural areas where the Taliban have strong support due to ethnic ties, and support from elements in Pakistan.\",\n \"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan were constituent republics of the Soviet Union for some 70 years and, thus, heavily controlled. The Soviets had no patience for religious freedom and stamped it out whenever and wherever they felt it threatening to the absolute authority of the state. When the Soviet Union fell apart in 1991-92, those republics became independent and have largely remained controlled by dictatorial strongmen who feel about as kindly towards Islamist extremism as the Soviets did. Afghanistan, by contrast, has been a factional, semi-lawless psuedo-state off and on for many decades with well-funded** and organized Islamist militants vying for control against the various Afghan nationalist clans and, for a while, the Soviets. So for a long time it's been highly fertile ground for that hotbed of religious extremism to develop. ** By the U.S., mainly, until the Islamists started to bite the hand that was feeding them.\",\n \"Afghanistan has had many wars and no time for stability. The Soviets invaded, civil war and then the American invasions. Also there's geopolitics involved like Pakistan using the Taliban as a proxy and aiding them. So think about being a kid in the 1970s and being in constant war. You will grow up with basically no education other than knowing how to fight wars. Then there's also a booming drug trade, where there's money involved with drugs. Also cultural stuff. So don't assume that because Afhghans are Muslim the violence is because of Islamic extremism and not Pashtun values. The majority of Taliban are Pashtuns. They practice badal which is basically a hardcore version for an eye for an eye.\",\n \"There's a lot of comments talking about the invasions and toppling of governments by various world powers, but I think that's a symptom more than a root cause. IMHO, the root cause is more like that Afghanistan never really developed a firm, centralized power structure. I don't know as much about this as I'd like, and it doesn't seem to be super well documented, but the process of increasing amounts of power being held by central National governments at the expense of tribes, cities, and regions seems to have mostly happened in Europe through the course of the Renaissance times. It took a while, and had a lot of hiccups, conflicts, etc, but eventually, the National-level government got to the point of being able to reliably exercise authority over all of the more regional governments within its territory. This goes hand-in-hand with many facets of modernism, like unifying language and minimizing accents, establishing a national currency, standardizing on weights and measures, building roads and keeping them open, etc. This has happened at various levels over most of the planet, though at different times and in different ways in many places. For some reason, this never seems to have happened in Afghanistan at all. There's a central government, but it basically only exists in the big cities, and not necessarily even all of those. The majority of the country is only dimly aware of the existence of the supposed national government, and it as essentially no meaning to their lives. This goes the same for all of the trappings of having a strong national government of any ideology or structure. All of the stuff I mentioned in the previous paragraph, plus things like being aware of or participating in the global media cycle, being connected to the global economy, being exposed to the sort of cultural mish-mash that is the modern world. It's kind of a natural fit for many sects of radical Islamic ideology. The ancient culture and lack of connection to the global economy kinda fits in with a lot of what many of these extremist ideologies seem to think. The National government is barely aware of the existence of most of these tribes and villages, and has no real power to do much of anything in them. The people who live there only really care about their tribe and maybe the next few over, and talk of things like the Nation of Afghanistan, America, New York, jetliners and skyscrapers, it might as well be on Mars. For that matter, most modern Westerners have probably thought a lot more about Mars than these villagers would think of any of these things. A great place to hide out of you are wanted basically in the entire civilized world - the idea of you being found, or of someone reporting you, would be basically crazy. So all of this was already the case before any of the modern foreign invasions really got started. But they sure didn't help. It's hard enough to get villagers used to bowing to the power of a national government when it's a national government run by your people. It's a whole different matter when the national government is run by what to you seems like a dizzying array of alien cultures from the other side of the planet. Just when a few people start to think that maybe these foreigners have something going and participating in the global economy might not be so bad, they get tired of it and leave you right back where you were, validating the people who wanted to have nothing to do with them. It's easy to send a foreign army into one or a handful of villages, but controlling all of them all the time is impossible. So Afghanistan is basically ungovernable now, and there's not much incentive for that to change anytime in the near future. Meanwhile, most of the surrounding countries seem to have more or less successfully centralized power, so while they may have problems, they don't have the kind of problems that Afghanistan has. And the reason why that is, I don't know, and I'm not so sure anybody knows.\",\n \"Those countries all had time to develop their authoritarian regimes such that extremism could be suppressed. Same reason Syria remained stable for so long -- the gov't would jail anyone and everyone they deemed even slightly a threat. That is, until they couldn't handle it anymore, which is why we have war. Afghanistan's regimes have been toppled by Soviets and Americans alike so many times that no entity could consolidate power. So you have a bunch of different groups and a joke of a gov't fighting for power. edit: i should also mention that, even though authoritarian regimes suck, they can provide more than illegitimate govts like in Afghanistan. less public grievance = less extremism, but idk if this could be considered a major factor cuz foreign powers are definitely to blame in the case of Afghanistan\",\n \"The short of it, the US funded and armed a bunch of a'holes there to become makeshift rebels and help us out against the Russians back in the day. After the Cold War ended, we didn't bother cleaning that shit up so the same a'holes got bored and ... the devil will find work for idle hands. Also, being nomadic desert rats without access to education and information for the past several decades hasn't helped. It's not a \\\"Islamic\\\" (not a word) problem as much as it is a vacuum of authority in the region with perfect conditions problem. It's like if you left some deadly bacteria in a moist, warm, dark place for 30 years ...\",\n \"I don't see this in any of the top comments and it may be a misconception, but from my understanding Afghanistan is very very unincorporated. The repeated thing I've read is when the government or U.S. troops show up to bring order and the people in the outlying territories are like \\\"what the heck is Afghanistan?\\\". Its pretty big on the map but a lot of its is ungoverned and not incorporated or linked to the rest of the country(the Taliban being the first/biggest governing body for a lot of territorial people). Definitely not the biggest factor if my knowledge is true, but definitely a factor.\",\n \"Because those are former Soviet republics. The USSR was officially an atheist state, and cracked down on any form of religion. After the union dissolved, the strongmen remained/came to power, and continued this policy to a degree, as they didn't want Islamists to emerge and rouse the people with their ideology or challenge the government. IIRC, most of those leaders push for nationalism instead, there were civil wars fought over this in the 90s, but they were for the most part of secular nature.\",\n \"Historical factors - it's a somewhat isolated area, but has been a heated battleground in recent history, particularly during he 1980s when the USSR invaded and drove many in the Mujahideen movement to radicalism. Osama bin Laden was an American informant/ally during the war before he formed al-Qaeda. Cultural factors - Afghanistan has never had a democratic government before US involvement, nor did they really want it. They would prefer one strong leader over a republic-style government system. The proxy Afghan government set up by the US was a failure - partially due to Hamid Karzai, but mainly because it never would've worked in the first place. Most Afghan people still see their own government as being controlled by Washington - fueling distrust, disloyalty, and anti-western sentiment among the people, making them easier to recruit than in most other Islamic countries. Geographical factors - it's a densely wooded and mountainous country, makes it ideal for insurgent/terrorism groups. It's landlocked, which is a major disadvantage to the United States and most other world powers, who tend to rely heavily on naval power to fuel wars and conflicts. Economic factors - heroin. The poppy fields of Afghanistan supply a massive quantity of heroin in the world. When the United States invaded, a number of commanders wanted to rip up the fields and plant cotton instead, which is about the only other thing that would grow in abundance there. The FDA, however, would never allow government funding to be put towards a project that would lead to competition with the American cotton industry, so the US left the fields alone. Stupid, I know. Anyways, the irony is that since America left the poppy fields, the heroin market has remained one of al-Qaeda's main sources of income, in addition to the Taliban and other radical groups. So instead of allowing a very small amount of competition in the cotton industry, the US would rather leave the primary source of funding for a global terror network intact.\",\n \"Probably doesn't help that they produce almost all of the world's heroin. Having a significant portion of your entire economy based on supplying the entire world with illegal drugs tends to attract unsavory people.\",\n \"Not sure about Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, but Tajikistan is currently wrestling with it. They've got a rise in support for fundamentalist Islam that they're trying to keep in control and at the moment it looks like a fight they're slowly losing.\",\n \"Rule of law. It is the defining characteristic of a successful society. That doesn't necessarily mean the government is cruel, but that justice is meted out appropriately. That is why western civilization has been so successful for so long. It isn't perfect, but it's pretty damn good.\",\n \"It's a bit like Poland - it's the part of the world you have to stomp through to get to where you actually want to conquer. Check out for instance the history of the Khyber pass: > Well known invasions of the area have been predominantly through the Khyber Pass, such as the invasions by Darius I, Genghis Khan and later Mongols such as Duwa, Qutlugh Khwaja and Kebek. Prior to the Kushan era, the Khyber Pass was not a widely used trade route.[1] Among the Muslim invasions of ancient India, the famous invaders coming through the Khyber Pass are Mahmud Ghaznavi, and the Afghan Muhammad Ghori and the Turkic-Mongols. (Ancient Canaan also served a similar function with the Egyptian Empire on one side and various Empires such as the Mittani, Hittites, Assyrians and Sumerians on the other side) More recently the British Empire tried to go in and do their thing (which they were copying from the Romans) of \\\"let's you and him fight\\\" AKA divide and conquer - but the Afghans were already heavily divided along tribal lines to start with so that went nowhere. Then when the pesky Russians invaded in the 80s 'Murica was in its 'Communism must not win at all costs' phase, so they funnelled massive amounts of cash, guns and sent in CIA agents to train the locals up in how to be terrorists. Yep, at one stage the Taliban and Al Quaeda were 'the good guys, fighting the good fight'. Remember kiddies: it's not being a state sponsor of terror if it's us doing it. *cough* Eventually the Russians ran out of money and willpower to stick their willies into that meat grinder and withdrew. So the region started to recover. And by recover I mean they started growing a lot of poppies. And by poppies I don't mean tulips. Drugs. Lots and lots of drugs (opium). So then, having won the war on Communism, 'Murica decided that they would start a series of wars against other abstractions - hence the war on drugs. (NB: the following is sourced from an article in Time magazine from back when Senator Obama was teasing thinking about running for the big chair) So 'Murica went to Afghanistan and said to the farmers 'drugs is bad, m'kay'. And the farmers said 'okay, we see your point, but what's our alternative?'. So then 'Murica promised them that if they stopped growing poppies 'Murica would give them heaps of aid to transition over to much less valuable crops (peas and corn and beans and shit). And the Afghani farmers were like 'well, we'll make a lot less money but okay, we'll give it a go'. So they didn't plant poppies, and then 'Murica, having got what it wanted from the relationship, reneged on the deal to help the Afghani farmers transition to food crops. No food crops equals no food equals famine. So as you can imagine the 'Muricans were somewhat unpopular. (end bit sourced from Time magazine) Then some of the CIA trained ~~terrorists~~ ~~freedom fighters~~ terrorists got together with the Saudis and decided that a bunch of Saudis should hijack some planes and blow up some buildings in New York. In retaliation for the Saudis committing a terror attack on 'Murican soil the 'Muricans re-invaded Iraq, which had ostensibly been their ally in the region (but probably they weren't flavour of the month after Iraq asked permission to invade Kuwait and 'Murica said 'go ahead we DGAF' and then turned around and bombed Iraq back into the stone age) (NB see also Iran-Contra affair AKA 'selling guns to both sides' AKA 'lets you and him fight'). Then when everyone went 'Bwuh?' the 'Muricans said 'Oh yeah? Well we're going to invade Afghanistan and get those Al Quaeda mofos'. At which point everyone in Russia let out a hearty guffaw and said 'Yeah, good luck with that'. And the war in Iraq and Afghanistan sucked 2 Trillion dollars out of the 'Murican economy, which then went into a meltdown and there was a big housing crisis where the economy came up about 2 Trillion dollars short (funny that) and so the White House punished Wall Street by giving them a 30 billion dollar bailout ... and that year the Wall Street firms that had been bailed out paid out 30 billion dollars in bonuses to their top executives (funny that). TLDR: the short answer is famine, the long answer is that Afghanistan is a meat grinder, and every Empire on Earth has stepped up to jam their dick into it.\",\n \"Without going into more detail than I possess, I think a great deal of the answer to the second part of your question \\\"while neighboring...remained relatively unaffected by similar unrest.\\\" Can be attributed to greater cultural homogeneity in the countries you mentioned, which in turn makes it easier for strongmen to consolidate power within the (not really very arbitrary) borders of their countries. Afghanistan has really never been \\\"ruled\\\" by anyone, at least, not in the kind of top-down rule that we call \\\"ruling\\\" in the West. About the most any given ruler has been able to do is control some (varying number) of the major cities and important geographical regions, but within the fragmented regions being \\\"ruled\\\" under any given leader, tribal power has historically been the real governing power in Afghanistan. It is attributed to Alexander the Great that \\\"Afghanistan is easy to march into, but hard to march out of.\\\" You'd think Western governments from the British to the Russians to the USA would have paid attention to history, but, no, they largely have not.\",\n \"Okay I don't agree with top response. I am from the region. I know a good amount especially about Pakistan. Many, many neighboring countries of Afghanistan were under Soviet domination. Soviets were against all religions especially Islam because Islam makes the most trouble for governments: demanding sharia, ummah concept, etc. The Soviets deislamized the countries. Even today this influence is heavy. The sermons in mosques are tightly controlled, women don't hear hijabs, governments are secular, governments perceive Islamists as biggest threat, thus are brutal when dealing with them (Uzbeks boil terrorists according to USG secret cables -- wikileaks.) Because of an extremely unfriendly influence to promote \\\"real\\\" Islam (which even Anjem Choudary enjoys in UK), these Islamists who are just terrorists not yet ready to fight for whatever excuse, make \\\"hijra\\\". Many of them now joined ISIS, before they were joining Taliban in big numbers. Afghanistan was too under Soviet influence. Due to distance it was more difficult to project and control Afghans. (You can see women \\\"free mixing\\\" -- with males -- not covering hair, going to universities in pictures prior to Taliban takeover.) Along with lesser Soviet influence, Afghanistan has a very bad neighbor. Pakistan wants to control Afghanistan. Afghanistan doesn't recognize its border with Pakistan called the Durrand line (named after Britisher who negotiated with a weak Afghan king.) The British conquered all the lands and decided to use Afghans as puppets against Russians. British attacked and took Kabul but withdrew. The Durrand line separates the ethnic majority group of Afghanistan: Pashtuns who're 20% of Pakistan too. Historically Pashtun areas of Pakistan is Afghan (see Ahmad Shah Abdali Empire.) Pakistanis are scared of a movement to reunite Pashtuns. Because of this Pakistan always interferes with internal affairs of Afghanistan. When Americans approached them with beating back the Soviets, they gleefully accepted as their allies the Islamists of Afghanistan were under pressure. Taliban agreed to ally with Pakistan because they wrongly believe Pak military was \\\"real\\\" Muslim. Pakistanis convinced them they were brothers, however this has now changed big time. Now there exists TTP which is a wing of Taliban that attacks Pakistan. Afghanistan isn't like its neighbors because of lesser Russian influence, Pakistan's alliance with Islamists (Haqanni network -- a branch of Taliban -- formerly they allied with all of Taliban until Taliban turned against them for being not-true-Muslims.) A population that hasn't been secularized because of weaker and less stable governments.\",\n \"Most of these answers are fairly bs. It can be largely explained by geography and recent history. Afghanistan is bordered by three great powers: Iran, Pakistan, and China, and at one point by the USSR as well. This makes it of great strategic importance geopolitically, which is why both the USSR and America have attempted nation building efforts there in the last 40 years in order to bring the country within their respective spheres of influence. In the 80's, the USSR invaded Afghanistan in order to help consolidate power for a new socialist government there. As part of a greater ramp up of the cold war during the 80s after a long period of detente, the CIA helped fund and arm the Mujahideen, rebel militias of both foreign fighters and rural Afghanis to combat the Soviets. The Soviets became mired in a decade long war in Afghanistan as basically their version of Vietnam. In much the same way that Vietnam caused political instability in the US, the Afghan war helped drive the instability that caused the Soviet Union to collapse completely, and they eventually pulled out. After the Soviets left, certain factions within the Mujahideen evolved into the Taliban, a hardline theocratic regime that swept in to fill the power vacuum in Afghanistan. Another Mujahideen fighter, Osama Bin Laden, formed the terrorist group Al Qaeda. Al Qaeda was not really a thing during the Soviet occupation like the top rated post says, it emerged after the occupation ended. Both Al Qaeda and the Taliban built their doctrines on the tenets of Wahhabism, an extremely conservative strain of Sunni Islam that serves as the state religion of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia, a key US ally due entirely to their control of oil prices, has a policy of sending young radicals to other countries as foreign fighters, both to spread wahhabism and in order to keep them from turning on the Saudi royal family and causing trouble at home. The influence of this ideology proved especially prominent in Afghanistan due to the instability there and the fractured nature of its society, which is largely rural and tribal. Outside of a few large cities, many Afghanis have lived the same way in tight knit ethnic communities for hundreds of years. Fast forward to 2001, Osama Bin Laden and Al Qaeda carry out the 9/11 attacks and the US begins their own decade long quagmire, overthrowing the Taliban in an attempt to introduce Democracy and a free market to the country. The US did not need to overthrow the Taliban in order to capture Osama Bin Laden. In fact, they offered to turn him over. But, like the USSR twenty years earlier, elements within the American government saw an opportunity to take control of an important strategic region. The vast amounts of foreign money pouring in from both the USSR and the US over the course of several decades have largely ended up in the hands of extremist warlords who knew how to game the system and suck up to whoever was in power. All of this has contributed to an overwhelming climate of graft and corruption in the new democratically elected government, which is largely impotent compared to regional warlords and dependent on the US military for support and protection. This has made many Afghans miss the Taliban, which still exists as an insurgent military force that carries out attacks on the American occupiers and the Afghan government. It is rumored that many of these elements have varying degrees of backing from the Saudis, Pakistanis, and Iranians, again in order to give those nations a foothold in such an important strategic area. Add to all of this that Afghanistan is the world's foremost producer of Opium, providing yet another source of money for local extremists, and you end up with a country which has been screwed over by decades of geopolitical tug of war and failed attempts to modernize its society. It has such a problem with terrorism because so many powerful actors have a vested interest in funding terrorists there, starting with the US and the Mujahideen. This is a pretty vague overview, but if you want to know more about Afghanistan and how it ended up the way it is, I highly recommend the documentary \\\"The Bitter Lake\\\" by Adam Curtis. You can find it online for free.\",\n \"Because all the three former republics of the Soviet Union were much better off infrastructure-wise (thanks to the Soviet colonization) and had governments based on sovietized, centralised, \\\"enlightened\\\" islam since forever (1920ies), the promotion of which was the Soviet Union's way to quash various nationalisms worldwide, instead helping install internationalist socially liberal, economically authoritarian soviets or councils of the people, and especially destroy the Panturkism which was a long-hated enemy of the Russian empire and later its inheritor - the Soviet Union. That's one half of the modern problem with Islam, the other half is the Western powers funding Muslim religious fundamentalists who wanted to return to the pure Islam of raping stoning and cutting off parts of bodies, but also of the universal care for every Muslim (which is why it was so easy for all the disempowered to become communist and then Muslim, and for all those second-generation Middle Eastern immigrants disenchanted in the Western crony capitalist system to fall back in the familiar and quite attractive message of \\\"freedom and equality for all, under Allah\\\") , so between two internationalist or globalist Islams, if you will, there's no other choice for the poor guys from the Middle East to develop themselves in an organic, independent, profitable way.\",\n \"A less extreme example is how the US seems like a hotbed of gun violence when compared to Canada. We're neighbors and in a lot of ways the same yet we differ a lot on this issue. When a cop shoots a suspect in Canada it's all over the news and people wonder how such a thing can happen here. I think that's something that's not newsworthy in the US.\",\n \"Key word \\\"seem\\\". Afghanistan has problem with domestic islamic extremism, yes. However, the country can't compete with the great exporters of terrorism; Uzbekistan, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iraq and Syria. When was any major act of terror against the western world done by an afghan? Never? Bin Laden and his bunch of washed up Mujaheedin friends were Saudis mainly, armed with training from USA and experience from fighting Soviet.\",\n \"Also, Afghanistan has many different ethnic groups (Pashto, Turkmen, Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara to name a few). It's not always just religion fuelling extremism in Afghanistan but also fighting between ethnic groups. The other countries you mentioned probably have a more homogenous ethnic make up.\",\n \"Because of America. My understanding is there were no extremists in Iraq either during Saddam regime, until the US invasion.\",\n \"Alexander the Great settled briefly in Afghanistan andhelped shape their culture. Afghanistan was a stable republic long before the United States was born. It reached all the way to India and the Indian Ocean. Under the British Raj, the mountainous area now referred to as West Pakistan was declared a neutal buffer state by paying an annual tribute to the ruler of Afghanistan. When the Brits left India, they created Pakistan in the neutral Afghan territory, as a revenge. Still, in the 1960s, Kabul was called the Paris of Central Asia. There are many poms, grapes and melon varietals that originated there, ...stolen by the West, of course. Then CIA overthrew Iran, and went head to head with the Soviets in Afghanistan. The Soviets invaded to push the CIA-backed coup leader out. That was 30 years of continuous machine warfare ago. Massive genocide. Historical buildings older than Britain's are pockmarked with tank shells and bullet holes. Their culture has been decimated by the deliberate assassination of their village elders. An American-style Executive Corporate was imposed on Afghans, complete with a fake flag, fake currency, a fake national anthem and new Federal Afghan National Army, which like the Afghan National Police, is wholly, brutally, corrupt. The Karzai mob was forced on the Afghans by Cheney, hoping to steal their strategic mineral wealth. Ironically, Karzai betrayed Cheney, and awarded all the mineral leases to India and China, enraging Cheney and launching The Surge, which Obama, to his great discredit, gave the final go-ahead to. Revenge mass murder for betrayed mineral lease promises (and extortion) is a new low in US foreign policy. Afghanistan is now an empty resource space. Read Peter Torbay's 'Diminution and Development' on Scribd, written with the assistance of Afghan business and political leaders.\",\n \"Afghanistan as a country really shouldn't exist, Afghans as a people is a kind of controversial idea. It's too diverse for an Islamic country, theologically, linguistically and ethnically. There is no loyalty to one another as they're the Tajiks and this other guy is the Pashtun or this or that, and the focus becomes instead on Tribal lines. Where as all those Stan countries are proper nation states for their respective peoples. The USA's most dependable allies have been Tajiks and Hazaras (Afghan Iranians), and a a lot of the Islamic terrorists have been Pashtuns, the main ethnic group of the Taliban and other radical Sunni Insurgent groups, and one of the main ethnic groups of Pakistan. It's a country where a lot of the problems can lie on the failures of multiculturalism.\",\n \"If you look at pictures of Afghanistan pre-Soviet invasion, it definitely had set a pace to be similar in makeup to those countries. However, as stated, Cold War feuding led to Afghanistan becoming a recipient of collateral damage which has only intensified, instead of receded, like in Vietnam due to various elements including the re-emergence of Islamic radicalism\",\n \"Afghanistan and Pakistan have a really bad inbreeding problem. In these areas cousin marriages have been going on for generations. One of the symptoms of inbreeding is a predisposition towards violence.\",\n \"Those 3 peaceful are under great influence of Russia, and Afghanistan is under influence of USA. Afghan government called Soviets to help them fight jihadists in the early 80s (west calls it invasion, but it was not), and USA financed jihadists to fight Soviets. Soviets went out, and we see what happened to Afghanistan afterwards... Secular government was replaced with extremists. The same thing is happening in Syria right now.\",\n \"Afghanistan is controlled by the US, who likes to control terrorists and fund terrorist acts to gain support for things like the Patriot Act. Almost every terrorist act on American interests has either been caused by the American government, or caused massive group orgasms when it happened.\",\n \"Afghanistan was a strategic fighting ground between Russia and the USA. It was destabilized by CIA due to fostered radical Islamism. In this regard, it is similar to Chechnya. Although Ladin was Saudi, he fought in Afghanistan thanks to CIA. The swamp drew all kinds of mujahideen from all around the world. Just like Syria now. Afghanistan has border to Pakistan which was founded because of religious differences with India. They shared various aspects that fostered religious extremism. Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and ~~Tajikistan~~ Kyrgyzstan have different social, ethnic and religious backgrounds. They are considered relatively Turkish, although after centuries of Russian influence they are more Russian than Turkish. Being satellite states of the Soviets, they were deliberately hold back and closely monitored. There was no religious extremism to begin with and was not imported by foreign powers. China and Russia played vital roles for keeping Islam in check albeit for not good intentions. During Bosnian war, some Muslims tried to get there and fight Serbians. Yet there was no political backup for such thing. They didn't get a hold there. Or today, Myanmar is a place of religious feud and killings are significant but there is no active armed fundamentalism as far as I know. But when it comes to countries such as Libya, armed rebels emerge suddenly and doesn't go away easily. You see the pattern?\",\n \"Cause Pakistan one of its neighbors, recognizes the Taliban. They support and fund extremists elements to wage war against Afghani national army, the NATO forces and us forces. The Taliban find safe Haven inside Pakistan after it bombs places inside Afghanistan.\",\n \"Watch or read Charlies War. In a nutshell. Russia invades. US supplys arms through a convoluted method because it's not really legal. Afghans win. US politicians that made money off arms sales refuse to fund rebuilding infrastructure. < End of Charlie's story > In the aftermath Afghan farmers have limited options so turn to poppy farming for opium trade. Becomes the country's biggest crop. Hard core Muslim community doesn't like how this signals a lack of community morals and take over declaring sharia law. Becomes magnet to disaffected Muslims that want to change the world order.\",\n \"Was the US in these 3 countries? Was the US in afghanistan? Theres your answer. The US encouraged radical nationalist Islam during the 70's to resist soviet influence.\",\n \"One of the biggest reason is the Soviet Union. All of those other central asian countries were under Soviet Rule for decades and at that time religion was supressed violently. Today we still have an overwhelming majority being muslim there, but more secular as a result. However, they still do have Islamic extremist groups in those countries, but to a much lesser degree than Afghanistan. The reason Afghanistan has so much extremism is because of the Soviet invasion. There weren't really any extremist groups before the invasion, but many resistance groups sprang up to oppose them. Since the Communist were hardcore atheist who hated religion, the rebels tended to be hardcore muslims who hated atheist. When the communist regime in Afghanistan fell, a lot of the more secular people and atheist either left, went into hiding or were killed, which led to the country being even more religious. However, this still wasn't the biggest reason for the islamic extremism. The biggest is Pakistan's fault. They helped the rebels but tended to give the most help to more extremists rebels. And after the communists fell they created the Taliban to take over the nation with. The taliban were mostly made up of people who had lost everything to the Soviets and taught a very extreme form of Islam in the refugee camps. They took over most of the country and proceded to enact harsh islamic laws and force their view of Islam on people. When the Americans came most saw them the same as the Soviets, and there were no shortage of people who hated invaders and could easily be turned to extremism.\",\n \"Post soviet states tended to have better infrastructure and more organized power structure. Also specifically with Afghanistan is that the soviets invaded and toppled the government giving rise to the mujahideen. Who banned the growing of poppies and enacted some other conservative social policies. Which allowed for the rise of the taliban who where very conservative but at the same time wanted to make the growing of poppies mandatory as a way to raise large amounts of capital. This resulted in a civil war in which the taliban essentially destroyed almost all of Afghanistan's recorded cultural history. Basically the nation was destabilized in the 80s creating a vacuum which wrecked their cultural history.\",\n \"In addition to other factors mentioned, the Soviet Union was actively cracking down religious influence in political and social life to replace it with its own ideology. It was also the first country to institutionalise gender equality and women's rights (voting, running for office, divorce, custody, maternal leave, equal pay, inheritance etc) while the US was propping up the islamists to fight against the Soviets. These legacies carried on after the Cold War.\",\n \"Why do they target civilians on either side though? In fact why are civilians ever targeted? It's not like civilians have much say in any of these countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, etc. They're always blowing themselves up in market places or schools. I don't understand. They're not even strategic or tactical targets. What message are they trying to say and what outcome are they trying to obtain by killing civs?\",\n \"Poverty and lack of stability. That country has been screwed six ways to Sunday ever since the soviet invasion. Look at the pre invasion photos. Women in skirts, rock bands, smoking and drinking was a big part of the afghan youth. Some similarities to Iran pre-revolution. Between Russia and us, we have done more long term damage than any massive bombings could ever do.\",\n \"And don't get it twisted many of Isis and taliban members come from those areas to join them. Chechnya now too I'm sure consider Russia's involvement. Watch the al jeezera \\\"ISIL and Russia\\\" or something like that. I watched it this morning so more of this is fresh. Plus I'm reading Ghost Wars about the CIA's involvement in Afghanistan and so on.\",\n \"The latter countries are also dealing with extremists. Afghanistan's issues are much different than the other three, as has been pointed out repeatedly. [This link is good for Uzbekistan,]( URL_1 ) [this for Tajikistan,]( URL_2 ) [and Central Asia at large.]( URL_0 ) The core issue, like a lot of Middle Eastern countries, isn't a power vacuum, but political expression.\",\n \"Something that is not often mentioned is that a lot of the citizens still live in isolated tribal cultures that want no part of whatever war is being fought at the time. There are many reports of American soldiers encountering these groups and are mistaken for Russian because they have no idea about the current conflict.\",\n \"I've been to Turkmenistan. The reason why there is no unrest, is because the government is a brutal and callous dictatorship. Step out of line and you could get killed. Very North Korea-esque. The only major difference is they are oil rich. Having said that. The people were lovely. Imagine the Iranians, only even more attractive.\",\n \"American invasion! Wherever American troops land, they destroy infrastructure, culture, people's lives. And sadly they also take all their hands can reach... they leave destruction, poverty, chaos and failed states.. That is the reason why Afghanistan is fucked up but not Turkmenistan or any other country.. very simple Look at Iraq, Vietnam, Somalia etc..\",\n \"Lol all these answers even the guilded one are incorrect. The reason you don't hear much is because of the media, these countries do suffer from ISIS and affiliate groups. Check out wikipedia for some info they have to categorize all the worldwide suicide bombings by month cause there are so many.\",\n \"Well, the central asian states are more or less all run as total autocracies (Kyrgyzstan is slightly more democratic than the others, but not by a whole lot). Essentially, the leaders assumed total power and killed off any Islamist opposition (Islam Karimov, who just died, comes to mind).\",\n \"Afghanistan produces 90% of the world's opium. This is an open secret which is unfortunately supported by their government. Too lazy to type out how this contributes to terrorism but I encourage reading up on it (if you can find a source outside of an academic journal).\",\n \"Afghanistan has always been a hole. The British Empire had tons of trouble there. Alexander the Great had trouble there. I somehow knew when the Taliban destroyed the historic Buddhas there that shit would hit the fan eventually. This was before 9/11.\",\n \"I'd like to point to Chechnya and their recent entry into the news via concentration camps for gays. Lots of people assume it's Putin being a homophobe but quite frankly Russians and Chechnyans hate one another and Chechnya is most certainly Islamic.\",\n \"The others are under varying degrees (to the degree necessary) of Moscow's whip. Any that feel seduced by the enticements, inducements and temptations offered by a certain former British colony only have to look at Afghanistan to see how that works out.\",\n \"Simple answer: proximity of Pakistan. An even larger toilet than Afghanistan and the real home of the Taliban and a great number of insurgent \\\"training\\\" camps. Conveniently, many of which are a short distance from the Afghan/Pakistan border....\",\n \"Because it contains poppy, i.e. opium, which the CIA liies to sell to fund covert wars. We care about Iraq and Syria because of oil, and the Arab Spring incident was about shutting down the gold dinar.\",\n \"Strong dictators are what keep islamic countries from becoming terrorist hellholes. Look what happened when Saddam and Gaddafi fell. Complete Chaos. There hasn't been strong authoritarian leadership in Afghanistan in decades, so muslim extremism has thrived.\",\n \"Oh they really do have their issues, dictators and religious feud, but afghanistan has american troops and was gunned by the US due to 9/11. So much higher interest to report.\",\n \"It is mainly a mix of three things. 1: Epic amounts of inbreeding. (google it.) 2: Virtually no education. (google it.) 3: Extreme religious zealotry. (google it.)\",\n \"Afghanistan has basically been a battleground since the Cold War. The Soviet Union took it over and we fought. They have been very unstable since\",\n \"I think it has to do more with the amount of dead animals and plants that died in the area millions of years ago.\",\n \"In my opinion (probably less than factual) because the western world fucked around less with the other non-afghanistan countries you listed\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Afghanistan. The Taliban and Al-Qaeda's activities in Afghanistan is seen as a direct symbol of growing Salafism in the country. ISIS has sought to create Khorasan Province, to increase level of religious sectarianism in Afghanistan, which is majority following a more Sufi branch.\nThus, Afghan Sufis have long accused Salafi movements like Taliban attempting to discredit and oppress Sufi population in the country. Algeria Algeria is traditionally a tolerance Maliki Sunni sect which belonged to larger Sufi branch. Thus, Algerians are known for their Islamic faith as tolerance. However, in 1980s, Algerian young people were sent by the Algerian government to","-32.08644939571968"],["'Islamic Revolution' which would transcend national borders covering Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.\nOn the other hand, Pakistan's relations with Iran have been strained at times due to sectarian tensions. Iran and Saudi Arabia used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war and by the 1990s, Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Tensions between Iran and Pakistan intensified in 1998, when Iran accused Pakistan of war crimes as Pakistani warplanes bombarded Afghanistan's last Shia stronghold in support of the Taliban. Major dissensions Since 1947, Pakistan's","-31.900802345468946"],["Afghanistan will lead to the creation of an Islamic state with the triumph of the Taliban, God willing.\" In Palestine, \"if it were not for the jihad in Palestine, the Jews would have crept toward the neighboring countries a long time ago,\" and without jihad in Iraq, \"America would have moved into Syria.\" However the strife between Sunnis and Shiites in the jihad in Iraq is troubling because: \"Harming those who are affiliated with Islam but have a different creed is forbidden.\"\nExamples of unlawful slaughter include Al Qaeda's terrorist attacks in America, London, and Madrid, which were wrong because","-31.731946569983847"],["to containing Iranian influence in South and Central Asia.\nSaudi Arabia was one of three countries to officially recognize the Sunni Taliban government in 1996, along with its allies Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates. During the Afghan Civil War, Iran and Saudi Arabia supported opposing militant factions. Iran assisted the Shia Hizb-i-Wahdat, while Saudi Arabia provided financial support to the Wahhabist Ittihad-i Islami.\nIn 2001, the invasion of Afghanistan and the removal of the Taliban in the wake of the September 11 attacks benefited Iran, which had previously been on the brink of war with the group. The regime change removed","-31.36339666665299"],["has written that the jihadis \"did not become anti-Western after 1991 – they had always been so.\"\nAll westerners, like me, who encountered the so-called `Arabs` inside Afghanistan during the war of resistance were struck (sometimes physically) by their hostility. The Arabs constantly asked the Afghan mujahideen commanders to get rid of the `infidels` and to choose only good Muslims as supporters, and called for the expulsion of Western NGOs ... in many areas the mujahideen had to intervene to prevent physical assaults on westerners.\nAuthor Gilles Kepel writes that in Peshwar Pakistan, some Afghan Arabs attacked \"Europe and American humanitarian","-31.34907439420931"],["IDPs in Afghanistan are as a direct and indirect result of conflict and violence, although there are also reasons of natural disasters. The Soviet invasion caused approximately 2 million Afghans to be internally displaced, mostly from rural areas into urban areas. The Afghan Civil War (1992–96) caused a new wave of internal displacement, with many Afghans moving to northern cities in order to get away from the Taliban ruled areas. Afghanistan continues to suffer from insecurity and conflict, which has led to an increase in internal displacement. Host countries According to the UNHCR, there are approximately 2.6 million registered refugees","-31.12072236300446"],["saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas.\nConflict between the two militias soon escalated into a full-scale war.\nDue to the sudden initiation of the war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over","-30.945240927743725"],["increased in Afghanistan after hundreds of suicide bombings and assassinations. In 2017 there were mass protests in several Afghan provinces, trying to highlight that Pakistan was a terrorist-sponsoring state. Middle East In certain Middle Eastern countries, some Middle Easterns have behaved in a somewhat discriminatory and violent manner toward South Asians like Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans. In the case of Pakistanis, these attacks are usually carried on darker-skinned individuals versus their lighter-skinned, Iranic counterparts. Middle Easterns youth have also occasionally engaged in violent attacks on South Asian workers. France After the July 2005 bombings in London, there were waves","-30.823877170081687"],["Kabul. Iran assisted the Hizb-e Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari. Saudi Arabia supported the Ittihad-i Islami faction. The conflict between these militias also escalated into war.\nDue to this sudden initiation of civil war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals inside different factions. Ceasefires, negotiated by representatives of the Islamic State's newly appointed Defense Minister Ahmad Shah Massoud, President Sibghatullah Mojaddedi and later President Burhanuddin Rabbani (the interim government), or officials from the International","-30.783996053476585"],["separatist violence. The situation in Xinjiang quieted until mid-2006, although ethnic tensions remained. Terrorist groups The Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) is an Islamic extremist terrorist organisation seeking the expulsion of China from \"East Turkestan\". Since its emergence in 2007 it has claimed responsibility for a number of terrorist attacks, and the Chinese government accuses it of over 200, resulting in 162 deaths and over 440 injuries. Hundreds of Uyghurs are thought to reside in Pakistan and Afghanistan and to have fought alongside extremist groups in conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War. However, the exact size of the Turkistan Islamic","-30.539910664665513"],["Afghanistan. This resulted in a major breach, with Iran becoming closer to India. Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. The Pakistani backed Taliban fought the Iranian backed Northern Alliance in Afghanistan and gained control of 90 percent of that country. As noted by a Pakistani foreign service officer, it was difficult to maintain good relations with Israel, Saudi Arabia, the United States, and Iran at the same time, given Iran's long history of rivalry with these states. In 1995 Bhutto paid a lengthy state visit to","-30.482439175830223"],["in Central Asia, became much more varied in this short time. Furthermore, Islam was attractive because it offered alternatives and solutions to the myriad political and economic problems facing the republics in the wake of the Soviet Union's collapse.\nHowever, the governments of the Central Asian republics were wary of Islam in the political sphere. Their fears of undue influence were soon justified by the outbreak of the Tajik Civil War in 1992, between the Tajik government and a coalition of opponents led by a radical Islamist group called the Islamic Renaissance Party. The civil war, which lasted until 1997, demonstrated","-30.473876520467456"],["of American cultures and ideals into other countries.\nGlobalization is especially threatening to Arab nations because Islam is not simply a religious practice, but it dominates laws and social norms such as marriages and spending habits. Since globalization is seen to be a way of secularizing a nation, Muslims also see it as a cultural and religious invasion, requiring the separation of religion and daily life. Radicalists see it as a perversion of pure Islamic doctrine, as globalization is seen to merge the domain of Islam (Dar al-Islam) and the domain of infidelity (Dar-al-Kufr).\nThe Western influence on media is also unwelcome.","-30.26247760372644"],["Members from the Nasr faction were particularly highlighted in this, and they have been accused of abductions, extortion and other crimes. Taliban presence in Ghazni has become a significant problem as well with some sources referring to the area as Taliban controlled. Aside from this the major sources of conflict are related to land and water, while debt and marriage related conflict does occur Land conflicts increased greatly during the period of drought.\nIn 2007 the general upsurge in violence in Afghanistan has spilled into Jaghori Zeba. Taliban militiamen from neighbouring districts have staged two attacks against district police posts and","-30.25571363742347"],["a traditional burqa.\nThe Taliban repressed minority populations, particularly the Shia, as a retaliation in which approximately 2,500 Taliban soldiers were massacred by Abdul Malik and his Shia followers; attacked the Iranian embassy, killing eight diplomats and a television reporter, claiming them as spies.\nIn 2001, as part of a drive against relics of Afghanistan's pre-Islamic past, the Taliban destroyed two large statues of Buddha outside of the city of Bamiyan and announced destruction of all pre-Islamic statues in Afghanistan, including the remaining holdings of the Kabul Museum.\nIn addition to the continuing civil strife, the country suffered from widespread poverty, drought, a","-30.22130246600136"],["2016–17 Kashmir unrest Background In late 2015 and early 2016, observers of Kashmir reported growth in home-grown Islamic militancy and radicalization of the Kashmiri Muslim population. Several reasons for the growth have been cited such as the absence of a political dialogue, the lack of economic opportunities, frustration due to high unemployment, excessive militarization of the public space and repeated human rights violations by the security forces.\nAccording to scholar-journalist Haris Zargar, the increasing radicalization represented a counter-reaction to the shaping of the nationalist identity in India based on its rising middle class and Hindu nationalism. The rise of forceful Hindu","-30.193069314787863"],["(a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local governor. In 1994, the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan.\nLate 1994, Kabul witnessed some weeks of relative calm, followed by resumed heavy shelling. Islamic State's Secretary of Defense Ahmad Shah Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the process. The Taliban declined. They started shelling Kabul in early 1995","-30.144061764876824"],["in Algeria caused a civil war, caused a near-civil war in Egypt, and caused the downfall of the Soviet occupation in Afghanistan. In many cases the military wings of these groups were supplied with money and arms by the U.S. and U.K.\nMuslim critics of Islamic fundamentalism often draw a parallel between the modern fundamentalist movement and the 7th century Khawarij sect. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to Takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to","-30.14132162905298"],["overwhelmingly Pashtun and were accused of not sharing power with the approximately 60% of Afghans who belonged to other ethnic groups. (see: Taliban#Ideology)\nThe Taliban's hosting of Osama bin Laden led to an American-organized attack which drove them from power following the 9/11 attacks.\nTaliban are still very much alive and fighting a vigorous insurgency with suicide bombings and armed attacks being launched against NATO and Afghan government targets. Algeria An Islamist movement influenced by Salafism and the jihad in Afghanistan, as well as the Muslim Brotherhood, was the FIS or Front Islamique de Salut (the Islamic Salvation Front) in Algeria. Founded","-30.08141481463099"],["in Xinjiang to calm the situation down. Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt helped China kill off a statement on the Xinjiang situation in the OIC. There has been no public reaction by the Arab League, Saudi Arabia and Iran on the situation and China has built stronger relations with Iran and Saudi Arabia due to their influence in the Islamic world.\nAfghanistan, Cambodia, and Vietnam said they believed the Chinese government was \"taking appropriate measures\", their statements backed \"the territorial integrity and sovereignty of China\". Micronesian Vice President Alik Alik condemned the riot as a \"terrorist act\".\nIran said it shared the","-30.00880990854057"],["Persians in Turkish fatwas. During the era of European colonialism, the political decline of Islam impeded organized state action against the pressure from Western nations, and the resulting feeling of impotence contributed to a rise of hatred against unbelievers and its periodic manifestations, such as massacres.\nHowever, there was extensive religious violence in India between Muslims and non-Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire (before the political decline of Islam).\nIn their memoirs on Muslim invasions, enslavement and plunder of this period, many Muslim historians in South Asia used the term Kafir for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains.\nRaziuddin Aquil states that","-29.96863524892251"],["the levels of Islamophobia among Buddhists and Hindus are significantly higher than among followers of other religions.\nIn July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, Germany and France, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China’s mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other Muslim minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps. Criticism of term and use Although by the first decade of the 21st century the term \"Islamophobia\" had become widely recognized and used, its use, its construction and the concept itself have been criticized. Roland Imhoff and","-29.935374887980288"],["unrest. The increase in refugee numbers has been credited primarily to the Taliban presence within Afghanistan. Their retreat in 2001, led to nearly 6 million Afghan refugees returning to their homeland. However, after civil unrest and fighting alongside the Taliban's return, nearly 2.5 million refugees have fled Afghanistan. Most Afghan refugees, however, seek refuge in the neighboring nation of Pakistan. Increasing numbers, though, have committed to the strenuous migration to Turkey and the European Union. Economic Migrants For long, economic migration has been a global issue. Such migration is pursued in order to seek living conditions/standards and job opportunities that","-29.918862087062735"],["the Islamic World travelled to Afghanistan to defend that Muslim nation from conquest, calling it a Jihad, or Holy War. The U.S. supported the Jihadists and Afghan resisters, despite the fact that the Jihadists were vehemently anti-Western. By 1989 Soviet forces were forced to withdraw and Afghanistan fell into civil war, with an Islamic fundamentalist government, the Taliban taking over much of the country.\nThe late 1970s had seen a lessening of tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union, called Détente. However, by the 1980s Détente had ended with the invasion of Afghanistan. In 1981, Ronald Reagan became President of the","-29.868001769129478"],["Islam in Afghanistan History During the 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate Arabs entered the territory that is now Afghanistan after defeating the Sassanian Persians in Nihawand. After this colossal defeat, the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdegerd III, fled eastward deep into Central Asia. In pursuing Yazdegerd, the Arabs entered the area from northeastern Iran via Herat, where they stationed a large portion of their army before advancing toward northern Afghanistan.\nMany of the inhabitants of northern Afghanistan accepted Islam through Umayyad missionary efforts, particularly under the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and Umar ibn AbdulAziz. In south, Abdur Rahman bin Samara","-29.845865752577083"],["why some Afghans liked, and still like, the Taliban, despite its violence and brutality, was that it promised a relief from the graft and injustice practiced by mujahideen warlords. The Asia Foundation added that the perceived root of corruption in the nation had changed during the previous five years. Earlier, most Afghans believed that corruption was due to low salaries of civil servants, whereas currently it is attributed to a lack of sanctions and a lack of competent law enforcement. Attitudes toward corruption On the one hand, Afghans criticize corruption; on the other hand, they increasingly accept patronage and","-29.82406892135623"],["various parts of Afghanistan, particularly Jalalabad and Kabul. Many left Afghanistan after the Taliban came to power in 1996, mainly due to harsh restrictions imposed on them, leaving a population of approximately 1,000, mainly based in Kabul and Jalalabad. India did not have any official representation in Afghanistan while the Taliban were in power. The small Hindu and Sikh communities suffered harsh discrimination during that period. In April 2001, the Taliban issued an edict requiring Hindu males to wear marks of red dots (tilak) on their forehead, were barred from wearing salwar kameez or white turban and forced to wear","-29.81661243212875"],["Pakistan and the West. In the wake of the Iranian revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Iranian consulate in Afghanistan closed, as did the Afghan consulate in Iran. Relations between Afghanistan and Iran quickly deteriorated even more. In 1985, Iran urged Afghan Shia groups to unite and oppose the Government of Afghanistan. Iran supported the mujahideen rebels and provided various types of assistances to them who pledged loyalty to the Iranian Revolution. In the meantime, over a million Afghan refugees were allowed to enter Iran.\nFollowing the emergence of the Taliban government and their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's minorities,","-29.77468255616259"],["Asian energy resources.\nIn Tajikistan, the government took advantage of this shift in international attitude in order to erode the position of Islam in politics, taking steps such as forbidding the hijab (which is not traditional in Tajikistan, due to Soviet rule) in public schools and reducing the legal rights of Islamic groups.\nSince 2001, ethnic and religious tensions in the Central Asian republics combined with endemic poverty and poor economic performance have made them increasingly volatile. However, governments as often use Islamic groups as a justification for repression and crackdowns as those groups are the cause of violence, if not more","-29.76642731067477"],["the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: \"Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp.\"\nThe Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) plus Azerbaijan from Southern Caucasus are Muslim, except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities.","-29.724581289628986"],["\"fear and distrust towards Islam\" and particularly the Islamic Republic and its founder. In the Mideast and Muslim world, particularly in its early years, it triggered enormous enthusiasm and redoubled opposition to western intervention and influence. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia (the 1979 week-long takeover of the Grand Mosque), Egypt (the 1981 machine-gunning of the Egyptian President Sadat), Syria (the Muslim Brotherhood rebellion in Hama), and Lebanon (the 1983 bombing of the American Embassy and French and American peace-keeping troops). Consolidation of the Revolution Instability in Iran did not end with the creation of the Islamic Republic and","-29.67668722369126"],["of their religious beliefs, the religious affiliation of the Hazaras apparently was a significant factor leading to their repression. After the United States invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, the Taliban was forced out of power and began an insurgency against the new government and allied US forces. The Taliban continues to prohibit music, movies, and television on religious grounds in areas that it still holds.\nAccording to the U.S. Military, the Taliban controls 10% of Afghanistan as of December 2017. There are also pockets of territory controlled by Islamic State affiliates. On October 14, 2017, The Guardian reported that there were","-29.669514243141748"],["Eastern Afghanistan, survived the Ghurid invasion in the 12th century and endured until the invasion of the Mongols. Legacy At its height, the Ghaznavid empire grew to cover large parts of present-day Iran, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, all of Afghanistan, Pakistan and large parts of northwest India. The Ghaznavid rulers are generally credited with spreading Islam into the Indian subcontinent. In addition to the wealth accumulated through raiding Indian cities, and exacting tribute from Indian rajas, the Ghaznavids also benefited from their position as an intermediary along the trade routes between China and the Mediterranean. They were, however, unable to hold","-29.652076251106337"],["globalization Some authors claim that the general reaction to globalization among the Arab states has been a negative or a defensive one. The key reason for the rejection may be the lack of previous cultural penetration of the Islamic Middle East by Western culture, institutions and ideas. In this context globalization was seen as a form of surrender to a dominant, non-indigenous standpoint. Islam, a religion governed by its own set of laws, developed an alternate world view with many of the elements of globalization contradicting it. It has a powerful and cohesive community which at times acts","-29.597161743877223"],["countries like Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latvia. Farid Hafez is also editor of the German-English Islamophobia Studies Yearbook. Geographic trends An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of Wahhabism, according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti-Terrorist Committee.\nVarious translations of the Qur'an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy. Anti-Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia. In Greece, Islamophobia accompanies anti-immigrant sentiment, as immigrants are now 15% of the country's population and 90% of the EU's illegal entries are through Greece. In France Islamophobia","-29.56944937602384"],["struggles and oppositional ideas through these media. \nInitially globalization was expected to spread the zone of peace by delivering economic prosperity which people would not want to sacrifice in conflicts. Instead the imposition of structural adjustment, of unpopular and inequitable peace treaties together with the US campaign against terrorism, led to more unrest and instability. This helped to create a chain reaction as the victims of economic liberalization appear to be among the main constituents of Islamic opposition movements. The Jihadists Radical Islamists view globalization as a new dawah(call) for the elimination of the boundaries between Dar al-Islam (domain of","-29.53354174940614"],["reforms and put an end to one-party rule, was \"crushed as a political factor\".\nAt least at first, the \"unspeakable atrocities\" and enormous loss of life on behalf of a military defeat \"drastically weakened Islamism as a whole\" throughout the Muslim world, and led to much time and energy being spent by Islamists distancing themselves from extremism. In Algeria the war left the public \"with a deep fear of instability\" according to Algerian journalist Kamel Daoud. The country was one of the few in the Arab world not to participate in the Arab Spring.","-29.5056605162099"],["Shia Hazara fighters into its ranks. The Taliban have also condemned ISIS linked attacks on the Hazara Shia minority. United States The United States never recognized the Taliban government in Afghanistan. Ahmed Rashid states that the US indirectly supported the Taliban through its ally in Pakistan between 1994 and 1996 because Washington viewed the Taliban as anti-Iranian, anti-Shia and pro-Western. Washington furthermore hoped that the Taliban would support development planned by the US-based oil company Unocal. For example, it made no comment when the Taliban captured Herat in 1995, and expelled thousands of girls from schools. In late 1997,","-29.48600998261827"],["the fact of heavy disputes between their versions of faith in the country.\nSaudi Arabia has been quietly branding and increasing the presence of Salafism in the country, and there has been a number of students from Indonesia to study Saudi Wahhabism to become its clerics.\nFollowing Surabaya bombings in 2018, increasing anti-Salafism was witnessed among Indonesian Muslims of Sufi belief. Iran While Iran is a majority Shia country, it has a significant Sunni minority population, including those of Sufi and Salafi belief.\nWhen the theocratic Shia regime was founded in Iran at 1979, it is met with heavy opposition from the Sunni","-29.443529522279277"],["Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Yemen, Kuwait, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, as well as other Arab states with Chechnya, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Western countries. Against atheists During the Soviet-Afghan war in the 1980s, many Muslims received calls for a jihad against atheists. Mujahideen were recruited from various countries including Egypt, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. The conflict gradually turned from one against occupation to one seen as a jihad.","-29.42350063637059"],["out. In a pamphlet entitled \"Why Are We Waging Jihad?\", the group states that all of India along with many other countries were once ruled by Muslims and were Muslim lands, which is their duty to take it back from the non-Muslims. It declared United States, India, and Israel as \"existential enemies of Islam\". LeT believes that jihad is the duty of all Muslims and must be waged until eight objectives are met: ending persecution against Muslims, establishing Islam as the dominant way of life in the world, forcing disbelievers to pay jizya (a tax on non-Muslims), fighting for the","-29.354032450530212"],["War, when hundreds of foreign fighters (mostly Sunni Arabs) arrived in Pakistan to take part in the Afghan Jihad. Pakistan President Zia-ul-Haq's military administration policy reflected extremist views towards the Shiites and caused religious tensions to rise between Sunni and Shiites in Pakistan, much to the discomfort of Iran. During the Iran–Iraq War, the Arab countries and the United States, who were supporting Iraq, pressured Pakistan to discontinue its covert support and military funding for Iran.\nThe 1980s were a difficult time in military relations for both countries, as Iran was blamed for the rising ethnic tensions between Sunnis and Shiites","-29.31783394757076"],["were launched by jihadist Islamist group such as Jamaah Islamiyah's attacks on Bali. The ultra conservative doctrine of Salafi and Wahhabi adhered and promoted by the state of Saudi Arabia has been dominated the global discourse of Islam for decades. The wary sentiments were aggravated further by the advent of ISIS in 2013 that performed abhorred war crimes in the name of Islam. \nIn recent years, there are the rise of fundamentalism and religious intolerance in Indonesia. Internally, some of foreign and local Islamist organizations, such as Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (HTI), Front Pembela Islam (FPI) also Islamist political party such","-29.30260682736116"],["period. Buddhism therefore continued in the region until the arrival of Islam with the Abbasids. Despite the prominence and duration of Buddhist influence in Afghanistan prior to this period, the religion and any influence it had on architectural structures was entirely eliminated under Islamic rule. Early Islamic architecture The initial spread of Islam to Afghanistan occurred around the 8th century AD, with Abbasid rule succeeded by Saffarids and later Samanids to 961 AD. Following this point in time Afghanistan was established as the centre of Islamic civilisation under the Ghaznavid Empire, succeeded by the Ghorids until 1219. The mausoleum The","-29.301185217453167"],["fragile and hard-won peace. In the summers of 1999 and 2000, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan used Tajikistan as a staging ground for an insurgency campaign against the government of Uzbekistan. At the same time, Taliban advances in northern Afghanistan threatened to inundate Tajikistan with thousands of refugees. A constant flow of illegal narcotics continues to transit Tajikistan from Afghanistan on its way to Russian and European markets, leaving widespread violent crime, corruption, increased HIV incidence, and economic distortions in its wake. During 2002, stability in the country continued to increase, and the year was largely free of the assassinations","-29.290041732718237"],["a known Taliban facilitator. Three of the individuals were killed... Iranians certainly view as making life more difficult for us if Afghanistan is unstable. We don't have that kind of relationship with the Iranians. That's why I am particularly troubled by the interception of weapons coming from Iran. But we know that it's more than weapons; it's money; it's also according to some reports, training at Iranian camps as well.\n— General David Petraeus\nIn March 2012, Najibullah Kabuli, leader of the National Participation Front (NPF) of Afghanistan, accused three senior leaders of Iran's Revolutionary Guards of plotting to assassinate him. Some members","-29.25448055855304"],["Arabia and elsewhere were often radicalized by Islamic militants who were \"much more extreme than their Saudi sponsors\". Islamic Revolution in Iran The February 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran challenged Saudi Wahhabism in a number of ways on a number of fronts. It was a revolution of Shia, not Sunni, Islam and Wahhabism held that Shia were not truly Muslims. Nonetheless, its massive popularity in Iran and its overthrow of a pro-American secular monarchy generated enormous enthusiasm among pious Sunni, not just Shia Muslims around the world. Its leader (Ruhollah Khomeini) preached that monarchy was against Islam and","-29.247398622708715"],["role.\nPoliticized Islam in Afghanistan represents a break from Afghan traditions. The Islamist Movement originated in 1958 among faculties of Kabul University, particularly in the Faculty of Islamic Law, which had been founded in 1952 with the stated purpose of raising the quality of religious teaching to accommodate modern science and technology. The founders were largely professors influenced by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, a party formed in the 1930s that was dedicated to Islamic revivalism and social, economic, and political equity. Their objective is to come to terms with the modern world through the development of a political ideology","-29.245219017728232"],["even a \"conspiracy\", most commentators, even some pro-government ones, have come to conclude that \"the real reason for the loss of faith in Islam is not the West but Turkey itself: It is a reaction to all the corruption, arrogance, narrow-mindedness, bigotry, cruelty and crudeness displayed in the name of Islam.\" Especially when the AKP Islamists are in power to enforce Islam upon society, this is making citizens turn their back on it. United Arab Emirates Apostasy is a crime in the United Arab Emirates. In 1978, UAE began the process of Islamising the nation's law, after its council of","-29.226733463874552"],["saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas.\n According to Human Rights Watch, numerous Iranian agents were assisting the Shia Hezb-i Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari, as Iran was attempting to maximize Wahdat's military power and influence. Saudi Arabia was trying to strengthen the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Again, Human Rights Watch writes:\nRare ceasefires, usually negotiated by representatives","-29.179762722109444"],["in the madrasses in a spirit of conservatism and religious rigor.\" As the Afghan students came of age, they formed \"the mainstay\" of the Taliban in Afghanistan and of the anti-Shia Sipah-e-Sahaba Sunni terror group in Pakistan. But unlike the traditionally non-violent Deobandi, this \"hybrid movement\" embraced the violence of jihad, and unlike the Islamists of Hizb-e-Islami they were uninterested in \"islamizing modernity\" of western knowledge or in western knowledge at all. The culture of religious purification, absolute obedience to leaders, and disinterest in anything else, is thought to explain the willingness of Hizb-e-Islami-trained soldiers to bombard Kabul with artillery","-29.147726646449883"],["deported from NATO countries. This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Pakistani-backed Taliban insurgency. The United States also accuses neighboring Iran of providing small level of support to the Taliban insurgents. According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011.\nIn October 2008 U.S. Defense Secretary Gates had asserted that","-29.14493562973803"],["Afghanistan–United Arab Emirates relations War in Aghanistan UAE has a small humanitarian and peacekeeping military presence in Afghanistan. UAE troops have been welcomed by the country as allied Muslim soldiers and the Emirati soldiers have complimented the Afghan hospitality they encounter. 10 January 2017 Afghanistan bombings On January 10, 2017, five diplomats from the UAE who were present to inaugurate a number of UAE backed projects in the city, were killed in a bombing of Humayun Azizi guest house in Kandahar City. The UAE's Ambassador to Afghanistan, Juma Mohammed Abdullah al-Kaabi, was wounded and later died of his wounds.","-29.132514127210015"],["party in Russia, but was banned by the Central Asian communist governments. Partly as a result of this oppression, political opposition erupted into the violence of the civil war in Tajikistan, in which over 50,000 people were killed out of a population of 6 million and another 250,000 fled the country to Afghanistan, Uzbekistan or elsewhere. Following the civil war, the Tajik government incorporated Islamic groups into the government in order to prevent future tensions. However, the other Central Asian republics did not follow this example, continuing instead to repress and persecute Islamic groups rather than allow them to participate","-29.101657128427178"],["of thousands of Shias were killed in the Ottoman Empire, including the Alevis in Turkey, the Alawis in Syria and the Shi'a of Lebanon. China Most foreign slaves in Xinjiang were Shia Ismaili Mountain Tajiks of China. They were referred to by Sunni Turkic Muslims as Ghalcha, and enslaved because they were different from the Sunni Turkic inhabitants. Shia Muslims were sold as slaves in Khotan. The Muslims of Xinjiang traded Shias as slaves. Afghanistan There is widespread violence and discrimination against Afghan Hazaras, who became an easy target for the Sunni extremists due to their distinct features. Abdur Rahman","-29.09391234913346"],["beliefs in Russia has provoked the anger of the Sunni establishment. The Russian Council of Muftis issued a fatwa against Quranism and those it said were its leaders in Russia. However, one of the purported Quranist leaders mentioned in the fatwa, the Russian philosopher Taufik Ibrahim, pointed out that his beliefs were more in line with the Jadid tradition, although there is some overlap between the two groups in Russia. \nIn Turkey, Quranists have responded on social media to criticism by the Diyanet on their Quranist beliefs.\nIn South Africa, an Oxford educated Islamic scholar, Taj Hargey, established the Open Mosque.","-29.0862914242025"],["Iran's primary threat along its eastern borders, and the removal of Saddam Hussein two years later further bolstered its position, allowing it to refocus its efforts on other areas, especially Syria and Yemen. In the ensuing years, Iran sought to expand its influence over Afghanistan. It provided limited support to the Taliban as a potential means of increasing leverage with the Afghan central government and creating a deterrent to conflict with the United States, although the support waned amid growing backlash in Afghanistan against perceived Iranian interference. Iran has also sought to expand soft influence by building pro-Iranian schools, mosques,","-29.075832583388546"],["Islam is the last and the most complete of the revealed religions, why are the Muslim countries lagging behind the modern world?\" The journalists went into hiding before the sentences were pronounced.\nIn 2003, two editors of the weekly Aftab were jailed for a week on blasphemy charges for publishing a controversial series of articles condemning crimes committed by senior Afghan leaders in the name of Islam. The two editors were later cleared of the charges, but they were forced to leave Afghanistan because of threats against their lives.","-29.07559842831688"],["joined al-Jihad because of their ability to survive. Despite the strong reactions of the government after the assassination of Sadat, al-Jihad reformed into smaller branches and has continued to be the source of terrorist acts and violent community outbreaks ever since. The end of the century After the assassination of Sadat, moving into the last decade of the century, al-Jihad remained the most prominent Islamic extremist group in Egypt, and was now harkening back to the ideals of their previous military commander, Lt. Col. Abbud al-Zumar, to recruit and rely on the masses to stage a successful uprising. Al-Zumar was","-29.07150031393394"],["to the other former Soviet republics the dangers posed by Islamic opposition groups. The takeover in 1996 of Afghanistan by the Taliban further emphasized that threat.\nThe Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP) was one of several similar Islamic opposition groups, including the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), which also fought against the Tajik government in the civil war. The IRP had its origins in underground Islamic groups in the Soviet Union. It was formed in 1990 in Astrakhan by a group consisting mostly of Tatar intellectuals, with separate branches for each Soviet republic. It was in fact registered as an official political","-29.05690467322711"],["Iraqis, Afghans \"coming to avenge what is going on in their country\"; their lack of religiosity before being \"born again\" in a foreign country; the high percentage of converts to Islam among them; their \"de-territorialized backgrounds\"—\"For instance, they may be born in a country, then educated in another country, then go to fight in a third country and take refuge in a fourth country\"; their nontraditional belief that jihad is permanent, global, and \"not linked with a specific territory.\"\nThis profile differs from that found among recent local (as opposed to global) Islamist suicide bombers in Afghanistan, according to a 2007","-29.034897204488516"],["Islamic revivalists in several countries. From that time through the early post-Soviet era, some officials in Moscow and in Tajikistan warned of an extremist Islamic menace, often on the basis of limited or distorted evidence. Despite all these efforts, Islam remained an important part of the identity of the Tajiks and other Muslim peoples of Tajikistan through the end of the Soviet era and the first years of independence. Recent developments In October 2005, Tajikistan's Ministry of Education banned female students from wearing Islamic headscarves in secular schools. Wearing the hijab, or head scarf traditionally worn by Muslim women, and","-28.985505102245952"],["of Peshawar to fight jihad in Afghanistan. As Algeria was a close ally of the jihadists enemy the Soviet Union, these jihadists tended to consider the Afghan jihad a \"prelude\" to jihad against the Algerian FLN state. After the Marxist government in Afghanistan fell, many of the Salafist-Jihadis returned to Algeria and supported the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) and later the GIA insurgents.\nDuring and after the 1988 October Riots Islamists \"set about building bridges to the young urban poor\". Evidence of their effectiveness was that the riots \"petered out\" after meetings between the President Chadli Bendjedid and","-28.973220885847695"],["ISIL as \"terrorist organization\" and \"Takfiri\".\nThe deputy secretary of Supreme National Security Council has also called it \"terrorist group\". ISIL's threats to Iran While Iran is a Shia-dominant country, ISIL is ideologically anti-Shia and regards Shias as infidels, having killed thousands of them. After rapidly expanding in Iraq, ISIL became a threat only kilometers away from Iranian western borders. With the Pakistan-based Sunni Jihadist groups in eastern Iran and an ongoing Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency, some alarmed the possibility of a wider backlash there.\nIran threatened ISIL that managing to attack Baghdad or holy shrines of Shia Imams and getting close","-28.95850090132444"],["aided by Shi'a Iran and fought against the Soviet-backed Afghan government as well as other mujahideen groups.\nDuring the political maneuvering leading up to the establishment of the Islamic State of Afghanistan in 1992, the Shi'a groups unsuccessfully negotiated for more equitable, consequential political and social roles. Ismailism The Ismaili Shiites accepted Ismail ibn Jafar instead of Musa al-Kadhim as the successor to Imam Jafar as-Sadiq. Ismaili communities in Afghanistan are less populous than the Twelver who consider the Ismaili heretical. They are found primarily in and near the eastern Hazarajat, in the Baghlan area north of the Hindu Kush, among","-28.952831730712205"],["leader Mayo. In December 2018, it was reported that Islamist political parties like Al-Islah and jihadi militant groups like Al-Qaeda and Islamic State (Isis) were the main targets of the UAE, with the Houthis no longer being regarded as the greatest enemy of the UAE, with the Saudis being unable to do anything about it.","-28.91297328748624"],["example), and increasing aid to Islamic groups (Islamist madrassas around the world and even aiding some violent Islamist groups) that did not, but its pre-war influence on behalf of moderation was greatly reduced. One result of this was a campaign of attacks on government officials and tourists in Egypt, a bloody civil war in Algeria and Osama bin Laden's terror attacks climaxing in the 9/11 attack. Afghanistan (Taliban) In Afghanistan, the mujahideen's victory against the Soviet Union in the 1980s did not lead to justice and prosperity, due to a vicious and destructive civil war between political and tribal","-28.909947298874613"],["the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over their (sub-)commanders. For civilians there was little security from murder, rape and extortion. An estimated 25,000 people died during the most intense period of bombardment by Hekmatyar's Hezb-i Islami and the Junbish-i Milli forces of Abdul Rashid Dostum, who had created an alliance with Hekmatyar","-28.8677325717872"],["include the many who were born inside Iran during the last 35 years. The number of Afghan refugees is decreasing significantly every year due to voluntary repatriation. For instance, in 2017 alone, over half a million of them returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan and Iran.\nThe 2011 industrialized country asylum data notes a 30% increase in applications from Afghans from 2010 to 2011, primarily towards Germany and Turkey. Pakistan Since the beginning US military intervention against the Taliban in Pakistan over 1.2 million people have been displaced in across the country, joined by a further 555,000 Pakistanis uprooted by fighting since","-28.86732226870754"],["of the Afghan Parliament accuses Iran of setting up Taliban bases in several Iranian cities, and that \"Iran is directly involved in fanning ethnic, linguistic and sectarian tensions in Afghanistan.\" There are reports about Iran's Revolutionary Guards training Afghans inside Iran to carry out terrorist attacks in Afghanistan.\nCurrently, the Revolutionary Guards recruit young people for terrorist activities in Afghanistan and try to revive the Hezb-i-Islami Afghanistan led by Gulbadin Hekmatyar and Taliban groups\n— Syed Kamal, a self-confessed agent for Iran's Revolutionary Guards and member of Sipah-i-Mohmmad India Following an attack on an Israeli diplomat in India in February 2012, Delhi Police","-28.85302945796866"],["Criticism of Islamism Takfir Some Islamists had evolved beyond targeting liberal and secular intellectuals to more mainstream Muslims (What researchers Matteo Sisto and Samir Gurung dub \"Neo-Takfirism\"). In the Algerian Civil War the insurgent/jihadist Islamist group GIA viewed all who failed to actively support its jihad as collaborators with the government, and thus apostates from Islam and eligible military targets. The group slaughtered entire villages, murdered foreigners, and executed Algerians for \"violating Islamic law,\" for \"infractions ranging from infidelity to wearing Western clothing.\"\nIn the Iraq civil war, Takfir was also defined broadly by Sunni Islamist insurgents. By mid-2006,","-28.851216333627235"],["in the Netherlands have a multinational crowd of visitors: from the Middle East and North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Turkey, while Moroccans are the predominant group.\nFrom 2002-2003 onward, a small number of second-generation Moroccan immigrants were drawn to violent radicalization and some of those formed the terrorist Hofstad Network.\nIn 2009, the AIVD reported that Salafist mosques, while spreading an isolationist and intolerant ideology, no longer functioned as incubators for jihadist terrorism and the movement was not growing. This decrease resulted in Dutch governmental organisations to shift their efforts to other problems.\nClose contacts between salafists in the","-28.84480494406307"],["2017 Tehran attacks Background The Iranian government has been battling the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) for over three years with both military advisers and direct troops fighting the group's militants in both Iraq and Syria. ISIL, whose doctrine is based on the stringent Wahhabi segment of Sunni Islam, sees Shia Muslims, the largest Muslim population group in Iran, as apostates and enemies of Islam. Nonetheless, ISIL had yet to carry out any attacks within Iran despite repeatedly threatening the nation's people. In the months before the attack, ISIL increased its propaganda efforts in Persian to influence","-28.821917851266335"],["attacks. The number of incidents from nationalist separatist groups has remained relatively stable in the years since while religious extremism has grown. The prevalence of Islamist groups in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria is the main driver behind these trends.\nFour of the terrorist groups that have been most active since 2001 are Boko Haram, Al Qaeda, the Taliban and ISIL. These groups have been most active in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria. 80 percent of all deaths from terrorism occurred in one of these five countries.\nTerrorism in Pakistan has become a great problem. From the summer of 2007","-28.811197478783583"],["States saw the backing of jihadi Islam as useful. Unforeseen consequences of Zia's policies and promotion of jihad included a growth of sectarianism and the civil war in Afghanistan after Soviet withdrawal, which was mostly controlled by the Taliban by the middle of the 1990s. After 9/11 the United States destroyed Taliban's power in Afghanistan with Pakistan's reluctant support. The country was at the time led by military ruler General Pervez Musharraf who did not share Zia's promotion of Islamic law but support for religious parties grew while he was in power, partially in protest against his pro-US policies. Elections","-28.759639923886425"],["groups criticized the Muslim Brotherhood for not doing enough to stop the spread of Shiism. Another Shiite activist claimed he was arrested and held for 15 months and tortured by the Egyptian State Security Investigations Service during Mubarak's presidency. Indonesia On December 29, 2011 in Nangkrenang, Sampang, Madura Island a Shia Islamic boarding school, a school adviser's house and a school's principal house were burned by local villagers and people from outside. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country in the world which is dominated by Sunnis. A day after the incident, a Jakarta Sunni preacher said: \"It was their","-28.72580169518187"],["of the United States, and later to combat Shia movements supported by Iran. The support had the unintended effect of metastasizing extremism throughout the region. The Saudi government now considers extremist groups like ISIL and the Al-Nusra Front to be one of the two major threats to the kingdom and its monarchy, the other being Iran. In a New York Times op-ed, Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif agreed that terrorism was an international threat and called on the United Nations to block funding of extremist ideologies using Iran's WAVE initiative as a framework. However, he placed the blame on","-28.69510961348351"],["football stadium one Thursday afternoon, curious as to why (the Taliban had banned sports) he \"went inside to discover a convicted murderer being led between the goalposts to be executed by a member of the victim's family.\" \nThe Taliban's brutal treatment of Shia Muslims, and the destruction of Buddhist statues in Bamiyan Valley may also have been influenced by Wahhabism, which had a history of attacking and takfiring Shia, while prior to this attack Afghan Sunnis had never persecuted their Shia minority. (see Abdur Rahman Khan and 1888–1893 Uprisings of Hazaras).\nAnother activity Afghan Muslims had not engaged in before this","-28.68183250052971"],["more foreign Muslim radicals came to study in the hundreds of new madrassas in Pakistan and along the Afghan border, that the Pakistan government funded. Eventually \"more than 100,000 Muslim radicals were to have direct contact with Pakistan and Afghanistan and be influenced by the jihad.\" \nThe Mujahideen of Afghanistan were divided into several factions and the Afghan Arabs helped some factions much more than others. Factions led by Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar are described as having had good relations with Afghan Arabs. The faction led by Ahmad Shah Massoud, did not. Interest in martyrdom Afghan Arabs","-28.664346961741103"],["to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait.\nSaudi Arabia's relations with the West began to cause growing concern among some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped","-28.652114429802168"],["Taliban movement developed and formed from orphans or refugee children who were forced by the Soviets to flee their homes and relocate their lives in Pakistan. The swift rise to power, from the young Taliban in 1996, was the result of the disorder and civil war that had warlords running wild because of the complete breakdown of law and order in Afghanistan after the departure of the Soviets.\nThe CIA World Fact Book reported that as of 2004, Afghanistan still owed $8 billion in bilateral debt, mostly to Russia, however, in 2007 Russia agreed to cancel most of the debt. Refugees","-28.645693985221442"],["as re-establishment of Caliphate and the movements such as pan-Islamism. For these reasons, Dutch colonial administration saw Islam as a potential threat and treated the returning pilgrims and students from the Middle East with particular suspicion. Similar Islamic-nationalist organization Union of Indonesian Muslims (PERMI) faced severe crackdown by the Dutch colonial government, leading to the arrest of its members including Rasuna Said.\nIslam as a vehicle of Indonesian nationalism, however, had gradually waned in the face of the emergence of secular nationalism and more radical political thoughts such as communism. The inner struggle among Sarekat Islam between the reformists and the","-28.635878342182878"],["US, Pakistan, China, Iran and Saudi Arabia. By 1985, half of Afghanistan was estimated to be displaced or to have fled to Iran or Pakistan to avoid the war. Fighting continued until 1988 when Afghanistan, the Soviet Union, the US, and Pakistan sign peace agreements and the Soviet Union began pulling out their troops. The last of the Soviet troops left by 1989, but a civil war continued as the Mujahideen tried to overthrow Najibullah who replaced Karmal in 1986.\nIn 1996, the Taliban took over Kabul and began enforcing their strict Islamic views which meant banning women from work and","-28.633308766642585"],["attempts by an authoritarian regime to combat a radical ideology and anti-constitutional activities. Xinjiang As of 2008, the emergence of Hizb ut-Tahrir was a \"recent phenomenon\" in the Mainland Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang. According to Nicholas Bequelin of Human Rights Watch, the party's influence was \"limited\" to southern Xinjiang, but \"seems to be growing\". \nOne obstacle for the party in Xinjiang is that most Uighur activists seek sovereignty for Xinjiang rather than union in a caliphate.\nAs in other parts of Central Asia the party has been designated \"terrorist\" by the government and is banned. Indonesia Hizb ut-Tahrir used to","-28.624478807556443"],["Shinrikyo. There have been no major reports of religious persecution of the Muslim community; however, because of the situation in Chechnya and neighboring Russia concerns have been expressed by Belarusian Muslims that they may become increasingly vulnerable.\nThese fears were heightened on 16 September 2005 when a bomb was detonated outside a bus stop, injuring two people. On 23 September a bomb was exploded outside a restaurant, wounding nearly 40 people. Muslims are not suspected in the latter attack, which was labeled \"hooliganism\". Capital punishment Belarus is the only European country still using capital punishment. The U.S. and Belarus were the","-28.621600238526298"],["warlords, making Afghanistan one of the poorest countries on earth. In 1992, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan ruled by communist forces collapsed, and democratic Islamist elements of mujahdeen founded the Islamic State of Afghanistan. In 1996, a more conservative and anti-democratic Islamist movement known as the Taliban rose to power, defeated most of the warlords and took over roughly 80% of Afghanistan.\nThe Taliban were spawned by the thousands of madrasahs the Deobandi movement established for impoverished Afghan refugees and supported by governmental and religious groups in neighboring Pakistan. The Taliban differed from other Islamist movements to the point where they","-28.618319478118792"],["terrorism by Xinjiang separatists, saying: \"But China, which prefers to play down the role of its policies in Xinjiang in generating discontent, has long sought to discredit its Uighur critics by linking them to terrorism\". The Economist also mentioned \"Chinese oppression in Xinjiang\" that \"hit at the heart of Uighur identity\" as a factor in the escalating violence, including: \"students are banned from fasting during Ramadan, religious teaching for children is restricted, and Uighur-language education is limited\". Yet according to Dawn, China only discourages fasting for Uighur Muslims and encourages people to eat properly for study and work but authorities","-28.601369321346283"],["and Iran have imposed tighter controls on refugees which have resulted in numerous returnees. In 2012 Pakistan banned extensions of visas to foreigners. Afghan refugees have also settled in India and became Indian citizens over time. Some also made their way into North America, the European Union, Australia, and other parts of the world. The photo of Sharbat Gula placed on National Geographic cover in 1985 became a symbol both of the 1980s Afghan conflict and of the refugee situation. Weakening of the Soviet Union According to scholars Rafael Reuveny and Aseem Prakash, the war contributed to the fall of","-28.583312605624087"],["activities of missionaries from some Islamic countries, coupled with the absence of real opportunities to participate in public affairs, contributed to the popularization of a radical interpretation of Islam. In the February 1999 Tashkent bombings, car bombs hit Tashkent and President Karimov narrowly escaped an assassination attempt. The government blamed the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) for the attacks. Thousands of people suspected of complicity were arrested and imprisoned. In August 2000, militant groups tried to penetrate Uzbek territory from Kyrgyzstan; acts of armed violence were noted in the southern part of the country as well.\nIn March 2004, another wave","-28.580592266800522"],["although in some countries other groups, including Christians, Buddhists, and atheists bear the primary brunt of religious violence. Taliban controlled regions Historically, the Taliban, which controlled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001, prohibited free speech about religious issues or discussions that challenge orthodox Sunni Muslim views. Repression by the Taliban of the Hazara ethnic group, which is predominantly Shia Muslim, was particularly severe. Although the conflict between the Hazaras and the Taliban was political and military as well as religious, and it is not possible to state with certainty that the Taliban engaged in its campaign against the Shi'a solely because","-28.570176045825065"],["spread Islam and the Sharia worldwide. The group's primary aim, however, is to remove the Russian presence in North Caucasus and to establish an Islamic state there, though Abdul Hakim Shishani has acknowledged that these goals are currently unattainable, primarily due to Russia's power. Instead, he believes that sooner or later a world war against Russia will break out, which would allow the North Caucasians to launch a popular, violent uprising to regain their independence. According to Abdul Hakim, peaceful protests and resistance, though admirable, will never be able to end the Russian rule over the Caucasus. Ajnad al-Kavkaz is","-28.556931326747872"],["becoming Islamicized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to Afghanistan, before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent.\nIt is also part of a longer trend predating the spread of Islam. Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the subcontinent, one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia in the pre-Islamic","-28.54643540631514"],["During the reign of Al-Mu'tasim Islam was generally practiced amongst most inhabitants of the region and finally under Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari, Islam was by far, the predominant religion of Kabul along with other major cities of Afghanistan. Later, the Samanids propagated Islam deep into the heart of Central Asia, as the first complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian occurred in the 9th century. Since the 9th century, Islam has dominated the country's religious landscape. Islamic leaders have entered the political sphere at various times of crisis, but rarely exercised secular authority for long. The remnants of a Shahi presence","-28.51258655608399"],["Syrian uprising also deteriorated into a civil war, giving rise to the militant group, ISIS, and partly causing the current refugee crisis. In addition, Yemen, Bahrain, and Algeria have seen major protests.\nHowever, a financial analyst in Dubai suggested that \"the spillover effect of the political turbulence to the large countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council is non-existent as there are no similar drivers.\" Aftermath In mid-May 2013, Tunisia banned the Salafist Ansar al-Sharia from carrying out party congresses. The day after the congress was due to be carried out, clashes between security forces and party supporters in Kairouan resulted in","-28.511392198415706"],["vengeance such Western nationals have against Islam and Muslims.\" Iran's government spokesperson, Gholam-Hossein Elham, said that \"The new wave of the fight against Islam and promoting Islamophobia, which was started by the U.S., has so far opposite effects in the world of Islam as well as other parts of the globe.\" Elham stated that the governments 'of the countries where the anti-Islamic moves have been made' would, in future, prevent any further actions against Islam, saying that 'insults against the holy prophet of Islam and the divine religion were against the principles of freedom of expression'. In Tehran, approximately seventy","-28.502167522150557"],["Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war, and by the 1990s Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Tensions between Iran and Pakistan intensified in 1998 when Iran accused Pakistan of war crimes after Pakistani warplanes had bombarded Afghanistan's last Shia stronghold in support of the Taliban.\nPakistan is an influential and founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with the Arab world and other countries in the Muslim world is a vital factor in Pakistan's foreign","-28.498946936888387"],["many Mujahideen morphed into Taliban and Al Qaeda forces imposing a strict interpretation of Islamic law (Sharia), with Kabul, these mountains, and other parts of Afghanistan as their base. Other Mujahideen joined the Northern Alliance to oppose the Taliban rule.\nAfter the September 11, 2001 terror attacks in New York City and Washington D.C., the American and ISAF campaign against Al Qaeda and their Taliban allies made the Hindu Kush once again a militarized conflict zone. Ethnography Pre-Islamic populations of the Hindu Kush included Shins, Yeshkun, Chiliss, Neemchas Koli, Palus, Gaware, Yeshkuns, and Krammins.","-28.441174414212583"],["Arabia was also partaking in bombings during the Yemeni civil war. In November 2014, eight Shia worshippers were killed by gunmen during Ashura celebrations at a shrine in the city of al-Ahsa. Jafar Al Shayeb, a member of the Qatif municipal council, says that sectarian tensions have already risen sharply as a result of the war Saudi Arabia's new King Salman is waging against the Houthis and that divisive rhetoric from Wahhabi preachers was increasing. He believes that the situation for Saudi Shia was about to get worse.\nCritics point out that the government has done nothing to address rising sectarian","-28.439940898824716"],["carry out attacks on Western troops and that the Afghan military and police are not ready to assume responsibility for the country's security. Other concerns the Monitor noted include: a potential increase in illegal drug trafficking; negative impact on the economy and on social reforms, particularly those for women and destabilization of the country that could affect neighboring countries Pakistan and Iran. Concerns were also raised by Iran; following the announcement, a spokesman for Iran's foreign ministry stated that the agreement will lead to increased instability in Afghanistan due to the continued presence of U.S. forces. Investigative historian and journalist","-28.439169023302384"],["and non-Muslim populations in Multan, which became a center of the Ismaili sect of Islam. The Saffarid Dynasty of Zaranj occupied Kabul and the kingdom of Zunbil permanently in 871 AD. A new chapter of Muslim conquests began when the Samanid Dynasty took over the Saffarid Kingdom and Sabuktigin seized Ghazni. Later Muslim invasions Muslim incursions resumed under later Turkic and Central Asian dynasties like Saffarid Dynasty and Samanid Dynasty with more local capitals, who supplanted the Caliphate and expanded their domains both northwards and eastwards. Continues raids from these empires in north-east of India led to the loss of","-28.429197702109377"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Afghanistan. The Taliban and Al-Qaeda's activities in Afghanistan is seen as a direct symbol of growing Salafism in the country. ISIS has sought to create Khorasan Province, to increase level of religious sectarianism in Afghanistan, which is majority following a more Sufi branch.\\nThus, Afghan Sufis have long accused Salafi movements like Taliban attempting to discredit and oppress Sufi population in the country. Algeria Algeria is traditionally a tolerance Maliki Sunni sect which belonged to larger Sufi branch. Thus, Algerians are known for their Islamic faith as tolerance. However, in 1980s, Algerian young people were sent by the Algerian government to\",\n \"-32.08644939571968\"\n ],\n [\n \"'Islamic Revolution' which would transcend national borders covering Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.\\nOn the other hand, Pakistan's relations with Iran have been strained at times due to sectarian tensions. Iran and Saudi Arabia used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war and by the 1990s, Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Tensions between Iran and Pakistan intensified in 1998, when Iran accused Pakistan of war crimes as Pakistani warplanes bombarded Afghanistan's last Shia stronghold in support of the Taliban. Major dissensions Since 1947, Pakistan's\",\n \"-31.900802345468946\"\n ],\n [\n \"Afghanistan will lead to the creation of an Islamic state with the triumph of the Taliban, God willing.\\\" In Palestine, \\\"if it were not for the jihad in Palestine, the Jews would have crept toward the neighboring countries a long time ago,\\\" and without jihad in Iraq, \\\"America would have moved into Syria.\\\" However the strife between Sunnis and Shiites in the jihad in Iraq is troubling because: \\\"Harming those who are affiliated with Islam but have a different creed is forbidden.\\\"\\nExamples of unlawful slaughter include Al Qaeda's terrorist attacks in America, London, and Madrid, which were wrong because\",\n \"-31.731946569983847\"\n ],\n [\n \"to containing Iranian influence in South and Central Asia.\\nSaudi Arabia was one of three countries to officially recognize the Sunni Taliban government in 1996, along with its allies Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates. During the Afghan Civil War, Iran and Saudi Arabia supported opposing militant factions. Iran assisted the Shia Hizb-i-Wahdat, while Saudi Arabia provided financial support to the Wahhabist Ittihad-i Islami.\\nIn 2001, the invasion of Afghanistan and the removal of the Taliban in the wake of the September 11 attacks benefited Iran, which had previously been on the brink of war with the group. The regime change removed\",\n \"-31.36339666665299\"\n ],\n [\n \"has written that the jihadis \\\"did not become anti-Western after 1991 – they had always been so.\\\"\\nAll westerners, like me, who encountered the so-called `Arabs` inside Afghanistan during the war of resistance were struck (sometimes physically) by their hostility. The Arabs constantly asked the Afghan mujahideen commanders to get rid of the `infidels` and to choose only good Muslims as supporters, and called for the expulsion of Western NGOs ... in many areas the mujahideen had to intervene to prevent physical assaults on westerners.\\nAuthor Gilles Kepel writes that in Peshwar Pakistan, some Afghan Arabs attacked \\\"Europe and American humanitarian\",\n \"-31.34907439420931\"\n ],\n [\n \"IDPs in Afghanistan are as a direct and indirect result of conflict and violence, although there are also reasons of natural disasters. The Soviet invasion caused approximately 2 million Afghans to be internally displaced, mostly from rural areas into urban areas. The Afghan Civil War (1992–96) caused a new wave of internal displacement, with many Afghans moving to northern cities in order to get away from the Taliban ruled areas. Afghanistan continues to suffer from insecurity and conflict, which has led to an increase in internal displacement. Host countries According to the UNHCR, there are approximately 2.6 million registered refugees\",\n \"-31.12072236300446\"\n ],\n [\n \"saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas.\\nConflict between the two militias soon escalated into a full-scale war.\\nDue to the sudden initiation of the war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over\",\n \"-30.945240927743725\"\n ],\n [\n \"increased in Afghanistan after hundreds of suicide bombings and assassinations. In 2017 there were mass protests in several Afghan provinces, trying to highlight that Pakistan was a terrorist-sponsoring state. Middle East In certain Middle Eastern countries, some Middle Easterns have behaved in a somewhat discriminatory and violent manner toward South Asians like Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans. In the case of Pakistanis, these attacks are usually carried on darker-skinned individuals versus their lighter-skinned, Iranic counterparts. Middle Easterns youth have also occasionally engaged in violent attacks on South Asian workers. France After the July 2005 bombings in London, there were waves\",\n \"-30.823877170081687\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kabul. Iran assisted the Hizb-e Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari. Saudi Arabia supported the Ittihad-i Islami faction. The conflict between these militias also escalated into war.\\nDue to this sudden initiation of civil war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals inside different factions. Ceasefires, negotiated by representatives of the Islamic State's newly appointed Defense Minister Ahmad Shah Massoud, President Sibghatullah Mojaddedi and later President Burhanuddin Rabbani (the interim government), or officials from the International\",\n \"-30.783996053476585\"\n ],\n [\n \"separatist violence. The situation in Xinjiang quieted until mid-2006, although ethnic tensions remained. Terrorist groups The Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) is an Islamic extremist terrorist organisation seeking the expulsion of China from \\\"East Turkestan\\\". Since its emergence in 2007 it has claimed responsibility for a number of terrorist attacks, and the Chinese government accuses it of over 200, resulting in 162 deaths and over 440 injuries. Hundreds of Uyghurs are thought to reside in Pakistan and Afghanistan and to have fought alongside extremist groups in conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War. However, the exact size of the Turkistan Islamic\",\n \"-30.539910664665513\"\n ],\n [\n \"Afghanistan. This resulted in a major breach, with Iran becoming closer to India. Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. The Pakistani backed Taliban fought the Iranian backed Northern Alliance in Afghanistan and gained control of 90 percent of that country. As noted by a Pakistani foreign service officer, it was difficult to maintain good relations with Israel, Saudi Arabia, the United States, and Iran at the same time, given Iran's long history of rivalry with these states. In 1995 Bhutto paid a lengthy state visit to\",\n \"-30.482439175830223\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Central Asia, became much more varied in this short time. Furthermore, Islam was attractive because it offered alternatives and solutions to the myriad political and economic problems facing the republics in the wake of the Soviet Union's collapse.\\nHowever, the governments of the Central Asian republics were wary of Islam in the political sphere. Their fears of undue influence were soon justified by the outbreak of the Tajik Civil War in 1992, between the Tajik government and a coalition of opponents led by a radical Islamist group called the Islamic Renaissance Party. The civil war, which lasted until 1997, demonstrated\",\n \"-30.473876520467456\"\n ],\n [\n \"of American cultures and ideals into other countries.\\nGlobalization is especially threatening to Arab nations because Islam is not simply a religious practice, but it dominates laws and social norms such as marriages and spending habits. Since globalization is seen to be a way of secularizing a nation, Muslims also see it as a cultural and religious invasion, requiring the separation of religion and daily life. Radicalists see it as a perversion of pure Islamic doctrine, as globalization is seen to merge the domain of Islam (Dar al-Islam) and the domain of infidelity (Dar-al-Kufr).\\nThe Western influence on media is also unwelcome.\",\n \"-30.26247760372644\"\n ],\n [\n \"Members from the Nasr faction were particularly highlighted in this, and they have been accused of abductions, extortion and other crimes. Taliban presence in Ghazni has become a significant problem as well with some sources referring to the area as Taliban controlled. Aside from this the major sources of conflict are related to land and water, while debt and marriage related conflict does occur Land conflicts increased greatly during the period of drought.\\nIn 2007 the general upsurge in violence in Afghanistan has spilled into Jaghori Zeba. Taliban militiamen from neighbouring districts have staged two attacks against district police posts and\",\n \"-30.25571363742347\"\n ],\n [\n \"a traditional burqa.\\nThe Taliban repressed minority populations, particularly the Shia, as a retaliation in which approximately 2,500 Taliban soldiers were massacred by Abdul Malik and his Shia followers; attacked the Iranian embassy, killing eight diplomats and a television reporter, claiming them as spies.\\nIn 2001, as part of a drive against relics of Afghanistan's pre-Islamic past, the Taliban destroyed two large statues of Buddha outside of the city of Bamiyan and announced destruction of all pre-Islamic statues in Afghanistan, including the remaining holdings of the Kabul Museum.\\nIn addition to the continuing civil strife, the country suffered from widespread poverty, drought, a\",\n \"-30.22130246600136\"\n ],\n [\n \"2016–17 Kashmir unrest Background In late 2015 and early 2016, observers of Kashmir reported growth in home-grown Islamic militancy and radicalization of the Kashmiri Muslim population. Several reasons for the growth have been cited such as the absence of a political dialogue, the lack of economic opportunities, frustration due to high unemployment, excessive militarization of the public space and repeated human rights violations by the security forces.\\nAccording to scholar-journalist Haris Zargar, the increasing radicalization represented a counter-reaction to the shaping of the nationalist identity in India based on its rising middle class and Hindu nationalism. The rise of forceful Hindu\",\n \"-30.193069314787863\"\n ],\n [\n \"(a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local governor. In 1994, the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan.\\nLate 1994, Kabul witnessed some weeks of relative calm, followed by resumed heavy shelling. Islamic State's Secretary of Defense Ahmad Shah Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the process. The Taliban declined. They started shelling Kabul in early 1995\",\n \"-30.144061764876824\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Algeria caused a civil war, caused a near-civil war in Egypt, and caused the downfall of the Soviet occupation in Afghanistan. In many cases the military wings of these groups were supplied with money and arms by the U.S. and U.K.\\nMuslim critics of Islamic fundamentalism often draw a parallel between the modern fundamentalist movement and the 7th century Khawarij sect. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to Takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to\",\n \"-30.14132162905298\"\n ],\n [\n \"overwhelmingly Pashtun and were accused of not sharing power with the approximately 60% of Afghans who belonged to other ethnic groups. (see: Taliban#Ideology)\\nThe Taliban's hosting of Osama bin Laden led to an American-organized attack which drove them from power following the 9/11 attacks.\\nTaliban are still very much alive and fighting a vigorous insurgency with suicide bombings and armed attacks being launched against NATO and Afghan government targets. Algeria An Islamist movement influenced by Salafism and the jihad in Afghanistan, as well as the Muslim Brotherhood, was the FIS or Front Islamique de Salut (the Islamic Salvation Front) in Algeria. Founded\",\n \"-30.08141481463099\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Xinjiang to calm the situation down. Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt helped China kill off a statement on the Xinjiang situation in the OIC. There has been no public reaction by the Arab League, Saudi Arabia and Iran on the situation and China has built stronger relations with Iran and Saudi Arabia due to their influence in the Islamic world.\\nAfghanistan, Cambodia, and Vietnam said they believed the Chinese government was \\\"taking appropriate measures\\\", their statements backed \\\"the territorial integrity and sovereignty of China\\\". Micronesian Vice President Alik Alik condemned the riot as a \\\"terrorist act\\\".\\nIran said it shared the\",\n \"-30.00880990854057\"\n ],\n [\n \"Persians in Turkish fatwas. During the era of European colonialism, the political decline of Islam impeded organized state action against the pressure from Western nations, and the resulting feeling of impotence contributed to a rise of hatred against unbelievers and its periodic manifestations, such as massacres.\\nHowever, there was extensive religious violence in India between Muslims and non-Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire (before the political decline of Islam).\\nIn their memoirs on Muslim invasions, enslavement and plunder of this period, many Muslim historians in South Asia used the term Kafir for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains.\\nRaziuddin Aquil states that\",\n \"-29.96863524892251\"\n ],\n [\n \"the levels of Islamophobia among Buddhists and Hindus are significantly higher than among followers of other religions.\\nIn July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, Germany and France, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China’s mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other Muslim minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps. Criticism of term and use Although by the first decade of the 21st century the term \\\"Islamophobia\\\" had become widely recognized and used, its use, its construction and the concept itself have been criticized. Roland Imhoff and\",\n \"-29.935374887980288\"\n ],\n [\n \"unrest. The increase in refugee numbers has been credited primarily to the Taliban presence within Afghanistan. Their retreat in 2001, led to nearly 6 million Afghan refugees returning to their homeland. However, after civil unrest and fighting alongside the Taliban's return, nearly 2.5 million refugees have fled Afghanistan. Most Afghan refugees, however, seek refuge in the neighboring nation of Pakistan. Increasing numbers, though, have committed to the strenuous migration to Turkey and the European Union. Economic Migrants For long, economic migration has been a global issue. Such migration is pursued in order to seek living conditions/standards and job opportunities that\",\n \"-29.918862087062735\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Islamic World travelled to Afghanistan to defend that Muslim nation from conquest, calling it a Jihad, or Holy War. The U.S. supported the Jihadists and Afghan resisters, despite the fact that the Jihadists were vehemently anti-Western. By 1989 Soviet forces were forced to withdraw and Afghanistan fell into civil war, with an Islamic fundamentalist government, the Taliban taking over much of the country.\\nThe late 1970s had seen a lessening of tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union, called Détente. However, by the 1980s Détente had ended with the invasion of Afghanistan. In 1981, Ronald Reagan became President of the\",\n \"-29.868001769129478\"\n ],\n [\n \"Islam in Afghanistan History During the 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate Arabs entered the territory that is now Afghanistan after defeating the Sassanian Persians in Nihawand. After this colossal defeat, the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdegerd III, fled eastward deep into Central Asia. In pursuing Yazdegerd, the Arabs entered the area from northeastern Iran via Herat, where they stationed a large portion of their army before advancing toward northern Afghanistan.\\nMany of the inhabitants of northern Afghanistan accepted Islam through Umayyad missionary efforts, particularly under the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and Umar ibn AbdulAziz. In south, Abdur Rahman bin Samara\",\n \"-29.845865752577083\"\n ],\n [\n \"why some Afghans liked, and still like, the Taliban, despite its violence and brutality, was that it promised a relief from the graft and injustice practiced by mujahideen warlords. The Asia Foundation added that the perceived root of corruption in the nation had changed during the previous five years. Earlier, most Afghans believed that corruption was due to low salaries of civil servants, whereas currently it is attributed to a lack of sanctions and a lack of competent law enforcement. Attitudes toward corruption On the one hand, Afghans criticize corruption; on the other hand, they increasingly accept patronage and\",\n \"-29.82406892135623\"\n ],\n [\n \"various parts of Afghanistan, particularly Jalalabad and Kabul. Many left Afghanistan after the Taliban came to power in 1996, mainly due to harsh restrictions imposed on them, leaving a population of approximately 1,000, mainly based in Kabul and Jalalabad. India did not have any official representation in Afghanistan while the Taliban were in power. The small Hindu and Sikh communities suffered harsh discrimination during that period. In April 2001, the Taliban issued an edict requiring Hindu males to wear marks of red dots (tilak) on their forehead, were barred from wearing salwar kameez or white turban and forced to wear\",\n \"-29.81661243212875\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pakistan and the West. In the wake of the Iranian revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Iranian consulate in Afghanistan closed, as did the Afghan consulate in Iran. Relations between Afghanistan and Iran quickly deteriorated even more. In 1985, Iran urged Afghan Shia groups to unite and oppose the Government of Afghanistan. Iran supported the mujahideen rebels and provided various types of assistances to them who pledged loyalty to the Iranian Revolution. In the meantime, over a million Afghan refugees were allowed to enter Iran.\\nFollowing the emergence of the Taliban government and their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's minorities,\",\n \"-29.77468255616259\"\n ],\n [\n \"Asian energy resources.\\nIn Tajikistan, the government took advantage of this shift in international attitude in order to erode the position of Islam in politics, taking steps such as forbidding the hijab (which is not traditional in Tajikistan, due to Soviet rule) in public schools and reducing the legal rights of Islamic groups.\\nSince 2001, ethnic and religious tensions in the Central Asian republics combined with endemic poverty and poor economic performance have made them increasingly volatile. However, governments as often use Islamic groups as a justification for repression and crackdowns as those groups are the cause of violence, if not more\",\n \"-29.76642731067477\"\n ],\n [\n \"the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: \\\"Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp.\\\"\\nThe Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) plus Azerbaijan from Southern Caucasus are Muslim, except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities.\",\n \"-29.724581289628986\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"fear and distrust towards Islam\\\" and particularly the Islamic Republic and its founder. In the Mideast and Muslim world, particularly in its early years, it triggered enormous enthusiasm and redoubled opposition to western intervention and influence. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia (the 1979 week-long takeover of the Grand Mosque), Egypt (the 1981 machine-gunning of the Egyptian President Sadat), Syria (the Muslim Brotherhood rebellion in Hama), and Lebanon (the 1983 bombing of the American Embassy and French and American peace-keeping troops). Consolidation of the Revolution Instability in Iran did not end with the creation of the Islamic Republic and\",\n \"-29.67668722369126\"\n ],\n [\n \"of their religious beliefs, the religious affiliation of the Hazaras apparently was a significant factor leading to their repression. After the United States invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, the Taliban was forced out of power and began an insurgency against the new government and allied US forces. The Taliban continues to prohibit music, movies, and television on religious grounds in areas that it still holds.\\nAccording to the U.S. Military, the Taliban controls 10% of Afghanistan as of December 2017. There are also pockets of territory controlled by Islamic State affiliates. On October 14, 2017, The Guardian reported that there were\",\n \"-29.669514243141748\"\n ],\n [\n \"Eastern Afghanistan, survived the Ghurid invasion in the 12th century and endured until the invasion of the Mongols. Legacy At its height, the Ghaznavid empire grew to cover large parts of present-day Iran, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, all of Afghanistan, Pakistan and large parts of northwest India. The Ghaznavid rulers are generally credited with spreading Islam into the Indian subcontinent. In addition to the wealth accumulated through raiding Indian cities, and exacting tribute from Indian rajas, the Ghaznavids also benefited from their position as an intermediary along the trade routes between China and the Mediterranean. They were, however, unable to hold\",\n \"-29.652076251106337\"\n ],\n [\n \"globalization Some authors claim that the general reaction to globalization among the Arab states has been a negative or a defensive one. The key reason for the rejection may be the lack of previous cultural penetration of the Islamic Middle East by Western culture, institutions and ideas. In this context globalization was seen as a form of surrender to a dominant, non-indigenous standpoint. Islam, a religion governed by its own set of laws, developed an alternate world view with many of the elements of globalization contradicting it. It has a powerful and cohesive community which at times acts\",\n \"-29.597161743877223\"\n ],\n [\n \"countries like Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latvia. Farid Hafez is also editor of the German-English Islamophobia Studies Yearbook. Geographic trends An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of Wahhabism, according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti-Terrorist Committee.\\nVarious translations of the Qur'an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy. Anti-Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia. In Greece, Islamophobia accompanies anti-immigrant sentiment, as immigrants are now 15% of the country's population and 90% of the EU's illegal entries are through Greece. In France Islamophobia\",\n \"-29.56944937602384\"\n ],\n [\n \"struggles and oppositional ideas through these media. \\nInitially globalization was expected to spread the zone of peace by delivering economic prosperity which people would not want to sacrifice in conflicts. Instead the imposition of structural adjustment, of unpopular and inequitable peace treaties together with the US campaign against terrorism, led to more unrest and instability. This helped to create a chain reaction as the victims of economic liberalization appear to be among the main constituents of Islamic opposition movements. The Jihadists Radical Islamists view globalization as a new dawah(call) for the elimination of the boundaries between Dar al-Islam (domain of\",\n \"-29.53354174940614\"\n ],\n [\n \"reforms and put an end to one-party rule, was \\\"crushed as a political factor\\\".\\nAt least at first, the \\\"unspeakable atrocities\\\" and enormous loss of life on behalf of a military defeat \\\"drastically weakened Islamism as a whole\\\" throughout the Muslim world, and led to much time and energy being spent by Islamists distancing themselves from extremism. In Algeria the war left the public \\\"with a deep fear of instability\\\" according to Algerian journalist Kamel Daoud. The country was one of the few in the Arab world not to participate in the Arab Spring.\",\n \"-29.5056605162099\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shia Hazara fighters into its ranks. The Taliban have also condemned ISIS linked attacks on the Hazara Shia minority. United States The United States never recognized the Taliban government in Afghanistan. Ahmed Rashid states that the US indirectly supported the Taliban through its ally in Pakistan between 1994 and 1996 because Washington viewed the Taliban as anti-Iranian, anti-Shia and pro-Western. Washington furthermore hoped that the Taliban would support development planned by the US-based oil company Unocal. For example, it made no comment when the Taliban captured Herat in 1995, and expelled thousands of girls from schools. In late 1997,\",\n \"-29.48600998261827\"\n ],\n [\n \"the fact of heavy disputes between their versions of faith in the country.\\nSaudi Arabia has been quietly branding and increasing the presence of Salafism in the country, and there has been a number of students from Indonesia to study Saudi Wahhabism to become its clerics.\\nFollowing Surabaya bombings in 2018, increasing anti-Salafism was witnessed among Indonesian Muslims of Sufi belief. Iran While Iran is a majority Shia country, it has a significant Sunni minority population, including those of Sufi and Salafi belief.\\nWhen the theocratic Shia regime was founded in Iran at 1979, it is met with heavy opposition from the Sunni\",\n \"-29.443529522279277\"\n ],\n [\n \"Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Yemen, Kuwait, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, as well as other Arab states with Chechnya, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Western countries. Against atheists During the Soviet-Afghan war in the 1980s, many Muslims received calls for a jihad against atheists. Mujahideen were recruited from various countries including Egypt, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. The conflict gradually turned from one against occupation to one seen as a jihad.\",\n \"-29.42350063637059\"\n ],\n [\n \"out. In a pamphlet entitled \\\"Why Are We Waging Jihad?\\\", the group states that all of India along with many other countries were once ruled by Muslims and were Muslim lands, which is their duty to take it back from the non-Muslims. It declared United States, India, and Israel as \\\"existential enemies of Islam\\\". LeT believes that jihad is the duty of all Muslims and must be waged until eight objectives are met: ending persecution against Muslims, establishing Islam as the dominant way of life in the world, forcing disbelievers to pay jizya (a tax on non-Muslims), fighting for the\",\n \"-29.354032450530212\"\n ],\n [\n \"War, when hundreds of foreign fighters (mostly Sunni Arabs) arrived in Pakistan to take part in the Afghan Jihad. Pakistan President Zia-ul-Haq's military administration policy reflected extremist views towards the Shiites and caused religious tensions to rise between Sunni and Shiites in Pakistan, much to the discomfort of Iran. During the Iran–Iraq War, the Arab countries and the United States, who were supporting Iraq, pressured Pakistan to discontinue its covert support and military funding for Iran.\\nThe 1980s were a difficult time in military relations for both countries, as Iran was blamed for the rising ethnic tensions between Sunnis and Shiites\",\n \"-29.31783394757076\"\n ],\n [\n \"were launched by jihadist Islamist group such as Jamaah Islamiyah's attacks on Bali. The ultra conservative doctrine of Salafi and Wahhabi adhered and promoted by the state of Saudi Arabia has been dominated the global discourse of Islam for decades. The wary sentiments were aggravated further by the advent of ISIS in 2013 that performed abhorred war crimes in the name of Islam. \\nIn recent years, there are the rise of fundamentalism and religious intolerance in Indonesia. Internally, some of foreign and local Islamist organizations, such as Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (HTI), Front Pembela Islam (FPI) also Islamist political party such\",\n \"-29.30260682736116\"\n ],\n [\n \"period. Buddhism therefore continued in the region until the arrival of Islam with the Abbasids. Despite the prominence and duration of Buddhist influence in Afghanistan prior to this period, the religion and any influence it had on architectural structures was entirely eliminated under Islamic rule. Early Islamic architecture The initial spread of Islam to Afghanistan occurred around the 8th century AD, with Abbasid rule succeeded by Saffarids and later Samanids to 961 AD. Following this point in time Afghanistan was established as the centre of Islamic civilisation under the Ghaznavid Empire, succeeded by the Ghorids until 1219. The mausoleum The\",\n \"-29.301185217453167\"\n ],\n [\n \"fragile and hard-won peace. In the summers of 1999 and 2000, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan used Tajikistan as a staging ground for an insurgency campaign against the government of Uzbekistan. At the same time, Taliban advances in northern Afghanistan threatened to inundate Tajikistan with thousands of refugees. A constant flow of illegal narcotics continues to transit Tajikistan from Afghanistan on its way to Russian and European markets, leaving widespread violent crime, corruption, increased HIV incidence, and economic distortions in its wake. During 2002, stability in the country continued to increase, and the year was largely free of the assassinations\",\n \"-29.290041732718237\"\n ],\n [\n \"a known Taliban facilitator. Three of the individuals were killed... Iranians certainly view as making life more difficult for us if Afghanistan is unstable. We don't have that kind of relationship with the Iranians. That's why I am particularly troubled by the interception of weapons coming from Iran. But we know that it's more than weapons; it's money; it's also according to some reports, training at Iranian camps as well.\\n— General David Petraeus\\nIn March 2012, Najibullah Kabuli, leader of the National Participation Front (NPF) of Afghanistan, accused three senior leaders of Iran's Revolutionary Guards of plotting to assassinate him. Some members\",\n \"-29.25448055855304\"\n ],\n [\n \"Arabia and elsewhere were often radicalized by Islamic militants who were \\\"much more extreme than their Saudi sponsors\\\". Islamic Revolution in Iran The February 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran challenged Saudi Wahhabism in a number of ways on a number of fronts. It was a revolution of Shia, not Sunni, Islam and Wahhabism held that Shia were not truly Muslims. Nonetheless, its massive popularity in Iran and its overthrow of a pro-American secular monarchy generated enormous enthusiasm among pious Sunni, not just Shia Muslims around the world. Its leader (Ruhollah Khomeini) preached that monarchy was against Islam and\",\n \"-29.247398622708715\"\n ],\n [\n \"role.\\nPoliticized Islam in Afghanistan represents a break from Afghan traditions. The Islamist Movement originated in 1958 among faculties of Kabul University, particularly in the Faculty of Islamic Law, which had been founded in 1952 with the stated purpose of raising the quality of religious teaching to accommodate modern science and technology. The founders were largely professors influenced by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, a party formed in the 1930s that was dedicated to Islamic revivalism and social, economic, and political equity. Their objective is to come to terms with the modern world through the development of a political ideology\",\n \"-29.245219017728232\"\n ],\n [\n \"even a \\\"conspiracy\\\", most commentators, even some pro-government ones, have come to conclude that \\\"the real reason for the loss of faith in Islam is not the West but Turkey itself: It is a reaction to all the corruption, arrogance, narrow-mindedness, bigotry, cruelty and crudeness displayed in the name of Islam.\\\" Especially when the AKP Islamists are in power to enforce Islam upon society, this is making citizens turn their back on it. United Arab Emirates Apostasy is a crime in the United Arab Emirates. In 1978, UAE began the process of Islamising the nation's law, after its council of\",\n \"-29.226733463874552\"\n ],\n [\n \"saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas.\\n According to Human Rights Watch, numerous Iranian agents were assisting the Shia Hezb-i Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari, as Iran was attempting to maximize Wahdat's military power and influence. Saudi Arabia was trying to strengthen the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Again, Human Rights Watch writes:\\nRare ceasefires, usually negotiated by representatives\",\n \"-29.179762722109444\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the madrasses in a spirit of conservatism and religious rigor.\\\" As the Afghan students came of age, they formed \\\"the mainstay\\\" of the Taliban in Afghanistan and of the anti-Shia Sipah-e-Sahaba Sunni terror group in Pakistan. But unlike the traditionally non-violent Deobandi, this \\\"hybrid movement\\\" embraced the violence of jihad, and unlike the Islamists of Hizb-e-Islami they were uninterested in \\\"islamizing modernity\\\" of western knowledge or in western knowledge at all. The culture of religious purification, absolute obedience to leaders, and disinterest in anything else, is thought to explain the willingness of Hizb-e-Islami-trained soldiers to bombard Kabul with artillery\",\n \"-29.147726646449883\"\n ],\n [\n \"deported from NATO countries. This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Pakistani-backed Taliban insurgency. The United States also accuses neighboring Iran of providing small level of support to the Taliban insurgents. According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011.\\nIn October 2008 U.S. Defense Secretary Gates had asserted that\",\n \"-29.14493562973803\"\n ],\n [\n \"Afghanistan–United Arab Emirates relations War in Aghanistan UAE has a small humanitarian and peacekeeping military presence in Afghanistan. UAE troops have been welcomed by the country as allied Muslim soldiers and the Emirati soldiers have complimented the Afghan hospitality they encounter. 10 January 2017 Afghanistan bombings On January 10, 2017, five diplomats from the UAE who were present to inaugurate a number of UAE backed projects in the city, were killed in a bombing of Humayun Azizi guest house in Kandahar City. The UAE's Ambassador to Afghanistan, Juma Mohammed Abdullah al-Kaabi, was wounded and later died of his wounds.\",\n \"-29.132514127210015\"\n ],\n [\n \"party in Russia, but was banned by the Central Asian communist governments. Partly as a result of this oppression, political opposition erupted into the violence of the civil war in Tajikistan, in which over 50,000 people were killed out of a population of 6 million and another 250,000 fled the country to Afghanistan, Uzbekistan or elsewhere. Following the civil war, the Tajik government incorporated Islamic groups into the government in order to prevent future tensions. However, the other Central Asian republics did not follow this example, continuing instead to repress and persecute Islamic groups rather than allow them to participate\",\n \"-29.101657128427178\"\n ],\n [\n \"of thousands of Shias were killed in the Ottoman Empire, including the Alevis in Turkey, the Alawis in Syria and the Shi'a of Lebanon. China Most foreign slaves in Xinjiang were Shia Ismaili Mountain Tajiks of China. They were referred to by Sunni Turkic Muslims as Ghalcha, and enslaved because they were different from the Sunni Turkic inhabitants. Shia Muslims were sold as slaves in Khotan. The Muslims of Xinjiang traded Shias as slaves. Afghanistan There is widespread violence and discrimination against Afghan Hazaras, who became an easy target for the Sunni extremists due to their distinct features. Abdur Rahman\",\n \"-29.09391234913346\"\n ],\n [\n \"beliefs in Russia has provoked the anger of the Sunni establishment. The Russian Council of Muftis issued a fatwa against Quranism and those it said were its leaders in Russia. However, one of the purported Quranist leaders mentioned in the fatwa, the Russian philosopher Taufik Ibrahim, pointed out that his beliefs were more in line with the Jadid tradition, although there is some overlap between the two groups in Russia. \\nIn Turkey, Quranists have responded on social media to criticism by the Diyanet on their Quranist beliefs.\\nIn South Africa, an Oxford educated Islamic scholar, Taj Hargey, established the Open Mosque.\",\n \"-29.0862914242025\"\n ],\n [\n \"Iran's primary threat along its eastern borders, and the removal of Saddam Hussein two years later further bolstered its position, allowing it to refocus its efforts on other areas, especially Syria and Yemen. In the ensuing years, Iran sought to expand its influence over Afghanistan. It provided limited support to the Taliban as a potential means of increasing leverage with the Afghan central government and creating a deterrent to conflict with the United States, although the support waned amid growing backlash in Afghanistan against perceived Iranian interference. Iran has also sought to expand soft influence by building pro-Iranian schools, mosques,\",\n \"-29.075832583388546\"\n ],\n [\n \"Islam is the last and the most complete of the revealed religions, why are the Muslim countries lagging behind the modern world?\\\" The journalists went into hiding before the sentences were pronounced.\\nIn 2003, two editors of the weekly Aftab were jailed for a week on blasphemy charges for publishing a controversial series of articles condemning crimes committed by senior Afghan leaders in the name of Islam. The two editors were later cleared of the charges, but they were forced to leave Afghanistan because of threats against their lives.\",\n \"-29.07559842831688\"\n ],\n [\n \"joined al-Jihad because of their ability to survive. Despite the strong reactions of the government after the assassination of Sadat, al-Jihad reformed into smaller branches and has continued to be the source of terrorist acts and violent community outbreaks ever since. The end of the century After the assassination of Sadat, moving into the last decade of the century, al-Jihad remained the most prominent Islamic extremist group in Egypt, and was now harkening back to the ideals of their previous military commander, Lt. Col. Abbud al-Zumar, to recruit and rely on the masses to stage a successful uprising. Al-Zumar was\",\n \"-29.07150031393394\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the other former Soviet republics the dangers posed by Islamic opposition groups. The takeover in 1996 of Afghanistan by the Taliban further emphasized that threat.\\nThe Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP) was one of several similar Islamic opposition groups, including the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), which also fought against the Tajik government in the civil war. The IRP had its origins in underground Islamic groups in the Soviet Union. It was formed in 1990 in Astrakhan by a group consisting mostly of Tatar intellectuals, with separate branches for each Soviet republic. It was in fact registered as an official political\",\n \"-29.05690467322711\"\n ],\n [\n \"Iraqis, Afghans \\\"coming to avenge what is going on in their country\\\"; their lack of religiosity before being \\\"born again\\\" in a foreign country; the high percentage of converts to Islam among them; their \\\"de-territorialized backgrounds\\\"—\\\"For instance, they may be born in a country, then educated in another country, then go to fight in a third country and take refuge in a fourth country\\\"; their nontraditional belief that jihad is permanent, global, and \\\"not linked with a specific territory.\\\"\\nThis profile differs from that found among recent local (as opposed to global) Islamist suicide bombers in Afghanistan, according to a 2007\",\n \"-29.034897204488516\"\n ],\n [\n \"Islamic revivalists in several countries. From that time through the early post-Soviet era, some officials in Moscow and in Tajikistan warned of an extremist Islamic menace, often on the basis of limited or distorted evidence. Despite all these efforts, Islam remained an important part of the identity of the Tajiks and other Muslim peoples of Tajikistan through the end of the Soviet era and the first years of independence. Recent developments In October 2005, Tajikistan's Ministry of Education banned female students from wearing Islamic headscarves in secular schools. Wearing the hijab, or head scarf traditionally worn by Muslim women, and\",\n \"-28.985505102245952\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Peshawar to fight jihad in Afghanistan. As Algeria was a close ally of the jihadists enemy the Soviet Union, these jihadists tended to consider the Afghan jihad a \\\"prelude\\\" to jihad against the Algerian FLN state. After the Marxist government in Afghanistan fell, many of the Salafist-Jihadis returned to Algeria and supported the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) and later the GIA insurgents.\\nDuring and after the 1988 October Riots Islamists \\\"set about building bridges to the young urban poor\\\". Evidence of their effectiveness was that the riots \\\"petered out\\\" after meetings between the President Chadli Bendjedid and\",\n \"-28.973220885847695\"\n ],\n [\n \"ISIL as \\\"terrorist organization\\\" and \\\"Takfiri\\\".\\nThe deputy secretary of Supreme National Security Council has also called it \\\"terrorist group\\\". ISIL's threats to Iran While Iran is a Shia-dominant country, ISIL is ideologically anti-Shia and regards Shias as infidels, having killed thousands of them. After rapidly expanding in Iraq, ISIL became a threat only kilometers away from Iranian western borders. With the Pakistan-based Sunni Jihadist groups in eastern Iran and an ongoing Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency, some alarmed the possibility of a wider backlash there.\\nIran threatened ISIL that managing to attack Baghdad or holy shrines of Shia Imams and getting close\",\n \"-28.95850090132444\"\n ],\n [\n \"aided by Shi'a Iran and fought against the Soviet-backed Afghan government as well as other mujahideen groups.\\nDuring the political maneuvering leading up to the establishment of the Islamic State of Afghanistan in 1992, the Shi'a groups unsuccessfully negotiated for more equitable, consequential political and social roles. Ismailism The Ismaili Shiites accepted Ismail ibn Jafar instead of Musa al-Kadhim as the successor to Imam Jafar as-Sadiq. Ismaili communities in Afghanistan are less populous than the Twelver who consider the Ismaili heretical. They are found primarily in and near the eastern Hazarajat, in the Baghlan area north of the Hindu Kush, among\",\n \"-28.952831730712205\"\n ],\n [\n \"leader Mayo. In December 2018, it was reported that Islamist political parties like Al-Islah and jihadi militant groups like Al-Qaeda and Islamic State (Isis) were the main targets of the UAE, with the Houthis no longer being regarded as the greatest enemy of the UAE, with the Saudis being unable to do anything about it.\",\n \"-28.91297328748624\"\n ],\n [\n \"example), and increasing aid to Islamic groups (Islamist madrassas around the world and even aiding some violent Islamist groups) that did not, but its pre-war influence on behalf of moderation was greatly reduced. One result of this was a campaign of attacks on government officials and tourists in Egypt, a bloody civil war in Algeria and Osama bin Laden's terror attacks climaxing in the 9/11 attack. Afghanistan (Taliban) In Afghanistan, the mujahideen's victory against the Soviet Union in the 1980s did not lead to justice and prosperity, due to a vicious and destructive civil war between political and tribal\",\n \"-28.909947298874613\"\n ],\n [\n \"the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over their (sub-)commanders. For civilians there was little security from murder, rape and extortion. An estimated 25,000 people died during the most intense period of bombardment by Hekmatyar's Hezb-i Islami and the Junbish-i Milli forces of Abdul Rashid Dostum, who had created an alliance with Hekmatyar\",\n \"-28.8677325717872\"\n ],\n [\n \"include the many who were born inside Iran during the last 35 years. The number of Afghan refugees is decreasing significantly every year due to voluntary repatriation. For instance, in 2017 alone, over half a million of them returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan and Iran.\\nThe 2011 industrialized country asylum data notes a 30% increase in applications from Afghans from 2010 to 2011, primarily towards Germany and Turkey. Pakistan Since the beginning US military intervention against the Taliban in Pakistan over 1.2 million people have been displaced in across the country, joined by a further 555,000 Pakistanis uprooted by fighting since\",\n \"-28.86732226870754\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the Afghan Parliament accuses Iran of setting up Taliban bases in several Iranian cities, and that \\\"Iran is directly involved in fanning ethnic, linguistic and sectarian tensions in Afghanistan.\\\" There are reports about Iran's Revolutionary Guards training Afghans inside Iran to carry out terrorist attacks in Afghanistan.\\nCurrently, the Revolutionary Guards recruit young people for terrorist activities in Afghanistan and try to revive the Hezb-i-Islami Afghanistan led by Gulbadin Hekmatyar and Taliban groups\\n— Syed Kamal, a self-confessed agent for Iran's Revolutionary Guards and member of Sipah-i-Mohmmad India Following an attack on an Israeli diplomat in India in February 2012, Delhi Police\",\n \"-28.85302945796866\"\n ],\n [\n \"Criticism of Islamism Takfir Some Islamists had evolved beyond targeting liberal and secular intellectuals to more mainstream Muslims (What researchers Matteo Sisto and Samir Gurung dub \\\"Neo-Takfirism\\\"). In the Algerian Civil War the insurgent/jihadist Islamist group GIA viewed all who failed to actively support its jihad as collaborators with the government, and thus apostates from Islam and eligible military targets. The group slaughtered entire villages, murdered foreigners, and executed Algerians for \\\"violating Islamic law,\\\" for \\\"infractions ranging from infidelity to wearing Western clothing.\\\"\\nIn the Iraq civil war, Takfir was also defined broadly by Sunni Islamist insurgents. By mid-2006,\",\n \"-28.851216333627235\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the Netherlands have a multinational crowd of visitors: from the Middle East and North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Turkey, while Moroccans are the predominant group.\\nFrom 2002-2003 onward, a small number of second-generation Moroccan immigrants were drawn to violent radicalization and some of those formed the terrorist Hofstad Network.\\nIn 2009, the AIVD reported that Salafist mosques, while spreading an isolationist and intolerant ideology, no longer functioned as incubators for jihadist terrorism and the movement was not growing. This decrease resulted in Dutch governmental organisations to shift their efforts to other problems.\\nClose contacts between salafists in the\",\n \"-28.84480494406307\"\n ],\n [\n \"2017 Tehran attacks Background The Iranian government has been battling the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) for over three years with both military advisers and direct troops fighting the group's militants in both Iraq and Syria. ISIL, whose doctrine is based on the stringent Wahhabi segment of Sunni Islam, sees Shia Muslims, the largest Muslim population group in Iran, as apostates and enemies of Islam. Nonetheless, ISIL had yet to carry out any attacks within Iran despite repeatedly threatening the nation's people. In the months before the attack, ISIL increased its propaganda efforts in Persian to influence\",\n \"-28.821917851266335\"\n ],\n [\n \"attacks. The number of incidents from nationalist separatist groups has remained relatively stable in the years since while religious extremism has grown. The prevalence of Islamist groups in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria is the main driver behind these trends.\\nFour of the terrorist groups that have been most active since 2001 are Boko Haram, Al Qaeda, the Taliban and ISIL. These groups have been most active in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria. 80 percent of all deaths from terrorism occurred in one of these five countries.\\nTerrorism in Pakistan has become a great problem. From the summer of 2007\",\n \"-28.811197478783583\"\n ],\n [\n \"States saw the backing of jihadi Islam as useful. Unforeseen consequences of Zia's policies and promotion of jihad included a growth of sectarianism and the civil war in Afghanistan after Soviet withdrawal, which was mostly controlled by the Taliban by the middle of the 1990s. After 9/11 the United States destroyed Taliban's power in Afghanistan with Pakistan's reluctant support. The country was at the time led by military ruler General Pervez Musharraf who did not share Zia's promotion of Islamic law but support for religious parties grew while he was in power, partially in protest against his pro-US policies. Elections\",\n \"-28.759639923886425\"\n ],\n [\n \"groups criticized the Muslim Brotherhood for not doing enough to stop the spread of Shiism. Another Shiite activist claimed he was arrested and held for 15 months and tortured by the Egyptian State Security Investigations Service during Mubarak's presidency. Indonesia On December 29, 2011 in Nangkrenang, Sampang, Madura Island a Shia Islamic boarding school, a school adviser's house and a school's principal house were burned by local villagers and people from outside. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country in the world which is dominated by Sunnis. A day after the incident, a Jakarta Sunni preacher said: \\\"It was their\",\n \"-28.72580169518187\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the United States, and later to combat Shia movements supported by Iran. The support had the unintended effect of metastasizing extremism throughout the region. The Saudi government now considers extremist groups like ISIL and the Al-Nusra Front to be one of the two major threats to the kingdom and its monarchy, the other being Iran. In a New York Times op-ed, Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif agreed that terrorism was an international threat and called on the United Nations to block funding of extremist ideologies using Iran's WAVE initiative as a framework. However, he placed the blame on\",\n \"-28.69510961348351\"\n ],\n [\n \"football stadium one Thursday afternoon, curious as to why (the Taliban had banned sports) he \\\"went inside to discover a convicted murderer being led between the goalposts to be executed by a member of the victim's family.\\\" \\nThe Taliban's brutal treatment of Shia Muslims, and the destruction of Buddhist statues in Bamiyan Valley may also have been influenced by Wahhabism, which had a history of attacking and takfiring Shia, while prior to this attack Afghan Sunnis had never persecuted their Shia minority. (see Abdur Rahman Khan and 1888–1893 Uprisings of Hazaras).\\nAnother activity Afghan Muslims had not engaged in before this\",\n \"-28.68183250052971\"\n ],\n [\n \"more foreign Muslim radicals came to study in the hundreds of new madrassas in Pakistan and along the Afghan border, that the Pakistan government funded. Eventually \\\"more than 100,000 Muslim radicals were to have direct contact with Pakistan and Afghanistan and be influenced by the jihad.\\\" \\nThe Mujahideen of Afghanistan were divided into several factions and the Afghan Arabs helped some factions much more than others. Factions led by Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar are described as having had good relations with Afghan Arabs. The faction led by Ahmad Shah Massoud, did not. Interest in martyrdom Afghan Arabs\",\n \"-28.664346961741103\"\n ],\n [\n \"to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait.\\nSaudi Arabia's relations with the West began to cause growing concern among some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped\",\n \"-28.652114429802168\"\n ],\n [\n \"Taliban movement developed and formed from orphans or refugee children who were forced by the Soviets to flee their homes and relocate their lives in Pakistan. The swift rise to power, from the young Taliban in 1996, was the result of the disorder and civil war that had warlords running wild because of the complete breakdown of law and order in Afghanistan after the departure of the Soviets.\\nThe CIA World Fact Book reported that as of 2004, Afghanistan still owed $8 billion in bilateral debt, mostly to Russia, however, in 2007 Russia agreed to cancel most of the debt. Refugees\",\n \"-28.645693985221442\"\n ],\n [\n \"as re-establishment of Caliphate and the movements such as pan-Islamism. For these reasons, Dutch colonial administration saw Islam as a potential threat and treated the returning pilgrims and students from the Middle East with particular suspicion. Similar Islamic-nationalist organization Union of Indonesian Muslims (PERMI) faced severe crackdown by the Dutch colonial government, leading to the arrest of its members including Rasuna Said.\\nIslam as a vehicle of Indonesian nationalism, however, had gradually waned in the face of the emergence of secular nationalism and more radical political thoughts such as communism. The inner struggle among Sarekat Islam between the reformists and the\",\n \"-28.635878342182878\"\n ],\n [\n \"US, Pakistan, China, Iran and Saudi Arabia. By 1985, half of Afghanistan was estimated to be displaced or to have fled to Iran or Pakistan to avoid the war. Fighting continued until 1988 when Afghanistan, the Soviet Union, the US, and Pakistan sign peace agreements and the Soviet Union began pulling out their troops. The last of the Soviet troops left by 1989, but a civil war continued as the Mujahideen tried to overthrow Najibullah who replaced Karmal in 1986.\\nIn 1996, the Taliban took over Kabul and began enforcing their strict Islamic views which meant banning women from work and\",\n \"-28.633308766642585\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempts by an authoritarian regime to combat a radical ideology and anti-constitutional activities. Xinjiang As of 2008, the emergence of Hizb ut-Tahrir was a \\\"recent phenomenon\\\" in the Mainland Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang. According to Nicholas Bequelin of Human Rights Watch, the party's influence was \\\"limited\\\" to southern Xinjiang, but \\\"seems to be growing\\\". \\nOne obstacle for the party in Xinjiang is that most Uighur activists seek sovereignty for Xinjiang rather than union in a caliphate.\\nAs in other parts of Central Asia the party has been designated \\\"terrorist\\\" by the government and is banned. Indonesia Hizb ut-Tahrir used to\",\n \"-28.624478807556443\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shinrikyo. There have been no major reports of religious persecution of the Muslim community; however, because of the situation in Chechnya and neighboring Russia concerns have been expressed by Belarusian Muslims that they may become increasingly vulnerable.\\nThese fears were heightened on 16 September 2005 when a bomb was detonated outside a bus stop, injuring two people. On 23 September a bomb was exploded outside a restaurant, wounding nearly 40 people. Muslims are not suspected in the latter attack, which was labeled \\\"hooliganism\\\". Capital punishment Belarus is the only European country still using capital punishment. The U.S. and Belarus were the\",\n \"-28.621600238526298\"\n ],\n [\n \"warlords, making Afghanistan one of the poorest countries on earth. In 1992, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan ruled by communist forces collapsed, and democratic Islamist elements of mujahdeen founded the Islamic State of Afghanistan. In 1996, a more conservative and anti-democratic Islamist movement known as the Taliban rose to power, defeated most of the warlords and took over roughly 80% of Afghanistan.\\nThe Taliban were spawned by the thousands of madrasahs the Deobandi movement established for impoverished Afghan refugees and supported by governmental and religious groups in neighboring Pakistan. The Taliban differed from other Islamist movements to the point where they\",\n \"-28.618319478118792\"\n ],\n [\n \"terrorism by Xinjiang separatists, saying: \\\"But China, which prefers to play down the role of its policies in Xinjiang in generating discontent, has long sought to discredit its Uighur critics by linking them to terrorism\\\". The Economist also mentioned \\\"Chinese oppression in Xinjiang\\\" that \\\"hit at the heart of Uighur identity\\\" as a factor in the escalating violence, including: \\\"students are banned from fasting during Ramadan, religious teaching for children is restricted, and Uighur-language education is limited\\\". Yet according to Dawn, China only discourages fasting for Uighur Muslims and encourages people to eat properly for study and work but authorities\",\n \"-28.601369321346283\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Iran have imposed tighter controls on refugees which have resulted in numerous returnees. In 2012 Pakistan banned extensions of visas to foreigners. Afghan refugees have also settled in India and became Indian citizens over time. Some also made their way into North America, the European Union, Australia, and other parts of the world. The photo of Sharbat Gula placed on National Geographic cover in 1985 became a symbol both of the 1980s Afghan conflict and of the refugee situation. Weakening of the Soviet Union According to scholars Rafael Reuveny and Aseem Prakash, the war contributed to the fall of\",\n \"-28.583312605624087\"\n ],\n [\n \"activities of missionaries from some Islamic countries, coupled with the absence of real opportunities to participate in public affairs, contributed to the popularization of a radical interpretation of Islam. In the February 1999 Tashkent bombings, car bombs hit Tashkent and President Karimov narrowly escaped an assassination attempt. The government blamed the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) for the attacks. Thousands of people suspected of complicity were arrested and imprisoned. In August 2000, militant groups tried to penetrate Uzbek territory from Kyrgyzstan; acts of armed violence were noted in the southern part of the country as well.\\nIn March 2004, another wave\",\n \"-28.580592266800522\"\n ],\n [\n \"although in some countries other groups, including Christians, Buddhists, and atheists bear the primary brunt of religious violence. Taliban controlled regions Historically, the Taliban, which controlled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001, prohibited free speech about religious issues or discussions that challenge orthodox Sunni Muslim views. Repression by the Taliban of the Hazara ethnic group, which is predominantly Shia Muslim, was particularly severe. Although the conflict between the Hazaras and the Taliban was political and military as well as religious, and it is not possible to state with certainty that the Taliban engaged in its campaign against the Shi'a solely because\",\n \"-28.570176045825065\"\n ],\n [\n \"spread Islam and the Sharia worldwide. The group's primary aim, however, is to remove the Russian presence in North Caucasus and to establish an Islamic state there, though Abdul Hakim Shishani has acknowledged that these goals are currently unattainable, primarily due to Russia's power. Instead, he believes that sooner or later a world war against Russia will break out, which would allow the North Caucasians to launch a popular, violent uprising to regain their independence. According to Abdul Hakim, peaceful protests and resistance, though admirable, will never be able to end the Russian rule over the Caucasus. Ajnad al-Kavkaz is\",\n \"-28.556931326747872\"\n ],\n [\n \"becoming Islamicized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to Afghanistan, before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent.\\nIt is also part of a longer trend predating the spread of Islam. Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the subcontinent, one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia in the pre-Islamic\",\n \"-28.54643540631514\"\n ],\n [\n \"During the reign of Al-Mu'tasim Islam was generally practiced amongst most inhabitants of the region and finally under Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari, Islam was by far, the predominant religion of Kabul along with other major cities of Afghanistan. Later, the Samanids propagated Islam deep into the heart of Central Asia, as the first complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian occurred in the 9th century. Since the 9th century, Islam has dominated the country's religious landscape. Islamic leaders have entered the political sphere at various times of crisis, but rarely exercised secular authority for long. The remnants of a Shahi presence\",\n \"-28.51258655608399\"\n ],\n [\n \"Syrian uprising also deteriorated into a civil war, giving rise to the militant group, ISIS, and partly causing the current refugee crisis. In addition, Yemen, Bahrain, and Algeria have seen major protests.\\nHowever, a financial analyst in Dubai suggested that \\\"the spillover effect of the political turbulence to the large countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council is non-existent as there are no similar drivers.\\\" Aftermath In mid-May 2013, Tunisia banned the Salafist Ansar al-Sharia from carrying out party congresses. The day after the congress was due to be carried out, clashes between security forces and party supporters in Kairouan resulted in\",\n \"-28.511392198415706\"\n ],\n [\n \"vengeance such Western nationals have against Islam and Muslims.\\\" Iran's government spokesperson, Gholam-Hossein Elham, said that \\\"The new wave of the fight against Islam and promoting Islamophobia, which was started by the U.S., has so far opposite effects in the world of Islam as well as other parts of the globe.\\\" Elham stated that the governments 'of the countries where the anti-Islamic moves have been made' would, in future, prevent any further actions against Islam, saying that 'insults against the holy prophet of Islam and the divine religion were against the principles of freedom of expression'. In Tehran, approximately seventy\",\n \"-28.502167522150557\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war, and by the 1990s Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Tensions between Iran and Pakistan intensified in 1998 when Iran accused Pakistan of war crimes after Pakistani warplanes had bombarded Afghanistan's last Shia stronghold in support of the Taliban.\\nPakistan is an influential and founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with the Arab world and other countries in the Muslim world is a vital factor in Pakistan's foreign\",\n \"-28.498946936888387\"\n ],\n [\n \"many Mujahideen morphed into Taliban and Al Qaeda forces imposing a strict interpretation of Islamic law (Sharia), with Kabul, these mountains, and other parts of Afghanistan as their base. Other Mujahideen joined the Northern Alliance to oppose the Taliban rule.\\nAfter the September 11, 2001 terror attacks in New York City and Washington D.C., the American and ISAF campaign against Al Qaeda and their Taliban allies made the Hindu Kush once again a militarized conflict zone. Ethnography Pre-Islamic populations of the Hindu Kush included Shins, Yeshkun, Chiliss, Neemchas Koli, Palus, Gaware, Yeshkuns, and Krammins.\",\n \"-28.441174414212583\"\n ],\n [\n \"Arabia was also partaking in bombings during the Yemeni civil war. In November 2014, eight Shia worshippers were killed by gunmen during Ashura celebrations at a shrine in the city of al-Ahsa. Jafar Al Shayeb, a member of the Qatif municipal council, says that sectarian tensions have already risen sharply as a result of the war Saudi Arabia's new King Salman is waging against the Houthis and that divisive rhetoric from Wahhabi preachers was increasing. He believes that the situation for Saudi Shia was about to get worse.\\nCritics point out that the government has done nothing to address rising sectarian\",\n \"-28.439940898824716\"\n ],\n [\n \"carry out attacks on Western troops and that the Afghan military and police are not ready to assume responsibility for the country's security. Other concerns the Monitor noted include: a potential increase in illegal drug trafficking; negative impact on the economy and on social reforms, particularly those for women and destabilization of the country that could affect neighboring countries Pakistan and Iran. Concerns were also raised by Iran; following the announcement, a spokesman for Iran's foreign ministry stated that the agreement will lead to increased instability in Afghanistan due to the continued presence of U.S. forces. Investigative historian and journalist\",\n \"-28.439169023302384\"\n ],\n [\n \"and non-Muslim populations in Multan, which became a center of the Ismaili sect of Islam. The Saffarid Dynasty of Zaranj occupied Kabul and the kingdom of Zunbil permanently in 871 AD. A new chapter of Muslim conquests began when the Samanid Dynasty took over the Saffarid Kingdom and Sabuktigin seized Ghazni. Later Muslim invasions Muslim incursions resumed under later Turkic and Central Asian dynasties like Saffarid Dynasty and Samanid Dynasty with more local capitals, who supplanted the Caliphate and expanded their domains both northwards and eastwards. Continues raids from these empires in north-east of India led to the loss of\",\n \"-28.429197702109377\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":295,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"1q9e9t"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How did we learn to translate hieroglyphs?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["The [Rosetta Stone]( URL_0 ) was instrumental. Since it had the same text written in three different languages it essentially handed us a partial translation of Egyptian to Greek.","In 1799 they found the Rosetta stone, that contained the same passage in ancient Greek and in hieroglyphs. Since we knew the ancient Greek language we were able to translate the passage. From it we got some limited hieroglyph vocabulary which in turn could be used to translate other hieroglyph passages. Obviously the Rosetta stone didn't contain every possible hieroglyph but we were able to guess the remaining hieroglyphs based on the context they were used in","By the way, if you want to see the Rosetta Stone, it is on display in the British Museum, London.","Short answer: The Rosetta Stone. It was written in Heiroglyphics, Demotic (basically Egyptian that normal people could read), and Ancient Greek. Really oversimplified: some guy who was really fucking good with languages figured out that Coptic, the liturgical language of Coptic Christians, was directly related to ancient Egyptian. He learned Coptic and Greek so he could translate what the Egyptian meant in Greek. Greek and Latin were still widely spoken, so that made translation a lot easier. Translating the Heiroglyphics meant just connecting the Demotic sounds to the Heiroglyphic words.","If you have Netflix, Carl Sagan can explain it to you really well."],"string":"[\n \"The [Rosetta Stone]( URL_0 ) was instrumental. Since it had the same text written in three different languages it essentially handed us a partial translation of Egyptian to Greek.\",\n \"In 1799 they found the Rosetta stone, that contained the same passage in ancient Greek and in hieroglyphs. Since we knew the ancient Greek language we were able to translate the passage. From it we got some limited hieroglyph vocabulary which in turn could be used to translate other hieroglyph passages. Obviously the Rosetta stone didn't contain every possible hieroglyph but we were able to guess the remaining hieroglyphs based on the context they were used in\",\n \"By the way, if you want to see the Rosetta Stone, it is on display in the British Museum, London.\",\n \"Short answer: The Rosetta Stone. It was written in Heiroglyphics, Demotic (basically Egyptian that normal people could read), and Ancient Greek. Really oversimplified: some guy who was really fucking good with languages figured out that Coptic, the liturgical language of Coptic Christians, was directly related to ancient Egyptian. He learned Coptic and Greek so he could translate what the Egyptian meant in Greek. Greek and Latin were still widely spoken, so that made translation a lot easier. Translating the Heiroglyphics meant just connecting the Demotic sounds to the Heiroglyphic words.\",\n \"If you have Netflix, Carl Sagan can explain it to you really well.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs\". Kircher thought the Egyptians had believed in an ancient theological tradition that preceded and foreshadowed Christianity, and he hoped to understand this tradition through hieroglyphs. Like his Renaissance predecessors he believed hieroglyphs represented an abstract form of communication rather than a language. To translate such a system of communication in a self-consistent way was impossible. Therefore, in his works on hieroglyphs, such as Obeliscus Pamphilius (1650) and Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1652–1655), Kircher proceeded by guesswork based on his understanding of ancient Egyptian beliefs, derived from the Coptic texts he had read and from various ancient texts","-32.76781820209362"],["translation was suddenly available. In the early 19th century, scholars such as Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Åkerblad, and Thomas Young studied the inscriptions on the stone, and were able to make some headway. Finally, Jean-François Champollion made the complete decipherment by the 1820s. In his Lettre à M. Dacier (1822), he wrote:\nIt is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say in the same word.\nHieroglyphs survive today in two forms: directly, through half a dozen Demotic glyphs added to the Greek alphabet when writing Coptic;","-32.02015172615938"],["a means of recording a spoken language. Some attempts at decipherment by Islamic and European scholars in the Middle Ages and Renaissance acknowledged the script might have a phonetic component, but perception of hieroglyphs as ideographic hampered efforts to understand them up through the 18th century.\nThe Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799 by members of Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, bore a parallel text in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. It was hoped that the Egyptian text could be deciphered through its Greek translation, especially in combination with the evidence from Coptic, the last stage of the Egyptian language. Doing so proved","-31.984019684921805"],["hieroglyphics dates from AD 394, after which all knowledge of hieroglyphics was lost. Until Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion found the key to hieroglyphics in the 19th century, the main authority was the 4th century Greek grammarian Horapollon, whose chief contribution was the misconception that hieroglyphics were \"picture writing\" and that future translators should look for symbolic meaning in the pictures.\nThe first modern study of hieroglyphics came with Piero Valeriano Bolzani's Hieroglyphica (1556), and Kircher was the most famous of the \"decipherers\" between ancient and modern times and the most famous Egyptologist of his day. In his Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta","-30.667386362885736"],["that he thought contained traditions derived from Egypt. His translations turned short texts containing only a few hieroglyphic characters into lengthy sentences of esoteric ideas. Unlike earlier European scholars Kircher did realise that hieroglyphs could function phonetically, though he considered this function a late development. He also recognised one hieroglyph, 𓈗, as representing water and thus standing phonetically for the Coptic word for water, mu, as well as the m sound. He became the first European to correctly identify a phonetic value for a hieroglyph.\nAlthough Kircher's basic assumptions were shared by his contemporaries, most scholars rejected or even ridiculed his","-30.383447141161014"],["Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries During the Renaissance Europeans became interested in hieroglyphs, spurred by the rediscovery of Horapollo's Hieroglyphica by Cristoforo Buondelmonti in 1419. Renaissance antiquarians recognised that there were hieroglyphic texts on obelisks and other Egyptian artefacts imported to Europe in Roman times, but they did not attempt to decipher these texts. Influenced by Horapollo and Plotinus, they saw hieroglyphs as a universal, image-based form of communication, not a means of recording a spoken language. From this belief sprang a Renaissance artistic tradition of using obscure symbolism loosely based on the imagery described in Horapollo, pioneered by Francesco Colonna's","-30.216376953783765"],["the priest Horapollo wrote Hieroglyphica, an explanation of almost 200 glyphs. His work was believed to be authoritative, yet it was misleading in many ways, and this and other works were a lasting impediment to the understanding of Egyptian writing. Later attempts at decipherment were made by Arab historians in medieval Egypt during the 9th and 10th centuries. Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya were the first historians to study hieroglyphs, by comparing them to the contemporary Coptic language used by Coptic priests in their time. The study of hieroglyphs continued with fruitless attempts at decipherment by European scholars, notably Johannes","-30.057677142602188"],["History of the alphabet Predecessors Two scripts are well attested from before the end of the fourth millennium BCE: Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs.\nHieroglyphs were employed in three ways in Ancient Egyptian texts: as logograms (ideograms) that represent a word denoting an object pictorially depicted by the hieroglyph; more commonly as phonograms writing a sound or sequence of sounds; and as determinatives (which provide clues to meaning without directly writing sounds). Since vowels were mostly unwritten, the hieroglyphs which indicated a single consonant could have been used as a consonantal alphabet (or \"abjad\"). This was not done when writing","-30.055296511898632"],["translations. Nevertheless, his argument that Coptic was derived from the ancient Egyptian language was widely accepted. Eighteenth century Hardly anyone attempted to decipher hieroglyphs for decades after Kircher's last works on the subject, although some contributed suggestions about the script that ultimately proved correct. William Warburton's religious treatise The Divine Legation of Moses, published from 1738 to 1741, included a long digression on hieroglyphs and the evolution of writing. It argued that hieroglyphs were not invented to encode religious secrets but for practical purposes, like any other writing system, and that the phonetic Egyptian script mentioned by Clement of Alexandria","-29.841147816274315"],["It wasn't until Athanasius Kircher in the mid 17th century that scholars began to think the hieroglyphs might also represent sounds. Kircher was familiar with Coptic, and thought that it might be the key to deciphering the hieroglyphs, but was held back by a belief in the mystical nature of the symbols.\nThe breakthrough in decipherment came only with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troops in 1799 (during Napoleon's Egyptian invasion). \nAs the stone presented a hieroglyphic and a demotic version of the same text in parallel with a Greek translation, plenty of material for falsifiable studies in","-29.786841426115643"],["difficult, despite some halting progress made by Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy and Johan David Åkerblad. Young, building on their work, observed that demotic characters were derived from hieroglyphs and identified several of the phonetic signs in demotic. He also identified the meaning of many hieroglyphs, including phonetic glyphs in a cartouche containing the name of an Egyptian king of foreign origin, Ptolemy. He was convinced, however, that phonetic hieroglyphs were used only in writing non-Egyptian words. In the early 1820s Champollion compared Ptolemy's cartouche with others and ultimately realised the hieroglyphic script was a mixture of phonetic and ideographic elements.","-29.629920588238747"],["some genuine knowledge about the writing system. It offers an explanation of close to 200 signs.\nSome are identified correctly, such as the \"goose\" hieroglyph (zꜣ) representing the word for \"son\". Decipherment Knowledge of the hieroglyphs had been lost completely by the medieval period. \nEarly attempts at decipherment are due to Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya (9th and 10th century, respectively).\nAll medieval and early modern attempts were hampered by the fundamental assumption that hieroglyphs \nrecorded ideas and not the sounds of the language. \nAs no bilingual texts were available, any such symbolic 'translation' could be proposed without the possibility of verification.","-29.618614108330803"],["been understood since shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire. The usage of the hieroglyphic script had become increasingly specialised even in the later Pharaonic period; by the 4th century AD, few Egyptians were capable of reading them. Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is dated to 24 August 394, found at Philae and known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom.\nHieroglyphs retained their pictorial appearance, and classical authors emphasised this aspect, in sharp contrast to the Greek and Roman alphabets. In the 5th century,","-29.54743689100711"],["Aramaic, and Hebrew (he, waw, yod; sometimes even aleph; Naveh 62). Naveh (ibid.) notes that the earliest Aramaic and Hebrew documents already used matres lectionis. Some scholars argue that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed their alphabet from the Arameans. However, the practice has older roots, as the Semitic cuneiform alphabet of Ugarit (13th century BC) already had matres lectionis (Naveh 138). Hebrew The earliest method of indicating some vowels in Hebrew writing was to use the consonant letters yod י, waw ו, he ה,and aleph א of the Hebrew alphabet to also write long vowels in some cases. Originally,","-29.480325685683056"],["are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000.\nGeoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs \"came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter\", and that it is \"probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\". There are many instances of early Egypt-Mesopotamia relations, but given the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, \"no definitive determination has been made as to","-29.392121444631584"],["number of ancient alphabets, in which he deciphered a number of Egyptian hieroglyphs, was later read by Athanasius Kircher in the 17th century, and then translated and published in English by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall in 1806 as Ancient Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters Explained; with an Account of the Egyptian Priests, their Classes, Initiation, and Sacrifices in the Arabic Language by Ahmad Bin Abubekr Bin Wahishih, 16 years before Jean-François Champollion's complete decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs. This book was known to Silvestre de Sacy, a colleague of Champollion. Dr Okasha El Daly, at University College London's Institute of Archaeology, claims that","-29.289195831046527"],["some hieroglyphs had been decoded by Ibn Wahshiyya, eight centuries before Champollion deciphered the Rosetta stone. A. K. Eyma critiques this idea and think that \"there was no such thing as an Arabic decipherment of hieroglyphs\". Carlo Nallino, in his lectures on the history of Arab Astronomy, is also of the opinion that books attributed to Ibn Wahshiyya are actually works of an unreliable pupil attributed to him, and of no scientific value, including the claim that he deciphered some hieroglyphs. Cryptography He published several cipher alphabets that were used to encrypt magic formulas.","-28.981164774926583"],["was a radical simplification of phonetic writing, since hieroglyphics required the writer to pick a hieroglyph starting with the same sound that the writer wanted to write in order to write phonetically, much as man'yōgana (Chinese characters used solely for phonetic use) was used to represent Japanese phonetically before the invention of kana.\nPhoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the Greek alphabet and Aramaic, a widely used abjad. The Greek alphabet evolved into the modern western alphabets, such as Latin and Cyrillic, while Aramaic became the ancestor of many modern abjads and abugidas of Asia. Impure","-28.950461923654075"],["and published them in Denmark. The deciphering of the texts started immediately, and bilinguals, in particular Old Persian-Akkadian bilinguals, were of great help. Since the texts contained several royal names, isolated signs could be identified, and were presented in 1802 by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. By this time it was already evident that Akkadian was a Semitic language, and the final breakthrough in deciphering the language came from Edward Hincks, Henry Rawlinson and Jules Oppert in the middle of the 19th century. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago recently completed a 21-volume dictionary of the Akkadian language, which","-28.76576827401186"],["fully understood how the scripts worked. Diodorus Siculus, in the 1st century BC, explicitly described hieroglyphs as an ideographic script, and most classical authors shared this assumption. Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, referred to 25 Egyptian letters, suggesting he might have been aware of the phonetic aspect of hieroglyphic or demotic, but his meaning is unclear. Around AD 200 Clement of Alexandria hinted that some signs were phonetic but concentrated on the signs' metaphorical meanings. Plotinus, in the third century AD, claimed hieroglyphs did not represent words but a divinely inspired, fundamental insight into the nature of the objects","-28.726481022302323"],["representation of language developed by Semitic workers in Egypt, but by then alphabetic principles had a slight possibility of being inculcated into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium. These early abjads remained of marginal importance for several centuries, and it is only towards the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script splits into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BC) Byblos syllabary and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BC). The Proto-Canaanite was probably somehow influenced by the undeciphered Byblos syllabary and, in turn, inspired the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BC). Anatolian hieroglyphs Anatolian hieroglyphs are an indigenous","-28.71012702243752"],["a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything. Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.\nIn the Middle Bronze Age, an apparently \"alphabetic\" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appears in Egyptian","-28.550779301778675"],["that of the Roman Empire. Hieroglyphs became increasingly obscure, used mainly by Egyptian priests.\nThese scripts contained a mix of phonetic signs, representing sounds in the spoken language, and ideographic signs, representing ideas. Phonetic signs included uniliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs, standing respectively for one, two or three sounds. Ideographic signs included logograms, representing whole words, and determinatives, which were used to specify the meaning of a word written with phonetic signs.\nMany Greek and Roman authors wrote about these scripts, and many were aware that the Egyptians had two or three writing systems, but none whose works survived into later times","-28.42971871932241"],["eventually evolved into an ideographic system (where a sign represents an idea) and then to a syllabic system (where a sign represents a syllable). Developing around the same time, the Egyptian system of hieroglyphics also began as a pictographic script and evolved into a system of syllabic writing. Two cursive scripts were eventually created, hieratic, shortly after hieroglyphs were invented, and demotic (Egyptian) in the seventh century BC. Scribes wrote these scripts usually on papyrus, with ink on a reed pen.\nThe first known alphabetical system came from the Phoenicians, who developed a vowel-less system of 22 letters around the","-28.396671310591046"],["they depicted. Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th century AD copied another author's translation of a hieroglyphic text on an obelisk, but the translation was too loose to be useful in understanding the principles of the writing system. The only extensive discussion of hieroglyphs to survive into modern times was the Hieroglyphica, a work probably written in the fourth century AD and attributed to a man named Horapollo. It discusses the meanings of individual hieroglyphs, though not how those signs were used to form phrases or sentences. Some of the meanings it describes are correct, but more are wrong, and all","-28.38205211757122"],["Lettre à M. Dacier Lettre à M. Dacier (full title: Lettre à M. Dacier relative à l'alphabet des hiéroglyphes phonétiques: \"Letter to M. Dacier concerning the alphabet of the phonetic hieroglyphs\") is a scientific communication in the form of a letter sent in 1822 by the Egyptologist Jean-François Champollion to Bon-Joseph Dacier, secretary of the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. It is the founding text upon which Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics were first systematically deciphered by Champollion, largely on the basis of the multilingual Rosetta Stone. History On September 14, 1822, while visiting his brother Jacques-Joseph, a great supporter of","-28.280474830073217"],["two varieties of the letter. The Aramaic script began developing special final forms for certain letters in the 5th century BCE, though this was not always a consistent rule (as reflected in the Qumran practice). Matres lectionis The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants, but gradually the letters א ,ה ,ו ,י, also became used to indicate vowels, known as matres lectionis (Latin: \"mothers of reading\") when used in this function. It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development: for instance, *bayt 'house' shifted to בֵּית in construct state but retained its spelling. While no examples of","-28.255076938978164"],["Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.\nCharles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented","-28.220703583698196"],["writers pretended to have found the key to the hieroglyphics, and many more professed, with a shameless impudence which is hard to understand in these days, to translate the contents of the texts into a modern tongue. Foremost among such pretenders must be mentioned Athanasius Kircher, who, in the 17th century, declared that he had found the key to the hieroglyphic inscriptions; the translations which he prints in his Oedipus Aegyptiacus are utter nonsense, but as they were put forth in a learned tongue many people at the time believed they were correct.\nAlthough Kircher's approach to deciphering texts was based","-28.201692991720847"],["on a fundamental misconception, some modern commentators have described Kircher as the pioneer of the serious study of hieroglyphs. The data which he collected were later consulted by Champollion in his successful efforts to decode the script. According to Joseph MacDonnell, it was \"because of Kircher's work that scientists knew what to look for when interpreting the Rosetta stone\". Another scholar of ancient Egypt, Erik Iversen, concluded:\nIt is therefore Kircher's incontestable merit that he was the first to have discovered the phonetic value of an Egyptian hieroglyph. From a humanistic as well as an intellectual point of view Egyptology may","-28.18388995139685"],["and indirectly, as the inspiration for the original alphabet that was ancestral to nearly every other alphabet ever used, including the Latin alphabet. Uniliteral signs The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like letters in English). It would have been possible to write all Egyptian words in the manner of these signs, but the Egyptians never did so and never simplified their complex writing into a true alphabet.\nEach uniliteral glyph once had a unique reading, but several of these fell together as Old Egyptian developed into Middle Egyptian. For example, the folded-cloth glyph","-28.167066976206115"],["Ugaritic, Moabite, South Arabian and Phoenician alphabets. Origins and development Historically, the practice of using matres lectionis seems to have originated when /aj/ and /aw/ diphthongs, written with the yod י and the waw ו consonant letters respectively, monophthongized to simple long vowels /eː/ and /oː/. This epiphenomenal association between consonant letters and vowel sounds was then seized upon and used in words without historic diphthongs.\nIn general terms, it is observable that early Phoenician texts have very few matres lectionis, and that during most of the 1st millennium BCE, Hebrew and Aramaic were quicker to develop matres lectionis than","-28.165297214713064"],["nonsense, but as they were put forth in a learned tongue many people at the time believed they were correct.\nThe accurate meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs were not deciphered until 1824 when Jean-François Champollion finally solved the riddle through his study of the Rosetta stone.\nIn 1999 the University of Geneva exhibited one of the vast tomes of Oedipus Aegyptiacus in an exhibition to celebrate the centenary of Jorge Luis Borges as representative of books associated with the Argentinian author.","-28.155546118689927"],["learning, Kircherus.\nOn the other hand, modern experts on hieroglyphic writing have found Kircher's work to be of little value. According to E. A. Wallis Budge:\nMany writers pretended to have found the key to the hieroglyphics, and many more professed, with a shameless impudence which is hard to understand in these days, to translate the contents of the texts into a modern tongue. Foremost among such pretenders must be mentioned Athanasius Kircher, who, in the 17th century, declared that he had found the key to the hieroglyphic inscriptions; the translations which he prints in his Oedipus Aegyptiacus are utter","-28.1397242786511"],["Miꞌkmaq hieroglyphic writing Classification Scholars have debated whether the earliest known Miꞌkmaq \"hieroglyphs\" from the 17th century qualified fully as a writing system, rather than as a pictographic mnemonic device. In the 17th century, French missionary Chrétien Le Clercq adapted the Míkmaq characters as a logographic system for pedagogical purposes.\nIn 1978, Ives Goddard and William Fitzhugh of the Department of Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution, contended that the pre-missionary system was purely mnemonic, as it could not be used to write new compositions. Schmidt and Marshall argued in 1995 that the missionary system of the 17th century was able to","-28.052812757559877"],["not realised that the cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same language.\nIn the 1970s, as a result of a fundamental revision of the readings of a large number of hieroglyphs by John David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies, and Günter Neumann, it became clear that both cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same Luwian language. This revision resulted from a discovery outside the area of Luwian settlement, namely the annotations on Urartian pots, written in the Urartian language using the hieroglyphic Luwian script. The sign , which had hitherto been read as ī was shown to be being used to indicate","-28.04891318414593"],["was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC in the Persian Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdiana.\nThe widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing Hebrew. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician, the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. Aramaic-derived scripts Since the evolution of the Aramaic alphabet out of the Phoenician one was a gradual process, the division of the world's alphabets into the ones derived from the","-28.02976537304494"],["even remotely fitted the original texts\". In Oedipus Aegyptiacus, Kircher argued under the impression of the Hieroglyphica that ancient Egyptian was the language spoken by Adam and Eve, that Hermes Trismegistus was Moses, and that hieroglyphs were occult symbols which \"cannot be translated by words, but expressed only by marks, characters and figures.\" This led him to translate simple hieroglyphic texts now known to read as ḏd Wsr (\"Osiris says\") as \"The treachery of Typhon ends at the throne of Isis; the moisture of nature is guarded by the vigilance of Anubis\"\nAccording to the Egyptologist Sir E. A. Wallis Budge:\nMany","-27.942517519408284"],["Hieroglyph A hieroglyph (Greek for \"sacred writing\") was a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system. Logographic scripts that are pictographic in form in a way reminiscent of ancient Egyptian are also sometimes called \"hieroglyphs\". In Neoplatonism, especially during the Renaissance, a \"hieroglyph\" was an artistic representation of an esoteric idea, which Neoplatonists believed actual Egyptian hieroglyphs to be. The word hieroglyphics refer to a hieroglyphic script. \nThe Egyptians invented the pictorial script. The appearance of these distinctive figures in 3000 BCE marked the beginning of Egyptian civilization. Though based on images, Egyptian script was more than a sophisticated form","-27.915235178408693"],["William Bullokar William Bullokar was a 16th-century printer who devised a 40-letter phonetic alphabet for the English language. Its characters were in the black-letter or \"gothic\" writing style commonly used at the time. Taking as his model a Latin grammar by William Lily, Bullokar wrote the first published grammar of the English language, in a book titled Brief Grammar for English, which appeared in 1586.","-27.89967997835629"],["by Johan David Åkerblad in 1802 (14 turned out to be incorrect). Åkerblad was correct in stressing the importance of the demotic text in trying to read the inscriptions, but he wrongly believed that demotic was entirely alphabetic.\nBy 1814 Young had completely translated the \"enchorial\" text of the Rosetta Stone (using a list with 86 demotic words), and then studied the hieroglyphic alphabet but initially failed to recognise that the demotic and hieroglyphic texts were paraphrases and not simple translations.\nThere was considerable rivalry between Young and Jean-François Champollion while both were working on hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they briefly cooperated","-27.872406271631917"],["and try to identify phonetic characters in them.\nYoung did so, with two results that together paved the way for the final decipherment. In the hieroglyphic text, he discovered the phonetic characters \"p t o l m e s\" (in today's transliteration \"p t w l m y s\") that were used to write the Greek name \"Ptolemaios\". He also noticed that these characters resembled the equivalent ones in the demotic script, and went on to note as many as 80 similarities between the hieroglyphic and demotic texts on the stone, an important discovery because the two scripts were previously thought","-27.860779150978487"],["but there is some indication from the writings of Juan Pablo Bonet—who never credited him for his method—that Ponce de Leon developed a manual alphabet which would allow a student who mastered it to spell out (letter by letter) any word. This alphabet was based, in whole or in part, on the simple hand gestures used by monks living in silence.\nPonce de Leon's work with the deaf was considered bold by contemporaries, as the prevailing opinion among most Europeans in the 16th century was that the deaf were incapable of being educated. Many laymen even believed that the deaf","-27.80730820044846"],["English and Arabic, that do not have a one-to-one correspondence between sounds (phonemes) and the letters (graphemes) that represent them.\nShallow orthographies, such as Italian and Finnish, have a close relationship between graphemes and phonemes, and the spelling of words is very consistent. With shallow orthographies, new readers have few problems learning to decode words and as a result children learn to read relatively quickly. Most dyslexic readers of shallow orthographic systems learn to decode words with relative ease compared to dyslexics using deep orthographies, though they continue to have difficulty with reading fluency and comprehension. The hallmark system of dyslexia","-27.804538276526728"],["Oedipus Aegyptiacus Hieroglyphs The third volume of Oedipus Aegyptiacus deals exclusively with Kircher's attempts to translate Egyptian hieroglyphs. The primary source for Kircher's study of hieroglyphs was the Bembine Tablet, so named after its acquisition by Cardinal Bembo, shortly after the sack of Rome in 1527. The Bembine Tablet is a bronze and silver tablet depicting various Egyptian gods and goddesses. In its centre sits Isis representing \"the polymorphic all-containing Universal Idea.\"\nKircher's Oedipus Aegyptiacus is an example of syncretic and eclectic scholarship in the late Renaissance and representative of antiquarian scholarship before the modern scientific era. His renditions of","-27.80335260366064"],["some influence on the developments of the Hebrew and Aramaic alphabets based on the fact that these languages evolved during the same time period, share similar features, and are commonly categorized into the same language group.\nWhen the Israelites migrated to Canaan between 1200 and 1001 BCE, they also adopted a variation of the Canaanite alphabet. Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's scribe, used this alphabet to create the later scripts of the Old Testament. The early Hebrew alphabet was prominent in the Mediterranean region until Chaldean Babylonian rulers exiled the Jews to Babylon in the sixth century BCE. It was then that","-27.76995523893129"],["known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad.\nThere are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop","-27.769679234770592"],["and found out the correct sound value from 14 of the 29 signs, but he wrongly believed the demotic hieroglyphs to be entirely alphabetic. One of his strategies of comparing the demotic to Coptic later became a key in Champollion's eventual decipherment of the hieroglyphic script and the Ancient Egyptian language.\nIn 1810, Åkerblad sent to Sacy for publication his work entitled MÉMOIRE: Sur les noms coptes de quelques villes et villages d'Égypte. Yet, unfortunately, its publication was delayed, and it was not published until 1834. Some scholars saw such delay as motivated by political or personal considerations.\nHis last days were","-27.759949026110917"],["(1643), Kircher called hieroglyphics \"this language hitherto unknown in Europe, in which there are as many pictures as letters, as many riddles as sounds, in short as many mazes to be escaped from as mountains to be climbed\". While some of his notions are long discredited, portions of his work have been valuable to later scholars, and Kircher helped pioneer Egyptology as a field of serious study.\nKircher's interest in Egyptology began in 1628 when he became intrigued by a collection of hieroglyphs in the library at Speyer. He learned Coptic in 1633 and published the first grammar of that language","-27.71744491611389"],["idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\". The two writing systems are in fact quite similar in their initial stages, relying heavily on pictographic forms and then evolving a parallel system for the expression of phonetic sounds.\nStandard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hierogplyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.\nThere is however a lack of direct evidence, and \"no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt\". Instead, it","-27.69898400537204"],["the earliest was initiated by a pious Dutch trader, Albert Ruyll in 1611. The book titled Sovrat A B C and written in Latin alphabet not only means in introducing Latin alphabet but also the basic tenets of Calvinism that includes the Ten Commandments, the faith and some prayers. This work later followed by several Bibles translated into Malay; Injil Mateus dan Markus (1638), Lukas dan Johanes (1646), Injil dan Perbuatan (1651), Kitab Kejadian (1662), Perjanjian Baru (1668) and Mazmur (1689).\nThe era of Classical Malay also witnessed the growing interest among foreigners in learning the Malay language for the purpose","-27.676814074031427"],["thus correcting one of the most fundamental faults in Champollion's work. Other scholars, such as Emmanuel de Rougé, refined the understanding of Egyptian enough that by the 1850s it was possible to fully translate ancient Egyptian texts. Combined with the decipherment of cuneiform at approximately the same time, their work opened up the once-inaccessible texts from the earliest stages of human history. Egyptian scripts and their extinction For most of its history ancient Egypt had two major writing systems. Hieroglyphs, a system of pictorial signs used mainly for formal texts, originated sometime around 3200 BC. Hieratic, a cursive system derived","-27.674204536459"],["was devised by someone in Byblos who had seen Egyptian hieroglyphs and used them freely as an example to compose a new syllabary that was better adapted to the native language of Byblos—just as in neighbouring Ugarit a few centuries later a cuneiform alphabet was devised that was easier to use than the complicated Akkadian cuneiform.\nSeveral signs resemble letters of the later Phoenician alphabet: . This suggests that the latter was derived in some way from the syllabary. Thus the inscriptions are potentially an important link between the Egyptian hieroglyphic script and the later Semitic abjads derived from Proto-Sinaitic. Brian","-27.65504898774816"],["Aramaic alphabet Origins The earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet. Over time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below. Aramaic gradually became the lingua franca throughout the Middle East, with the script at first complementing and then displacing Assyrian cuneiform, as the predominant writing system. Achaemenid Empire (The First Persian Empire) Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Old Aramaic was adopted by the Persians as the \"vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast Persian empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a","-27.58775092496944"],["number of demotic characters. This stage of the Egyptian language would later come to be known as Coptic along with its alphabet. The third theologian to head the Catachetical School was a native Egyptian by the name of Origen. Origen was an outstanding theologian and one of the most influential Church Fathers. He traveled extensively to lecture in various churches around the world and has many important texts to his credit including the Hexapla, an exegesis of various translations of the Hebrew Bible.\nAt the threshold of the Byzantine period, the New Testament had been entirely translated into Coptic. But while","-27.57459823253157"],["lexigrams were first used.\nThe first ape trained to communicate in Yerkish was the chimpanzee Lana, beginning in 1973 within the context of the LANA project. Von Glaserfeld created approximately 150 of the first words in the Yerkish language, and went on to use 25 of them in his initial experiment with Lana - a chimpanzee whom researchers were hoping would not only interpret the Yerkish language, but would also participate in communication with others through this newfound language. A keyboard was created for Lana with each key representing various nouns or verbs such as food, eat, apple, drink, etc.","-27.562541223640437"],["Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts The writing systems used in ancient Egypt were deciphered in the early 19th century by the work of several European scholars, especially Jean-François Champollion and Thomas Young. Egyptian writing, which included the hieroglyphic, hieratic and demotic scripts, ceased to be understood in the fourth and fifth centuries AD. Later generations' knowledge of these scripts was based on the work of Greek and Roman authors whose understanding was faulty. It was thus widely believed that Egyptian scripts were exclusively ideographic, representing ideas rather than sounds, and even that hieroglyphs were an esoteric, mystical script rather than","-27.524185836840843"],["Emmanuel de Rougé, who began studying Egyptian in 1839, was the first person to translate a full-length ancient Egyptian text; he published the first translations of Egyptian literary texts in 1856. In the words of one of de Rougé's students, Gaston Maspero, \"de Rougé gave us the method which allowed us to utilise and bring to perfection the method of Champollion\". Other scholars concentrated on the lesser-known scripts. Charles Wycliffe Goodwin and François Chabas focused on the hieratic texts on papyri and were largely responsible for deciphering hieratic. Heinrich Brugsch was the first since Young's death to advance the study","-27.49034614762786"],["the Egyptian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Hittite, Ugaritic and Luwian languages. Beginning with the famous decipherment and translation of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion in 1822, a number of individuals attempted to decipher the writing systems of the Ancient Near East and Aegean. In the case of Old Persian and Mycenaean Greek, decipherment yielded older records of languages already known from slightly more recent traditions (Middle Persian and Alphabetic Greek).\nWork on the ancient languages of the Near East progressed rapidly. In the mid-19th century, Henry Rawlinson and others deciphered the Behistun Inscription, which records the same text in Old Persian, Elamite,","-27.415744813902165"],["the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called matres lectionis. This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times. Addition of vowels In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph, he, heth or ayin,","-27.409710436499154"],["the Egyptian language, but seems to have been a significant influence on the creation of the first alphabet (used to write a Semitic language). All subsequent alphabets around the world have either descended from this first Semitic alphabet, or have been inspired by one of its descendants (i.e. \"stimulus diffusion\"), with the possible exception of the Meroitic alphabet, a 3rd-century BCE adaptation of hieroglyphs in Nubia to the south of Egypt. The Rongorongo script of Easter Island may also be an independently invented alphabet, but too little is known of it to be certain. Latin alphabet A tribe known","-27.39254991395137"],["Manually coded language History It is unknown when the first attempts were made to represent an oral language with gesture. Indeed, some have speculated that oral languages may have evolved from sign languages, and there may be undocumented cases in history when vocal and signed modes of a language existed side by side. It is not uncommon for people to develop gestures to replace words or phrases in contexts where speech is not possible or not permitted, such as in a television studio, but these are usually limited in scope and rarely develop into complete representations of an oral language.","-27.378772146006668"],["this alphabet have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.\nCharles de","-27.34860832130653"],["Greek, and Latin. The Carthaginian dialect is called Punic. Today's Tifinagh is thought by some scholars to be descended from Punic, but this is still under debate. Greek The Greek alphabet was adapted in Egypt to the Coptic alphabet (with the addition of 7 letters derived from ancient Demotic) in order to write the language (which is today only a liturgical language of the Coptic Church). An uncial variant of the Coptic alphabet was used from the 8th to the 15th century for writing Old Nubian, an ancient variety of the Nubian language. Arabic The Arabic script was","-27.29473932788096"],["York. Weimann managed to collaborate with an early childhood coordinator, Rita Friedman, to create an educational program that revolved around 26 anthropomorphic characters-- each who represented the letters of the alphabet-- to teach beginning readers how to \"decode\" or \"sound out\" the consonants and vowels that form words. They embodied the basic rules of phonics into stories about these make-believe characters called Letter People. Each letter of the alphabet had a distinct characteristic to help children learn not only the letter but the sound the letter represents in the written word. For example, Mr. M has a Munching Mouth, Mr.","-27.262760967205395"],["from hieroglyphs that was used mainly for writing on papyrus, was nearly as old. Beginning in the seventh century BC, a third script derived from hieratic, known today as demotic, emerged, which differed so greatly from its hieroglyphic ancestor that the relationship between the signs is difficult to recognise. Demotic became the most common system for writing the Egyptian language, and hieroglyphic and hieratic were thereafter mostly restricted to religious uses. In the fourth century BC, Egypt came to be ruled by the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty, and Greek and demotic were used side-by-side in Egypt under Ptolemaic rule and then","-27.259889685672533"],["the second millennium BC, and were found on a stone tablet accompanying the Hurrian foundation pegs known as the \"Urkish lions.\" Archeologists have discovered the texts of numerous spells, incantations, prophecies and letters at sites including Hattusha, Mari, Tuttul, Babylon, Ugarit and others. Early study of the language, however, was entirely based on the Mitanni letter, found in 1887 at Amarna in Egypt, written by the Hurrian king Tushratta to the pharaoh Amenhotep III. The Hurro-Urartian relation was recognized as early as 1890 by Sayce (ZA 5, 1890, 260-274) and Jensen (ZA 6, 1891, 34-72).\nIn the thirteenth century BC, invasions","-27.239892068733752"],["alphabet, itself a descendant of the Phoenician script.\nThe Aramaic alphabet, used to write Aramaic, is another descendant of Phoenician. Aramaic, being the lingua franca of the Middle East, was widely adopted. It later split off (due to political divisions) into a number of related alphabets, including Hebrew, Syriac, and Nabataean, the latter of which, in its cursive form, became an ancestor of the Arabic alphabet currently used in Arabic-speaking countries from North Africa through the Levant to Iraq and the Persian Gulf region, as well as in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and other countries.\nThe Sogdian alphabet, a descendant of Phoenician via","-27.212927136321934"],["of thousands of symbols is a daunting task; children from cultures that use logograms–word symbols–to represent words take years longer to learn to read and write than children learning an alphabet. The relative ease of memorizing 26 letters contributed to the spread of literacy throughout the world.\nThe first consonantal alphabet found emerged around 1800 BCE to represent the language of the Phoenicians, Semitic workers in Egypt (see Middle Bronze Age alphabets), and was derived from the alphabetic principles of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Our present Roman system derives from this Phoenician alphabet, which had 22 letters. Nineteen of our present letters","-27.209389414698308"],["in the dictionary and books of E. A. W. Budge. This reading is found as a phonetic complement using the signs for z and š, leading to the misunderstanding. However, Old Kingdom Egyptian lacked a distinct sign for the ẖ sound and the Coptic descendant shows that the original second consonant was indeed the palatalized fricative ẖ not the (alveolo-)palatal sibilant š, (š being the pool-lake-basin (hieroglyph) in the Egyptian language).\nWhen used as the verb zẖꜣ, the hieroglyph has a variety of related meanings: to write, to draw, to make a design, to do into writing. As the noun zẖꜣ,","-27.188611287077947"],["Korean alphabet. Linear Korean There was a minor and unsuccessful movement in the early twentieth century to abolish syllabic blocks and write the letters individually and in a row, in the fashion of writing Latin alphabet as in English and other European languages, instead of the standard convention of 모아쓰기 (moa-sseugi 'assembled writing'). For example, ㅎㅏㄴㄱㅡㄹ would be written for 한글 (Hangeul). It is called 풀어쓰기 (pureo-sseugi 'unassembled writing').\nAvant-garde typographer Ahn Sangsu made a font for the \"Hangul Dada\" exposition that exploded the syllable blocks; but while it strings out the letters horizontally, it retains the distinctive vertical position each","-27.083004531279585"],["His claims were initially met with some scepticism and with accusations that he had taken ideas from Young without giving credit, but they gradually gained acceptance. Champollion went on to roughly identify the meanings of most phonetic hieroglyphs and to establish much of the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Egyptian. Young, meanwhile, largely deciphered demotic using the Rosetta Stone in combination with other Greek and demotic parallel texts.\nDecipherment efforts languished after Young's death in 1829 and Champollion's in 1831, but in 1837 Karl Richard Lepsius pointed out that many hieroglyphs represented combinations of two or three sounds rather than one,","-27.0731266851908"],["technically an abugida, has fused consonants and vowels together to the point where it is learned as if it were a syllabary. Alphabets An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.\nAs languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were","-27.071499329409562"],["hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie informatique: Manuel de codage des textes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie sur ordinateur. It is widely used in e-mail discussion lists and internet forums catering to professional Egyptologists and the interested public.\nAlthough the Manuel de codage system allows for simple \"alphabetic\" transliterations, it also specifies a complex method for electronically encoding complete ancient Egyptian texts, indicating features such as the placement, orientation, and even size of individual hieroglyphs. This system is used (though frequently with modifications) by various software packages developed for typesetting hieroglyphic texts (such as SignWriter, WinGlyph, MacScribe, InScribe, Glyphotext, WikiHiero,","-27.066251967866265"],["which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC). Writing Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written","-27.04297053654591"],["first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the Lisan al-`Arab (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and al-Qamus al-Muhit (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The Qamus al-Muhit is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the Lisan and the Oxford English Dictionary.\nIn medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents","-27.04192028050602"],["Yahya Ibn al-Batriq Abu Yahya Ibn al-Batriq (working 796 – 806) was a Syrian scholar who pioneered the translation of ancient Greek texts into Arabic, a major early figure in the transmission of the Classics at the close of Late Antiquity. He translated for Al-Mansur the major medical works of Galen and Hippocrates, and also translated Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos.\nTranslation was not a fully developed skill: al-Batriq worked by a combination of direct word-for-word translation and transliteration of ancient Greek words into Arabic where no equivalent was to be found.\nHe compiled the encyclopedic Kitab sirr al-asrar, or the Book of the science","-27.038032515351006"],["Egyptian Grammar produced one of the few available hieroglyphic printing fonts.\nIn 1915 Gardiner was also able to crack the so-called Proto-Sinaitic writing system by deciphering the \"B'alat inscriptions\".","-27.01690538779144"],["(ܐ), the waw (ܘ), and the yod (ܝ). The mater lectionis was developed as early as the 6th century to represent long vowels, which were earlier denoted by a dot under the line. The most frequent ones are the yod and the waw, while the alap is mostly restricted to some transliterated words. Influence on other languages Later, in some adaptations of the Arabic alphabet (such those sometimes used for Kurdish and Uyghur) and of the Hebrew alphabet (such as those used for the Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish), matres lectionis were generally used for all or most vowels, thus in","-27.015320002370572"],["had ceased to be spoken aloud by at least the 3rd century BCE during Second Temple Judaism and vowel points were not written until the early medieval period. The Masoretic Text uses vowel points of Adonai or Elohim (depending on the context) marking the pronunciation as Yəhōwāh (יְ הֹ וָ ה, [jăhowɔh] (listen)); however, scholarly consensus is that this is not the original pronunciation. (For a discussion of subtle pronunciation changes between what is preserved in the Hebrew Scriptures and what is read, see Qere and Ketiv.)\nThe Tetragrammaton first appears in Genesis and occurs 6828 times in total in the Stuttgart edition","-27.007085490091413"],["has been decoded. To do this, the child must first figure out the Alphabetic principle and master it in only a few years. Most children know that the words on a page in a book mean something, but do not readily understand how the letters code the meaning. They know that these words are made of the sounds of their particular language, and that letters convey these sounds. Novice readers learn to hear and manipulate the smaller sounds into syllables and words. If a child is able to master this skill, called phonological awareness, it is one of","-26.997942889967817"],["the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphs substantially deciphered. Literature Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books),","-26.984416282568418"],["seems to have been originally an /s/ and the door-bolt glyph a /θ/ sound, but these both came to be pronounced /s/, as the /θ/ sound was lost. A few uniliterals first appear in Middle Egyptian texts.\nBesides the uniliteral glyphs, there are also the biliteral and triliteral signs, to represent a specific sequence of two or three consonants, consonants and vowels, and a few as vowel combinations only, in the language. Semantic reading Besides a phonetic interpretation, characters can also be read for their meaning: in this instance, logograms are being spoken (or ideograms) and semagrams (the latter are also","-26.975508296280168"],["Egyptian hieroglyphs Etymology The word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός (hieroglyphikos), a compound of ἱερός (hierós 'sacred') and γλύφω (glýphō 'Ι carve, engrave'; see glyph).\nThe glyphs themselves since the Ptolemaic period were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ [γράμματα] (tà hieroglyphikà [grámmata]) \"the sacred engraved letters\", the Greek counterpart to the Egyptian expression of mdw.w-nṯr \"god's words\". Greek ἱερογλυφός meant \"a carver of hieroglyphs\".\nIn English, hieroglyph as a noun is recorded from 1590, originally short for nominalised hieroglyphic (1580s, with a plural hieroglyphics), from adjectival use (hieroglyphic character). Origin Hieroglyphs may have emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For","-26.95029571226405"],["very basic understanding of Chinese characters but would have a better command of the spoken tongue once assimilated, they started using the Arabic script for Chinese. This was often done by writing notes in Chinese to aid in the memorization of surahs. This method was also used to write Chinese translations of Arabic vocabulary learned in the madrasas. Thus, a system of writing the Chinese language with Arabic script gradually developed and standardized to some extent. Currently, the oldest known artifact showing signs of Xiao'erjing is a stone stele in the courtyard of Daxue Xixiang Mosque in Xi'an in","-26.935842938743008"],["region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example, Protosinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from that of Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone, written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam Inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraca found near Lachish, which","-26.932607688300777"],["Georg Friedrich Grotefend, was able to decipher the Old Persian section of the Behistun inscriptions, using his knowledge of modern Persian. When he recovered the rest of the text in 1843, he and others were gradually able to translate the Elamite and Akkadian sections of it, starting with the 37 signs he had deciphered for the Old Persian. Meanwhile, many more cuneiform texts were coming to light from archaeological excavations, mostly in the Semitic Akkadian language, which were duly deciphered.\nBy 1850, however, Edward Hincks came to suspect a non-Semitic origin for cuneiform. Semitic languages are structured according to consonantal forms,","-26.89564983973105"],["culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally. Having learned that hieroglyphs were sacred writing, Greco-Roman authors imagined the complex but rational system as an allegorical, even magical, system transmitting secret, mystical knowledge.\nBy the 4th century, few Egyptians were capable of reading hieroglyphs, and the \"myth of allegorical hieroglyphs\" was ascendant. Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is from Philae, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, from 394.\nThe Hieroglyphica of Horapollo (c. 5th century) appears to retain","-26.85205530231906"],["can be used to decipher the ancient language. For example, it was discovered that the Mayan language had distinct grammatical patterns, such as a consonant/vowel syllable aspect. Researchers realized that the ancient language was based more on phonetics than previously thought.\nThe name Chortiʼ (with unglottalized ) means 'language of the corn farmers', which references to the traditional agricultural activity of the Chʼortiʼ families. The politicized spelling Chʼortiʼ was introduced later in an attempt to lessen associations between Chʼortiʼ speakers and stereotypical professions.\nChʼortiʼ language is one of the three modern descendants of Chʼolan language which is a sub-group of Mayan","-26.849201657663798"],["more cursive forms.From them descended the standard handwriting of the Persian period (called 'Assyrian writing' in Egyptian) and eventually both the square Hebrew script (also known as 'Assyrian writing' in Hebrew), and through Nabataean, the Arabic alphabet.\nIt is believed that all extant forms of Aramaic stem from Imperial Aramaic, which itself originated in Assyria.\nAdditionally, speaking Aramaic long ago ceased to signify an Aramean ethnic identity, for the language spread among many previously non-Aramean and non-Aramaic speaking peoples in the Near East and Asia Minor from the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire onwards. As Korean Orientalist Chul-hyun Bae of Seoul National","-26.84904030711914"],["Phoenician language History The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make extensive use of the Semitic alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is the oldest verified consonantal alphabet, or abjad. It has become conventional to refer to the script as \"Proto-Canaanite\" until the mid-11th century BC, when it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads, and as \"Phoenician\" only after 1050 BC. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is generally believed to be at least the partial ancestor of almost all modern alphabets.\nFrom a traditional linguistic perspective, Phoenician was composed of a variety of dialects. However, the very slight differences in language and","-26.841578850886435"],["to circa 8000 BCE. Mature writing system Hieroglyphs consist of three kinds of glyphs: phonetic glyphs, including single-consonant characters that function like an alphabet; logographs, representing morphemes; and determinatives, which narrow down the meaning of logographic or phonetic words. Late Period As writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic (priestly) and demotic (popular) scripts. These variants were also more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental and other formal writing. The Rosetta Stone contains","-26.839016661226196"],["material was translated from each character.\"\nThis correlation found in the \"Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar\" between Abraham 1:11–2:9 and the Small Sensen papyrus has thus led many critics to assert that all of the Book of Abraham text most likely came entirely from Smith's interpretation of the Small Sensen papyrus, rather than a hypothetical lost section (as is often asserted by apologists). This means, however, that Smith likely used a single Egyptian character to derive dozens of words. Jerald Tanner, for instance, wrote \"Joseph Smith apparently translated many English words from each Egyptian character. The characters from fewer than four lines","-26.83849289594582"],["be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The Syriac alphabet, precursor to the Arabic alphabet, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The Aleppo Codex, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century, likely in Tiberias, and survives to this day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence.\nDuring the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians","-26.826202832045965"],["appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian. Egyptian hieroglyphs Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train as scribes, in the service of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authorities.\nGeoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs \"came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter\", and that it is \"probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian","-26.82377442818688"],["were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) alleges that not only the old Nabataean writing was influenced by the \"Syrian script\" (i.e. Aramaic), but also the old Chaldean script. \nA cursive Hebrew variant developed from the early centuries AD, but it remained restricted to the status of a variant used alongside the noncursive. By contrast, the cursive developed out of the Nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing Arabic, evolving into the Arabic alphabet as it stood by the time of the early spread of Islam.\nThe development of cursive","-26.800560728705022"],["dialects that are Aramaic. Writing system The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive \"square\" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet today. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by","-26.797616398878745"],["three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Late survival Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule (intermittent in the 6th and 5th centuries BC), and after Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the misleading quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part, as a response to the changed political situation. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish 'true Egyptians' from some of the foreign conquerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign","-26.75477801758575"],["in 1636, the Prodromus coptus sive aegyptiacus. Kircher then broke with Horapollon's interpretation of the language of the hieroglyphs with his Lingua aegyptiaca restituta. Kircher argued that Coptic preserved the last development of ancient Egyptian. For this Kircher has been considered the true \"founder of Egyptology\", because his work was conducted \"before the discovery of the Rosetta Stone rendered Egyptian hieroglyphics comprehensible to scholars\". He also recognized the relationship between hieratic and hieroglyphic scripts.\nBetween 1650 and 1654, Kircher published four volumes of \"translations\" of hieroglyphs in the context of his Coptic studies. However, according to Steven Frimmer, \"none of them","-26.745979242477915"],["written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from Egyptian hieroglyphs. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from","-26.736098700632283"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs\\\". Kircher thought the Egyptians had believed in an ancient theological tradition that preceded and foreshadowed Christianity, and he hoped to understand this tradition through hieroglyphs. Like his Renaissance predecessors he believed hieroglyphs represented an abstract form of communication rather than a language. To translate such a system of communication in a self-consistent way was impossible. Therefore, in his works on hieroglyphs, such as Obeliscus Pamphilius (1650) and Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1652–1655), Kircher proceeded by guesswork based on his understanding of ancient Egyptian beliefs, derived from the Coptic texts he had read and from various ancient texts\",\n \"-32.76781820209362\"\n ],\n [\n \"translation was suddenly available. In the early 19th century, scholars such as Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Åkerblad, and Thomas Young studied the inscriptions on the stone, and were able to make some headway. Finally, Jean-François Champollion made the complete decipherment by the 1820s. In his Lettre à M. Dacier (1822), he wrote:\\nIt is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say in the same word.\\nHieroglyphs survive today in two forms: directly, through half a dozen Demotic glyphs added to the Greek alphabet when writing Coptic;\",\n \"-32.02015172615938\"\n ],\n [\n \"a means of recording a spoken language. Some attempts at decipherment by Islamic and European scholars in the Middle Ages and Renaissance acknowledged the script might have a phonetic component, but perception of hieroglyphs as ideographic hampered efforts to understand them up through the 18th century.\\nThe Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799 by members of Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, bore a parallel text in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. It was hoped that the Egyptian text could be deciphered through its Greek translation, especially in combination with the evidence from Coptic, the last stage of the Egyptian language. Doing so proved\",\n \"-31.984019684921805\"\n ],\n [\n \"hieroglyphics dates from AD 394, after which all knowledge of hieroglyphics was lost. Until Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion found the key to hieroglyphics in the 19th century, the main authority was the 4th century Greek grammarian Horapollon, whose chief contribution was the misconception that hieroglyphics were \\\"picture writing\\\" and that future translators should look for symbolic meaning in the pictures.\\nThe first modern study of hieroglyphics came with Piero Valeriano Bolzani's Hieroglyphica (1556), and Kircher was the most famous of the \\\"decipherers\\\" between ancient and modern times and the most famous Egyptologist of his day. In his Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta\",\n \"-30.667386362885736\"\n ],\n [\n \"that he thought contained traditions derived from Egypt. His translations turned short texts containing only a few hieroglyphic characters into lengthy sentences of esoteric ideas. Unlike earlier European scholars Kircher did realise that hieroglyphs could function phonetically, though he considered this function a late development. He also recognised one hieroglyph, 𓈗, as representing water and thus standing phonetically for the Coptic word for water, mu, as well as the m sound. He became the first European to correctly identify a phonetic value for a hieroglyph.\\nAlthough Kircher's basic assumptions were shared by his contemporaries, most scholars rejected or even ridiculed his\",\n \"-30.383447141161014\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries During the Renaissance Europeans became interested in hieroglyphs, spurred by the rediscovery of Horapollo's Hieroglyphica by Cristoforo Buondelmonti in 1419. Renaissance antiquarians recognised that there were hieroglyphic texts on obelisks and other Egyptian artefacts imported to Europe in Roman times, but they did not attempt to decipher these texts. Influenced by Horapollo and Plotinus, they saw hieroglyphs as a universal, image-based form of communication, not a means of recording a spoken language. From this belief sprang a Renaissance artistic tradition of using obscure symbolism loosely based on the imagery described in Horapollo, pioneered by Francesco Colonna's\",\n \"-30.216376953783765\"\n ],\n [\n \"the priest Horapollo wrote Hieroglyphica, an explanation of almost 200 glyphs. His work was believed to be authoritative, yet it was misleading in many ways, and this and other works were a lasting impediment to the understanding of Egyptian writing. Later attempts at decipherment were made by Arab historians in medieval Egypt during the 9th and 10th centuries. Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya were the first historians to study hieroglyphs, by comparing them to the contemporary Coptic language used by Coptic priests in their time. The study of hieroglyphs continued with fruitless attempts at decipherment by European scholars, notably Johannes\",\n \"-30.057677142602188\"\n ],\n [\n \"History of the alphabet Predecessors Two scripts are well attested from before the end of the fourth millennium BCE: Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs.\\nHieroglyphs were employed in three ways in Ancient Egyptian texts: as logograms (ideograms) that represent a word denoting an object pictorially depicted by the hieroglyph; more commonly as phonograms writing a sound or sequence of sounds; and as determinatives (which provide clues to meaning without directly writing sounds). Since vowels were mostly unwritten, the hieroglyphs which indicated a single consonant could have been used as a consonantal alphabet (or \\\"abjad\\\"). This was not done when writing\",\n \"-30.055296511898632\"\n ],\n [\n \"translations. Nevertheless, his argument that Coptic was derived from the ancient Egyptian language was widely accepted. Eighteenth century Hardly anyone attempted to decipher hieroglyphs for decades after Kircher's last works on the subject, although some contributed suggestions about the script that ultimately proved correct. William Warburton's religious treatise The Divine Legation of Moses, published from 1738 to 1741, included a long digression on hieroglyphs and the evolution of writing. It argued that hieroglyphs were not invented to encode religious secrets but for practical purposes, like any other writing system, and that the phonetic Egyptian script mentioned by Clement of Alexandria\",\n \"-29.841147816274315\"\n ],\n [\n \"It wasn't until Athanasius Kircher in the mid 17th century that scholars began to think the hieroglyphs might also represent sounds. Kircher was familiar with Coptic, and thought that it might be the key to deciphering the hieroglyphs, but was held back by a belief in the mystical nature of the symbols.\\nThe breakthrough in decipherment came only with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troops in 1799 (during Napoleon's Egyptian invasion). \\nAs the stone presented a hieroglyphic and a demotic version of the same text in parallel with a Greek translation, plenty of material for falsifiable studies in\",\n \"-29.786841426115643\"\n ],\n [\n \"difficult, despite some halting progress made by Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy and Johan David Åkerblad. Young, building on their work, observed that demotic characters were derived from hieroglyphs and identified several of the phonetic signs in demotic. He also identified the meaning of many hieroglyphs, including phonetic glyphs in a cartouche containing the name of an Egyptian king of foreign origin, Ptolemy. He was convinced, however, that phonetic hieroglyphs were used only in writing non-Egyptian words. In the early 1820s Champollion compared Ptolemy's cartouche with others and ultimately realised the hieroglyphic script was a mixture of phonetic and ideographic elements.\",\n \"-29.629920588238747\"\n ],\n [\n \"some genuine knowledge about the writing system. It offers an explanation of close to 200 signs.\\nSome are identified correctly, such as the \\\"goose\\\" hieroglyph (zꜣ) representing the word for \\\"son\\\". Decipherment Knowledge of the hieroglyphs had been lost completely by the medieval period. \\nEarly attempts at decipherment are due to Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya (9th and 10th century, respectively).\\nAll medieval and early modern attempts were hampered by the fundamental assumption that hieroglyphs \\nrecorded ideas and not the sounds of the language. \\nAs no bilingual texts were available, any such symbolic 'translation' could be proposed without the possibility of verification.\",\n \"-29.618614108330803\"\n ],\n [\n \"been understood since shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire. The usage of the hieroglyphic script had become increasingly specialised even in the later Pharaonic period; by the 4th century AD, few Egyptians were capable of reading them. Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is dated to 24 August 394, found at Philae and known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom.\\nHieroglyphs retained their pictorial appearance, and classical authors emphasised this aspect, in sharp contrast to the Greek and Roman alphabets. In the 5th century,\",\n \"-29.54743689100711\"\n ],\n [\n \"Aramaic, and Hebrew (he, waw, yod; sometimes even aleph; Naveh 62). Naveh (ibid.) notes that the earliest Aramaic and Hebrew documents already used matres lectionis. Some scholars argue that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed their alphabet from the Arameans. However, the practice has older roots, as the Semitic cuneiform alphabet of Ugarit (13th century BC) already had matres lectionis (Naveh 138). Hebrew The earliest method of indicating some vowels in Hebrew writing was to use the consonant letters yod י, waw ו, he ה,and aleph א of the Hebrew alphabet to also write long vowels in some cases. Originally,\",\n \"-29.480325685683056\"\n ],\n [\n \"are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000.\\nGeoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs \\\"came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter\\\", and that it is \\\"probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\\\". There are many instances of early Egypt-Mesopotamia relations, but given the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, \\\"no definitive determination has been made as to\",\n \"-29.392121444631584\"\n ],\n [\n \"number of ancient alphabets, in which he deciphered a number of Egyptian hieroglyphs, was later read by Athanasius Kircher in the 17th century, and then translated and published in English by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall in 1806 as Ancient Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters Explained; with an Account of the Egyptian Priests, their Classes, Initiation, and Sacrifices in the Arabic Language by Ahmad Bin Abubekr Bin Wahishih, 16 years before Jean-François Champollion's complete decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs. This book was known to Silvestre de Sacy, a colleague of Champollion. Dr Okasha El Daly, at University College London's Institute of Archaeology, claims that\",\n \"-29.289195831046527\"\n ],\n [\n \"some hieroglyphs had been decoded by Ibn Wahshiyya, eight centuries before Champollion deciphered the Rosetta stone. A. K. Eyma critiques this idea and think that \\\"there was no such thing as an Arabic decipherment of hieroglyphs\\\". Carlo Nallino, in his lectures on the history of Arab Astronomy, is also of the opinion that books attributed to Ibn Wahshiyya are actually works of an unreliable pupil attributed to him, and of no scientific value, including the claim that he deciphered some hieroglyphs. Cryptography He published several cipher alphabets that were used to encrypt magic formulas.\",\n \"-28.981164774926583\"\n ],\n [\n \"was a radical simplification of phonetic writing, since hieroglyphics required the writer to pick a hieroglyph starting with the same sound that the writer wanted to write in order to write phonetically, much as man'yōgana (Chinese characters used solely for phonetic use) was used to represent Japanese phonetically before the invention of kana.\\nPhoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the Greek alphabet and Aramaic, a widely used abjad. The Greek alphabet evolved into the modern western alphabets, such as Latin and Cyrillic, while Aramaic became the ancestor of many modern abjads and abugidas of Asia. Impure\",\n \"-28.950461923654075\"\n ],\n [\n \"and published them in Denmark. The deciphering of the texts started immediately, and bilinguals, in particular Old Persian-Akkadian bilinguals, were of great help. Since the texts contained several royal names, isolated signs could be identified, and were presented in 1802 by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. By this time it was already evident that Akkadian was a Semitic language, and the final breakthrough in deciphering the language came from Edward Hincks, Henry Rawlinson and Jules Oppert in the middle of the 19th century. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago recently completed a 21-volume dictionary of the Akkadian language, which\",\n \"-28.76576827401186\"\n ],\n [\n \"fully understood how the scripts worked. Diodorus Siculus, in the 1st century BC, explicitly described hieroglyphs as an ideographic script, and most classical authors shared this assumption. Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, referred to 25 Egyptian letters, suggesting he might have been aware of the phonetic aspect of hieroglyphic or demotic, but his meaning is unclear. Around AD 200 Clement of Alexandria hinted that some signs were phonetic but concentrated on the signs' metaphorical meanings. Plotinus, in the third century AD, claimed hieroglyphs did not represent words but a divinely inspired, fundamental insight into the nature of the objects\",\n \"-28.726481022302323\"\n ],\n [\n \"representation of language developed by Semitic workers in Egypt, but by then alphabetic principles had a slight possibility of being inculcated into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium. These early abjads remained of marginal importance for several centuries, and it is only towards the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script splits into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BC) Byblos syllabary and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BC). The Proto-Canaanite was probably somehow influenced by the undeciphered Byblos syllabary and, in turn, inspired the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BC). Anatolian hieroglyphs Anatolian hieroglyphs are an indigenous\",\n \"-28.71012702243752\"\n ],\n [\n \"a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything. Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.\\nIn the Middle Bronze Age, an apparently \\\"alphabetic\\\" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appears in Egyptian\",\n \"-28.550779301778675\"\n ],\n [\n \"that of the Roman Empire. Hieroglyphs became increasingly obscure, used mainly by Egyptian priests.\\nThese scripts contained a mix of phonetic signs, representing sounds in the spoken language, and ideographic signs, representing ideas. Phonetic signs included uniliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs, standing respectively for one, two or three sounds. Ideographic signs included logograms, representing whole words, and determinatives, which were used to specify the meaning of a word written with phonetic signs.\\nMany Greek and Roman authors wrote about these scripts, and many were aware that the Egyptians had two or three writing systems, but none whose works survived into later times\",\n \"-28.42971871932241\"\n ],\n [\n \"eventually evolved into an ideographic system (where a sign represents an idea) and then to a syllabic system (where a sign represents a syllable). Developing around the same time, the Egyptian system of hieroglyphics also began as a pictographic script and evolved into a system of syllabic writing. Two cursive scripts were eventually created, hieratic, shortly after hieroglyphs were invented, and demotic (Egyptian) in the seventh century BC. Scribes wrote these scripts usually on papyrus, with ink on a reed pen.\\nThe first known alphabetical system came from the Phoenicians, who developed a vowel-less system of 22 letters around the\",\n \"-28.396671310591046\"\n ],\n [\n \"they depicted. Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th century AD copied another author's translation of a hieroglyphic text on an obelisk, but the translation was too loose to be useful in understanding the principles of the writing system. The only extensive discussion of hieroglyphs to survive into modern times was the Hieroglyphica, a work probably written in the fourth century AD and attributed to a man named Horapollo. It discusses the meanings of individual hieroglyphs, though not how those signs were used to form phrases or sentences. Some of the meanings it describes are correct, but more are wrong, and all\",\n \"-28.38205211757122\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lettre à M. Dacier Lettre à M. Dacier (full title: Lettre à M. Dacier relative à l'alphabet des hiéroglyphes phonétiques: \\\"Letter to M. Dacier concerning the alphabet of the phonetic hieroglyphs\\\") is a scientific communication in the form of a letter sent in 1822 by the Egyptologist Jean-François Champollion to Bon-Joseph Dacier, secretary of the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. It is the founding text upon which Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics were first systematically deciphered by Champollion, largely on the basis of the multilingual Rosetta Stone. History On September 14, 1822, while visiting his brother Jacques-Joseph, a great supporter of\",\n \"-28.280474830073217\"\n ],\n [\n \"two varieties of the letter. The Aramaic script began developing special final forms for certain letters in the 5th century BCE, though this was not always a consistent rule (as reflected in the Qumran practice). Matres lectionis The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants, but gradually the letters א ,ה ,ו ,י, also became used to indicate vowels, known as matres lectionis (Latin: \\\"mothers of reading\\\") when used in this function. It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development: for instance, *bayt 'house' shifted to בֵּית in construct state but retained its spelling. While no examples of\",\n \"-28.255076938978164\"\n ],\n [\n \"Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.\\nCharles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented\",\n \"-28.220703583698196\"\n ],\n [\n \"writers pretended to have found the key to the hieroglyphics, and many more professed, with a shameless impudence which is hard to understand in these days, to translate the contents of the texts into a modern tongue. Foremost among such pretenders must be mentioned Athanasius Kircher, who, in the 17th century, declared that he had found the key to the hieroglyphic inscriptions; the translations which he prints in his Oedipus Aegyptiacus are utter nonsense, but as they were put forth in a learned tongue many people at the time believed they were correct.\\nAlthough Kircher's approach to deciphering texts was based\",\n \"-28.201692991720847\"\n ],\n [\n \"on a fundamental misconception, some modern commentators have described Kircher as the pioneer of the serious study of hieroglyphs. The data which he collected were later consulted by Champollion in his successful efforts to decode the script. According to Joseph MacDonnell, it was \\\"because of Kircher's work that scientists knew what to look for when interpreting the Rosetta stone\\\". Another scholar of ancient Egypt, Erik Iversen, concluded:\\nIt is therefore Kircher's incontestable merit that he was the first to have discovered the phonetic value of an Egyptian hieroglyph. From a humanistic as well as an intellectual point of view Egyptology may\",\n \"-28.18388995139685\"\n ],\n [\n \"and indirectly, as the inspiration for the original alphabet that was ancestral to nearly every other alphabet ever used, including the Latin alphabet. Uniliteral signs The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like letters in English). It would have been possible to write all Egyptian words in the manner of these signs, but the Egyptians never did so and never simplified their complex writing into a true alphabet.\\nEach uniliteral glyph once had a unique reading, but several of these fell together as Old Egyptian developed into Middle Egyptian. For example, the folded-cloth glyph\",\n \"-28.167066976206115\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ugaritic, Moabite, South Arabian and Phoenician alphabets. Origins and development Historically, the practice of using matres lectionis seems to have originated when /aj/ and /aw/ diphthongs, written with the yod י and the waw ו consonant letters respectively, monophthongized to simple long vowels /eː/ and /oː/. This epiphenomenal association between consonant letters and vowel sounds was then seized upon and used in words without historic diphthongs.\\nIn general terms, it is observable that early Phoenician texts have very few matres lectionis, and that during most of the 1st millennium BCE, Hebrew and Aramaic were quicker to develop matres lectionis than\",\n \"-28.165297214713064\"\n ],\n [\n \"nonsense, but as they were put forth in a learned tongue many people at the time believed they were correct.\\nThe accurate meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs were not deciphered until 1824 when Jean-François Champollion finally solved the riddle through his study of the Rosetta stone.\\nIn 1999 the University of Geneva exhibited one of the vast tomes of Oedipus Aegyptiacus in an exhibition to celebrate the centenary of Jorge Luis Borges as representative of books associated with the Argentinian author.\",\n \"-28.155546118689927\"\n ],\n [\n \"learning, Kircherus.\\nOn the other hand, modern experts on hieroglyphic writing have found Kircher's work to be of little value. According to E. A. Wallis Budge:\\nMany writers pretended to have found the key to the hieroglyphics, and many more professed, with a shameless impudence which is hard to understand in these days, to translate the contents of the texts into a modern tongue. Foremost among such pretenders must be mentioned Athanasius Kircher, who, in the 17th century, declared that he had found the key to the hieroglyphic inscriptions; the translations which he prints in his Oedipus Aegyptiacus are utter\",\n \"-28.1397242786511\"\n ],\n [\n \"Miꞌkmaq hieroglyphic writing Classification Scholars have debated whether the earliest known Miꞌkmaq \\\"hieroglyphs\\\" from the 17th century qualified fully as a writing system, rather than as a pictographic mnemonic device. In the 17th century, French missionary Chrétien Le Clercq adapted the Míkmaq characters as a logographic system for pedagogical purposes.\\nIn 1978, Ives Goddard and William Fitzhugh of the Department of Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution, contended that the pre-missionary system was purely mnemonic, as it could not be used to write new compositions. Schmidt and Marshall argued in 1995 that the missionary system of the 17th century was able to\",\n \"-28.052812757559877\"\n ],\n [\n \"not realised that the cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same language.\\nIn the 1970s, as a result of a fundamental revision of the readings of a large number of hieroglyphs by John David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies, and Günter Neumann, it became clear that both cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same Luwian language. This revision resulted from a discovery outside the area of Luwian settlement, namely the annotations on Urartian pots, written in the Urartian language using the hieroglyphic Luwian script. The sign , which had hitherto been read as ī was shown to be being used to indicate\",\n \"-28.04891318414593\"\n ],\n [\n \"was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC in the Persian Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdiana.\\nThe widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing Hebrew. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician, the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. Aramaic-derived scripts Since the evolution of the Aramaic alphabet out of the Phoenician one was a gradual process, the division of the world's alphabets into the ones derived from the\",\n \"-28.02976537304494\"\n ],\n [\n \"even remotely fitted the original texts\\\". In Oedipus Aegyptiacus, Kircher argued under the impression of the Hieroglyphica that ancient Egyptian was the language spoken by Adam and Eve, that Hermes Trismegistus was Moses, and that hieroglyphs were occult symbols which \\\"cannot be translated by words, but expressed only by marks, characters and figures.\\\" This led him to translate simple hieroglyphic texts now known to read as ḏd Wsr (\\\"Osiris says\\\") as \\\"The treachery of Typhon ends at the throne of Isis; the moisture of nature is guarded by the vigilance of Anubis\\\"\\nAccording to the Egyptologist Sir E. A. Wallis Budge:\\nMany\",\n \"-27.942517519408284\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hieroglyph A hieroglyph (Greek for \\\"sacred writing\\\") was a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system. Logographic scripts that are pictographic in form in a way reminiscent of ancient Egyptian are also sometimes called \\\"hieroglyphs\\\". In Neoplatonism, especially during the Renaissance, a \\\"hieroglyph\\\" was an artistic representation of an esoteric idea, which Neoplatonists believed actual Egyptian hieroglyphs to be. The word hieroglyphics refer to a hieroglyphic script. \\nThe Egyptians invented the pictorial script. The appearance of these distinctive figures in 3000 BCE marked the beginning of Egyptian civilization. Though based on images, Egyptian script was more than a sophisticated form\",\n \"-27.915235178408693\"\n ],\n [\n \"William Bullokar William Bullokar was a 16th-century printer who devised a 40-letter phonetic alphabet for the English language. Its characters were in the black-letter or \\\"gothic\\\" writing style commonly used at the time. Taking as his model a Latin grammar by William Lily, Bullokar wrote the first published grammar of the English language, in a book titled Brief Grammar for English, which appeared in 1586.\",\n \"-27.89967997835629\"\n ],\n [\n \"by Johan David Åkerblad in 1802 (14 turned out to be incorrect). Åkerblad was correct in stressing the importance of the demotic text in trying to read the inscriptions, but he wrongly believed that demotic was entirely alphabetic.\\nBy 1814 Young had completely translated the \\\"enchorial\\\" text of the Rosetta Stone (using a list with 86 demotic words), and then studied the hieroglyphic alphabet but initially failed to recognise that the demotic and hieroglyphic texts were paraphrases and not simple translations.\\nThere was considerable rivalry between Young and Jean-François Champollion while both were working on hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they briefly cooperated\",\n \"-27.872406271631917\"\n ],\n [\n \"and try to identify phonetic characters in them.\\nYoung did so, with two results that together paved the way for the final decipherment. In the hieroglyphic text, he discovered the phonetic characters \\\"p t o l m e s\\\" (in today's transliteration \\\"p t w l m y s\\\") that were used to write the Greek name \\\"Ptolemaios\\\". He also noticed that these characters resembled the equivalent ones in the demotic script, and went on to note as many as 80 similarities between the hieroglyphic and demotic texts on the stone, an important discovery because the two scripts were previously thought\",\n \"-27.860779150978487\"\n ],\n [\n \"but there is some indication from the writings of Juan Pablo Bonet—who never credited him for his method—that Ponce de Leon developed a manual alphabet which would allow a student who mastered it to spell out (letter by letter) any word. This alphabet was based, in whole or in part, on the simple hand gestures used by monks living in silence.\\nPonce de Leon's work with the deaf was considered bold by contemporaries, as the prevailing opinion among most Europeans in the 16th century was that the deaf were incapable of being educated. Many laymen even believed that the deaf\",\n \"-27.80730820044846\"\n ],\n [\n \"English and Arabic, that do not have a one-to-one correspondence between sounds (phonemes) and the letters (graphemes) that represent them.\\nShallow orthographies, such as Italian and Finnish, have a close relationship between graphemes and phonemes, and the spelling of words is very consistent. With shallow orthographies, new readers have few problems learning to decode words and as a result children learn to read relatively quickly. Most dyslexic readers of shallow orthographic systems learn to decode words with relative ease compared to dyslexics using deep orthographies, though they continue to have difficulty with reading fluency and comprehension. The hallmark system of dyslexia\",\n \"-27.804538276526728\"\n ],\n [\n \"Oedipus Aegyptiacus Hieroglyphs The third volume of Oedipus Aegyptiacus deals exclusively with Kircher's attempts to translate Egyptian hieroglyphs. The primary source for Kircher's study of hieroglyphs was the Bembine Tablet, so named after its acquisition by Cardinal Bembo, shortly after the sack of Rome in 1527. The Bembine Tablet is a bronze and silver tablet depicting various Egyptian gods and goddesses. In its centre sits Isis representing \\\"the polymorphic all-containing Universal Idea.\\\"\\nKircher's Oedipus Aegyptiacus is an example of syncretic and eclectic scholarship in the late Renaissance and representative of antiquarian scholarship before the modern scientific era. His renditions of\",\n \"-27.80335260366064\"\n ],\n [\n \"some influence on the developments of the Hebrew and Aramaic alphabets based on the fact that these languages evolved during the same time period, share similar features, and are commonly categorized into the same language group.\\nWhen the Israelites migrated to Canaan between 1200 and 1001 BCE, they also adopted a variation of the Canaanite alphabet. Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's scribe, used this alphabet to create the later scripts of the Old Testament. The early Hebrew alphabet was prominent in the Mediterranean region until Chaldean Babylonian rulers exiled the Jews to Babylon in the sixth century BCE. It was then that\",\n \"-27.76995523893129\"\n ],\n [\n \"known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad.\\nThere are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop\",\n \"-27.769679234770592\"\n ],\n [\n \"and found out the correct sound value from 14 of the 29 signs, but he wrongly believed the demotic hieroglyphs to be entirely alphabetic. One of his strategies of comparing the demotic to Coptic later became a key in Champollion's eventual decipherment of the hieroglyphic script and the Ancient Egyptian language.\\nIn 1810, Åkerblad sent to Sacy for publication his work entitled MÉMOIRE: Sur les noms coptes de quelques villes et villages d'Égypte. Yet, unfortunately, its publication was delayed, and it was not published until 1834. Some scholars saw such delay as motivated by political or personal considerations.\\nHis last days were\",\n \"-27.759949026110917\"\n ],\n [\n \"(1643), Kircher called hieroglyphics \\\"this language hitherto unknown in Europe, in which there are as many pictures as letters, as many riddles as sounds, in short as many mazes to be escaped from as mountains to be climbed\\\". While some of his notions are long discredited, portions of his work have been valuable to later scholars, and Kircher helped pioneer Egyptology as a field of serious study.\\nKircher's interest in Egyptology began in 1628 when he became intrigued by a collection of hieroglyphs in the library at Speyer. He learned Coptic in 1633 and published the first grammar of that language\",\n \"-27.71744491611389\"\n ],\n [\n \"idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\\\". The two writing systems are in fact quite similar in their initial stages, relying heavily on pictographic forms and then evolving a parallel system for the expression of phonetic sounds.\\nStandard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hierogplyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.\\nThere is however a lack of direct evidence, and \\\"no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt\\\". Instead, it\",\n \"-27.69898400537204\"\n ],\n [\n \"the earliest was initiated by a pious Dutch trader, Albert Ruyll in 1611. The book titled Sovrat A B C and written in Latin alphabet not only means in introducing Latin alphabet but also the basic tenets of Calvinism that includes the Ten Commandments, the faith and some prayers. This work later followed by several Bibles translated into Malay; Injil Mateus dan Markus (1638), Lukas dan Johanes (1646), Injil dan Perbuatan (1651), Kitab Kejadian (1662), Perjanjian Baru (1668) and Mazmur (1689).\\nThe era of Classical Malay also witnessed the growing interest among foreigners in learning the Malay language for the purpose\",\n \"-27.676814074031427\"\n ],\n [\n \"thus correcting one of the most fundamental faults in Champollion's work. Other scholars, such as Emmanuel de Rougé, refined the understanding of Egyptian enough that by the 1850s it was possible to fully translate ancient Egyptian texts. Combined with the decipherment of cuneiform at approximately the same time, their work opened up the once-inaccessible texts from the earliest stages of human history. Egyptian scripts and their extinction For most of its history ancient Egypt had two major writing systems. Hieroglyphs, a system of pictorial signs used mainly for formal texts, originated sometime around 3200 BC. Hieratic, a cursive system derived\",\n \"-27.674204536459\"\n ],\n [\n \"was devised by someone in Byblos who had seen Egyptian hieroglyphs and used them freely as an example to compose a new syllabary that was better adapted to the native language of Byblos—just as in neighbouring Ugarit a few centuries later a cuneiform alphabet was devised that was easier to use than the complicated Akkadian cuneiform.\\nSeveral signs resemble letters of the later Phoenician alphabet: . This suggests that the latter was derived in some way from the syllabary. Thus the inscriptions are potentially an important link between the Egyptian hieroglyphic script and the later Semitic abjads derived from Proto-Sinaitic. Brian\",\n \"-27.65504898774816\"\n ],\n [\n \"Aramaic alphabet Origins The earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet. Over time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below. Aramaic gradually became the lingua franca throughout the Middle East, with the script at first complementing and then displacing Assyrian cuneiform, as the predominant writing system. Achaemenid Empire (The First Persian Empire) Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Old Aramaic was adopted by the Persians as the \\\"vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast Persian empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a\",\n \"-27.58775092496944\"\n ],\n [\n \"number of demotic characters. This stage of the Egyptian language would later come to be known as Coptic along with its alphabet. The third theologian to head the Catachetical School was a native Egyptian by the name of Origen. Origen was an outstanding theologian and one of the most influential Church Fathers. He traveled extensively to lecture in various churches around the world and has many important texts to his credit including the Hexapla, an exegesis of various translations of the Hebrew Bible.\\nAt the threshold of the Byzantine period, the New Testament had been entirely translated into Coptic. But while\",\n \"-27.57459823253157\"\n ],\n [\n \"lexigrams were first used.\\nThe first ape trained to communicate in Yerkish was the chimpanzee Lana, beginning in 1973 within the context of the LANA project. Von Glaserfeld created approximately 150 of the first words in the Yerkish language, and went on to use 25 of them in his initial experiment with Lana - a chimpanzee whom researchers were hoping would not only interpret the Yerkish language, but would also participate in communication with others through this newfound language. A keyboard was created for Lana with each key representing various nouns or verbs such as food, eat, apple, drink, etc.\",\n \"-27.562541223640437\"\n ],\n [\n \"Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts The writing systems used in ancient Egypt were deciphered in the early 19th century by the work of several European scholars, especially Jean-François Champollion and Thomas Young. Egyptian writing, which included the hieroglyphic, hieratic and demotic scripts, ceased to be understood in the fourth and fifth centuries AD. Later generations' knowledge of these scripts was based on the work of Greek and Roman authors whose understanding was faulty. It was thus widely believed that Egyptian scripts were exclusively ideographic, representing ideas rather than sounds, and even that hieroglyphs were an esoteric, mystical script rather than\",\n \"-27.524185836840843\"\n ],\n [\n \"Emmanuel de Rougé, who began studying Egyptian in 1839, was the first person to translate a full-length ancient Egyptian text; he published the first translations of Egyptian literary texts in 1856. In the words of one of de Rougé's students, Gaston Maspero, \\\"de Rougé gave us the method which allowed us to utilise and bring to perfection the method of Champollion\\\". Other scholars concentrated on the lesser-known scripts. Charles Wycliffe Goodwin and François Chabas focused on the hieratic texts on papyri and were largely responsible for deciphering hieratic. Heinrich Brugsch was the first since Young's death to advance the study\",\n \"-27.49034614762786\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Egyptian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Hittite, Ugaritic and Luwian languages. Beginning with the famous decipherment and translation of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion in 1822, a number of individuals attempted to decipher the writing systems of the Ancient Near East and Aegean. In the case of Old Persian and Mycenaean Greek, decipherment yielded older records of languages already known from slightly more recent traditions (Middle Persian and Alphabetic Greek).\\nWork on the ancient languages of the Near East progressed rapidly. In the mid-19th century, Henry Rawlinson and others deciphered the Behistun Inscription, which records the same text in Old Persian, Elamite,\",\n \"-27.415744813902165\"\n ],\n [\n \"the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called matres lectionis. This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times. Addition of vowels In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph, he, heth or ayin,\",\n \"-27.409710436499154\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Egyptian language, but seems to have been a significant influence on the creation of the first alphabet (used to write a Semitic language). All subsequent alphabets around the world have either descended from this first Semitic alphabet, or have been inspired by one of its descendants (i.e. \\\"stimulus diffusion\\\"), with the possible exception of the Meroitic alphabet, a 3rd-century BCE adaptation of hieroglyphs in Nubia to the south of Egypt. The Rongorongo script of Easter Island may also be an independently invented alphabet, but too little is known of it to be certain. Latin alphabet A tribe known\",\n \"-27.39254991395137\"\n ],\n [\n \"Manually coded language History It is unknown when the first attempts were made to represent an oral language with gesture. Indeed, some have speculated that oral languages may have evolved from sign languages, and there may be undocumented cases in history when vocal and signed modes of a language existed side by side. It is not uncommon for people to develop gestures to replace words or phrases in contexts where speech is not possible or not permitted, such as in a television studio, but these are usually limited in scope and rarely develop into complete representations of an oral language.\",\n \"-27.378772146006668\"\n ],\n [\n \"this alphabet have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.\\nCharles de\",\n \"-27.34860832130653\"\n ],\n [\n \"Greek, and Latin. The Carthaginian dialect is called Punic. Today's Tifinagh is thought by some scholars to be descended from Punic, but this is still under debate. Greek The Greek alphabet was adapted in Egypt to the Coptic alphabet (with the addition of 7 letters derived from ancient Demotic) in order to write the language (which is today only a liturgical language of the Coptic Church). An uncial variant of the Coptic alphabet was used from the 8th to the 15th century for writing Old Nubian, an ancient variety of the Nubian language. Arabic The Arabic script was\",\n \"-27.29473932788096\"\n ],\n [\n \"York. Weimann managed to collaborate with an early childhood coordinator, Rita Friedman, to create an educational program that revolved around 26 anthropomorphic characters-- each who represented the letters of the alphabet-- to teach beginning readers how to \\\"decode\\\" or \\\"sound out\\\" the consonants and vowels that form words. They embodied the basic rules of phonics into stories about these make-believe characters called Letter People. Each letter of the alphabet had a distinct characteristic to help children learn not only the letter but the sound the letter represents in the written word. For example, Mr. M has a Munching Mouth, Mr.\",\n \"-27.262760967205395\"\n ],\n [\n \"from hieroglyphs that was used mainly for writing on papyrus, was nearly as old. Beginning in the seventh century BC, a third script derived from hieratic, known today as demotic, emerged, which differed so greatly from its hieroglyphic ancestor that the relationship between the signs is difficult to recognise. Demotic became the most common system for writing the Egyptian language, and hieroglyphic and hieratic were thereafter mostly restricted to religious uses. In the fourth century BC, Egypt came to be ruled by the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty, and Greek and demotic were used side-by-side in Egypt under Ptolemaic rule and then\",\n \"-27.259889685672533\"\n ],\n [\n \"the second millennium BC, and were found on a stone tablet accompanying the Hurrian foundation pegs known as the \\\"Urkish lions.\\\" Archeologists have discovered the texts of numerous spells, incantations, prophecies and letters at sites including Hattusha, Mari, Tuttul, Babylon, Ugarit and others. Early study of the language, however, was entirely based on the Mitanni letter, found in 1887 at Amarna in Egypt, written by the Hurrian king Tushratta to the pharaoh Amenhotep III. The Hurro-Urartian relation was recognized as early as 1890 by Sayce (ZA 5, 1890, 260-274) and Jensen (ZA 6, 1891, 34-72).\\nIn the thirteenth century BC, invasions\",\n \"-27.239892068733752\"\n ],\n [\n \"alphabet, itself a descendant of the Phoenician script.\\nThe Aramaic alphabet, used to write Aramaic, is another descendant of Phoenician. Aramaic, being the lingua franca of the Middle East, was widely adopted. It later split off (due to political divisions) into a number of related alphabets, including Hebrew, Syriac, and Nabataean, the latter of which, in its cursive form, became an ancestor of the Arabic alphabet currently used in Arabic-speaking countries from North Africa through the Levant to Iraq and the Persian Gulf region, as well as in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and other countries.\\nThe Sogdian alphabet, a descendant of Phoenician via\",\n \"-27.212927136321934\"\n ],\n [\n \"of thousands of symbols is a daunting task; children from cultures that use logograms–word symbols–to represent words take years longer to learn to read and write than children learning an alphabet. The relative ease of memorizing 26 letters contributed to the spread of literacy throughout the world.\\nThe first consonantal alphabet found emerged around 1800 BCE to represent the language of the Phoenicians, Semitic workers in Egypt (see Middle Bronze Age alphabets), and was derived from the alphabetic principles of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Our present Roman system derives from this Phoenician alphabet, which had 22 letters. Nineteen of our present letters\",\n \"-27.209389414698308\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the dictionary and books of E. A. W. Budge. This reading is found as a phonetic complement using the signs for z and š, leading to the misunderstanding. However, Old Kingdom Egyptian lacked a distinct sign for the ẖ sound and the Coptic descendant shows that the original second consonant was indeed the palatalized fricative ẖ not the (alveolo-)palatal sibilant š, (š being the pool-lake-basin (hieroglyph) in the Egyptian language).\\nWhen used as the verb zẖꜣ, the hieroglyph has a variety of related meanings: to write, to draw, to make a design, to do into writing. As the noun zẖꜣ,\",\n \"-27.188611287077947\"\n ],\n [\n \"Korean alphabet. Linear Korean There was a minor and unsuccessful movement in the early twentieth century to abolish syllabic blocks and write the letters individually and in a row, in the fashion of writing Latin alphabet as in English and other European languages, instead of the standard convention of 모아쓰기 (moa-sseugi 'assembled writing'). For example, ㅎㅏㄴㄱㅡㄹ would be written for 한글 (Hangeul). It is called 풀어쓰기 (pureo-sseugi 'unassembled writing').\\nAvant-garde typographer Ahn Sangsu made a font for the \\\"Hangul Dada\\\" exposition that exploded the syllable blocks; but while it strings out the letters horizontally, it retains the distinctive vertical position each\",\n \"-27.083004531279585\"\n ],\n [\n \"His claims were initially met with some scepticism and with accusations that he had taken ideas from Young without giving credit, but they gradually gained acceptance. Champollion went on to roughly identify the meanings of most phonetic hieroglyphs and to establish much of the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Egyptian. Young, meanwhile, largely deciphered demotic using the Rosetta Stone in combination with other Greek and demotic parallel texts.\\nDecipherment efforts languished after Young's death in 1829 and Champollion's in 1831, but in 1837 Karl Richard Lepsius pointed out that many hieroglyphs represented combinations of two or three sounds rather than one,\",\n \"-27.0731266851908\"\n ],\n [\n \"technically an abugida, has fused consonants and vowels together to the point where it is learned as if it were a syllabary. Alphabets An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.\\nAs languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were\",\n \"-27.071499329409562\"\n ],\n [\n \"hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie informatique: Manuel de codage des textes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie sur ordinateur. It is widely used in e-mail discussion lists and internet forums catering to professional Egyptologists and the interested public.\\nAlthough the Manuel de codage system allows for simple \\\"alphabetic\\\" transliterations, it also specifies a complex method for electronically encoding complete ancient Egyptian texts, indicating features such as the placement, orientation, and even size of individual hieroglyphs. This system is used (though frequently with modifications) by various software packages developed for typesetting hieroglyphic texts (such as SignWriter, WinGlyph, MacScribe, InScribe, Glyphotext, WikiHiero,\",\n \"-27.066251967866265\"\n ],\n [\n \"which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC). Writing Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written\",\n \"-27.04297053654591\"\n ],\n [\n \"first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the Lisan al-`Arab (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and al-Qamus al-Muhit (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The Qamus al-Muhit is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the Lisan and the Oxford English Dictionary.\\nIn medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents\",\n \"-27.04192028050602\"\n ],\n [\n \"Yahya Ibn al-Batriq Abu Yahya Ibn al-Batriq (working 796 – 806) was a Syrian scholar who pioneered the translation of ancient Greek texts into Arabic, a major early figure in the transmission of the Classics at the close of Late Antiquity. He translated for Al-Mansur the major medical works of Galen and Hippocrates, and also translated Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos.\\nTranslation was not a fully developed skill: al-Batriq worked by a combination of direct word-for-word translation and transliteration of ancient Greek words into Arabic where no equivalent was to be found.\\nHe compiled the encyclopedic Kitab sirr al-asrar, or the Book of the science\",\n \"-27.038032515351006\"\n ],\n [\n \"Egyptian Grammar produced one of the few available hieroglyphic printing fonts.\\nIn 1915 Gardiner was also able to crack the so-called Proto-Sinaitic writing system by deciphering the \\\"B'alat inscriptions\\\".\",\n \"-27.01690538779144\"\n ],\n [\n \"(ܐ), the waw (ܘ), and the yod (ܝ). The mater lectionis was developed as early as the 6th century to represent long vowels, which were earlier denoted by a dot under the line. The most frequent ones are the yod and the waw, while the alap is mostly restricted to some transliterated words. Influence on other languages Later, in some adaptations of the Arabic alphabet (such those sometimes used for Kurdish and Uyghur) and of the Hebrew alphabet (such as those used for the Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish), matres lectionis were generally used for all or most vowels, thus in\",\n \"-27.015320002370572\"\n ],\n [\n \"had ceased to be spoken aloud by at least the 3rd century BCE during Second Temple Judaism and vowel points were not written until the early medieval period. The Masoretic Text uses vowel points of Adonai or Elohim (depending on the context) marking the pronunciation as Yəhōwāh (יְ הֹ וָ ה, [jăhowɔh] (listen)); however, scholarly consensus is that this is not the original pronunciation. (For a discussion of subtle pronunciation changes between what is preserved in the Hebrew Scriptures and what is read, see Qere and Ketiv.)\\nThe Tetragrammaton first appears in Genesis and occurs 6828 times in total in the Stuttgart edition\",\n \"-27.007085490091413\"\n ],\n [\n \"has been decoded. To do this, the child must first figure out the Alphabetic principle and master it in only a few years. Most children know that the words on a page in a book mean something, but do not readily understand how the letters code the meaning. They know that these words are made of the sounds of their particular language, and that letters convey these sounds. Novice readers learn to hear and manipulate the smaller sounds into syllables and words. If a child is able to master this skill, called phonological awareness, it is one of\",\n \"-26.997942889967817\"\n ],\n [\n \"the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphs substantially deciphered. Literature Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books),\",\n \"-26.984416282568418\"\n ],\n [\n \"seems to have been originally an /s/ and the door-bolt glyph a /θ/ sound, but these both came to be pronounced /s/, as the /θ/ sound was lost. A few uniliterals first appear in Middle Egyptian texts.\\nBesides the uniliteral glyphs, there are also the biliteral and triliteral signs, to represent a specific sequence of two or three consonants, consonants and vowels, and a few as vowel combinations only, in the language. Semantic reading Besides a phonetic interpretation, characters can also be read for their meaning: in this instance, logograms are being spoken (or ideograms) and semagrams (the latter are also\",\n \"-26.975508296280168\"\n ],\n [\n \"Egyptian hieroglyphs Etymology The word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός (hieroglyphikos), a compound of ἱερός (hierós 'sacred') and γλύφω (glýphō 'Ι carve, engrave'; see glyph).\\nThe glyphs themselves since the Ptolemaic period were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ [γράμματα] (tà hieroglyphikà [grámmata]) \\\"the sacred engraved letters\\\", the Greek counterpart to the Egyptian expression of mdw.w-nṯr \\\"god's words\\\". Greek ἱερογλυφός meant \\\"a carver of hieroglyphs\\\".\\nIn English, hieroglyph as a noun is recorded from 1590, originally short for nominalised hieroglyphic (1580s, with a plural hieroglyphics), from adjectival use (hieroglyphic character). Origin Hieroglyphs may have emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For\",\n \"-26.95029571226405\"\n ],\n [\n \"very basic understanding of Chinese characters but would have a better command of the spoken tongue once assimilated, they started using the Arabic script for Chinese. This was often done by writing notes in Chinese to aid in the memorization of surahs. This method was also used to write Chinese translations of Arabic vocabulary learned in the madrasas. Thus, a system of writing the Chinese language with Arabic script gradually developed and standardized to some extent. Currently, the oldest known artifact showing signs of Xiao'erjing is a stone stele in the courtyard of Daxue Xixiang Mosque in Xi'an in\",\n \"-26.935842938743008\"\n ],\n [\n \"region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example, Protosinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from that of Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone, written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam Inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraca found near Lachish, which\",\n \"-26.932607688300777\"\n ],\n [\n \"Georg Friedrich Grotefend, was able to decipher the Old Persian section of the Behistun inscriptions, using his knowledge of modern Persian. When he recovered the rest of the text in 1843, he and others were gradually able to translate the Elamite and Akkadian sections of it, starting with the 37 signs he had deciphered for the Old Persian. Meanwhile, many more cuneiform texts were coming to light from archaeological excavations, mostly in the Semitic Akkadian language, which were duly deciphered.\\nBy 1850, however, Edward Hincks came to suspect a non-Semitic origin for cuneiform. Semitic languages are structured according to consonantal forms,\",\n \"-26.89564983973105\"\n ],\n [\n \"culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally. Having learned that hieroglyphs were sacred writing, Greco-Roman authors imagined the complex but rational system as an allegorical, even magical, system transmitting secret, mystical knowledge.\\nBy the 4th century, few Egyptians were capable of reading hieroglyphs, and the \\\"myth of allegorical hieroglyphs\\\" was ascendant. Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is from Philae, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, from 394.\\nThe Hieroglyphica of Horapollo (c. 5th century) appears to retain\",\n \"-26.85205530231906\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be used to decipher the ancient language. For example, it was discovered that the Mayan language had distinct grammatical patterns, such as a consonant/vowel syllable aspect. Researchers realized that the ancient language was based more on phonetics than previously thought.\\nThe name Chortiʼ (with unglottalized ) means 'language of the corn farmers', which references to the traditional agricultural activity of the Chʼortiʼ families. The politicized spelling Chʼortiʼ was introduced later in an attempt to lessen associations between Chʼortiʼ speakers and stereotypical professions.\\nChʼortiʼ language is one of the three modern descendants of Chʼolan language which is a sub-group of Mayan\",\n \"-26.849201657663798\"\n ],\n [\n \"more cursive forms.From them descended the standard handwriting of the Persian period (called 'Assyrian writing' in Egyptian) and eventually both the square Hebrew script (also known as 'Assyrian writing' in Hebrew), and through Nabataean, the Arabic alphabet.\\nIt is believed that all extant forms of Aramaic stem from Imperial Aramaic, which itself originated in Assyria.\\nAdditionally, speaking Aramaic long ago ceased to signify an Aramean ethnic identity, for the language spread among many previously non-Aramean and non-Aramaic speaking peoples in the Near East and Asia Minor from the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire onwards. As Korean Orientalist Chul-hyun Bae of Seoul National\",\n \"-26.84904030711914\"\n ],\n [\n \"Phoenician language History The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make extensive use of the Semitic alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is the oldest verified consonantal alphabet, or abjad. It has become conventional to refer to the script as \\\"Proto-Canaanite\\\" until the mid-11th century BC, when it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads, and as \\\"Phoenician\\\" only after 1050 BC. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is generally believed to be at least the partial ancestor of almost all modern alphabets.\\nFrom a traditional linguistic perspective, Phoenician was composed of a variety of dialects. However, the very slight differences in language and\",\n \"-26.841578850886435\"\n ],\n [\n \"to circa 8000 BCE. Mature writing system Hieroglyphs consist of three kinds of glyphs: phonetic glyphs, including single-consonant characters that function like an alphabet; logographs, representing morphemes; and determinatives, which narrow down the meaning of logographic or phonetic words. Late Period As writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic (priestly) and demotic (popular) scripts. These variants were also more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental and other formal writing. The Rosetta Stone contains\",\n \"-26.839016661226196\"\n ],\n [\n \"material was translated from each character.\\\"\\nThis correlation found in the \\\"Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar\\\" between Abraham 1:11–2:9 and the Small Sensen papyrus has thus led many critics to assert that all of the Book of Abraham text most likely came entirely from Smith's interpretation of the Small Sensen papyrus, rather than a hypothetical lost section (as is often asserted by apologists). This means, however, that Smith likely used a single Egyptian character to derive dozens of words. Jerald Tanner, for instance, wrote \\\"Joseph Smith apparently translated many English words from each Egyptian character. The characters from fewer than four lines\",\n \"-26.83849289594582\"\n ],\n [\n \"be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The Syriac alphabet, precursor to the Arabic alphabet, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The Aleppo Codex, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century, likely in Tiberias, and survives to this day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence.\\nDuring the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians\",\n \"-26.826202832045965\"\n ],\n [\n \"appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian. Egyptian hieroglyphs Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train as scribes, in the service of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authorities.\\nGeoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs \\\"came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter\\\", and that it is \\\"probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian\",\n \"-26.82377442818688\"\n ],\n [\n \"were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) alleges that not only the old Nabataean writing was influenced by the \\\"Syrian script\\\" (i.e. Aramaic), but also the old Chaldean script. \\nA cursive Hebrew variant developed from the early centuries AD, but it remained restricted to the status of a variant used alongside the noncursive. By contrast, the cursive developed out of the Nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing Arabic, evolving into the Arabic alphabet as it stood by the time of the early spread of Islam.\\nThe development of cursive\",\n \"-26.800560728705022\"\n ],\n [\n \"dialects that are Aramaic. Writing system The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive \\\"square\\\" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet today. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by\",\n \"-26.797616398878745\"\n ],\n [\n \"three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Late survival Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule (intermittent in the 6th and 5th centuries BC), and after Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the misleading quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part, as a response to the changed political situation. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish 'true Egyptians' from some of the foreign conquerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign\",\n \"-26.75477801758575\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 1636, the Prodromus coptus sive aegyptiacus. Kircher then broke with Horapollon's interpretation of the language of the hieroglyphs with his Lingua aegyptiaca restituta. Kircher argued that Coptic preserved the last development of ancient Egyptian. For this Kircher has been considered the true \\\"founder of Egyptology\\\", because his work was conducted \\\"before the discovery of the Rosetta Stone rendered Egyptian hieroglyphics comprehensible to scholars\\\". He also recognized the relationship between hieratic and hieroglyphic scripts.\\nBetween 1650 and 1654, Kircher published four volumes of \\\"translations\\\" of hieroglyphs in the context of his Coptic studies. However, according to Steven Frimmer, \\\"none of them\",\n \"-26.745979242477915\"\n ],\n [\n \"written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from Egyptian hieroglyphs. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from\",\n \"-26.736098700632283\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":296,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"1w605g"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What do Germans think of Adolf Hitler?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Being a Nazi, displaying Nazi symbols, etc is illegal in Germany. He is not a hero. There are no streets named after Adolf Hitler, no suburbs, etc. However, there is a Stauffenbergstrasse. The criticism in Germany over the film was due to casting, especially Tom Cruise, who they thought played the role as too American.","Lets put it this way. In Germany, displaying Nazi symbols, publicly praising Hitler and denying the Holocaust are all illegal and will result in jail time","American lady married to a German man and we currently live in Germany. Germans have it beat into them from a very early age that the Holocaust was horrible. That there is no excuse for what Hitler did. That you do not put country above being a human being. If am correct it took up the majority of their history lessons (this does not mean that they at unaware of the world). Secondly, TV here is forever running documentaries on the holocaust and WWII. I am pretty sure I have seen footage at least once a day. Third, I have never been in a place where people are so quick to defend a person being verbally or physically attacked by another person. On the train I have seen many altercations (verbal) that generally ends with the asshole being called out by at least two other people (sometimes the entire train car gets pissed). So they aren't generally ones to stand by and let that shit happen. That being said it has caused some issues. In Germany it is illegal to argue facts of the Holocaust in public. The official story has not changed in a long time even with new data and facts present. Historians can lose their jobs or be arrested for trying to argue on the side of truth. So, there is that. It has also made racism a very difficult thing to talk about. No one wants to talk about the fact that German citizens with Turkish parents are still treated like subcitizens ....but they are. Lastly, this does not mean that Germans don't have a sense of humor about Hitler. I would, however, suggest that if you crack a Hitler or Holocaust related joke that you know the person you are talking to very well and refrain from doing so in public. People are very vigilant when it comes to anything Nazi related. Graffiti is covered quickly after the police are contacted. Edit: to be clear Germans dislike Hitler. There is no type of worship on the part of the German people..some even still feel guilty. Some don't like joking about him. Overall the German people feel a duty to not sit by and allow a new Hitler to do what Hitler did. So, they study history and they talk about it.","Think about it this way, we teach our children about the Civil War and slavery. No we don't agree with what those people did, in fact we despise it, but it is still history. So I'd imagine they feel shame in the fact that their ancestors took a part in the fascism, and that that is what their country is known for.","A couple of German students of mine said they liked the U.S. because no one here assumed they were Nazis :|","German here. Hitler is seen as the worst human being ever by most of the Germans. However, many also think that they have to feel guilty for what someone else did decades ago, which in my opinion is inapropriate - it's not my fault what Hitler did, right? Hence, I don't think I have any kind of responsibilty towards the jewish people. So that's the other side of the coin: You should not say anything against jewish people because you will instantly be called a Nazi. It's complicated.","Yeah I think more about the mass ammount of people who supported him. They are just as delusional as him.","Almost all of us think of him as one of the worst human beings ever.","I know a few Germans, and whenever the Nazis or Hitler are brought up, they get kind of quiet and have a look of shame on their face. One who was more open to talking about it says many Germans would go back in time and undo what Hitler did. As mentioned before, my friend said there are many laws restricting Nazi propaganda and racism in particular. Last main thing he pointed out is \"If you go anywhere in Germany asking where Dachau is [one of the concentration camps and now a historical museum for those who don't know], many will pretend they have never heard of it,\" and he continued by saying it's because there are people in denial, not because they are dicks and refuse to believe any of it happened, but because they feel guilty of the country's past and wish it never happened. Hope this answers your question, sorry it was so long :P"],"string":"[\n \"Being a Nazi, displaying Nazi symbols, etc is illegal in Germany. He is not a hero. There are no streets named after Adolf Hitler, no suburbs, etc. However, there is a Stauffenbergstrasse. The criticism in Germany over the film was due to casting, especially Tom Cruise, who they thought played the role as too American.\",\n \"Lets put it this way. In Germany, displaying Nazi symbols, publicly praising Hitler and denying the Holocaust are all illegal and will result in jail time\",\n \"American lady married to a German man and we currently live in Germany. Germans have it beat into them from a very early age that the Holocaust was horrible. That there is no excuse for what Hitler did. That you do not put country above being a human being. If am correct it took up the majority of their history lessons (this does not mean that they at unaware of the world). Secondly, TV here is forever running documentaries on the holocaust and WWII. I am pretty sure I have seen footage at least once a day. Third, I have never been in a place where people are so quick to defend a person being verbally or physically attacked by another person. On the train I have seen many altercations (verbal) that generally ends with the asshole being called out by at least two other people (sometimes the entire train car gets pissed). So they aren't generally ones to stand by and let that shit happen. That being said it has caused some issues. In Germany it is illegal to argue facts of the Holocaust in public. The official story has not changed in a long time even with new data and facts present. Historians can lose their jobs or be arrested for trying to argue on the side of truth. So, there is that. It has also made racism a very difficult thing to talk about. No one wants to talk about the fact that German citizens with Turkish parents are still treated like subcitizens ....but they are. Lastly, this does not mean that Germans don't have a sense of humor about Hitler. I would, however, suggest that if you crack a Hitler or Holocaust related joke that you know the person you are talking to very well and refrain from doing so in public. People are very vigilant when it comes to anything Nazi related. Graffiti is covered quickly after the police are contacted. Edit: to be clear Germans dislike Hitler. There is no type of worship on the part of the German people..some even still feel guilty. Some don't like joking about him. Overall the German people feel a duty to not sit by and allow a new Hitler to do what Hitler did. So, they study history and they talk about it.\",\n \"Think about it this way, we teach our children about the Civil War and slavery. No we don't agree with what those people did, in fact we despise it, but it is still history. So I'd imagine they feel shame in the fact that their ancestors took a part in the fascism, and that that is what their country is known for.\",\n \"A couple of German students of mine said they liked the U.S. because no one here assumed they were Nazis :|\",\n \"German here. Hitler is seen as the worst human being ever by most of the Germans. However, many also think that they have to feel guilty for what someone else did decades ago, which in my opinion is inapropriate - it's not my fault what Hitler did, right? Hence, I don't think I have any kind of responsibilty towards the jewish people. So that's the other side of the coin: You should not say anything against jewish people because you will instantly be called a Nazi. It's complicated.\",\n \"Yeah I think more about the mass ammount of people who supported him. They are just as delusional as him.\",\n \"Almost all of us think of him as one of the worst human beings ever.\",\n \"I know a few Germans, and whenever the Nazis or Hitler are brought up, they get kind of quiet and have a look of shame on their face. One who was more open to talking about it says many Germans would go back in time and undo what Hitler did. As mentioned before, my friend said there are many laws restricting Nazi propaganda and racism in particular. Last main thing he pointed out is \\\"If you go anywhere in Germany asking where Dachau is [one of the concentration camps and now a historical museum for those who don't know], many will pretend they have never heard of it,\\\" and he continued by saying it's because there are people in denial, not because they are dicks and refuse to believe any of it happened, but because they feel guilty of the country's past and wish it never happened. Hope this answers your question, sorry it was so long :P\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["and Roosevelt. Seen from the spirit-world, Dowd claimed Hitler was not evil but rather \"a man whose stars threw him into the world with vast disadvantages, with overwhelming ambition sweltering in his soul, and with an infinite capacity for receiving influences and suggestions from our side.\" She maintained that, open to spirit influence, Hitler was a passive recipient of dangerous spirits working on his \"colossal egotism\" so that he became a conduit for evil. Stalin, in contrast, was described by her as \"crafty and careful\" rather than egotistic. Churchill, she claimed, \"can be hot-headed, full of zeal and enthusiasm, and,","-34.550296432105824"],["Leo saying in 1967 that Hitler was \"absolutely innocent\", according to historian Werner Maser. World War II and detention in Moscow Before the war, he became a manager of the Linz Steelworks. In October 1939, he was drafted into the Luftwaffe and was a lieutenant in the engineering corps. He looked similar to Adolf Hitler and sometimes served as Hitler's double during the war.\nHe was injured in January 1943 during the Battle of Stalingrad, and Friedrich Paulus asked Hitler for a plane to evacuate Raubal to Germany. Hitler refused and Raubal was captured by the Soviets on 31 January 1943.\nHitler","-34.48316009656992"],["Raubal, Eva Braun and himself, accompanied his career. All soft, lovable traits were missing from his character. He was also full of himself and unselfcritical. Hitler was an 'empty man' who filled himself with pride and hatred. Achievements Haffner argues that on gaining office in 1933, Hitler achieved many 'miracles' in economic and military policy. 90% of Germans approved. Had he died in 1938, he would have been remembered as 'one of the greatest Germans ever'. Few people noticed that he had dismantled the state and concealed the resultant chaos. In the long run, his achievement came to nothing. Successes","-34.42442893923726"],["Adolf Hitler in popular culture Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party and Chancellor of Nazi Germany from 1933 (Führer from 1934) to 1945. Hitler has been represented in popular culture ever since he became a well-known politician in Germany. His distinctive image was often parodied by his opponents. Parodies became much more prominent outside Germany during his period in power. Since the end of World War II representations of Hitler, both serious and satirical, have continued to be prominent in popular culture, sometimes generating significant controversy. In","-34.38677042420022"],["he bagged thousands of animals, both beast and bird. Much of his time was spent chopping wood and thousands of trees were chopped down during his stay at Doorn. Views on Nazism In the early 1930s, Wilhelm apparently hoped that the successes of the German Nazi Party would stimulate interest in a restoration of the monarchy, with his eldest grandson as the fourth Kaiser. His second wife, Hermine, actively petitioned the Nazi government on her husband's behalf. However, Adolf Hitler, himself a veteran of the First World War, like other leading Nazis, felt nothing but contempt for the man they","-33.92961646273034"],["one thing you have to give him credit for: he is a fanatic for Germany. But he is wrecked by his proletarian primitive ways. He does not know how to give an intellectual basis to his Nazi party. Hitler is all passion but lacks sense or proportion. A heroic tenor, not a hero.\" Hitler, in other words, was not Mussolini. These were the last words he ever wrote before his suicide in 1925.","-33.827292747177125"],["Hitler\" could by this stage already be heard in the university's main auditorium. In 1924 Beer joined the Socialist Students' Society. He became - and would for the rest of his life remain - a committed communist. He read from the literary pantheon works by Marx, Engels, Lenin and Wilhelm Reich. He identified the looming dangers of Fascism and decided that he needed to engage politically. In 1927 he illegally joined the Yugoslavian Communist Party. At around the same time he joined Internationale Arbeiter-Hilfe (IAH / \"Workers International Relief\"","-33.75392495613778"],["himself rather than be captured by the Soviets. Further, Schenck stated that Hewel was emotionally and physically exhausted, which contributed to his actions. Relationship with Hitler Because of his friendship with Hitler, Hewel was given a large amount of leeway in his actions. For example, according to O'Donnell, Hewel played constant practical jokes on his boss, Ribbentrop, in order to amuse Hitler and other members of his entourage.\nAfter the war, Hewel's 1941 diary emerged. Also, after Hitler's suicide, he spoke with others about his friendship with, and opinion of, Hitler. Right before his suicide, he told Dr. Schenck:\nHitler was a","-33.59238301329606"],["is the only American mentioned favorably in Mein Kampf, although he is only mentioned twice: Adolf Hitler wrote, \"only a single great man, Ford, [who], to [the Jews'] fury, still maintains full independence ... [from] the controlling masters of the producers in a nation of one hundred and twenty millions.\" Speaking in 1931 to a Detroit News reporter, Hitler said he regarded Ford as his \"inspiration\", explaining his reason for keeping Ford's life-size portrait next to his desk. Steven Watts wrote that Hitler \"revered\" Ford, proclaiming that \"I shall do my best to put his theories into practice in Germany\",","-33.5378930552979"],["his Nazi-orientated political beliefs in these exchanges; Meyer had dedicated himself to its ideology, saying that a person \"could only give his heart once in life\". One interrogator described him as \"the personification of National Socialism\". Throughout the recordings, Meyer and other SS men confirmed the German armed forces officers' view of them as ideological fanatics with an almost religious belief in Nazism, the Third Reich, and the messianic personality cult of Adolf Hitler.\nIn a taped January 1945 conversation, Meyer praised Hitler for having inspired a \"tremendous awakening in the German people\" and for reviving their self-confidence. In a taped","-33.468488699232694"],["in Munich, and subsequently achieved the rank of lieutenant and served as a soldier in the Wehrmacht on active combat duty in Europe until his return to the Republic of China during the later years of World War II.\nAdolf Hitler had supported the Empire of Japan as early as 1904, when during the Russo-Japanese War it had defeated the Russians, which he considered a defeat for Austrian Slavism. He made a number of other statements expressing his respect and admiration for the Japanese in his book Mein Kampf.\nAlthough of a different evolutionary race, the Han Chinese and Imperial Japanese were","-33.433049713261425"],["I economic effects, that his patriotic feelings had increased. In a 1952 memoir article he admitted that, at that time, he \"fared relatively rather well under totalitarianism\". Yet, he also wrote that \"to us, Hitler was still only a pompous fool with a Charlie Chaplin moustache\" and that he perceived him as \"another Napoleon\" who was \"wholly without scruples, a godless man who thought himself the only god\". Membership in the Allgemeine SS Von Braun joined the SS horseback riding school on 1 November 1933 as an SS-Anwärter. He left the following year. In 1940, he joined the SS and","-33.39695520163514"],["of western Canada. He is accompanied by his aide-de-camp Sergeant Adolf Hitler, whose anti-Semitic views he does not care for. Hitler, Adolf (AE:CCH)\nBecause of the German Empire's victory in this world, Adolf Hitler is a sergeant in the German Army. He holds the Iron Cross, First Class. Morrell met him once as an orderly to Colonel Heinz Guderian, who was on an inspection tour in Kamloops, British Columbia, an occupied territory of the United States. Morrell thought that he was very much like Jake Featherston, but with a hatred for Jews and Slavs rather than Africans. Hitler is never","-33.39555487467442"],["Hitler may have realised himself by mid-1944 that Germany had lost the war. Wahl's autobiography was the first of any Gauleiter to be published.\nHe later worked in the library of the Messerschmitt factory from 1958 to 1968, thanks to his friendship with Willy Messerschmitt, established in the Nazi era.\nHis grave in Augsburg-Göggingen, where he is buried together with his wife, carries the message: \"Do not tire of doing good deeds\" (German: Werdet nicht müde das Gute zu tun). Nazi crimes and the Holocaust In his book, Wahl claimed, like many Germans and even Nazis, not to have known about the","-33.18306592380395"],["Nazi leader who dared to address Hitler by his first name \"Adolf\" or his nickname \"Adi\" rather than \"mein Führer\". Their close association led to rumors that Hitler himself was homosexual. Unlike many in the Nazi hierarchy, Röhm never fell victim to Hitler's \"arresting personality\" nor did he come fully under his spell, which made him unique.\nAs Hitler rose to national power with his appointment as chancellor in January 1933, SA members were appointed auxiliary police and ordered by Göring to sweep aside \"all enemies of the state\". Second revolution Röhm and the SA regarded themselves as the vanguard of","-33.15357502765255"],["his attitude was \"worshipful\", while the historian Charles Messenger describes Rommel's \"growing admiration\" towards Hitler following the invasion of Poland. Speaking at The National WWII Museum's 2012 International Conference on World War II, the author Nigel Hamilton referred to Rommel as \"quite a Nazi\". This sympathy did not extend to the Party though. In this regard, he was similar to many other Wehrmacht soldiers, who, with encouragement from Hitler, erroneously believed the army to be the most important element of the regime. Rommel showed particular resentment towards the SA and later, the SS, for their brutality and absorption of resources","-32.74299245048314"],["on to state that the German people would be better off if they did not integrate themselves with different races. Seeing Hitler's architectural sketches, with their appeal to a romanticized national greatness, Rothman realizes this is where Hitler's talent lies, and that it would be far less dangerous if confined to art galleries. Hitler is thrilled by Rothman's enthusiasm, not understanding it is partly motivated by fear of what he might become. \nRothman and Hitler have arranged to meet that evening to discuss Hitler's future projects, and after making a violently anti-semitic speech to a group of supporters","-32.69743193266913"],["interest in such an offer.\n\nThomas Weber has found the records of Wiedemann's talks with him in 1940 in which Wiedemann openly warned against Hitler and claimed Hitler had a \"split personality and numbered among the most cruel people in the world, saw himself better than Napoleon and that peace with him was impossible.\" He told Wiseman of Hitler's plans to attack and conquer the UK and \"recommended strongly\" that the British themselves strike as quickly and as \"hard as possible\" against him.\nHe told Wiseman that the morale of the German population and the support of Hitler were lower than generally","-32.69333438051399"],["other German politicians such as Gustav Stresemann; fourth, that Hitler was an opportunist, taking advantage of events provided by the French and British governments, rather than working according to a timetable; and, fifth, that in destroying the Treaty of Versailles and invading Poland, Hitler had the support of the German people. Reception The book was published in April 1961, with German and American editions appearing the next year. Translations also appeared in French, Italian, Finnish, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish and Sinhalese. It was a bestseller around the world and provoked a storm of controversy.\nSebastian Haffner wrote in his","-32.682285186019726"],["Hitler in the 1930s, both Dassler brothers joined the Nazi Party, with Rudolf reputed as being the more ardent National Socialist.\nDuring the war, a growing rift between the pair reached a breaking point after an Allied bomb attack in 1943 when Adi and his wife climbed into a bomb shelter that Rudolf and his family were already in: \"The dirty bastards are back again,\" Adi said, apparently referring to the Allied war planes, but Rudolf was convinced his brother meant him and his family. Rudolf, upon his capture by American troops, was suspected of being a member of the SS,","-32.56053988006897"],["desk\". He portrayed Hitler as a rational, intelligent politician, whose only goal was to increase Germany's prosperity and influence on the continent, and who was constantly let down by incompetent and/or treasonous subordinates. Irving's book faulted the Allied leaders, most notably Winston Churchill, for the eventual escalation of war, and claimed that the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 was a \"preventive war\" forced on Hitler to avert an alleged impending Soviet attack (supported by some, notably Soviet GRU defector Victor Suvorov, and others; see Icebreaker). Irving commented that in light of the \"preventive war\" that he felt","-32.5523485300364"],["discarded, giving its place to spiritual exaltation\". In the same article, Adolf Hitler is characterized as a \"great social reformer\" and \"military genius\".\nIn an article published in 1987 in the Golden Dawn magazine titled \"Hitler for 1,000 years\", its editor Michaloliakos showed his support for Nazism and white supremacy. Specifically he wrote, \"We are the faithful soldiers of the National Socialist idea and nothing else\" and \"[...] WE EXIST, and continue the battle, the battle for the final victory of our race\". He ends the article by writing \"1987, 42 years later, with our thought and soul given to the","-32.53202180285007"],["the despair that both people and the Army feel about the brutal, insane and terroristic dictator and his henchmen\". Wheeler-Bennett commented that Goerdeler was vastly exaggerating the extent of anti-Nazi feelings, both in the German Army and among the German public. After Munich, Goerdeler told Young that:\nIt is vitally important to realise that Hitler is deeply and definitely convinced that after his unexpected victory at Munich, anything is possible to him...He says that he [Hitler] is now convinced that England is degenerate, weak, timid and never will have the guts to resist any of his plans. No war will ever","-32.53156045805372"],["\"racial murder\". If, however, he wants to say that the German state, through the mouth of its Führer, unambiguously and publicly announced the decision that even Jewish women, children and infants were to be killed, then he has illustrated with one short phrase all that does not have to be demonstrated in the current intellectual climate, but can be \"imputed\". Hitler was certainly the most powerful man that has ever lived in Germany. But he was not powerful enough to ever publicly equate Bolshevism and Christianity, as he often did in his dinner conversations. He also not powerful enough to","-32.520196482524625"],["the New Germany\" at New York's Madison Square Garden, in which he compared Hitler to Franklin Delano Roosevelt and told his audience to sympathize with National Socialism without being antisemites. His Jewish friends denounced him as \"George Swastika Viereck\", but he continued to promote National Socialism.\nIn 1941, he was indicted in the U.S. for a violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act when he set up his publishing house, Flanders Hall, in Scotch Plains, New Jersey. He was convicted in 1942 for this failure to register with the U. S. Department of State as a National Socialist agent. He was","-32.473833217751235"],["this time Hitler met Joseph Goebbels, with whom he had an instant rapport with his vulgarities and anti-semitism - the first radical departure from actual history.\nThe novel swiftly moves to the First World War, and describes Hitler's exploits as a behind-the-lines scout sniper - who, in his spare time, criticizes the General HQ and tells jokes so disgusting that even hardened soldiers stay silent. Also his foul-smelling flatulence is commented upon.\nWhile following Hitler's rise to power from the Great Depression to the Second World War, the novel makes its most outrageous claim; Hitler and Goebbels jointly conceived the Second World","-32.45845706918044"],["accomplished by his régime. He wrote of Adolf Hitler, the new leader of Germany, \"Whether one admires [him] or not, at least he is a leader who leads.\" Soon enough, he wrote, \"people the world over... will follow courageous leaders.\" 1936 Olympics In 1935, during the preparations for the 1936 Olympic Games, Sherrill met twice with Hitler. A modern historian wrote that Sherrill was \"mesmerized by the\nforce of Hitler's personality and charisma.\" In his one-hour talk with Hitler, Sherrill insisted for at least one token Jew to be included in the German team for the Olympic Winter and another for","-32.41185455152299"],["Hitler personally accused Dickel of being an enemy of National Socialism. Over time, Dickel gradually drifted away from his economic leftism, and by the 1930s he had become a proponent of laissez-faire capitalism.\nOtto Dickel spoke of the need to revive of the German nation as well as German and Western culture, supported the creation of a Greater German nation and wanted to abandon what he saw as a cowardly contemporary culture. he stated:\nMany a time acquaintances have told me that I see the world differently from them. That is true. Who sees it correctly? Men of science with their mechanistic","-32.40900183841586"],["bit artificial.\nAlmost all accounts of Hewel described him as a pleasant and good-natured, if not very intelligent man. He usually ended up dealing with situations and events that Hitler could not handle. Other members of the inner circle recounted that, unlike many other Nazi leaders, Hewel was able to stay awake and attentive during Hitler's long monologues on topics such as anti-Semitism. Heinz Guderian, when recalling Hewel, remarked that he was \"a good raconteur and a good listener\".\nHewel tended to be shy around women, and as a result, Hitler often tried to play matchmaker for him. Hewel survived an airplane","-32.40197711822111"],["his early days in the Nazi Party and general ideas on politics, including the transformation of German society into one based on race, with some passages implying genocide. Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. In 1933, Hitler's first year in office, 1,000,000 copies were sold. The book acts as a reference, giving insight into the world view from which Hitler never wavered throughout his life.\nIt states that during his childhood, Hitler had little interest in politics as he had ambitions to become a painter. Like other boys in his part","-32.35859887636343"],["Adolf Hitler: My Part in His Downfall (film) Basis The film is based on the first volume of Milligan's war memoirs. Although it broadly follows Milligan's book, some scenes were created specifically for the film and all of the character names (apart from the Milligan family) are fictional. Premise Aspiring jazz musician Terence \"Spike\" Milligan reluctantly obeys his call-up and joins the Royal Artillery regiment at Bexhill-on-Sea, where he begins training to take part in World War II. But along the way Spike and his friends get involved in many amusing - and some not-so amusing - scrapes.","-32.344483181484975"],["example but he was unreliable, according to a historian, \"telling them what they wanted to hear\". Hitler also used him to encourage pro-Nazi sentiment among the Duke of Windsor and his wife. Records indicate that Charles Edward received a monthly payment of 4,000 Reichsmark (worth about £16,000 in 2015) from the Führer. Hitler sent Charles Edward to Britain as president of the Anglo-German Friendship Society. His mission was to improve Anglo-German relations and to explore the possibility of a pact between the two countries. He attended the funeral of his first cousin George V as Hitler's representative in the uniform","-32.294862858136185"],["and that such was the force of Hitler's personality that it is correct to speak of National Socialism as \"Hitlerism\". In his essay, Bracher maintained that Hitler himself was in many ways something of an \"unperson\" devoid of any real interest for the biographer, but argued that these pedestrian qualities of Hitler led to him being underestimated first by rivals and allies in the Weimar Republic, and then on the international stage in the 1930s. At the same time, Bracher warned of the apologetic tendencies of the “demonization\" of Hitler which he accused historians like Gerhard Ritter of engaging in,","-32.27639146099682"],["Nazi Germany and included quotations such as \"Racial strength is vital; politics, a luxury\".\nRoosevelt disliked Lindbergh's outspoken opposition to his administration's interventionist policies, telling Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, \"If I should die tomorrow, I want you to know this, I am absolutely convinced Lindbergh is a Nazi.\" In 1941 he wrote to Secretary of War Henry Stimson: \"When I read Lindbergh's speech I felt that it could not have been better put if it had been written by Goebbels himself. What a pity that this youngster has completely abandoned his belief in our form of government and has accepted Nazi","-32.187844994827174"],["with serious health problems and died on August 9, 1942. Before he died, Sfar published in the French feminist journal Leïla of December 1939 an article strongly denouncing Adolf Hitler's regime and explaining the danger that he represented for humanity. This article was titled \"The racist concepts of Hitler\". At the end of this article and after introducing readers to some significant quotations of Mein Kampf, he ended his critical analysis with the following conclusion: \nThese few quotations are sufficient to show to what degree Hitler's hatred for other races other than the German race had reached. How he borrows","-32.18488409498241"],["\"fierce fighter\" and commanded the respect of local Albanians. His comrades gave him the nickname \"Hitler\" due to his uncanny resemblance to Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. Xhinovci told journalist Una Hajdari: \"People have called me Hitler since my army days. They say I look a lot like him—unlike the English guy who plays him in that movie,\" apparently a reference to Charlie Chaplin's role in The Great Dictator.\nSerbian police documents from 1998 indicate that he was suspected of participating in the kidnapping and execution of nine Serb mineworkers at the Belaćevac coal mine, near Obilić. In 1999, Xhinovci was wounded","-32.17783508816501"],["school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900. Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf states that he intentionally did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw \"what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream\".\nLike many Austrian Germans, Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age. He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire. Hitler and his friends used the greeting \"Heil\", and","-32.12712790933438"],["On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat, and—by his own account—on receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.\nHitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort, and his ideological development began to firmly take shape. He described the war as \"the greatest of all experiences\", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. The experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918. Like other German nationalists, he believed","-32.11229448589984"],["Socialist; he is a troop leader with a gift for improvisation, personally courageous and extraordinarily inventive. These are the kinds of soldiers we need.\"\nRommel \"exercised an almost hypnotic influence on Hitler\", according to Albert Kesselring, and another colleague called him \"the Führer's marshal\". American writer Rick Atkinson concludes that Rommel was \"loyal in his own fashion and as beguiled by Hitler as steel filings by a magnet ... Hitler was a bulwark against bolshevism, [Rommel] had told staff officers.\" Despite this intimate relationship though, he was not provided with basic information on Germany's strategic plan: \"Rommel did not know that smashing","-32.11054559692275"],["school. His nickname does not relate to his not smoking (he does, very much so) but to his living in an old railway carriage, which still bears a sign that reads \"Nonsmoker\". Background, the sequel and trivia This was the last Kästner book published before the rise of the Nazis to power. Though Nazis are not explicitly mentioned anywhere in the book, the situation of economic crisis and mass unemployment which made many German voters turn to Hitler is very evident in the book's background.\nShortly after publishing Das fliegende Klassenzimmer he had to witness how the NSDAP turned to power","-32.091758082504384"],["appear in the British media. In the autumn of 1941 and early winter of 1941/1942, he was mentioned in the British press almost daily. The Daily Express and The Cairns Post wrote: \"No 'von' nonsense about Erich, nor the code of conduct—such as it was—that most Prussian officers have honoured in war. He is a gangster general, trained in a harder school than Chicago. He was Hitler's thug organiser before he came to power ... So Erich became leader of the S.S. Black Guard, Hitler's private army, which executes his private revenges and guards his person ... When at last","-32.08593056880636"],["Look Who's Back Plot In 2011, Adolf Hitler wakes up in a vacant lot in Berlin which appears to be the location of the garden outside the bunker where he was burned, with no knowledge of anything that happened following his death in 1945. Homeless and destitute, he interprets everything he sees and experiences in 2011 from a Nazi perspective — for instance, he assumes that Turks in Germany are an indicator of Karl Dönitz having persuaded Turkey to join the Axis, and thinks that Wikipedia is named for Wikinger (“Vikings”). Although everyone recognizes him, nobody believes that he is","-32.061582959315274"],["Kurt Ludecke Kurt Ludecke (Berlin, 5 February 1890 – Prien am Chiemsee, 1960) was an ardent German nationalist and international traveler who joined the Nazi party in the early 1920s and who used his social connections to raise money for the NSDAP. Before attending a rally at which Adolf Hitler was a featured speaker, Ludecke had assumed that Hitler was simply \"one more fanatic\" but after hearing Hitler speak at a mass demonstration at the Konigsplatz in Munich, he had adopted Hitler as his hero: \"His appeal to German manhood was like a call to arms, the gospel he preached","-32.05445596226491"],["his German counterparts\". \nCoulondre described the Nazi leaders as he met them in hostile tones. Coulondre wrote that Hermann Göring was \"at once ridiculous and formidable\", Joachim von Ribbentrop was \"contemptible\", Rudolf Hess was as boring as he was stupid, Alfred Rosenberg was eccentric and weird, and Joseph Goebbels was \"ce petit diable boiteux\" (\"this lame little devil\"), adding that Goebbels's various mistresses were more interesting than he was. Coulondre wrote he had the impression that Baron Ernst von Weizsäcker, the State Secretary of the Auswärtiges Amt, did not want a war with France, but his relations with Weizsäcker were","-32.0236486538779"],["his view that Hitler was a Marxist. He also participated in the conservative documentary The Soviet Story, where he uses the translation of Völkerabfälle as \"racial trash\". The film attracted criticism from a range of people including Latvian MEP Tatjana Ždanoka, Finnish political activist Johan Bäckman and Latvian MP Boris Tsilevitch. Alexander Dyukov has provided evidence that the film relies on falsified images to give an historically inaccurate account of the Soviet Union.","-32.00392980547622"],["they were the only ones with a cultural presence and objects around whom German society's grand narrative was being built, thus Rommel was the only German general who would have been capable of challenging Hitler's rule, had he ever crossed the Rubicon from his \"apolitical-to-the-core\" military world and developed a serious, critical view of Hitler's political dealings. However, Rommel himself had fallen for Hitler's charisma almost until the end. Peter Lieb opines that the relationship between Rommel and Hitler is overrated - they liked each other but the relationship became worse and worse since the end of 1942 when Rommel","-31.97272536548553"],["who also continued to admire Hitler.","-31.939849076938117"],["Craig charged that it was simply wrong on the part of Irving to write that Hitler in October 1941 was in a state of pain over German losses on the Eastern Front with Hitler supposedly thinking \"What would be left of Germany and the flower of her manhood?\" As a way of rebuttal to this picture of Hitler, Craig quoted Hitler's remark later in 1941 when told of heavy German losses, \"But that's what the young people are there for!\". Like many other historians, Craig was critical of Irving using the \"no liquidation\" comment in Himmler's telephone logbook from 30","-31.921744824911002"],["the smaller evil. Relationship with Hitler Before the war, Model had been content to leave politics to the politicians, preferring instead to concentrate on military affairs. Despite this, he became one of the Wehrmacht's field marshals most closely identified with Hitler. Postwar opinions on him have varied. Some historians have called him \"blindly loyal\", a \"convinced Nazi\" or a \"zealous disciple\" of Hitler; others take a more nuanced view, seeing in Model a coldly calculating opportunist who used the Führer to his advantage, whether or not he was committed to him or the ideals of Nazism. The contradictions between his","-31.913634827826172"],["to the finish\".\nHitler, according to Walter Langer had a Messiah complex and saw himself as the \"Saviour of Germany\" who performed \"miracles\" with the economy. He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a \"mother symbol\". His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe) was an unconscious attempt to resolve his Oedipus complex and the injustices of his childhood. He \"dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine\". He was swept along by a tide of events.\nMussolini, according to Denis Mack Smith, \"was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted","-31.86197199067101"],["a one sentence introduction, he tells his faithful Nazis how the German nation has subordinated itself to the Nazi Party because its leaders are mostly of Germans. He promises that the new state that the Nazis have created will endure for thousands of years. Hitler says that the youth will carry on after the old have weakened. They close with a chant, \"Hitler is the Party, Hitler.\" The camera focuses on the large Swastika above Hitler and the film ends with the images of this Swastika imposed on Nazis marching in a few columns. His speech brought attention to the","-31.855153236130718"],["going back to the days of the Germanic tribes. He was an early champion of what has since been called the Sonderweg (Special Way) interpretation of German history, that German culture and society developed over the centuries in such a way as to make Nazi Germany inevitable. Moreover, he argued that there was a symbiotic relationship between Hitler and the German people, with Adolf Hitler needing the Germans to fulfil his dreams of conquest and the German people needing Hitler to fulfil their dreams of subjugation of their neighbours. In particular, he accused the Germans of waging an endless Drang","-31.852582391904434"],["Homburg, and the other was that in Oberursel he met up with a school teacher whom he identified, in the context of the times, as a Nazi. That may have been less than a total explanation, but it does appear that he could see no long term future for himself in the west. On 21 October 1962 he crossed into the German Democratic Republic at the Wartha border crossing near Eisenach. As he had anticipated, the East German officials were unsure of how to deal with him. He was not a typical disillusioned westerner seeking a new life in","-31.84897918754723"],["strongest power. They differed only on the precise strategy and tactics to be employed. Tresnak ended his review by remarking: \"He has tears a plenty for torn and defeated Germany, but not a word of sympathy for the millions of murdered Jews, Poles, Yugoslavs, Czechs, and the rest.... After reading Herr von Dirksen's book, one cannot help feeling that he, and perhaps other Germans as well, condemn Hitler chiefly on the grounds that he did not win the war–though sometimes they act as they are not aware that he lost it\".\nIn a review, American political scientist Joseph Schectman noted that","-31.827931823649124"],["Hitler; instead, they think he is either a comedian or a method actor. He appears on a variety television show called Whoa, dude!, going off-script to broadcast his views. Videos of his angry rants become hugely successful on YouTube, and he achieves modern celebrity status as a performer. The newspaper Bild tries to take him down, but is sued into praising him. He is beaten up by far-right extremists who think he is mocking the memory of Hitler, unaware that he is the genuine article. In the end, he uses his popularity to re-enter politics. Publication The book was priced","-31.826408622713643"],["leader Hitler met other than Mussolini ever received such consistently favorable comments from the German dictator. Hitler even mustered the patience to listen to Antonescu's lengthy disquisitions on the glorious history of Romania and the perfidy of the Hungarians—a curious reversal for a man who was more accustomed to regaling visitors with tirades of his own.\" In later statements, Hitler offered praise to Antonescu's \"breadth of vision\" and \"real personality.\" A remarkable aspect of the Hitler-Antonescu friendship was neither could speak others' language. Hitler only knew German while the only foreign language Antonescu knew was French, in which he was","-31.786903382046148"],["consummate actor.... Toward the end, he was less the leader, Der Führer, than a man flinging from reality as it advanced itself.... As I look back at those long briefing sessions, it strikes me that Hitler was hopelessly engulfed in the grandeur of his mission, a sense that was now disintegrating into self-pity. When the goddess Nemesis began to avenge his hubris, he lost his nerve.\nO'Donnell referred to Hewel as a man who had a front row seat to history, but who lacked the intelligence and perspective to realize it.","-31.77665991777758"],["Hitler Umanath Plot A mild-mannered and timid man causes amusement when he comes to work in a business — because of his resemblance to Adolf Hitler. Soon, however, he finds himself growing into a more forceful and dynamic person, becoming a charismatic leader and a successful businessman as his wife teaches him more and more about Hitler's charismatic personality and leadership abilities. In the end, once he finds out about Hitler's evil deeds, he regrets emulating such an evil person.","-31.765819688898773"],["\"Have you no German sense of honour left at all?\" When asked by a comrade if he had ever loved a girl, Hitler replied \"I've never had time for anything like that, and I'll never get round to it.\" Relationships with women Hitler created a public image of a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation. He considered himself to be attractive to women, partly because of his position of power. Speer recalled him stating a preference for unintelligent women who would not challenge him about his work or prevent him from","-31.740529093309306"],["with a high-pitched voice and frequent hand movements, make his character somewhat reminiscent of Adolf Hitler. Raised in Berlin he is a dedicated fan of Hertha BSC, which makes life somewhat hard in the Ruhr area.\nAlfred is married (afflicted) with Else, a housewife from Elmshorn, whose fatuity constantly drives him mad. She ceaselessly speaks up, confusing Pompidou with Pompadour and Kiesinger with Kissinger, honestly astonished that the Germans had elected a Jewish chancellor. (In this sense, although the German Else was named after the British version of the character, the quiet but sometimes snarky Else Garnett, the character more closely","-31.73342735308688"],["which the prince privately said to his aide-de-camp Masaharu Homma: \"Hitler is an actor, it will be difficult to trust him\". Nevertheless, he remained convinced that the future of Japan was linked to Nazi Germany and in 1938 and 1939, he had many quarrels with the Emperor about the opportunity to join a military alliance with Germany against Great Britain and the United States.\nPrince Chichibu Yasuhito was subsequently appointed battalion commander of Thirty-First Infantry Regiment in August 1937, promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1938 and to colonel in August 1939. During the war, he was involved in combat operations,","-31.701239446294494"],["National Socialist band. Rob Darken has openly glorified Adolf Hitler in interviews, one of several quotes from \"Brangolf magazine\" being: \"Undoubtedly, the most striking personality of Europe was Adolf Hitler. What he tried to build deserves the greatest respect. They [the Nazis] realized the value of pure Aryan Europe. Hitler embodied the idea of an Empire of White People. Hitler discovered and realized the true destiny hidden in the blood of white people. The proud Aryan ancestors always went the way of the gods.\" \nDarken has said he rejects the Nazi label in english language interviews, and told Decibel magazine:","-31.690301173167427"],["Hitler's rise to power firsthand, and fled to exile when he realized that he was a target of the regime. (He managed to escape the Gestapo). In his introduction Heiden wrote \"the 'hero' of this book is neither a superman nor a puppet. He is a very interesting contemporary and, viewed quantitatively, a man who is stirred up the masses more than anyone else in human history.\" Heiden was successful in analyzing Hitler as an orator, how he drew strength from his audience, learning which points to emphasize to maximize his impact. Hitler realized it was emotion, not rationality,","-31.68824781019066"],["particularly from the Left, who were amongst many targets of his criticism in that book. In later essays, although he never presented himself as a conservative or sympathizer with German nationalism, his comments began to scandalize a broad spectrum of writers and critics in Germany and elsewhere. Even Susan Sontag, who had written the introduction to the English translation of the book version of Hitler: A Film from Germany, was reportedly shocked by some of his later statements, though she claimed that her feelings about his films were unaffected.\nIn one notorious example Syberberg wrote in Vom Unglück und Glück der","-31.6797363179503"],["in the Nazi ideals and idolising Hitler; Germany's defeat and Hitler's suicide in 1945 did not temper his enthusiasm for the Nazi cause. He held a series of menial jobs until 1957, when a warrant was issued for his arrest in connection with the theft of a microphone from the Löbau Youth Club. He fled to Stuttgart, West Germany, and soon drifted into temporary work and petty crime. After running a dance bar during the early 1960s with his girlfriend, Edith Lieblang—whom he later married—Kujau began to create a fictional background for himself. He told people that his real name","-31.663616742531303"],["Adolf Hitler moved to Liverpool with her, remaining from November 1912 to April 1913, in order to dodge conscription in Austria. The book is largely considered by Hitler's biographers to be a work of fiction. At the time, Adolf was residing in the Meldemannstraße dormitory.\nIn 1914, Alois left Bridget and their son for a gambling tour of Europe. He later returned to Germany. Unable to reconnect with them due to the outbreak of World War I, Alois abandoned the family, leaving William to be brought up by his mother. He remarried bigamously, but in the mid-1920s he wrote to Bridget","-31.6581125301891"],["of Joachim von Ribbentrop. In 1935 he visited Germany again in his boat “Mayflower”. In May 1935 Adolf Hitler made a well publicised speech in which he proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace. That month Mottistone told the House of Lords that \"we ought to assume that it is genuine and sincere...I have had many interviews with Herr Hitler. I think the noble Lord and all the people who have really met this remarkable man will agree with me on one thing, however much we may disagree about other things—that he is absolutely truthful, sincere, and","-31.657329108944396"],["Germany.\nHegemann saw the rise of Hitler in Germany as emerging from a historical context of Germans celebrating, idealizing, and submitting to strong men. He criticized a century or more of \"craving for submission\" by German professors, bureaucrats and professionals, and observed that if Hitler ever decided to stop enslaving the nation, he would be \"overwhelmed by an irresistible rush into ever deeper submission\" by those with \"collusive attitudes toward war-hungry German nationalism.\" Similarly, in 1934 Hegemann viewed the persecution of Jews in Germany as \"in conformity with Old Prussian tradition\" of antisemitism, and as consistent with the German","-31.636211268254556"],["discovers to his dismay that not all members of Hitler Youth have such high moral values as he had thought. They call him Quex, originally as an insult.\nThe Hitler Youth leader takes care not to send Heini to the district where the communists live, but they find out where he is staying, and Stoppel seeks him out on the street, and tries to convince him to return to the communisits. Heini refuses, and Stoppel warns him not to return to the communist district. One day, one of the Hitler Youth is beated up by the communists while throwing","-31.6067287902697"],["Nazi newspapers named him as the Jewish community's secular leader in Norway. In 1934 he wrote that \"the new Germany lives in a martial psychosis, specializing in child-rearing for war, and military technique...children are taught from the cradle to hate all foreign peoples and to kill them at the order to do so.\" In 1934 he also predicted a devastating world war, was unimpressed by the non-aggression treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union. He sent telegrams to world leaders, including Roosevelt, Hindenburg, and Chamberlain, imploring them to intervene on behalf of German Jews. In 1939 he demanded that Norway","-31.598761560278945"],["Aufbau Vereinigung and met with Adolf Hitler through the agency of Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter. He participated in Hitler's failed Beer Hall Putsch on 9 November 1923, after which their relationship deteriorated increasingly. While Ludendorff despised the former 'corporal', he nevertheless backed the National Socialist Freedom Movement and ran for the Nazi Party in the 1925 Presidential election against his former Oberste Heeresleitung colleague Paul von Hindenburg.\nHitler feared the possibility of Ludendorff as a potential leadership rival and rejoiced in the General's derisory election result, telling Hermann Esser \"now we've finally finished him\". With his credibility severely damaged by the","-31.581474628070282"],["voicing his belief in Hitler and his mission from God to punish all people and countries which have strayed from the path of decency. He denounced the leaders of many of the countries Germany had defeated as cowards, due to the fact that they fled to England and elsewhere rather than stayed or died with their people and soldiers. A short recording of part of this speech has been preserved.\nHe also spent six weeks with a Swabian mountain division (German:Gebirgsjäger) in the Donetsk region.\nHe was promoted to SS-Obergruppenführer on 1 August 1944.\nWith the worsening war situation, Wahl and the Gau","-31.574703403399326"],["Europe until his return to the Republic of China during the later years of World War II.\nAdolf Hitler had supported the Empire of Japan as early as 1904, when during the Russo-Japanese War it had defeated the Russians, which he considered a defeat for Austrian Slavism. He made a number of other statements expressing his respect and admiration for the Japanese in his book Mein Kampf.\nAlthough of a different evolutionary race, the Han Chinese and Imperial Japanese were considered by Nazi ideologists such as Himmler as having sufficiently superior qualities as did German-Nordic blood to warrant an alliance. Himmler, who","-31.57267763148411"],["warned Hitler that Ribbentrop was a \"stupid ass\". Hitler dismissed Göring's concerns: \"[b]ut after all, he knows quite a lot of important people in England.\" This remark led Göring to reply \"Mein Führer, that may be right, but the bad thing is, they know him.\"\nIn February 1937, Ribbentrop committed a notable social gaffe by unexpectedly greeting King George VI with the \"German greeting\", a stiff-armed Nazi salute: the gesture nearly knocked over the king, who was walking forward to shake Ribbentrop's hand at the time. Ribbentrop further compounded the damage to his image and caused a minor crisis in Anglo-German","-31.560434603743488"],["Hitler's humanity. Another event, in which he spoke to Hitler Youth in what was defined as an \"inappropriate way,\" earned him the nickname of \"Hitler Youth Dönitz.\" He refused to help Albert Speer stop the scorched earth policy dictated by Hitler and is also noted to have declared, \"In comparison to Hitler we are all pipsqueaks. Anyone who believes he can do better than the Führer is stupid.\"\nDönitz contributed to the spread of Nazism within the Kriegsmarine. He insisted that officers share his political views and, as head of the Kriegsmarine, formally joined the Nazi Party in 1944. He was","-31.520906324323732"],["in London. The British historian/television producer Laurence Rees noted for his 1997 series The Nazis: A Warning from History that every single person interviewed for the series who knew Ribbentrop expressed a passionate hatred for him. One German diplomat, Herbert Richter, called Ribbentrop \"lazy and worthless\", while another, Manfred von Schröder, was quoted as saying Ribbentrop was \"vain and ambitious\". Rees concluded that \"No other Nazi was so hated by his colleagues\".\nIn November 1937, Ribbentrop was placed in a highly embarrassing situation, when his forceful advocacy of the return of the former German colonies led the British Foreign Secretary Anthony","-31.494559806771576"],["assumption that readers would agree that Hitler deserved mockery as \"surprisingly naive\".\nIn The Sydney Morning Herald, reviewer Jason Steger interviewed the book's author, who believes that the way Hitler is seen today \"is one that hasn't too much to do with the real one\". \"Most people wouldn't think it possible that if they would have lived back then they would have thought he was in some way attractive too,\" he said.","-31.476559572154656"],["had \"seen something that he was not allowed to describe and indeed could not describe.\" Government service Adolf Hitler took an early liking to the outspoken young Hanke, who by April 1932 had become an NSDAP delegate to Prussian State Parliament (Landtag). Later in November 1932, Hanke was elected to the German Parliament (Reichstag) on the slate of the NSDAP, representing Potsdam. He held this seat until the end of the war in Europe.\nHanke again secured a task for Albert Speer in July 1932, having him build a headquarters for the Berlin NSDAP in the centre of the city (at","-31.472342380067857"],["most frequently referred to as ‘Nazis’, ‘Germans’ and ‘fascists’. Individuals commonly named include Hitler, Himmler, Heydrich, Höss and Eichmann. Most striking is the extent to which Hitlercentrism pervades textbook narratives of the Holocaust, with Hitler functioning as a moral repository for the event, as embodied in portraits of Hitler, excerpts from Mein Kampf and the attribution of sole responsibility to Hitler in such phrases, found in Russian textbooks, as ‘Hitlerian aggression’ or the ‘policy of Hitler-Germany’. By contrast, textbooks in France and Germany generally marginalize the role of Hitler in favour of an explanation of the event as a result","-31.46537923147389"],["(Молох) is a 1999 Russian biographical drama film directed by Alexander Sokurov. It portrays Adolf Hitler as a humanized figure, living life in an unassuming manner during an abrupt journey to the Bavarian Alps.","-31.425302101764828"],["the group ideal as embodied in the leader the need for a strong chief.\"\nThe mainstream analyses of the Nazi phenomenon have primarily targeted Adolf Hitler’s person, character and biography and only to a limited degree the character of the masses that followed him and the interaction between Hitler and the masses. In contrast, Lothane studied the mass psychology of Nazism by linking ideas from Freud to Wilhelm Reich's 1933 Mass Psychology of Fascism to illuminate the rise of Nazi tyranny, the persecution of German-Jewish doctors, psychiatrists and psychoanalysts, and the Holocaust. Lothane has also noted implication of his analysis of","-31.40045736322645"],["of Kleindeutschland was the \"highest achievement\" Bismarck could have achieved \"within the limits possible at that time\". In Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler presented himself as a \"second Bismarck\".\nDuring his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically influenced by Austrian Pan-Germanist proponent Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated radical German nationalism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Slavic sentiment and anti-Habsburg views. From von Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the Heil greeting, the Führer title and the model of absolute party leadership. Hitler was also impressed by the populist antisemitism and the anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as","-31.394833110505715"],["incompatible with the picture I always had of him\", but did not quote the next sentence where Ribbentrop wrote: \"On the other hand, judging from his [Hitler's] last will, one must suppose that he at least knew about it, if, in his fanaticism against the Jews, he didn't also order it\". Finally, Sydnor argued that Irving's account of the final days of Hitler appeared to comprise little more than a rehashing of Hugh Trevor-Roper's 1947 book, The Last Days of Hitler, only with Hitler as an object of sympathy, rather than scorn. Lucy Dawidowicz In her 1981 book The Holocaust","-31.377156259666663"],["ruthlessly satirised. Brecht, who was German but left when the Nazis came to power, also expressed his opposition to the National Socialist and Fascist movements in other plays such as Mother Courage and Fear and Misery of the Third Reich.\nOutside Germany, Hitler was made fun of or depicted as a maniac. There are many notable examples in contemporary Hollywood films. Several Three Stooges shorts, the first being You Nazty Spy! (1940), the very first Hollywood work lampooning Hitler and the Nazis in which the boys, with Moe Howard portraying \"Moe Hailstone\", as the Hitler character, are made dictators of the","-31.348218208469916"],["Hero Hitler in Love Synopsis Hero Hitler in Love revolves around the life of a man called Hitler who lives in his village, Ishqpura. Hitler is a man with unique and different thoughts, who loves his fellow villagers and helps soul-mates come together. Hitler falls in love with Sahiban, who lives in Pakistan and decides to bring her to his village. Hitler believes in solving problems by talking about them, but when something crosses the line, he loses it. The film also revolves around car racing. Hitler loves to race, but when he is set up to fail in the","-31.329439459892455"],["He tells several stories about Hitler's anti-Semitic behavior at this time, including a story that he tormented one Polish Jew with stink bugs and by giving children \"Aryan chocolate\" to induce them to torment their Jewish playmate as a \"filthy Jew\". Greiner also claims that at one point Hitler attempted to rape one of his models (although Hitler in fact never painted people during his time in Vienna). He also claims that Hitler contracted syphilis from a Leopoldstadt prostitute. He also claimed that in 1945, Hitler did not commit suicide, but instead fled from Berlin in an airplane.\nGreiner's claims to","-31.316485584786278"],["been anti-semitic, in 1970 Carmichael proclaimed: \"I have never admired a white man, but the greatest of them, to my mind, was Hitler.\" However, Carmichael in the same speech condemned Hitler on moral grounds, Carmichael himself stating:\nAdolph Hitler—I'm not putting a judgment on what he did—if you asked me for my judgment morally, I would say it was bad, what he did was wrong, was evil, etc. But I would say he was a genius, nevertheless . . . . You say he's not a genius because he committed bad acts. That's not the question. The question is, he does","-31.31101413158467"],["in Linz, the same high school Adolf Hitler had attended some 17 years before. He played the violin and participated in sports and clubs, including a Wandervogel woodcraft and scouting group that included some older boys who were members of various right-wing militias. His poor school performance resulted in his father's withdrawing him from the Realschule and enrolling him in the Höhere Bundeslehranstalt für Elektrotechnik, Maschinenbau und Hochbau vocational college. He left without attaining a degree and joined his father's new enterprise, the Untersberg Mining Company, where he worked for several months. From 1925 to 1927 he worked as a","-31.305286649730988"],["office. He later recorded,\nOf course, from these few experiences, I cannot judge Hitler's personality, but having shared with Speer his virtually daily contacts with him, and being familiar with Hitler's ideas, for example, on town planning, I think that commentators are making it easy for themselves now when, as they frequently do, they resort in their descriptions to simplistic epitaphs such as \"buck private\", \"wall painter\", \"petit-bourgeois philistine\", or \"history's greatest criminal\".\nWolters' longtime secretary, Marion Riesser, was half-Jewish, and Wolters protected her throughout the war. In late 1944, word reached them that those with Jewish ancestry who remained","-31.304716639035178"],["many periodicals, books, and movies, Hitler and Nazism fulfill the role of archetypal evil. This treatment is not confined to fiction but is widespread amongst nonfiction writers who have discussed him in this vein. Hitler has retained a fascination from other perspectives; among many comparable examples is an exhibition at the German Historical Museum which was widely attended. Representations of Hitler during his lifetime Numerous works in popular music and literature feature Adolf Hitler prominently.\nIn Germany, before he came to power, Hitler was often portrayed satirically in newspaper cartoons and propaganda by political enemies. The photomontagist John Heartfield regularly depicted","-31.29446722078137"],["reproduce what [Hitler] said. It must be experienced. He is a genius. The natural, creative instrument of a fate determined by God. I am deeply moved.\".\nHitler became Chancellor in January 1933 and appointed Goebbels Propaganda Minister. Goebbels then published an edited version of his diaries for the period of Hitler's rise to power in book form, under the title Vom Kaiserhof zur Reichskanzlei: Eine historische Darstellung in Tagebuchblattern (From the Kaiserhof to the Reich Chancellery: a Historical Diary). The Kaiserhof was a Berlin hotel where Hitler stayed before he came to power. Goebbels's book was later published in English as","-31.251494611380622"],["Richthofen subscribed to the Hitler myth—that the Nazi leader was a genius, who would revitalise Germany. Richthofen's diary—which survived the war—has many examples of conversations with fellow officers in which he expresses his confidence in Hitler. After one briefing, in the summer, 1943, Richthofen praised Hitler's \"brilliant grasp\" of military strategy, and blamed the \"idiotic\" Alfred Jodl and Wilhelm Keitel for the failures of the Wehrmacht. Richthofen's biographer observed that he did not appear to question why a genius surrounded himself with incompetents and \"yes men\".\nRichthofen and Hitler maintained their harmonious relationship largely because they never worked closely together. Hitler,","-31.246005163760856"],["is portrayed as a disorderly gang devoted primarily to alcohol, tobacco and sex. In contrast, the Nazi youth (Hitlerjugend, \"Hitler Youth\") is portrayed as an orderly organisation, superior in morals. Schenzinger lets Heini Völker's father force his son to attend a camping weekend organised by a communist youth group, North Star Moabit. Heini is disgusted and flees the camp, only to encounter a Hitler Youth group in the woods. Deeply impressed, and in an atmosphere of nationalistic pathos, Heini learns of the Nazi movement, Führerprinzip (\"leader principle\"), comradeship and Volksgemeinschaft (\"the people's community\"). On \"the happiest day of his life\",","-31.213775927957613"],["(Brigitte) and Hitler are played by one and the same person. Having thus dealt with his father, Niklas Frank entirely concentrated on his mother, the once 'Queen of Poland', in his book \"My German Mother\" (2005), which reads in part like a brilliant satire of high-ranking Nazi women. He concluded his trilogy with \"Brother Norman!\" (2013), reporting the painful discussions with his eldest and favorite brother, who had died three years before, on their diverging views of a youth spent in occupied Poland and on filial love. Appearances in documentaries Niklas Frank appears as himself in the 1993 television","-31.205365175148472"],["of Norwich.\nBefore the Second World War he was an avowed admirer of Hitler and attended a conference in the summer of 1939 in Berlin organised by the Anglo German Brotherhood.\nHowever, as Julia Boyd observes in her book Travelling in The Third Reich,”his enthusiasm for Nazi Germany did nothing to damage his career.”","-31.190510897446075"],["Kubizek later described the scene:\n\"Never again did I see Adolf as happy as he was at that moment. When the carriage had passed he dragged me aside and with emotion he gazed at the flower, this visible pledge of her love. I can still hear his voice, trembling with excitement, 'She loves me!' \"\nAfter Hitler's mother died of breast cancer in 1907, the funeral procession went through Urfahr to Leonding. Kubizek remarks that Hitler said he had seen Stefanie at the funeral procession, which gave him some consolation. Kubizek claims that \"Stefanie had no idea how deeply Adolf was in","-31.184631079202518"],["considered his father something of a hero, having served under him in World War I. He tried to draw him into the plot to rid Germany of Hitler, but although Rommel gave his backing to the conspiracy he did not agree that he should be killed.\nOn 26 July 1944, Hofacker was arrested in Paris, taken to Berlin Gestapo headquarters where, according to William Shirer in \"The Rise and Fall of the 3rd Reich\", he was horrifically tortured and gave up the name of Erwin Rommel stating that Rommel said to \"Tell the people in Berlin they can count on","-31.181639884016477"],["American psychologist Glenn D. Walters wrote in 2000: \"Much of the debate about Hitler's long-term mental health is probably questionable, because even if he had suffered from significant psychiatric problems, he attained the supreme power in Germany rather in spite of these difficulties than through them.\" Erik H. Erikson (1950) The psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist Erik Erikson gave Adolf Hitler a chapter in his 1950 book, Childhood and Society. Erikson referred to Hitler as an \"histrionic and hysterical adventurer\" and believed there was evidence of an undissolved Oedipus complex in his self-portrayals. Nonetheless, he believed that Hitler was such an","-31.176261587330373"],["morning that he is Adolf Hitler. Texas Groove metal band Pantera wrote and recorded a song called \"By Demons Be Driven\". It tells the story of how Hitler was plagued by paranoia and began to hate the Jewish people and religion. Australian band TISM's debut single was \"Defecate on My Face\", which was about Adolf Hitler's supposed coprophilia. Australian comedy troupe the Doug Anthony Allstars had a song called \"Mexican Hitler\", which told the story of what Hitler would have been like if he was born Mexican. It made an appearance in their television show, DAAS Kapital.\nThe song \"Hitler as","-31.169626477800193"],["said he sees Nazism as a mental restriction and that he had no fascist ideas because he was a supporter of the Kriegsgräberfürsorge, a German organization caring for graves of soldiers similar to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, and the MIA International.","-31.1520032081753"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"and Roosevelt. Seen from the spirit-world, Dowd claimed Hitler was not evil but rather \\\"a man whose stars threw him into the world with vast disadvantages, with overwhelming ambition sweltering in his soul, and with an infinite capacity for receiving influences and suggestions from our side.\\\" She maintained that, open to spirit influence, Hitler was a passive recipient of dangerous spirits working on his \\\"colossal egotism\\\" so that he became a conduit for evil. Stalin, in contrast, was described by her as \\\"crafty and careful\\\" rather than egotistic. Churchill, she claimed, \\\"can be hot-headed, full of zeal and enthusiasm, and,\",\n \"-34.550296432105824\"\n ],\n [\n \"Leo saying in 1967 that Hitler was \\\"absolutely innocent\\\", according to historian Werner Maser. World War II and detention in Moscow Before the war, he became a manager of the Linz Steelworks. In October 1939, he was drafted into the Luftwaffe and was a lieutenant in the engineering corps. He looked similar to Adolf Hitler and sometimes served as Hitler's double during the war.\\nHe was injured in January 1943 during the Battle of Stalingrad, and Friedrich Paulus asked Hitler for a plane to evacuate Raubal to Germany. Hitler refused and Raubal was captured by the Soviets on 31 January 1943.\\nHitler\",\n \"-34.48316009656992\"\n ],\n [\n \"Raubal, Eva Braun and himself, accompanied his career. All soft, lovable traits were missing from his character. He was also full of himself and unselfcritical. Hitler was an 'empty man' who filled himself with pride and hatred. Achievements Haffner argues that on gaining office in 1933, Hitler achieved many 'miracles' in economic and military policy. 90% of Germans approved. Had he died in 1938, he would have been remembered as 'one of the greatest Germans ever'. Few people noticed that he had dismantled the state and concealed the resultant chaos. In the long run, his achievement came to nothing. Successes\",\n \"-34.42442893923726\"\n ],\n [\n \"Adolf Hitler in popular culture Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party and Chancellor of Nazi Germany from 1933 (Führer from 1934) to 1945. Hitler has been represented in popular culture ever since he became a well-known politician in Germany. His distinctive image was often parodied by his opponents. Parodies became much more prominent outside Germany during his period in power. Since the end of World War II representations of Hitler, both serious and satirical, have continued to be prominent in popular culture, sometimes generating significant controversy. In\",\n \"-34.38677042420022\"\n ],\n [\n \"he bagged thousands of animals, both beast and bird. Much of his time was spent chopping wood and thousands of trees were chopped down during his stay at Doorn. Views on Nazism In the early 1930s, Wilhelm apparently hoped that the successes of the German Nazi Party would stimulate interest in a restoration of the monarchy, with his eldest grandson as the fourth Kaiser. His second wife, Hermine, actively petitioned the Nazi government on her husband's behalf. However, Adolf Hitler, himself a veteran of the First World War, like other leading Nazis, felt nothing but contempt for the man they\",\n \"-33.92961646273034\"\n ],\n [\n \"one thing you have to give him credit for: he is a fanatic for Germany. But he is wrecked by his proletarian primitive ways. He does not know how to give an intellectual basis to his Nazi party. Hitler is all passion but lacks sense or proportion. A heroic tenor, not a hero.\\\" Hitler, in other words, was not Mussolini. These were the last words he ever wrote before his suicide in 1925.\",\n \"-33.827292747177125\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hitler\\\" could by this stage already be heard in the university's main auditorium. In 1924 Beer joined the Socialist Students' Society. He became - and would for the rest of his life remain - a committed communist. He read from the literary pantheon works by Marx, Engels, Lenin and Wilhelm Reich. He identified the looming dangers of Fascism and decided that he needed to engage politically. In 1927 he illegally joined the Yugoslavian Communist Party. At around the same time he joined Internationale Arbeiter-Hilfe (IAH / \\\"Workers International Relief\\\"\",\n \"-33.75392495613778\"\n ],\n [\n \"himself rather than be captured by the Soviets. Further, Schenck stated that Hewel was emotionally and physically exhausted, which contributed to his actions. Relationship with Hitler Because of his friendship with Hitler, Hewel was given a large amount of leeway in his actions. For example, according to O'Donnell, Hewel played constant practical jokes on his boss, Ribbentrop, in order to amuse Hitler and other members of his entourage.\\nAfter the war, Hewel's 1941 diary emerged. Also, after Hitler's suicide, he spoke with others about his friendship with, and opinion of, Hitler. Right before his suicide, he told Dr. Schenck:\\nHitler was a\",\n \"-33.59238301329606\"\n ],\n [\n \"is the only American mentioned favorably in Mein Kampf, although he is only mentioned twice: Adolf Hitler wrote, \\\"only a single great man, Ford, [who], to [the Jews'] fury, still maintains full independence ... [from] the controlling masters of the producers in a nation of one hundred and twenty millions.\\\" Speaking in 1931 to a Detroit News reporter, Hitler said he regarded Ford as his \\\"inspiration\\\", explaining his reason for keeping Ford's life-size portrait next to his desk. Steven Watts wrote that Hitler \\\"revered\\\" Ford, proclaiming that \\\"I shall do my best to put his theories into practice in Germany\\\",\",\n \"-33.5378930552979\"\n ],\n [\n \"his Nazi-orientated political beliefs in these exchanges; Meyer had dedicated himself to its ideology, saying that a person \\\"could only give his heart once in life\\\". One interrogator described him as \\\"the personification of National Socialism\\\". Throughout the recordings, Meyer and other SS men confirmed the German armed forces officers' view of them as ideological fanatics with an almost religious belief in Nazism, the Third Reich, and the messianic personality cult of Adolf Hitler.\\nIn a taped January 1945 conversation, Meyer praised Hitler for having inspired a \\\"tremendous awakening in the German people\\\" and for reviving their self-confidence. In a taped\",\n \"-33.468488699232694\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Munich, and subsequently achieved the rank of lieutenant and served as a soldier in the Wehrmacht on active combat duty in Europe until his return to the Republic of China during the later years of World War II.\\nAdolf Hitler had supported the Empire of Japan as early as 1904, when during the Russo-Japanese War it had defeated the Russians, which he considered a defeat for Austrian Slavism. He made a number of other statements expressing his respect and admiration for the Japanese in his book Mein Kampf.\\nAlthough of a different evolutionary race, the Han Chinese and Imperial Japanese were\",\n \"-33.433049713261425\"\n ],\n [\n \"I economic effects, that his patriotic feelings had increased. In a 1952 memoir article he admitted that, at that time, he \\\"fared relatively rather well under totalitarianism\\\". Yet, he also wrote that \\\"to us, Hitler was still only a pompous fool with a Charlie Chaplin moustache\\\" and that he perceived him as \\\"another Napoleon\\\" who was \\\"wholly without scruples, a godless man who thought himself the only god\\\". Membership in the Allgemeine SS Von Braun joined the SS horseback riding school on 1 November 1933 as an SS-Anwärter. He left the following year. In 1940, he joined the SS and\",\n \"-33.39695520163514\"\n ],\n [\n \"of western Canada. He is accompanied by his aide-de-camp Sergeant Adolf Hitler, whose anti-Semitic views he does not care for. Hitler, Adolf (AE:CCH)\\nBecause of the German Empire's victory in this world, Adolf Hitler is a sergeant in the German Army. He holds the Iron Cross, First Class. Morrell met him once as an orderly to Colonel Heinz Guderian, who was on an inspection tour in Kamloops, British Columbia, an occupied territory of the United States. Morrell thought that he was very much like Jake Featherston, but with a hatred for Jews and Slavs rather than Africans. Hitler is never\",\n \"-33.39555487467442\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hitler may have realised himself by mid-1944 that Germany had lost the war. Wahl's autobiography was the first of any Gauleiter to be published.\\nHe later worked in the library of the Messerschmitt factory from 1958 to 1968, thanks to his friendship with Willy Messerschmitt, established in the Nazi era.\\nHis grave in Augsburg-Göggingen, where he is buried together with his wife, carries the message: \\\"Do not tire of doing good deeds\\\" (German: Werdet nicht müde das Gute zu tun). Nazi crimes and the Holocaust In his book, Wahl claimed, like many Germans and even Nazis, not to have known about the\",\n \"-33.18306592380395\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nazi leader who dared to address Hitler by his first name \\\"Adolf\\\" or his nickname \\\"Adi\\\" rather than \\\"mein Führer\\\". Their close association led to rumors that Hitler himself was homosexual. Unlike many in the Nazi hierarchy, Röhm never fell victim to Hitler's \\\"arresting personality\\\" nor did he come fully under his spell, which made him unique.\\nAs Hitler rose to national power with his appointment as chancellor in January 1933, SA members were appointed auxiliary police and ordered by Göring to sweep aside \\\"all enemies of the state\\\". Second revolution Röhm and the SA regarded themselves as the vanguard of\",\n \"-33.15357502765255\"\n ],\n [\n \"his attitude was \\\"worshipful\\\", while the historian Charles Messenger describes Rommel's \\\"growing admiration\\\" towards Hitler following the invasion of Poland. Speaking at The National WWII Museum's 2012 International Conference on World War II, the author Nigel Hamilton referred to Rommel as \\\"quite a Nazi\\\". This sympathy did not extend to the Party though. In this regard, he was similar to many other Wehrmacht soldiers, who, with encouragement from Hitler, erroneously believed the army to be the most important element of the regime. Rommel showed particular resentment towards the SA and later, the SS, for their brutality and absorption of resources\",\n \"-32.74299245048314\"\n ],\n [\n \"on to state that the German people would be better off if they did not integrate themselves with different races. Seeing Hitler's architectural sketches, with their appeal to a romanticized national greatness, Rothman realizes this is where Hitler's talent lies, and that it would be far less dangerous if confined to art galleries. Hitler is thrilled by Rothman's enthusiasm, not understanding it is partly motivated by fear of what he might become. \\nRothman and Hitler have arranged to meet that evening to discuss Hitler's future projects, and after making a violently anti-semitic speech to a group of supporters\",\n \"-32.69743193266913\"\n ],\n [\n \"interest in such an offer.\\n\\nThomas Weber has found the records of Wiedemann's talks with him in 1940 in which Wiedemann openly warned against Hitler and claimed Hitler had a \\\"split personality and numbered among the most cruel people in the world, saw himself better than Napoleon and that peace with him was impossible.\\\" He told Wiseman of Hitler's plans to attack and conquer the UK and \\\"recommended strongly\\\" that the British themselves strike as quickly and as \\\"hard as possible\\\" against him.\\nHe told Wiseman that the morale of the German population and the support of Hitler were lower than generally\",\n \"-32.69333438051399\"\n ],\n [\n \"other German politicians such as Gustav Stresemann; fourth, that Hitler was an opportunist, taking advantage of events provided by the French and British governments, rather than working according to a timetable; and, fifth, that in destroying the Treaty of Versailles and invading Poland, Hitler had the support of the German people. Reception The book was published in April 1961, with German and American editions appearing the next year. Translations also appeared in French, Italian, Finnish, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish and Sinhalese. It was a bestseller around the world and provoked a storm of controversy.\\nSebastian Haffner wrote in his\",\n \"-32.682285186019726\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hitler in the 1930s, both Dassler brothers joined the Nazi Party, with Rudolf reputed as being the more ardent National Socialist.\\nDuring the war, a growing rift between the pair reached a breaking point after an Allied bomb attack in 1943 when Adi and his wife climbed into a bomb shelter that Rudolf and his family were already in: \\\"The dirty bastards are back again,\\\" Adi said, apparently referring to the Allied war planes, but Rudolf was convinced his brother meant him and his family. Rudolf, upon his capture by American troops, was suspected of being a member of the SS,\",\n \"-32.56053988006897\"\n ],\n [\n \"desk\\\". He portrayed Hitler as a rational, intelligent politician, whose only goal was to increase Germany's prosperity and influence on the continent, and who was constantly let down by incompetent and/or treasonous subordinates. Irving's book faulted the Allied leaders, most notably Winston Churchill, for the eventual escalation of war, and claimed that the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 was a \\\"preventive war\\\" forced on Hitler to avert an alleged impending Soviet attack (supported by some, notably Soviet GRU defector Victor Suvorov, and others; see Icebreaker). Irving commented that in light of the \\\"preventive war\\\" that he felt\",\n \"-32.5523485300364\"\n ],\n [\n \"discarded, giving its place to spiritual exaltation\\\". In the same article, Adolf Hitler is characterized as a \\\"great social reformer\\\" and \\\"military genius\\\".\\nIn an article published in 1987 in the Golden Dawn magazine titled \\\"Hitler for 1,000 years\\\", its editor Michaloliakos showed his support for Nazism and white supremacy. Specifically he wrote, \\\"We are the faithful soldiers of the National Socialist idea and nothing else\\\" and \\\"[...] WE EXIST, and continue the battle, the battle for the final victory of our race\\\". He ends the article by writing \\\"1987, 42 years later, with our thought and soul given to the\",\n \"-32.53202180285007\"\n ],\n [\n \"the despair that both people and the Army feel about the brutal, insane and terroristic dictator and his henchmen\\\". Wheeler-Bennett commented that Goerdeler was vastly exaggerating the extent of anti-Nazi feelings, both in the German Army and among the German public. After Munich, Goerdeler told Young that:\\nIt is vitally important to realise that Hitler is deeply and definitely convinced that after his unexpected victory at Munich, anything is possible to him...He says that he [Hitler] is now convinced that England is degenerate, weak, timid and never will have the guts to resist any of his plans. No war will ever\",\n \"-32.53156045805372\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"racial murder\\\". If, however, he wants to say that the German state, through the mouth of its Führer, unambiguously and publicly announced the decision that even Jewish women, children and infants were to be killed, then he has illustrated with one short phrase all that does not have to be demonstrated in the current intellectual climate, but can be \\\"imputed\\\". Hitler was certainly the most powerful man that has ever lived in Germany. But he was not powerful enough to ever publicly equate Bolshevism and Christianity, as he often did in his dinner conversations. He also not powerful enough to\",\n \"-32.520196482524625\"\n ],\n [\n \"the New Germany\\\" at New York's Madison Square Garden, in which he compared Hitler to Franklin Delano Roosevelt and told his audience to sympathize with National Socialism without being antisemites. His Jewish friends denounced him as \\\"George Swastika Viereck\\\", but he continued to promote National Socialism.\\nIn 1941, he was indicted in the U.S. for a violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act when he set up his publishing house, Flanders Hall, in Scotch Plains, New Jersey. He was convicted in 1942 for this failure to register with the U. S. Department of State as a National Socialist agent. He was\",\n \"-32.473833217751235\"\n ],\n [\n \"this time Hitler met Joseph Goebbels, with whom he had an instant rapport with his vulgarities and anti-semitism - the first radical departure from actual history.\\nThe novel swiftly moves to the First World War, and describes Hitler's exploits as a behind-the-lines scout sniper - who, in his spare time, criticizes the General HQ and tells jokes so disgusting that even hardened soldiers stay silent. Also his foul-smelling flatulence is commented upon.\\nWhile following Hitler's rise to power from the Great Depression to the Second World War, the novel makes its most outrageous claim; Hitler and Goebbels jointly conceived the Second World\",\n \"-32.45845706918044\"\n ],\n [\n \"accomplished by his régime. He wrote of Adolf Hitler, the new leader of Germany, \\\"Whether one admires [him] or not, at least he is a leader who leads.\\\" Soon enough, he wrote, \\\"people the world over... will follow courageous leaders.\\\" 1936 Olympics In 1935, during the preparations for the 1936 Olympic Games, Sherrill met twice with Hitler. A modern historian wrote that Sherrill was \\\"mesmerized by the\\nforce of Hitler's personality and charisma.\\\" In his one-hour talk with Hitler, Sherrill insisted for at least one token Jew to be included in the German team for the Olympic Winter and another for\",\n \"-32.41185455152299\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hitler personally accused Dickel of being an enemy of National Socialism. Over time, Dickel gradually drifted away from his economic leftism, and by the 1930s he had become a proponent of laissez-faire capitalism.\\nOtto Dickel spoke of the need to revive of the German nation as well as German and Western culture, supported the creation of a Greater German nation and wanted to abandon what he saw as a cowardly contemporary culture. he stated:\\nMany a time acquaintances have told me that I see the world differently from them. That is true. Who sees it correctly? Men of science with their mechanistic\",\n \"-32.40900183841586\"\n ],\n [\n \"bit artificial.\\nAlmost all accounts of Hewel described him as a pleasant and good-natured, if not very intelligent man. He usually ended up dealing with situations and events that Hitler could not handle. Other members of the inner circle recounted that, unlike many other Nazi leaders, Hewel was able to stay awake and attentive during Hitler's long monologues on topics such as anti-Semitism. Heinz Guderian, when recalling Hewel, remarked that he was \\\"a good raconteur and a good listener\\\".\\nHewel tended to be shy around women, and as a result, Hitler often tried to play matchmaker for him. Hewel survived an airplane\",\n \"-32.40197711822111\"\n ],\n [\n \"his early days in the Nazi Party and general ideas on politics, including the transformation of German society into one based on race, with some passages implying genocide. Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. In 1933, Hitler's first year in office, 1,000,000 copies were sold. The book acts as a reference, giving insight into the world view from which Hitler never wavered throughout his life.\\nIt states that during his childhood, Hitler had little interest in politics as he had ambitions to become a painter. Like other boys in his part\",\n \"-32.35859887636343\"\n ],\n [\n \"Adolf Hitler: My Part in His Downfall (film) Basis The film is based on the first volume of Milligan's war memoirs. Although it broadly follows Milligan's book, some scenes were created specifically for the film and all of the character names (apart from the Milligan family) are fictional. Premise Aspiring jazz musician Terence \\\"Spike\\\" Milligan reluctantly obeys his call-up and joins the Royal Artillery regiment at Bexhill-on-Sea, where he begins training to take part in World War II. But along the way Spike and his friends get involved in many amusing - and some not-so amusing - scrapes.\",\n \"-32.344483181484975\"\n ],\n [\n \"example but he was unreliable, according to a historian, \\\"telling them what they wanted to hear\\\". Hitler also used him to encourage pro-Nazi sentiment among the Duke of Windsor and his wife. Records indicate that Charles Edward received a monthly payment of 4,000 Reichsmark (worth about £16,000 in 2015) from the Führer. Hitler sent Charles Edward to Britain as president of the Anglo-German Friendship Society. His mission was to improve Anglo-German relations and to explore the possibility of a pact between the two countries. He attended the funeral of his first cousin George V as Hitler's representative in the uniform\",\n \"-32.294862858136185\"\n ],\n [\n \"and that such was the force of Hitler's personality that it is correct to speak of National Socialism as \\\"Hitlerism\\\". In his essay, Bracher maintained that Hitler himself was in many ways something of an \\\"unperson\\\" devoid of any real interest for the biographer, but argued that these pedestrian qualities of Hitler led to him being underestimated first by rivals and allies in the Weimar Republic, and then on the international stage in the 1930s. At the same time, Bracher warned of the apologetic tendencies of the “demonization\\\" of Hitler which he accused historians like Gerhard Ritter of engaging in,\",\n \"-32.27639146099682\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nazi Germany and included quotations such as \\\"Racial strength is vital; politics, a luxury\\\".\\nRoosevelt disliked Lindbergh's outspoken opposition to his administration's interventionist policies, telling Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, \\\"If I should die tomorrow, I want you to know this, I am absolutely convinced Lindbergh is a Nazi.\\\" In 1941 he wrote to Secretary of War Henry Stimson: \\\"When I read Lindbergh's speech I felt that it could not have been better put if it had been written by Goebbels himself. What a pity that this youngster has completely abandoned his belief in our form of government and has accepted Nazi\",\n \"-32.187844994827174\"\n ],\n [\n \"with serious health problems and died on August 9, 1942. Before he died, Sfar published in the French feminist journal Leïla of December 1939 an article strongly denouncing Adolf Hitler's regime and explaining the danger that he represented for humanity. This article was titled \\\"The racist concepts of Hitler\\\". At the end of this article and after introducing readers to some significant quotations of Mein Kampf, he ended his critical analysis with the following conclusion: \\nThese few quotations are sufficient to show to what degree Hitler's hatred for other races other than the German race had reached. How he borrows\",\n \"-32.18488409498241\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"fierce fighter\\\" and commanded the respect of local Albanians. His comrades gave him the nickname \\\"Hitler\\\" due to his uncanny resemblance to Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. Xhinovci told journalist Una Hajdari: \\\"People have called me Hitler since my army days. They say I look a lot like him—unlike the English guy who plays him in that movie,\\\" apparently a reference to Charlie Chaplin's role in The Great Dictator.\\nSerbian police documents from 1998 indicate that he was suspected of participating in the kidnapping and execution of nine Serb mineworkers at the Belaćevac coal mine, near Obilić. In 1999, Xhinovci was wounded\",\n \"-32.17783508816501\"\n ],\n [\n \"school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900. Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf states that he intentionally did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw \\\"what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream\\\".\\nLike many Austrian Germans, Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age. He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire. Hitler and his friends used the greeting \\\"Heil\\\", and\",\n \"-32.12712790933438\"\n ],\n [\n \"On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat, and—by his own account—on receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.\\nHitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort, and his ideological development began to firmly take shape. He described the war as \\\"the greatest of all experiences\\\", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. The experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918. Like other German nationalists, he believed\",\n \"-32.11229448589984\"\n ],\n [\n \"Socialist; he is a troop leader with a gift for improvisation, personally courageous and extraordinarily inventive. These are the kinds of soldiers we need.\\\"\\nRommel \\\"exercised an almost hypnotic influence on Hitler\\\", according to Albert Kesselring, and another colleague called him \\\"the Führer's marshal\\\". American writer Rick Atkinson concludes that Rommel was \\\"loyal in his own fashion and as beguiled by Hitler as steel filings by a magnet ... Hitler was a bulwark against bolshevism, [Rommel] had told staff officers.\\\" Despite this intimate relationship though, he was not provided with basic information on Germany's strategic plan: \\\"Rommel did not know that smashing\",\n \"-32.11054559692275\"\n ],\n [\n \"school. His nickname does not relate to his not smoking (he does, very much so) but to his living in an old railway carriage, which still bears a sign that reads \\\"Nonsmoker\\\". Background, the sequel and trivia This was the last Kästner book published before the rise of the Nazis to power. Though Nazis are not explicitly mentioned anywhere in the book, the situation of economic crisis and mass unemployment which made many German voters turn to Hitler is very evident in the book's background.\\nShortly after publishing Das fliegende Klassenzimmer he had to witness how the NSDAP turned to power\",\n \"-32.091758082504384\"\n ],\n [\n \"appear in the British media. In the autumn of 1941 and early winter of 1941/1942, he was mentioned in the British press almost daily. The Daily Express and The Cairns Post wrote: \\\"No 'von' nonsense about Erich, nor the code of conduct—such as it was—that most Prussian officers have honoured in war. He is a gangster general, trained in a harder school than Chicago. He was Hitler's thug organiser before he came to power ... So Erich became leader of the S.S. Black Guard, Hitler's private army, which executes his private revenges and guards his person ... When at last\",\n \"-32.08593056880636\"\n ],\n [\n \"Look Who's Back Plot In 2011, Adolf Hitler wakes up in a vacant lot in Berlin which appears to be the location of the garden outside the bunker where he was burned, with no knowledge of anything that happened following his death in 1945. Homeless and destitute, he interprets everything he sees and experiences in 2011 from a Nazi perspective — for instance, he assumes that Turks in Germany are an indicator of Karl Dönitz having persuaded Turkey to join the Axis, and thinks that Wikipedia is named for Wikinger (“Vikings”). Although everyone recognizes him, nobody believes that he is\",\n \"-32.061582959315274\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kurt Ludecke Kurt Ludecke (Berlin, 5 February 1890 – Prien am Chiemsee, 1960) was an ardent German nationalist and international traveler who joined the Nazi party in the early 1920s and who used his social connections to raise money for the NSDAP. Before attending a rally at which Adolf Hitler was a featured speaker, Ludecke had assumed that Hitler was simply \\\"one more fanatic\\\" but after hearing Hitler speak at a mass demonstration at the Konigsplatz in Munich, he had adopted Hitler as his hero: \\\"His appeal to German manhood was like a call to arms, the gospel he preached\",\n \"-32.05445596226491\"\n ],\n [\n \"his German counterparts\\\". \\nCoulondre described the Nazi leaders as he met them in hostile tones. Coulondre wrote that Hermann Göring was \\\"at once ridiculous and formidable\\\", Joachim von Ribbentrop was \\\"contemptible\\\", Rudolf Hess was as boring as he was stupid, Alfred Rosenberg was eccentric and weird, and Joseph Goebbels was \\\"ce petit diable boiteux\\\" (\\\"this lame little devil\\\"), adding that Goebbels's various mistresses were more interesting than he was. Coulondre wrote he had the impression that Baron Ernst von Weizsäcker, the State Secretary of the Auswärtiges Amt, did not want a war with France, but his relations with Weizsäcker were\",\n \"-32.0236486538779\"\n ],\n [\n \"his view that Hitler was a Marxist. He also participated in the conservative documentary The Soviet Story, where he uses the translation of Völkerabfälle as \\\"racial trash\\\". The film attracted criticism from a range of people including Latvian MEP Tatjana Ždanoka, Finnish political activist Johan Bäckman and Latvian MP Boris Tsilevitch. Alexander Dyukov has provided evidence that the film relies on falsified images to give an historically inaccurate account of the Soviet Union.\",\n \"-32.00392980547622\"\n ],\n [\n \"they were the only ones with a cultural presence and objects around whom German society's grand narrative was being built, thus Rommel was the only German general who would have been capable of challenging Hitler's rule, had he ever crossed the Rubicon from his \\\"apolitical-to-the-core\\\" military world and developed a serious, critical view of Hitler's political dealings. However, Rommel himself had fallen for Hitler's charisma almost until the end. Peter Lieb opines that the relationship between Rommel and Hitler is overrated - they liked each other but the relationship became worse and worse since the end of 1942 when Rommel\",\n \"-31.97272536548553\"\n ],\n [\n \"who also continued to admire Hitler.\",\n \"-31.939849076938117\"\n ],\n [\n \"Craig charged that it was simply wrong on the part of Irving to write that Hitler in October 1941 was in a state of pain over German losses on the Eastern Front with Hitler supposedly thinking \\\"What would be left of Germany and the flower of her manhood?\\\" As a way of rebuttal to this picture of Hitler, Craig quoted Hitler's remark later in 1941 when told of heavy German losses, \\\"But that's what the young people are there for!\\\". Like many other historians, Craig was critical of Irving using the \\\"no liquidation\\\" comment in Himmler's telephone logbook from 30\",\n \"-31.921744824911002\"\n ],\n [\n \"the smaller evil. Relationship with Hitler Before the war, Model had been content to leave politics to the politicians, preferring instead to concentrate on military affairs. Despite this, he became one of the Wehrmacht's field marshals most closely identified with Hitler. Postwar opinions on him have varied. Some historians have called him \\\"blindly loyal\\\", a \\\"convinced Nazi\\\" or a \\\"zealous disciple\\\" of Hitler; others take a more nuanced view, seeing in Model a coldly calculating opportunist who used the Führer to his advantage, whether or not he was committed to him or the ideals of Nazism. The contradictions between his\",\n \"-31.913634827826172\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the finish\\\".\\nHitler, according to Walter Langer had a Messiah complex and saw himself as the \\\"Saviour of Germany\\\" who performed \\\"miracles\\\" with the economy. He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a \\\"mother symbol\\\". His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe) was an unconscious attempt to resolve his Oedipus complex and the injustices of his childhood. He \\\"dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine\\\". He was swept along by a tide of events.\\nMussolini, according to Denis Mack Smith, \\\"was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted\",\n \"-31.86197199067101\"\n ],\n [\n \"a one sentence introduction, he tells his faithful Nazis how the German nation has subordinated itself to the Nazi Party because its leaders are mostly of Germans. He promises that the new state that the Nazis have created will endure for thousands of years. Hitler says that the youth will carry on after the old have weakened. They close with a chant, \\\"Hitler is the Party, Hitler.\\\" The camera focuses on the large Swastika above Hitler and the film ends with the images of this Swastika imposed on Nazis marching in a few columns. His speech brought attention to the\",\n \"-31.855153236130718\"\n ],\n [\n \"going back to the days of the Germanic tribes. He was an early champion of what has since been called the Sonderweg (Special Way) interpretation of German history, that German culture and society developed over the centuries in such a way as to make Nazi Germany inevitable. Moreover, he argued that there was a symbiotic relationship between Hitler and the German people, with Adolf Hitler needing the Germans to fulfil his dreams of conquest and the German people needing Hitler to fulfil their dreams of subjugation of their neighbours. In particular, he accused the Germans of waging an endless Drang\",\n \"-31.852582391904434\"\n ],\n [\n \"Homburg, and the other was that in Oberursel he met up with a school teacher whom he identified, in the context of the times, as a Nazi. That may have been less than a total explanation, but it does appear that he could see no long term future for himself in the west. On 21 October 1962 he crossed into the German Democratic Republic at the Wartha border crossing near Eisenach. As he had anticipated, the East German officials were unsure of how to deal with him. He was not a typical disillusioned westerner seeking a new life in\",\n \"-31.84897918754723\"\n ],\n [\n \"strongest power. They differed only on the precise strategy and tactics to be employed. Tresnak ended his review by remarking: \\\"He has tears a plenty for torn and defeated Germany, but not a word of sympathy for the millions of murdered Jews, Poles, Yugoslavs, Czechs, and the rest.... After reading Herr von Dirksen's book, one cannot help feeling that he, and perhaps other Germans as well, condemn Hitler chiefly on the grounds that he did not win the war–though sometimes they act as they are not aware that he lost it\\\".\\nIn a review, American political scientist Joseph Schectman noted that\",\n \"-31.827931823649124\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hitler; instead, they think he is either a comedian or a method actor. He appears on a variety television show called Whoa, dude!, going off-script to broadcast his views. Videos of his angry rants become hugely successful on YouTube, and he achieves modern celebrity status as a performer. The newspaper Bild tries to take him down, but is sued into praising him. He is beaten up by far-right extremists who think he is mocking the memory of Hitler, unaware that he is the genuine article. In the end, he uses his popularity to re-enter politics. Publication The book was priced\",\n \"-31.826408622713643\"\n ],\n [\n \"leader Hitler met other than Mussolini ever received such consistently favorable comments from the German dictator. Hitler even mustered the patience to listen to Antonescu's lengthy disquisitions on the glorious history of Romania and the perfidy of the Hungarians—a curious reversal for a man who was more accustomed to regaling visitors with tirades of his own.\\\" In later statements, Hitler offered praise to Antonescu's \\\"breadth of vision\\\" and \\\"real personality.\\\" A remarkable aspect of the Hitler-Antonescu friendship was neither could speak others' language. Hitler only knew German while the only foreign language Antonescu knew was French, in which he was\",\n \"-31.786903382046148\"\n ],\n [\n \"consummate actor.... Toward the end, he was less the leader, Der Führer, than a man flinging from reality as it advanced itself.... As I look back at those long briefing sessions, it strikes me that Hitler was hopelessly engulfed in the grandeur of his mission, a sense that was now disintegrating into self-pity. When the goddess Nemesis began to avenge his hubris, he lost his nerve.\\nO'Donnell referred to Hewel as a man who had a front row seat to history, but who lacked the intelligence and perspective to realize it.\",\n \"-31.77665991777758\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hitler Umanath Plot A mild-mannered and timid man causes amusement when he comes to work in a business — because of his resemblance to Adolf Hitler. Soon, however, he finds himself growing into a more forceful and dynamic person, becoming a charismatic leader and a successful businessman as his wife teaches him more and more about Hitler's charismatic personality and leadership abilities. In the end, once he finds out about Hitler's evil deeds, he regrets emulating such an evil person.\",\n \"-31.765819688898773\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Have you no German sense of honour left at all?\\\" When asked by a comrade if he had ever loved a girl, Hitler replied \\\"I've never had time for anything like that, and I'll never get round to it.\\\" Relationships with women Hitler created a public image of a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation. He considered himself to be attractive to women, partly because of his position of power. Speer recalled him stating a preference for unintelligent women who would not challenge him about his work or prevent him from\",\n \"-31.740529093309306\"\n ],\n [\n \"with a high-pitched voice and frequent hand movements, make his character somewhat reminiscent of Adolf Hitler. Raised in Berlin he is a dedicated fan of Hertha BSC, which makes life somewhat hard in the Ruhr area.\\nAlfred is married (afflicted) with Else, a housewife from Elmshorn, whose fatuity constantly drives him mad. She ceaselessly speaks up, confusing Pompidou with Pompadour and Kiesinger with Kissinger, honestly astonished that the Germans had elected a Jewish chancellor. (In this sense, although the German Else was named after the British version of the character, the quiet but sometimes snarky Else Garnett, the character more closely\",\n \"-31.73342735308688\"\n ],\n [\n \"which the prince privately said to his aide-de-camp Masaharu Homma: \\\"Hitler is an actor, it will be difficult to trust him\\\". Nevertheless, he remained convinced that the future of Japan was linked to Nazi Germany and in 1938 and 1939, he had many quarrels with the Emperor about the opportunity to join a military alliance with Germany against Great Britain and the United States.\\nPrince Chichibu Yasuhito was subsequently appointed battalion commander of Thirty-First Infantry Regiment in August 1937, promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1938 and to colonel in August 1939. During the war, he was involved in combat operations,\",\n \"-31.701239446294494\"\n ],\n [\n \"National Socialist band. Rob Darken has openly glorified Adolf Hitler in interviews, one of several quotes from \\\"Brangolf magazine\\\" being: \\\"Undoubtedly, the most striking personality of Europe was Adolf Hitler. What he tried to build deserves the greatest respect. They [the Nazis] realized the value of pure Aryan Europe. Hitler embodied the idea of an Empire of White People. Hitler discovered and realized the true destiny hidden in the blood of white people. The proud Aryan ancestors always went the way of the gods.\\\" \\nDarken has said he rejects the Nazi label in english language interviews, and told Decibel magazine:\",\n \"-31.690301173167427\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hitler's rise to power firsthand, and fled to exile when he realized that he was a target of the regime. (He managed to escape the Gestapo). In his introduction Heiden wrote \\\"the 'hero' of this book is neither a superman nor a puppet. He is a very interesting contemporary and, viewed quantitatively, a man who is stirred up the masses more than anyone else in human history.\\\" Heiden was successful in analyzing Hitler as an orator, how he drew strength from his audience, learning which points to emphasize to maximize his impact. Hitler realized it was emotion, not rationality,\",\n \"-31.68824781019066\"\n ],\n [\n \"particularly from the Left, who were amongst many targets of his criticism in that book. In later essays, although he never presented himself as a conservative or sympathizer with German nationalism, his comments began to scandalize a broad spectrum of writers and critics in Germany and elsewhere. Even Susan Sontag, who had written the introduction to the English translation of the book version of Hitler: A Film from Germany, was reportedly shocked by some of his later statements, though she claimed that her feelings about his films were unaffected.\\nIn one notorious example Syberberg wrote in Vom Unglück und Glück der\",\n \"-31.6797363179503\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the Nazi ideals and idolising Hitler; Germany's defeat and Hitler's suicide in 1945 did not temper his enthusiasm for the Nazi cause. He held a series of menial jobs until 1957, when a warrant was issued for his arrest in connection with the theft of a microphone from the Löbau Youth Club. He fled to Stuttgart, West Germany, and soon drifted into temporary work and petty crime. After running a dance bar during the early 1960s with his girlfriend, Edith Lieblang—whom he later married—Kujau began to create a fictional background for himself. He told people that his real name\",\n \"-31.663616742531303\"\n ],\n [\n \"Adolf Hitler moved to Liverpool with her, remaining from November 1912 to April 1913, in order to dodge conscription in Austria. The book is largely considered by Hitler's biographers to be a work of fiction. At the time, Adolf was residing in the Meldemannstraße dormitory.\\nIn 1914, Alois left Bridget and their son for a gambling tour of Europe. He later returned to Germany. Unable to reconnect with them due to the outbreak of World War I, Alois abandoned the family, leaving William to be brought up by his mother. He remarried bigamously, but in the mid-1920s he wrote to Bridget\",\n \"-31.6581125301891\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Joachim von Ribbentrop. In 1935 he visited Germany again in his boat “Mayflower”. In May 1935 Adolf Hitler made a well publicised speech in which he proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace. That month Mottistone told the House of Lords that \\\"we ought to assume that it is genuine and sincere...I have had many interviews with Herr Hitler. I think the noble Lord and all the people who have really met this remarkable man will agree with me on one thing, however much we may disagree about other things—that he is absolutely truthful, sincere, and\",\n \"-31.657329108944396\"\n ],\n [\n \"Germany.\\nHegemann saw the rise of Hitler in Germany as emerging from a historical context of Germans celebrating, idealizing, and submitting to strong men. He criticized a century or more of \\\"craving for submission\\\" by German professors, bureaucrats and professionals, and observed that if Hitler ever decided to stop enslaving the nation, he would be \\\"overwhelmed by an irresistible rush into ever deeper submission\\\" by those with \\\"collusive attitudes toward war-hungry German nationalism.\\\" Similarly, in 1934 Hegemann viewed the persecution of Jews in Germany as \\\"in conformity with Old Prussian tradition\\\" of antisemitism, and as consistent with the German\",\n \"-31.636211268254556\"\n ],\n [\n \"discovers to his dismay that not all members of Hitler Youth have such high moral values as he had thought. They call him Quex, originally as an insult.\\nThe Hitler Youth leader takes care not to send Heini to the district where the communists live, but they find out where he is staying, and Stoppel seeks him out on the street, and tries to convince him to return to the communisits. Heini refuses, and Stoppel warns him not to return to the communist district. One day, one of the Hitler Youth is beated up by the communists while throwing\",\n \"-31.6067287902697\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nazi newspapers named him as the Jewish community's secular leader in Norway. In 1934 he wrote that \\\"the new Germany lives in a martial psychosis, specializing in child-rearing for war, and military technique...children are taught from the cradle to hate all foreign peoples and to kill them at the order to do so.\\\" In 1934 he also predicted a devastating world war, was unimpressed by the non-aggression treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union. He sent telegrams to world leaders, including Roosevelt, Hindenburg, and Chamberlain, imploring them to intervene on behalf of German Jews. In 1939 he demanded that Norway\",\n \"-31.598761560278945\"\n ],\n [\n \"Aufbau Vereinigung and met with Adolf Hitler through the agency of Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter. He participated in Hitler's failed Beer Hall Putsch on 9 November 1923, after which their relationship deteriorated increasingly. While Ludendorff despised the former 'corporal', he nevertheless backed the National Socialist Freedom Movement and ran for the Nazi Party in the 1925 Presidential election against his former Oberste Heeresleitung colleague Paul von Hindenburg.\\nHitler feared the possibility of Ludendorff as a potential leadership rival and rejoiced in the General's derisory election result, telling Hermann Esser \\\"now we've finally finished him\\\". With his credibility severely damaged by the\",\n \"-31.581474628070282\"\n ],\n [\n \"voicing his belief in Hitler and his mission from God to punish all people and countries which have strayed from the path of decency. He denounced the leaders of many of the countries Germany had defeated as cowards, due to the fact that they fled to England and elsewhere rather than stayed or died with their people and soldiers. A short recording of part of this speech has been preserved.\\nHe also spent six weeks with a Swabian mountain division (German:Gebirgsjäger) in the Donetsk region.\\nHe was promoted to SS-Obergruppenführer on 1 August 1944.\\nWith the worsening war situation, Wahl and the Gau\",\n \"-31.574703403399326\"\n ],\n [\n \"Europe until his return to the Republic of China during the later years of World War II.\\nAdolf Hitler had supported the Empire of Japan as early as 1904, when during the Russo-Japanese War it had defeated the Russians, which he considered a defeat for Austrian Slavism. He made a number of other statements expressing his respect and admiration for the Japanese in his book Mein Kampf.\\nAlthough of a different evolutionary race, the Han Chinese and Imperial Japanese were considered by Nazi ideologists such as Himmler as having sufficiently superior qualities as did German-Nordic blood to warrant an alliance. Himmler, who\",\n \"-31.57267763148411\"\n ],\n [\n \"warned Hitler that Ribbentrop was a \\\"stupid ass\\\". Hitler dismissed Göring's concerns: \\\"[b]ut after all, he knows quite a lot of important people in England.\\\" This remark led Göring to reply \\\"Mein Führer, that may be right, but the bad thing is, they know him.\\\"\\nIn February 1937, Ribbentrop committed a notable social gaffe by unexpectedly greeting King George VI with the \\\"German greeting\\\", a stiff-armed Nazi salute: the gesture nearly knocked over the king, who was walking forward to shake Ribbentrop's hand at the time. Ribbentrop further compounded the damage to his image and caused a minor crisis in Anglo-German\",\n \"-31.560434603743488\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hitler's humanity. Another event, in which he spoke to Hitler Youth in what was defined as an \\\"inappropriate way,\\\" earned him the nickname of \\\"Hitler Youth Dönitz.\\\" He refused to help Albert Speer stop the scorched earth policy dictated by Hitler and is also noted to have declared, \\\"In comparison to Hitler we are all pipsqueaks. Anyone who believes he can do better than the Führer is stupid.\\\"\\nDönitz contributed to the spread of Nazism within the Kriegsmarine. He insisted that officers share his political views and, as head of the Kriegsmarine, formally joined the Nazi Party in 1944. He was\",\n \"-31.520906324323732\"\n ],\n [\n \"in London. The British historian/television producer Laurence Rees noted for his 1997 series The Nazis: A Warning from History that every single person interviewed for the series who knew Ribbentrop expressed a passionate hatred for him. One German diplomat, Herbert Richter, called Ribbentrop \\\"lazy and worthless\\\", while another, Manfred von Schröder, was quoted as saying Ribbentrop was \\\"vain and ambitious\\\". Rees concluded that \\\"No other Nazi was so hated by his colleagues\\\".\\nIn November 1937, Ribbentrop was placed in a highly embarrassing situation, when his forceful advocacy of the return of the former German colonies led the British Foreign Secretary Anthony\",\n \"-31.494559806771576\"\n ],\n [\n \"assumption that readers would agree that Hitler deserved mockery as \\\"surprisingly naive\\\".\\nIn The Sydney Morning Herald, reviewer Jason Steger interviewed the book's author, who believes that the way Hitler is seen today \\\"is one that hasn't too much to do with the real one\\\". \\\"Most people wouldn't think it possible that if they would have lived back then they would have thought he was in some way attractive too,\\\" he said.\",\n \"-31.476559572154656\"\n ],\n [\n \"had \\\"seen something that he was not allowed to describe and indeed could not describe.\\\" Government service Adolf Hitler took an early liking to the outspoken young Hanke, who by April 1932 had become an NSDAP delegate to Prussian State Parliament (Landtag). Later in November 1932, Hanke was elected to the German Parliament (Reichstag) on the slate of the NSDAP, representing Potsdam. He held this seat until the end of the war in Europe.\\nHanke again secured a task for Albert Speer in July 1932, having him build a headquarters for the Berlin NSDAP in the centre of the city (at\",\n \"-31.472342380067857\"\n ],\n [\n \"most frequently referred to as ‘Nazis’, ‘Germans’ and ‘fascists’. Individuals commonly named include Hitler, Himmler, Heydrich, Höss and Eichmann. Most striking is the extent to which Hitlercentrism pervades textbook narratives of the Holocaust, with Hitler functioning as a moral repository for the event, as embodied in portraits of Hitler, excerpts from Mein Kampf and the attribution of sole responsibility to Hitler in such phrases, found in Russian textbooks, as ‘Hitlerian aggression’ or the ‘policy of Hitler-Germany’. By contrast, textbooks in France and Germany generally marginalize the role of Hitler in favour of an explanation of the event as a result\",\n \"-31.46537923147389\"\n ],\n [\n \"(Молох) is a 1999 Russian biographical drama film directed by Alexander Sokurov. It portrays Adolf Hitler as a humanized figure, living life in an unassuming manner during an abrupt journey to the Bavarian Alps.\",\n \"-31.425302101764828\"\n ],\n [\n \"the group ideal as embodied in the leader the need for a strong chief.\\\"\\nThe mainstream analyses of the Nazi phenomenon have primarily targeted Adolf Hitler’s person, character and biography and only to a limited degree the character of the masses that followed him and the interaction between Hitler and the masses. In contrast, Lothane studied the mass psychology of Nazism by linking ideas from Freud to Wilhelm Reich's 1933 Mass Psychology of Fascism to illuminate the rise of Nazi tyranny, the persecution of German-Jewish doctors, psychiatrists and psychoanalysts, and the Holocaust. Lothane has also noted implication of his analysis of\",\n \"-31.40045736322645\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Kleindeutschland was the \\\"highest achievement\\\" Bismarck could have achieved \\\"within the limits possible at that time\\\". In Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler presented himself as a \\\"second Bismarck\\\".\\nDuring his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically influenced by Austrian Pan-Germanist proponent Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated radical German nationalism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Slavic sentiment and anti-Habsburg views. From von Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the Heil greeting, the Führer title and the model of absolute party leadership. Hitler was also impressed by the populist antisemitism and the anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as\",\n \"-31.394833110505715\"\n ],\n [\n \"incompatible with the picture I always had of him\\\", but did not quote the next sentence where Ribbentrop wrote: \\\"On the other hand, judging from his [Hitler's] last will, one must suppose that he at least knew about it, if, in his fanaticism against the Jews, he didn't also order it\\\". Finally, Sydnor argued that Irving's account of the final days of Hitler appeared to comprise little more than a rehashing of Hugh Trevor-Roper's 1947 book, The Last Days of Hitler, only with Hitler as an object of sympathy, rather than scorn. Lucy Dawidowicz In her 1981 book The Holocaust\",\n \"-31.377156259666663\"\n ],\n [\n \"ruthlessly satirised. Brecht, who was German but left when the Nazis came to power, also expressed his opposition to the National Socialist and Fascist movements in other plays such as Mother Courage and Fear and Misery of the Third Reich.\\nOutside Germany, Hitler was made fun of or depicted as a maniac. There are many notable examples in contemporary Hollywood films. Several Three Stooges shorts, the first being You Nazty Spy! (1940), the very first Hollywood work lampooning Hitler and the Nazis in which the boys, with Moe Howard portraying \\\"Moe Hailstone\\\", as the Hitler character, are made dictators of the\",\n \"-31.348218208469916\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hero Hitler in Love Synopsis Hero Hitler in Love revolves around the life of a man called Hitler who lives in his village, Ishqpura. Hitler is a man with unique and different thoughts, who loves his fellow villagers and helps soul-mates come together. Hitler falls in love with Sahiban, who lives in Pakistan and decides to bring her to his village. Hitler believes in solving problems by talking about them, but when something crosses the line, he loses it. The film also revolves around car racing. Hitler loves to race, but when he is set up to fail in the\",\n \"-31.329439459892455\"\n ],\n [\n \"He tells several stories about Hitler's anti-Semitic behavior at this time, including a story that he tormented one Polish Jew with stink bugs and by giving children \\\"Aryan chocolate\\\" to induce them to torment their Jewish playmate as a \\\"filthy Jew\\\". Greiner also claims that at one point Hitler attempted to rape one of his models (although Hitler in fact never painted people during his time in Vienna). He also claims that Hitler contracted syphilis from a Leopoldstadt prostitute. He also claimed that in 1945, Hitler did not commit suicide, but instead fled from Berlin in an airplane.\\nGreiner's claims to\",\n \"-31.316485584786278\"\n ],\n [\n \"been anti-semitic, in 1970 Carmichael proclaimed: \\\"I have never admired a white man, but the greatest of them, to my mind, was Hitler.\\\" However, Carmichael in the same speech condemned Hitler on moral grounds, Carmichael himself stating:\\nAdolph Hitler—I'm not putting a judgment on what he did—if you asked me for my judgment morally, I would say it was bad, what he did was wrong, was evil, etc. But I would say he was a genius, nevertheless . . . . You say he's not a genius because he committed bad acts. That's not the question. The question is, he does\",\n \"-31.31101413158467\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Linz, the same high school Adolf Hitler had attended some 17 years before. He played the violin and participated in sports and clubs, including a Wandervogel woodcraft and scouting group that included some older boys who were members of various right-wing militias. His poor school performance resulted in his father's withdrawing him from the Realschule and enrolling him in the Höhere Bundeslehranstalt für Elektrotechnik, Maschinenbau und Hochbau vocational college. He left without attaining a degree and joined his father's new enterprise, the Untersberg Mining Company, where he worked for several months. From 1925 to 1927 he worked as a\",\n \"-31.305286649730988\"\n ],\n [\n \"office. He later recorded,\\nOf course, from these few experiences, I cannot judge Hitler's personality, but having shared with Speer his virtually daily contacts with him, and being familiar with Hitler's ideas, for example, on town planning, I think that commentators are making it easy for themselves now when, as they frequently do, they resort in their descriptions to simplistic epitaphs such as \\\"buck private\\\", \\\"wall painter\\\", \\\"petit-bourgeois philistine\\\", or \\\"history's greatest criminal\\\".\\nWolters' longtime secretary, Marion Riesser, was half-Jewish, and Wolters protected her throughout the war. In late 1944, word reached them that those with Jewish ancestry who remained\",\n \"-31.304716639035178\"\n ],\n [\n \"many periodicals, books, and movies, Hitler and Nazism fulfill the role of archetypal evil. This treatment is not confined to fiction but is widespread amongst nonfiction writers who have discussed him in this vein. Hitler has retained a fascination from other perspectives; among many comparable examples is an exhibition at the German Historical Museum which was widely attended. Representations of Hitler during his lifetime Numerous works in popular music and literature feature Adolf Hitler prominently.\\nIn Germany, before he came to power, Hitler was often portrayed satirically in newspaper cartoons and propaganda by political enemies. The photomontagist John Heartfield regularly depicted\",\n \"-31.29446722078137\"\n ],\n [\n \"reproduce what [Hitler] said. It must be experienced. He is a genius. The natural, creative instrument of a fate determined by God. I am deeply moved.\\\".\\nHitler became Chancellor in January 1933 and appointed Goebbels Propaganda Minister. Goebbels then published an edited version of his diaries for the period of Hitler's rise to power in book form, under the title Vom Kaiserhof zur Reichskanzlei: Eine historische Darstellung in Tagebuchblattern (From the Kaiserhof to the Reich Chancellery: a Historical Diary). The Kaiserhof was a Berlin hotel where Hitler stayed before he came to power. Goebbels's book was later published in English as\",\n \"-31.251494611380622\"\n ],\n [\n \"Richthofen subscribed to the Hitler myth—that the Nazi leader was a genius, who would revitalise Germany. Richthofen's diary—which survived the war—has many examples of conversations with fellow officers in which he expresses his confidence in Hitler. After one briefing, in the summer, 1943, Richthofen praised Hitler's \\\"brilliant grasp\\\" of military strategy, and blamed the \\\"idiotic\\\" Alfred Jodl and Wilhelm Keitel for the failures of the Wehrmacht. Richthofen's biographer observed that he did not appear to question why a genius surrounded himself with incompetents and \\\"yes men\\\".\\nRichthofen and Hitler maintained their harmonious relationship largely because they never worked closely together. Hitler,\",\n \"-31.246005163760856\"\n ],\n [\n \"is portrayed as a disorderly gang devoted primarily to alcohol, tobacco and sex. In contrast, the Nazi youth (Hitlerjugend, \\\"Hitler Youth\\\") is portrayed as an orderly organisation, superior in morals. Schenzinger lets Heini Völker's father force his son to attend a camping weekend organised by a communist youth group, North Star Moabit. Heini is disgusted and flees the camp, only to encounter a Hitler Youth group in the woods. Deeply impressed, and in an atmosphere of nationalistic pathos, Heini learns of the Nazi movement, Führerprinzip (\\\"leader principle\\\"), comradeship and Volksgemeinschaft (\\\"the people's community\\\"). On \\\"the happiest day of his life\\\",\",\n \"-31.213775927957613\"\n ],\n [\n \"(Brigitte) and Hitler are played by one and the same person. Having thus dealt with his father, Niklas Frank entirely concentrated on his mother, the once 'Queen of Poland', in his book \\\"My German Mother\\\" (2005), which reads in part like a brilliant satire of high-ranking Nazi women. He concluded his trilogy with \\\"Brother Norman!\\\" (2013), reporting the painful discussions with his eldest and favorite brother, who had died three years before, on their diverging views of a youth spent in occupied Poland and on filial love. Appearances in documentaries Niklas Frank appears as himself in the 1993 television\",\n \"-31.205365175148472\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Norwich.\\nBefore the Second World War he was an avowed admirer of Hitler and attended a conference in the summer of 1939 in Berlin organised by the Anglo German Brotherhood.\\nHowever, as Julia Boyd observes in her book Travelling in The Third Reich,”his enthusiasm for Nazi Germany did nothing to damage his career.”\",\n \"-31.190510897446075\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kubizek later described the scene:\\n\\\"Never again did I see Adolf as happy as he was at that moment. When the carriage had passed he dragged me aside and with emotion he gazed at the flower, this visible pledge of her love. I can still hear his voice, trembling with excitement, 'She loves me!' \\\"\\nAfter Hitler's mother died of breast cancer in 1907, the funeral procession went through Urfahr to Leonding. Kubizek remarks that Hitler said he had seen Stefanie at the funeral procession, which gave him some consolation. Kubizek claims that \\\"Stefanie had no idea how deeply Adolf was in\",\n \"-31.184631079202518\"\n ],\n [\n \"considered his father something of a hero, having served under him in World War I. He tried to draw him into the plot to rid Germany of Hitler, but although Rommel gave his backing to the conspiracy he did not agree that he should be killed.\\nOn 26 July 1944, Hofacker was arrested in Paris, taken to Berlin Gestapo headquarters where, according to William Shirer in \\\"The Rise and Fall of the 3rd Reich\\\", he was horrifically tortured and gave up the name of Erwin Rommel stating that Rommel said to \\\"Tell the people in Berlin they can count on\",\n \"-31.181639884016477\"\n ],\n [\n \"American psychologist Glenn D. Walters wrote in 2000: \\\"Much of the debate about Hitler's long-term mental health is probably questionable, because even if he had suffered from significant psychiatric problems, he attained the supreme power in Germany rather in spite of these difficulties than through them.\\\" Erik H. Erikson (1950) The psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist Erik Erikson gave Adolf Hitler a chapter in his 1950 book, Childhood and Society. Erikson referred to Hitler as an \\\"histrionic and hysterical adventurer\\\" and believed there was evidence of an undissolved Oedipus complex in his self-portrayals. Nonetheless, he believed that Hitler was such an\",\n \"-31.176261587330373\"\n ],\n [\n \"morning that he is Adolf Hitler. Texas Groove metal band Pantera wrote and recorded a song called \\\"By Demons Be Driven\\\". It tells the story of how Hitler was plagued by paranoia and began to hate the Jewish people and religion. Australian band TISM's debut single was \\\"Defecate on My Face\\\", which was about Adolf Hitler's supposed coprophilia. Australian comedy troupe the Doug Anthony Allstars had a song called \\\"Mexican Hitler\\\", which told the story of what Hitler would have been like if he was born Mexican. It made an appearance in their television show, DAAS Kapital.\\nThe song \\\"Hitler as\",\n \"-31.169626477800193\"\n ],\n [\n \"said he sees Nazism as a mental restriction and that he had no fascist ideas because he was a supporter of the Kriegsgräberfürsorge, a German organization caring for graves of soldiers similar to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, and the MIA International.\",\n \"-31.1520032081753\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":297,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"5a8vh9"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is eczema and why is it only in small areas of skin only? Why do only certain people get it?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["I have eczema and my husband is a dermatologist. I have made him explain eczema to me multiple times. This is what I have learned. Eczema (atopic dermatitis) is a skin barrier function problem. The skin is supposed to keep stuff out- think of a slice of cheddar cheese. People withe eczema are born with skin like Swiss cheese. Stuff gets in more easily and moisture gets out more easily than normal skin. Because things get into the skin, the immune system responds to them as foreign objects- you get inflammation that makes you itch. You scratch the itchy spot and you get more skin breakdown from the trauma. Often the eczema patches are areas of friction- elbows and knees. Eczema treatments revolve around moisturizing to add a layer of protection from allergens getting in. Or topical steroids that decrease inflammation. I get UVB phototherapy. It kills immune system cells (lymphocytes) in the skin surface. The allergens still get into my skin but I have less lymphocytes to catch the allergens and cause inflammation which decreases the amount of itching that I have. The only way to permanently cure eczema would be to permanently improve skin barrier function. Since it is a genetic problem, some researchers are working on gene therapy trials that would change the skin cells to work correctly. The reason many childhood eczema sufferers improve is that skin naturally thickens as you become an adult and it overwhelms the problem. Some people aren't so lucky. Also, people with eczema are more likely to have asthma (allergens get into the skin first and you develop an immune sensitization to the allergen. When you breathe in the same allergen your body sees it as something to fight so you get inflammation and bronchorestriction in the lungs - this is asthma). If you could fix the skin at birth, you would not get the allergens getting into the skin. There would be no inflammation and no itch. We can't do that yet do we target inflammation with immune suppressing drugs like tacrolimus or topical steroids. Moisturizer helps too by improving skin barrier. Right now I have eczema on my eyelids (thin skin), left wrist (friction from watch), hands (loss of natural oils from washing my hands all of the time), both inner elbows and back of knees (areas of friction) and armpits (from clothes rubbing against my skin).","The tendency to have eczema goes along with a tendency to have allergies and asthma as well. If you don't have all three of the triad, you're lucky. Eczema tends run in families and is likely to come and go throughout your lifetime. During early childhood, the rashes show up often on the insides of the elbows and the back of the knees. They can be on the neck as well. They may return later and affect a different part of the body. Hands and feet are another common location for rashes. I was told that it is actually a dry skin condition, so moisturizing with good stuff like Eucerin and Cetafil lotion can help. In my experience, I stopped having eczema symptoms after my mid 20s. They problem was terrible with my fingers during my time in food service age 18-20, but later, it went away and I haven't been bothered by it for many years. I have severe allergies though that have gotten worse over the years including bouts of angioedema (swelling).","The short answer is, it's autoimmune in nature but no one knows much about it other than that there's some genetic element that isn't understood. Or in other words, the body is fighting itself and no one knows why. I have \"atypical\" eczema: it's not associated with allergens, not associated with asthma, and doesn't itch. For added confusion, it usually improves on exposure to salt water.","I recommend checking out the info available on the National Eczema Association's web page. There are many types of eczema and different treatments. URL_0 ","If you're interested in learning more, check out /r/eczema it's a community of people who deal with eczema every day. Also National Eczema Association","I have chronic eczema all over my body and have been told the skin is extra dry and sensitive. Since it's hereditary (or so I've been told) my family concluded that I got it from my dad, who has psoriasis. I use prescription meds which include strong cortizon. I also use fragrance free shower products. Anything else result in breakouts. My skin reactions can range from getting rashes on hands and feet during the summer, scratching my face or body till it bleeds, getting big red spots on my arms covered in a liquid fluid in the winter, to just simply scratching any place until it turns red. I scratch all through the day and usually use something like a guitar pic :)","Eczema (technically called atopic dermatitis) is basically having skin that's really reactive to all sorts of irritations. Things that most people don't even notice will result in a rash when people with eczema are exposed to them. So I get patchy rashes when the air is dry or if I wear wet clothes for too long. My sister gets rashes when she wears wool or if she's in a house with a cat. Eczema also results in unusually dry skin. I go through 3ish large bottles of Aveeno by myself every winter.","Eczema is causes by a skin barrier defect which allows micro-organisms to infect and inflame the skin. But it's a problem that cascades from from initial gut problems and food allergies which promote inflammation and immune reactions. Eczema breakouts tend to occur where the lymph nodes are concentrated. URL_0 ","Just as an addendum to what other people are saying, it does not only occur in small areas of skin. That's how most people have it, but some people, like myself, basically have it on every inch of the body. It ain't fun."],"string":"[\n \"I have eczema and my husband is a dermatologist. I have made him explain eczema to me multiple times. This is what I have learned. Eczema (atopic dermatitis) is a skin barrier function problem. The skin is supposed to keep stuff out- think of a slice of cheddar cheese. People withe eczema are born with skin like Swiss cheese. Stuff gets in more easily and moisture gets out more easily than normal skin. Because things get into the skin, the immune system responds to them as foreign objects- you get inflammation that makes you itch. You scratch the itchy spot and you get more skin breakdown from the trauma. Often the eczema patches are areas of friction- elbows and knees. Eczema treatments revolve around moisturizing to add a layer of protection from allergens getting in. Or topical steroids that decrease inflammation. I get UVB phototherapy. It kills immune system cells (lymphocytes) in the skin surface. The allergens still get into my skin but I have less lymphocytes to catch the allergens and cause inflammation which decreases the amount of itching that I have. The only way to permanently cure eczema would be to permanently improve skin barrier function. Since it is a genetic problem, some researchers are working on gene therapy trials that would change the skin cells to work correctly. The reason many childhood eczema sufferers improve is that skin naturally thickens as you become an adult and it overwhelms the problem. Some people aren't so lucky. Also, people with eczema are more likely to have asthma (allergens get into the skin first and you develop an immune sensitization to the allergen. When you breathe in the same allergen your body sees it as something to fight so you get inflammation and bronchorestriction in the lungs - this is asthma). If you could fix the skin at birth, you would not get the allergens getting into the skin. There would be no inflammation and no itch. We can't do that yet do we target inflammation with immune suppressing drugs like tacrolimus or topical steroids. Moisturizer helps too by improving skin barrier. Right now I have eczema on my eyelids (thin skin), left wrist (friction from watch), hands (loss of natural oils from washing my hands all of the time), both inner elbows and back of knees (areas of friction) and armpits (from clothes rubbing against my skin).\",\n \"The tendency to have eczema goes along with a tendency to have allergies and asthma as well. If you don't have all three of the triad, you're lucky. Eczema tends run in families and is likely to come and go throughout your lifetime. During early childhood, the rashes show up often on the insides of the elbows and the back of the knees. They can be on the neck as well. They may return later and affect a different part of the body. Hands and feet are another common location for rashes. I was told that it is actually a dry skin condition, so moisturizing with good stuff like Eucerin and Cetafil lotion can help. In my experience, I stopped having eczema symptoms after my mid 20s. They problem was terrible with my fingers during my time in food service age 18-20, but later, it went away and I haven't been bothered by it for many years. I have severe allergies though that have gotten worse over the years including bouts of angioedema (swelling).\",\n \"The short answer is, it's autoimmune in nature but no one knows much about it other than that there's some genetic element that isn't understood. Or in other words, the body is fighting itself and no one knows why. I have \\\"atypical\\\" eczema: it's not associated with allergens, not associated with asthma, and doesn't itch. For added confusion, it usually improves on exposure to salt water.\",\n \"I recommend checking out the info available on the National Eczema Association's web page. There are many types of eczema and different treatments. URL_0 \",\n \"If you're interested in learning more, check out /r/eczema it's a community of people who deal with eczema every day. Also National Eczema Association\",\n \"I have chronic eczema all over my body and have been told the skin is extra dry and sensitive. Since it's hereditary (or so I've been told) my family concluded that I got it from my dad, who has psoriasis. I use prescription meds which include strong cortizon. I also use fragrance free shower products. Anything else result in breakouts. My skin reactions can range from getting rashes on hands and feet during the summer, scratching my face or body till it bleeds, getting big red spots on my arms covered in a liquid fluid in the winter, to just simply scratching any place until it turns red. I scratch all through the day and usually use something like a guitar pic :)\",\n \"Eczema (technically called atopic dermatitis) is basically having skin that's really reactive to all sorts of irritations. Things that most people don't even notice will result in a rash when people with eczema are exposed to them. So I get patchy rashes when the air is dry or if I wear wet clothes for too long. My sister gets rashes when she wears wool or if she's in a house with a cat. Eczema also results in unusually dry skin. I go through 3ish large bottles of Aveeno by myself every winter.\",\n \"Eczema is causes by a skin barrier defect which allows micro-organisms to infect and inflame the skin. But it's a problem that cascades from from initial gut problems and food allergies which promote inflammation and immune reactions. Eczema breakouts tend to occur where the lymph nodes are concentrated. URL_0 \",\n \"Just as an addendum to what other people are saying, it does not only occur in small areas of skin. That's how most people have it, but some people, like myself, basically have it on every inch of the body. It ain't fun.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["common in people with eczema because their skin is more sensitive to irritants. Other conditions possibly associated include plasma cell gingivitis, Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome, or sideropenic dysphagia (also called Plummer-Vinson syndrome or Paterson-Brown-Kelly syndrome). Drugs Several drugs may cause AC as a side effect, by various mechanisms, such as creating drug-induced xerostomia. Various examples include isotretinoin, indinavir, and sorafenib. Isotretinoin (Accutane), an analog of vitamin A, is a medication which dries the skin. Less commonly, angular cheilitis is associated with primary hypervitaminosis A, which can occur when large amounts of liver (including cod liver oil and other fish oils) are regularly","-31.014055597086553"],["was historically known as chlorosis or green sickness for the distinct skin tinge sometimes present in patients, in addition to more general symptoms such as a lack of energy, shortness of breath, dyspepsia, headaches, a capricious or scanty appetite and amenorrhea. Acquired forms Hypochromic anemia may be caused by vitamin B6 deficiency from a low iron intake, diminished iron absorption, or excessive iron loss. It can also be caused by infections (e.g. hookworms) or other diseases (i.e. anemia of chronic disease), therapeutic drugs, copper toxicity, and lead poisoning. One acquired form of anemia is also known as Faber's syndrome. It","-28.354029261157848"],["contact dermatitis. Classification The term \"eczema\" refers to a set of clinical characteristics. Classification of the underlying diseases has been haphazard with numerous different classification systems, and many synonyms being used to describe the same condition.\nA type of dermatitis may be described by location (e.g., hand eczema), by specific appearance (eczema craquele or discoid) or by possible cause (varicose eczema). Further adding to the confusion, many sources use the term eczema interchangeably for the most common type: atopic dermatitis.\nThe European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) published a position paper in 2001, which simplifies the nomenclature of allergy-related diseases,","-27.974406231660396"],["researchers in e-liquids (chromium, lead, and nickel) and in vapor from e-cigarettes (chromium, nickel, and copper) Some of the other elements that we detected on surfaces are found in human sweat (calcium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorous [sic]). It is unknown if their presence on surfaces was from e-cigarettes, people touching surfaces, or both.\" In-store air quality A 2017 United States Department of Health and Human Services report evaluated concerns about exposure to vaping-related chemicals in a vape shop. Exposure to flavoring chemicals (diacetyl, 2,3-pentanedione, acetaldehyde), formaldehyde, nicotine, and propylene glycol were all below occupational exposure limits (OELs). They found that","-27.340981889748946"],["Related processes are known as sweetening. Safety Low molecular weight simple amines, such as ethylamine, are only weakly toxic with LD₅₀ between 100 and 1000 mg/kg. They are skin irritants, especially as some are easily absorbed through the skin. Amines are a broad class of compounds, and more complex members of the class can be extremely bioactive, for example strychnine and heroin.","-27.288493515836308"],["affected by hand eczema also experience skin inflammation on their feet. Often, a contact allergy to an ingredient in shoe leather treatment may be the catalyst. Contact allergies in certain types of employment are especially problematic, particularly if the work involves the handling of allergenic materials, e.g. masonry work or hairdressing.\nPeople allergic to Balsam of Peru may experience a flare-up of hand eczema if they use or consume products that use it as an ingredient.\nSevere and chronic eczema qualifies as one of the most frequent occupational illnesses. Patients should therefore be referred to an occupational-dermatological specialist as soon as possible.","-27.146781095216284"],["individuals with celiac disease and about two times more frequently in relatives of those with celiac disease, potentially indicating a genetic link between the conditions. Pathophysiology All eczemas are characterized by spongiosis which allows inflammatory mediators to accumulate. Different dendritic cells subtypes, such as Langerhans cells, inflammatory dendritic epidermal cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells have a role to play. Diagnosis Diagnosis of eczema is based mostly on the history and physical examination. In uncertain cases, skin biopsy may be useful. Those with eczema may be especially prone to misdiagnosis of food allergies.\nPatch tests are used in the diagnosis of allergic","-27.062178904307075"],["acne from reducing sugars in the diet, to medications that include antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, retinoids and hormonal treatments. Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands. Should the usual treatments fail, the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause. History The word sebaceous, meaning \"consisting of sebum\", was first termed in 1728 and comes from the Latin for tallow. Sebaceous glands have been documented since at least 1746 by Jean Astruc, who defined them as \"...the glands which separate the fat.\" He describes them in the oral cavity, on the head,","-26.894948879722506"],["Chloracne Cause Chloracne normally results from direct skin contact with chloracnegens, although ingestion and inhalation are also possible causative routes.\nChloracnegens are fat-soluble, meaning they persist in the body fat for a very long period following exposure. Chloracne is a chronic inflammatory condition that results from this persistence, in combination with the toxin's chemical properties. It is believed, at least from rodent models, that the toxin activates a series of receptors promoting macrophage proliferation, inducing neutrophilia and leading to a generalised inflammatory response in the skin. This process may also be augmented by induction of excess tumor necrosis factor in the","-26.8764170355862"],["that EC users are exposed to dangerous levels of aldehydes.\" However, e-cigarette users may \"learn\" to overcome the unpleasant taste due to elevated aldehyde formation, when the nicotine craving is high enough. E-cigarette users who use devices that contain nicotine are exposed to its potentially harmful effects. Nicotine is associated with cardiovascular disease, possible birth defects, and poisoning. In vitro studies of nicotine have associated it with cancer, but carcinogenicity has not been demonstrated in vivo. There is inadequate research to show that nicotine is associated with cancer in humans. The risk is probably low from the inhalation of propylene","-26.74311505543301"],["no traces. In addition, it is naturally antibacterial, especially against the bacterial strains, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and is ideal for people that suffer from textile allergies.\nFabrics made from Qmilk fiber provide high wearing comfort and a silky feel.The organic fiber is tested for harmful substances and dermatologically tested for the wearer’s skin and body compatibility 0% chemical additives. S.Café S.Café technology involves recycling used ground coffee beans into yarns. A piece of S.Café fabric is made with less energy in the process and is able to mask body odour. In addition, S.Café yarn offers 200% faster drying time","-26.639422351549"],["Smoker's melanosis Causes Smoking or the use of nicotine-containing drugs is the cause to Smoker's melanosis,. Also tar-components (benzopyrenes) are known to stimulate melanocytes to melanin production, and other unknown toxic agents in tobacco may also be the cause. These chemical agents have a polycyclic, chain-like structure. Environmental tobacco smoke from parents is causing smoker's melanosis in their children Swedish snuff causes a small elevation of oral melanin pigmented individuals from 3.0% to 4.7%. Nicotine tablets have shown to stimulate to melanin pigmentation of the oral mucosa. Treatment and prognosis Lesions usually disappear between 3","-26.554078563844087"],["occur especially with the help of music. An unusual but unique characteristic of mescaline use is the \"geometricization\" of three-dimensional objects. The object can appear flattened and distorted, similar to the presentation of a Cubist painting.\nMescaline elicits a pattern of sympathetic arousal, with the peripheral nervous system being a major target for this substance. United States In the United States, mescaline was made illegal in 1970 by the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act, categorized as a Schedule I hallucinogen. The drug was prohibited internationally by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Mescaline is legal only for certain religious","-26.50434727204265"],["that exposure to bacteria and other immune system modulators is important during development, and missing out on this exposure increases the risk for asthma and allergy.\nWhile it has been suggested that eczema may sometimes be an allergic reaction to the excrement from house dust mites, with up to 5% of people showing antibodies to the mites, the overall role this plays awaits further corroboration. Genetic A number of genes have been associated with eczema, one of which is filaggrin. Genome-wide studies found three new genetic variants associated with eczema: OVOL1, ACTL9 and IL4-KIF3A.\nEczema occurs about three times more frequently in","-26.41072297556093"],["replaced by mitosis at the base of the duct. Sebum Sebum, secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans, is primarily composed of triglycerides (≈41%), wax esters (≈26%), squalene (≈12%), and free fatty acids (≈16%). The composition of sebum varies across species. Wax esters and squalene are unique to sebum and not produced as final products anywhere else in the body. Sapienic acid is a sebum fatty acid that is unique to humans, and is implicated in the development of acne. Sebum is odorless, but its breakdown by bacteria can produce strong odors.\nSex steroids are known to affect the rate of","-26.310679845162667"],["Ectoine Biosynthesis Ectoine is synthesized in three successive enzymatic reactions starting from aspartic β-semialdehyde. The genes involved in the biosynthesis are called ectA, ectB and ectC and they encode the enzymes L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid acetyltransferase, L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid transaminase, and L-ectoine synthase, respectively. Use Ectoine is used as an active ingredient in skin care and sun protection products. It stabilizes proteins and other cellular structures and protects the skin from stresses like UV irradiation and dryness.","-26.29728292132495"],["and ethers, used in the soap, perfume, and flavor industries. \nE.g. benzyl benzoate, benzyl salicylate, benzyl cinnamate, dibenzyl ether, benzyl butyl phthalate . \nIt is also used in e-liquid for e-cigarettes to enhance the flavors used. When applied to damaged skin or mucous membranes at a 10% concentration, it acts as a local anesthetic and antimicrobial agent. It can be utilized as a degreaser in rug cleaning products. As a dye solvent, it enhances the process of dying wool, nylon, and leather. It also has use as a photographic film developer, and as an insect repellent. Use","-26.294906145194545"],["with the inherited condition known as glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, which over 400 million people suffer from. Humans, in particular children, have developed the condition known as hemolytic anemia, after ingesting mothballs or deodorant blocks containing naphthalene. Symptoms include fatigue, lack of appetite, restlessness, and pale skin. Exposure to large amounts of naphthalene may cause confusion, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, blood in the urine, and jaundice (yellow coloration of the skin due to dysfunction of the liver).\nThe US National Toxicology Program (NTP) held an experiment where male and female rats and mice were exposed to naphthalene vapors on weekdays for two","-26.25299680250464"],["Bismuth subsalicylate Medical uses As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismuth subsalicylate displays anti-inflammatory and bactericidal action. It also acts as an antacid. Adverse effects There are some adverse effects. It can cause a black tongue and black stools in some users of the drug when it combines with trace amounts of sulfur in saliva and the colon to form bismuth sulfide. Bismuth sulfide is a highly insoluble black salt, and the discoloration seen is temporary and harmless.\nLong-term use (greater than 6 weeks) may lead to accumulation and toxicity. Some of the risks of salicylism can apply to the use","-26.091193302650936"],["Basophil activation Allergic symptoms are caused by an initial systemic histamine release by activated basophils and mast cells, that may lead to shock with laryngeal edema, lower-airway obstruction and hypotension. This is why basophils are considered with mast cells to be the key cells in allergic diseases. Activation process Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a class of antibody (or immunoglobulin \"isotype\") that has only been found in mammals. It plays an important role in allergy, and is especially associated with type 1 hypersensitivity. There are receptors (FcεR) for the constant region of IgE, the Fc region, on several types of cells,","-26.023236491979333"],["and mitochondria. This led the authors of the study to conclude that \"inhalational exposures of cinnamaldehyde may increase the risk of respiratory infections in e-cigarette users.\" Some e-liquids containing cinnamaldehyde stimulate TRPA1, which might induce effects on the lung. E-liquids contain possibly toxic aldehydes and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many flavors are known aldehydes, such as anisaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, and isovaleraldehyde. A 2012 study found butterscotch flavor was highly toxic with one liquid and two others had a low toxicity. A 2014 in vitro study demonstrated that e-cigarette use of a \"balsamic\" flavor with no nicotine can activate the release of","-25.987374071293743"],["substances triggers the production of the antibody immunoglobulin E (IgE), which binds to mast cells and basophils. IgE bound to mast cells are stimulated by pollen and dust, causing the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine. In turn, this causes, among other things, inflammation and swelling of the tissue of the nasal cavities as well as increased mucus production. Particulate matter in polluted air and chemicals such as chlorine and detergents, which can normally be tolerated, can make the condition considerably worse. Lacrimation Rhinorrhea is also associated with shedding tears, whether from emotional events or from eye irritation. When","-25.949509755067993"],["include: solvents (alcohol, xylene, turpentine, esters, acetone, ketones, and others); metalworking fluids (neat oils, water-based metalworking fluids with surfactants); latex; kerosene; ethylene oxide; surfactants in topical medications and cosmetics (sodium lauryl sulfate); and alkalis (drain cleaners, strong soap with lye residues).\nPhysical irritant contact dermatitis may most commonly be caused by low humidity from air conditioning. Also, many plants directly irritate the skin. Allergic contact dermatitis Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is accepted to be the most prevalent form of immunotoxicity found in humans, and is a common occupational and environmental health problem. By its allergic nature, this form of contact dermatitis","-25.825368466670625"],["of the alveoli, and may be caused by tuberculosis. Emphysema, commonly a result of smoking, is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli. Urinary system The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body. Anatomy Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the torso. The","-25.747112761077005"],["impurities are not known. A 2016 review found \"Some studies have demonstrated that impurities and nicotine degradation products such as nicotine-cis-N-oxide, nicotine-trans-N-oxide, myosmine, anabasine, and anatabine, which are very carcinogenic, can be found in e-cigarette refill liquids. The molecules can lead to mutations in genes such as Ras (vital function in signal transduction of cell proliferation), p53 and Retinoblastoma (with roles as tumour suppressors) as these molecules can form adducts with cellular DNA.\" The majority of e-cigarettes evaluated included carcinogenic TSNAs; heavy metals such as cadmium, nickel, and lead; and the carcinogen toluene. However, in comparison to traditional cigarette smoke,","-25.708908633328974"],["have been used to create a breakthrough in manufacturing carbon nanotubes at scale that are separated and not twisted, without additional chemicals that change the surface properties of the nanotubes according to sciencedaily.com. Health effects When cresols are inhaled, ingested, or applied to the skin, they can be very harmful. Effects observed in people include irritation and burning of skin, eyes, mouth, and throat; abdominal pain and vomiting; heart damage; anemia; liver and kidney damage; facial paralysis; coma; and death.\nBreathing high levels of cresols for a short time results in irritation of the nose and throat. Aside from these effects,","-25.685386108212697"],["excess of chemicals, e.g., cytokines and histamine. The common characteristic among different causes of eosinophilic pneumonia is eosinophil overreaction or dysfunction in the lungs. Medications and environmental exposures Medications, substance abuse, and environmental exposures may all trigger eosinophil dysfunction. Medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., ibuprofen), nitrofurantoin, phenytoin, L-tryptophan, daptomycin and ampicillin, and drugs of abuse such as inhaled heroin and cocaine may trigger an allergic response which results in eosinophilic pneumonia. Chemicals such as sulfites, aluminum silicate, and cigarette smoke can cause eosinophilic pneumonia when inhaled. A New York City firefighter developed eosinophilic pneumonia after inhalation of dust","-25.632932298467495"],["other diseases including various eosinophlic skin diseases, abnormally high levels of circulating blood eosinophils, the hypereosinophilic syndrome, the Churg‐Strauss syndrome, ulcerative colitis, arthralgias, myalgias, facial nerve paralysis, photosensitivity, polycythemia vera, chronic myeloid leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, Hodgkin lymphoma, nasopharyngeal cancer, and renal cell carcinoma. Episodes of the disorder are sometimes triggered by: drugs (e.g. antimicrobial agents, biologics, antihypertensive agents, diuretics, thyroid hormones, analgesics, cytostatic agents, and anesthetics); vaccines; skin contact with chemicals (e.g. p-phenylenediamine, thiomersal, and cladribine); viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections; and insect bites.\nMosquitos are among the insects known to trigger MBA in individuals with eosinophilic cellulitis,","-25.620008826649382"],["melanocyte toxicity . Melanocytes are melanin-producing cells, primarily responsible for skin colour. Melanocyte toxicity induces apoptosis of the cell, causing the melanocytes to die. This is due to an increased expression of caspase‐3 and caspase‐8 . Caspase proteins are crucial mediators of apoptosis, with caspase-3 and caspase-8 being death proteases . Considering melanocytes are responsible for skin colour, apoptosis of these cells causes the colour of the skin to vanish . This disease caused by rhododendrol is called leukoderma. Leukoderma, also known as vitiligo, is a skin disease characterized by patches of the skin losing their pigment. This rhododendrol-induced","-25.61217805580236"],["cellobiose or glucose in an acidic medium, and eventually form valuable humus. Humans cannot digest cellulose and excrete the fibers in feces, because, unlike ruminant animals, rabbits, rodents, termites, and some bacteria and fungi, they lack cellulolytic enzymes such as cellulase. Litter Cigarette butts are the most common form of anthropogenic (man-made) litter in the world, as approximately 5.6 trillion cigarettes are smoked every year worldwide. Of those it is estimated that 4.5 trillion cigarette butts become litter every year. The cellulose acetate fibers used as the predominant filter material do not readily biodegrade because of the acetyl groups on","-25.505923533812165"],["Barium oxalate Properties Though largely stable, barium oxalate can be reactive with strong acids. A mild skin irritant, the substance is considered toxic when ingested, causing nausea, vomiting, renal failure, and injury to the gastrointestinal tract.\nIt is different from most pyrotechnic colorants in that it is a reducing agent and not an oxidizing agent. It is extremely insoluble in water and converts to the oxide form when heated.","-25.45234488346614"],["metabolism. The direct toxicity to the cells leads to an increase in capillary permeability. Furthermore, when phosgene hydrolyzes it forms hydrochloric acid, which can damage the cell surface and cause cell death in the alveoli and bronchioles. The hydrochloric acid triggers an inflammatory response that attracts neutrophils to the lungs, which causes pulmonary edema. Ammonia Ammonia is generally used in household cleaning products, as well as on farms and in some industrial and commercial locations, and this makes it easy for accidental or deliberate exposure to occur. Ammonia interacts with moist surfaces to form ammonium hydroxide, which causes necrosis of","-25.330535396002233"],["Basophils appear in many specific kinds of inflammatory reactions, particularly those that cause allergic symptoms. Basophils contain anticoagulant heparin, which prevents blood from clotting too quickly. They also contain the vasodilator histamine, which promotes blood flow to tissues. They can be found in unusually high numbers at sites of ectoparasite infection, e.g., ticks. Like eosinophils, basophils play a role in both parasitic infections and allergies. They are found in tissues where allergic reactions are occurring and probably contribute to the severity of these reactions. Basophils have protein receptors on their cell surface that bind IgE, an immunoglobulin involved in macroparasite","-25.29086228774395"],["levels of aldehydes.\" However, e-cigarette users may learn to overcome the unpleasant taste due to elevated aldehyde formation, when the nicotine craving is high enough. Nicotine Pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers, and the elderly are more sensitive to nicotine than other individuals. There are safety issues with the nicotine exposure from e-cigarettes, which may cause addiction and other adverse effects. Nicotine is regarded as a potentially lethal poison. Concerns exist that vaping can be harmful by exposing users to toxic levels of nicotine. At low amounts, it has a mild analgesic effect. At sufficiently high doses, nicotine may result in nausea,","-25.269312618111144"],["the substance that need be give extra care to since it have huge effect on the human body. \nIn the mechanism, Atheronal A are produces from a process called ozonolysis. Next, the Atheronal A go through aldol reaction that occur so smoothly in the biological system to produce Atheronal B. Secosterol-A and -B were produced in an ozone-autonomous way using the Hock-cleavage of 5α-hydroperoxy cholesterol, which can emerge from the singlet oxygen ene reaction with cholesterol. However, Secosterol-B is shaped effectively under acidic conditions in natural solvents, yet secosterol-A is either not framed at all or is a minor part","-25.247344513132703"],["interaction.\n\"Chamomile consists of several ingredients including coumarin, glycoside, herniarin, flavonoid, farnesol, nerolidol and germacranolide. Despite the presence of coumarin, as chamomile’s effect on the coagulation system has not yet been studied, it is unknown if a clinically significant drug-herb interaction exists with antiplatelet/anticoagulant drugs. However, until more information is available, it is not recommended to use these substances concurrently.\"\nPeople who are allergic to ragweed (also in the daisy family) may be allergic to chamomile due to cross-reactivity. Chamomile should not be used by people with past or present cancers of the breast, ovary, uterus, endometriosis or uterine fibroids. Pregnancy and","-25.23883876192849"],["found in the e-cigarette vapor may induce cell damage and initiate inflammatory cytokine such as in human lung fibroblasts. A 2017 review found \"E-cigarette aerosols and copper nanoparticles induced mitochondrial ROS production, mitochondrial stress (reduced stability of OxPhos electron transport chain (ETC) complex IV subunit) and DNA fragmentation in lung fibroblasts.\" A 2013 review found metallic and nanoparticles are associated with respiratory distress and disease. A 2014 review found considerable amounts of tin, metals, and silicate particles that came from various components of the e-cigarette were released into the aerosol, which result in exposure that could be higher than with","-25.23321266262792"],["skin color between lightly and darkly pigmented individuals is due not to the number (quantity) of melanocytes in their skin, but to the melanocytes' level of activity (quantity and relative amounts of eumelanin and pheomelanin). This process is under hormonal control, including the MSH and ACTH peptides that are produced from the precursor proopiomelanocortin.\nPeople with oculocutaneous albinism typically have a very low level of melanin production. Albinism is often but not always related to the TYR gene coding the tyrosinase enzyme. Tyrosinase is required for melanocytes to produce melanin from the amino acid tyrosine. Albinism may be caused by","-25.217590295593254"],["cardiotoxicity, which considerably limits their usefulness. Use of anthracyclines has also been shown to be significantly associated with cycle 1 severe or febrile neutropenia. Other adverse effects include vomiting.\nThe drugs act mainly by intercalating with DNA and interfering with DNA metabolism and RNA production. Cytotoxicity is primarily due to inhibition of topoisomerase II after the enzyme induces a break in DNA, preventing religation of the break and leading to cell death. The basic structure of anthracyclines is that of a tetracyclic molecule with an anthraquinone backbone connected to a sugar moiety by a glycosidic linkage. When taken up by a","-25.215628029196523"],["colleagues in 2008. However, the latter findings have been controversial. If it exists, the phenomenon might be mediated by olfaction, as MHC phenotype appears strongly involved in the strength and pleasantness of perceived odour of compounds from sweat. Fatty acid esters—such as methyl undecanoate, methyl decanoate, methyl nonanoate, methyl octanoate, and methyl hexanoate—show strong connection to MHC.\nIn 1995, Claus Wedekind found that in a group of female college students who smelled T-shirts worn by male students for two nights (without deodorant, cologne, or scented soaps), by far most women chose shirts worn by men of dissimilar MHCs, a preference reversed","-25.18851780344994"],["exposure for humans include emissions, auto exhaust, and cigarette smoke that can expose the human subject directly if they inhale or smoke. Routes of exposure include inhalation, oral, and to a certain extent dermal uptake (tested with volunteer humans and in rat studies). Repeated exposure causes skin sensitization and may cause central nervous system and liver damage.\nThere are two main excretion processes of acrylonitrile. The primary method is excretion in urine when acrylonitrile is metabolized by being directly conjugated to glutathione. The other method is when acrylonitrile is metabolized with 2-cyanoethylene oxide to produce cyanide end products that ultimately forms","-25.177014570857864"],["Acholia Etymology Ancient Greek: a + chole (without bile). Cause A condition in which little or no bile is secreted or the flow of bile into the digestive tract is obstructed. The acholia is a sign of many diseases, such as hepatitis.\nAcholia results of a fading of feces.","-25.164183350105304"],["to the DNA of the end product of the chromium(III) reduction.\nChromium salts (chromates) are also the cause of allergic reactions in some people. Chromates are often used to manufacture, amongst other things, leather products, paints, cement, mortar and anti-corrosives. Contact with products containing chromates can lead to allergic contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis, resulting in ulceration of the skin, sometimes referred to as \"chrome ulcers\". This condition is often found in workers that have been exposed to strong chromate solutions in electroplating, tanning and chrome-producing manufacturers. Environmental issues Because chromium compounds were used in dyes, paints, and leather tanning compounds,","-25.148955287702847"],["inflammation. Fruity, sweet, and traditional tobacco flavorings may result in lung toxicity. Flavorings can harm lung cells by producing free radicals and inflammation. Some e-liquids containing cinnamaldehyde stimulate TRPA1, which might induce effects on the lung. In human lung fibroblasts, cinnamon roll flavoring resulted in a noticeable rise in the amount of inflammatory cytokine IL-8. E-liquids contain possibly toxic aldehydes and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many flavors are known aldehydes, such as anisaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, and isovaleraldehyde. Saccharides in sweet e-liquid flavors break down and generate furans and aldehydes when vaporized. The consequences of aldehyde-containing flavors on pulmonary surfaces are unknown.","-25.14699100627331"],["ozone pollution.\nThe innate (cellular) immune system consists of various chemical signals and cell types that work broadly and against multiple pathogen types, typically bacteria or foreign bodies/substances in the host. The cells of the innate system include phagocytes, neutrophils, both thought to contribute to the mechanism of ozone pathology in the lungs, as the functioning of these cell types have been shown to change after exposure to ozone. Macrophages, cells that serve the purpose of eliminating pathogens or foreign material through the process of \"phagocytosis\", have been shown to change the level of inflammatory signals they release in response","-25.12349327345146"],["body. Ipecac abuse can cause detrimental health effects.\nEmetics can be divided into two classes, those which produce their effect by acting on the vomiting centre in the medulla, and those which act directly on the stomach itself. Some emetics, such as ipecac, come under both heads; they initially act directly on the stomach, while their further and more vigorous effect occurs by stimulation of the medullary centre.\nSalt water and mustard water, which act directly on the stomach, have been used since ancient times as emetics. Care must be taken with salt, as excessive intake can potentially be harmful.Copper sulfate was","-25.11753163972753"],["Sarcosinemia Cause and genetics Sarcosinemia is thought to be caused by a mutation in the sarcosine dehydrogenase (SARDH) gene, which is located at human chromosome 9q34.\nThe disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, which means the defective gene responsible for the disorder is located on an autosome (chromosome 9 is an autosome), and two copies of the defective gene (one inherited from each parent) are required in order to be born with the disorder. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder both carry one copy of the defective gene, but usually do not experience any signs","-25.115046985942172"],["in lung cancer induction ...\" Oxidation and inflammation Free radicals and pro-oxidants in cigarettes damage blood vessels and oxidize LDL cholesterol. Only oxidized LDL cholesterol is taken-up by macrophages, which become foam cells, leading to atherosclerotic plaques. Cigarette smoke increases proinflammatory cytokines in the bloodstream, causing atherosclerosis. The pro-oxidative state also leads to endothelial dysfunction, which is another important cause of atherosclerosis. Nicotine Nicotine, which is contained in cigarettes and other smoked tobacco products, is a stimulant and is one of the main factors leading to continued tobacco smoking. Nicotine is a highly addictive psychoactive chemical. When tobacco is smoked,","-25.107685109018348"],["Acinetobacter venetianus. After a certain period of time, an oily and saline environment containing A. borkumensis and Acinetobacter venetianus would eventually become dominated by A. borkumensis because A. borkumensis can consume a wider variety of alkanes than other known species. Metabolism A. borkumensis primarily uses alkanes as its source of energy/carbon, but it can use a few other organic compounds. Unlike most other cells, it cannot consume more common substances such as sugars or amino acids as a source of energy. This is due to the lack of genes that code for active or passive carbohydrate transporters, hence the","-25.097672269679606"],["such particles causes or worsens respiratory diseases, such as emphysema or bronchitis, and aggravates existing heart disease.\nNO\n x reacts with volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight to form ozone. Ozone can cause adverse effects such as damage to lung tissue and reduction in lung function mostly in susceptible populations (children, elderly, asthmatics). Ozone can be transported by wind currents and cause health impacts far from the original sources. The American Lung Association estimates that nearly 50 percent of United States inhabitants live in counties that are not in ozone compliance. In South East England, ground level ozone","-25.093040902982466"],["antigens are associated with inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, drug-induced vasculitis, autoimmune liver disease, drug induced syndromes and parasitic infections. Atypical ANCA is associated with drug-induced systemic vasculitis, inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis.\nLevamisole, which is a common adulterant of cocaine, can cause an ANCA positive vasculitis.\nThe presence or absence of ANCA cannot indicate presence or absence of disease and results are correlated with clinical features. The association of ANCA and disease activity remains controversial; however, the reappearance of ANCA after treatment can indicate a relapse. Pathogenesis Although the pathogenic role of ANCA is still controversial, in vitro and animal","-25.092612345702946"],["industry. The practice has declined since reports of an allergy-like reaction of some persons to sulfites in foods. Pharmaceuticals Sulfur (specifically octasulfur, S₈) is used in pharmaceutical skin preparations for the treatment of acne and other conditions. It acts as a keratolytic agent and also kills bacteria, fungi, scabies mites, and other parasites. Precipitated sulfur and colloidal sulfur are used, in form of lotions, creams, powders, soaps, and bath additives, for the treatment of acne vulgaris, acne rosacea, and seborrhoeic dermatitis.\nCommon adverse effects include irritation of the skin at the application site, such as dryness, stinging, itching and peeling. Furniture","-25.065061923582107"],["Eosin Eosin is the name of several fluorescent acidic compounds which bind to and form salts with basic, or eosinophilic, compounds like proteins containing amino acid residues such as arginine and lysine, and stains them dark red or pink as a result of the actions of bromine on fluorescein. In addition to staining proteins in the cytoplasm, it can be used to stain collagen and muscle fibers for examination under the microscope. Structures that stain readily with eosin are termed eosinophilic. In the field of histology, Eosin Y is the form of eosin used most often as a histologic stain.","-25.053547782008536"],["because they are nervous. Other factors can play a role, including certain foods and drinks, nicotine, caffeine, and smells. Secondary hyperhidrosis Similarly, secondary (generalized) hyperhidrosis has many causes including certain types of cancer, disturbances of the endocrine system, infections, and medications. Cancer A variety of cancers have been associated with the development of secondary hyperhidrosis including lymphoma, pheochromocytoma, carcinoid tumors (resulting in carcinoid syndrome), and tumors within the thoracic cavity. Endocrine Certain endocrine conditions are also known to cause secondary hyperhidrosis including diabetes mellitus (especially when blood sugars are low), acromegaly, hyperpituitarism, and various forms of thyroid disease. Medications Use","-24.99609675523243"],["skin. Allergens There is currently no regulation over use of the term \"hypoallergenic\", and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. Those with eczema are especially vulnerable to an allergic reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with and activate immune cells.\nThe American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.","-24.992002874660102"],["skin highly lipophilic molecules such as testosterone, cannabinoids and ibuprofen, as well as hydrophilic drugs such as clindamycin phosphate, buspirone hydrochloride. They have been studied for the transdermal and intradermal delivery of peptides, steroids, antibiotics, prostaglandins, antivirals and anti-pyretics. The components used to make ethosomes are already approved for pharmaceutical and cosmetic use and the formulated vesicles are stable when stored. They can be incorporated in various pharmaceutical formulations such as gels, creams, emulsions and sprays. They're consequently being developed for pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical products. Ethosomal systems compare favourably to alternative carriers for quantity and depth of molecule delivery.","-24.975743887305725"],["be a contributing factor of inflammation. The cause-and-effect relationship of how the ozone is created in the body and what it does is still under consideration and still subject to various interpretations, since other body chemical processes can trigger some of the same reactions. A team headed by Paul Wentworth Jr. of the Department of Chemistry at the Scripps Research Institute has shown evidence linking the antibody-catalyzed water-oxidation pathway of the human immune response to the production of ozone. In this system, ozone is produced by antibody-catalyzed production of trioxidane from water and neutrophil-produced singlet oxygen.\nWhen inhaled, ozone reacts with","-24.974442348262528"],["Deuterosome In cell biology, a deuterosome is a protein structure within a multiciliated cell (such as an epithelial cell of respiratory tract) that produces multiple centrioles.\nMost cells in human body possess one primary cilium, a relatively small protrusion of the cell membrane that looks like a stick or a finger under the electron microscope. Primary cilium is typically used by the cell as a sensory organelle, or antenna. Some cells, however, have numerous cilia which they use to generate directed fluid flow. The examples include epithelial cells of the respiratory tract in which multiple cilia are used for mucus clearance,","-24.974210461834446"],["Iminosugar An iminosugar, also known as an iminosaccharide, is any analog of a sugar where a nitrogen atom has replaced the oxygen atom in the ring of the structure.\nIminosugars are common components of plants and may be responsible for some of their medicinal properties. The first iminosugar to be isolated from a natural source, 1-deoxynojirimycin (DNJ), found in Mulberry, was reported in 1976, but few others were discovered until many years later.\nIn terms of biochemical activity for medicinal applications, DNJ and 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-D-arabinitol (DAB, another early example of this class of compounds) are alpha-glucosidase inhibitors and were shown to have anti-diabetic","-24.956602338672383"],["Liquefactive necrosis Liquefactive necrosis (or colliquative necrosis) is a type of necrosis which results in a transformation of the tissue into a liquid viscous mass. Often it is associated with focal bacterial or fungal infections, and can also manifest as one of the symptoms of an internal chemical burn. In liquefactive necrosis, the affected cell is completely digested by hydrolytic enzymes, resulting in a soft, circumscribed lesion consisting of pus and the fluid remains of necrotic tissue. Dead leukocytes will remain as a creamy yellow pus. After the removal of cell debris by white blood cells, a","-24.955388808193675"],["be found on many everyday food items, even the shortest exposure(through breathing or eating) to high amounts of benzene can lead to extreme cases of nausea, dizziness/tiredness, and can cause damage to the central nervous system, leading to things like paralysis, coma or death. Benzene is also a known carcinogen, and can cause things like anemia, leukemia, and if in contact with eyes, can cause blindness. Environmental damage As for environmental damage, benzene is very similar to toluene in that it is a VOC, and can cause poisonous smog if in contact with high amounts of light and moisture, and","-24.94502037120401"],["the clinical manifestations of acanthocephaliasis and similar accounts are found in the few case studies since; many of the patients described were asymptomatic. When they showed symptoms, they normally experienced abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, edema, and anorexia. In some patients, giddiness has also been reported. In rodents, acanthocephaliasis is fatal and manifests itself through hemorrhaging and gastrointestinal disturbance. Diagnosis The proper diagnosis of acanthocephaliasis in humans is made through fecal analysis, which, if the host is infested, should contain adult worms or eggs. To obtain the worms from the host, piperazine citrate, levamisole and bithionol can be administered to the","-24.939703221643867"],["by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Diacetyl is normally found at lower levels in e-cigarettes than in traditional cigarettes. Concerns exist that the flavors and additives in e-cigarettes might lead to diseases, including the popcorn lung. The cardiovascular effects, including a vast range of flavorings and fragrances, is unknown. The irritants butyl acetate, diethyl carbonate, benzoic acid, quinoline, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and 2,6-dimethyl phenol were present as undeclared ingredients in the e-liquid. Hindering safety assessments of e-liquids is the fact that the precise ingredients of e-cigarettes and e-liquids are not known. Heat-not-burn products Heat-not-burn tobacco products are","-24.905650621047243"],["Ceramide Ceramides are a family of waxy lipid molecules. A ceramide is composed of sphingosine and a fatty acid. Ceramides are found in high concentrations within the cell membrane of eukaryotic cells, since they are component lipids that make up sphingomyelin, one of the major lipids in the lipid bilayer. Contrary to previous assumptions that ceramides and other sphingolipids found in cell membrane were purely supporting structural elements, ceramide can participate in a variety of cellular signaling: examples include regulating differentiation, proliferation, and programmed cell death (PCD) of cells.\nThe word ceramide comes from the Latin cera (wax) and","-24.893648840865353"],["Basophilia Causes Basophilia can be attributed to many causes such as inflammatory conditions, allergic diseases, myeloproliferative diseases, infectious diseases such as smallpox and chronic hemolytic anemia. Diagnosis Basophilia can be detected through a complete blood count (CBC). The cause of basophilia can be determined through a bone marrow biopsy, genetic testing to look for genetic mutations, or ultrasound to determine enlargement of the spleen. \nBasophilia is associated with pruritus (itching) due to the release of histamine. Treatment Basophilia is not likely to be treated directly. Instead, treatments will focus on the person’s underlying medical treatment.","-24.876148068302427"],["Hypochlorite Organic hypochlorites Hypochlorite esters are in general formed from the corresponding alcohols, by treatment with any of a number of reagents (e.g. chlorine, hypochlorous acid, dichlorine monoxide and various acidified hypochlorite salts). Immune response In response to infection, the human immune system generates minute quantities of hypochlorite within special white blood cells, called neutrophil granulocytes. These granulocytes engulf viruses and bacteria in an intracellular vacuole called the phagosome, where they are digested.\nPart of the digestion mechanism involves an enzyme-mediated respiratory burst, which produces reactive oxygen-derived compounds, including superoxide (which is produced by NADPH oxidase). Superoxide decays to","-24.865081405441742"],["in lysosomes. Cell secretion In response to low blood cholesterol, different cells of the body, mainly in the liver and intestines, start to synthesize cholesterol from acetyl-CoA by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. This is then released into the blood. Hyperlipidemia Hyperlipidemia is the presence of elevated or abnormal levels of lipids and/or lipoproteins in the blood.\nLipid and lipoprotein abnormalities are extremely common in the general population, and are regarded as a highly modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease. In addition, some forms may predispose to acute pancreatitis. One of the most clinically relevant lipid substances is cholesterol, especially on atherosclerosis","-24.86493411817355"],["greasy hair products (like pomades) can worsen acne. Skin products that claim to not clog pores may be labeled noncomedogenic or non-acnegenic. Make-up and skin products that are oil-free and water-based may be less likely to cause acne. It is not known whether dietary factors or sun exposure make comedones better, worse or have no effect.\nA hair that does not emerge normally, an ingrown hair, can also block the pore and cause a bulge or lead to infection (causing inflammation and pus).\nGenes may play a role in the chances of developing acne. Comedones may be more common in some ethnic","-24.860418009746354"],["eosinophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells. The submucosa can show oedema and thickening, resulting in a subacute inflammation of the caecum and mucoid diarrhoea. Epidemiology Human gastrodiscoidiasis is endemic in Assam, and to a lesser extent in the Philippines. The highest incidence so far recorded is among children in Kamrup district of Assam, where the prevalence was as high as 41%. First described from an Indian patient, it was initially believed to have a distribution restricted to India and the southeast Asia. Later investigations revealed that it is widespread, and is further spread by infected persons to other parts of the","-24.84075919695897"],["about an individual's immune system could be used as a way of \"sexual selection\" so that the female could obtain good genes for her offspring. Claus Wedekind and colleagues found that both men and women prefer the axillary odors of people whose MHC is different from their own.\nSome body spray advertisers claim that their products contain human sexual pheromones that act as an aphrodisiac. Despite these claims, no pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a peer reviewed study. Thus, the role of pheromones in human behavior remains speculative and controversial.","-24.835981595679186"],["dyes, polymers, pharmaceuticals, and printing inks.\nExposure to solvents can occur by inhalation, ingestion, or direct absorption through the skin. Of the three, inhalation is the most common form of exposure, with the solvent able to rapidly pass through lung membranes and then into fatty tissue or cell membranes. Once in the bloodstream, organic solvents, due to their lipophilic properties, easily cross the blood-brain barrier. The mechanism of effect that these solvents have on the brain that cause CSE, however, is not yet fully understood. Some common organic solvents known to cause CSE include formaldehyde, acetates, and alcohols. Diagnosis Due to","-24.823981970539535"],["Ammonium persulfate Preparation Ammonium persulfate is prepared by electrolysis of a cold concentrated solution of either ammonium sulfate or ammonium bisulfate in sulfuric acid at a high current density. The method was first described by Hugh Marshall. Safety Airborne dust containing ammonium persulfate may be irritating to eye, nose, throat, lung and skin upon contact. Exposure to high levels of dust may cause difficulty in breathing.\nIt has been noted that persulfate salts are a major cause of asthmatic effects in women. Furthermore, it has been suggested that exposure to ammonium persulfate can cause asthmatic effects in hair dressers and","-24.816236061873497"],["Antimetabolite An antimetabolite is a chemical that inhibits the use of a metabolite, which is another chemical that is part of normal metabolism. Such substances are often similar in structure to the metabolite that they interfere with, such as the antifolates that interfere with the use of folic acid; thus, competitive inhibition can occur, and the presence of antimetabolites can have toxic effects on cells, such as halting cell growth and cell division, so these compounds are used as chemotherapy for cancer. Other uses Antimetabolites, particularly mitomycin C (MMC), are commonly used in America and Japan as an addition to","-24.81392383039929"],["to diabetes, hormone imbalances, reproductive disorders or cancer; cause liver damage and disease; weaken the immune system which can lead to disease or cancer; affect how the nerves carry information through the bodies peripheral nervous system which weakens the lower half of the body causing a tingling sensation and loss of coordination; cause respiratory damage which can led to cancer; cause hearing loss or other damage of the 5 senses. Chloroform Chloroform is a colorless liquid that is non-flammable. This chemical can be found in floor polishing substances and pesticides. Chloroform is recognized carcinogen, meaning it can cause cancer if","-24.80584852071479"],["suppurativa (HS) and rosacea. Although HS shares certain common features with acne vulgaris, such as a tendency to clog skin follicles with skin cell debris, the condition otherwise lacks the defining features of acne and is therefore considered a distinct skin disorder. Signs and symptoms Typical features of acne include increased secretion of oily sebum by the skin, microcomedones, comedones, papules, nodules (large papules), pustules, and often results in scarring. The appearance of acne varies with skin color. It may result in psychological and social problems. Scars Acne scars are caused by inflammation within the dermal layer of skin and","-24.779138465135475"],["including atopic and allergic contact eczemas. Non-allergic eczemas are not affected by this proposal. Terminology There are several types of dermatitis including atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, stasis dermatitis and seborrheic eczema. Many use the term dermatitis and eczema synonymously.\nOthers use the term eczema to specifically mean atopic dermatitis. Atopic dermatitis is also known as atopic eczema. In some languages, dermatitis and eczema mean the same thing, while in other languages dermatitis implies an acute condition and eczema a chronic one. Common types Diagnosis of types may be indicated by codes defined according to International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related","-24.756219367860467"],["Vaccenic acid Health A 2008 study at the University of Alberta suggests that vaccenic acid feeding in rats over 16 weeks resulted in lowered total cholesterol, lowered LDL cholesterol and lower triglyceride levels. The researchers are preparing to conduct further research, including human clinical trials.\nVaccenic acid is also found in human orbitofrontal cortex of patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.\nAlkaline phosphatase inhibited 25% by vaccenic acid in osteoblasts.\nOxidation of omega-7 unsaturated fatty acids on the skin surface, such as palmitoleic acid and vaccenic acid, may be the cause of the phenomenon commonly known as old person smell.","-24.741587116208393"],["them precipitate and aggregate, producing a rough, \"sandpapery\", or dry sensation in the mouth. The tannins in some teas and red grape wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot produce mild astringency. Uses In medicine, astringents cause constriction or contraction of mucous membranes and exposed tissues and are often used internally to reduce discharge of blood serum and mucous secretions. This can happen with a sore throat, hemorrhages, diarrhea, and peptic ulcers. Externally applied astringents, which cause mild coagulation of skin proteins, dry, harden, and protect the skin. People with acne are often advised to use astringents if they have oily","-24.731790286197793"],["its more stable chemical structure. Furthermore, due to adapalene's more stable chemical structure the concern for photodegeneration of the molecule is less of a concern in comparison to tretinoin and tazarotene. Pharmacokinetics Absorption of adapalene through the skin is low. A study with six acne patients treated once daily for five days with two grams of adapalene cream applied to 1000 cm² of skin found no quantifiable amounts, or less than 0.35 ng/mL of the drug, in the patients' blood plasma. Pharmacodynamics Topical adapalene first penetrates the hair follicle and binds to nuclear retinoic acid receptors. These complexes then bind to DNA","-24.72156578123395"],["anti-oxidants could allow for skin alterations such as acute acne or chronic non-infectious lesions, especially when the Th-1 immune process is persistently compromised by an overload of dietary antioxidant sources, like daily ingesting of vitamin C supplements, for example. Allergenic reactions by invading atopic pathogens, well beyond the scope of microbiota, can become initial factors triggering chronic atopic disease.\nWhen relating to atopic skin conditions caused by chronic antioxidative stress, symptoms similar to Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) may appear, a disease where phagocytes have an impaired ability to destroy pathogens due to a genetic inability to effectively kill pathogens by ROS,","-24.72050662591937"],["certain types of chemicals (e.g., insecticides or solvents), or radiation treatment for head or neck cancer. It can also be a symptom of certain mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, intoxication or withdrawal from drugs and alcohol, or psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The perceived odors are usually unpleasant and commonly described as smelling burned, foul spoiled, or rotten. Tactile Tactile hallucinations are the illusion of tactile sensory input, simulating various types of pressure to the skin or other organs. One subtype of tactile hallucination, formication, is the sensation of insects crawling underneath the skin and is frequently associated","-24.717438007181045"],["of economic botany in medicine. Ephedrine imitates epinephrine in its effect on the human body. While it has medicinal uses, ephedrine can be highly toxic. Because of this fact, medical researchers studied the compound and produced pseudoephedrine, which is used in over-the-counter medications and in the illegal manufacture of methamphetamine. Echinacea One of many herbal remedies out there, Echinacea represents a sizable industry. Many people take echinacea for cold and flu-like symptoms, but studies show that the plant has had mixed success fighting these viruses. However, those same studies show the plant possibly being useful for the","-24.70285616462121"],["to sebaceous sites of the skin. The skin mite Demodex folliculorum produce lipases that allow them to use sebum as a source of food therefore they have a high affinity for sebaceous skin sites. Although it is a part of the commensal skin microbiota, patients affected with rosacea show an increase in D. folliculorum compared to healthy individuals, suggesting pathogenicity.\nBacillus oleronius, a Demodex associated microbe, is not typically found in the commensal skin microbiota but initiates inflammatory pathways whose starting mechanism is similar to rosacea patients. Populations of S. epidermidis have also been isolated from pustules of rosacea patients. However","-24.684632838732796"],["amylose, it does not bind to iodine to form a colored product. Manufactured cellulose fibers Manufactured cellulose fibers come from plants that are processed into a pulp and then extruded in the same ways that synthetic fibers like polyester or nylon are made. Rayon or viscose is one of the most common \"manufactured\" cellulose fibers, and it can be made from wood pulp. Structure and properties Natural fibers are composed by microfibrils of cellulose in a matrix of hemicellulose and lignin. This type of structure and the chemical composition of them is responsible for the mechanical properties that can be","-24.676660961820744"],["Eczema herpeticum Presentation In addition to the skin, this infection affects multiple organs, including the eyes, brain, lung, and liver, and can be fatal. Treatment It can be treated with systemic antiviral drugs, such as aciclovir or valganciclovir. Foscarnet may also be used for immunocompromised host with Herpes simplex and acyclovir-resistant Herpes simplex. History Eczema herpeticum was first described by Hungarian dermatologist Moriz Kaposi in 1887. Fritz Juliusberg coined the term Pustulosis varioliformis acute in 1898. Eczema herpeticum is caused by Herpes simplex virus HV1, the virus that\ncauses cold sores; it can also be caused by other related viruses.","-24.66991321972455"],["Melanizing agents Melanizing agents are drugs that increase sensitivity to solar radiation and promote re-pigmentation of de-pigmented areas of skin. Furocoumarins stimulate melanocytes and induce their proliferation on activation by light. Melanizing agents sensitize the skin to sunlight. As a result, erythema, inflammation and pigmentation occurs. Drugs Psoralen is a natural drug obtained from the fruit of Psoralea corylifolia. Methoxsalen and Trioxsalen are synthetic psoralens. These drugs can be used either topically or orally. Topical therapy The drug solution is painted on the vitiliginous lesion and exposed to sunlight for around one minute. It is then occluded by","-24.625711820321158"],["histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT) and aldehyde oxidases (AOX1). In histamine intolerance, the activity of DAO is limited, and histamine taken up by the diet and formed in the body is only partially metabolized. The consumption of histamine-containing food (e.g. red wine or hard cheese) leads to a pseudoallergic reaction. It is unclear how histamine passes through the intestinal wall during absorption and enters the blood without coming into contact with the aldehyde oxidases expressed in intestinal cells and histamine N-methyltransferases. Active or passive exposure to tobacco smoke is suspected to favor histamine intolerance, but has not been adequately studied. Potentially","-24.619008724359446"],["in a more \"adult\" body odor. This often precedes thelarche and pubarche by one or more years. Another androgen effect is increased secretion of oil (sebum) from the skin. This change increases the susceptibility to acne, a skin condition that is characteristic of puberty. Acne varies greatly in its severity. Visual and other effects of hormonal changes In girls, estradiol (the primary female sex hormone) causes thickening of lips and oral mucosa as well as further development of the vulva. In the vulva and vagina, estradiol causes thickening (stratification) of the skin and the growth of both the myoepithelial layer","-24.617953556444263"],["as being sweet smelling. It was once one of the top 20 used chemicals in the United States, being found in gasoline, rubber, plastics, oils, and even explosives. Benzene is also a carcinogen, meaning it can cause cancer if one is exposed to it for a long period of time. It is ranked in the top 10% of the most hazardous compounds to human health and the environment, based on how toxic it is when ingested or inhaled, how it affects human health, workers exposure to the chemical, cancer and noncancer risk scores through air and water, and how toxic","-24.61511443107156"],["beverages. In a 1994 report released by five top cigarette companies, eucalyptol was listed as one of the 599 additives to cigarettes. It is claimed to be added to improve the flavor.\nEucalyptol is an ingredient in commercial mouthwashes, and has been used in traditional medicine as a cough suppressant. Insecticide and repellent Eucalyptol is used as an insecticide and insect repellent.\nIn contrast, eucalyptol is one of many compounds that are attractive to males of various species of orchid bees, which gather the chemical to synthesize pheromones; it is commonly used as bait to attract and collect these bees for study.","-24.61380200003623"],["eosinophilia. Drug reactions Allergic reactions to drugs are a common cause of eosinophilia, with manifestations ranging from diffuse maculopapular rash, to severe life-threatening drug reactions with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS). Drugs that has, allopurinol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), some antipsychotics such as risperidone, and certain antibiotics. Phenibut, an analogue of the neurotransmitter GABA, has also been implicated in high doses. The reaction which has been shown to be T-cell mediated may also cause eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. Pathophysiology IgE mediated eosinophil production is induced by compounds released by basophils and mast cells, including eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis, leukotriene B4 and","-24.59698618412949"],["amino acids and their harmful derivatives in the body. These accumulations lend a sweet smell to bodily excretions (such as ear wax and urine), leading to a pathology known as maple syrup urine disease.\nThis enzyme is an autoantigen recognized in primary biliary cirrhosis, a form of acute liver failure. These antibodies appear to recognize oxidized protein that has resulted from inflammatory immune responses. Some of these inflammatory responses are explained by gluten sensitivity. Other mitochondrial autoantigens\ninclude pyruvate dehydrogenase and branched-chain oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, which are antigens recognized by anti-mitochondrial antibodies.","-24.59004362457199"],["Anacardic acids Anacardic acids are phenolic lipids, chemical compounds found in the shell of the cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale). An acid form of urushiol, they also cause an allergic skin rash on contact, known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis. Anacardic acid is a yellow liquid. It is partially miscible with ethanol and ether, but nearly immiscible with water. Chemically, anacardic acid is a mixture of several closely related organic compounds. Each consists of a salicylic acid substituted with an alkyl chain that has 15 or 17 carbon atoms. The alkyl group may be saturated or unsaturated; anacardic acid is","-24.58526397155947"],["xylazine is used in conjunction with heroin and cocaine.\nChronic use is reported to be associated with physical deterioration, dependence, abscesses, and skin ulceration, which can be physically debilitating and painful. Hypertension followed by hypotension, bradycardia, and respiratory depression lower tissue oxygenation in the skin. Thus, chronic use of xylazine can progress the skin oxygenation deficit, leading to severe skin ulceration. Lower skin oxygenation is associated with impaired healing of wounds and a higher chance of infection. The ulcers may have a characteristic odor and ooze pus. In severe cases, amputations must be performed on the affected extremities. Overdose The known","-24.584817475202726"],["drinks. It is used as a food and drink sweetener and is an obesogen. Acting on insulin and leptin in the body, HFCS potentially increases appetite and fat production.\nNicotine is the chemical found in tobacco products and certain insecticides. As an obesogen, nicotine mostly acts on prenatal development after maternal smoking occurs. A strong association has been made between maternal smoking and childhood overweight/obesity, with nicotine as the single causal agent.\nArsenic is a metalloid (i.e., an element with some metallic properties) found in and on most naturally occurring substances on Earth. It can be found in the soil, ground water,","-24.57022543158382"],["occasion, serum levels of the drug can be identified from oral, vaginal, or cutaneous administration, and lead to toxicity. Mechanism of action Like amphotericin B and natamycin, nystatin is an ionophore. It binds to ergosterol, a major component of the fungal cell membrane. When present in sufficient concentrations, it forms pores in the membrane that lead to K⁺ leakage, acidification, and death of the fungus. Ergosterol is a sterol unique to fungi, so the drug does not have such catastrophic effects on animals or plants. However, many of the systemic/toxic effects of nystatin in humans are attributable to its","-24.55880153120961"],["Ectopic expression Ectopic is a word used with a prefix, ecto, meaning “out of place.” Ectopic expression is an abnormal gene expression in a cell type, tissue type, or developmental stage in which the gene is not usually expressed. The term ectopic expression is predominately used in studies using metazoans, especially in Drosophila melanogaster for research purposes. How it is useful Although ectopic expression can be caused by a natural condition, it is uncommonly seen in nature because it is a product of defects in gene regulation. In fact, ectopic expression is more commonly used for research purposes. Artificially induced","-24.558090263046324"],["Plasma cell gingivitis may also occur, which may be accompanied by glossitis and cheilitis.\nAllergens that may cause allergic contact stomatitis in some individuals include cinnamaldehyde, Balsam of Peru, peppermint, mercury, gold, pyrophosphates, zinc citrate, free acrylic monomer, nickel, fluoride, and sodium lauryl sulfate. These allergens may originate from many sources, including various foods and drink, chewing gum, toothpaste, mouthwash, dental floss, dental fillings, dentures, orthodontic bands or wires, and many other sources. If the substance containing the allergen comes into contact with the lips, allergic contact cheilitis can occur, together with allergic contact stomatitis.\nThe diagnosis is confirmed by patch test,","-24.545737093067146"],["is dryness and itching on the upper eyelids. This condition is often seeing in young people and can lead to reddish dry eye and scaly eyebrows. To relieve the itching sensation, one may need to apply warm compresses and use topical corticosteroid creams. Skin Eczema is another cause of chronic irritation and affects millions of individuals. Eczema simply means a dry skin which is itchy. The condition usually starts at an early age and continues throughout life. The major complaint of people who suffer from eczema is an itchy dry skin. Sometimes, the itching will be associated with a skin","-24.545534150791354"],["caused by an inflammatory reaction in the skin, causing leakage of capillaries in the dermis, and resulting in an edema which persists until the interstitial fluid is absorbed into the surrounding cells.\nHives are caused by the release of histamine and other mediators of inflammation (cytokines) from cells in the skin. This process can be the result of an allergic or nonallergic reaction, differing in the eliciting mechanism of histamine release. Allergic hives Histamine and other proinflammatory substances are released from mast cells in the skin and tissues in response to the binding of allergen-bound IgE antibodies to high-affinity cell surface","-24.544051019416656"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"common in people with eczema because their skin is more sensitive to irritants. Other conditions possibly associated include plasma cell gingivitis, Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome, or sideropenic dysphagia (also called Plummer-Vinson syndrome or Paterson-Brown-Kelly syndrome). Drugs Several drugs may cause AC as a side effect, by various mechanisms, such as creating drug-induced xerostomia. Various examples include isotretinoin, indinavir, and sorafenib. Isotretinoin (Accutane), an analog of vitamin A, is a medication which dries the skin. Less commonly, angular cheilitis is associated with primary hypervitaminosis A, which can occur when large amounts of liver (including cod liver oil and other fish oils) are regularly\",\n \"-31.014055597086553\"\n ],\n [\n \"was historically known as chlorosis or green sickness for the distinct skin tinge sometimes present in patients, in addition to more general symptoms such as a lack of energy, shortness of breath, dyspepsia, headaches, a capricious or scanty appetite and amenorrhea. Acquired forms Hypochromic anemia may be caused by vitamin B6 deficiency from a low iron intake, diminished iron absorption, or excessive iron loss. It can also be caused by infections (e.g. hookworms) or other diseases (i.e. anemia of chronic disease), therapeutic drugs, copper toxicity, and lead poisoning. One acquired form of anemia is also known as Faber's syndrome. It\",\n \"-28.354029261157848\"\n ],\n [\n \"contact dermatitis. Classification The term \\\"eczema\\\" refers to a set of clinical characteristics. Classification of the underlying diseases has been haphazard with numerous different classification systems, and many synonyms being used to describe the same condition.\\nA type of dermatitis may be described by location (e.g., hand eczema), by specific appearance (eczema craquele or discoid) or by possible cause (varicose eczema). Further adding to the confusion, many sources use the term eczema interchangeably for the most common type: atopic dermatitis.\\nThe European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) published a position paper in 2001, which simplifies the nomenclature of allergy-related diseases,\",\n \"-27.974406231660396\"\n ],\n [\n \"researchers in e-liquids (chromium, lead, and nickel) and in vapor from e-cigarettes (chromium, nickel, and copper) Some of the other elements that we detected on surfaces are found in human sweat (calcium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorous [sic]). It is unknown if their presence on surfaces was from e-cigarettes, people touching surfaces, or both.\\\" In-store air quality A 2017 United States Department of Health and Human Services report evaluated concerns about exposure to vaping-related chemicals in a vape shop. Exposure to flavoring chemicals (diacetyl, 2,3-pentanedione, acetaldehyde), formaldehyde, nicotine, and propylene glycol were all below occupational exposure limits (OELs). They found that\",\n \"-27.340981889748946\"\n ],\n [\n \"Related processes are known as sweetening. Safety Low molecular weight simple amines, such as ethylamine, are only weakly toxic with LD₅₀ between 100 and 1000 mg/kg. They are skin irritants, especially as some are easily absorbed through the skin. Amines are a broad class of compounds, and more complex members of the class can be extremely bioactive, for example strychnine and heroin.\",\n \"-27.288493515836308\"\n ],\n [\n \"affected by hand eczema also experience skin inflammation on their feet. Often, a contact allergy to an ingredient in shoe leather treatment may be the catalyst. Contact allergies in certain types of employment are especially problematic, particularly if the work involves the handling of allergenic materials, e.g. masonry work or hairdressing.\\nPeople allergic to Balsam of Peru may experience a flare-up of hand eczema if they use or consume products that use it as an ingredient.\\nSevere and chronic eczema qualifies as one of the most frequent occupational illnesses. Patients should therefore be referred to an occupational-dermatological specialist as soon as possible.\",\n \"-27.146781095216284\"\n ],\n [\n \"individuals with celiac disease and about two times more frequently in relatives of those with celiac disease, potentially indicating a genetic link between the conditions. Pathophysiology All eczemas are characterized by spongiosis which allows inflammatory mediators to accumulate. Different dendritic cells subtypes, such as Langerhans cells, inflammatory dendritic epidermal cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells have a role to play. Diagnosis Diagnosis of eczema is based mostly on the history and physical examination. In uncertain cases, skin biopsy may be useful. Those with eczema may be especially prone to misdiagnosis of food allergies.\\nPatch tests are used in the diagnosis of allergic\",\n \"-27.062178904307075\"\n ],\n [\n \"acne from reducing sugars in the diet, to medications that include antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, retinoids and hormonal treatments. Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands. Should the usual treatments fail, the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause. History The word sebaceous, meaning \\\"consisting of sebum\\\", was first termed in 1728 and comes from the Latin for tallow. Sebaceous glands have been documented since at least 1746 by Jean Astruc, who defined them as \\\"...the glands which separate the fat.\\\" He describes them in the oral cavity, on the head,\",\n \"-26.894948879722506\"\n ],\n [\n \"Chloracne Cause Chloracne normally results from direct skin contact with chloracnegens, although ingestion and inhalation are also possible causative routes.\\nChloracnegens are fat-soluble, meaning they persist in the body fat for a very long period following exposure. Chloracne is a chronic inflammatory condition that results from this persistence, in combination with the toxin's chemical properties. It is believed, at least from rodent models, that the toxin activates a series of receptors promoting macrophage proliferation, inducing neutrophilia and leading to a generalised inflammatory response in the skin. This process may also be augmented by induction of excess tumor necrosis factor in the\",\n \"-26.8764170355862\"\n ],\n [\n \"that EC users are exposed to dangerous levels of aldehydes.\\\" However, e-cigarette users may \\\"learn\\\" to overcome the unpleasant taste due to elevated aldehyde formation, when the nicotine craving is high enough. E-cigarette users who use devices that contain nicotine are exposed to its potentially harmful effects. Nicotine is associated with cardiovascular disease, possible birth defects, and poisoning. In vitro studies of nicotine have associated it with cancer, but carcinogenicity has not been demonstrated in vivo. There is inadequate research to show that nicotine is associated with cancer in humans. The risk is probably low from the inhalation of propylene\",\n \"-26.74311505543301\"\n ],\n [\n \"no traces. In addition, it is naturally antibacterial, especially against the bacterial strains, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and is ideal for people that suffer from textile allergies.\\nFabrics made from Qmilk fiber provide high wearing comfort and a silky feel.The organic fiber is tested for harmful substances and dermatologically tested for the wearer’s skin and body compatibility 0% chemical additives. S.Café S.Café technology involves recycling used ground coffee beans into yarns. A piece of S.Café fabric is made with less energy in the process and is able to mask body odour. In addition, S.Café yarn offers 200% faster drying time\",\n \"-26.639422351549\"\n ],\n [\n \"Smoker's melanosis Causes Smoking or the use of nicotine-containing drugs is the cause to Smoker's melanosis,. Also tar-components (benzopyrenes) are known to stimulate melanocytes to melanin production, and other unknown toxic agents in tobacco may also be the cause. These chemical agents have a polycyclic, chain-like structure. Environmental tobacco smoke from parents is causing smoker's melanosis in their children Swedish snuff causes a small elevation of oral melanin pigmented individuals from 3.0% to 4.7%. Nicotine tablets have shown to stimulate to melanin pigmentation of the oral mucosa. Treatment and prognosis Lesions usually disappear between 3\",\n \"-26.554078563844087\"\n ],\n [\n \"occur especially with the help of music. An unusual but unique characteristic of mescaline use is the \\\"geometricization\\\" of three-dimensional objects. The object can appear flattened and distorted, similar to the presentation of a Cubist painting.\\nMescaline elicits a pattern of sympathetic arousal, with the peripheral nervous system being a major target for this substance. United States In the United States, mescaline was made illegal in 1970 by the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act, categorized as a Schedule I hallucinogen. The drug was prohibited internationally by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Mescaline is legal only for certain religious\",\n \"-26.50434727204265\"\n ],\n [\n \"that exposure to bacteria and other immune system modulators is important during development, and missing out on this exposure increases the risk for asthma and allergy.\\nWhile it has been suggested that eczema may sometimes be an allergic reaction to the excrement from house dust mites, with up to 5% of people showing antibodies to the mites, the overall role this plays awaits further corroboration. Genetic A number of genes have been associated with eczema, one of which is filaggrin. Genome-wide studies found three new genetic variants associated with eczema: OVOL1, ACTL9 and IL4-KIF3A.\\nEczema occurs about three times more frequently in\",\n \"-26.41072297556093\"\n ],\n [\n \"replaced by mitosis at the base of the duct. Sebum Sebum, secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans, is primarily composed of triglycerides (≈41%), wax esters (≈26%), squalene (≈12%), and free fatty acids (≈16%). The composition of sebum varies across species. Wax esters and squalene are unique to sebum and not produced as final products anywhere else in the body. Sapienic acid is a sebum fatty acid that is unique to humans, and is implicated in the development of acne. Sebum is odorless, but its breakdown by bacteria can produce strong odors.\\nSex steroids are known to affect the rate of\",\n \"-26.310679845162667\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ectoine Biosynthesis Ectoine is synthesized in three successive enzymatic reactions starting from aspartic β-semialdehyde. The genes involved in the biosynthesis are called ectA, ectB and ectC and they encode the enzymes L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid acetyltransferase, L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid transaminase, and L-ectoine synthase, respectively. Use Ectoine is used as an active ingredient in skin care and sun protection products. It stabilizes proteins and other cellular structures and protects the skin from stresses like UV irradiation and dryness.\",\n \"-26.29728292132495\"\n ],\n [\n \"and ethers, used in the soap, perfume, and flavor industries. \\nE.g. benzyl benzoate, benzyl salicylate, benzyl cinnamate, dibenzyl ether, benzyl butyl phthalate . \\nIt is also used in e-liquid for e-cigarettes to enhance the flavors used. When applied to damaged skin or mucous membranes at a 10% concentration, it acts as a local anesthetic and antimicrobial agent. It can be utilized as a degreaser in rug cleaning products. As a dye solvent, it enhances the process of dying wool, nylon, and leather. It also has use as a photographic film developer, and as an insect repellent. Use\",\n \"-26.294906145194545\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the inherited condition known as glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, which over 400 million people suffer from. Humans, in particular children, have developed the condition known as hemolytic anemia, after ingesting mothballs or deodorant blocks containing naphthalene. Symptoms include fatigue, lack of appetite, restlessness, and pale skin. Exposure to large amounts of naphthalene may cause confusion, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, blood in the urine, and jaundice (yellow coloration of the skin due to dysfunction of the liver).\\nThe US National Toxicology Program (NTP) held an experiment where male and female rats and mice were exposed to naphthalene vapors on weekdays for two\",\n \"-26.25299680250464\"\n ],\n [\n \"Bismuth subsalicylate Medical uses As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismuth subsalicylate displays anti-inflammatory and bactericidal action. It also acts as an antacid. Adverse effects There are some adverse effects. It can cause a black tongue and black stools in some users of the drug when it combines with trace amounts of sulfur in saliva and the colon to form bismuth sulfide. Bismuth sulfide is a highly insoluble black salt, and the discoloration seen is temporary and harmless.\\nLong-term use (greater than 6 weeks) may lead to accumulation and toxicity. Some of the risks of salicylism can apply to the use\",\n \"-26.091193302650936\"\n ],\n [\n \"Basophil activation Allergic symptoms are caused by an initial systemic histamine release by activated basophils and mast cells, that may lead to shock with laryngeal edema, lower-airway obstruction and hypotension. This is why basophils are considered with mast cells to be the key cells in allergic diseases. Activation process Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a class of antibody (or immunoglobulin \\\"isotype\\\") that has only been found in mammals. It plays an important role in allergy, and is especially associated with type 1 hypersensitivity. There are receptors (FcεR) for the constant region of IgE, the Fc region, on several types of cells,\",\n \"-26.023236491979333\"\n ],\n [\n \"and mitochondria. This led the authors of the study to conclude that \\\"inhalational exposures of cinnamaldehyde may increase the risk of respiratory infections in e-cigarette users.\\\" Some e-liquids containing cinnamaldehyde stimulate TRPA1, which might induce effects on the lung. E-liquids contain possibly toxic aldehydes and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many flavors are known aldehydes, such as anisaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, and isovaleraldehyde. A 2012 study found butterscotch flavor was highly toxic with one liquid and two others had a low toxicity. A 2014 in vitro study demonstrated that e-cigarette use of a \\\"balsamic\\\" flavor with no nicotine can activate the release of\",\n \"-25.987374071293743\"\n ],\n [\n \"substances triggers the production of the antibody immunoglobulin E (IgE), which binds to mast cells and basophils. IgE bound to mast cells are stimulated by pollen and dust, causing the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine. In turn, this causes, among other things, inflammation and swelling of the tissue of the nasal cavities as well as increased mucus production. Particulate matter in polluted air and chemicals such as chlorine and detergents, which can normally be tolerated, can make the condition considerably worse. Lacrimation Rhinorrhea is also associated with shedding tears, whether from emotional events or from eye irritation. When\",\n \"-25.949509755067993\"\n ],\n [\n \"include: solvents (alcohol, xylene, turpentine, esters, acetone, ketones, and others); metalworking fluids (neat oils, water-based metalworking fluids with surfactants); latex; kerosene; ethylene oxide; surfactants in topical medications and cosmetics (sodium lauryl sulfate); and alkalis (drain cleaners, strong soap with lye residues).\\nPhysical irritant contact dermatitis may most commonly be caused by low humidity from air conditioning. Also, many plants directly irritate the skin. Allergic contact dermatitis Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is accepted to be the most prevalent form of immunotoxicity found in humans, and is a common occupational and environmental health problem. By its allergic nature, this form of contact dermatitis\",\n \"-25.825368466670625\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the alveoli, and may be caused by tuberculosis. Emphysema, commonly a result of smoking, is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli. Urinary system The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body. Anatomy Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the torso. The\",\n \"-25.747112761077005\"\n ],\n [\n \"impurities are not known. A 2016 review found \\\"Some studies have demonstrated that impurities and nicotine degradation products such as nicotine-cis-N-oxide, nicotine-trans-N-oxide, myosmine, anabasine, and anatabine, which are very carcinogenic, can be found in e-cigarette refill liquids. The molecules can lead to mutations in genes such as Ras (vital function in signal transduction of cell proliferation), p53 and Retinoblastoma (with roles as tumour suppressors) as these molecules can form adducts with cellular DNA.\\\" The majority of e-cigarettes evaluated included carcinogenic TSNAs; heavy metals such as cadmium, nickel, and lead; and the carcinogen toluene. However, in comparison to traditional cigarette smoke,\",\n \"-25.708908633328974\"\n ],\n [\n \"have been used to create a breakthrough in manufacturing carbon nanotubes at scale that are separated and not twisted, without additional chemicals that change the surface properties of the nanotubes according to sciencedaily.com. Health effects When cresols are inhaled, ingested, or applied to the skin, they can be very harmful. Effects observed in people include irritation and burning of skin, eyes, mouth, and throat; abdominal pain and vomiting; heart damage; anemia; liver and kidney damage; facial paralysis; coma; and death.\\nBreathing high levels of cresols for a short time results in irritation of the nose and throat. Aside from these effects,\",\n \"-25.685386108212697\"\n ],\n [\n \"excess of chemicals, e.g., cytokines and histamine. The common characteristic among different causes of eosinophilic pneumonia is eosinophil overreaction or dysfunction in the lungs. Medications and environmental exposures Medications, substance abuse, and environmental exposures may all trigger eosinophil dysfunction. Medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., ibuprofen), nitrofurantoin, phenytoin, L-tryptophan, daptomycin and ampicillin, and drugs of abuse such as inhaled heroin and cocaine may trigger an allergic response which results in eosinophilic pneumonia. Chemicals such as sulfites, aluminum silicate, and cigarette smoke can cause eosinophilic pneumonia when inhaled. A New York City firefighter developed eosinophilic pneumonia after inhalation of dust\",\n \"-25.632932298467495\"\n ],\n [\n \"other diseases including various eosinophlic skin diseases, abnormally high levels of circulating blood eosinophils, the hypereosinophilic syndrome, the Churg‐Strauss syndrome, ulcerative colitis, arthralgias, myalgias, facial nerve paralysis, photosensitivity, polycythemia vera, chronic myeloid leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, Hodgkin lymphoma, nasopharyngeal cancer, and renal cell carcinoma. Episodes of the disorder are sometimes triggered by: drugs (e.g. antimicrobial agents, biologics, antihypertensive agents, diuretics, thyroid hormones, analgesics, cytostatic agents, and anesthetics); vaccines; skin contact with chemicals (e.g. p-phenylenediamine, thiomersal, and cladribine); viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections; and insect bites.\\nMosquitos are among the insects known to trigger MBA in individuals with eosinophilic cellulitis,\",\n \"-25.620008826649382\"\n ],\n [\n \"melanocyte toxicity . Melanocytes are melanin-producing cells, primarily responsible for skin colour. Melanocyte toxicity induces apoptosis of the cell, causing the melanocytes to die. This is due to an increased expression of caspase‐3 and caspase‐8 . Caspase proteins are crucial mediators of apoptosis, with caspase-3 and caspase-8 being death proteases . Considering melanocytes are responsible for skin colour, apoptosis of these cells causes the colour of the skin to vanish . This disease caused by rhododendrol is called leukoderma. Leukoderma, also known as vitiligo, is a skin disease characterized by patches of the skin losing their pigment. This rhododendrol-induced\",\n \"-25.61217805580236\"\n ],\n [\n \"cellobiose or glucose in an acidic medium, and eventually form valuable humus. Humans cannot digest cellulose and excrete the fibers in feces, because, unlike ruminant animals, rabbits, rodents, termites, and some bacteria and fungi, they lack cellulolytic enzymes such as cellulase. Litter Cigarette butts are the most common form of anthropogenic (man-made) litter in the world, as approximately 5.6 trillion cigarettes are smoked every year worldwide. Of those it is estimated that 4.5 trillion cigarette butts become litter every year. The cellulose acetate fibers used as the predominant filter material do not readily biodegrade because of the acetyl groups on\",\n \"-25.505923533812165\"\n ],\n [\n \"Barium oxalate Properties Though largely stable, barium oxalate can be reactive with strong acids. A mild skin irritant, the substance is considered toxic when ingested, causing nausea, vomiting, renal failure, and injury to the gastrointestinal tract.\\nIt is different from most pyrotechnic colorants in that it is a reducing agent and not an oxidizing agent. It is extremely insoluble in water and converts to the oxide form when heated.\",\n \"-25.45234488346614\"\n ],\n [\n \"metabolism. The direct toxicity to the cells leads to an increase in capillary permeability. Furthermore, when phosgene hydrolyzes it forms hydrochloric acid, which can damage the cell surface and cause cell death in the alveoli and bronchioles. The hydrochloric acid triggers an inflammatory response that attracts neutrophils to the lungs, which causes pulmonary edema. Ammonia Ammonia is generally used in household cleaning products, as well as on farms and in some industrial and commercial locations, and this makes it easy for accidental or deliberate exposure to occur. Ammonia interacts with moist surfaces to form ammonium hydroxide, which causes necrosis of\",\n \"-25.330535396002233\"\n ],\n [\n \"Basophils appear in many specific kinds of inflammatory reactions, particularly those that cause allergic symptoms. Basophils contain anticoagulant heparin, which prevents blood from clotting too quickly. They also contain the vasodilator histamine, which promotes blood flow to tissues. They can be found in unusually high numbers at sites of ectoparasite infection, e.g., ticks. Like eosinophils, basophils play a role in both parasitic infections and allergies. They are found in tissues where allergic reactions are occurring and probably contribute to the severity of these reactions. Basophils have protein receptors on their cell surface that bind IgE, an immunoglobulin involved in macroparasite\",\n \"-25.29086228774395\"\n ],\n [\n \"levels of aldehydes.\\\" However, e-cigarette users may learn to overcome the unpleasant taste due to elevated aldehyde formation, when the nicotine craving is high enough. Nicotine Pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers, and the elderly are more sensitive to nicotine than other individuals. There are safety issues with the nicotine exposure from e-cigarettes, which may cause addiction and other adverse effects. Nicotine is regarded as a potentially lethal poison. Concerns exist that vaping can be harmful by exposing users to toxic levels of nicotine. At low amounts, it has a mild analgesic effect. At sufficiently high doses, nicotine may result in nausea,\",\n \"-25.269312618111144\"\n ],\n [\n \"the substance that need be give extra care to since it have huge effect on the human body. \\nIn the mechanism, Atheronal A are produces from a process called ozonolysis. Next, the Atheronal A go through aldol reaction that occur so smoothly in the biological system to produce Atheronal B. Secosterol-A and -B were produced in an ozone-autonomous way using the Hock-cleavage of 5α-hydroperoxy cholesterol, which can emerge from the singlet oxygen ene reaction with cholesterol. However, Secosterol-B is shaped effectively under acidic conditions in natural solvents, yet secosterol-A is either not framed at all or is a minor part\",\n \"-25.247344513132703\"\n ],\n [\n \"interaction.\\n\\\"Chamomile consists of several ingredients including coumarin, glycoside, herniarin, flavonoid, farnesol, nerolidol and germacranolide. Despite the presence of coumarin, as chamomile’s effect on the coagulation system has not yet been studied, it is unknown if a clinically significant drug-herb interaction exists with antiplatelet/anticoagulant drugs. However, until more information is available, it is not recommended to use these substances concurrently.\\\"\\nPeople who are allergic to ragweed (also in the daisy family) may be allergic to chamomile due to cross-reactivity. Chamomile should not be used by people with past or present cancers of the breast, ovary, uterus, endometriosis or uterine fibroids. Pregnancy and\",\n \"-25.23883876192849\"\n ],\n [\n \"found in the e-cigarette vapor may induce cell damage and initiate inflammatory cytokine such as in human lung fibroblasts. A 2017 review found \\\"E-cigarette aerosols and copper nanoparticles induced mitochondrial ROS production, mitochondrial stress (reduced stability of OxPhos electron transport chain (ETC) complex IV subunit) and DNA fragmentation in lung fibroblasts.\\\" A 2013 review found metallic and nanoparticles are associated with respiratory distress and disease. A 2014 review found considerable amounts of tin, metals, and silicate particles that came from various components of the e-cigarette were released into the aerosol, which result in exposure that could be higher than with\",\n \"-25.23321266262792\"\n ],\n [\n \"skin color between lightly and darkly pigmented individuals is due not to the number (quantity) of melanocytes in their skin, but to the melanocytes' level of activity (quantity and relative amounts of eumelanin and pheomelanin). This process is under hormonal control, including the MSH and ACTH peptides that are produced from the precursor proopiomelanocortin.\\nPeople with oculocutaneous albinism typically have a very low level of melanin production. Albinism is often but not always related to the TYR gene coding the tyrosinase enzyme. Tyrosinase is required for melanocytes to produce melanin from the amino acid tyrosine. Albinism may be caused by\",\n \"-25.217590295593254\"\n ],\n [\n \"cardiotoxicity, which considerably limits their usefulness. Use of anthracyclines has also been shown to be significantly associated with cycle 1 severe or febrile neutropenia. Other adverse effects include vomiting.\\nThe drugs act mainly by intercalating with DNA and interfering with DNA metabolism and RNA production. Cytotoxicity is primarily due to inhibition of topoisomerase II after the enzyme induces a break in DNA, preventing religation of the break and leading to cell death. The basic structure of anthracyclines is that of a tetracyclic molecule with an anthraquinone backbone connected to a sugar moiety by a glycosidic linkage. When taken up by a\",\n \"-25.215628029196523\"\n ],\n [\n \"colleagues in 2008. However, the latter findings have been controversial. If it exists, the phenomenon might be mediated by olfaction, as MHC phenotype appears strongly involved in the strength and pleasantness of perceived odour of compounds from sweat. Fatty acid esters—such as methyl undecanoate, methyl decanoate, methyl nonanoate, methyl octanoate, and methyl hexanoate—show strong connection to MHC.\\nIn 1995, Claus Wedekind found that in a group of female college students who smelled T-shirts worn by male students for two nights (without deodorant, cologne, or scented soaps), by far most women chose shirts worn by men of dissimilar MHCs, a preference reversed\",\n \"-25.18851780344994\"\n ],\n [\n \"exposure for humans include emissions, auto exhaust, and cigarette smoke that can expose the human subject directly if they inhale or smoke. Routes of exposure include inhalation, oral, and to a certain extent dermal uptake (tested with volunteer humans and in rat studies). Repeated exposure causes skin sensitization and may cause central nervous system and liver damage.\\nThere are two main excretion processes of acrylonitrile. The primary method is excretion in urine when acrylonitrile is metabolized by being directly conjugated to glutathione. The other method is when acrylonitrile is metabolized with 2-cyanoethylene oxide to produce cyanide end products that ultimately forms\",\n \"-25.177014570857864\"\n ],\n [\n \"Acholia Etymology Ancient Greek: a + chole (without bile). Cause A condition in which little or no bile is secreted or the flow of bile into the digestive tract is obstructed. The acholia is a sign of many diseases, such as hepatitis.\\nAcholia results of a fading of feces.\",\n \"-25.164183350105304\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the DNA of the end product of the chromium(III) reduction.\\nChromium salts (chromates) are also the cause of allergic reactions in some people. Chromates are often used to manufacture, amongst other things, leather products, paints, cement, mortar and anti-corrosives. Contact with products containing chromates can lead to allergic contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis, resulting in ulceration of the skin, sometimes referred to as \\\"chrome ulcers\\\". This condition is often found in workers that have been exposed to strong chromate solutions in electroplating, tanning and chrome-producing manufacturers. Environmental issues Because chromium compounds were used in dyes, paints, and leather tanning compounds,\",\n \"-25.148955287702847\"\n ],\n [\n \"inflammation. Fruity, sweet, and traditional tobacco flavorings may result in lung toxicity. Flavorings can harm lung cells by producing free radicals and inflammation. Some e-liquids containing cinnamaldehyde stimulate TRPA1, which might induce effects on the lung. In human lung fibroblasts, cinnamon roll flavoring resulted in a noticeable rise in the amount of inflammatory cytokine IL-8. E-liquids contain possibly toxic aldehydes and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many flavors are known aldehydes, such as anisaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, and isovaleraldehyde. Saccharides in sweet e-liquid flavors break down and generate furans and aldehydes when vaporized. The consequences of aldehyde-containing flavors on pulmonary surfaces are unknown.\",\n \"-25.14699100627331\"\n ],\n [\n \"ozone pollution.\\nThe innate (cellular) immune system consists of various chemical signals and cell types that work broadly and against multiple pathogen types, typically bacteria or foreign bodies/substances in the host. The cells of the innate system include phagocytes, neutrophils, both thought to contribute to the mechanism of ozone pathology in the lungs, as the functioning of these cell types have been shown to change after exposure to ozone. Macrophages, cells that serve the purpose of eliminating pathogens or foreign material through the process of \\\"phagocytosis\\\", have been shown to change the level of inflammatory signals they release in response\",\n \"-25.12349327345146\"\n ],\n [\n \"body. Ipecac abuse can cause detrimental health effects.\\nEmetics can be divided into two classes, those which produce their effect by acting on the vomiting centre in the medulla, and those which act directly on the stomach itself. Some emetics, such as ipecac, come under both heads; they initially act directly on the stomach, while their further and more vigorous effect occurs by stimulation of the medullary centre.\\nSalt water and mustard water, which act directly on the stomach, have been used since ancient times as emetics. Care must be taken with salt, as excessive intake can potentially be harmful.Copper sulfate was\",\n \"-25.11753163972753\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sarcosinemia Cause and genetics Sarcosinemia is thought to be caused by a mutation in the sarcosine dehydrogenase (SARDH) gene, which is located at human chromosome 9q34.\\nThe disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, which means the defective gene responsible for the disorder is located on an autosome (chromosome 9 is an autosome), and two copies of the defective gene (one inherited from each parent) are required in order to be born with the disorder. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder both carry one copy of the defective gene, but usually do not experience any signs\",\n \"-25.115046985942172\"\n ],\n [\n \"in lung cancer induction ...\\\" Oxidation and inflammation Free radicals and pro-oxidants in cigarettes damage blood vessels and oxidize LDL cholesterol. Only oxidized LDL cholesterol is taken-up by macrophages, which become foam cells, leading to atherosclerotic plaques. Cigarette smoke increases proinflammatory cytokines in the bloodstream, causing atherosclerosis. The pro-oxidative state also leads to endothelial dysfunction, which is another important cause of atherosclerosis. Nicotine Nicotine, which is contained in cigarettes and other smoked tobacco products, is a stimulant and is one of the main factors leading to continued tobacco smoking. Nicotine is a highly addictive psychoactive chemical. When tobacco is smoked,\",\n \"-25.107685109018348\"\n ],\n [\n \"Acinetobacter venetianus. After a certain period of time, an oily and saline environment containing A. borkumensis and Acinetobacter venetianus would eventually become dominated by A. borkumensis because A. borkumensis can consume a wider variety of alkanes than other known species. Metabolism A. borkumensis primarily uses alkanes as its source of energy/carbon, but it can use a few other organic compounds. Unlike most other cells, it cannot consume more common substances such as sugars or amino acids as a source of energy. This is due to the lack of genes that code for active or passive carbohydrate transporters, hence the\",\n \"-25.097672269679606\"\n ],\n [\n \"such particles causes or worsens respiratory diseases, such as emphysema or bronchitis, and aggravates existing heart disease.\\nNO\\n x reacts with volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight to form ozone. Ozone can cause adverse effects such as damage to lung tissue and reduction in lung function mostly in susceptible populations (children, elderly, asthmatics). Ozone can be transported by wind currents and cause health impacts far from the original sources. The American Lung Association estimates that nearly 50 percent of United States inhabitants live in counties that are not in ozone compliance. In South East England, ground level ozone\",\n \"-25.093040902982466\"\n ],\n [\n \"antigens are associated with inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, drug-induced vasculitis, autoimmune liver disease, drug induced syndromes and parasitic infections. Atypical ANCA is associated with drug-induced systemic vasculitis, inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis.\\nLevamisole, which is a common adulterant of cocaine, can cause an ANCA positive vasculitis.\\nThe presence or absence of ANCA cannot indicate presence or absence of disease and results are correlated with clinical features. The association of ANCA and disease activity remains controversial; however, the reappearance of ANCA after treatment can indicate a relapse. Pathogenesis Although the pathogenic role of ANCA is still controversial, in vitro and animal\",\n \"-25.092612345702946\"\n ],\n [\n \"industry. The practice has declined since reports of an allergy-like reaction of some persons to sulfites in foods. Pharmaceuticals Sulfur (specifically octasulfur, S₈) is used in pharmaceutical skin preparations for the treatment of acne and other conditions. It acts as a keratolytic agent and also kills bacteria, fungi, scabies mites, and other parasites. Precipitated sulfur and colloidal sulfur are used, in form of lotions, creams, powders, soaps, and bath additives, for the treatment of acne vulgaris, acne rosacea, and seborrhoeic dermatitis.\\nCommon adverse effects include irritation of the skin at the application site, such as dryness, stinging, itching and peeling. Furniture\",\n \"-25.065061923582107\"\n ],\n [\n \"Eosin Eosin is the name of several fluorescent acidic compounds which bind to and form salts with basic, or eosinophilic, compounds like proteins containing amino acid residues such as arginine and lysine, and stains them dark red or pink as a result of the actions of bromine on fluorescein. In addition to staining proteins in the cytoplasm, it can be used to stain collagen and muscle fibers for examination under the microscope. Structures that stain readily with eosin are termed eosinophilic. In the field of histology, Eosin Y is the form of eosin used most often as a histologic stain.\",\n \"-25.053547782008536\"\n ],\n [\n \"because they are nervous. Other factors can play a role, including certain foods and drinks, nicotine, caffeine, and smells. Secondary hyperhidrosis Similarly, secondary (generalized) hyperhidrosis has many causes including certain types of cancer, disturbances of the endocrine system, infections, and medications. Cancer A variety of cancers have been associated with the development of secondary hyperhidrosis including lymphoma, pheochromocytoma, carcinoid tumors (resulting in carcinoid syndrome), and tumors within the thoracic cavity. Endocrine Certain endocrine conditions are also known to cause secondary hyperhidrosis including diabetes mellitus (especially when blood sugars are low), acromegaly, hyperpituitarism, and various forms of thyroid disease. Medications Use\",\n \"-24.99609675523243\"\n ],\n [\n \"skin. Allergens There is currently no regulation over use of the term \\\"hypoallergenic\\\", and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. Those with eczema are especially vulnerable to an allergic reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with and activate immune cells.\\nThe American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.\",\n \"-24.992002874660102\"\n ],\n [\n \"skin highly lipophilic molecules such as testosterone, cannabinoids and ibuprofen, as well as hydrophilic drugs such as clindamycin phosphate, buspirone hydrochloride. They have been studied for the transdermal and intradermal delivery of peptides, steroids, antibiotics, prostaglandins, antivirals and anti-pyretics. The components used to make ethosomes are already approved for pharmaceutical and cosmetic use and the formulated vesicles are stable when stored. They can be incorporated in various pharmaceutical formulations such as gels, creams, emulsions and sprays. They're consequently being developed for pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical products. Ethosomal systems compare favourably to alternative carriers for quantity and depth of molecule delivery.\",\n \"-24.975743887305725\"\n ],\n [\n \"be a contributing factor of inflammation. The cause-and-effect relationship of how the ozone is created in the body and what it does is still under consideration and still subject to various interpretations, since other body chemical processes can trigger some of the same reactions. A team headed by Paul Wentworth Jr. of the Department of Chemistry at the Scripps Research Institute has shown evidence linking the antibody-catalyzed water-oxidation pathway of the human immune response to the production of ozone. In this system, ozone is produced by antibody-catalyzed production of trioxidane from water and neutrophil-produced singlet oxygen.\\nWhen inhaled, ozone reacts with\",\n \"-24.974442348262528\"\n ],\n [\n \"Deuterosome In cell biology, a deuterosome is a protein structure within a multiciliated cell (such as an epithelial cell of respiratory tract) that produces multiple centrioles.\\nMost cells in human body possess one primary cilium, a relatively small protrusion of the cell membrane that looks like a stick or a finger under the electron microscope. Primary cilium is typically used by the cell as a sensory organelle, or antenna. Some cells, however, have numerous cilia which they use to generate directed fluid flow. The examples include epithelial cells of the respiratory tract in which multiple cilia are used for mucus clearance,\",\n \"-24.974210461834446\"\n ],\n [\n \"Iminosugar An iminosugar, also known as an iminosaccharide, is any analog of a sugar where a nitrogen atom has replaced the oxygen atom in the ring of the structure.\\nIminosugars are common components of plants and may be responsible for some of their medicinal properties. The first iminosugar to be isolated from a natural source, 1-deoxynojirimycin (DNJ), found in Mulberry, was reported in 1976, but few others were discovered until many years later.\\nIn terms of biochemical activity for medicinal applications, DNJ and 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-D-arabinitol (DAB, another early example of this class of compounds) are alpha-glucosidase inhibitors and were shown to have anti-diabetic\",\n \"-24.956602338672383\"\n ],\n [\n \"Liquefactive necrosis Liquefactive necrosis (or colliquative necrosis) is a type of necrosis which results in a transformation of the tissue into a liquid viscous mass. Often it is associated with focal bacterial or fungal infections, and can also manifest as one of the symptoms of an internal chemical burn. In liquefactive necrosis, the affected cell is completely digested by hydrolytic enzymes, resulting in a soft, circumscribed lesion consisting of pus and the fluid remains of necrotic tissue. Dead leukocytes will remain as a creamy yellow pus. After the removal of cell debris by white blood cells, a\",\n \"-24.955388808193675\"\n ],\n [\n \"be found on many everyday food items, even the shortest exposure(through breathing or eating) to high amounts of benzene can lead to extreme cases of nausea, dizziness/tiredness, and can cause damage to the central nervous system, leading to things like paralysis, coma or death. Benzene is also a known carcinogen, and can cause things like anemia, leukemia, and if in contact with eyes, can cause blindness. Environmental damage As for environmental damage, benzene is very similar to toluene in that it is a VOC, and can cause poisonous smog if in contact with high amounts of light and moisture, and\",\n \"-24.94502037120401\"\n ],\n [\n \"the clinical manifestations of acanthocephaliasis and similar accounts are found in the few case studies since; many of the patients described were asymptomatic. When they showed symptoms, they normally experienced abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, edema, and anorexia. In some patients, giddiness has also been reported. In rodents, acanthocephaliasis is fatal and manifests itself through hemorrhaging and gastrointestinal disturbance. Diagnosis The proper diagnosis of acanthocephaliasis in humans is made through fecal analysis, which, if the host is infested, should contain adult worms or eggs. To obtain the worms from the host, piperazine citrate, levamisole and bithionol can be administered to the\",\n \"-24.939703221643867\"\n ],\n [\n \"by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Diacetyl is normally found at lower levels in e-cigarettes than in traditional cigarettes. Concerns exist that the flavors and additives in e-cigarettes might lead to diseases, including the popcorn lung. The cardiovascular effects, including a vast range of flavorings and fragrances, is unknown. The irritants butyl acetate, diethyl carbonate, benzoic acid, quinoline, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and 2,6-dimethyl phenol were present as undeclared ingredients in the e-liquid. Hindering safety assessments of e-liquids is the fact that the precise ingredients of e-cigarettes and e-liquids are not known. Heat-not-burn products Heat-not-burn tobacco products are\",\n \"-24.905650621047243\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ceramide Ceramides are a family of waxy lipid molecules. A ceramide is composed of sphingosine and a fatty acid. Ceramides are found in high concentrations within the cell membrane of eukaryotic cells, since they are component lipids that make up sphingomyelin, one of the major lipids in the lipid bilayer. Contrary to previous assumptions that ceramides and other sphingolipids found in cell membrane were purely supporting structural elements, ceramide can participate in a variety of cellular signaling: examples include regulating differentiation, proliferation, and programmed cell death (PCD) of cells.\\nThe word ceramide comes from the Latin cera (wax) and\",\n \"-24.893648840865353\"\n ],\n [\n \"Basophilia Causes Basophilia can be attributed to many causes such as inflammatory conditions, allergic diseases, myeloproliferative diseases, infectious diseases such as smallpox and chronic hemolytic anemia. Diagnosis Basophilia can be detected through a complete blood count (CBC). The cause of basophilia can be determined through a bone marrow biopsy, genetic testing to look for genetic mutations, or ultrasound to determine enlargement of the spleen. \\nBasophilia is associated with pruritus (itching) due to the release of histamine. Treatment Basophilia is not likely to be treated directly. Instead, treatments will focus on the person’s underlying medical treatment.\",\n \"-24.876148068302427\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hypochlorite Organic hypochlorites Hypochlorite esters are in general formed from the corresponding alcohols, by treatment with any of a number of reagents (e.g. chlorine, hypochlorous acid, dichlorine monoxide and various acidified hypochlorite salts). Immune response In response to infection, the human immune system generates minute quantities of hypochlorite within special white blood cells, called neutrophil granulocytes. These granulocytes engulf viruses and bacteria in an intracellular vacuole called the phagosome, where they are digested.\\nPart of the digestion mechanism involves an enzyme-mediated respiratory burst, which produces reactive oxygen-derived compounds, including superoxide (which is produced by NADPH oxidase). Superoxide decays to\",\n \"-24.865081405441742\"\n ],\n [\n \"in lysosomes. Cell secretion In response to low blood cholesterol, different cells of the body, mainly in the liver and intestines, start to synthesize cholesterol from acetyl-CoA by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. This is then released into the blood. Hyperlipidemia Hyperlipidemia is the presence of elevated or abnormal levels of lipids and/or lipoproteins in the blood.\\nLipid and lipoprotein abnormalities are extremely common in the general population, and are regarded as a highly modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease. In addition, some forms may predispose to acute pancreatitis. One of the most clinically relevant lipid substances is cholesterol, especially on atherosclerosis\",\n \"-24.86493411817355\"\n ],\n [\n \"greasy hair products (like pomades) can worsen acne. Skin products that claim to not clog pores may be labeled noncomedogenic or non-acnegenic. Make-up and skin products that are oil-free and water-based may be less likely to cause acne. It is not known whether dietary factors or sun exposure make comedones better, worse or have no effect.\\nA hair that does not emerge normally, an ingrown hair, can also block the pore and cause a bulge or lead to infection (causing inflammation and pus).\\nGenes may play a role in the chances of developing acne. Comedones may be more common in some ethnic\",\n \"-24.860418009746354\"\n ],\n [\n \"eosinophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells. The submucosa can show oedema and thickening, resulting in a subacute inflammation of the caecum and mucoid diarrhoea. Epidemiology Human gastrodiscoidiasis is endemic in Assam, and to a lesser extent in the Philippines. The highest incidence so far recorded is among children in Kamrup district of Assam, where the prevalence was as high as 41%. First described from an Indian patient, it was initially believed to have a distribution restricted to India and the southeast Asia. Later investigations revealed that it is widespread, and is further spread by infected persons to other parts of the\",\n \"-24.84075919695897\"\n ],\n [\n \"about an individual's immune system could be used as a way of \\\"sexual selection\\\" so that the female could obtain good genes for her offspring. Claus Wedekind and colleagues found that both men and women prefer the axillary odors of people whose MHC is different from their own.\\nSome body spray advertisers claim that their products contain human sexual pheromones that act as an aphrodisiac. Despite these claims, no pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a peer reviewed study. Thus, the role of pheromones in human behavior remains speculative and controversial.\",\n \"-24.835981595679186\"\n ],\n [\n \"dyes, polymers, pharmaceuticals, and printing inks.\\nExposure to solvents can occur by inhalation, ingestion, or direct absorption through the skin. Of the three, inhalation is the most common form of exposure, with the solvent able to rapidly pass through lung membranes and then into fatty tissue or cell membranes. Once in the bloodstream, organic solvents, due to their lipophilic properties, easily cross the blood-brain barrier. The mechanism of effect that these solvents have on the brain that cause CSE, however, is not yet fully understood. Some common organic solvents known to cause CSE include formaldehyde, acetates, and alcohols. Diagnosis Due to\",\n \"-24.823981970539535\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ammonium persulfate Preparation Ammonium persulfate is prepared by electrolysis of a cold concentrated solution of either ammonium sulfate or ammonium bisulfate in sulfuric acid at a high current density. The method was first described by Hugh Marshall. Safety Airborne dust containing ammonium persulfate may be irritating to eye, nose, throat, lung and skin upon contact. Exposure to high levels of dust may cause difficulty in breathing.\\nIt has been noted that persulfate salts are a major cause of asthmatic effects in women. Furthermore, it has been suggested that exposure to ammonium persulfate can cause asthmatic effects in hair dressers and\",\n \"-24.816236061873497\"\n ],\n [\n \"Antimetabolite An antimetabolite is a chemical that inhibits the use of a metabolite, which is another chemical that is part of normal metabolism. Such substances are often similar in structure to the metabolite that they interfere with, such as the antifolates that interfere with the use of folic acid; thus, competitive inhibition can occur, and the presence of antimetabolites can have toxic effects on cells, such as halting cell growth and cell division, so these compounds are used as chemotherapy for cancer. Other uses Antimetabolites, particularly mitomycin C (MMC), are commonly used in America and Japan as an addition to\",\n \"-24.81392383039929\"\n ],\n [\n \"to diabetes, hormone imbalances, reproductive disorders or cancer; cause liver damage and disease; weaken the immune system which can lead to disease or cancer; affect how the nerves carry information through the bodies peripheral nervous system which weakens the lower half of the body causing a tingling sensation and loss of coordination; cause respiratory damage which can led to cancer; cause hearing loss or other damage of the 5 senses. Chloroform Chloroform is a colorless liquid that is non-flammable. This chemical can be found in floor polishing substances and pesticides. Chloroform is recognized carcinogen, meaning it can cause cancer if\",\n \"-24.80584852071479\"\n ],\n [\n \"suppurativa (HS) and rosacea. Although HS shares certain common features with acne vulgaris, such as a tendency to clog skin follicles with skin cell debris, the condition otherwise lacks the defining features of acne and is therefore considered a distinct skin disorder. Signs and symptoms Typical features of acne include increased secretion of oily sebum by the skin, microcomedones, comedones, papules, nodules (large papules), pustules, and often results in scarring. The appearance of acne varies with skin color. It may result in psychological and social problems. Scars Acne scars are caused by inflammation within the dermal layer of skin and\",\n \"-24.779138465135475\"\n ],\n [\n \"including atopic and allergic contact eczemas. Non-allergic eczemas are not affected by this proposal. Terminology There are several types of dermatitis including atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, stasis dermatitis and seborrheic eczema. Many use the term dermatitis and eczema synonymously.\\nOthers use the term eczema to specifically mean atopic dermatitis. Atopic dermatitis is also known as atopic eczema. In some languages, dermatitis and eczema mean the same thing, while in other languages dermatitis implies an acute condition and eczema a chronic one. Common types Diagnosis of types may be indicated by codes defined according to International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related\",\n \"-24.756219367860467\"\n ],\n [\n \"Vaccenic acid Health A 2008 study at the University of Alberta suggests that vaccenic acid feeding in rats over 16 weeks resulted in lowered total cholesterol, lowered LDL cholesterol and lower triglyceride levels. The researchers are preparing to conduct further research, including human clinical trials.\\nVaccenic acid is also found in human orbitofrontal cortex of patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.\\nAlkaline phosphatase inhibited 25% by vaccenic acid in osteoblasts.\\nOxidation of omega-7 unsaturated fatty acids on the skin surface, such as palmitoleic acid and vaccenic acid, may be the cause of the phenomenon commonly known as old person smell.\",\n \"-24.741587116208393\"\n ],\n [\n \"them precipitate and aggregate, producing a rough, \\\"sandpapery\\\", or dry sensation in the mouth. The tannins in some teas and red grape wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot produce mild astringency. Uses In medicine, astringents cause constriction or contraction of mucous membranes and exposed tissues and are often used internally to reduce discharge of blood serum and mucous secretions. This can happen with a sore throat, hemorrhages, diarrhea, and peptic ulcers. Externally applied astringents, which cause mild coagulation of skin proteins, dry, harden, and protect the skin. People with acne are often advised to use astringents if they have oily\",\n \"-24.731790286197793\"\n ],\n [\n \"its more stable chemical structure. Furthermore, due to adapalene's more stable chemical structure the concern for photodegeneration of the molecule is less of a concern in comparison to tretinoin and tazarotene. Pharmacokinetics Absorption of adapalene through the skin is low. A study with six acne patients treated once daily for five days with two grams of adapalene cream applied to 1000 cm² of skin found no quantifiable amounts, or less than 0.35 ng/mL of the drug, in the patients' blood plasma. Pharmacodynamics Topical adapalene first penetrates the hair follicle and binds to nuclear retinoic acid receptors. These complexes then bind to DNA\",\n \"-24.72156578123395\"\n ],\n [\n \"anti-oxidants could allow for skin alterations such as acute acne or chronic non-infectious lesions, especially when the Th-1 immune process is persistently compromised by an overload of dietary antioxidant sources, like daily ingesting of vitamin C supplements, for example. Allergenic reactions by invading atopic pathogens, well beyond the scope of microbiota, can become initial factors triggering chronic atopic disease.\\nWhen relating to atopic skin conditions caused by chronic antioxidative stress, symptoms similar to Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) may appear, a disease where phagocytes have an impaired ability to destroy pathogens due to a genetic inability to effectively kill pathogens by ROS,\",\n \"-24.72050662591937\"\n ],\n [\n \"certain types of chemicals (e.g., insecticides or solvents), or radiation treatment for head or neck cancer. It can also be a symptom of certain mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, intoxication or withdrawal from drugs and alcohol, or psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The perceived odors are usually unpleasant and commonly described as smelling burned, foul spoiled, or rotten. Tactile Tactile hallucinations are the illusion of tactile sensory input, simulating various types of pressure to the skin or other organs. One subtype of tactile hallucination, formication, is the sensation of insects crawling underneath the skin and is frequently associated\",\n \"-24.717438007181045\"\n ],\n [\n \"of economic botany in medicine. Ephedrine imitates epinephrine in its effect on the human body. While it has medicinal uses, ephedrine can be highly toxic. Because of this fact, medical researchers studied the compound and produced pseudoephedrine, which is used in over-the-counter medications and in the illegal manufacture of methamphetamine. Echinacea One of many herbal remedies out there, Echinacea represents a sizable industry. Many people take echinacea for cold and flu-like symptoms, but studies show that the plant has had mixed success fighting these viruses. However, those same studies show the plant possibly being useful for the\",\n \"-24.70285616462121\"\n ],\n [\n \"to sebaceous sites of the skin. The skin mite Demodex folliculorum produce lipases that allow them to use sebum as a source of food therefore they have a high affinity for sebaceous skin sites. Although it is a part of the commensal skin microbiota, patients affected with rosacea show an increase in D. folliculorum compared to healthy individuals, suggesting pathogenicity.\\nBacillus oleronius, a Demodex associated microbe, is not typically found in the commensal skin microbiota but initiates inflammatory pathways whose starting mechanism is similar to rosacea patients. Populations of S. epidermidis have also been isolated from pustules of rosacea patients. However\",\n \"-24.684632838732796\"\n ],\n [\n \"amylose, it does not bind to iodine to form a colored product. Manufactured cellulose fibers Manufactured cellulose fibers come from plants that are processed into a pulp and then extruded in the same ways that synthetic fibers like polyester or nylon are made. Rayon or viscose is one of the most common \\\"manufactured\\\" cellulose fibers, and it can be made from wood pulp. Structure and properties Natural fibers are composed by microfibrils of cellulose in a matrix of hemicellulose and lignin. This type of structure and the chemical composition of them is responsible for the mechanical properties that can be\",\n \"-24.676660961820744\"\n ],\n [\n \"Eczema herpeticum Presentation In addition to the skin, this infection affects multiple organs, including the eyes, brain, lung, and liver, and can be fatal. Treatment It can be treated with systemic antiviral drugs, such as aciclovir or valganciclovir. Foscarnet may also be used for immunocompromised host with Herpes simplex and acyclovir-resistant Herpes simplex. History Eczema herpeticum was first described by Hungarian dermatologist Moriz Kaposi in 1887. Fritz Juliusberg coined the term Pustulosis varioliformis acute in 1898. Eczema herpeticum is caused by Herpes simplex virus HV1, the virus that\\ncauses cold sores; it can also be caused by other related viruses.\",\n \"-24.66991321972455\"\n ],\n [\n \"Melanizing agents Melanizing agents are drugs that increase sensitivity to solar radiation and promote re-pigmentation of de-pigmented areas of skin. Furocoumarins stimulate melanocytes and induce their proliferation on activation by light. Melanizing agents sensitize the skin to sunlight. As a result, erythema, inflammation and pigmentation occurs. Drugs Psoralen is a natural drug obtained from the fruit of Psoralea corylifolia. Methoxsalen and Trioxsalen are synthetic psoralens. These drugs can be used either topically or orally. Topical therapy The drug solution is painted on the vitiliginous lesion and exposed to sunlight for around one minute. It is then occluded by\",\n \"-24.625711820321158\"\n ],\n [\n \"histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT) and aldehyde oxidases (AOX1). In histamine intolerance, the activity of DAO is limited, and histamine taken up by the diet and formed in the body is only partially metabolized. The consumption of histamine-containing food (e.g. red wine or hard cheese) leads to a pseudoallergic reaction. It is unclear how histamine passes through the intestinal wall during absorption and enters the blood without coming into contact with the aldehyde oxidases expressed in intestinal cells and histamine N-methyltransferases. Active or passive exposure to tobacco smoke is suspected to favor histamine intolerance, but has not been adequately studied. Potentially\",\n \"-24.619008724359446\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a more \\\"adult\\\" body odor. This often precedes thelarche and pubarche by one or more years. Another androgen effect is increased secretion of oil (sebum) from the skin. This change increases the susceptibility to acne, a skin condition that is characteristic of puberty. Acne varies greatly in its severity. Visual and other effects of hormonal changes In girls, estradiol (the primary female sex hormone) causes thickening of lips and oral mucosa as well as further development of the vulva. In the vulva and vagina, estradiol causes thickening (stratification) of the skin and the growth of both the myoepithelial layer\",\n \"-24.617953556444263\"\n ],\n [\n \"as being sweet smelling. It was once one of the top 20 used chemicals in the United States, being found in gasoline, rubber, plastics, oils, and even explosives. Benzene is also a carcinogen, meaning it can cause cancer if one is exposed to it for a long period of time. It is ranked in the top 10% of the most hazardous compounds to human health and the environment, based on how toxic it is when ingested or inhaled, how it affects human health, workers exposure to the chemical, cancer and noncancer risk scores through air and water, and how toxic\",\n \"-24.61511443107156\"\n ],\n [\n \"beverages. In a 1994 report released by five top cigarette companies, eucalyptol was listed as one of the 599 additives to cigarettes. It is claimed to be added to improve the flavor.\\nEucalyptol is an ingredient in commercial mouthwashes, and has been used in traditional medicine as a cough suppressant. Insecticide and repellent Eucalyptol is used as an insecticide and insect repellent.\\nIn contrast, eucalyptol is one of many compounds that are attractive to males of various species of orchid bees, which gather the chemical to synthesize pheromones; it is commonly used as bait to attract and collect these bees for study.\",\n \"-24.61380200003623\"\n ],\n [\n \"eosinophilia. Drug reactions Allergic reactions to drugs are a common cause of eosinophilia, with manifestations ranging from diffuse maculopapular rash, to severe life-threatening drug reactions with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS). Drugs that has, allopurinol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), some antipsychotics such as risperidone, and certain antibiotics. Phenibut, an analogue of the neurotransmitter GABA, has also been implicated in high doses. The reaction which has been shown to be T-cell mediated may also cause eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. Pathophysiology IgE mediated eosinophil production is induced by compounds released by basophils and mast cells, including eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis, leukotriene B4 and\",\n \"-24.59698618412949\"\n ],\n [\n \"amino acids and their harmful derivatives in the body. These accumulations lend a sweet smell to bodily excretions (such as ear wax and urine), leading to a pathology known as maple syrup urine disease.\\nThis enzyme is an autoantigen recognized in primary biliary cirrhosis, a form of acute liver failure. These antibodies appear to recognize oxidized protein that has resulted from inflammatory immune responses. Some of these inflammatory responses are explained by gluten sensitivity. Other mitochondrial autoantigens\\ninclude pyruvate dehydrogenase and branched-chain oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, which are antigens recognized by anti-mitochondrial antibodies.\",\n \"-24.59004362457199\"\n ],\n [\n \"Anacardic acids Anacardic acids are phenolic lipids, chemical compounds found in the shell of the cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale). An acid form of urushiol, they also cause an allergic skin rash on contact, known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis. Anacardic acid is a yellow liquid. It is partially miscible with ethanol and ether, but nearly immiscible with water. Chemically, anacardic acid is a mixture of several closely related organic compounds. Each consists of a salicylic acid substituted with an alkyl chain that has 15 or 17 carbon atoms. The alkyl group may be saturated or unsaturated; anacardic acid is\",\n \"-24.58526397155947\"\n ],\n [\n \"xylazine is used in conjunction with heroin and cocaine.\\nChronic use is reported to be associated with physical deterioration, dependence, abscesses, and skin ulceration, which can be physically debilitating and painful. Hypertension followed by hypotension, bradycardia, and respiratory depression lower tissue oxygenation in the skin. Thus, chronic use of xylazine can progress the skin oxygenation deficit, leading to severe skin ulceration. Lower skin oxygenation is associated with impaired healing of wounds and a higher chance of infection. The ulcers may have a characteristic odor and ooze pus. In severe cases, amputations must be performed on the affected extremities. Overdose The known\",\n \"-24.584817475202726\"\n ],\n [\n \"drinks. It is used as a food and drink sweetener and is an obesogen. Acting on insulin and leptin in the body, HFCS potentially increases appetite and fat production.\\nNicotine is the chemical found in tobacco products and certain insecticides. As an obesogen, nicotine mostly acts on prenatal development after maternal smoking occurs. A strong association has been made between maternal smoking and childhood overweight/obesity, with nicotine as the single causal agent.\\nArsenic is a metalloid (i.e., an element with some metallic properties) found in and on most naturally occurring substances on Earth. It can be found in the soil, ground water,\",\n \"-24.57022543158382\"\n ],\n [\n \"occasion, serum levels of the drug can be identified from oral, vaginal, or cutaneous administration, and lead to toxicity. Mechanism of action Like amphotericin B and natamycin, nystatin is an ionophore. It binds to ergosterol, a major component of the fungal cell membrane. When present in sufficient concentrations, it forms pores in the membrane that lead to K⁺ leakage, acidification, and death of the fungus. Ergosterol is a sterol unique to fungi, so the drug does not have such catastrophic effects on animals or plants. However, many of the systemic/toxic effects of nystatin in humans are attributable to its\",\n \"-24.55880153120961\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ectopic expression Ectopic is a word used with a prefix, ecto, meaning “out of place.” Ectopic expression is an abnormal gene expression in a cell type, tissue type, or developmental stage in which the gene is not usually expressed. The term ectopic expression is predominately used in studies using metazoans, especially in Drosophila melanogaster for research purposes. How it is useful Although ectopic expression can be caused by a natural condition, it is uncommonly seen in nature because it is a product of defects in gene regulation. In fact, ectopic expression is more commonly used for research purposes. Artificially induced\",\n \"-24.558090263046324\"\n ],\n [\n \"Plasma cell gingivitis may also occur, which may be accompanied by glossitis and cheilitis.\\nAllergens that may cause allergic contact stomatitis in some individuals include cinnamaldehyde, Balsam of Peru, peppermint, mercury, gold, pyrophosphates, zinc citrate, free acrylic monomer, nickel, fluoride, and sodium lauryl sulfate. These allergens may originate from many sources, including various foods and drink, chewing gum, toothpaste, mouthwash, dental floss, dental fillings, dentures, orthodontic bands or wires, and many other sources. If the substance containing the allergen comes into contact with the lips, allergic contact cheilitis can occur, together with allergic contact stomatitis.\\nThe diagnosis is confirmed by patch test,\",\n \"-24.545737093067146\"\n ],\n [\n \"is dryness and itching on the upper eyelids. This condition is often seeing in young people and can lead to reddish dry eye and scaly eyebrows. To relieve the itching sensation, one may need to apply warm compresses and use topical corticosteroid creams. Skin Eczema is another cause of chronic irritation and affects millions of individuals. Eczema simply means a dry skin which is itchy. The condition usually starts at an early age and continues throughout life. The major complaint of people who suffer from eczema is an itchy dry skin. Sometimes, the itching will be associated with a skin\",\n \"-24.545534150791354\"\n ],\n [\n \"caused by an inflammatory reaction in the skin, causing leakage of capillaries in the dermis, and resulting in an edema which persists until the interstitial fluid is absorbed into the surrounding cells.\\nHives are caused by the release of histamine and other mediators of inflammation (cytokines) from cells in the skin. This process can be the result of an allergic or nonallergic reaction, differing in the eliciting mechanism of histamine release. Allergic hives Histamine and other proinflammatory substances are released from mast cells in the skin and tissues in response to the binding of allergen-bound IgE antibodies to high-affinity cell surface\",\n \"-24.544051019416656\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":298,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2l5rb1"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do US '18 Wheelers' and EU 'lorries' look so different?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["In most European countries the overall length of a truck is limited to less than 20 meters. So the American way of building a truck would cost around 10% of the maximum length to put the engine in front of the drivers seat. European trucks put the driver on top of the engine and so can have longer lorries. The disadvantage is that service of the engine is more complicated because you have to tilt the driver's cabin in order to get to the engine. There's not so much difference regarding the ability to sleep in the vehicle or the size of the engines. The engines of modern Mercedes Actros are quite similar in displacement (11-15l) and power (400-500 HP) to the Mack MP7 and MP8 engines.","Multiple reasons, but mostly, just works better for the task. In the US (also Canada, and Australia, where the \"pointy nose\" trucks are common), roads are wider, city driving is less common or non-existent, and long-hauls ( > 300 miles) are commonplace. In EU/UK, 300 miles can put you a country or two away, here in US, it doesn't even get you half way across a single state. The US trucks have \"sleepers\", that big box behind the cab is a room with a bed and bathroom so you can sleep in the truck on a long drive. They're generally rated for higher towing loads, have bigger motors, and carry more fuel. Overall, there is an economy of scale, and these bigger trucks going further is actually more efficient (in terms of fuel and time per pound of cargo moved per mile). The downside is, they are larger and less maneuverable. An American big-rig with a full trailer honestly couldn't get around a European city center, they're just too big. TL;DR The truck is better suited to the type of driving and roads in the area.","I'm fairly sure it's directly due to different laws. Apparently in the US, laws only define maximum length of the cargo, but place no restrictions on overall length. Source: URL_1 Although I didn't find clear indication of EU laws on quick gooling, I imagine EU legislation define maximum overall length of a vehicle. URL_0 ","I've noticed this too. I attribute it to the fact that in the US, our highways side streets and loading docks are HUGE. A lot of the roads I've been on in Europe would be real sketchy in my regular full sized pickup. Much less the back roads and alleys where these trucks load and unload.","The European Union has some pretty strict laws on the maximum length of lorries: 12m for single unit trucks, 19.75m for semis and 25.75m (by heart) for single unit trucks with a trailer. Hoping to maximise the size of the trailers, the tractors are built to put as much power as possible in as little room as possible, so as not to exceed that 19.75 metre upper size limit for semis. In the USA, these size requirements are less strict. Afaik, it's completely legal to transport massive cargo across US highways, including complete houses. Since the limits are less hard, it's easier to use more conventional engine-before-cabin designs. A second reason to use the EU design is because the flat end means better forward visibility. Since there isn't an engine compartment right in front of you, there isn't a giant wedge that blocks vision to the road some distance ahead of you. *tiny edit* Sure, you still can't see what's within a metre or two ahead of you in either case because you're still high up, but with EU trucks this is easier to circumvent with a conveniently placed mirror. Trying the same on an US truck makes the mirror either uselessly small or so large it's in the way. Lastly, I cannot be so sure about the aerodynamics of the flat end, but I can assume that the flat heads are a bit lighter, so if there's a small aerodynamic difference between the two, there may be a bit of a trade-off, US trucks having a plus on aero, EU trucks having a plus on mass.","I don't think anyone mentioned the length of the wheel base. A longer wheel base allows you to control a heavier load. A shorter wheel base gives you more maneuverability.","I live in the USA and I've seen big trucks like that with flat noses too."],"string":"[\n \"In most European countries the overall length of a truck is limited to less than 20 meters. So the American way of building a truck would cost around 10% of the maximum length to put the engine in front of the drivers seat. European trucks put the driver on top of the engine and so can have longer lorries. The disadvantage is that service of the engine is more complicated because you have to tilt the driver's cabin in order to get to the engine. There's not so much difference regarding the ability to sleep in the vehicle or the size of the engines. The engines of modern Mercedes Actros are quite similar in displacement (11-15l) and power (400-500 HP) to the Mack MP7 and MP8 engines.\",\n \"Multiple reasons, but mostly, just works better for the task. In the US (also Canada, and Australia, where the \\\"pointy nose\\\" trucks are common), roads are wider, city driving is less common or non-existent, and long-hauls ( > 300 miles) are commonplace. In EU/UK, 300 miles can put you a country or two away, here in US, it doesn't even get you half way across a single state. The US trucks have \\\"sleepers\\\", that big box behind the cab is a room with a bed and bathroom so you can sleep in the truck on a long drive. They're generally rated for higher towing loads, have bigger motors, and carry more fuel. Overall, there is an economy of scale, and these bigger trucks going further is actually more efficient (in terms of fuel and time per pound of cargo moved per mile). The downside is, they are larger and less maneuverable. An American big-rig with a full trailer honestly couldn't get around a European city center, they're just too big. TL;DR The truck is better suited to the type of driving and roads in the area.\",\n \"I'm fairly sure it's directly due to different laws. Apparently in the US, laws only define maximum length of the cargo, but place no restrictions on overall length. Source: URL_1 Although I didn't find clear indication of EU laws on quick gooling, I imagine EU legislation define maximum overall length of a vehicle. URL_0 \",\n \"I've noticed this too. I attribute it to the fact that in the US, our highways side streets and loading docks are HUGE. A lot of the roads I've been on in Europe would be real sketchy in my regular full sized pickup. Much less the back roads and alleys where these trucks load and unload.\",\n \"The European Union has some pretty strict laws on the maximum length of lorries: 12m for single unit trucks, 19.75m for semis and 25.75m (by heart) for single unit trucks with a trailer. Hoping to maximise the size of the trailers, the tractors are built to put as much power as possible in as little room as possible, so as not to exceed that 19.75 metre upper size limit for semis. In the USA, these size requirements are less strict. Afaik, it's completely legal to transport massive cargo across US highways, including complete houses. Since the limits are less hard, it's easier to use more conventional engine-before-cabin designs. A second reason to use the EU design is because the flat end means better forward visibility. Since there isn't an engine compartment right in front of you, there isn't a giant wedge that blocks vision to the road some distance ahead of you. *tiny edit* Sure, you still can't see what's within a metre or two ahead of you in either case because you're still high up, but with EU trucks this is easier to circumvent with a conveniently placed mirror. Trying the same on an US truck makes the mirror either uselessly small or so large it's in the way. Lastly, I cannot be so sure about the aerodynamics of the flat end, but I can assume that the flat heads are a bit lighter, so if there's a small aerodynamic difference between the two, there may be a bit of a trade-off, US trucks having a plus on aero, EU trucks having a plus on mass.\",\n \"I don't think anyone mentioned the length of the wheel base. A longer wheel base allows you to control a heavier load. A shorter wheel base gives you more maneuverability.\",\n \"I live in the USA and I've seen big trucks like that with flat noses too.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["to military use from civilian specifications. Specialised commonly available off-road vehicles include ATVs (All Terrain Vehicles), dirt bikes, dune buggies, rock crawlers, and sandrails. All-terrain vehicle An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a quad, quad bike, three-wheeler, or four-wheeler, or RZR is defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, with a seat that is straddled by the operator, along with handlebars for steering control. As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. Although it is a street-legal vehicle in some","-26.737380430614394"],["for commuters and urban motorists. Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report examined hybrid electric vehicle accidents that involved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to accidents involving internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The findings showed that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or bicycle. For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or stopping, backing up, entering or leaving a parking space (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is most pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than ICEVs. For","-25.476293459767476"],["other road users Because of greater height and weight and rigid frames, it is contended by Malcolm Gladwell, writing in The New Yorker magazine, that SUVs can affect traffic safety. This height and weight, while potentially giving an advantage to occupants of the vehicle, may pose a risk to drivers of smaller vehicles in multi-vehicle accidents, particularly side impacts.\nThe initial tests of the Ford Excursion were \"horrifying\" for its ability to vault over the hood of a Ford Taurus. The big SUV was modified to include a type of blocker bar suggested by the French transportation ministry in 1971, a","-25.270007789947385"],["but only affected vehicles with three or more axles. The previous increase for passenger vehicles was in 2003.","-25.210230652632163"],["long-term, more of the road be made dual carriageway to help combat these problems.\nIn the European Road Assessment Programme (EuroRAP) survey, which gives all major roads in Europe a safety rating, the A1079 is categorised as 'Medium-high risk' between Market Weighton and Hull, and 'Low-medium risk' between York and Market Weighton . The Market Weighton-Hull section was also identified in a EuroRAP report in June 2007 as being one of the 10 most dangerous roads in the UK, with 69 fatal or serious collisions between 2003 and 2005 . More recently the A1079 has had a better safety record, now","-24.993820414361835"],["have the right to cross where they choose, and have right of way over vehicular traffic while crossing.\nIn most areas, an intersection is considered to have a crosswalk, even if not painted, as long as the roads meet at approximate right angles. The United Kingdom and Croatia are among the exceptions.\nPedestrian crossings may also be located away from intersections. Level crossings A level crossing is an at-grade intersection of a railway by a road. Because of safety issues, they are often equipped with closable gates, crossing bells and warning signs. Speed limits The higher the speed of a vehicle,","-24.91706353868358"],["Arnas were still registered with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency in United Kingdom.\nAs of August 2018, there are only three Arnas shown as registered in the United Kingdom, a 1.2SL and two 1.5Ti's, although up to four cars are believed to exist in total. Both of the Arnas recorded are listed with SORNs, meaning that they are no longer legally driven on public highways.","-24.90542924203328"],["Motorways.\nThe action of undertaking, where the driver moves to the left of a slower moving vehicle to get past it is, although not illegal, discouraged on motorways under Highway Code 268. This rule allows for undertaking to occur in conditions that cause the left-hand lane to move faster than the right-hand lane and for traffic to keep up with the flow of the lane. Driving licence Driving licences may be obtained by any UK resident over the age of 17, subject to certain conditions. Initially, a provisional licence is issued, which restricts the holder to driving whilst accompanied","-24.865845058823197"],["PKP class EU07 Technical data EU07s have driving cabs at each end of the locomotive. The locomotive is equipped with multiple unit control system, which allows a single driver to drive two coupled engines from one cab. This engine is able to pull passenger trains of up to 650-tonne (640-long-ton; 720-short-ton) weight with speed of 125 km/h (78 mph) and freight trains of up to 2,000 t (2,000 long tons; 2,200 short tons) weight with speed of 70 km/h (43 mph). These figures apply to driving on level track. History The EU07 is strongly connected with the EU06 locomotive. The EU06 was a British derivative","-24.78390738649614"],["any terrain, including passenger transportation on a public road. The reasonable reader, however, would probably not interpret it in this way, and so, in light of established interpretative canons, the court did not favour this interpretation. The word \"driving\" occurred in the context of other adventure activities; it therefore made better sense to understand it to entail driving over unmade roads or slippery, steep or otherwise exciting terrain. Since Drifter's, as a cross-border tour operator, was statutorily obliged to have passenger liability insurance, it would be perverse for it to have contracted out of this liability altogether.\nThe appeal was accordingly","-24.761437723082054"],["the United States from Denmark. However, because most cars in the territory are imported from the mainland United States, the cars in the territory are left-hand drive. However, not all U.S. vehicle regulations are in force, and there are vehicles on the road that cannot be sold in the U.S. Additionlly, headlights use the U.S. pattern which casts light to the right, tending to blind oncoming drivers. Traffic signals are located on the opposite side of the road, and many standard road signs have been altered to fit the left-side driving.\nAs in other U.S. territories, U.S. Virgin Islands mail service","-24.655214492202504"],["vehicles that have a large side area such as vans, SUVs, and tractor-trailers. This can be dangerous for motorists because of the possible lift force created, causing the vehicle to lose traction or change direction of travel. The safest way for motorists to deal with crosswinds is by reducing their speed to reduce the effect of the lift force and to steer into the direction of the crosswind.\nCyclists are also significantly affected by crosswinds. Saving energy by avoiding riding in wind is a major part of the tactics of road bicycle racing, and this particularly applies in crosswinds. In crosswinds,","-24.652148185894475"],["Three-wheeler Overview Many three-wheelers which exist in the form of motorcycle-based machines are often called trikes and often have the front single wheel and mechanics similar to that of a motorcycle and the rear axle similar to that of a car. Often such vehicles are owner-constructed using a portion of a rear-engine, rear-drive Volkswagen Beetle in combination with a motorcycle front end. Other trikes include ATVs that are specially constructed for off-road use.\nThree-wheelers can have either one wheel at the back and two at the front (2F1R), (for example: Morgan Motor Company) or one wheel at the front and two","-24.63845119436155"],["wheels are designated by letters rather than numbers. The suffix 'o' is used to indicate independently powered axles.\nThe number of driving wheels on locomotives varied quite a bit. Some early locomotives had as few as two driving wheels (one axle). The largest number of total driving wheels was 24 (twelve axles) on the 2-8-8-8-2 and 2-8-8-8-4 locomotives. The largest number of coupled driving wheels was 14 (seven axles) on the ill-fated AA20 4-14-4 locomotive. Other uses of the term driving wheel The term driving wheel is sometimes used to denote the drive sprocket which moves the track on tracked vehicles","-24.589046467150183"],["for more maneuverability when backing. Because of the greater room available on the roads in North America, these vehicles are more popular in the United States and Canada than in Europe or other parts of the world. For uneven terrain a gooseneck hitch is an option to fifth-wheel.\nThe downside is that the hitch takes up room in the cargo bed regardless of whether the trailer is hitched or not. The hitch can be unbolted from the bed but this takes a lot more time and effort than the unhitch operation. Off-road trailers Off-road travel trailers, also called 4x4 trailers, tentrax,","-24.531828230923566"],["some consumers that SUVs are safer for their drivers than standard cars, and that they need not take basic precautions as if they were inside a \"defensive capsule\". According to G. C. Rapaille, a psychological consultant to automakers, many consumers feel safer in SUVs simply because their ride height makes \"[their passengers] higher and dominate and look down [sic]. That you can look down [on other people] is psychologically a very powerful notion.\" This and the height and weight of SUVs may lead to consumers' perception of safety.\nGladwell also noted that SUV popularity is also a sign that people began","-24.530808767243798"],["standard. All of this is because road numbering and road standard is separate in Sweden, as in the rest of Scandinavia. Turkey Motorways (Turkish: Otoyol) of Turkey are a network in constant development. Some motorways require toll (using only RFID methods), mostly six lanes wide, illuminated and with a 120 km/h (75 mph) speed limit. In 2013, the motorways were 2,155 kilometres (1,339 mi) long in total. Northern Ireland Legal authority existed in the Special Roads Act (Northern Ireland) 1963 similar to that in the 1949 Act. The first motorway to open was the M1 motorway, though it did so under temporary powers","-24.520458791863348"],["and driveshaft is very important as well because the constant velocity type of driveshafts have a higher chance of breaking and leaving you stuck. The u-joint style that most off-road enthusiasts go towards have more strength and when they do break are much easier and cheaper to replace. Identification When it comes to axles and finding the right one for your application it may sometimes be difficult to find one if you do not know what to look for. The professionals at West Coast Differentials have written an article about the different axles and how to identify them called, “Differential","-24.516262827222818"],["is due to geography and driver training, but more rigorous impaired driving enforcement and severe penalties in Sweden for driving under the influence may also explain the difference. While it might be argued that highways and vehicles in Sweden are different from those in the United States, the U.S. fatality rate is also about double the rate in the Canadian province of Ontario, which experienced 3.6 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km according to preliminary 2014 data. Ontario, which is a vast province of more than 1 million square kilometers, has a similar mix of highway types including congested urban","-24.479990972551605"],["Level crossings in the United Kingdom There are around 6,000 level crossings in the United Kingdom, of which about 1,500 are public highway crossings. This number is gradually being reduced as the risk of accidents at level crossings is considered high. The director of the UK Railway Inspectorate commented in 2004 that \"the use of level crossings contributes the greatest potential for catastrophic risk on the railways.\" The creation of new level crossings on the national network is banned (the exception being reopening unavoidable crossings on new/reopening railway lines, and on heritage railways), with bridges and tunnels being the more","-24.438912639623595"],["Ford (crossing) Description A ford is a much cheaper form of river crossing than a bridge, but it may become impassable after heavy rain or during flood conditions. A ford is therefore normally only suitable for very minor roads (and for paths intended for walkers and horse riders etc.). Most modern fords are usually shallow enough to be crossed by cars and other wheeled or tracked vehicles (a process known as \"fording\").\nIn New Zealand, however, fords are a normal part of major roads, including, until 2010, along State Highway 1 on the South Island's east coast. As most inter-city","-24.387838684192047"],["changed over 20 years ago (1 January 1997), the freight industry and driver recruitment agencies still predominantly use the obsolete class numbers for the entitlement of HGV drivers.\nThe two systems are not exactly compatible, so the descriptions given are only a guideline.\nClass 1: any goods vehicle over 7½ long tons (7,620 kg) with any trailer.\nClass 2: any rigid goods vehicle over 7½ long tons.\nClass 3: any rigid goods vehicle over 7½ long tons with no more than two axles. Points and endorsements The UK uses a cumulative points system for driving offences. Points are added for driving offences by law courts","-24.32878530893504"],["following vehicles pass, and most drivers oblige. The same system is found very occasionally in rural England and Wales, as well as Sai Kung in the New Territories. Sometimes two small vehicles can pass one another at a place other than a designated passing place.\nSome A-class and B-class roads in the Highlands are still single-track, although many sections have been widened for the sake of faster travel. In 2009, the A830 \"Road to the Isles\" and A851 on the Isle of Skye have had their single-track sections replaced with higher-quality single-carriageway road. In mountains In remote backcountry areas around","-24.319230004424753"],["regulations According to the Michigan Hand Book of Off-Road Vehicle Laws \"Michigan law defines an ORV as any motor vehicle that can be operated cross-country (without benefit of a road or trail) over land, snow, and other natural terrain. This includes: multi-track or multi-wheeled vehicles; all-terrain vehicles (ATVs); motorcycles or related multi-wheeled vehicles; amphibious machines (water-to-land and back); hovercraft; and other vehicles that use mechanical power including 2- or 4-wheel-drive vehicles that are highway registered but operated off highways or off roads.\" This trail system is also patrolled to ensure that all ORV operators and all passengers wear","-24.265860900522966"],["Warrington, Liverpool and Manchester. The M6 intersects many of the North West's motorways and A-roads, and carries almost 120,000 vehicles per day (41,975,000 per year).\nBritain's most severe steep road is Hardknott Pass in Cumbria, and the highest road in the UK is the former A6293 at 2,780 ft at Milburn, Cumbria; the highest classified road in England was the A689 east of Nenthead in Cumbria on the Durham boundary. Greater Manchester and Merseyside The Greater Manchester and Merseyside areas are home to almost 4 million people, and over half the region's population. The road networks intertwining these metropolitan areas are extremely","-24.22737521279487"],["other routes are considered to have a gap and are signed in brackets (the equivalent of \"to\" signs in North America). An example is the meeting of the M60 and the M62 northwest of Manchester: the motorways coincide for the seven miles (11 km) between junctions 12 and 18 but the motorway between those points is only designated as the M60. European route numbers as designated by UNECE may have concurrencies (for instance E15 and E30 around Greater London), but since the E-route numbers are unsigned and unused in the UK, the existence of these concurrencies is purely theoretical.\nIn Sweden and","-24.15668441866876"],["that teen drivers must have a decal on their vehicle.\nSome countries, such as Australia, the United States, Canada and New Zealand, have graduated levels of driver's licence, with special rules. By 2010, all US states required a graduated driver's licence for drivers under age 18. In Italy, the maximum speed and power of vehicles driven by new drivers is restricted. In Romania, the maximum speed of vehicles driven by new drivers (less than one year in experience) is 20 km/h lower than the national standard (except villages, towns and cities). Many U.S. states allow 18-year-olds to skip some requirements that younger","-24.156048537763127"],["in England and Wales. It was decided to reserve the numbers 7, 8 & 9 for Scotland. In Scotland, where roads were the responsibility of the Scottish Office (Scottish Government after 1999), the decision was taken to adopt a scheme whereby motorways took the numbers of the all-purpose routes they replaced. As a result, there is no M7 (as no motorway follows the A7), and when the A90 was re-routed to replace the A85 south of Perth, the short M85 became part of the M90. Other A roads These radials are supplemented by two-digit codes which are routes that may","-24.125477963563753"],["a car and a motorcycle. Both have wheels. That is a commonality. However, cars have four wheels, while motorcycles have two wheels. That is a difference. Because this difference required first finding a commonality between the pair, it is called an alignable difference. Alignable differences contrast with nonalignable differences which are aspects of one concept that have no correspondence in the other. For example, cars have seatbelts and motorcycles do not. Research suggests that alignable differences have a larger impact on people's judgments of similarity than do nonalignable differences. Thus, the relationship between the commonalities of a pair and the","-24.125218643050175"],["blurred in practice, since unibody vehicles are also often referred to as SUVs. Also, crossover is a relatively recent term and early unibody SUVs (such as the 1984 Jeep Cherokee) are rarely called crossovers. Due to these inconsistencies, the term SUV is often used as a catch-all for both crossovers and SUVs.\nOutside of the United States, the term crossover tends to be used for C-segment (compact) or smaller vehicles, with large unibody vehicles— such as the Audi Q7, BMW X7 and Volkswagen Touareg— are usually called SUVs rather than crossovers. In the United Kingdom, a crossover is sometimes defined as","-24.11366240218922"],["York Auto Show in April, the M-Class was renamed to GLE-Class as per the revised nomenclature adopted by the brand. Under this scheme, SUVs use the base name \"GL\", followed by the model's placement in Mercedes-Benz hierarchy. The \"G\" is for Geländewagen (German off land wagon for off-road vehicle) and alludes the long-running G-Wagen. This is followed by the letter \"L\" that acts as a linkage with the letter \"E\"—the GLE being the SUV equivalent to the E-Class. Awards The ML 320 was Motor Trend magazine's Truck of the Year for 1998 and was voted the 1998 North American Truck","-24.108064105668745"],["sometimes used, with both 4-wheel and 6-wheel versions being extant. In British English, the term 'truck' most commonly relates to railway vehicles, with the word 'lorry' more commonly applied to road vehicles.","-24.07641478555888"],["built and maintained by the self-financed ASFiNAG stock company in Vienna, which is wholly owned by the Austrian republic and earns revenue from road-user charges and tolls. Each route bears a number as well as an official name with local reference, which however is not displayed on road signs. Unusually for European countries, interchanges (between motorways called Knoten, \"knots\") are numbered by distance in kilometres starting from where the route begins; this arrangement is also used in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Spain, and most provinces of Canada (and in most American states, albeit in miles). The current Austrian Autobahn","-24.052938997606816"],["Road The inn gives its name to the Cat and Fiddle Road: a stretch of the A537 road, linking Macclesfield to the west with Buxton to the east, which features many sharp corners. This road became notorious for the high number of accidents, particularly among motorcyclists for whom the road is often regarded as an exhilarating technical challenge; an AA survey in 2003 named it as the most dangerous stretch of road in the United Kingdom. Other pubs There are several pubs of this name in the United Kingdom. For example, there is a Cat and Fiddle pub in Hinton,","-24.004896274225757"],["2-1 road A 2-1 road (2-minus-1 road) is a type of road with extra wide shoulders, and a smaller two-way lane in the middle for vehicles. The shoulders are to be used by pedestrians and cyclists, and if necessary by meeting vehicles. The purpose of the road is to give more space to pedestrians and cyclists and thereby avoid constructing new dedicated pedestrian and bicycle paths, especially in areas where new constructions are to be avoided or not possible.\nThe road-type is popular in Denmark where a third of all municipalities have at least one stretch of this type of road.","-23.996800822955265"],["America, the term is applied to both heavy vehicles and light passenger vehicles. When referring to heavy vehicles, the term is increasingly applied to mean \"permanent multiple-wheel drive\" on 2×2, 4×4, 6×6, or 8×8 drive-train systems that include a differential between the front and rear drive shafts. This is often coupled with some sort of antislip technology, increasingly hydraulic-based, that allows differentials to spin at different speeds, but still be capable of transferring torque from a wheel with poor traction to one with better. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road","-23.977793177138665"],["Side by Side (UTV) The side-by-side (often written as SxS) is a small 2- to 6-person four-wheel drive off-road vehicle, also called UTV (utility vehicle or utility task vehicle), a ROV (recreational off-highway vehicle), or a MOHUV (multipurpose off-highway utility vehicle). Safety The majority of the side-by-sides come factory-equipped with a ROPS, or roll-over protection system. Many of the vehicles also come equipped with hard tops, windshields, and even cab enclosures. \nThe Outdoor Power Equipment Institute (OPEI) defines multipurpose off-highway utility vehicles (MOHUVs) as vehicles with: \"(a) four or more wheels, (b) a steering wheel, (c) non-straddle seating, and (d)","-23.966965210755006"],["fatal pedestrian crashes involved passenger cars or light commercial vehicles, between 2009 and 2013.\nPedestrians older than 75 have the highest pedestrian fatality rate of any age group. Road naming Each state has independent systems for the naming of roads.\nRoads in New South Wales are named in accordance with section 162 of The Roads Act 1993. Australian Standards AS 1742.5 - 1986 and AS 4212 - 1994 provide a list of road suffixes (such as Alley, Circle, Mall, Street) which are routinely accepted by the Geographical Names Board.","-23.887121470525017"],["roads maintain their new numbers from Denmark and southward, though, as do other European routes within Scandinavia.\nFurther exceptions are E 67, going from Finland to Czech Republic (wrong side of E 75 and E 77), assigned around year 2000, simply because it was best available number for this new route, most of E 63 in Finland (wrong side of E 75) E 8 in Finland (partly on the wrong side of E 12 after a lengthening around 2002) and E 82 (Spain and Portugal, wrong side of E 80). These irregularities exist just because it is hard to maintain good order when extending the network, and the UNECE does","-23.856042759376578"],["highway is a common Czech translation of the term dálnice, which describes a toll highway similar to a freeway or an Autobahn. Denmark With the completion of the extremely long highway bridge-tunnels of Great Belt Fixed Link in 1998 and Øresund Bridge in 2000, continental Europe was finally connected by road and rail with capital city Copenhagen and Sweden. This includes the Swedish highway and railroad system. The bridge-tunnels are all interconnected with major Danish highways and completes a continuous international road connection from northern Sweden to Gibraltar at the southern edge of Spain and Messina, Italy, at the southern","-23.847118405319634"],["Roadster (automobile) A roadster (also spider, spyder) is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character. Initially an American term for a two-seat car with no weather protection, usage has spread internationally and has evolved to include two-seat convertibles.\nThe roadster was also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club (USAC) Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500, in the 1950s and 1960s. This type of racing car was superseded by rear-engine cars. Etymology The term \"roadster\" originates in the United States, where it was used in the nineteenth century to describe a horse suitable","-23.845031130476855"],["Locomotive Acts The Locomotive Acts (or Red Flag Acts) were a series of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom regulating the use of mechanically propelled vehicles on British public highways during the latter part of the 19th century.\nThe first three, The Locomotives on Highways Act 1861, The Locomotive Act 1865 and the Highways and Locomotives (Amendment) Act 1878, contained restrictive measures on the manning and speed of operation of road vehicles; they also formalised many important road concepts such as vehicle registration, registration plates, speed limits, maximum vehicle weight over structures such as bridges, and the organisation of","-23.84273755236063"],["1960s and early 1970s, was at the time alien to most of established highway design practice in the UK. The much evolved and refined Dutch version, the Woonerf, is supported by legislation which gives pedestrians priority over vehicles within these shared streets. This inverts the expectation of UK motorists, who would expect a pedestrian in the carriageway to give way to a vehicle.\nResolving these legislative differences involved the involvement of central Government officers who were already aware of various other Homezone projects around the UK. All of these projects, (whether newbuild or remodelling existing streets), suffered from a mismatch between","-23.835244595211407"],["m back from the main traffic signal. The reasoning is that this puts cyclists clearly into the view of heavy goods vehicle (HGV) drivers, who have a blind spot up to 4 m directly in front of the cab. According to an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) review, ASLs are also advocated as way of improving pedestrian safety at crossings by increasing the separation between crossing pedestrians and waiting motor vehicles.\nAlthough waiting cyclists might be safer out in front of HGVs, concerns have been expressed about nearside cycle lanes approaching such intersections may encourage cyclists to \"creep up\"","-23.81727316579054"],["he would always be held responsible. In many jurisdictions, a two second gap is recommended between any two successive moving vehicles, characterised in Britain by the slogan, \"only a fool breaks the two second rule\". Fighting against tailgating Tailgating causes most rear-end crashes in South Australia. Some motorways in the United Kingdom and Australia feature certain road markings which can help resolve this problem. Consisting of an arrangement of chevrons, these remind the driver not to tailgate, and assist in the two second rule. There is also signage in Britain on smart motorways when they are very congested, to","-23.809636656478688"],["motorways, while some sections remained in the same category. The speed limit for most existing roads for motorcars was reduced to 110 km/h.\nAs of 2016, roads for motorcars are not subject to highway tolls for vehicles with total weight up to 3.5 t. The signs on roads for motorcars consist of white text on a blue background, like on other common roads and unlike on motorways, where the background is green. Exits, like on motorways, are usually numbered.\nIt is in the jurisdiction of individual regions (kraje) to decide whether roads for motorcars should have higher speed limits than regular roads. An","-23.789355402464935"],["a Robin. As it was not the licence entitlement that changed, but rather the categorisation of tricycles into an existing category, the change applies to all holders of category A motorcycle licences, whenever they were obtained. Shortly after this an oversight was that a person with a full car licence could no longer drive a three-wheeled vehicle, this was then altered by the UK government after car companies which produce three-wheeled vehicles (such as Morgan) protested over the licensing changes, this resulted in car licence holders now being able to drive a three-wheeled vehicle, but an age limit of 21","-23.762429079422873"],["Manchester to the M1 motorway in South Yorkshire. The road is single-carriageway through Mottram, Hollingworth and Tintwistle and through the Peak District National Park, it is used by large numbers of heavy goods vehicles. It is one of the most congested A-road routes in the country, with high volumes of traffic (including HGVs) using a road which is totally unsuitable for the volume and nature of traffic it carries The A628 through Mottram carries traffic from the A57 road linking Manchester through Glossop to Sheffield over the Snake Pass, another major Trans-Pennine route. Congestion at peak times backs","-23.759332920111774"],["of Ministers. Operating regulation Vehicles in Australia are right-hand drive, and vehicles travel on the left side of the road. The laws for all levels of government, have been mostly harmonised so that drivers do not need to learn different rules as they cross state borders. The usual speed limits are 100 km/h outside of urban areas (110 km/h on some roads where signposted). Major routes in built up areas are 80 km/h and 60 km/h, with streets generally limited to 50 km/h, often not separately signposted. Until the end of 2006, major highways in the Northern Territory had no speed limit, but now the","-23.742827974019747"],["was known in Swedish as Dagen H (H-Day), the 'H' standing for Högertrafik or right-hand traffic.\nSince Swedish cars were left-hand drive, experts had suggested that changing to driving on the right would reduce accidents, because drivers would have a better view of the road ahead. Indeed, fatal car-to-car and car-to-pedestrian accidents did drop sharply as a result. This was likely due to drivers initially being more careful and because of the initially very low speed limits, since accident rates soon returned to nearly the same as earlier.\nTotal roadways: 572,900 km, as of 2009. Motorways Motorways run through Sweden, Denmark and over","-23.723979006541413"],["for travelling. By the end of the century the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the United States Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as: \"an open car seating two or three. It may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck.\" Due to it having a single row of seats, the main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car. Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard.\nIn the United Kingdom, historically the preferred terms were \"open two-seater\" and \"two-seat","-23.711685879679862"],["than in ordinary passenger cars, as modification for bulky 4-wheel-drive hardware requires increases in height to avoid compromising ground clearance (raising the center of gravity), while a short wheelbase further reduces stability. The previous Bronco II had already been cited by Consumer Reports for rollover tendencies in turns.\nThe Explorer was cleared by the NHTSA as no more dangerous than any other truck when driven unsafely. It used the same tires as the Ford Ranger with a relatively low rating for high temperatures. Lowering tire pressure recommendations softened the ride further and improved emergency stability through increased traction, but increased the","-23.69329847282279"],["These vehicles were checked by the police and got temporary licences for the duration of the event. For vehicles with a regular road licence other specifications applied. Two-wheelers The vehicles mostly had three or four wheels but from the beginning a few bicycles with solar trailers participated. This later led to the development of Swiss production electric bicycles and motorcycles.","-23.661442257760427"],["crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher incident rate for HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a corner. But there was no statistically significant difference between the types of vehicles when they were driving straight.\nSeveral automakers developed electric vehicle warning sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles (EVs) travelling at low speeds. Their purpose is to make pedestrians, cyclists, the blind, and others aware of the vehicle's presence while operating in all-electric mode.\nVehicles in the market with such safety","-23.65023917630242"],["three-wheeler exports. During the FY 2012-13, it sold approx. 4,80,000 three-wheelers which was 57% of the total market share in India. Out of these 4,80,000 three-wheelers, 53% were exported and remaining 47% were sold in India. In Indonesia, Bajaj three-wheelers are \"iconic\" and \"ubiquitous\" to the point that the word bajaj (pronounced bajay) is used to refer to auto rickshaws of any kind. Low cost cars In 2010, Bajaj Auto announced cooperation with Renault and Nissan Motor to develop a US$2,500 car, aiming at a fuel efficiency of 30 kilometres per litre (85 mpg‑imp; 71 mpg‑US) (3.3 L/100 km), or twice an","-23.642476520390005"],["Scandinavia Denmark and Norway allow 25.25 m (83 ft) trucks (Denmark from 2008, and Norway from 2008 on selected routes). In Sweden the allowed length has been 24 m (79 ft) since 1967. Before that, the maximum length was unlimited; the only limitations were on axle load. What stopped Sweden from adopting the same rules as the rest of Europe, when securing road safety, was the national importance of a competitive forestry industry. Finland, with the same road safety issues and equally important forestry industry, followed suit. The change made trucks able to carry three stacks of cut-to-length logs instead of two, as it","-23.638923249745858"],["and better overall view for the driver. The major disadvantage is that for repairs on COE trucks, the entire cab has to hinge forward to allow maintenance access. Conversely, \"conventional\" cab tractors offer the driver a more comfortable driving environment, easier access getting in or out and better protection in a collision.\nIn Europe usually both rear tractor axles have dual wheels, while single or dual wheels are used for the cargo trailer. The most common combination used in Europe is a semi tractor with three axles, one a lift axle, and a cargo trailer with three axles, one also a","-23.628275604758528"],["effect, a 4.6 meter high B-double will have to follow two sets of rules: they may access only those roads that are permitted for B-doubles and for 4.6 meter high vehicles.\nIn Australia, both conventional prime movers and cabovers are common, however, cabovers are most often seen on B-doubles on the eastern seaboard where the reduction in total length allows the vehicle to pull longer trailers and thus more cargo than it would otherwise. Coupling and uncoupling The cargo trailer is, by means of a king pin, hooked to a horseshoe-shaped quick-release coupling device called a fifth wheel or a turntable hitch at","-23.62083082758909"],["High wheeler A high wheeler is a car which uses large diameter wheels that are similar to those used by horse-drawn vehicles. These cars were produced until about 1915, predominantly in the United States. Design High wheelers were derived from horse-drawn wagons, and often were conversions of these. Similarly to these wagons, they often feature wood-spoke wheels, suspensions and boxy wooden bodies.\nThe large-diameter slender wheels were frequently with solid rubber tires, to provide ample ground clearance on the primitive roads of the late 19th century.\nThese cars were produced in many body styles. The most common were the motorized wagon (utility","-23.615646638794715"],["regardless of how many wheels they have. Examples of these with two rear, one front axle are the six-wheeled Pinzgauer, which is popular with defense forces around the globe, and 10-wheeled GMC CCKW made famous by the U.S. Army in World War II.\nFour-wheeler is a related term applying to all-terrain vehicles, and not to be confused with four-wheel drive. The \"four\" in the instance referring to the vehicle having four wheels, not necessarily all driven. Unusual systems Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, French motor manufacturer Citroën developed","-23.612036847872332"],["Crossover (automobile) A crossover SUV— also called crossover or CUV— is a type of sports utility vehicle (SUV) with unibody construction. Crossovers are often based on a platform shared with a passenger car; as a result they typically have better interior comfort, a more compliant ride, and superior fuel economy, but less off-road capability than truck-based SUVs. Poor off-road capability is compounded by many crossovers being sold without all-wheel drive, which challenges their definition as \"sports utility vehicles\".\nFurther, there are various inconsistencies about whether vehicles are considered crossovers or SUVs; therefore the term SUV is often used as a","-23.610698854488874"],["Medium-speed vehicle Medium-speed vehicle (MSV) is a vehicle registration category in some states of the United States where applicable vehicles are allowed to travel on roads at speeds up to 35–45 mph (56–72 km/h). The safety regulations for MSVs are more stringent than those for Low-speed vehicles.\nMontana's SB0185 was the first law to define this class of vehicle. Minnesota has laws that allow for vehicles that travel up to 35 mph (56 km/h), Tennessee's laws allow for vehicles that travel up to 40 mph (64 km/h), and Colorado, Kentucky, Montana, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas and Washington all have laws allowing MSVs that travel up to 45 mph (72 km/h).","-23.604105094169427"],["and accidents The A74 drew regular criticism over its perceived lack of safety. Some motorists had criticised the A74 as being a \"killer road\" due to its perceived high number of accidents. MPs, however, were keen to stress that the rate of accidents was no different from any other road of comparable traffic size. In 1976, Frank McElhone, then the Under-Secretary of State for Scotland, stated that \"the A74 has gained a bad reputation. Whether this is justified in comparison with other roads is to some extent a matter of opinion.\"\nBy the 1970s, following completion of the M6 to north","-23.60397216893034"],["the following number is an odd number the motorway generally follows a north–south direction, even-numbered motorways generally follow an east–west direction. Other controlled-access (dual carriageways) in Germany can be federal highways (Bundesstraßen), state highways (Landesstraßen), district highways (Kreisstraßen) and city highways (Stadtstraßen), each with their own numbering system.\nIn New Zealand, as well as in the Scandinavian countries, in Finland, Brazil and Russia, motorway numbers are also derived from the state highway route that they form a part of, but unlike Hungary and Ireland, they are not distinguished from non motorway sections of the same state highway route. In the cases","-23.576519723588717"],["European route E47 Other road numbers The Danish E-roads have no other national numbers (the national number is the same as the E-number, here 47, but only the E-sign is posted). Between Helsingborg and Eskilstrup on the island of Falster, 160 km, the E 47 shares road with the E 55. Between Køge and Copenhagen (29 km), also the E 20 shares the same road. Danish roads 9 and 19 share roads with the E 47 short parts.\nIn Germany the motorway has the national number BAB 1. The part without motorway has the national number B 207. This part is a kind of expressway without any roads crossing","-23.567639574614077"],["country and in all major cities.\nIn South Australia, B-triples up to 35.0 metres (114.8 ft) and two-trailer road trains to 36.5 metres (120 ft) were only permitted to travel on a small number of approved routes in the north and west of the state, including access to Adelaide's north-western suburban industrial and export areas such as Port Adelaide, Gillman and Outer Harbour via Salisbury Highway, Port Wakefield Road and Augusta Highway before 2017. A project named Improving Road Transport for the Agriculture Industry added 7,200 kilometres (4,500 mi) of key routes permitted to operate vehicles over 30m in 2015–2018.\nTriple (three-trailer) road trains operate","-23.55894921410072"],["only the rear wheels independently of the front wheels. At low speed (e.g. parking) the rear wheels turn opposite to the front wheels, reducing the turning radius, sometimes critical for large trucks, tractors, vehicles with trailers and passenger cars with a large wheelbase, while at higher speeds both front and rear wheels turn alike (electronically controlled), so that the vehicle may change position with less yaw and improved build-up of the lateral acceleration, enhancing straight-line stability. The \"snaking effect\" experienced during motorway drives while towing a travel trailer is thus largely nullified.\nFour-wheel steering found its most widespread use in monster","-23.510846314798982"],["are also known as trailer on flat car or TOFC trains, but they have lost market share to containers (COFC), with longer, 53-foot containers frequently used for domestic shipments. There are also roadrailer vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as the trailer of a road vehicle. Eurasia There are four major interconnecting rail networks on the Eurasian land mass, along with other smaller national networks.\nMost countries in the European Union participate in an auto-gauge network. The United Kingdom is linked to this network via the Channel Tunnel. The Marmaray project connects Europe","-23.50408507746033"],["driving wheels appropriately. Freight locomotives generally had driving wheels between 40 and 60 inches (1,016 and 1,524 mm) in diameter; dual-purpose locomotives generally between 60 and 70 inches (1,524 and 1,778 mm), and passenger locomotives between 70 and 100 inches (1,778 and 2,540 mm) or so. Some long wheelbase locomotives (four or more coupled axles) were equipped with blind drivers. These were driving wheels without the usual flanges, which allowed them to negotiate tighter curves without binding.\nThe driving wheels on express passenger locomotives have come down in diameter over the years, e.g. from 8 ft 1 in (2,464 mm) on the GNR Stirling 4-2-2 of 1870","-23.495197516365806"],["a year. Drivers from the USA, however, must take a British test if they wish to drive in the UK for more than a year after arriving in the country. This is because US driver licensing is carried out by individual states, but the US Constitution does not permit individual states to enter bilateral treaties with other sovereign governments. However driving licences from the European Union, Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Switzerland are valid in the United Kingdom. Enforcement Some of the rules of the road should be enforced by the police, others are enforced by council wardens. Speed","-23.488213920541966"],["A5 also radiate out from London (in clockwise order) to points around the coast. All classified roads starting in the zone between the A1 and the A2 begin with the figure 1 (A137, B1412, etc). Scotland is similarly divided into zones by the A7, A8 and A9 which radiate out from Edinburgh. Motorways Motorways are classified as \"special roads\", and consequently are numbered differently, but in a similar manner. Motorways are either M-class or A(M) class. M-class motorways are labelled in the form Mx, as a higher grade of motorway, and A(M) roads are labelled in the form Ax(M), as","-23.48614613992322"],["number of public roads (public highways), in countries using the term motorway, the term highway fell out of common speech and was supplanted by the legal definition, denoting any public road, as in the Highway Code. Thus the term \"High Street\" assumed a different meaning; that of a street where the most important shops and businesses were located.\nIn Britain, the term, 'High Street', has both a generic and a specific meaning. People refer to shopping on the high street when they mean the main retail precinct, but also refer to shopping on the High Street when they mean a specific","-23.482972290872567"],["1 July 2008 onwards, purchase of a sticker is obligatory for use of a toll road with a vehicle whose permissible maximum weight does not exceed 3,500 kg, regardless of the maximum weight of a trailer.\nThe toll stickers have been criticized by the European Commission and various automobile clubs from Central and Southern Europe, spawning numerous guides on how to avoid highways, and causing heavy traffic damaging the roadway on secondary roads. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the main protesters were Austrian, and yet Austria has had a toll-sticker system in place for many years. On 28 January 2010,","-23.471014846938488"],["the cross-country vehicle overcomes obstacles up to 6 ft in height. The Sherp's maximum speed is over 40 km/h on land and 6 km/h on water and can tow up to 2500 lbs. History The design of the ATV began in 2012 based on the Russian designs of Alexei Garagashyan. The Sherp ATV was presented at the Moscow exhibition of crossovers and off-road vehicles in 2015. Mass production started in St. Petersburg, Russia and Kyiv, Ukraine in 2015. In the media On February 2016: Sherp ATV appeared on the show TopGear.\nIn July 2017 Sherp ATV was demonstrated in the Canadian towns of Whitehorse and","-23.459453191389912"],["are similar to those for cars. New motorcycles must meet Euro III standards,\nwhile cars must meet Euro V standards. Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro IV in 2012 and Euro V in 2015.","-23.45579925844504"],["Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 The Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 removed the strict rules and UK speed limits that were included in the earlier Locomotive Acts which had greatly restricted the adoption of motorised vehicles in the United Kingdom. It came into operation on 14 November 1896. Background The powerful railways lobby and those with interests in transport using horse-drawn vehicles advocated the original Locomotive Acts which imposed very low speed limits and other restrictions on the use of \"locomotives\" and motorcars on the UK public highways.\nMotor car enthusiasts strongly urged the removal of these restrictions on motorcars.","-23.401599223172525"],["potential better streamlining, three-wheeled cars are usually less expensive to operate.\nThree-wheeler transport vehicles known as auto rickshaws are a common means of public transportation in many countries in the world, and are an essential form of urban transport in many developing countries such as India and the Philippines.\nAuto rickshaws are a form of novelty transport in many Eastern countries. History Early automotive pioneer Karl Benz developed a number of three-wheeled models. One of these, the Benz Patent Motorwagen, is regarded as the first purpose-built automobile. It was made in 1885.\nIn 1896, John Henry Knight showed a tri-car at The Great","-23.374889257816903"],["intersections. Pedestrian and bicyclist safety A 1981 US Department of Transportation study determined that the frequency of motor vehicle collisions with bicyclists and pedestrians when the vehicle was turning right increased significantly after the adoption of \"Western RTOR\". According to that study \"Estimates of the magnitude of the increases ranged from 43% to 107% for pedestrian accidents and 72% to 123% for bicyclist accidents.\" A 1984 study found that where RTOR was allowed \"all right-turning crashes increase by about 23%, pedestrian crashes by about 60%, and bicyclist crashes by about 100%.\" A 1993 study also concluded that RTOR increased crashes","-23.368288275179566"],["Two-wheeler insurance Policy and benefits The law binds anyone riding a two-wheeler with an insurance policy covering the owner of the vehicle against any unanticipated situations or accidents or the vehicle against damage. The vehicle is protected against any damage caused due to natural disasters such as storms, floods, landslides, earthquakes, and so on. In addition, it also covers against the damage caused by the theft, fire, accidents, riot, and explosion. Types The motor insurance policy is generally categorized into ‘act only’ and ‘comprehensive’ policies. The former covers the death, physical injuries, or any damage to the property of the","-23.36104496588905"],["the crossing. The lights are similar to the Belgian crossings in that they have two red lights and sometimes a white light, which means the driver can go up to 50 km/h, rather than 30 km/h, with half barriers. On some crossings, the space for a white light is provided but no light is there, because in newer legislation it is taken as dangerous element that should not be used to positively change drivers' speed. Usually a yellow outline surrounds the crossbucks for increased visibility at night. Denmark Read article at https://www.itech.hd/DenLevCrossing for info. Estonia Most protected crossings are equipped with LED-lights.","-23.35989794478519"],["put aside in favour of cars re-equipped with two standard North American four-wheel trucks (bogies). The passenger cars were never used in six-wheel form due to safety concerns.\nMost of the early TG&BR freight and passenger cars were built by Dickey, Neill and Company at the Beverley Street Foundry, Toronto. The Company was a substantial investor in the TG&BR. The first passenger cars were notable in having a compound curved roof with a high centre section, giving extra headroom over the centre gangway; an arrangement often seen on horse-drawn streetcars of the period. Some later freight cars were built by the","-23.35792440638761"],["terrain. Coupé utility or Tray utility vehicle Vehicles featuring a coupe passenger compartment with an attached cargo bed. All-steel-bodied utility vehicles, more commonly called utes, were invented in Australia. Sport utility truck, Utility Truck or Pickup truck Utility trucks, (known as pickup trucks in the US) are similar to Coupé utilities. The main difference being that they are either built specifically for purpose or based upon Sports utility vehicles rather than being produced by modifying existing passenger vehicles. Utility Task Vehicle The Side-by-side (SxS), also known as Utility Task Vehicle (UTV), is small four-wheel off-road vehicle. It has a side-by-side","-23.336596519289742"],["motor scooters are considered by law to be in the same class as mopeds or small motorcycles and therefore they have fewer restrictions than do larger motorcycles.\nAccording to the Motorcycle Industry Council, sales of motor scooters in the United States have more than doubled since 2000. The motorcycle industry as a whole has seen 13 years of consecutive growth. According to council figures, 42,000 scooters were sold in 2000. By 2004, that number increased to 97,000. Scooter sales in 2008 in the United States were up 41% on 2007, and represented 9% of all powered two-wheeler sales. However, there was","-23.324354460968607"],["vehicles need to be registered with the state and whether or not a license is required to operate such a vehicle. A common threshold is 50 cm³.\nIn the Netherlands road tax is based on region, weight and fuel type (petrol / compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, diesel or other (electric/hybrid/hydrogen)), and in Sweden, road tax is based on vehicle weight. However, Swedish cars registered in 2008 or later are taxed based on carbon dioxide emissions.\nDisplacement is also used to distinguish categories of (heavier) and lighter motorbikes with respect to driving licence and insurance requirements. In France and some other EU","-23.31238439043227"],["A7 road (Great Britain) Edinburgh The northern terminus of the A7 is the junction at North Bridge with Princes Street in Edinburgh, also the northern terminus of the A1 and the southern terminus of the A900. The A7 is a major road through the city's south-eastern suburbs. This part of the A7 was the former route of the A68 road (the old A7 used to be what is now the A701/A772 at Gilmerton).\nThe road passes Cameron Toll, before meeting the Edinburgh City Bypass at the major Sheriffhall Roundabout. South of the city bypass the A7 continues through Midlothian past a","-23.308672421895608"],["A8 road (Scotland) Edinburgh The A8 begins at the West End of Edinburgh, in the New Town. The road originally also included Princes Street, but this stretch was declassified, as Princes Street is no longer open to all traffic.\nThe road continues westwards through into the suburbs of the city past affluent areas of Murrayfield and Corstorphine, often with an accompanying bus lane. Only once the road reaches the A720 City Bypass does it become a primary route, leading out past the Royal Highland Showground at Ingliston, and Edinburgh Airport.\nAt Newbridge, the A8 meets the start of the M8 and M9","-23.30594259206373"],["European route E18 United Kingdom The route starts in Northern Ireland and runs from Craigavon (M1) – Belfast (M2, A8) – Larne, then to Scotland: Stranraer, Dumfries and Galloway (A75) – Gretna – then England via the (M6) – Carlisle (A69) to Newcastle. As is normal for European routes in the United Kingdom, it is not signposted as such. North Sea There are no ferries from Newcastle to Norway. Freight-only ferries may operate from other United Kingdom ports to Norway or Denmark, but for car journeys the only practical route is a crossing to France, Belgium or the Netherlands, followed","-23.27399223850807"],["US long distance trucks provide an interior noise level of 60–70 db(A) at highway speed, while European long distance trucks, all built as a COE, provide a level of 60–65 db(A). As highway speeds are a slightly higher in the USA, this performance can be viewed as equivalent.\nBecause of their flat front design, early COE semi-trucks had significantly worse aerodynamics than conventional tractors. Modern cab-over designs, in both semi-trucks and light- and medium-duty models, have improved aerodynamics significantly over early models, but often still have higher drag coefficients than their modern conventional-design counterparts. This works against fuel economy, and offsets","-23.273766639700625"],["of the motorcycle in jurisdictions where traffic keeps to the right side of the road; the sidecar's position is reversed in left-side jurisdictions. This matches the usual configuration of driver and front-seat passenger in cars. In the UK, sidecars fitted to the right side are prohibited on motorcycles registered after August 1981. In Italy, left-mounted sidecars were prohibited in 1924, though the ban was not enforced until 1959.\nIn the Republic of China (Taiwan), Article 39-2 of the Road Traffic Security Rules (zh:道路交通安全規則) prohibits the registration of new motorcycles with sidecars but does not specifically restrict fitting them later. Flexible","-23.2715501640796"],["is the huge disparity between weight, dimensions and body types of different vehicles on the road. When vehicles of different weight and size collide, the vehicle's passive safety features may not work as intended. The differences in vehicle designs may cause of the colliding vehicles to under-ride or over-ride, limiting the vehicle's frames to properly absorb / disperse the impact energy. This is particularly serious in a collision between a small hatchback and a large sedan / SUV. Even on a collision between two same vehicle models, the differences in their ride height due to the number of occupants on","-23.26274377260313"],["lead vehicle necessarily in reverse gear.\nIn Scotland, where most drivers are accustomed to single-track roads, it is customary for drivers to acknowledge each other with a wave, or flash of headlights at night. Generally in Scotland, if the passing place is to the right-hand side of a vehicle, the driver would never pull in to the passing place to let the other driver pass. Instead the driver would stop just short of the passing place on the road, to leave space for the oncoming vehicle to manoeuvre into the passing place which would be on their left. At night, if","-23.245162083807372"],["there are two identical trucks. Each truck has two powered axles, a currently popular configuration used in high-speed, low-weight applications such as intermodal trains and high-speed rail, as well as in switching. Examples include the EMD GP (General Purpose) units. High speed (\"time\") freight trains, with guaranteed schedules often use B-B locomotives of 3,800 HP (950 HP per axle), but this application, too, has largely been replaced by higher-powered, 4,500 HP C-C locomotives (750 HP per axle). An American Colloquialism of \"B-B\" is \"Four axle\". B-2-B \"B-2-B\" means there are three trucks. The center truck has two unpowered axles","-23.227599171108977"],["miles per hour (32 kilometers per hour). Due to their small wheels, motorized scooters are not typically safe for street use as even the smallest bumps can cause an accident.\nCalifornia requires that a person riding a motorized scooter on a street be 16 years of age or older, have a valid driver's license, be wearing a bicycle helmet, have no passengers, and otherwise follow the same rules of the road the same as cars do. The motorized scooter must have brakes, may not have handlebars raised above the operator's shoulders, and if ridden at night must have a headlight, a","-23.222999098023138"],["two leading wheels, eight driving wheels, and two trailing wheels. Some locomotives such as the 4-4-0 American type had no trailing wheels and were designated with a zero in the final place.\nIn the Whyte notation the number designates the number of wheels rather than the number of axles, thus the final 2 in the Mikado's 2-8-2 refers to two wheels (one axle) while the Northern type's 4-8-4 designation refers to four wheels (two axles). \nThe highest number of trailing wheels on a single locomotive is six as seen on 2-6-6-6 Allegheny type and the Pennsylvania Railroad's 6-8-6 steam","-23.21653991771018"],["or intersections where the Swedish E45 does not follow the straight direction. There are 26 level crossings with railways. There are 19 motorway exits and 29 other motorway-like exits.\nThe ferry Gothenburg–Frederikshavn has about 6 daily departures and takes 3½ hours. Denmark In Denmark the E 45 is a motorway (speed limit 110 km/h – 130 km/h) from the south of Frederikshavn to the Denmark–Germany border. The E 45 has no other national number. It connects to the E 39 and E 20 motorways.\nIn 1992 it was renamed from E 3 (which actually before 1985 ended in Lisbon, Portugal) and until 2006, with the extension in Sweden, the","-23.196313110336632"],["the growth in tonne kilometres, the environmental external costs of trucks and lorries in the UK have reportedly decreased. Between 1990 and 2000, there has been a move to heavier goods vehicles due to major changes in the haulage industry including a shift in sales to larger articulated vehicles. A larger than average fleet turnover has ensured a swift introduction of new and cleaner vehicles in the UK.\nAlthough the decline in railway use led to a reduction in the length of the rail network, the length of the road network has not increased in proportion to the increase in road","-23.187038665200816"],["UK with dual numbers. This arose at the time when the M4 turned north near junction 8, where it met the A308, and headed for the original junction 9, where the motorway ended at a roundabout interchange with the A4. When the westward extension was opened, junction 8 was closed and a new junction built a little to the west, taking both numbers. The road to the A4 became A423(M) and later A404(M), and the junction with the A4 became 9B. Junction 9A is the exit for Cox Green and White Waltham. To the west of junction 13 on the","-23.162557460479547"],["L7e categories).\nThe framework for drivers licences of light quadricycles in the EU was released in 2006, with Directive 2006/126 (the third Driving Licence directive). This directive applies the same requirements for light quadricycles as for mopeds. This directive includes a recommendation to specify a minimum driving age of 16 years, although the age limit actually varies between 14 and 18 years between countries. Heavy quadricycles (L7e) Quadricycles (L7e), also referred to as Heavy quadricycles, are defined by Framework Directive 2002/24/EC as motor vehicles with four wheels \"other than those referred to (as light quadricycles), whose unladen mass is not more","-23.154222875375126"],["Gross vehicle weight rating Australia A car driver licence is limited to driving vehicles up to a maximum GVM of 4,500 kg (9,900 lb). Beyond this, a different class of licence is required. A vehicle with a GVM up to 4,500 kg is termed a light vehicle, while those over 4,500 kg are termed heavy vehicles.\nMany models of small truck are manufactured to have a GVM rating of 5,000 to 7,000 kg (11,000 to 15,400 lb) but sold with the option of a GVM of just under 4,500 kg so that they can be driven on a car licence. Often, the only difference between the models is","-23.15024245281893"],["A74(M) at the Scottish border. It existed as an isolated stub from 1992, when the A74 was improved to motorway standard around Gretna, to 2008, when the M6 was extended northwards. Scottish ministers had previously expressed disappointment at slow progress over the border; in 1964, Dumfries MP Hector Monro stated \"there is widespread feeling in the south of Scotland that the advance south over the Border of this important new road is being delayed because England is dragging her feet.\"\nWhen the M6 was complete around Carlisle in 1971, a new 4.5-mile (7.2 km) section of dual carriageway A74 was created to","-23.14950039886753"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"to military use from civilian specifications. Specialised commonly available off-road vehicles include ATVs (All Terrain Vehicles), dirt bikes, dune buggies, rock crawlers, and sandrails. All-terrain vehicle An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a quad, quad bike, three-wheeler, or four-wheeler, or RZR is defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, with a seat that is straddled by the operator, along with handlebars for steering control. As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. Although it is a street-legal vehicle in some\",\n \"-26.737380430614394\"\n ],\n [\n \"for commuters and urban motorists. Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report examined hybrid electric vehicle accidents that involved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to accidents involving internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The findings showed that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or bicycle. For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or stopping, backing up, entering or leaving a parking space (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is most pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than ICEVs. For\",\n \"-25.476293459767476\"\n ],\n [\n \"other road users Because of greater height and weight and rigid frames, it is contended by Malcolm Gladwell, writing in The New Yorker magazine, that SUVs can affect traffic safety. This height and weight, while potentially giving an advantage to occupants of the vehicle, may pose a risk to drivers of smaller vehicles in multi-vehicle accidents, particularly side impacts.\\nThe initial tests of the Ford Excursion were \\\"horrifying\\\" for its ability to vault over the hood of a Ford Taurus. The big SUV was modified to include a type of blocker bar suggested by the French transportation ministry in 1971, a\",\n \"-25.270007789947385\"\n ],\n [\n \"but only affected vehicles with three or more axles. The previous increase for passenger vehicles was in 2003.\",\n \"-25.210230652632163\"\n ],\n [\n \"long-term, more of the road be made dual carriageway to help combat these problems.\\nIn the European Road Assessment Programme (EuroRAP) survey, which gives all major roads in Europe a safety rating, the A1079 is categorised as 'Medium-high risk' between Market Weighton and Hull, and 'Low-medium risk' between York and Market Weighton . The Market Weighton-Hull section was also identified in a EuroRAP report in June 2007 as being one of the 10 most dangerous roads in the UK, with 69 fatal or serious collisions between 2003 and 2005 . More recently the A1079 has had a better safety record, now\",\n \"-24.993820414361835\"\n ],\n [\n \"have the right to cross where they choose, and have right of way over vehicular traffic while crossing.\\nIn most areas, an intersection is considered to have a crosswalk, even if not painted, as long as the roads meet at approximate right angles. The United Kingdom and Croatia are among the exceptions.\\nPedestrian crossings may also be located away from intersections. Level crossings A level crossing is an at-grade intersection of a railway by a road. Because of safety issues, they are often equipped with closable gates, crossing bells and warning signs. Speed limits The higher the speed of a vehicle,\",\n \"-24.91706353868358\"\n ],\n [\n \"Arnas were still registered with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency in United Kingdom.\\nAs of August 2018, there are only three Arnas shown as registered in the United Kingdom, a 1.2SL and two 1.5Ti's, although up to four cars are believed to exist in total. Both of the Arnas recorded are listed with SORNs, meaning that they are no longer legally driven on public highways.\",\n \"-24.90542924203328\"\n ],\n [\n \"Motorways.\\nThe action of undertaking, where the driver moves to the left of a slower moving vehicle to get past it is, although not illegal, discouraged on motorways under Highway Code 268. This rule allows for undertaking to occur in conditions that cause the left-hand lane to move faster than the right-hand lane and for traffic to keep up with the flow of the lane. Driving licence Driving licences may be obtained by any UK resident over the age of 17, subject to certain conditions. Initially, a provisional licence is issued, which restricts the holder to driving whilst accompanied\",\n \"-24.865845058823197\"\n ],\n [\n \"PKP class EU07 Technical data EU07s have driving cabs at each end of the locomotive. The locomotive is equipped with multiple unit control system, which allows a single driver to drive two coupled engines from one cab. This engine is able to pull passenger trains of up to 650-tonne (640-long-ton; 720-short-ton) weight with speed of 125 km/h (78 mph) and freight trains of up to 2,000 t (2,000 long tons; 2,200 short tons) weight with speed of 70 km/h (43 mph). These figures apply to driving on level track. History The EU07 is strongly connected with the EU06 locomotive. The EU06 was a British derivative\",\n \"-24.78390738649614\"\n ],\n [\n \"any terrain, including passenger transportation on a public road. The reasonable reader, however, would probably not interpret it in this way, and so, in light of established interpretative canons, the court did not favour this interpretation. The word \\\"driving\\\" occurred in the context of other adventure activities; it therefore made better sense to understand it to entail driving over unmade roads or slippery, steep or otherwise exciting terrain. Since Drifter's, as a cross-border tour operator, was statutorily obliged to have passenger liability insurance, it would be perverse for it to have contracted out of this liability altogether.\\nThe appeal was accordingly\",\n \"-24.761437723082054\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United States from Denmark. However, because most cars in the territory are imported from the mainland United States, the cars in the territory are left-hand drive. However, not all U.S. vehicle regulations are in force, and there are vehicles on the road that cannot be sold in the U.S. Additionlly, headlights use the U.S. pattern which casts light to the right, tending to blind oncoming drivers. Traffic signals are located on the opposite side of the road, and many standard road signs have been altered to fit the left-side driving.\\nAs in other U.S. territories, U.S. Virgin Islands mail service\",\n \"-24.655214492202504\"\n ],\n [\n \"vehicles that have a large side area such as vans, SUVs, and tractor-trailers. This can be dangerous for motorists because of the possible lift force created, causing the vehicle to lose traction or change direction of travel. The safest way for motorists to deal with crosswinds is by reducing their speed to reduce the effect of the lift force and to steer into the direction of the crosswind.\\nCyclists are also significantly affected by crosswinds. Saving energy by avoiding riding in wind is a major part of the tactics of road bicycle racing, and this particularly applies in crosswinds. In crosswinds,\",\n \"-24.652148185894475\"\n ],\n [\n \"Three-wheeler Overview Many three-wheelers which exist in the form of motorcycle-based machines are often called trikes and often have the front single wheel and mechanics similar to that of a motorcycle and the rear axle similar to that of a car. Often such vehicles are owner-constructed using a portion of a rear-engine, rear-drive Volkswagen Beetle in combination with a motorcycle front end. Other trikes include ATVs that are specially constructed for off-road use.\\nThree-wheelers can have either one wheel at the back and two at the front (2F1R), (for example: Morgan Motor Company) or one wheel at the front and two\",\n \"-24.63845119436155\"\n ],\n [\n \"wheels are designated by letters rather than numbers. The suffix 'o' is used to indicate independently powered axles.\\nThe number of driving wheels on locomotives varied quite a bit. Some early locomotives had as few as two driving wheels (one axle). The largest number of total driving wheels was 24 (twelve axles) on the 2-8-8-8-2 and 2-8-8-8-4 locomotives. The largest number of coupled driving wheels was 14 (seven axles) on the ill-fated AA20 4-14-4 locomotive. Other uses of the term driving wheel The term driving wheel is sometimes used to denote the drive sprocket which moves the track on tracked vehicles\",\n \"-24.589046467150183\"\n ],\n [\n \"for more maneuverability when backing. Because of the greater room available on the roads in North America, these vehicles are more popular in the United States and Canada than in Europe or other parts of the world. For uneven terrain a gooseneck hitch is an option to fifth-wheel.\\nThe downside is that the hitch takes up room in the cargo bed regardless of whether the trailer is hitched or not. The hitch can be unbolted from the bed but this takes a lot more time and effort than the unhitch operation. Off-road trailers Off-road travel trailers, also called 4x4 trailers, tentrax,\",\n \"-24.531828230923566\"\n ],\n [\n \"some consumers that SUVs are safer for their drivers than standard cars, and that they need not take basic precautions as if they were inside a \\\"defensive capsule\\\". According to G. C. Rapaille, a psychological consultant to automakers, many consumers feel safer in SUVs simply because their ride height makes \\\"[their passengers] higher and dominate and look down [sic]. That you can look down [on other people] is psychologically a very powerful notion.\\\" This and the height and weight of SUVs may lead to consumers' perception of safety.\\nGladwell also noted that SUV popularity is also a sign that people began\",\n \"-24.530808767243798\"\n ],\n [\n \"standard. All of this is because road numbering and road standard is separate in Sweden, as in the rest of Scandinavia. Turkey Motorways (Turkish: Otoyol) of Turkey are a network in constant development. Some motorways require toll (using only RFID methods), mostly six lanes wide, illuminated and with a 120 km/h (75 mph) speed limit. In 2013, the motorways were 2,155 kilometres (1,339 mi) long in total. Northern Ireland Legal authority existed in the Special Roads Act (Northern Ireland) 1963 similar to that in the 1949 Act. The first motorway to open was the M1 motorway, though it did so under temporary powers\",\n \"-24.520458791863348\"\n ],\n [\n \"and driveshaft is very important as well because the constant velocity type of driveshafts have a higher chance of breaking and leaving you stuck. The u-joint style that most off-road enthusiasts go towards have more strength and when they do break are much easier and cheaper to replace. Identification When it comes to axles and finding the right one for your application it may sometimes be difficult to find one if you do not know what to look for. The professionals at West Coast Differentials have written an article about the different axles and how to identify them called, “Differential\",\n \"-24.516262827222818\"\n ],\n [\n \"is due to geography and driver training, but more rigorous impaired driving enforcement and severe penalties in Sweden for driving under the influence may also explain the difference. While it might be argued that highways and vehicles in Sweden are different from those in the United States, the U.S. fatality rate is also about double the rate in the Canadian province of Ontario, which experienced 3.6 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km according to preliminary 2014 data. Ontario, which is a vast province of more than 1 million square kilometers, has a similar mix of highway types including congested urban\",\n \"-24.479990972551605\"\n ],\n [\n \"Level crossings in the United Kingdom There are around 6,000 level crossings in the United Kingdom, of which about 1,500 are public highway crossings. This number is gradually being reduced as the risk of accidents at level crossings is considered high. The director of the UK Railway Inspectorate commented in 2004 that \\\"the use of level crossings contributes the greatest potential for catastrophic risk on the railways.\\\" The creation of new level crossings on the national network is banned (the exception being reopening unavoidable crossings on new/reopening railway lines, and on heritage railways), with bridges and tunnels being the more\",\n \"-24.438912639623595\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ford (crossing) Description A ford is a much cheaper form of river crossing than a bridge, but it may become impassable after heavy rain or during flood conditions. A ford is therefore normally only suitable for very minor roads (and for paths intended for walkers and horse riders etc.). Most modern fords are usually shallow enough to be crossed by cars and other wheeled or tracked vehicles (a process known as \\\"fording\\\").\\nIn New Zealand, however, fords are a normal part of major roads, including, until 2010, along State Highway 1 on the South Island's east coast. As most inter-city\",\n \"-24.387838684192047\"\n ],\n [\n \"changed over 20 years ago (1 January 1997), the freight industry and driver recruitment agencies still predominantly use the obsolete class numbers for the entitlement of HGV drivers.\\nThe two systems are not exactly compatible, so the descriptions given are only a guideline.\\nClass 1: any goods vehicle over 7½ long tons (7,620 kg) with any trailer.\\nClass 2: any rigid goods vehicle over 7½ long tons.\\nClass 3: any rigid goods vehicle over 7½ long tons with no more than two axles. Points and endorsements The UK uses a cumulative points system for driving offences. Points are added for driving offences by law courts\",\n \"-24.32878530893504\"\n ],\n [\n \"following vehicles pass, and most drivers oblige. The same system is found very occasionally in rural England and Wales, as well as Sai Kung in the New Territories. Sometimes two small vehicles can pass one another at a place other than a designated passing place.\\nSome A-class and B-class roads in the Highlands are still single-track, although many sections have been widened for the sake of faster travel. In 2009, the A830 \\\"Road to the Isles\\\" and A851 on the Isle of Skye have had their single-track sections replaced with higher-quality single-carriageway road. In mountains In remote backcountry areas around\",\n \"-24.319230004424753\"\n ],\n [\n \"regulations According to the Michigan Hand Book of Off-Road Vehicle Laws \\\"Michigan law defines an ORV as any motor vehicle that can be operated cross-country (without benefit of a road or trail) over land, snow, and other natural terrain. This includes: multi-track or multi-wheeled vehicles; all-terrain vehicles (ATVs); motorcycles or related multi-wheeled vehicles; amphibious machines (water-to-land and back); hovercraft; and other vehicles that use mechanical power including 2- or 4-wheel-drive vehicles that are highway registered but operated off highways or off roads.\\\" This trail system is also patrolled to ensure that all ORV operators and all passengers wear\",\n \"-24.265860900522966\"\n ],\n [\n \"Warrington, Liverpool and Manchester. The M6 intersects many of the North West's motorways and A-roads, and carries almost 120,000 vehicles per day (41,975,000 per year).\\nBritain's most severe steep road is Hardknott Pass in Cumbria, and the highest road in the UK is the former A6293 at 2,780 ft at Milburn, Cumbria; the highest classified road in England was the A689 east of Nenthead in Cumbria on the Durham boundary. Greater Manchester and Merseyside The Greater Manchester and Merseyside areas are home to almost 4 million people, and over half the region's population. The road networks intertwining these metropolitan areas are extremely\",\n \"-24.22737521279487\"\n ],\n [\n \"other routes are considered to have a gap and are signed in brackets (the equivalent of \\\"to\\\" signs in North America). An example is the meeting of the M60 and the M62 northwest of Manchester: the motorways coincide for the seven miles (11 km) between junctions 12 and 18 but the motorway between those points is only designated as the M60. European route numbers as designated by UNECE may have concurrencies (for instance E15 and E30 around Greater London), but since the E-route numbers are unsigned and unused in the UK, the existence of these concurrencies is purely theoretical.\\nIn Sweden and\",\n \"-24.15668441866876\"\n ],\n [\n \"that teen drivers must have a decal on their vehicle.\\nSome countries, such as Australia, the United States, Canada and New Zealand, have graduated levels of driver's licence, with special rules. By 2010, all US states required a graduated driver's licence for drivers under age 18. In Italy, the maximum speed and power of vehicles driven by new drivers is restricted. In Romania, the maximum speed of vehicles driven by new drivers (less than one year in experience) is 20 km/h lower than the national standard (except villages, towns and cities). Many U.S. states allow 18-year-olds to skip some requirements that younger\",\n \"-24.156048537763127\"\n ],\n [\n \"in England and Wales. It was decided to reserve the numbers 7, 8 & 9 for Scotland. In Scotland, where roads were the responsibility of the Scottish Office (Scottish Government after 1999), the decision was taken to adopt a scheme whereby motorways took the numbers of the all-purpose routes they replaced. As a result, there is no M7 (as no motorway follows the A7), and when the A90 was re-routed to replace the A85 south of Perth, the short M85 became part of the M90. Other A roads These radials are supplemented by two-digit codes which are routes that may\",\n \"-24.125477963563753\"\n ],\n [\n \"a car and a motorcycle. Both have wheels. That is a commonality. However, cars have four wheels, while motorcycles have two wheels. That is a difference. Because this difference required first finding a commonality between the pair, it is called an alignable difference. Alignable differences contrast with nonalignable differences which are aspects of one concept that have no correspondence in the other. For example, cars have seatbelts and motorcycles do not. Research suggests that alignable differences have a larger impact on people's judgments of similarity than do nonalignable differences. Thus, the relationship between the commonalities of a pair and the\",\n \"-24.125218643050175\"\n ],\n [\n \"blurred in practice, since unibody vehicles are also often referred to as SUVs. Also, crossover is a relatively recent term and early unibody SUVs (such as the 1984 Jeep Cherokee) are rarely called crossovers. Due to these inconsistencies, the term SUV is often used as a catch-all for both crossovers and SUVs.\\nOutside of the United States, the term crossover tends to be used for C-segment (compact) or smaller vehicles, with large unibody vehicles— such as the Audi Q7, BMW X7 and Volkswagen Touareg— are usually called SUVs rather than crossovers. In the United Kingdom, a crossover is sometimes defined as\",\n \"-24.11366240218922\"\n ],\n [\n \"York Auto Show in April, the M-Class was renamed to GLE-Class as per the revised nomenclature adopted by the brand. Under this scheme, SUVs use the base name \\\"GL\\\", followed by the model's placement in Mercedes-Benz hierarchy. The \\\"G\\\" is for Geländewagen (German off land wagon for off-road vehicle) and alludes the long-running G-Wagen. This is followed by the letter \\\"L\\\" that acts as a linkage with the letter \\\"E\\\"—the GLE being the SUV equivalent to the E-Class. Awards The ML 320 was Motor Trend magazine's Truck of the Year for 1998 and was voted the 1998 North American Truck\",\n \"-24.108064105668745\"\n ],\n [\n \"sometimes used, with both 4-wheel and 6-wheel versions being extant. In British English, the term 'truck' most commonly relates to railway vehicles, with the word 'lorry' more commonly applied to road vehicles.\",\n \"-24.07641478555888\"\n ],\n [\n \"built and maintained by the self-financed ASFiNAG stock company in Vienna, which is wholly owned by the Austrian republic and earns revenue from road-user charges and tolls. Each route bears a number as well as an official name with local reference, which however is not displayed on road signs. Unusually for European countries, interchanges (between motorways called Knoten, \\\"knots\\\") are numbered by distance in kilometres starting from where the route begins; this arrangement is also used in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Spain, and most provinces of Canada (and in most American states, albeit in miles). The current Austrian Autobahn\",\n \"-24.052938997606816\"\n ],\n [\n \"Road The inn gives its name to the Cat and Fiddle Road: a stretch of the A537 road, linking Macclesfield to the west with Buxton to the east, which features many sharp corners. This road became notorious for the high number of accidents, particularly among motorcyclists for whom the road is often regarded as an exhilarating technical challenge; an AA survey in 2003 named it as the most dangerous stretch of road in the United Kingdom. Other pubs There are several pubs of this name in the United Kingdom. For example, there is a Cat and Fiddle pub in Hinton,\",\n \"-24.004896274225757\"\n ],\n [\n \"2-1 road A 2-1 road (2-minus-1 road) is a type of road with extra wide shoulders, and a smaller two-way lane in the middle for vehicles. The shoulders are to be used by pedestrians and cyclists, and if necessary by meeting vehicles. The purpose of the road is to give more space to pedestrians and cyclists and thereby avoid constructing new dedicated pedestrian and bicycle paths, especially in areas where new constructions are to be avoided or not possible.\\nThe road-type is popular in Denmark where a third of all municipalities have at least one stretch of this type of road.\",\n \"-23.996800822955265\"\n ],\n [\n \"America, the term is applied to both heavy vehicles and light passenger vehicles. When referring to heavy vehicles, the term is increasingly applied to mean \\\"permanent multiple-wheel drive\\\" on 2×2, 4×4, 6×6, or 8×8 drive-train systems that include a differential between the front and rear drive shafts. This is often coupled with some sort of antislip technology, increasingly hydraulic-based, that allows differentials to spin at different speeds, but still be capable of transferring torque from a wheel with poor traction to one with better. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road\",\n \"-23.977793177138665\"\n ],\n [\n \"Side by Side (UTV) The side-by-side (often written as SxS) is a small 2- to 6-person four-wheel drive off-road vehicle, also called UTV (utility vehicle or utility task vehicle), a ROV (recreational off-highway vehicle), or a MOHUV (multipurpose off-highway utility vehicle). Safety The majority of the side-by-sides come factory-equipped with a ROPS, or roll-over protection system. Many of the vehicles also come equipped with hard tops, windshields, and even cab enclosures. \\nThe Outdoor Power Equipment Institute (OPEI) defines multipurpose off-highway utility vehicles (MOHUVs) as vehicles with: \\\"(a) four or more wheels, (b) a steering wheel, (c) non-straddle seating, and (d)\",\n \"-23.966965210755006\"\n ],\n [\n \"fatal pedestrian crashes involved passenger cars or light commercial vehicles, between 2009 and 2013.\\nPedestrians older than 75 have the highest pedestrian fatality rate of any age group. Road naming Each state has independent systems for the naming of roads.\\nRoads in New South Wales are named in accordance with section 162 of The Roads Act 1993. Australian Standards AS 1742.5 - 1986 and AS 4212 - 1994 provide a list of road suffixes (such as Alley, Circle, Mall, Street) which are routinely accepted by the Geographical Names Board.\",\n \"-23.887121470525017\"\n ],\n [\n \"roads maintain their new numbers from Denmark and southward, though, as do other European routes within Scandinavia.\\nFurther exceptions are E 67, going from Finland to Czech Republic (wrong side of E 75 and E 77), assigned around year 2000, simply because it was best available number for this new route, most of E 63 in Finland (wrong side of E 75) E 8 in Finland (partly on the wrong side of E 12 after a lengthening around 2002) and E 82 (Spain and Portugal, wrong side of E 80). These irregularities exist just because it is hard to maintain good order when extending the network, and the UNECE does\",\n \"-23.856042759376578\"\n ],\n [\n \"highway is a common Czech translation of the term dálnice, which describes a toll highway similar to a freeway or an Autobahn. Denmark With the completion of the extremely long highway bridge-tunnels of Great Belt Fixed Link in 1998 and Øresund Bridge in 2000, continental Europe was finally connected by road and rail with capital city Copenhagen and Sweden. This includes the Swedish highway and railroad system. The bridge-tunnels are all interconnected with major Danish highways and completes a continuous international road connection from northern Sweden to Gibraltar at the southern edge of Spain and Messina, Italy, at the southern\",\n \"-23.847118405319634\"\n ],\n [\n \"Roadster (automobile) A roadster (also spider, spyder) is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character. Initially an American term for a two-seat car with no weather protection, usage has spread internationally and has evolved to include two-seat convertibles.\\nThe roadster was also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club (USAC) Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500, in the 1950s and 1960s. This type of racing car was superseded by rear-engine cars. Etymology The term \\\"roadster\\\" originates in the United States, where it was used in the nineteenth century to describe a horse suitable\",\n \"-23.845031130476855\"\n ],\n [\n \"Locomotive Acts The Locomotive Acts (or Red Flag Acts) were a series of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom regulating the use of mechanically propelled vehicles on British public highways during the latter part of the 19th century.\\nThe first three, The Locomotives on Highways Act 1861, The Locomotive Act 1865 and the Highways and Locomotives (Amendment) Act 1878, contained restrictive measures on the manning and speed of operation of road vehicles; they also formalised many important road concepts such as vehicle registration, registration plates, speed limits, maximum vehicle weight over structures such as bridges, and the organisation of\",\n \"-23.84273755236063\"\n ],\n [\n \"1960s and early 1970s, was at the time alien to most of established highway design practice in the UK. The much evolved and refined Dutch version, the Woonerf, is supported by legislation which gives pedestrians priority over vehicles within these shared streets. This inverts the expectation of UK motorists, who would expect a pedestrian in the carriageway to give way to a vehicle.\\nResolving these legislative differences involved the involvement of central Government officers who were already aware of various other Homezone projects around the UK. All of these projects, (whether newbuild or remodelling existing streets), suffered from a mismatch between\",\n \"-23.835244595211407\"\n ],\n [\n \"m back from the main traffic signal. The reasoning is that this puts cyclists clearly into the view of heavy goods vehicle (HGV) drivers, who have a blind spot up to 4 m directly in front of the cab. According to an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) review, ASLs are also advocated as way of improving pedestrian safety at crossings by increasing the separation between crossing pedestrians and waiting motor vehicles.\\nAlthough waiting cyclists might be safer out in front of HGVs, concerns have been expressed about nearside cycle lanes approaching such intersections may encourage cyclists to \\\"creep up\\\"\",\n \"-23.81727316579054\"\n ],\n [\n \"he would always be held responsible. In many jurisdictions, a two second gap is recommended between any two successive moving vehicles, characterised in Britain by the slogan, \\\"only a fool breaks the two second rule\\\". Fighting against tailgating Tailgating causes most rear-end crashes in South Australia. Some motorways in the United Kingdom and Australia feature certain road markings which can help resolve this problem. Consisting of an arrangement of chevrons, these remind the driver not to tailgate, and assist in the two second rule. There is also signage in Britain on smart motorways when they are very congested, to\",\n \"-23.809636656478688\"\n ],\n [\n \"motorways, while some sections remained in the same category. The speed limit for most existing roads for motorcars was reduced to 110 km/h.\\nAs of 2016, roads for motorcars are not subject to highway tolls for vehicles with total weight up to 3.5 t. The signs on roads for motorcars consist of white text on a blue background, like on other common roads and unlike on motorways, where the background is green. Exits, like on motorways, are usually numbered.\\nIt is in the jurisdiction of individual regions (kraje) to decide whether roads for motorcars should have higher speed limits than regular roads. An\",\n \"-23.789355402464935\"\n ],\n [\n \"a Robin. As it was not the licence entitlement that changed, but rather the categorisation of tricycles into an existing category, the change applies to all holders of category A motorcycle licences, whenever they were obtained. Shortly after this an oversight was that a person with a full car licence could no longer drive a three-wheeled vehicle, this was then altered by the UK government after car companies which produce three-wheeled vehicles (such as Morgan) protested over the licensing changes, this resulted in car licence holders now being able to drive a three-wheeled vehicle, but an age limit of 21\",\n \"-23.762429079422873\"\n ],\n [\n \"Manchester to the M1 motorway in South Yorkshire. The road is single-carriageway through Mottram, Hollingworth and Tintwistle and through the Peak District National Park, it is used by large numbers of heavy goods vehicles. It is one of the most congested A-road routes in the country, with high volumes of traffic (including HGVs) using a road which is totally unsuitable for the volume and nature of traffic it carries The A628 through Mottram carries traffic from the A57 road linking Manchester through Glossop to Sheffield over the Snake Pass, another major Trans-Pennine route. Congestion at peak times backs\",\n \"-23.759332920111774\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Ministers. Operating regulation Vehicles in Australia are right-hand drive, and vehicles travel on the left side of the road. The laws for all levels of government, have been mostly harmonised so that drivers do not need to learn different rules as they cross state borders. The usual speed limits are 100 km/h outside of urban areas (110 km/h on some roads where signposted). Major routes in built up areas are 80 km/h and 60 km/h, with streets generally limited to 50 km/h, often not separately signposted. Until the end of 2006, major highways in the Northern Territory had no speed limit, but now the\",\n \"-23.742827974019747\"\n ],\n [\n \"was known in Swedish as Dagen H (H-Day), the 'H' standing for Högertrafik or right-hand traffic.\\nSince Swedish cars were left-hand drive, experts had suggested that changing to driving on the right would reduce accidents, because drivers would have a better view of the road ahead. Indeed, fatal car-to-car and car-to-pedestrian accidents did drop sharply as a result. This was likely due to drivers initially being more careful and because of the initially very low speed limits, since accident rates soon returned to nearly the same as earlier.\\nTotal roadways: 572,900 km, as of 2009. Motorways Motorways run through Sweden, Denmark and over\",\n \"-23.723979006541413\"\n ],\n [\n \"for travelling. By the end of the century the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the United States Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as: \\\"an open car seating two or three. It may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck.\\\" Due to it having a single row of seats, the main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car. Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard.\\nIn the United Kingdom, historically the preferred terms were \\\"open two-seater\\\" and \\\"two-seat\",\n \"-23.711685879679862\"\n ],\n [\n \"than in ordinary passenger cars, as modification for bulky 4-wheel-drive hardware requires increases in height to avoid compromising ground clearance (raising the center of gravity), while a short wheelbase further reduces stability. The previous Bronco II had already been cited by Consumer Reports for rollover tendencies in turns.\\nThe Explorer was cleared by the NHTSA as no more dangerous than any other truck when driven unsafely. It used the same tires as the Ford Ranger with a relatively low rating for high temperatures. Lowering tire pressure recommendations softened the ride further and improved emergency stability through increased traction, but increased the\",\n \"-23.69329847282279\"\n ],\n [\n \"These vehicles were checked by the police and got temporary licences for the duration of the event. For vehicles with a regular road licence other specifications applied. Two-wheelers The vehicles mostly had three or four wheels but from the beginning a few bicycles with solar trailers participated. This later led to the development of Swiss production electric bicycles and motorcycles.\",\n \"-23.661442257760427\"\n ],\n [\n \"crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher incident rate for HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a corner. But there was no statistically significant difference between the types of vehicles when they were driving straight.\\nSeveral automakers developed electric vehicle warning sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles (EVs) travelling at low speeds. Their purpose is to make pedestrians, cyclists, the blind, and others aware of the vehicle's presence while operating in all-electric mode.\\nVehicles in the market with such safety\",\n \"-23.65023917630242\"\n ],\n [\n \"three-wheeler exports. During the FY 2012-13, it sold approx. 4,80,000 three-wheelers which was 57% of the total market share in India. Out of these 4,80,000 three-wheelers, 53% were exported and remaining 47% were sold in India. In Indonesia, Bajaj three-wheelers are \\\"iconic\\\" and \\\"ubiquitous\\\" to the point that the word bajaj (pronounced bajay) is used to refer to auto rickshaws of any kind. Low cost cars In 2010, Bajaj Auto announced cooperation with Renault and Nissan Motor to develop a US$2,500 car, aiming at a fuel efficiency of 30 kilometres per litre (85 mpg‑imp; 71 mpg‑US) (3.3 L/100 km), or twice an\",\n \"-23.642476520390005\"\n ],\n [\n \"Scandinavia Denmark and Norway allow 25.25 m (83 ft) trucks (Denmark from 2008, and Norway from 2008 on selected routes). In Sweden the allowed length has been 24 m (79 ft) since 1967. Before that, the maximum length was unlimited; the only limitations were on axle load. What stopped Sweden from adopting the same rules as the rest of Europe, when securing road safety, was the national importance of a competitive forestry industry. Finland, with the same road safety issues and equally important forestry industry, followed suit. The change made trucks able to carry three stacks of cut-to-length logs instead of two, as it\",\n \"-23.638923249745858\"\n ],\n [\n \"and better overall view for the driver. The major disadvantage is that for repairs on COE trucks, the entire cab has to hinge forward to allow maintenance access. Conversely, \\\"conventional\\\" cab tractors offer the driver a more comfortable driving environment, easier access getting in or out and better protection in a collision.\\nIn Europe usually both rear tractor axles have dual wheels, while single or dual wheels are used for the cargo trailer. The most common combination used in Europe is a semi tractor with three axles, one a lift axle, and a cargo trailer with three axles, one also a\",\n \"-23.628275604758528\"\n ],\n [\n \"effect, a 4.6 meter high B-double will have to follow two sets of rules: they may access only those roads that are permitted for B-doubles and for 4.6 meter high vehicles.\\nIn Australia, both conventional prime movers and cabovers are common, however, cabovers are most often seen on B-doubles on the eastern seaboard where the reduction in total length allows the vehicle to pull longer trailers and thus more cargo than it would otherwise. Coupling and uncoupling The cargo trailer is, by means of a king pin, hooked to a horseshoe-shaped quick-release coupling device called a fifth wheel or a turntable hitch at\",\n \"-23.62083082758909\"\n ],\n [\n \"High wheeler A high wheeler is a car which uses large diameter wheels that are similar to those used by horse-drawn vehicles. These cars were produced until about 1915, predominantly in the United States. Design High wheelers were derived from horse-drawn wagons, and often were conversions of these. Similarly to these wagons, they often feature wood-spoke wheels, suspensions and boxy wooden bodies.\\nThe large-diameter slender wheels were frequently with solid rubber tires, to provide ample ground clearance on the primitive roads of the late 19th century.\\nThese cars were produced in many body styles. The most common were the motorized wagon (utility\",\n \"-23.615646638794715\"\n ],\n [\n \"regardless of how many wheels they have. Examples of these with two rear, one front axle are the six-wheeled Pinzgauer, which is popular with defense forces around the globe, and 10-wheeled GMC CCKW made famous by the U.S. Army in World War II.\\nFour-wheeler is a related term applying to all-terrain vehicles, and not to be confused with four-wheel drive. The \\\"four\\\" in the instance referring to the vehicle having four wheels, not necessarily all driven. Unusual systems Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, French motor manufacturer Citroën developed\",\n \"-23.612036847872332\"\n ],\n [\n \"Crossover (automobile) A crossover SUV— also called crossover or CUV— is a type of sports utility vehicle (SUV) with unibody construction. Crossovers are often based on a platform shared with a passenger car; as a result they typically have better interior comfort, a more compliant ride, and superior fuel economy, but less off-road capability than truck-based SUVs. Poor off-road capability is compounded by many crossovers being sold without all-wheel drive, which challenges their definition as \\\"sports utility vehicles\\\".\\nFurther, there are various inconsistencies about whether vehicles are considered crossovers or SUVs; therefore the term SUV is often used as a\",\n \"-23.610698854488874\"\n ],\n [\n \"Medium-speed vehicle Medium-speed vehicle (MSV) is a vehicle registration category in some states of the United States where applicable vehicles are allowed to travel on roads at speeds up to 35–45 mph (56–72 km/h). The safety regulations for MSVs are more stringent than those for Low-speed vehicles.\\nMontana's SB0185 was the first law to define this class of vehicle. Minnesota has laws that allow for vehicles that travel up to 35 mph (56 km/h), Tennessee's laws allow for vehicles that travel up to 40 mph (64 km/h), and Colorado, Kentucky, Montana, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas and Washington all have laws allowing MSVs that travel up to 45 mph (72 km/h).\",\n \"-23.604105094169427\"\n ],\n [\n \"and accidents The A74 drew regular criticism over its perceived lack of safety. Some motorists had criticised the A74 as being a \\\"killer road\\\" due to its perceived high number of accidents. MPs, however, were keen to stress that the rate of accidents was no different from any other road of comparable traffic size. In 1976, Frank McElhone, then the Under-Secretary of State for Scotland, stated that \\\"the A74 has gained a bad reputation. Whether this is justified in comparison with other roads is to some extent a matter of opinion.\\\"\\nBy the 1970s, following completion of the M6 to north\",\n \"-23.60397216893034\"\n ],\n [\n \"the following number is an odd number the motorway generally follows a north–south direction, even-numbered motorways generally follow an east–west direction. Other controlled-access (dual carriageways) in Germany can be federal highways (Bundesstraßen), state highways (Landesstraßen), district highways (Kreisstraßen) and city highways (Stadtstraßen), each with their own numbering system.\\nIn New Zealand, as well as in the Scandinavian countries, in Finland, Brazil and Russia, motorway numbers are also derived from the state highway route that they form a part of, but unlike Hungary and Ireland, they are not distinguished from non motorway sections of the same state highway route. In the cases\",\n \"-23.576519723588717\"\n ],\n [\n \"European route E47 Other road numbers The Danish E-roads have no other national numbers (the national number is the same as the E-number, here 47, but only the E-sign is posted). Between Helsingborg and Eskilstrup on the island of Falster, 160 km, the E 47 shares road with the E 55. Between Køge and Copenhagen (29 km), also the E 20 shares the same road. Danish roads 9 and 19 share roads with the E 47 short parts.\\nIn Germany the motorway has the national number BAB 1. The part without motorway has the national number B 207. This part is a kind of expressway without any roads crossing\",\n \"-23.567639574614077\"\n ],\n [\n \"country and in all major cities.\\nIn South Australia, B-triples up to 35.0 metres (114.8 ft) and two-trailer road trains to 36.5 metres (120 ft) were only permitted to travel on a small number of approved routes in the north and west of the state, including access to Adelaide's north-western suburban industrial and export areas such as Port Adelaide, Gillman and Outer Harbour via Salisbury Highway, Port Wakefield Road and Augusta Highway before 2017. A project named Improving Road Transport for the Agriculture Industry added 7,200 kilometres (4,500 mi) of key routes permitted to operate vehicles over 30m in 2015–2018.\\nTriple (three-trailer) road trains operate\",\n \"-23.55894921410072\"\n ],\n [\n \"only the rear wheels independently of the front wheels. At low speed (e.g. parking) the rear wheels turn opposite to the front wheels, reducing the turning radius, sometimes critical for large trucks, tractors, vehicles with trailers and passenger cars with a large wheelbase, while at higher speeds both front and rear wheels turn alike (electronically controlled), so that the vehicle may change position with less yaw and improved build-up of the lateral acceleration, enhancing straight-line stability. The \\\"snaking effect\\\" experienced during motorway drives while towing a travel trailer is thus largely nullified.\\nFour-wheel steering found its most widespread use in monster\",\n \"-23.510846314798982\"\n ],\n [\n \"are also known as trailer on flat car or TOFC trains, but they have lost market share to containers (COFC), with longer, 53-foot containers frequently used for domestic shipments. There are also roadrailer vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as the trailer of a road vehicle. Eurasia There are four major interconnecting rail networks on the Eurasian land mass, along with other smaller national networks.\\nMost countries in the European Union participate in an auto-gauge network. The United Kingdom is linked to this network via the Channel Tunnel. The Marmaray project connects Europe\",\n \"-23.50408507746033\"\n ],\n [\n \"driving wheels appropriately. Freight locomotives generally had driving wheels between 40 and 60 inches (1,016 and 1,524 mm) in diameter; dual-purpose locomotives generally between 60 and 70 inches (1,524 and 1,778 mm), and passenger locomotives between 70 and 100 inches (1,778 and 2,540 mm) or so. Some long wheelbase locomotives (four or more coupled axles) were equipped with blind drivers. These were driving wheels without the usual flanges, which allowed them to negotiate tighter curves without binding.\\nThe driving wheels on express passenger locomotives have come down in diameter over the years, e.g. from 8 ft 1 in (2,464 mm) on the GNR Stirling 4-2-2 of 1870\",\n \"-23.495197516365806\"\n ],\n [\n \"a year. Drivers from the USA, however, must take a British test if they wish to drive in the UK for more than a year after arriving in the country. This is because US driver licensing is carried out by individual states, but the US Constitution does not permit individual states to enter bilateral treaties with other sovereign governments. However driving licences from the European Union, Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Switzerland are valid in the United Kingdom. Enforcement Some of the rules of the road should be enforced by the police, others are enforced by council wardens. Speed\",\n \"-23.488213920541966\"\n ],\n [\n \"A5 also radiate out from London (in clockwise order) to points around the coast. All classified roads starting in the zone between the A1 and the A2 begin with the figure 1 (A137, B1412, etc). Scotland is similarly divided into zones by the A7, A8 and A9 which radiate out from Edinburgh. Motorways Motorways are classified as \\\"special roads\\\", and consequently are numbered differently, but in a similar manner. Motorways are either M-class or A(M) class. M-class motorways are labelled in the form Mx, as a higher grade of motorway, and A(M) roads are labelled in the form Ax(M), as\",\n \"-23.48614613992322\"\n ],\n [\n \"number of public roads (public highways), in countries using the term motorway, the term highway fell out of common speech and was supplanted by the legal definition, denoting any public road, as in the Highway Code. Thus the term \\\"High Street\\\" assumed a different meaning; that of a street where the most important shops and businesses were located.\\nIn Britain, the term, 'High Street', has both a generic and a specific meaning. People refer to shopping on the high street when they mean the main retail precinct, but also refer to shopping on the High Street when they mean a specific\",\n \"-23.482972290872567\"\n ],\n [\n \"1 July 2008 onwards, purchase of a sticker is obligatory for use of a toll road with a vehicle whose permissible maximum weight does not exceed 3,500 kg, regardless of the maximum weight of a trailer.\\nThe toll stickers have been criticized by the European Commission and various automobile clubs from Central and Southern Europe, spawning numerous guides on how to avoid highways, and causing heavy traffic damaging the roadway on secondary roads. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the main protesters were Austrian, and yet Austria has had a toll-sticker system in place for many years. On 28 January 2010,\",\n \"-23.471014846938488\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cross-country vehicle overcomes obstacles up to 6 ft in height. The Sherp's maximum speed is over 40 km/h on land and 6 km/h on water and can tow up to 2500 lbs. History The design of the ATV began in 2012 based on the Russian designs of Alexei Garagashyan. The Sherp ATV was presented at the Moscow exhibition of crossovers and off-road vehicles in 2015. Mass production started in St. Petersburg, Russia and Kyiv, Ukraine in 2015. In the media On February 2016: Sherp ATV appeared on the show TopGear.\\nIn July 2017 Sherp ATV was demonstrated in the Canadian towns of Whitehorse and\",\n \"-23.459453191389912\"\n ],\n [\n \"are similar to those for cars. New motorcycles must meet Euro III standards,\\nwhile cars must meet Euro V standards. Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro IV in 2012 and Euro V in 2015.\",\n \"-23.45579925844504\"\n ],\n [\n \"Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 The Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 removed the strict rules and UK speed limits that were included in the earlier Locomotive Acts which had greatly restricted the adoption of motorised vehicles in the United Kingdom. It came into operation on 14 November 1896. Background The powerful railways lobby and those with interests in transport using horse-drawn vehicles advocated the original Locomotive Acts which imposed very low speed limits and other restrictions on the use of \\\"locomotives\\\" and motorcars on the UK public highways.\\nMotor car enthusiasts strongly urged the removal of these restrictions on motorcars.\",\n \"-23.401599223172525\"\n ],\n [\n \"potential better streamlining, three-wheeled cars are usually less expensive to operate.\\nThree-wheeler transport vehicles known as auto rickshaws are a common means of public transportation in many countries in the world, and are an essential form of urban transport in many developing countries such as India and the Philippines.\\nAuto rickshaws are a form of novelty transport in many Eastern countries. History Early automotive pioneer Karl Benz developed a number of three-wheeled models. One of these, the Benz Patent Motorwagen, is regarded as the first purpose-built automobile. It was made in 1885.\\nIn 1896, John Henry Knight showed a tri-car at The Great\",\n \"-23.374889257816903\"\n ],\n [\n \"intersections. Pedestrian and bicyclist safety A 1981 US Department of Transportation study determined that the frequency of motor vehicle collisions with bicyclists and pedestrians when the vehicle was turning right increased significantly after the adoption of \\\"Western RTOR\\\". According to that study \\\"Estimates of the magnitude of the increases ranged from 43% to 107% for pedestrian accidents and 72% to 123% for bicyclist accidents.\\\" A 1984 study found that where RTOR was allowed \\\"all right-turning crashes increase by about 23%, pedestrian crashes by about 60%, and bicyclist crashes by about 100%.\\\" A 1993 study also concluded that RTOR increased crashes\",\n \"-23.368288275179566\"\n ],\n [\n \"Two-wheeler insurance Policy and benefits The law binds anyone riding a two-wheeler with an insurance policy covering the owner of the vehicle against any unanticipated situations or accidents or the vehicle against damage. The vehicle is protected against any damage caused due to natural disasters such as storms, floods, landslides, earthquakes, and so on. In addition, it also covers against the damage caused by the theft, fire, accidents, riot, and explosion. Types The motor insurance policy is generally categorized into ‘act only’ and ‘comprehensive’ policies. The former covers the death, physical injuries, or any damage to the property of the\",\n \"-23.36104496588905\"\n ],\n [\n \"the crossing. The lights are similar to the Belgian crossings in that they have two red lights and sometimes a white light, which means the driver can go up to 50 km/h, rather than 30 km/h, with half barriers. On some crossings, the space for a white light is provided but no light is there, because in newer legislation it is taken as dangerous element that should not be used to positively change drivers' speed. Usually a yellow outline surrounds the crossbucks for increased visibility at night. Denmark Read article at https://www.itech.hd/DenLevCrossing for info. Estonia Most protected crossings are equipped with LED-lights.\",\n \"-23.35989794478519\"\n ],\n [\n \"put aside in favour of cars re-equipped with two standard North American four-wheel trucks (bogies). The passenger cars were never used in six-wheel form due to safety concerns.\\nMost of the early TG&BR freight and passenger cars were built by Dickey, Neill and Company at the Beverley Street Foundry, Toronto. The Company was a substantial investor in the TG&BR. The first passenger cars were notable in having a compound curved roof with a high centre section, giving extra headroom over the centre gangway; an arrangement often seen on horse-drawn streetcars of the period. Some later freight cars were built by the\",\n \"-23.35792440638761\"\n ],\n [\n \"terrain. Coupé utility or Tray utility vehicle Vehicles featuring a coupe passenger compartment with an attached cargo bed. All-steel-bodied utility vehicles, more commonly called utes, were invented in Australia. Sport utility truck, Utility Truck or Pickup truck Utility trucks, (known as pickup trucks in the US) are similar to Coupé utilities. The main difference being that they are either built specifically for purpose or based upon Sports utility vehicles rather than being produced by modifying existing passenger vehicles. Utility Task Vehicle The Side-by-side (SxS), also known as Utility Task Vehicle (UTV), is small four-wheel off-road vehicle. It has a side-by-side\",\n \"-23.336596519289742\"\n ],\n [\n \"motor scooters are considered by law to be in the same class as mopeds or small motorcycles and therefore they have fewer restrictions than do larger motorcycles.\\nAccording to the Motorcycle Industry Council, sales of motor scooters in the United States have more than doubled since 2000. The motorcycle industry as a whole has seen 13 years of consecutive growth. According to council figures, 42,000 scooters were sold in 2000. By 2004, that number increased to 97,000. Scooter sales in 2008 in the United States were up 41% on 2007, and represented 9% of all powered two-wheeler sales. However, there was\",\n \"-23.324354460968607\"\n ],\n [\n \"vehicles need to be registered with the state and whether or not a license is required to operate such a vehicle. A common threshold is 50 cm³.\\nIn the Netherlands road tax is based on region, weight and fuel type (petrol / compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, diesel or other (electric/hybrid/hydrogen)), and in Sweden, road tax is based on vehicle weight. However, Swedish cars registered in 2008 or later are taxed based on carbon dioxide emissions.\\nDisplacement is also used to distinguish categories of (heavier) and lighter motorbikes with respect to driving licence and insurance requirements. In France and some other EU\",\n \"-23.31238439043227\"\n ],\n [\n \"A7 road (Great Britain) Edinburgh The northern terminus of the A7 is the junction at North Bridge with Princes Street in Edinburgh, also the northern terminus of the A1 and the southern terminus of the A900. The A7 is a major road through the city's south-eastern suburbs. This part of the A7 was the former route of the A68 road (the old A7 used to be what is now the A701/A772 at Gilmerton).\\nThe road passes Cameron Toll, before meeting the Edinburgh City Bypass at the major Sheriffhall Roundabout. South of the city bypass the A7 continues through Midlothian past a\",\n \"-23.308672421895608\"\n ],\n [\n \"A8 road (Scotland) Edinburgh The A8 begins at the West End of Edinburgh, in the New Town. The road originally also included Princes Street, but this stretch was declassified, as Princes Street is no longer open to all traffic.\\nThe road continues westwards through into the suburbs of the city past affluent areas of Murrayfield and Corstorphine, often with an accompanying bus lane. Only once the road reaches the A720 City Bypass does it become a primary route, leading out past the Royal Highland Showground at Ingliston, and Edinburgh Airport.\\nAt Newbridge, the A8 meets the start of the M8 and M9\",\n \"-23.30594259206373\"\n ],\n [\n \"European route E18 United Kingdom The route starts in Northern Ireland and runs from Craigavon (M1) – Belfast (M2, A8) – Larne, then to Scotland: Stranraer, Dumfries and Galloway (A75) – Gretna – then England via the (M6) – Carlisle (A69) to Newcastle. As is normal for European routes in the United Kingdom, it is not signposted as such. North Sea There are no ferries from Newcastle to Norway. Freight-only ferries may operate from other United Kingdom ports to Norway or Denmark, but for car journeys the only practical route is a crossing to France, Belgium or the Netherlands, followed\",\n \"-23.27399223850807\"\n ],\n [\n \"US long distance trucks provide an interior noise level of 60–70 db(A) at highway speed, while European long distance trucks, all built as a COE, provide a level of 60–65 db(A). As highway speeds are a slightly higher in the USA, this performance can be viewed as equivalent.\\nBecause of their flat front design, early COE semi-trucks had significantly worse aerodynamics than conventional tractors. Modern cab-over designs, in both semi-trucks and light- and medium-duty models, have improved aerodynamics significantly over early models, but often still have higher drag coefficients than their modern conventional-design counterparts. This works against fuel economy, and offsets\",\n \"-23.273766639700625\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the motorcycle in jurisdictions where traffic keeps to the right side of the road; the sidecar's position is reversed in left-side jurisdictions. This matches the usual configuration of driver and front-seat passenger in cars. In the UK, sidecars fitted to the right side are prohibited on motorcycles registered after August 1981. In Italy, left-mounted sidecars were prohibited in 1924, though the ban was not enforced until 1959.\\nIn the Republic of China (Taiwan), Article 39-2 of the Road Traffic Security Rules (zh:道路交通安全規則) prohibits the registration of new motorcycles with sidecars but does not specifically restrict fitting them later. Flexible\",\n \"-23.2715501640796\"\n ],\n [\n \"is the huge disparity between weight, dimensions and body types of different vehicles on the road. When vehicles of different weight and size collide, the vehicle's passive safety features may not work as intended. The differences in vehicle designs may cause of the colliding vehicles to under-ride or over-ride, limiting the vehicle's frames to properly absorb / disperse the impact energy. This is particularly serious in a collision between a small hatchback and a large sedan / SUV. Even on a collision between two same vehicle models, the differences in their ride height due to the number of occupants on\",\n \"-23.26274377260313\"\n ],\n [\n \"lead vehicle necessarily in reverse gear.\\nIn Scotland, where most drivers are accustomed to single-track roads, it is customary for drivers to acknowledge each other with a wave, or flash of headlights at night. Generally in Scotland, if the passing place is to the right-hand side of a vehicle, the driver would never pull in to the passing place to let the other driver pass. Instead the driver would stop just short of the passing place on the road, to leave space for the oncoming vehicle to manoeuvre into the passing place which would be on their left. At night, if\",\n \"-23.245162083807372\"\n ],\n [\n \"there are two identical trucks. Each truck has two powered axles, a currently popular configuration used in high-speed, low-weight applications such as intermodal trains and high-speed rail, as well as in switching. Examples include the EMD GP (General Purpose) units. High speed (\\\"time\\\") freight trains, with guaranteed schedules often use B-B locomotives of 3,800 HP (950 HP per axle), but this application, too, has largely been replaced by higher-powered, 4,500 HP C-C locomotives (750 HP per axle). An American Colloquialism of \\\"B-B\\\" is \\\"Four axle\\\". B-2-B \\\"B-2-B\\\" means there are three trucks. The center truck has two unpowered axles\",\n \"-23.227599171108977\"\n ],\n [\n \"miles per hour (32 kilometers per hour). Due to their small wheels, motorized scooters are not typically safe for street use as even the smallest bumps can cause an accident.\\nCalifornia requires that a person riding a motorized scooter on a street be 16 years of age or older, have a valid driver's license, be wearing a bicycle helmet, have no passengers, and otherwise follow the same rules of the road the same as cars do. The motorized scooter must have brakes, may not have handlebars raised above the operator's shoulders, and if ridden at night must have a headlight, a\",\n \"-23.222999098023138\"\n ],\n [\n \"two leading wheels, eight driving wheels, and two trailing wheels. Some locomotives such as the 4-4-0 American type had no trailing wheels and were designated with a zero in the final place.\\nIn the Whyte notation the number designates the number of wheels rather than the number of axles, thus the final 2 in the Mikado's 2-8-2 refers to two wheels (one axle) while the Northern type's 4-8-4 designation refers to four wheels (two axles). \\nThe highest number of trailing wheels on a single locomotive is six as seen on 2-6-6-6 Allegheny type and the Pennsylvania Railroad's 6-8-6 steam\",\n \"-23.21653991771018\"\n ],\n [\n \"or intersections where the Swedish E45 does not follow the straight direction. There are 26 level crossings with railways. There are 19 motorway exits and 29 other motorway-like exits.\\nThe ferry Gothenburg–Frederikshavn has about 6 daily departures and takes 3½ hours. Denmark In Denmark the E 45 is a motorway (speed limit 110 km/h – 130 km/h) from the south of Frederikshavn to the Denmark–Germany border. The E 45 has no other national number. It connects to the E 39 and E 20 motorways.\\nIn 1992 it was renamed from E 3 (which actually before 1985 ended in Lisbon, Portugal) and until 2006, with the extension in Sweden, the\",\n \"-23.196313110336632\"\n ],\n [\n \"the growth in tonne kilometres, the environmental external costs of trucks and lorries in the UK have reportedly decreased. Between 1990 and 2000, there has been a move to heavier goods vehicles due to major changes in the haulage industry including a shift in sales to larger articulated vehicles. A larger than average fleet turnover has ensured a swift introduction of new and cleaner vehicles in the UK.\\nAlthough the decline in railway use led to a reduction in the length of the rail network, the length of the road network has not increased in proportion to the increase in road\",\n \"-23.187038665200816\"\n ],\n [\n \"UK with dual numbers. This arose at the time when the M4 turned north near junction 8, where it met the A308, and headed for the original junction 9, where the motorway ended at a roundabout interchange with the A4. When the westward extension was opened, junction 8 was closed and a new junction built a little to the west, taking both numbers. The road to the A4 became A423(M) and later A404(M), and the junction with the A4 became 9B. Junction 9A is the exit for Cox Green and White Waltham. To the west of junction 13 on the\",\n \"-23.162557460479547\"\n ],\n [\n \"L7e categories).\\nThe framework for drivers licences of light quadricycles in the EU was released in 2006, with Directive 2006/126 (the third Driving Licence directive). This directive applies the same requirements for light quadricycles as for mopeds. This directive includes a recommendation to specify a minimum driving age of 16 years, although the age limit actually varies between 14 and 18 years between countries. Heavy quadricycles (L7e) Quadricycles (L7e), also referred to as Heavy quadricycles, are defined by Framework Directive 2002/24/EC as motor vehicles with four wheels \\\"other than those referred to (as light quadricycles), whose unladen mass is not more\",\n \"-23.154222875375126\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gross vehicle weight rating Australia A car driver licence is limited to driving vehicles up to a maximum GVM of 4,500 kg (9,900 lb). Beyond this, a different class of licence is required. A vehicle with a GVM up to 4,500 kg is termed a light vehicle, while those over 4,500 kg are termed heavy vehicles.\\nMany models of small truck are manufactured to have a GVM rating of 5,000 to 7,000 kg (11,000 to 15,400 lb) but sold with the option of a GVM of just under 4,500 kg so that they can be driven on a car licence. Often, the only difference between the models is\",\n \"-23.15024245281893\"\n ],\n [\n \"A74(M) at the Scottish border. It existed as an isolated stub from 1992, when the A74 was improved to motorway standard around Gretna, to 2008, when the M6 was extended northwards. Scottish ministers had previously expressed disappointment at slow progress over the border; in 1964, Dumfries MP Hector Monro stated \\\"there is widespread feeling in the south of Scotland that the advance south over the Border of this important new road is being delayed because England is dragging her feet.\\\"\\nWhen the M6 was complete around Carlisle in 1971, a new 4.5-mile (7.2 km) section of dual carriageway A74 was created to\",\n \"-23.14950039886753\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":299,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3q54cq"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do most schools all across the world teach English? Why is it valued so much?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["English has become common a language used in commerce transportation and science across the world. When a Spanish pilot tries to land on a French Airport they will talk English with the air-traffic control for example. English is often used as a Lingua Franca, a language used by two people who don't share the same native tongue to communicate with one another. Other languages were used for that purpose in the past usually the ones of the great empires and traders. English is just the last in a long row of languages used for this purpose that thanks to the British colonial efforts followed by the rise of its former north American colony to superpower status in the 20th century was predominant just in time for the development of global communication networks to make it *the* language everyone used to communicate with one another. It probably helps that English is as languages go rather easy to learn for many people. Everyone who has conquered parts of the British isle over the last few millennia has left parts of their own language in the mix that the natives spoke and once they started conquering of their own they imported vocabulary back home from whoever they encountered. They also dropped all the hard and complicated grammar stuff that the original languages had making it a very 'simplified' language.","Students in a country can learn their native language and be able to speak to 1% of the world's population, or learn English too and be able to speak to around 30%. English is very widespread in western countries so is generally taught, if that makes sense"," > I live in England so that's probably why I don't know. Oddly enough, that's quite relevant. British colonialism lead them to have a globe spanning empire that was one of the dominant world powers for much of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century. & nbsp; [This]( URL_0 ) was all under control of Great Britain just 96 years ago. And while the British influence waned due to the impact of two world wars and decolonization of much of that territory, one of their English speaking colonies that got away from them late in the 18th century, came out of WWII relatively unscathed, and sort of ended up taking their place as the biggest meanest bulldog in the junkyard.","Once upon a time, the British spread all throughout the world and conquered very many countries. Often, when they did this, people in the countries they conquered would start learning English. Sometimes this was because the British would force them, other times it was because its really useful to be able to talk to the people who just conquered your country. Meanwhile, Britain was a very powerful country, so even people who didn't get conquered found it useful to learn English so they could talk to British people. Later, the United States grew more powerful than Britain, but because Americans also speak English, the language was just as useful. So what did all this lead to? The English language was 1) a good language for talking to powerful people and 2) spoken in many parts of the world. This means that it was in an ideal place to become a global *lingua franca* -- if two people meet, and one speaks Language X but the other speaks Language Y, it's likely they both speak English, so they will often talk in that. This lingua franca status and the fact that a few English-speaking countries are still very powerful means that many important international groups use English: conventions of scientists, air traffic controllers, politicians, etc. TL;DR: English lets you talk to a wider range of people, and more powerful people, than many other languages"],"string":"[\n \"English has become common a language used in commerce transportation and science across the world. When a Spanish pilot tries to land on a French Airport they will talk English with the air-traffic control for example. English is often used as a Lingua Franca, a language used by two people who don't share the same native tongue to communicate with one another. Other languages were used for that purpose in the past usually the ones of the great empires and traders. English is just the last in a long row of languages used for this purpose that thanks to the British colonial efforts followed by the rise of its former north American colony to superpower status in the 20th century was predominant just in time for the development of global communication networks to make it *the* language everyone used to communicate with one another. It probably helps that English is as languages go rather easy to learn for many people. Everyone who has conquered parts of the British isle over the last few millennia has left parts of their own language in the mix that the natives spoke and once they started conquering of their own they imported vocabulary back home from whoever they encountered. They also dropped all the hard and complicated grammar stuff that the original languages had making it a very 'simplified' language.\",\n \"Students in a country can learn their native language and be able to speak to 1% of the world's population, or learn English too and be able to speak to around 30%. English is very widespread in western countries so is generally taught, if that makes sense\",\n \" > I live in England so that's probably why I don't know. Oddly enough, that's quite relevant. British colonialism lead them to have a globe spanning empire that was one of the dominant world powers for much of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century. & nbsp; [This]( URL_0 ) was all under control of Great Britain just 96 years ago. And while the British influence waned due to the impact of two world wars and decolonization of much of that territory, one of their English speaking colonies that got away from them late in the 18th century, came out of WWII relatively unscathed, and sort of ended up taking their place as the biggest meanest bulldog in the junkyard.\",\n \"Once upon a time, the British spread all throughout the world and conquered very many countries. Often, when they did this, people in the countries they conquered would start learning English. Sometimes this was because the British would force them, other times it was because its really useful to be able to talk to the people who just conquered your country. Meanwhile, Britain was a very powerful country, so even people who didn't get conquered found it useful to learn English so they could talk to British people. Later, the United States grew more powerful than Britain, but because Americans also speak English, the language was just as useful. So what did all this lead to? The English language was 1) a good language for talking to powerful people and 2) spoken in many parts of the world. This means that it was in an ideal place to become a global *lingua franca* -- if two people meet, and one speaks Language X but the other speaks Language Y, it's likely they both speak English, so they will often talk in that. This lingua franca status and the fact that a few English-speaking countries are still very powerful means that many important international groups use English: conventions of scientists, air traffic controllers, politicians, etc. TL;DR: English lets you talk to a wider range of people, and more powerful people, than many other languages\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["same time, as in other foreign cultures, the class benefits of English proficiency are acknowledged and to this end schools teach in English and many television channels are in English. The use of Breton and Welsh has historically been discouraged by French and British governments respectively. There are also instances of intolerance to the speaking of Native American languages at some schools, thus forcing those students to create small communities in which they can speak their native language, thereby creating \"language boundaries\" on a very small scale. Examples like these illustrate the impact that language boundaries can have on cultural","-33.419372037074936"],["(homestays), campus residences, shared housing, or hotels. Qualifications Most students will sit an international language exam and receive an internationally recognized qualification. English Globally, English language schools have seen the greatest demand over schools for other languages. Over one billion people are said to be learning English in a second language or foreign language context. In the United States alone, ESL learners make up over one-third of all adult, non-academic learners. English learning has experienced the highest increase in demand over the last three years, with an increase of 67%. The United States and the UK are the biggest players","-33.048013566760346"],["use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world.\nBritish and American English are the two most commonly taught varieties in the education systems where English is taught as a second language. British English tends to predominate in former colonies where English is not the first language of the majority of the population, such as Malaysia, India, Pakistan, and Singapore. British English is also the primary form taught in the European Union and the rest of Europe. American English, in contrast, tends to dominate instruction in Latin America, South Korea, Taiwan, China, and Japan.\nPhilippine","-32.78225695725996"],["work or for personal reasons. At the same time, more children were given the opportunity to learn foreign languages in school, as the number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, and foreign-language study ceased to be confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensive schools, which offered foreign-language study to all children rather than to the select few in the elite grammar schools, greatly increased the demand for language learning.\nThis increased demand included many learners who struggled with traditional methods such as grammar translation, which involves","-32.63118676627346"],["as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria; and others, such as the Philippines, under the sphere of influence of English-speaking countries. Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce, and so on, may all be carried out predominantly in English.\nThe expanding circle refers to those countries where English has no official role, but is nonetheless important for certain functions, e.g., international business and tourism. By the twenty-first century, non-native English speakers have come to outnumber native speakers by a factor of three, according to the British Council. ","-32.58309587399708"],["English language, the role of English as a world lingua franca, and the large number of books and films that are translated from English into other languages. That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in many places that English is an especially suitable language for expressing new ideas or describing new technologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages. Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed from English mostly as calques, while others, such as Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sound-indicating script. Dubbed films and television programmes are","-31.734677684187773"],["English often centres on academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general. Opposition The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by authors such as Alistair Pennycook as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.\nRobert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his Linguistic Imperialism (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English","-31.692413624637993"],["as Australia, it is so common nowadays for a foreign language to be taught in schools that the subject of language education is referred to LOTE or Language Other Than English. In the majority of English-speaking education centers, French, Spanish and German are the most popular languages to study and learn. English As A Second Language is also available for students whose first language is not English and they are unable to speak it to the required standard. Online and self-study courses Hundreds of languages are available for self-study, from scores of publishers, for a range of costs, using a","-31.58525800833013"],["economic needs, and the requirement of a second language in workplaces. With a remarkably diverse country, the United States workplaces have begun requiring education of a second language, and this extra education increases the chance of a person getting a job. A person only able to speak English is unable to serve and communicate with customers that speak another language. Schools are more likely to teach a foreign language if there is a higher concentration of native speakers in the area. This allows these teachings to remain useful to students and help increase your eligibility for future careers.","-31.55439182103146"],["have meant English has developed in ways very different from the evolution of most world languages across history. English is a language with a long written past that has preserved many words that might otherwise have been lost or changed, often in fixed texts such as the King James Version of the Bible which are not updated regularly to modernise their language. English also has many conventions for writing polite and formal prose, which are often very different from how people normally speak. As literacy among native English speakers has become almost universal, it has become increasingly easy for people","-31.539744008383423"],["for students who want to move to English-speaking countries, and other programs for students who do not intend to move but who want to understand English content for the purposes of education, entertainment, or conducting international business. The differences between these two models of English language education have grown larger over time, and teachers focusing on each model have used different terminology, received different training, and formed separate professional associations. English is also taught as a second language for recent immigrants to English-speaking countries, which faces separate challenges because the students in one class may speak many different native languages.","-31.339900729668443"],["some schools offer a choice between the State Language and Hindi, and the third language (grades 5-8, often Hindi (in the non-Hindi states), the regional language of the state (if the student opted for Hindi as the second language, a foreign language or Sanskrit). An exception is Tamil Nadu where only Tamil and English are taught.\nEnglish-medium schools often find favour with parents, especially in urban areas, due to English's international prestige, India's Colonial heritage, its usage in Indian business and it being the medium of instruction in most Indian universities. Pakistan In Pakistan, English is used widely to communicate","-31.298588756122626"],["are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes (including Australian, Scottish and Canadian).\nEdward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become \"dependent on the language skills of others\" by placing their faith in international English. Appropriation theory Some reject both","-31.251140125095844"],["metric for effective education is problematic in many ways, placing universities who do not use English as their primary language at a disadvantage. Because English has been adopted as the international language for most academic societies and journals, citations and publications in a language different from English are harder to come across. Thus, such a methodology is criticized for being inappropriate and not comprehensive enough. A second important disadvantage for universities of non-English tradition is that within the disciplines of social sciences and humanities the main tool for publications are books which are not or only rarely covered by digital","-31.090413691708818"],["or can't go to English-medium schools because, the tuition fees are usually too high and they can't afford such tuition. English-medium schools are growing in popularity among the middle class, upper-middle class and rich families. The English-medium schools not only teach the students about their own countries but also about the European History and Literature.\nThe exams of the O-level and A-level students of Edexcel and Cambridge are conducted through British Council Bangladesh. Language The English-medium schools teach most of the subjects in English. Bengali is also taught. French and Spanish is taught in International School Dhaka. The St Francis","-31.07237097423058"],["students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands.\" (Punjab Text Book Board 1997). Many Englishes Many difficult choices must be made if further standardisation of English is pursued. These include whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties","-31.052702489076182"],["Schools' which often follow one of the three International Baccalaureate programs. These will be populated by expatriates' children and some children of the local upper middle class. They do this in an effort to maintain linguistic stability and to ensure that their children do not fall behind due to linguistic problems. Where their own language is not available, families will often choose English-speaking schools for their children. They do this because of the linguistic and cultural opportunities being immersed in English might provide their children when they are adults, and because their children are more likely to have prior exposure","-30.88519365398679"],["and commerce (a lingua franca), English has also become the most widely used second language. In countries where English is neither a native language nor widely spoken, a non-native variant (typically English English or North American English) might be considered \"standard\" for teaching purposes. Typically, English English is taught as standard across Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia and North American English is taught as standard across Latin America and East Asia. This does, however, vary between regions and individual teachers. In some areas a pidgin or creole language, blends English with one or more native languages. Grammar Although","-30.868557996000163"],["culture, due to the fact that they were using materials originally designed for pupils in the United States.\nThe report also informed that teacher training was inadequate and that 82 per cent of the pupils did not go beyond grade 4. Many of the problems identified were attributed to the attempt to impose an English-based education system in just one generation, concluding that \"Upon leaving school, more than 99% of Filipinos will not speak English in their homes. Possibly, only 10% to 15% of the next generation will be able to use this language in their occupations. In fact, it will","-30.566895269439556"],["Language education by region Practices in language education vary significantly by region. Firstly, the languages being learned differ; in the United States, Spanish is the most popular language to be learned, whereas the most popular languages to be learned in Australia are Italian and Mandarin Chinese. Also, teaching methods tend to differ by region. Language immersion is popular in some European countries, but is not used very much in the United States. Foreign language education 1995 European Commission’s White Paper \"Teaching and learning – Towards the learning society\", stated that \"upon completing initial training, everyone should be proficient in two","-30.526513421558775"],["United States, proponents of the practice argue that it will not only help to keep non-English-speaking children from falling behind their peers in math, science, and social studies while they master English, but such programs teach English better than English-only programs. For many students, the process of learning literacy and a new language simultaneously is simply an overwhelming task, so bilingual programs began as a way to help such students develop native language literacy first - research by Cummins, a central researcher in the field, shows that skills such as literacy developed in a first language will transfer to English.","-30.43421052454505"],["the mandated primacy of English: for example, in many European companies, such as Airbus, Ford, G.M., Philips, Renault, Volvo, etc. have designated English to be the language of communication for their senior management, and many universities are offering education in English. The language is also a required subject in most European countries. Thus, the percentage of English speakers is expected to rise. English as lingua franca English is the most commonly spoken foreign language in 19 out of 25 European Union countries (excluding the UK and Ireland)\nIn the EU25, working knowledge of English as a foreign language is clearly leading","-30.423351389123127"],["in English Language is inevitable. According to The Five Principles of Effective Second Language Vocabulary Instruction by Barcroft, presenting new words frequently and repeatedly during lessons is one of the keys to success in learning a second language. Likewise, in mother-tongue teaching, students are less exposed to English, so they acquire English as a second language less effectively.\nAnother concern is the status of English as an international language. Some have argued that reduced exposure to English as well as learning academic subjects in native language will lessen students’ edge and competence in the global market. Fine-tuning of mother-tongue teaching In","-30.354499182052677"],["school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject between first grade and ninth grade, with all students continuing in secondary school studying English for at least another year. Most students also study one and sometimes two additional languages. These include (but are not limited to) German, French and Spanish. Some Danish and Norwegian is at times also taught as part of Swedish courses for native speakers. Because of the extensive mutual intelligibility between the three continental Scandinavian languages Swedish speakers often use their native language when visiting or living in Norway or Denmark. Health Healthcare in Sweden is similar in","-30.33384983718861"],["their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC","-30.305724635371007"],["clientele which felt it would be more important that their sons learnt to understand the English than that they were taught to appreciate classic poetry.\nBroadly similar issues (‘classical education’ vs ‘liberal education’) had already arisen for education in England with existing grammar schools being unwilling (or legally unable) to give instruction in subjects other than Latin or Greek and were to end in an expansion of their curriculum to include modern subjects. In the Indian situation a complicating factor was that the 'classical education' reflected the attitudes and beliefs of the various traditions in the sub-continent, 'English education' clearly did","-30.182085336127784"],["Language education in the United States Language education in the United States has historically involved teaching American English to immigrants and Spanish, French, Latin, Italian or German to native English speakers. Bilingual education was sponsored in some districts, often contentiously. Japanese language education in the United States increased following the Japanese post-war economic miracle. This was a period between the Cold War and World War II where Japan had the second largest economy in the world. In order to participate, the government increased funding to teaching Japanese in schools. Chinese as a second language began to be taught","-30.165271934703924"],["as well. However, foreign language immersion programs are growing in popularity, making it possible for elementary school children to begin serious development of a second language.\nIn 2008 the Center for Applied Linguistics conducted an extensive survey documenting foreign language study in the United States. The most popular language is Spanish, due to the large number of recent Spanish-speaking immigrants to the United States (see Spanish in the United States). According to this survey, in 2008 88% of language programs in elementary schools taught Spanish, compared to 93% in secondary schools. Other languages taught in U.S. high schools in 2008, in","-30.150037714120117"],["and most of them come from poorer families. Curriculum and student activities As mentioned before, English is the official language of secondary school, both private and public, which leads to challenges for the majority of students that come from Kiswahili focused primary schools. In 2009, only 35.4% of students passed the English portion of the National Standard 7 Exam, but this does not affect their ability to go to secondary schools. English in secondary schools is extremely controversial because while some people believe that students will become prepared to understand the global economy, many others believe that the focus on","-30.12772343424149"],["literally, \"English\" – in North India). The usage of a particular language can reflect positively or negatively on its speaker depending upon the situation. For example, there is perception in the USA that only English speakers are American and only non-Americans are non-English-speakers. It is suspected that this assumption began because states would have \"official\" languages for the purposes of book publishing and therefore for the purposes of education, so intelligence would come to be associated with speaking the language that was written.\nBecause of this idea, there are also often social benefits which result from being able to speak English.","-30.110509482445195"],["communicative method. Parents redirected the focus of English education to align with exam content (Park, 2009). English Language Education programs focus on ensuring competency to perform effectively as a nation in an era of globalization using proficiency-based language programs that allow students to learn according to their own abilities and interests and driving Koreans to focus more on oral proficiency (Chang, 2009 & Park, 2009). With the new focus placed on oral expertise, there has been an “intense desire to speak native-like English” pressuring parents to take measures to ensure the most beneficial English education (Park, 2009).\nBecause of large class","-30.058781808969798"],["values. Through the study of English, the English department expands the students' capabilities in reasoning and problem solving skills, which ultimately instills a sense of self-sufficiency and creativity.\nThe English majors learn French for the second language, whereas other language majors learn English. Throughout the school life, they learn most various languages - English, Korean, French and Chinese in their 3rd year. German The German major has 2 classes. (5,6) French The French major has 2 classes. (7,8) Japanese The Japanese major has only 1 class. (9) Russian The Russian major has 1 class. (10) They have same colleagues throughout the","-30.044696638622554"],["there are occasions where a child is still coming to understand English as their second language. The primary schools heavily reinforce English as their second language so from that point on, there is a commonality among all the students. As a result, primary school teachers are taught the mechanisms used to teach the students English in addition to their regular everyday studies. Those include: math, science, language arts, reading, etc.\nAt this stage, educators are guiding the students to become problem-solvers and make connections from the curriculum to real life. Secondary Education Secondary Education is a total of six years, but","-30.03303602800588"],["Xavier's Green Herald International School also teaches French to its students from grade 6 onwards. These language skills help the students later in life when they go abroad for higher studies. Criticisms Critics of English medium curriculum point out that the students of English-medium are weak in their mother-tongue(Bengali). They say that in English-medium schools, English is the first priority. Also they argue that English-medium students are less patriotic. These criticisms are similar to those that can be found in English-medium education. This is not always true, however. These days, schools try their best to educate their students about their","-29.866731225542026"],["by the number of native first language speakers. However, it is not considered the lingua franca of the world, English is. Many scholars attribute the widespread use of English largely to the internet. There are more Chinese nationals surfing the internet than any other nationality in the world, however English remains the most commonly spoken language on the internet. This can be attributed to multiple factors such as the use of websites primarily designed for the use of Chinese for the Chinese people, and a censored internet. This can be described as a means of creating a form of linguistic","-29.849271797022084"],["taught young men the classical languages as a preparation for university, but by the mid-18th century many had broadened their curricula to include practical subjects. Nevertheless, they declined in popularity owing to competition from the more practical academies.\nThe name \"grammar school\" was adopted by public schools for children from 10 to 14 years of age, following a primary stage from 5 to 9 years of age. These types were gradually combined around 1900 to form elementary schools, which were also known as \"grammar schools\".\nAn analogous concept to the contemporary English grammar school is the magnet school, a state-funded secondary institution","-29.839385017898167"],["in their mother tongue. The Chinese EFL Journal and Iranian EFL Journal are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language. English within English-speaking countries The other broad grouping is the use of English within the English-speaking world. In what Braj Kachru calls \"the inner circle\", i.e., countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by refugees, immigrants, and their children. It also includes the use of English in \"outer circle\" countries, often former British colonies and the Philippines,","-29.783719736005878"],["is no relevant need to learn a second language if all dealings can be done in their native language; that is especially the case for English-speakers in the United States, particularly the Northern United States and most of the Southern United States, where everyday contact with other languages, such as Spanish and French is usually limited. The country's large area and the most populous regions' distance from large non-English-speaking areas, such as Mexico and Quebec, increase the geographic and economic barriers to foreign travel. Nevertheless, the requirement for all school children to learn a foreign language in some English speaking","-29.76079783384921"],["society. English was the taken for granted language of instruction throughout education, while until the late 1960s the only other languages taught in schools were Ancient Greek, Latin, French and German. Furthermore, the study of these was restricted to students in the upper IQ range of secondary schools. The one exception to this was the mother tongue teaching being provided by community-based ethnic schools, without any public recognition or support.\nThe conclusion which Smolicz reached was that the achievement of a dynamic and lasting multicultural Australia hinged on the teaching of languages to all students, as an integral part of the","-29.677230765344575"],["English (which is predominantly spoken as a second language) has been primarily influenced by American English. The rise of the call center industry in the Philippines has encouraged some Filipinos to \"polish\" or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries.\nCountries such as Australia, New Zealand, and Canada have their own well-established varieties of English which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners. The features, especially pronunciation, of the standard dialects of Australia and New Zealand resemble that of British English, while Canadian","-29.660565017515637"],["of education being predictors of English proficiency in the Philippines). As English language became highly embedded in Philippine society, it was only a matter of time before the language was indigenized to the point that it became differentiated from English varieties found in the United States, United Kingdom, or elsewhere. This, along with the formal introduction of the World Englishes (WE) framework to English language scholars in the Philippines opened the floodgates to research on this new emerging English, which has since been branded as such as Philippine English. Philippine English in the services sector The abundant supply of English","-29.626049427810358"],["Voices of the Self Major themes Standard English competence\nStandard English, a term that comes with a long history of debate, is generally understood by linguistic and literacy researchers as the language variety emphasized by the American public school system as the acceptable dialectical version of the English language. However, Gilyard argues that because students bring diverse literacy and language practices with them from their home environment, and specifically, African-American students bring \"Black English\" into schools and thus are forced to change their language and assimilate to the \"Standard English\" of public schools, African-American students have a harder time being successful","-29.616220719879493"],["grammar or vocabulary.\nPublic funding of minority languages continues to produce mixed reactions, and there is sometimes resistance to their teaching in schools. Partly as a result, proficiency in languages other than \"Standard\" English can vary widely. Immigrant languages Communities migrating to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 100 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's school children.\nBritish Asians speak dozens of different languages, and it is difficult to determine how many people speak each language alongside English.","-29.61386762210168"],["whose main language is not English. The goal of the program is to increase students' English proficiency so that they can meet academic standards and do well in classrooms. In California, twenty-five percent of the student population in all public schools are in the ESL program. The Census Bureau claims there was about 31.8 million individuals whose primary language was not English in 1990. In the year 2000, it rose to 47 million, which is 18% of the population. Also, in the United States, there are more than 3.7 million public-school students whose English proficiency is limited, and similar to","-29.60645098351597"],["provided in all these home languages.\nBefore 2009, schools serving non-English speakers had to teach English as a subject only from grade 3 and all subjects were taught in English from grade 4 (except in Afrikaans language schools). Since 2009, all schools teach English as a subject from grade 1 and all subjects are taught in English from grade 4. Afrikaans language schools are an exception, in that all subjects (other than other languages) are taught in Afrikaans. Performance An independent study by Stellenbosch University researchers found that undue union influence and \"critical educational factors\", including weak institutional functionality, uneducated teachers,","-29.58728407556191"],["During the 21st century more and more schools started to offer national programs in English. United Kingdom and dependencies The British Isles have several indigenous languages apart from English. These include Welsh (official in Wales), Irish, Manx Gaelic, Cornish, Scottish Gaelic, and the Scots language (which is sometimes considered as a dialect of English).\nScotland, Northern Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man have each established bilingual programmes which provide education through the medium of their indigenous language. Most often, except for the cases of Manx and Cornish, these programmes exist where the language is spoken communally as a first","-29.556109838886186"],["the U.S. over the last twenty years, more than 70% of non-English-speaking school-age immigrants have arrived in the U.S. before they were 6 years old. At this age, they could have been taught English in school, and achieved a proficiency indistinguishable from a native speaker. In other countries, such as the Soviet Union, France, Spain, and Germany this approach has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities. Dewey John Dewey, a philosopher and educator based in Chicago and New York, helped conceptualize the role of American and international education during the first four decades of the 20th","-29.541979246016126"],["English English is compulsory for all year levels, with the exception of students studying ESL (English as a Second Language). Students undertake many varied activities in developing their skills in this subject area. At the VCE level, mainstream students can choose to study either English, Literature or English Language. LOTE (language Other Than English The Foreign languages studied at Wellington Secondary College are Mandarin and French. It was French and Indonesian that students could study but later on Indonesian was removed making the only foreign language students could learn was French.\nStudents undertake French, Mandarin and ESL (English as a","-29.533761118538678"],["the classroom is more influenced by the United States: Americans greatly outnumber Britons; in addition, as of 1993, the United States originated 75 percent of the world's TV programming. A BBC columnist assessed in 2015 that \"American English is the current dominant force globally, like it or not\".","-29.52871221632813"],["increased in recent years. Total immersion Spanish language schools have become very popular in Latin America and Spain. Total immersion Italian language schools are popular in Italy. Chinese Chinese is one of the largest growing languages among second or foreign language learners, and demand for such classes has typically followed suit. Language schools teaching Mandarin Chinese in the United States and the United Kingdom have increased in number over the last two decades. Arabic Arabic has also grown in popularity in the last decade. Reasons include the continued growth of Islam worldwide (the Koran holy book is in Arabic), as","-29.522552760579856"],["effect in English language assessment With globalization, the world has witnessed an increase in Internationalization of Higher Education, which has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of international students in the last 25 years. The prominence of English alongside this internationalization process has also seen the use of international tests of English such as Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and International English Language Testing System (IELTS) as standard tools in the wider learning community. The increasing weight of these tools in education raises questions about the impact of","-29.521921998937614"],["English schools was an aristocratic status symbol. In the vernacular school, to which I was sent, the son of the Muslim attendant of my father sat on my right side, and the son of a fisherman sat on my left. They were my playmates. I listened spellbound to their stories of birds, animals and aquatic creatures. Perhaps these stories created in my mind a keen interest in investigating the workings of Nature. When I returned home from school accompanied by my school fellows, my mother welcomed and fed all of us without discrimination. Although she was an orthodox old-fashioned lady,","-29.51875779362672"],["Culture in the English Speaking World. The first level classes in Reading, Speaking, Writing, and Listening are required, and the second level classes, along with Grammar and Culture are up to the students' choices. \nThe English department's high standard of lingual proficiency has led it to focus on an efficient curriculum, one that teaches English fluency through experience and activities. Thus, students are expected to distinguish media, informational, and cultural differences in topics or subjects that are introduced and interacted with in English. From the materials presented, students are to objectively extrapolate ideas, and thus form a substantive set of","-29.482088202697923"],["choose optional courses to match with their interest: journalism, psychology, advanced mathematics, physics, chemistry, law, theatre, history, enriched science topics etc. The school offers three levels of English: English as a second language (basic level), Enriched English as a second language (enriched) and English language arts (for native or very advanced speakers).","-29.480294005834367"],["as to provide an English environment which makes it easier to study the language. The English environment is created through teaching the core subjects, such as mathematics, science, computer and English, in English language. While English Program (EP) offer a good learning environment to only a few students, the schools tend to demand a large amount of money for the students’ tuition fees, putting them out of reach for most Thai families especially the ones living in remote areas. Most of Thai households cannot afford to send their children to EP schools to learn the second language. EIS, therefore, provides","-29.467846461753652"],["1500 words with highest use in international business English) in combination with the standard English grammar. Other examples include Simple English.\nThe increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words being assimilated into the vocabularies of other languages. This influence of English has led to concerns about language death, and to claims of linguistic imperialism, and has provoked resistance to the spread of English; however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world think that English provides them with opportunities for better employment and improved","-29.421393356315093"],["shifts in the usage of the English language within different cultures, a new \"literacy\" must also be used and developed. Overview There are two major topics that demonstrate the way multiliteracies can be used. The first is due to the world becoming smaller, communication between other cultures/languages is necessary to anyone. The usage of the English language is also being changed. While it seems that English is the common, global language, there are different dialects and subcultures that all speak different Englishes. The way English is spoken in Australia, South Africa, India or any other country is different from","-29.365831023431383"],["properties. In spite of the non-economic values attached to language, what prevails in matters of language is often that which is profitable and this can lead to the superiority of a dominant language as a means of production, with a high linguistic capital value. In this respect it is evident to see that the will (or necessity) to learn English in the last decades has grown so much and its range of action has been so wide that the economic necessity and other incentives of foreign-language study are generally perceived as unimportant. For similar reasons, former British prime minister","-29.35597464068269"],["second language. However, schools teaching English as a second language saw a rapid decline in enrolment and many closed down or switched to teaching English as the first language. This resulted in the mother tongue being taught only as an academic subject. Thus all other lessons and activities conducted beyond the classroom are conducted in English, with the exception of moral education and mother tongue; this is unlike the typical bilingual education models where academic content is taught in two languages. This applies throughout primary school (six years), secondary school (four or five years) and junior college (two years, 20%","-29.340980276101618"],["States. I go to an English school though, which is comfortable for me because I have some English speaking friends.\"\nResults","-29.340804545936408"],["members assimilated more and more into the culture of the mainstream group.\nThe other side was the importance of all students whose home language was English being able to study a language other than their own throughout their years at school. Learning another language had been shown to encourage the sort of positive attitude to other cultures which was needed for mainstream support of multicultural policies. It was also important to ensure that those whose mother tongue was English were not denied the sorts of cognitive, linguistic, cultural and occupational advantages of bilingualism, advantages which those of minority ethnic background enjoyed","-29.340655435808003"],["English as first and third language and Hindi or Sanskrit as second language (or recently some other foreign languages like French, German and in some schools Arabic). Hindi speaking states have recently started offering other regional languages in India as second language.\nPrimary and middle school mostly only teach two languages, local language of state and English.\nIn medium and large cities, most private schools use English as the medium of instruction.","-29.33966313242854"],["English is valuable, and that its use in the home, church or private place of business should in no way be discouraged. At the same time, they argue that the government should not bear the responsibility of guaranteeing that non-English-speaking individuals can participate in government solely using their mother language. They contend that as more immigrants learn English, the language barriers that divide the country into separate groups will disintegrate and lead to a decrease in racial and ethnic problems. They also believe that by learning English, individuals can become more productive citizens and members of American society. They argue","-29.325938793688692"],["using their version of one of the standard forms of English are almost completely mutually intelligible, but non-standard forms present significant dialectal variations, and are marked by reduced intelligibility. English is usually considered a symmetric case of a pluricentric language, because there is no clear cultural dominance of one variety over others.\nStatistically, however, American English speakers constitute more than 66% of native English speakers, with British English next with about 18% and other varieties such as Australian English and Canadian English having up to 7% each. Due to globalization in recent decades, English is becoming increasingly decentralized, with daily","-29.315796009264886"],["and professionals and by some members of the middle and high social classes. There is an English language newspaper in Caracas: The Daily Journal, founded in 1946. The use of English arose in part due to the presence of oil companies from English speaking countries (especially from the United States) since the beginning of the 20th century.\nEnglish is taught as a compulsory subject in the secondary education and in the bachillerato for five years. Bachillerato is a segment of secondary education similar to the baccalaureat, secondary school or American high school and is divided into two branches: sciences and humanities.","-29.315369936142815"],["even the so-called 'standard' forms.\nAccording to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial imperialism of Victorian Britain or the cultural imperialism of the 20th century United States. While British colonialism laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence.\nThe development of International","-29.310289810979157"],["up a \"language\" such as English, Spanish, and French. Language in classrooms in generalized into one category in order to offer and exposes students to the basics and variety. Some classrooms may focus on one area on a \"language\" while others show multiple aspects of each one. Debates on Language Education Language Education in the United States has brought multiple debates on the topic of teaching foreign languages to native English speakers. Cognitive arguments are used to prove that the teaching of foreign language is useful. Studies have shown that over the duration of learning a second language,","-29.245806739869295"],["in the global English travel market accounting for 62% of the total revenue earned in 2013, and account for 65.5% of students worldwide.\nEnglish language schools are also among the most numerous in Asian countries such as China, Japan and South Korea, as Western culture influences the rising demand for English in business and cultural contexts. Other European languages Spanish is the second most popular language in the language travel market, followed with some distance by French, Italian and German. While demand for French, Italian, and German is decreasing, the demand for other languages such as Chinese and Arabic has significantly","-29.231947977503296"],["to take one foreign language class in grades 3-12. Although other foreign languages such as German, French, Spanish and Chinese are offered in most urban schools, English continues to be the most desired language.\nKanoun-e-Zabaan-e-Iran or Iran's Language Institute affiliated to Center for Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults was founded in 1979. Persian, English, French, Spanish, German and Arabic are taught to over 175,000 students during each term.\nEnglish language is studied in rahnamaei (literally meaning, guidance or orientation), an equivalent for middle school in other countries. Middle school is a period of three years and it covers grades 6-8","-29.2192019920858"],["mainly in English than in Spanish. English is introduced to minority children through factors inside and outside of the home, resulting in a child's increase in English vocabulary which demonstrates how English holds a higher status in society. The study also noted how the more exposure a child had to either a parent, relative or sibling read to them the better it impacted the child’s vocabulary. In the home, the more exposure a child has to language the richer their vocabulary. Maternal factors The study that Catherine Snow was apart of included looking to see if the mother’s interaction had","-29.18579120254435"],["open only to affluent residents. Its original curriculum consisted of such courses as English, surveying, navigation, geography, logic, and civics as well as a strong emphasis on mathematics.\nNowadays, English High has opened up its curriculum to include more liberal arts subjects such as foreign languages and writing as well as performing arts and more college preparatory courses. It has received an experimental \"Commonwealth Co-Pilot School\" status, geared toward improving the curriculum of urban schools. For a while, the school had an award-winning mock trial team as well.\nEnglish High School has an English-Language Learners program, which was run for many years","-29.172519703628495"],["well a child will learn to read in the first two years of school. The program takes advantage of the fact that many children, especially ESL students, fail in reading because it is very hard for second language students to understand and pronounce sounds in English. The program is easily duplicated at a relatively low cost because of the straight forward teaching materials, systematic methods and administrative oversight.\nIn September 2013 at the New York State Conference for Mayors and Municipal Officials, successes, ideas and information on best practices were shared among government peers. A best practice that was highlighted","-29.17228989105206"],["Standard English as the model to be used in learning English.\nSowden claims that Standard English, especially British English, has a colonial baggage that still affects the status of English in post-colonial countries and it is this negative value that has led ELF researchers to an attempt to describe and posit a neutralized version of English and to make it a universal one that belongs to every speaker, both native and second language speakers. Sowden argues that introducing ELF in ELT will lead to differences between schools where this is implemented, and schools which have the freedom to use a native","-29.137854748798418"],["World Englishes World Englishes is a term for emerging localized or indigenized varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of English in different regions of the world.\nThe issue of World Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as","-29.110987938722246"],["According to the syllabus approved by the Venezuelan Ministry of Education in 1986 English language is considered as a tool to communicate with people from other countries and to obtain information in the areas of humanities, technology and science. For that reason it is taught using a Notional Functional Approach. In the bachillerato a Structuralistic Approach is used. Despite the lines provided by the syllabus, few people learn to speak the language with only the knowledge acquired at school.\nIn some universities degree programs to train teachers or translators of English language are offered. In the rest of universities","-29.107290969463065"],["English language. English Language Learners (ELL) California has about 1.5 million students enrolled in public schools and roughly one in four students is an English language learner. Many of the English language learners are not meeting the English language proficiency level therefore being considered long-term English learners. A long-term English learner is a student in grades six through twelve who has been stuck at the same level of English proficiency for more than two years. The needs of English language learners are slightly different compared to those students who do not have a language barrier. Bilingual Teachers Teachers play an","-29.092325854624505"],["school in the country, despite most of its pupils being from families for whom English is not a first language. Ms. Hollows reports that one of the keys to her approach was involving parents more, drawing up ‘home-school contracts’ before they became a national requirement.","-29.083140555303544"],["Language education Need Increasing globalization has created a great need for people in the workforce who can communicate in multiple languages. Common languages are used in areas such as trade, tourism, international relations, technology, media, and science. Many countries such as Korea (Kim Yeong-seo, 2009), Japan (Kubota, 1998) and China (Kirkpatrick & Zhichang, 2002) frame education policies to teach at least one foreign language at the primary and secondary school levels. However, some countries such as India, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, and the Philippines use a second official language in their governments. According to GAO (2010), China has recently been putting","-29.077340919233393"],["about 1.3 million people, is the most common native language in the world. At the same time, many Chinese students are sent abroad to English-speaking countries to learn English. Why do these students learn English at all? \nAnswer: The production of global media like radio and television is extremely difficult to accomplish using written Chinese.\nIn preparation of the 17th National Party Congress in 2007, new restrictions were placed on all sectors of the press, Internet-users, bloggers, website managers, foreign journalist, more than 30 of which have been arrested since the start of the year. In addition, a thousand discussion forums","-29.037255772040226"],["it at an upper secondary level.\nDespite the high rate of foreign language teaching in schools, the number of adults claiming to speak a foreign language is generally lower than might be expected. This is particularly true of native English speakers: in 2004 a British survey showed that only one in 10 UK workers could speak a foreign language. Less than 5% could count to 20 in a second language, for example. 80% said they could work abroad anyway, because \"everyone speaks English.\" In 2001, a European Commission survey found that 65.9% of people in the UK spoke only their native","-29.03181828983361"],["speak English is a sign of unwillingness to learn. Some immigrants, from Mexico and other countries, live in the United States for decades without acquiring a basic command of the English language. The primary reason for this being that it is difficult to learn a second language as an adult. Another reason is that finding time to learn a new language, while struggling to financially support and spend time with family, may be impossible. Job-stealing stereotype The \"job-stealing Hispanic\" stereotype is also false. According to Pastora San Juan Cafferty and William C. McCready, \"a preliminary study of labor market competition","-29.022975996893365"],["both English and Chinese exams, or in the case of those who did not learn Chinese at school, due to having studied at an international school, another foreign language. United Kingdom Since 2014 it has been compulsory for primary school children to be taught at least one language. In 2004 it was no longer compulsory for secondary school pupils to have to study a foreign language at GCSE level. India Syllabus taught in schools highly depends on the state.\nMost of the states follow 3 language policy in high schools. Three languages usually include local language of the state and","-28.996518314874265"],["and has been so since the early days of the state. At present the language must be studied throughout secondary school, but students need not sit the examination in the final year. It is taught as a second language (L2) at second level, to native (L1) speakers and learners (L2) alike. English is offered as a first (L1) language only, even to those who speak it as a second language. The curriculum was reorganised in the 1930s by Father Timothy Corcoran SJ of UCD, who could not speak the language himself.\nIn recent years the design and implementation of compulsory Irish","-28.981995209062006"],["Social domain Education and schools Education is an integral social institution which has a major impact on the development and maintenance of language policies around the world. Schools, aside from the family, provide the necessary resources for language socialization of the child which shape the experiences and impact the language competence of the students. The medium of instruction languages are decided based on the goals and needs of the education and governmental systems. So, while children learn different vernacular varieties or dialects at home, schools further influence the development of their linguistic skills and their language ideologies. Specifically, language varieties","-28.953240196732622"],["of the English-speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce koineised forms of English in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers, although English has been given official status by only 30 of the 50 state governments of the US. English as a global language English has ceased to be an \"English language\" in the sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically English. Use of English is","-28.924992487183772"],["method could be used to teach from any language to any language, it is currently used almost exclusively to teach English speaking people other languages. Many different companies offer systems based on this method, but the list of languages offered is almost identical. Learning courses have been developed to teach students Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese (both Brazilian and European), Russian, Spanish (both European and South American) and Welsh.","-28.90211857459508"],["at varying levels of study and proficiency, though this number is difficult to accurately assess. English is also increasingly becoming the dominant language of scientific research and papers worldwide, having even outpaced national languages in Western European countries, including France, where a recent study showed that English has massively displaced French as the language of scientific research in \"hard\" as well as in applied sciences. English is the most common of the languages used on the Internet. As of 2019, according to one survey, English is used by 54.0% of the world's top 10 million websites, and according to another","-28.878999771899544"],["to Norwegian for two years.\n1893 State law was passed requiring all public schools to teach exclusively in English.\nIn 1925 it was made a criminal offense to give instruction in Spanish in Public schools, this law was amended in 1927 to allow Spanish instruction in Elementary schools located in counties bordering Mexico with at least one city of 5,000 population.\nNevertheless, English (specifically, American English) is the language used for legislation, regulations, executive orders, treaties, education, federal court rulings, and all other official pronouncements; Spanish is also heavily spoken in Texas due to the large number of Tejanos, Mexicans and other local","-28.845727633306524"],["growing country-by-country internally and for international communication. Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons. Many speakers of English in Africa have become part of an \"Afro-Saxon\" language community that unites Africans from different countries.\nAs decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies. For example, the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official","-28.844698177766986"],["in fields such as government, law and education. It is difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered. World English vs. World Englishes vs. Global Englishes The notions of World English and World Englishes are far from similar, although the terms are often mistakenly used interchangeably. World English refers to the English language as a lingua franca used in business, trade, diplomacy and other spheres of global activity, while World Englishes refers to the different varieties of English and English-based creoles developed in different regions of","-28.834248488827143"],["various countries with their parents who are educators in the international schools. This creates a unique paradigm of a nuclear family whose family-work-school-social experiences are intertwined. Language and third culture kids Most international TCKs are expected to speak English and some countries require their expatriate families to be proficient with the English language. This is largely because most international schools use the English language as the norm.\nFamilies tend to seek out schools whose principal languages they share, and ideally one which mirrors their own educational system. Many countries have American schools, French schools, British schools, German Schools and 'International","-28.792817833713343"],["Language power Overview Each year in the United States, many students are required to learn a language other than English in their educational careers. Often, after years of study and quite likely earning passing grades on final and college entrance exams such as the ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language) Oral Proficiency Interview, most students cannot speak at a level that will be understood or can they understand basic everyday exchanges at conversational speed in the language's native country, as one would encounter when watching television or listening to the radio.\nLanguage is taught to a level of","-28.778794248064514"],["schools for children, developing new words for modern phrases, teaching the language to non-Cherokee in schools and universities, fostering the language among young adults so their children can use that language at home, developing iPhone and iPad apps for language education, the development of language radio stations including Cherokee Voices, Cherokee Sounds, and promoting the writing system through public signage, products like Apple Inc., internet use through Google including Gmail, and others so the language remains relevant in the 21st century. Italian The Italian language and its various dialects have been widely spoken in the United States for more than","-28.774851641515852"],["a naturalized citizen of the US entails a basic English proficiency test, which may be the most prominent example of the claim of the nation not having an official language being belied by policy realities.\nAlthough falling short of official status, English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates. English as a global language Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a \"world language\", the lingua franca of the modern era, and while it is not","-28.764456920383964"],["they are learning in a way that was encouraged from infancy within their family and community.\nRobinson, further said that traditional Western methods of education generally disregard the importance indigenous cultures and environmental contributions, which results in a lack of relevance for students of aboriginal backgrounds. Modern schools have a tendency to teach skills stripped of context which has a detrimental impact on Indigenous students because they thrive off educational environments in which their cultures and languages are respected and infused in learning. Various aspects of Indigenous culture need to be considered when discussing Indigenous learning, such as: content (how culture","-28.76398478313422"],["most common languages include Spanish, French, German, Latin, Russian, and Italian.\nIn a foreign language classroom, one aspect of the curriculum is the teaching of the culture behind the language. This is input into classrooms in order to give students a deeper meaning of the language. According to Michael Byram, in order to fully be able to communicate to someone with a different background, one must have insight into their lives and communication aspects. It is also used to preserve a long standing set of traditions with indigenous people. A case of this was seen in High schools","-28.762924218026455"],["of the English Room, including Hong Kong, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, Canada, China and the United Kingdom. Language policy The school has been using English as the medium of instruction (EMI) in all subjects except Chinese, Chinese Literature, Chinese History, Liberal Studies and Putonghua. To help students to become biliterate in English and Chinese, and trilingual in English, Mandarin and Cantonese, and to encourage students to learn English and Mandarin their daily life, the school organizes an English Speaking Day every Western Festival and a Super Dinosaur Day per annum. Information technology in education Access to the Internet and Intranet","-28.75679684098577"],["primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language. This is much changed from before World War II; in 1940, only 65 Americans not of Japanese descent were able to read, write and understand the language.\nInternational interest in the Japanese language dates from the 19th century but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of Japanese popular culture (such as anime and video games) since the 1990s. As of 2015, more than 3.6 million people studied the language worldwide, primarily in East and Southeast Asia. Nearly 1 million Chinese, 745,000 Indonesians, 556,000 South","-28.756177946350363"],["education in English and Spanish (half the school day having subject matter taught in each language) from Kindergarten through 5th grade tends to yield little if any deficit in English language performance, while helping to maintain the Spanish language.\nIn 2011, one of Oller's scientific research articles was recognized by Autism Speaks as one of the top ten achievements in autism.","-28.734645469638053"],["schools as elitist because a student had to pass a test at age 11 to get in. Defenders argued that grammar schools allow pupils to obtain a good education through merit rather than through family income. No changes were made. In some areas, notably that of the London County Council, comprehensive schools had been introduced. They had no entrance test and were open to all children living in the school catchment area. However, despite tentative support for 'multilateralism' in secondaries, and a desire to raise the standard of secondary moderns to that of private institutions, from Minister for Education","-28.704438054963248"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"same time, as in other foreign cultures, the class benefits of English proficiency are acknowledged and to this end schools teach in English and many television channels are in English. The use of Breton and Welsh has historically been discouraged by French and British governments respectively. There are also instances of intolerance to the speaking of Native American languages at some schools, thus forcing those students to create small communities in which they can speak their native language, thereby creating \\\"language boundaries\\\" on a very small scale. Examples like these illustrate the impact that language boundaries can have on cultural\",\n \"-33.419372037074936\"\n ],\n [\n \"(homestays), campus residences, shared housing, or hotels. Qualifications Most students will sit an international language exam and receive an internationally recognized qualification. English Globally, English language schools have seen the greatest demand over schools for other languages. Over one billion people are said to be learning English in a second language or foreign language context. In the United States alone, ESL learners make up over one-third of all adult, non-academic learners. English learning has experienced the highest increase in demand over the last three years, with an increase of 67%. The United States and the UK are the biggest players\",\n \"-33.048013566760346\"\n ],\n [\n \"use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world.\\nBritish and American English are the two most commonly taught varieties in the education systems where English is taught as a second language. British English tends to predominate in former colonies where English is not the first language of the majority of the population, such as Malaysia, India, Pakistan, and Singapore. British English is also the primary form taught in the European Union and the rest of Europe. American English, in contrast, tends to dominate instruction in Latin America, South Korea, Taiwan, China, and Japan.\\nPhilippine\",\n \"-32.78225695725996\"\n ],\n [\n \"work or for personal reasons. At the same time, more children were given the opportunity to learn foreign languages in school, as the number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, and foreign-language study ceased to be confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensive schools, which offered foreign-language study to all children rather than to the select few in the elite grammar schools, greatly increased the demand for language learning.\\nThis increased demand included many learners who struggled with traditional methods such as grammar translation, which involves\",\n \"-32.63118676627346\"\n ],\n [\n \"as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria; and others, such as the Philippines, under the sphere of influence of English-speaking countries. Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce, and so on, may all be carried out predominantly in English.\\nThe expanding circle refers to those countries where English has no official role, but is nonetheless important for certain functions, e.g., international business and tourism. By the twenty-first century, non-native English speakers have come to outnumber native speakers by a factor of three, according to the British Council. \",\n \"-32.58309587399708\"\n ],\n [\n \"English language, the role of English as a world lingua franca, and the large number of books and films that are translated from English into other languages. That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in many places that English is an especially suitable language for expressing new ideas or describing new technologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages. Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed from English mostly as calques, while others, such as Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sound-indicating script. Dubbed films and television programmes are\",\n \"-31.734677684187773\"\n ],\n [\n \"English often centres on academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general. Opposition The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by authors such as Alistair Pennycook as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.\\nRobert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his Linguistic Imperialism (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English\",\n \"-31.692413624637993\"\n ],\n [\n \"as Australia, it is so common nowadays for a foreign language to be taught in schools that the subject of language education is referred to LOTE or Language Other Than English. In the majority of English-speaking education centers, French, Spanish and German are the most popular languages to study and learn. English As A Second Language is also available for students whose first language is not English and they are unable to speak it to the required standard. Online and self-study courses Hundreds of languages are available for self-study, from scores of publishers, for a range of costs, using a\",\n \"-31.58525800833013\"\n ],\n [\n \"economic needs, and the requirement of a second language in workplaces. With a remarkably diverse country, the United States workplaces have begun requiring education of a second language, and this extra education increases the chance of a person getting a job. A person only able to speak English is unable to serve and communicate with customers that speak another language. Schools are more likely to teach a foreign language if there is a higher concentration of native speakers in the area. This allows these teachings to remain useful to students and help increase your eligibility for future careers.\",\n \"-31.55439182103146\"\n ],\n [\n \"have meant English has developed in ways very different from the evolution of most world languages across history. English is a language with a long written past that has preserved many words that might otherwise have been lost or changed, often in fixed texts such as the King James Version of the Bible which are not updated regularly to modernise their language. English also has many conventions for writing polite and formal prose, which are often very different from how people normally speak. As literacy among native English speakers has become almost universal, it has become increasingly easy for people\",\n \"-31.539744008383423\"\n ],\n [\n \"for students who want to move to English-speaking countries, and other programs for students who do not intend to move but who want to understand English content for the purposes of education, entertainment, or conducting international business. The differences between these two models of English language education have grown larger over time, and teachers focusing on each model have used different terminology, received different training, and formed separate professional associations. English is also taught as a second language for recent immigrants to English-speaking countries, which faces separate challenges because the students in one class may speak many different native languages.\",\n \"-31.339900729668443\"\n ],\n [\n \"some schools offer a choice between the State Language and Hindi, and the third language (grades 5-8, often Hindi (in the non-Hindi states), the regional language of the state (if the student opted for Hindi as the second language, a foreign language or Sanskrit). An exception is Tamil Nadu where only Tamil and English are taught.\\nEnglish-medium schools often find favour with parents, especially in urban areas, due to English's international prestige, India's Colonial heritage, its usage in Indian business and it being the medium of instruction in most Indian universities. Pakistan In Pakistan, English is used widely to communicate\",\n \"-31.298588756122626\"\n ],\n [\n \"are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes (including Australian, Scottish and Canadian).\\nEdward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become \\\"dependent on the language skills of others\\\" by placing their faith in international English. Appropriation theory Some reject both\",\n \"-31.251140125095844\"\n ],\n [\n \"metric for effective education is problematic in many ways, placing universities who do not use English as their primary language at a disadvantage. Because English has been adopted as the international language for most academic societies and journals, citations and publications in a language different from English are harder to come across. Thus, such a methodology is criticized for being inappropriate and not comprehensive enough. A second important disadvantage for universities of non-English tradition is that within the disciplines of social sciences and humanities the main tool for publications are books which are not or only rarely covered by digital\",\n \"-31.090413691708818\"\n ],\n [\n \"or can't go to English-medium schools because, the tuition fees are usually too high and they can't afford such tuition. English-medium schools are growing in popularity among the middle class, upper-middle class and rich families. The English-medium schools not only teach the students about their own countries but also about the European History and Literature.\\nThe exams of the O-level and A-level students of Edexcel and Cambridge are conducted through British Council Bangladesh. Language The English-medium schools teach most of the subjects in English. Bengali is also taught. French and Spanish is taught in International School Dhaka. The St Francis\",\n \"-31.07237097423058\"\n ],\n [\n \"students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands.\\\" (Punjab Text Book Board 1997). Many Englishes Many difficult choices must be made if further standardisation of English is pursued. These include whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties\",\n \"-31.052702489076182\"\n ],\n [\n \"Schools' which often follow one of the three International Baccalaureate programs. These will be populated by expatriates' children and some children of the local upper middle class. They do this in an effort to maintain linguistic stability and to ensure that their children do not fall behind due to linguistic problems. Where their own language is not available, families will often choose English-speaking schools for their children. They do this because of the linguistic and cultural opportunities being immersed in English might provide their children when they are adults, and because their children are more likely to have prior exposure\",\n \"-30.88519365398679\"\n ],\n [\n \"and commerce (a lingua franca), English has also become the most widely used second language. In countries where English is neither a native language nor widely spoken, a non-native variant (typically English English or North American English) might be considered \\\"standard\\\" for teaching purposes. Typically, English English is taught as standard across Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia and North American English is taught as standard across Latin America and East Asia. This does, however, vary between regions and individual teachers. In some areas a pidgin or creole language, blends English with one or more native languages. Grammar Although\",\n \"-30.868557996000163\"\n ],\n [\n \"culture, due to the fact that they were using materials originally designed for pupils in the United States.\\nThe report also informed that teacher training was inadequate and that 82 per cent of the pupils did not go beyond grade 4. Many of the problems identified were attributed to the attempt to impose an English-based education system in just one generation, concluding that \\\"Upon leaving school, more than 99% of Filipinos will not speak English in their homes. Possibly, only 10% to 15% of the next generation will be able to use this language in their occupations. In fact, it will\",\n \"-30.566895269439556\"\n ],\n [\n \"Language education by region Practices in language education vary significantly by region. Firstly, the languages being learned differ; in the United States, Spanish is the most popular language to be learned, whereas the most popular languages to be learned in Australia are Italian and Mandarin Chinese. Also, teaching methods tend to differ by region. Language immersion is popular in some European countries, but is not used very much in the United States. Foreign language education 1995 European Commission’s White Paper \\\"Teaching and learning – Towards the learning society\\\", stated that \\\"upon completing initial training, everyone should be proficient in two\",\n \"-30.526513421558775\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States, proponents of the practice argue that it will not only help to keep non-English-speaking children from falling behind their peers in math, science, and social studies while they master English, but such programs teach English better than English-only programs. For many students, the process of learning literacy and a new language simultaneously is simply an overwhelming task, so bilingual programs began as a way to help such students develop native language literacy first - research by Cummins, a central researcher in the field, shows that skills such as literacy developed in a first language will transfer to English.\",\n \"-30.43421052454505\"\n ],\n [\n \"the mandated primacy of English: for example, in many European companies, such as Airbus, Ford, G.M., Philips, Renault, Volvo, etc. have designated English to be the language of communication for their senior management, and many universities are offering education in English. The language is also a required subject in most European countries. Thus, the percentage of English speakers is expected to rise. English as lingua franca English is the most commonly spoken foreign language in 19 out of 25 European Union countries (excluding the UK and Ireland)\\nIn the EU25, working knowledge of English as a foreign language is clearly leading\",\n \"-30.423351389123127\"\n ],\n [\n \"in English Language is inevitable. According to The Five Principles of Effective Second Language Vocabulary Instruction by Barcroft, presenting new words frequently and repeatedly during lessons is one of the keys to success in learning a second language. Likewise, in mother-tongue teaching, students are less exposed to English, so they acquire English as a second language less effectively.\\nAnother concern is the status of English as an international language. Some have argued that reduced exposure to English as well as learning academic subjects in native language will lessen students’ edge and competence in the global market. Fine-tuning of mother-tongue teaching In\",\n \"-30.354499182052677\"\n ],\n [\n \"school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject between first grade and ninth grade, with all students continuing in secondary school studying English for at least another year. Most students also study one and sometimes two additional languages. These include (but are not limited to) German, French and Spanish. Some Danish and Norwegian is at times also taught as part of Swedish courses for native speakers. Because of the extensive mutual intelligibility between the three continental Scandinavian languages Swedish speakers often use their native language when visiting or living in Norway or Denmark. Health Healthcare in Sweden is similar in\",\n \"-30.33384983718861\"\n ],\n [\n \"their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC\",\n \"-30.305724635371007\"\n ],\n [\n \"clientele which felt it would be more important that their sons learnt to understand the English than that they were taught to appreciate classic poetry.\\nBroadly similar issues (‘classical education’ vs ‘liberal education’) had already arisen for education in England with existing grammar schools being unwilling (or legally unable) to give instruction in subjects other than Latin or Greek and were to end in an expansion of their curriculum to include modern subjects. In the Indian situation a complicating factor was that the 'classical education' reflected the attitudes and beliefs of the various traditions in the sub-continent, 'English education' clearly did\",\n \"-30.182085336127784\"\n ],\n [\n \"Language education in the United States Language education in the United States has historically involved teaching American English to immigrants and Spanish, French, Latin, Italian or German to native English speakers. Bilingual education was sponsored in some districts, often contentiously. Japanese language education in the United States increased following the Japanese post-war economic miracle. This was a period between the Cold War and World War II where Japan had the second largest economy in the world. In order to participate, the government increased funding to teaching Japanese in schools. Chinese as a second language began to be taught\",\n \"-30.165271934703924\"\n ],\n [\n \"as well. However, foreign language immersion programs are growing in popularity, making it possible for elementary school children to begin serious development of a second language.\\nIn 2008 the Center for Applied Linguistics conducted an extensive survey documenting foreign language study in the United States. The most popular language is Spanish, due to the large number of recent Spanish-speaking immigrants to the United States (see Spanish in the United States). According to this survey, in 2008 88% of language programs in elementary schools taught Spanish, compared to 93% in secondary schools. Other languages taught in U.S. high schools in 2008, in\",\n \"-30.150037714120117\"\n ],\n [\n \"and most of them come from poorer families. Curriculum and student activities As mentioned before, English is the official language of secondary school, both private and public, which leads to challenges for the majority of students that come from Kiswahili focused primary schools. In 2009, only 35.4% of students passed the English portion of the National Standard 7 Exam, but this does not affect their ability to go to secondary schools. English in secondary schools is extremely controversial because while some people believe that students will become prepared to understand the global economy, many others believe that the focus on\",\n \"-30.12772343424149\"\n ],\n [\n \"literally, \\\"English\\\" – in North India). The usage of a particular language can reflect positively or negatively on its speaker depending upon the situation. For example, there is perception in the USA that only English speakers are American and only non-Americans are non-English-speakers. It is suspected that this assumption began because states would have \\\"official\\\" languages for the purposes of book publishing and therefore for the purposes of education, so intelligence would come to be associated with speaking the language that was written.\\nBecause of this idea, there are also often social benefits which result from being able to speak English.\",\n \"-30.110509482445195\"\n ],\n [\n \"communicative method. Parents redirected the focus of English education to align with exam content (Park, 2009). English Language Education programs focus on ensuring competency to perform effectively as a nation in an era of globalization using proficiency-based language programs that allow students to learn according to their own abilities and interests and driving Koreans to focus more on oral proficiency (Chang, 2009 & Park, 2009). With the new focus placed on oral expertise, there has been an “intense desire to speak native-like English” pressuring parents to take measures to ensure the most beneficial English education (Park, 2009).\\nBecause of large class\",\n \"-30.058781808969798\"\n ],\n [\n \"values. Through the study of English, the English department expands the students' capabilities in reasoning and problem solving skills, which ultimately instills a sense of self-sufficiency and creativity.\\nThe English majors learn French for the second language, whereas other language majors learn English. Throughout the school life, they learn most various languages - English, Korean, French and Chinese in their 3rd year. German The German major has 2 classes. (5,6) French The French major has 2 classes. (7,8) Japanese The Japanese major has only 1 class. (9) Russian The Russian major has 1 class. (10) They have same colleagues throughout the\",\n \"-30.044696638622554\"\n ],\n [\n \"there are occasions where a child is still coming to understand English as their second language. The primary schools heavily reinforce English as their second language so from that point on, there is a commonality among all the students. As a result, primary school teachers are taught the mechanisms used to teach the students English in addition to their regular everyday studies. Those include: math, science, language arts, reading, etc.\\nAt this stage, educators are guiding the students to become problem-solvers and make connections from the curriculum to real life. Secondary Education Secondary Education is a total of six years, but\",\n \"-30.03303602800588\"\n ],\n [\n \"Xavier's Green Herald International School also teaches French to its students from grade 6 onwards. These language skills help the students later in life when they go abroad for higher studies. Criticisms Critics of English medium curriculum point out that the students of English-medium are weak in their mother-tongue(Bengali). They say that in English-medium schools, English is the first priority. Also they argue that English-medium students are less patriotic. These criticisms are similar to those that can be found in English-medium education. This is not always true, however. These days, schools try their best to educate their students about their\",\n \"-29.866731225542026\"\n ],\n [\n \"by the number of native first language speakers. However, it is not considered the lingua franca of the world, English is. Many scholars attribute the widespread use of English largely to the internet. There are more Chinese nationals surfing the internet than any other nationality in the world, however English remains the most commonly spoken language on the internet. This can be attributed to multiple factors such as the use of websites primarily designed for the use of Chinese for the Chinese people, and a censored internet. This can be described as a means of creating a form of linguistic\",\n \"-29.849271797022084\"\n ],\n [\n \"taught young men the classical languages as a preparation for university, but by the mid-18th century many had broadened their curricula to include practical subjects. Nevertheless, they declined in popularity owing to competition from the more practical academies.\\nThe name \\\"grammar school\\\" was adopted by public schools for children from 10 to 14 years of age, following a primary stage from 5 to 9 years of age. These types were gradually combined around 1900 to form elementary schools, which were also known as \\\"grammar schools\\\".\\nAn analogous concept to the contemporary English grammar school is the magnet school, a state-funded secondary institution\",\n \"-29.839385017898167\"\n ],\n [\n \"in their mother tongue. The Chinese EFL Journal and Iranian EFL Journal are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language. English within English-speaking countries The other broad grouping is the use of English within the English-speaking world. In what Braj Kachru calls \\\"the inner circle\\\", i.e., countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by refugees, immigrants, and their children. It also includes the use of English in \\\"outer circle\\\" countries, often former British colonies and the Philippines,\",\n \"-29.783719736005878\"\n ],\n [\n \"is no relevant need to learn a second language if all dealings can be done in their native language; that is especially the case for English-speakers in the United States, particularly the Northern United States and most of the Southern United States, where everyday contact with other languages, such as Spanish and French is usually limited. The country's large area and the most populous regions' distance from large non-English-speaking areas, such as Mexico and Quebec, increase the geographic and economic barriers to foreign travel. Nevertheless, the requirement for all school children to learn a foreign language in some English speaking\",\n \"-29.76079783384921\"\n ],\n [\n \"society. English was the taken for granted language of instruction throughout education, while until the late 1960s the only other languages taught in schools were Ancient Greek, Latin, French and German. Furthermore, the study of these was restricted to students in the upper IQ range of secondary schools. The one exception to this was the mother tongue teaching being provided by community-based ethnic schools, without any public recognition or support.\\nThe conclusion which Smolicz reached was that the achievement of a dynamic and lasting multicultural Australia hinged on the teaching of languages to all students, as an integral part of the\",\n \"-29.677230765344575\"\n ],\n [\n \"English (which is predominantly spoken as a second language) has been primarily influenced by American English. The rise of the call center industry in the Philippines has encouraged some Filipinos to \\\"polish\\\" or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries.\\nCountries such as Australia, New Zealand, and Canada have their own well-established varieties of English which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners. The features, especially pronunciation, of the standard dialects of Australia and New Zealand resemble that of British English, while Canadian\",\n \"-29.660565017515637\"\n ],\n [\n \"of education being predictors of English proficiency in the Philippines). As English language became highly embedded in Philippine society, it was only a matter of time before the language was indigenized to the point that it became differentiated from English varieties found in the United States, United Kingdom, or elsewhere. This, along with the formal introduction of the World Englishes (WE) framework to English language scholars in the Philippines opened the floodgates to research on this new emerging English, which has since been branded as such as Philippine English. Philippine English in the services sector The abundant supply of English\",\n \"-29.626049427810358\"\n ],\n [\n \"Voices of the Self Major themes Standard English competence\\nStandard English, a term that comes with a long history of debate, is generally understood by linguistic and literacy researchers as the language variety emphasized by the American public school system as the acceptable dialectical version of the English language. However, Gilyard argues that because students bring diverse literacy and language practices with them from their home environment, and specifically, African-American students bring \\\"Black English\\\" into schools and thus are forced to change their language and assimilate to the \\\"Standard English\\\" of public schools, African-American students have a harder time being successful\",\n \"-29.616220719879493\"\n ],\n [\n \"grammar or vocabulary.\\nPublic funding of minority languages continues to produce mixed reactions, and there is sometimes resistance to their teaching in schools. Partly as a result, proficiency in languages other than \\\"Standard\\\" English can vary widely. Immigrant languages Communities migrating to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 100 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's school children.\\nBritish Asians speak dozens of different languages, and it is difficult to determine how many people speak each language alongside English.\",\n \"-29.61386762210168\"\n ],\n [\n \"whose main language is not English. The goal of the program is to increase students' English proficiency so that they can meet academic standards and do well in classrooms. In California, twenty-five percent of the student population in all public schools are in the ESL program. The Census Bureau claims there was about 31.8 million individuals whose primary language was not English in 1990. In the year 2000, it rose to 47 million, which is 18% of the population. Also, in the United States, there are more than 3.7 million public-school students whose English proficiency is limited, and similar to\",\n \"-29.60645098351597\"\n ],\n [\n \"provided in all these home languages.\\nBefore 2009, schools serving non-English speakers had to teach English as a subject only from grade 3 and all subjects were taught in English from grade 4 (except in Afrikaans language schools). Since 2009, all schools teach English as a subject from grade 1 and all subjects are taught in English from grade 4. Afrikaans language schools are an exception, in that all subjects (other than other languages) are taught in Afrikaans. Performance An independent study by Stellenbosch University researchers found that undue union influence and \\\"critical educational factors\\\", including weak institutional functionality, uneducated teachers,\",\n \"-29.58728407556191\"\n ],\n [\n \"During the 21st century more and more schools started to offer national programs in English. United Kingdom and dependencies The British Isles have several indigenous languages apart from English. These include Welsh (official in Wales), Irish, Manx Gaelic, Cornish, Scottish Gaelic, and the Scots language (which is sometimes considered as a dialect of English).\\nScotland, Northern Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man have each established bilingual programmes which provide education through the medium of their indigenous language. Most often, except for the cases of Manx and Cornish, these programmes exist where the language is spoken communally as a first\",\n \"-29.556109838886186\"\n ],\n [\n \"the U.S. over the last twenty years, more than 70% of non-English-speaking school-age immigrants have arrived in the U.S. before they were 6 years old. At this age, they could have been taught English in school, and achieved a proficiency indistinguishable from a native speaker. In other countries, such as the Soviet Union, France, Spain, and Germany this approach has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities. Dewey John Dewey, a philosopher and educator based in Chicago and New York, helped conceptualize the role of American and international education during the first four decades of the 20th\",\n \"-29.541979246016126\"\n ],\n [\n \"English English is compulsory for all year levels, with the exception of students studying ESL (English as a Second Language). Students undertake many varied activities in developing their skills in this subject area. At the VCE level, mainstream students can choose to study either English, Literature or English Language. LOTE (language Other Than English The Foreign languages studied at Wellington Secondary College are Mandarin and French. It was French and Indonesian that students could study but later on Indonesian was removed making the only foreign language students could learn was French.\\nStudents undertake French, Mandarin and ESL (English as a\",\n \"-29.533761118538678\"\n ],\n [\n \"the classroom is more influenced by the United States: Americans greatly outnumber Britons; in addition, as of 1993, the United States originated 75 percent of the world's TV programming. A BBC columnist assessed in 2015 that \\\"American English is the current dominant force globally, like it or not\\\".\",\n \"-29.52871221632813\"\n ],\n [\n \"increased in recent years. Total immersion Spanish language schools have become very popular in Latin America and Spain. Total immersion Italian language schools are popular in Italy. Chinese Chinese is one of the largest growing languages among second or foreign language learners, and demand for such classes has typically followed suit. Language schools teaching Mandarin Chinese in the United States and the United Kingdom have increased in number over the last two decades. Arabic Arabic has also grown in popularity in the last decade. Reasons include the continued growth of Islam worldwide (the Koran holy book is in Arabic), as\",\n \"-29.522552760579856\"\n ],\n [\n \"effect in English language assessment With globalization, the world has witnessed an increase in Internationalization of Higher Education, which has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of international students in the last 25 years. The prominence of English alongside this internationalization process has also seen the use of international tests of English such as Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and International English Language Testing System (IELTS) as standard tools in the wider learning community. The increasing weight of these tools in education raises questions about the impact of\",\n \"-29.521921998937614\"\n ],\n [\n \"English schools was an aristocratic status symbol. In the vernacular school, to which I was sent, the son of the Muslim attendant of my father sat on my right side, and the son of a fisherman sat on my left. They were my playmates. I listened spellbound to their stories of birds, animals and aquatic creatures. Perhaps these stories created in my mind a keen interest in investigating the workings of Nature. When I returned home from school accompanied by my school fellows, my mother welcomed and fed all of us without discrimination. Although she was an orthodox old-fashioned lady,\",\n \"-29.51875779362672\"\n ],\n [\n \"Culture in the English Speaking World. The first level classes in Reading, Speaking, Writing, and Listening are required, and the second level classes, along with Grammar and Culture are up to the students' choices. \\nThe English department's high standard of lingual proficiency has led it to focus on an efficient curriculum, one that teaches English fluency through experience and activities. Thus, students are expected to distinguish media, informational, and cultural differences in topics or subjects that are introduced and interacted with in English. From the materials presented, students are to objectively extrapolate ideas, and thus form a substantive set of\",\n \"-29.482088202697923\"\n ],\n [\n \"choose optional courses to match with their interest: journalism, psychology, advanced mathematics, physics, chemistry, law, theatre, history, enriched science topics etc. The school offers three levels of English: English as a second language (basic level), Enriched English as a second language (enriched) and English language arts (for native or very advanced speakers).\",\n \"-29.480294005834367\"\n ],\n [\n \"as to provide an English environment which makes it easier to study the language. The English environment is created through teaching the core subjects, such as mathematics, science, computer and English, in English language. While English Program (EP) offer a good learning environment to only a few students, the schools tend to demand a large amount of money for the students’ tuition fees, putting them out of reach for most Thai families especially the ones living in remote areas. Most of Thai households cannot afford to send their children to EP schools to learn the second language. EIS, therefore, provides\",\n \"-29.467846461753652\"\n ],\n [\n \"1500 words with highest use in international business English) in combination with the standard English grammar. Other examples include Simple English.\\nThe increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words being assimilated into the vocabularies of other languages. This influence of English has led to concerns about language death, and to claims of linguistic imperialism, and has provoked resistance to the spread of English; however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world think that English provides them with opportunities for better employment and improved\",\n \"-29.421393356315093\"\n ],\n [\n \"shifts in the usage of the English language within different cultures, a new \\\"literacy\\\" must also be used and developed. Overview There are two major topics that demonstrate the way multiliteracies can be used. The first is due to the world becoming smaller, communication between other cultures/languages is necessary to anyone. The usage of the English language is also being changed. While it seems that English is the common, global language, there are different dialects and subcultures that all speak different Englishes. The way English is spoken in Australia, South Africa, India or any other country is different from\",\n \"-29.365831023431383\"\n ],\n [\n \"properties. In spite of the non-economic values attached to language, what prevails in matters of language is often that which is profitable and this can lead to the superiority of a dominant language as a means of production, with a high linguistic capital value. In this respect it is evident to see that the will (or necessity) to learn English in the last decades has grown so much and its range of action has been so wide that the economic necessity and other incentives of foreign-language study are generally perceived as unimportant. For similar reasons, former British prime minister\",\n \"-29.35597464068269\"\n ],\n [\n \"second language. However, schools teaching English as a second language saw a rapid decline in enrolment and many closed down or switched to teaching English as the first language. This resulted in the mother tongue being taught only as an academic subject. Thus all other lessons and activities conducted beyond the classroom are conducted in English, with the exception of moral education and mother tongue; this is unlike the typical bilingual education models where academic content is taught in two languages. This applies throughout primary school (six years), secondary school (four or five years) and junior college (two years, 20%\",\n \"-29.340980276101618\"\n ],\n [\n \"States. I go to an English school though, which is comfortable for me because I have some English speaking friends.\\\"\\nResults\",\n \"-29.340804545936408\"\n ],\n [\n \"members assimilated more and more into the culture of the mainstream group.\\nThe other side was the importance of all students whose home language was English being able to study a language other than their own throughout their years at school. Learning another language had been shown to encourage the sort of positive attitude to other cultures which was needed for mainstream support of multicultural policies. It was also important to ensure that those whose mother tongue was English were not denied the sorts of cognitive, linguistic, cultural and occupational advantages of bilingualism, advantages which those of minority ethnic background enjoyed\",\n \"-29.340655435808003\"\n ],\n [\n \"English as first and third language and Hindi or Sanskrit as second language (or recently some other foreign languages like French, German and in some schools Arabic). Hindi speaking states have recently started offering other regional languages in India as second language.\\nPrimary and middle school mostly only teach two languages, local language of state and English.\\nIn medium and large cities, most private schools use English as the medium of instruction.\",\n \"-29.33966313242854\"\n ],\n [\n \"English is valuable, and that its use in the home, church or private place of business should in no way be discouraged. At the same time, they argue that the government should not bear the responsibility of guaranteeing that non-English-speaking individuals can participate in government solely using their mother language. They contend that as more immigrants learn English, the language barriers that divide the country into separate groups will disintegrate and lead to a decrease in racial and ethnic problems. They also believe that by learning English, individuals can become more productive citizens and members of American society. They argue\",\n \"-29.325938793688692\"\n ],\n [\n \"using their version of one of the standard forms of English are almost completely mutually intelligible, but non-standard forms present significant dialectal variations, and are marked by reduced intelligibility. English is usually considered a symmetric case of a pluricentric language, because there is no clear cultural dominance of one variety over others.\\nStatistically, however, American English speakers constitute more than 66% of native English speakers, with British English next with about 18% and other varieties such as Australian English and Canadian English having up to 7% each. Due to globalization in recent decades, English is becoming increasingly decentralized, with daily\",\n \"-29.315796009264886\"\n ],\n [\n \"and professionals and by some members of the middle and high social classes. There is an English language newspaper in Caracas: The Daily Journal, founded in 1946. The use of English arose in part due to the presence of oil companies from English speaking countries (especially from the United States) since the beginning of the 20th century.\\nEnglish is taught as a compulsory subject in the secondary education and in the bachillerato for five years. Bachillerato is a segment of secondary education similar to the baccalaureat, secondary school or American high school and is divided into two branches: sciences and humanities.\",\n \"-29.315369936142815\"\n ],\n [\n \"even the so-called 'standard' forms.\\nAccording to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial imperialism of Victorian Britain or the cultural imperialism of the 20th century United States. While British colonialism laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence.\\nThe development of International\",\n \"-29.310289810979157\"\n ],\n [\n \"up a \\\"language\\\" such as English, Spanish, and French. Language in classrooms in generalized into one category in order to offer and exposes students to the basics and variety. Some classrooms may focus on one area on a \\\"language\\\" while others show multiple aspects of each one. Debates on Language Education Language Education in the United States has brought multiple debates on the topic of teaching foreign languages to native English speakers. Cognitive arguments are used to prove that the teaching of foreign language is useful. Studies have shown that over the duration of learning a second language,\",\n \"-29.245806739869295\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the global English travel market accounting for 62% of the total revenue earned in 2013, and account for 65.5% of students worldwide.\\nEnglish language schools are also among the most numerous in Asian countries such as China, Japan and South Korea, as Western culture influences the rising demand for English in business and cultural contexts. Other European languages Spanish is the second most popular language in the language travel market, followed with some distance by French, Italian and German. While demand for French, Italian, and German is decreasing, the demand for other languages such as Chinese and Arabic has significantly\",\n \"-29.231947977503296\"\n ],\n [\n \"to take one foreign language class in grades 3-12. Although other foreign languages such as German, French, Spanish and Chinese are offered in most urban schools, English continues to be the most desired language.\\nKanoun-e-Zabaan-e-Iran or Iran's Language Institute affiliated to Center for Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults was founded in 1979. Persian, English, French, Spanish, German and Arabic are taught to over 175,000 students during each term.\\nEnglish language is studied in rahnamaei (literally meaning, guidance or orientation), an equivalent for middle school in other countries. Middle school is a period of three years and it covers grades 6-8\",\n \"-29.2192019920858\"\n ],\n [\n \"mainly in English than in Spanish. English is introduced to minority children through factors inside and outside of the home, resulting in a child's increase in English vocabulary which demonstrates how English holds a higher status in society. The study also noted how the more exposure a child had to either a parent, relative or sibling read to them the better it impacted the child’s vocabulary. In the home, the more exposure a child has to language the richer their vocabulary. Maternal factors The study that Catherine Snow was apart of included looking to see if the mother’s interaction had\",\n \"-29.18579120254435\"\n ],\n [\n \"open only to affluent residents. Its original curriculum consisted of such courses as English, surveying, navigation, geography, logic, and civics as well as a strong emphasis on mathematics.\\nNowadays, English High has opened up its curriculum to include more liberal arts subjects such as foreign languages and writing as well as performing arts and more college preparatory courses. It has received an experimental \\\"Commonwealth Co-Pilot School\\\" status, geared toward improving the curriculum of urban schools. For a while, the school had an award-winning mock trial team as well.\\nEnglish High School has an English-Language Learners program, which was run for many years\",\n \"-29.172519703628495\"\n ],\n [\n \"well a child will learn to read in the first two years of school. The program takes advantage of the fact that many children, especially ESL students, fail in reading because it is very hard for second language students to understand and pronounce sounds in English. The program is easily duplicated at a relatively low cost because of the straight forward teaching materials, systematic methods and administrative oversight.\\nIn September 2013 at the New York State Conference for Mayors and Municipal Officials, successes, ideas and information on best practices were shared among government peers. A best practice that was highlighted\",\n \"-29.17228989105206\"\n ],\n [\n \"Standard English as the model to be used in learning English.\\nSowden claims that Standard English, especially British English, has a colonial baggage that still affects the status of English in post-colonial countries and it is this negative value that has led ELF researchers to an attempt to describe and posit a neutralized version of English and to make it a universal one that belongs to every speaker, both native and second language speakers. Sowden argues that introducing ELF in ELT will lead to differences between schools where this is implemented, and schools which have the freedom to use a native\",\n \"-29.137854748798418\"\n ],\n [\n \"World Englishes World Englishes is a term for emerging localized or indigenized varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of English in different regions of the world.\\nThe issue of World Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as\",\n \"-29.110987938722246\"\n ],\n [\n \"According to the syllabus approved by the Venezuelan Ministry of Education in 1986 English language is considered as a tool to communicate with people from other countries and to obtain information in the areas of humanities, technology and science. For that reason it is taught using a Notional Functional Approach. In the bachillerato a Structuralistic Approach is used. Despite the lines provided by the syllabus, few people learn to speak the language with only the knowledge acquired at school.\\nIn some universities degree programs to train teachers or translators of English language are offered. In the rest of universities\",\n \"-29.107290969463065\"\n ],\n [\n \"English language. English Language Learners (ELL) California has about 1.5 million students enrolled in public schools and roughly one in four students is an English language learner. Many of the English language learners are not meeting the English language proficiency level therefore being considered long-term English learners. A long-term English learner is a student in grades six through twelve who has been stuck at the same level of English proficiency for more than two years. The needs of English language learners are slightly different compared to those students who do not have a language barrier. Bilingual Teachers Teachers play an\",\n \"-29.092325854624505\"\n ],\n [\n \"school in the country, despite most of its pupils being from families for whom English is not a first language. Ms. Hollows reports that one of the keys to her approach was involving parents more, drawing up ‘home-school contracts’ before they became a national requirement.\",\n \"-29.083140555303544\"\n ],\n [\n \"Language education Need Increasing globalization has created a great need for people in the workforce who can communicate in multiple languages. Common languages are used in areas such as trade, tourism, international relations, technology, media, and science. Many countries such as Korea (Kim Yeong-seo, 2009), Japan (Kubota, 1998) and China (Kirkpatrick & Zhichang, 2002) frame education policies to teach at least one foreign language at the primary and secondary school levels. However, some countries such as India, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, and the Philippines use a second official language in their governments. According to GAO (2010), China has recently been putting\",\n \"-29.077340919233393\"\n ],\n [\n \"about 1.3 million people, is the most common native language in the world. At the same time, many Chinese students are sent abroad to English-speaking countries to learn English. Why do these students learn English at all? \\nAnswer: The production of global media like radio and television is extremely difficult to accomplish using written Chinese.\\nIn preparation of the 17th National Party Congress in 2007, new restrictions were placed on all sectors of the press, Internet-users, bloggers, website managers, foreign journalist, more than 30 of which have been arrested since the start of the year. In addition, a thousand discussion forums\",\n \"-29.037255772040226\"\n ],\n [\n \"it at an upper secondary level.\\nDespite the high rate of foreign language teaching in schools, the number of adults claiming to speak a foreign language is generally lower than might be expected. This is particularly true of native English speakers: in 2004 a British survey showed that only one in 10 UK workers could speak a foreign language. Less than 5% could count to 20 in a second language, for example. 80% said they could work abroad anyway, because \\\"everyone speaks English.\\\" In 2001, a European Commission survey found that 65.9% of people in the UK spoke only their native\",\n \"-29.03181828983361\"\n ],\n [\n \"speak English is a sign of unwillingness to learn. Some immigrants, from Mexico and other countries, live in the United States for decades without acquiring a basic command of the English language. The primary reason for this being that it is difficult to learn a second language as an adult. Another reason is that finding time to learn a new language, while struggling to financially support and spend time with family, may be impossible. Job-stealing stereotype The \\\"job-stealing Hispanic\\\" stereotype is also false. According to Pastora San Juan Cafferty and William C. McCready, \\\"a preliminary study of labor market competition\",\n \"-29.022975996893365\"\n ],\n [\n \"both English and Chinese exams, or in the case of those who did not learn Chinese at school, due to having studied at an international school, another foreign language. United Kingdom Since 2014 it has been compulsory for primary school children to be taught at least one language. In 2004 it was no longer compulsory for secondary school pupils to have to study a foreign language at GCSE level. India Syllabus taught in schools highly depends on the state.\\nMost of the states follow 3 language policy in high schools. Three languages usually include local language of the state and\",\n \"-28.996518314874265\"\n ],\n [\n \"and has been so since the early days of the state. At present the language must be studied throughout secondary school, but students need not sit the examination in the final year. It is taught as a second language (L2) at second level, to native (L1) speakers and learners (L2) alike. English is offered as a first (L1) language only, even to those who speak it as a second language. The curriculum was reorganised in the 1930s by Father Timothy Corcoran SJ of UCD, who could not speak the language himself.\\nIn recent years the design and implementation of compulsory Irish\",\n \"-28.981995209062006\"\n ],\n [\n \"Social domain Education and schools Education is an integral social institution which has a major impact on the development and maintenance of language policies around the world. Schools, aside from the family, provide the necessary resources for language socialization of the child which shape the experiences and impact the language competence of the students. The medium of instruction languages are decided based on the goals and needs of the education and governmental systems. So, while children learn different vernacular varieties or dialects at home, schools further influence the development of their linguistic skills and their language ideologies. Specifically, language varieties\",\n \"-28.953240196732622\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the English-speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce koineised forms of English in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers, although English has been given official status by only 30 of the 50 state governments of the US. English as a global language English has ceased to be an \\\"English language\\\" in the sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically English. Use of English is\",\n \"-28.924992487183772\"\n ],\n [\n \"method could be used to teach from any language to any language, it is currently used almost exclusively to teach English speaking people other languages. Many different companies offer systems based on this method, but the list of languages offered is almost identical. Learning courses have been developed to teach students Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese (both Brazilian and European), Russian, Spanish (both European and South American) and Welsh.\",\n \"-28.90211857459508\"\n ],\n [\n \"at varying levels of study and proficiency, though this number is difficult to accurately assess. English is also increasingly becoming the dominant language of scientific research and papers worldwide, having even outpaced national languages in Western European countries, including France, where a recent study showed that English has massively displaced French as the language of scientific research in \\\"hard\\\" as well as in applied sciences. English is the most common of the languages used on the Internet. As of 2019, according to one survey, English is used by 54.0% of the world's top 10 million websites, and according to another\",\n \"-28.878999771899544\"\n ],\n [\n \"to Norwegian for two years.\\n1893 State law was passed requiring all public schools to teach exclusively in English.\\nIn 1925 it was made a criminal offense to give instruction in Spanish in Public schools, this law was amended in 1927 to allow Spanish instruction in Elementary schools located in counties bordering Mexico with at least one city of 5,000 population.\\nNevertheless, English (specifically, American English) is the language used for legislation, regulations, executive orders, treaties, education, federal court rulings, and all other official pronouncements; Spanish is also heavily spoken in Texas due to the large number of Tejanos, Mexicans and other local\",\n \"-28.845727633306524\"\n ],\n [\n \"growing country-by-country internally and for international communication. Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons. Many speakers of English in Africa have become part of an \\\"Afro-Saxon\\\" language community that unites Africans from different countries.\\nAs decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies. For example, the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official\",\n \"-28.844698177766986\"\n ],\n [\n \"in fields such as government, law and education. It is difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered. World English vs. World Englishes vs. Global Englishes The notions of World English and World Englishes are far from similar, although the terms are often mistakenly used interchangeably. World English refers to the English language as a lingua franca used in business, trade, diplomacy and other spheres of global activity, while World Englishes refers to the different varieties of English and English-based creoles developed in different regions of\",\n \"-28.834248488827143\"\n ],\n [\n \"various countries with their parents who are educators in the international schools. This creates a unique paradigm of a nuclear family whose family-work-school-social experiences are intertwined. Language and third culture kids Most international TCKs are expected to speak English and some countries require their expatriate families to be proficient with the English language. This is largely because most international schools use the English language as the norm.\\nFamilies tend to seek out schools whose principal languages they share, and ideally one which mirrors their own educational system. Many countries have American schools, French schools, British schools, German Schools and 'International\",\n \"-28.792817833713343\"\n ],\n [\n \"Language power Overview Each year in the United States, many students are required to learn a language other than English in their educational careers. Often, after years of study and quite likely earning passing grades on final and college entrance exams such as the ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language) Oral Proficiency Interview, most students cannot speak at a level that will be understood or can they understand basic everyday exchanges at conversational speed in the language's native country, as one would encounter when watching television or listening to the radio.\\nLanguage is taught to a level of\",\n \"-28.778794248064514\"\n ],\n [\n \"schools for children, developing new words for modern phrases, teaching the language to non-Cherokee in schools and universities, fostering the language among young adults so their children can use that language at home, developing iPhone and iPad apps for language education, the development of language radio stations including Cherokee Voices, Cherokee Sounds, and promoting the writing system through public signage, products like Apple Inc., internet use through Google including Gmail, and others so the language remains relevant in the 21st century. Italian The Italian language and its various dialects have been widely spoken in the United States for more than\",\n \"-28.774851641515852\"\n ],\n [\n \"a naturalized citizen of the US entails a basic English proficiency test, which may be the most prominent example of the claim of the nation not having an official language being belied by policy realities.\\nAlthough falling short of official status, English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates. English as a global language Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a \\\"world language\\\", the lingua franca of the modern era, and while it is not\",\n \"-28.764456920383964\"\n ],\n [\n \"they are learning in a way that was encouraged from infancy within their family and community.\\nRobinson, further said that traditional Western methods of education generally disregard the importance indigenous cultures and environmental contributions, which results in a lack of relevance for students of aboriginal backgrounds. Modern schools have a tendency to teach skills stripped of context which has a detrimental impact on Indigenous students because they thrive off educational environments in which their cultures and languages are respected and infused in learning. Various aspects of Indigenous culture need to be considered when discussing Indigenous learning, such as: content (how culture\",\n \"-28.76398478313422\"\n ],\n [\n \"most common languages include Spanish, French, German, Latin, Russian, and Italian.\\nIn a foreign language classroom, one aspect of the curriculum is the teaching of the culture behind the language. This is input into classrooms in order to give students a deeper meaning of the language. According to Michael Byram, in order to fully be able to communicate to someone with a different background, one must have insight into their lives and communication aspects. It is also used to preserve a long standing set of traditions with indigenous people. A case of this was seen in High schools\",\n \"-28.762924218026455\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the English Room, including Hong Kong, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, Canada, China and the United Kingdom. Language policy The school has been using English as the medium of instruction (EMI) in all subjects except Chinese, Chinese Literature, Chinese History, Liberal Studies and Putonghua. To help students to become biliterate in English and Chinese, and trilingual in English, Mandarin and Cantonese, and to encourage students to learn English and Mandarin their daily life, the school organizes an English Speaking Day every Western Festival and a Super Dinosaur Day per annum. Information technology in education Access to the Internet and Intranet\",\n \"-28.75679684098577\"\n ],\n [\n \"primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language. This is much changed from before World War II; in 1940, only 65 Americans not of Japanese descent were able to read, write and understand the language.\\nInternational interest in the Japanese language dates from the 19th century but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of Japanese popular culture (such as anime and video games) since the 1990s. As of 2015, more than 3.6 million people studied the language worldwide, primarily in East and Southeast Asia. Nearly 1 million Chinese, 745,000 Indonesians, 556,000 South\",\n \"-28.756177946350363\"\n ],\n [\n \"education in English and Spanish (half the school day having subject matter taught in each language) from Kindergarten through 5th grade tends to yield little if any deficit in English language performance, while helping to maintain the Spanish language.\\nIn 2011, one of Oller's scientific research articles was recognized by Autism Speaks as one of the top ten achievements in autism.\",\n \"-28.734645469638053\"\n ],\n [\n \"schools as elitist because a student had to pass a test at age 11 to get in. Defenders argued that grammar schools allow pupils to obtain a good education through merit rather than through family income. No changes were made. In some areas, notably that of the London County Council, comprehensive schools had been introduced. They had no entrance test and were open to all children living in the school catchment area. However, despite tentative support for 'multilateralism' in secondaries, and a desire to raise the standard of secondary moderns to that of private institutions, from Minister for Education\",\n \"-28.704438054963248\"\n ]\n]"}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":2,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":1507,"offset":200,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSJ9.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTczMTMyNTQwMywic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL3ByZXNlbmNlc3cvdGFzazEiLCJleHAiOjE3MzEzMjkwMDMsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.AQ3YYchMYMV17K2_WpF99_2B8gmm9H1yCeSZzKwbbqGm8l5J9FU2NTsMoJVkGFHzVs8Z2THGlv4xnlmMzfNKCg","displayUrls":true},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false}">
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3u0eam | How are refugees vetted? | [
"A very complicated series of checks by several different government agencies. It takes a long time and gathers as much data as it can to make an assessment of need and risk. Great infogrraphic (ELI12) here: URL_0 ",
"Before the replies start: ***I'm not debating whether or not we should or shouldn't take in refugees***. & nbsp; I live in Florida, in the United States. If I wanted to move to Canada, and Canada wanted to vet me, they can request information from several different places. They can get background info on me from the State of Florida, or from the Federal Government of the United States. Since the information is coming straight from the Government, Canada knows that they can trust the information. That's generally how things work for refugees: we check with the Governments and Agencies in the countries that they're coming from, and get the information we need. The problem is, with a place like Syria, where there has been massive war and destruction, we might not be able to get the information we need, from a source we can trust. So then we have to use less reliable methods of checking them out, or we have to simple take their word for it.",
"With the Syrian refugees they do interviews and check to see if their story aligns with events that happened in the country or with other people's stories. They collect fingerprints and biological information and go through several different agencies over the period of about a year and a half. I read that 50% of the refugees get rejected and the ones that make it through don't get to choose which country they end up in. Despite it being lengthy it's not the most thorough sounding process to be totally honest. Syria has no database of people that the west can access. The refugees have no identification. Worth the risk? Up to you to decide.",
"They can't. This is the problem. Currently, it's a numbers game. The question is, does the amount of people who genuinely need help and refuge outnumber those who might intentionally be here to cause harm? The answer is mostly yes. There is no 100% way to get all the people out of those countries as well as verify the validity of their claims in a way that's both time and manpower efficient. They do the best they can and it's impossible to get it right 100% of the time.",
"**A friend of mine is an immigration lawyer in the US. He posted a really comprehensive answer to this question on Facebook the other day. Below is his description in full (rather long). Note, this applies to the process in the US.** Most of my friends know I practice Immigration law. As such, I have worked with the refugee community for over two decades. This post is long, but if you want actual information about the process, keep reading. I can not tell you how frustrating it is to see the misinformation and outright lies that are being perpetuated about the refugee process and the Syrian refugees. So, here is a bit of information from the real world of someone who actually works and deals with this issue. The refugee screening process is multi-layered and is very difficult to get through. Most people languish in temporary camps for months to years while their story is evaluated and checked. First, you do not get to choose what country you might be resettled into. If you already have family (legal) in a country, that makes it more likely that you will go there to be with family, but other than that it is random. So, you can not simply walk into a refugee camp, show a document, and say, I want to go to America. Instead, the UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees) works with the local authorities to try to take care of basic needs. Once the person/family is registered to receive basic necessities, they can be processed for resettlement. Many people are not interested in resettlement as they hope to return to their country and are hoping that the turmoil they fled will be resolved soon. In fact, most refugees in refugee events never resettle to a third country. Those that do want to resettle have to go through an extensive process. Resettlement in the U.S. is a long process and takes many steps. The Refugee Admissions Program is jointly administered by the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (PRM) in the Department of State, the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) in the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and offices within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) within DHS conducts refugee interviews and determines individual eligibility for refugee status in the United States. We evaluate refugees on a tiered system with three levels of priority. First Priority are people who have suffered compelling persecution or for whom no other durable solution exists. These individuals are referred to the United States by UNHCR, or they are identified by the U.S. embassy or a non-governmental organization (NGO). Second priority are groups of “special concern” to the United States. The Department of State determines these groups, with input from USCIS, UNHCR, and designated NGOs. At present, we prioritize certain persons from the former Soviet Union, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Iraq, Iran, Burma, and Bhutan. Third priority are relatives of refugees (parents, spouses, and unmarried children under 21) who are already settled in the United States may be admitted as refugees. The U.S.-based relative must file an Affidavit of Relationship (AOR) and must be processed by DHS. Before being allowed to come to the United States, each refugee must undergo an extensive interviewing, screening, and security clearance process conducted by Regional Refugee Coordinators and overseas Resettlement Support Centers (RSCs). Individuals generally must not already be firmly resettled (a legal term of art that would be a separate article). Just because one falls into the three priorities above does not guarantee admission to the United States. The Immigration laws require that the individuals prove that they have a “well-founded fear,” (another legal term which would be a book.) This fear must be proved regardless of the person’s country, circumstance, or classification in a priority category. There are multiple interviews and people are challenged on discrepancies. I had a client who was not telling the truth on her age and the agency challenged her on it. Refugees are not simply admitted because they have a well founded fear. They still must show that they are not subject to exclusion under Section 212(a) of the INA. These grounds include serious health matters, moral or criminal matters, as well as security issues. In addition, they can be excluded for such things as polygamy, misrepresentation of facts on visa applications, smuggling, or previous deportations. Under some circumstances, the person may be eligible to have the ground waived. At this point, a refugee can be conditionally accepted for resettlement. Then, the RSC sends a request for assurance of placement to the United States, and the Refugee Processing Center (RPC) works with private voluntary agencies (VOLAG) to determine where the refugee will live. If the refugee does have family in the U.S., efforts will be made to resettle close to that family. Every person accepted as a refugee for planned admission to the United States is conditional upon passing a medical examination and passing all security checks. Frankly, there is more screening of refugees than ever happens to get on an airplane. Of course, yes, no system can be 100% foolproof. But if that is your standard, then you better shut down the entire airline industry, close the borders, and stop all international commerce and shipping. Every one of those has been the source of entry of people and are much easier ways to gain access to the U.S. Only upon passing all of these checks (which involve basically every agency of the government involved in terrorist identification) can the person actually be approved to travel. Before departing, refugees sign a promissory note to repay the United States for their travel costs. This travel loan is an interest-free loan that refugees begin to pay back six months after arriving in the country. Once the VOLAG is notified of the travel plans, it must arrange for the reception of refugees at the airport and transportation to their housing at their final destination. This process from start to finish averages 18 to 24 months, but I have seen it take years. The reality is that about half of the refugees are children, another quarter are elderly. Almost all of the adults are either moms or couples coming with children. Each year the President, in consultation with Congress, determines the numerical ceiling for refugee admissions. For Fiscal Year (FY) 2016, the proposed ceiling is 85,000. We have been averaging about 70,000 a year for the last number of years. (Source: Refugee Processing Center) Over one-third of all refugee arrivals (35.1 percent, or 24,579) in FY 2015 came from the Near East/South Asia—a region that includes Iraq, Iran, Bhutan, and Afghanistan. Another third of all refugee arrivals (32.1 percent, or 22,472) in FY 2015 came from Africa. Over a quarter of all refugee arrivals (26.4 percent, or 18,469) in FY 2015 came from East Asia — a region that includes China, Vietnam, and Indonesia. (Source: Refugee Processing Center) Finally, the process in Europe is different. I would be much more concerned that terrorists are infiltrating the European system because they are not nearly so extensive and thorough in their process.",
"Definitive checks are costly and time consuming. Last I heard, US taking in 10k refugees will take two years for background check, which sounds like a really long time."
] | [
[
"is the only national program that is exclusively focused on assisting veterans as they reenter the workforce. The VETS program also has an Incarcerated Veterans' Transition Program, as well as services that are unique to female Veterans. Mainstream programs initiated by the Department of Labor have included the Workforce Investment Act, One-Stop Career Centers, and a Community Voice Mail system that helps to connect homeless individuals around the United States with local resources. Targeted labor programs have included the Homeless Veterans' Reintegration Project, the Disability Program Navigator Initiative, efforts to end chronic homelessness through providing employment and housing projects, Job",
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"Refugees in New Zealand There are two main pathways that refugees or protected persons find their way into New Zealand: 1) asylum seekers may seek protection after arrival in New Zealand (either as refugees or protected persons); 2) refugees or protected persons may also be resettled from offshore through New Zealand's Refugee Quota Programme. Refugees who have been resettled can apply to sponsor relatives to join them (300 per year). In 2017/18 a community sponsorship pathway was trialed, however it is unclear whether it will be continued.\nA refugee who is resettled into New Zealand is granted permanent residency and may",
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"of which focuses on admitting immigrants for the purpose of family reunification. Other major categories include economic and humanitarian immigrants, as well as immigrants from countries with relatively low levels of immigration to the United States.\nThe Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS) Annual Flow Reports on LPRs contain information obtained from foreign nationals' applications for LPR status on the number and characteristics of persons who became LPRs during a given fiscal year. Refugees and Asylees A refugee is a person outside his or her country of nationality who is unable or unwilling to return to his or her country of nationality",
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"Refugees As Survivors New Zealand Refugees As Survivors New Zealand (RASNZ) is the charitable humanitarian NGO which is the lead agency for mental health services for all incoming UNHCR quota and convention refugees who enter New Zealand for resettlement. Established in 1997, RASNZ is based at the national refugee reception centre at Mangere in Auckland. Working closely with Immigration New Zealand (INZ) and other government agencies at the centre, RASNZ provides treatment for traumatised refugees and victims of torture. Initially treatment and support is provided at the Mangere Refugee Resettlement Centre. New Zealand accepts 750 UN refugees per year as",
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"the arrival of a refugee is 18 to 24 months. The United States has an Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) that aids the refugees in resettlement through programs that provide them with critical resources that help them become integrated members of the American society.\nIn a recent exploratory study of approaches used in ORR Programs, they identified a number of key factors that contributes to successful employment: 1) pre- and post-employment services, 2) individualised goal-oriented approaches with each refugee, 3) culturally diverse staff, 4) refugees that are survivors with high levels of motivation, 5) clear message about the ORR's mission statement in",
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"Service to facilitate health screenings for all immigrants and refugees before they depart their country of origin. The screening effort is overseen by the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR), housed in and funded by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).\nBoth in their countries of origin and after arriving in the U.S., refugees often face obstacles in accessing medical care. In their countries of origin, weak healthcare infrastructure and a scarcity of medical resources may prevent them from obtaining needed care prior to their departure. Upon arrival in the U.S., cultural and linguistic barriers can limit access to",
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"by a U.S. Resettlement System That is not Working, points out that local communities have confronted many challenges due to refugees resettlement. In the study, seven main findings were reported concerning the local resettlement communities.\nFirst, the federal government uses \"faith-based groups,\" for refugee placement. The local communities that receive the refugees are not included in the decision-making process. Receiving new refugees into a community requires numerous resources from the local government, but these local governments are not given enough funding from the federal government. They are also not informed as to how many new refugees they are going to receive.",
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"the opportunity, try to make their way to cities. Some refugee elites even rotate between the camp and the city, or rotate periods in the camp with periods elsewhere in the country in family networks, sometimes with another relative in a Western country that contributes financially. Refugee camps may serve as a safety net for people who go to cities or who attempt to return to their countries of origin. Some refugees marry nationals so that they can bypass the police rules regarding movements out of the camps. It is a lucrative side-business for many police officers working the area",
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"regions throughout the world.\nThe U.S. Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) funds a number of organizations that provide technical assistance to voluntary agencies and local refugee resettlement organizations. RefugeeWorks, headquartered in Baltimore, Maryland, is ORR's training and technical assistance arm for employment and self-sufficiency activities, for example. This nonprofit organization assists refugee service providers in their efforts to help refugees achieve self-sufficiency. RefugeeWorks publishes white papers, newsletters and reports on refugee employment topics.\nThe US government position on refugees states that there is repression of religious minorities in the Middle East and in Pakistan such as Christians, Hindus, as well as Ahmadi,",
"-29.165518018824514"
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[
"Refugee shelter Refugee shelters are structures ranging from the most temporary tent accommodation through transitional shelter to building temporary pics and settlements and include the most basic kind of ad hoc structure. They are created in the aftermath of a conflict or natural disaster as a temporary residence for victims who have lost or abandoned their homes. Refugees and IDPs are people fleeing their homes or countries of origin due to natural disasters, war and political or religious persecution in search of refuge and resettlement. Living in these shelters refugees may force marriage crowded, noisy, dirty, disease filled grounds where",
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"the camp. New arrivals are registered, fingerprinted and interviewed by the host country government and the UNHCR. Health and nutrition screenings follow. Those who are extremely malnourished will be taken to therapeutic feeding centres and the sick to hospital. Men and women receive counselling separate from each other to determine their needs. After registration they are given food rations (until then only high energy biscuits), receive ration cards (the primary marker of refugee status), soap, jerrycans, kitchen sets, sleeping mats, plastic tarpaulins to build shelters (some receive tents or pre-fabricated shelters). Leaders from the refugee community may provide further support",
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"first refugees resettled under the programme were housed in Sheffield, which was the first city to join the scheme and which had branded itself the UK's first 'City of Sanctuary'. Others have been housed in cities and towns including Bradford, Brighton and Hove, Bromley, Colchester, Hull, Middlesbrough, Motherwell, Norwich, and the Manchester area including Bolton, Bury, Oldham, Rochdale, Salford, Stockport and Tameside. Sheffield, Bolton and Hull have received the largest numbers, accounting for just under half of all refugees resettled under the programme between 2004 and 2012. The large proportion of refugees who have been resettled in North West England",
"-29.078865565010346"
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[
"migrant farm workers, who typically enter a country only for the harvest season and then return home to a country or region in the Global South (such as Mexico or Jamaica from where America and Canada, respectively, often import temporary agricultural labour). An important aspect of immigration policy is the treatment of refugees, more or less helpless or stateless people who throw themselves on the mercy of the state they try to enter, seeking refuge from actual or purported poor treatment in their country of origin. Asylum is sometimes granted to those who face persecution or a well-founded fear of",
"-28.761882168706506"
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"community-based organizations and NGOs on the legal remedies available to these crime victims.\nThe Refugee Assistance Project represents individuals who have suffered torture and other forms of persecution in their home countries and who are seeking asylum in the U.S. The Project also assists with filing relative petitions and obtaining asylum-related benefits such as employment authorization, refugee travel documents and green cards.\nThe Legal Clinic for the Homeless provides advice, advocacy and representation to families who are residents of homeless shelters on a variety of matters related to public benefits. The Project sponsors legal clinics at homeless shelters, with services",
"-28.753913047286915"
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"service is available to all asylum seekers who are entitled to support from the Home Office “National Asylum Support Service” (NASS) which was established under the Immigration and Asylum Act 1999.\nAs well as working directly with asylum seekers, NERS is also involved in a host of other refugee related work. This site allows you to see our work in full as well as view opinions on issues related to our work.\nThe North of England Refugee Service works in partnership with many other refugee organisations, including the British Red Cross, Refugee Council, Scottish Refugee Council, Welsh Refugee Council, Northern Refugee Centre,",
"-28.704212157754228"
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"In March 2009, out of the 434 local authorities in the UK, 15 were participating in the programme. By 2012, a total of 18 local authorities had participated. In a review of the scheme, academics Duncan Sim and Kait Laughlin note that \"it is clear that, as with asylum seekers dispersed by the UK Borders Agency under Home Office dispersal policy, most refugees have been resettled away from London and south east England, a policy which may lead to separation of extended families\". Of the 18 local authorities, eight are in North West England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside.\nThe",
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"defined refugees, the labour opportunities are largely seen as a window dressing exercise. The support given is unspecialised, with Jobactive largely ignoring the unique difficulties newly recognised refugees possess when searching for and obtaining work. Procedural Challenges The Status Resolution Support Services (SSRS) is the Department of Immigration and Border Protection's replacement for the previous Community Assistance Program (CAP) that is meant to connect migrants and non-citizens with social services. The services are delivered under six different bands that vary dependent upon identity and timeline of asylum. There are issues latent within the SSRS arising from a strict adherence to",
"-28.54351352021331"
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[
"Refugee camp A refugee camp is a temporary settlement built to receive refugees and people in refugee-like situations. Refugee camps usually accommodate displaced persons who have fled their home country, but there are also camps for internally displaced people. Usually refugees seek asylum after they've escaped war in their home countries, but some camps also house environmental- and economic migrants. Camps with over a hundred thousand people are common, but as of 2012, the average-sized camp housed around 11,400. They are usually built and run by a government, the United Nations, international organizations (such as the International Committee of the",
"-28.51964412711095"
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"Refugees and now by the Initiativgruppe – Interkulturelle Begegnung und Bildung e.V) are firmly established and are being set up in other cities and communities.\nThrough strong cooperation with these institutions, a broad network has been developed with those who provide youth, social and migration work whether independently or on behalf of the community (Kreisjugendring; AWO; Caritas Social Services; Diakonie; Condrobs; Bildungszentren; Kinder- und Mutterschutz e.V.; Verein für Sozialarbeit e.V.)) and involving all relevant government departments (Department for Schooling/Sport; City Youth Department; Streetwork; Department for Health and Environment; Department for Work and Business; Foreign Advisory Council; Regional Committee) Objective Through football,",
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"process before they can be legally admitted into the United States of America. The process normally takes about eight months to a year. Once a refugee has been admitted to the United States, it is the responsibility of the sponsoring organization to help them adapt to their new life. It is the hope that they will be enfolded into their community and become an asset to the country. Cash assistance As touched on above, much of the literature on USRAP challenges the efficacy of the program’s cash assistance efforts. A recent study conducted by Columbia University argued that the programs",
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"in the United States Locally, the foundation joins efforts with resettlement agencies to facilitate the adaptation of Sudanese refugees into the American communities and culture. It also helps refugees get access to education and minimize the fall of immigrant children into street fault-line gangs and drug cartels. Job placement opportunities for adults, housing, transportation are also among the services provided by the foundation. Category List of ethnic organizations in the United States",
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"later published with recipes in both German and English.\nFrom the beginning the idea of the Foundation was to have refugees teaching the locals how to cook meals from their culture, and thus present their culture through the meal. During the process locals who had little idea about the concept of refugees came to have more understanding of their situations and more respect for their cultures. Foundation work The Foundation has several projects with which it is trying to integrate refugees. Among those are the Champion program, the Satellite program, the Kitchen on the Run, the Job Buddy program, and Building",
"-28.31296883756295"
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"to the new arrivals. Housing and sanitation Residential plots are allocated (e.g. 10m x12 m for a family of 4 to 7 people). Shelters may sometimes be built by refugees themselves with locally available materials, but aid agencies may supply materials or even prefabricated housing. Shelters are frequently very close to each other, and many families frequently share a single dwelling, rendering privacy for couples nonexistent. Camps may have communal unisex pit latrines shared by many households, but aid agencies may provide improved sanitation facilities. Household pit latrines may be built by families themselves. Latrines may not always be kept",
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],
[
"protection of refugees, integration of foreigners and refugees, as well as expulsion of foreigners and other related areas.\nThe practical part is conducted in coordination with Sdružení občanů zabývajích se emigranty (Association of citizens concerned with emigrants) NGO. Students undergo excursions and work experience in Czech refugee camps (for example in Vyšní Lhoty), take part in the process of giving legal advice, counsel clients and solve real cases. As well as searching for information concerning a country of origin, they prepare the forms for refugee protection and legal remedies for unfavourable decisions. The students also have the chance to represent the",
"-28.257862967206165"
],
[
"National Vetting Center National Vetting Center is a United States government agency established on February 6, 2018, to implement \"vetting and tighter screening for all individuals seeking to enter the United States in order to help DHS (Department of Homeland Security) and the entire U.S. intelligence community to keep terrorists, violent criminals, and other dangerous individuals from reaching our shores.\"",
"-28.232893967360724"
],
[
"Refugee Week Events Events during Refugee Week are usually organised by different charities, local governments, churches, refugee community organisations, schools, faith groups, arts organisations, day centres and umbrella networks.\nA multi-agency organisation called the Refugee Week partnership leads on unifying the events.\nEvents organised during Refugee Week are held independently from the Refugee Week partnership and are not obliged to follow the suggested direction of the partnership.\nEvents include the annual Umbrella Parade and the Celebrating Sanctuary Festival in London. 2011 will also see a \"100% British created by refugees\" campaign to celebrate the contribution of refugees to British society, as well as",
"-28.21713239713972"
],
[
"90%. Welfare Department For selected refugees, the Welfare Department assisted with shelter, food, clothing and, if necessary, medical assistance. Reconstructive help In the first few years, some selected refugees were able to secure employment or start small enterprises. The CJV mediated with the Dutch government for residence and work permits and ensured the periodic renewal of these licenses. The CJV also provided small loans to establish or maintain an enterprise. Over time the refugees were typically less able to pay back the loans, but collection efforts were minimal since without these enterprises the expenses of the refugees would have been",
"-28.110376347613055"
],
[
"Vetsprevail Vets Prevail, is a veteran-created online mental health program developed and supported by Prevail Health Solutions. It was created to combat the challenges faced by returning OEF and OIF veterans suffering from depression and PTSD. The program combines the principles of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) with interactive e-learning techniques to educate and provide veterans with tools to overcome mental health challenges faced upon returning home from deployment. Vets Prevail utilizes a variety of techniques including: interactive videos, live chats with trained Peer Coaches, and a peer network of veterans to motivate and help veterans readjust to life after",
"-28.1100175253232"
],
[
"authorities found it more and more difficult to house the huge number of refugees and in particular concerned the states' registration facilities (LEA). These were shelters where the refugees were housed after they were picked up from a train station by the federal police. In order to meet the needs at least partly, the responsible regional councils of the states opened provisional shelters in many locations: demand-oriented registration facilities (BEA). The numbers of people living in the LEAs and the BEAs varied daily and they were accommodated in these registration facilities for a maximum of three months. For example, the",
"-28.08889918930072"
],
[
"it dies.”\nIn Article IV, the surfacing of camps developed by the Resettlement Administration act not only as a provider of basic goods and living standards for the migrant workers and families, but also as a place for the migrants to regain their dignity as members of a functioning society. Because one of the three conditions of staying in the camp was to help to maintain the cleanliness of the camp, the migrant workers were given a responsibility that allowed them to contribute as members of a functioning community. Furthermore, the camp afforded them civilized amenities such as “water, toilet paper,",
"-28.06067157338839"
],
[
"accession, public transportation, education and etc. The government also provides the refugees with cash and accommodation, while NGOs provide additional supports in resettlement, job finding, and school attendance.",
"-28.038716691255104"
],
[
"descendants do not come under the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, but under the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, which created its own criteria for refugee classification. The great majority of Palestinian refugees have kept the refugee status for generations, under a special decree of the UN, and legally defined to include descendants of refugees, as well as others who might otherwise be considered internally displaced persons.\nAs of December 2005, the World Refugee Survey of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants estimates the total number of Palestinian refugees",
"-27.913392865331843"
],
[
"some refugees while others are left behind. Employment The purpose of cash assistance is to help refugees find employment. This goal, however, is frequently not achieved. \"…The cash assistance received was not enough to cover basic expenses and often ran out long before employment was secured.\" One of the main issues with refugee employment is that there is simply not enough time or money to support a thorough job search. The time allotted for support is eight months, however, the paper quoted above claimed that in reality the support lasts six months or less. This lack of time and funding",
"-27.90852468938101"
],
[
"gave the participants the idea to have refugees give cooking lessons. The idea was developed with the help of the Social Impact Lab in Berlin in the spring of 2014. It was important for the founders to have locals and refugees come together as equals. Through the leading part that refugees play in the cooking lessons \"the humility of a petitioner was replaced by the confidence of an expert.\"\nLater a cook book was published that included 36 recipes from 27 refugees. The cooks came from countries such as Afghanistan, Syria, Guinea, Niger, Macedonia and Chechnya. A second cook book was",
"-27.86694829261978"
],
[
"when deciding what services to offer. Instead ... quick placement in employment is emphasized across the board, access to supplementary services and community support is determined essentially by lottery, and secondary migration is not accounted for.\nThis same article goes on to point out the varying degree of assistance from state-to-state creates a random allocation of assistance for refugees. Depending on their location, some refugees are given transportation assistance, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) support, and local community assistance as well while other refugees are given the bare minimum of federal funding. This inequitable allocation leads to the successful integration of",
"-27.819094960927032"
],
[
"Danish Immigration Service The Danish Immigration Service (Danish: Udlændingestyrelsen or Udlændingeservice) is a directorate within the Danish Ministry of Refugees, Immigration and Integration Affairs.\nThe service administrates the Danish Aliens Act (Danish: Udlændingeloven), in other words, it handles applications for asylum, family reunification, visas, work permits, etc. In addition, the service is engaged in a wide range of other duties relating to the asylum and immigration area, including the task of accommodating asylum seekers.\nThere have been disagreements between the Danish Immigration Service and Minister for Integration Søren Pind over the requirements for family reunification for immigrants.\nIn October 2017 the Danish",
"-27.814939886913635"
],
[
"also launched a new national Agency for Refugees and IDPs, which is tasked with handling legislation, response initiatives, advocacy and implementation vis-a-vis returning and internally displaced citizens.",
"-27.7599142503459"
],
[
"needs-related vulnerability for the purposes of ensuring post-arrival assistance. Instead, such information is only gathered to help support the individual’s persecution claim.\"\nSimilarly, medical examinations and interviews of refugees performed by the USCIS overseas are not used to determine the health and resettlement needs of the refugee. Rather, this information is used to assess the admissibility of the refugee. In fact, resettlement agencies must make placement decisions before they even receive the medical records of refugees.\nOne of the most crucial factors to the success of refugees is where they are placed in United States. Even though the most vulnerable populations are",
"-27.7286765165627"
],
[
"Prisoners Abroad provides assistance to more than 1,400 family members. This includes one-to-one support via a helpline, a private online network for family members, as well as hosting family support groups around the country and arranging overseas visits. Resettlement Prisoners Abroad's work also extends to a resettlement service that supports those who return to the UK; they find them somewhere to stay, provide grants for food and travel, and help them take the vital steps to a new life. Awards and patrons In 2007 Prisoners Abroad was awarded the Longford Prize, awarded annually by the Longford Trust to \"recognise the",
"-27.704394750180654"
],
[
"This is the task of the Office of Refugee Resettlement. Church World Service Church World Service works with eight different denominations, the United Methodist Church, United Church of Christ, Reformed Church in America, Presbyterian Church (USA), Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Episcopal Church, the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship, and Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Along with the basic public services provided by every nonprofit, the Church World Service administers the Religious Services Program, a program which helps refugees continue to practice their religion in the U.S. (regardless of the individual refugee’s specific religious practices). HIAS HIAS (founded as the Hebrew",
"-27.63400325004477"
],
[
"the number of International Institutes had grown to 55 and reached across the country to Los Angeles. Activities The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants (USCRI) administers domestic programs related to refugee resettlement and placement, foreign-born victims of human trafficking, and unaccompanied immigrant children. Its international programs focus on defending the rights of refugees and asylum seekers. It is a partnership between USCRI and the American Immigration Lawyers Association. Each child helped by the Center is under age 18 and without a parent or resources in the United States. The Center holds pro bono trainings throughout the United States for",
"-27.605573420180008"
],
[
"asylees and victims of human trafficking.\nResettlement services include providing immediate aid, including food and shelter; assisting with job placement and employment skills; and giving access to clothing, medical attention, education, English-language classes and community orientation.\nIn addition to integrating refugees into the U.S., the IRC also provides immigration services to refugees and people who have been granted asylum, as well as specialized services to victims of human trafficking in the U.S. Advocacy The IRC seeks to focus the attention of policy makers on humanitarian crises and the needs of refugees, internally displaced people and other victims of conflict. Organization The current",
"-27.599870423764514"
],
[
"Diversity Immigrant Visa Legislative and administrative history Starting in 1986, the United States established several temporary immigrant visa programs outside of the usual immigration preferences (family members or by employment). The first program was NP-5, run from 1987–89, where a limited number of visas was issued on a first-come, first-served basis. The second program was OP-1, run through a lottery from 1989–91 and available for natives of countries with low levels of recent immigration to the United States. The third program, AA-1, from 1992–94, was available for natives from a select group of countries that had been \"adversely affected\" by",
"-27.569768061992363"
],
[
"and Refugee Action. Work The North of England Refugee Services's head office at Newcastle upon Tyne, along with other offices in Sunderland and Middlesbrough. The charity's main activities are providing support and advice to asylum seekers and refugees themselves as well as to other organisations, undertaking research and policy work, and campaigning on behalf of refugees and asylum seekers. The Refugee Service is a member organisation of the Asylum Support Partnership. Campaigning The North of England Refugee Service has been campaigning on Asylum issues and supports the Refugee Council campaign Proud to Protect pledge which with the help of celebrity",
"-27.557504470925778"
],
[
"Nafuma Refugee Center (JNRC) Located at St. Paul's Within the Walls Episcopal Church, the Joel Nafuma Refugee Center (JNRC) is a day center for refugees in the heart of Rome, founded in 1982.\nThe scope of services offered in the center range from basic assistance to settlement services, and aim to address the needs of the whole person. Staff and volunteers accompany guests in their struggle to rebuild their lives through ongoing art and psychotherapy programs and legal support. This spectrum of services aims to address the immediate and urgent needs of newly arrived guests, as well as the",
"-27.553125645543332"
],
[
"local offices, and caseworkers that provide individualized aid to each refugee's situation. They do rely on the sponsorship of individuals or groups, such as faith-based congregations or local organizations. The largest of the VOLAGS is the Migration and Refugee Services of the U.S. Catholic Conference. Others include Church World Service, Episcopal Migration Ministries, the Ethiopian Community Development Council, the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, the International Rescue Committee, Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service, the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, and World Relief.\nThere are a number of advantages to the strategy of using agencies other than the government",
"-27.40271870442666"
],
[
"North of England Refugee Service History The North of England Refugee Service was established in 1989. It is an independent and charitable organisation which exists to meet the needs and promote the interests of asylum seekers and refugees who have arrived or have settled in the North of England.\nNERS acts as an agent of positive change in order to improve the everyday life conditions of asylum seekers and refugees, and to promote social inclusion by facilitating their integration and equal participation within British society.\nSince April 2000 NERS has been operating the One Stop Service contract in the North east. This",
"-27.367880931851687"
],
[
"Welsh Refugee Council About Welsh Refugee Council The Welsh Refugee Council (WRC) is a Wales-based charity committed to protecting the rights of asylum seekers and refugees (RASs) in Wales. For over 28 years, the organisations have been providing advice, information and practical support to asylum seekers and refugees in Wales as they navigate their way through the UK immigration system and transition into their new life in Wales. The organisation speaks out and support those fleeing persecution, conflict, and various forms of injustice and abuse at our offices in Cardiff, Wrexham, Swansea and Newport and works in partnership with Refugee",
"-27.29558703166549"
],
[
"where refugees arrive by sea, while the second was opened on 10 November 2017 to serve the remote refugee settlement of Unchiprang.\nThe Aid Stations offer comprehensive services from triage to pharmacy, with a focus on providing life-saving reproductive, maternal, neonatal and child healthcare Each Station is equipped with a recovery suite, a maternity room, a surgical area, and an ambulance.\nTheir dedicated team of doctors, nurses, midwives, pharmacists and logisticians treat up to 300 people every day for a multitude of conditions including trauma, acute respiratory illnesses, severe gastric distress, severe malnutrition and fatigue. Reflecting the huge number of young people",
"-27.255593271984253"
],
[
"be limited to 5,000 people. Summary The Act created the position of U.S. Coordinator for Refugee Affairs who was now responsible to the president for the development of overall US refugee admission and resettlement policy.\nTitle IV of the Immigration and Nationality Act was amended here when the Act created the Office of Refugee Resettlement, which is responsible for funding and administering federal programs for domestic resettlement and assistance to refugees. The office must make available resources for employment training and placement for refugees to be economically self-sufficient, provide opportunities for English language training, ensure cash assistance, and guarantee gender equality",
"-27.24234703287948"
],
[
"countries or, for younger recruits, the opportunity to continue their education abroad. Labor recruiters and agencies undergo scant monitoring, and in most countries, few regulations exist to control the recruitment fees charged to workers. Private recruitment agencies orchestrate much of the migration process from pre-departure to the return. They provide information, financial and logistical support; however, migrant domestic workers’ dependence on private agencies for so many services create many opportunities for exploitation and abuse.\nAccording to International Labour Organization, there exist frequent irregularities concerning these intermediaries (i.e., recruiters and agents in sending and receiving countries). Therefore, the inconsistencies, between regulations in",
"-27.16415621849592"
],
[
"and translation services across the UK.\nMigrant Helpline became known as Migrant Help in 2010. The charity continues to work to improve the lives of vulnerable migrants in partnership with other organisations and community groups. Employment Migrant Help employs 160+ people from 43 different countries of origin. Approximately 47 per cent of staff are non-UK born and many have personal experiences of the refugee journey.\nMigrant Help holds the \"Investors in People\" accreditation, is authorised by the Office of Immigration Services Commissioner, holds an Advice Quality Standard mark and is a National Living Wage employer.",
"-27.057811858016066"
],
[
"Migrant domestic workers Migrant domestic workers (also known as foreign home care workers, foreign domestic workers,foreign domestic helpers, transnational domestic workers, foreign domestic employees, overseas domestic workers and domestic migrant workers) are, according to the International Labour Organization’s Convention No. 189 and the International Organization for Migration, any persons “moving to another country or region to better their material or social conditions and improve the prospect for themselves or their family,” engaged in a work relationship performing “in or for a household or households.” Domestic work itself can cover a \"wide range of tasks and services that vary from country",
"-27.049211369652767"
],
[
"pressure in other regions, five more regions – Levin, Whanganui, Masterton, Blenheim, Timaru and Ashburton – have been added as resettlement locations, with one yet to be announced.\nAsylum seekers who apply for refugee status on shore are equally likely to be held either in prison or the Mangere refugee reception centre. If they are found to be genuine refugees they will be granted residence, then they are technically able to access Social welfare in New Zealand and the same benefits provided by the state as any permanent resident. However, assistance that addresses their specific needs as they attempt to integrate",
"-27.045414161701046"
],
[
"are unable to choose the community that they live in, required to live an address designated by the Minister for Immigration and Border Protection. Work rights For the designated refugees that are eligible for work, many are prevented from entering the work force owing to issues of cultural competency and language. The overall effect is that the great majority of refugees in Australia are eager to workout without any pathways into the Australian work force. Refugees with adverse security assessment Recent administrative changes have seen the introduction of a new category of designated immigration status: adverse security assessments. Visa cancellations",
"-27.003089050384006"
],
[
"and managing the adoption ring are local middle or upper class citizens, and they often have a negative view of the very poor. Therefore, recruiters can rationalize taking these children from the biological family on the grounds that the child will be better reared in the West. Many members of foreign governments are bribed to hasten these illegitimate adoptions, and also to ignore the illegality of these criminal organizations. Process of illegal adoptions Illegal child laundering adoptions involve a hierarchy of people as described above, who manipulate the legal adoptions system in order to profit. This process begins when",
"-26.969575903422083"
],
[
"of the Veterans' Employment and Training Service (VETS), Michaud reported to Secretary of Labor Tom Perez. VETS serves as the focal point in the federal government for veterans' employment by preparing military service members for transition to civilian employment, providing veterans with services to assist them in getting good jobs, protecting veterans' employment rights, and promoting veterans' employment in the private sector.\nIn 2018, he was elected to the Board of Selectmen in East Millinocket, his hometown.\nOn March 28, 2019, Michaud was nominated by Gov. Janet Mills to serve as a trustee on both the board of the University of Maine",
"-26.901091818115674"
],
[
"refugees started camping out, for example at petrol stations on the highway. Humanitarian agency Médecins Sans Frontières set up its offices for the area in Polykastro.",
"-26.8731202496856"
],
[
"as to those granted refuge in the United States. Operations The IRC delivers a number of services, including emergency response, health care, programs fighting gender-based violence, post-conflict development projects, children and youth protection and education programs, water and sanitation systems, strengthening the capacity of local organizations, and supporting civil society and good-governance initiatives.\nFor refugees afforded sanctuary in the United States, IRC resettlement offices across the country provide a range of assistance aimed at helping new arrivals settling, adjusting and acquiring the skills to become self-sufficient.\nThe IRC also engages in advocacy efforts on behalf of the oppressed and displaced, and its",
"-26.865218811901286"
],
[
"Migrant Resource Centre A Migrant Resource Centre or MRC is an Australian community-based organisation that provides settlement services for migrants and refugees. The main purpose of MRCs is to cater to the immediate and longer term needs of migrants and refugees to facilitate successful integration into their local community and enable them to reach their full potential. MRC's provide information and referral services and assistance with finding and keeping employment to newly arrived migrants and refugees. MRCs also provide services for aged and disabled members of ethnic communities who prefer to access ethno-specific services. Many MRCs also conduct research and",
"-26.856291020842036"
],
[
"urban centres. Every registered refugee is given a ration card upon registration which is used for collecting the rations from food distribution centres. The amount of 2,100 kcal allocated per person per day is based on minimal standards and frequently not achieved, such as in Kenya.\nAccording to article 20 of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees refugees shall be treated at least like nationals in relation to\nrationing, if there is a general rationing system in place, used for the population at large. Health care rationing As the British Royal Commission on the National Health Service observed in 1979,",
"-26.839780686044833"
],
[
"Refugees and those who feared breaches of their human rights. The roots of the Refugee Legal Centre went back to the Refugee Unit of the UK Immigration Advisory Service, which was founded in 1976 as a legal assistance project for asylum seekers funded by the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees. \nAs well as asylum seekers, RMJ represented unaccompanied children, and women trafficked into the sex industry. Awards In 2005, Refugee and Migrant Justice was given a human rights award from Liberty, Justice and the Law Society for 'consistent and fearless use of the law to protect human",
"-26.79153667576611"
],
[
"residing outside the camps and inflate the number of household members in order to receive more rations. On the other hand there are many refugees without a ration card (card lost or refugee status not given or lost). Many cancelled refugees live in Kakuma and rely on rations of friends/family/ neighbours. Also some refugees have livestock that needs to be fed.\nSince 2015 the WFP has introduced digital cash transfers, i.e. sends 100 KShi in cash per person/ month through a mobile phone to replace part of the food rations (10% of staple cereal like maize, wheat flour, or sorghum). The",
"-26.790321181877516"
],
[
"arrival—the majority of these children—may be placed in foster care, but generally are placed in semi-independent accommodation, i.e. in ‘shared flats or supervised accommodation’.Most unaccompanied asylum-seeking children are supported under Section 20 of the Children Act 1989. Under Section 20, children’s services must financially support young people until the age of 18 regardless of immigration status. The amount of financial support varies according to different local authorities’ policies and placement. Generally speaking, most local authorities have sent returns to the UK Border Agency (now superseded by UK Visas and Immigration) each month informing the agency how many days a separated",
"-26.78160869202111"
],
[
"by professionally trained people. The place provides shelter to unwed mothers and their children, with the maximum period of stay limited to two years. The centre proposes to arm the mothers with earning means within this period through counselling and vocational training.\nAshraya is reported to have rehabilitated 3000 children through legal adoption, 2000 within the country and 1000 outside. It has also faced difficulties due to stringent laws pertaining to adoption of children and has fought with the Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA) in court against the unfriendly practices and inordinate delay in the completion of formalities.\nThe Government of India",
"-26.76561012334423"
],
[
"Asylum Seekers).\nIn 2011, the ASRC is focusing on three campaigns in conjunction with partners such as Amnesty International and Save the Children. Social Enterprise The ASRC runs ASRC Catering, ASSET Cleaning Link, and ASSET Recruitment Services, which together have the intent of empowering asylum seekers through training and employment. The catering and cleaning services employ and train asylum seekers, whilst the recruitment service works to help asylum seekers enter the Australian workforce.\nThe head chef of ASRC catering, launched in 2005, is Cathy Maguire, previously Executive Chef at Soulmama, St Kilda, Melbourne. She was a panel chef in the first season",
"-26.762588805751875"
],
[
"and a reception service for asylum seekers opened in Croydon. The charity was funded to manage the London accommodation center for newly arrived asylum seekers, known as 'Emergency Initial Accommodation'.\nA number of projects were established in the following years including the 'Sunrise' project to help new refugees integrate into life in the UK, a 'Training and Employment' project was launched for refugees in Kent (until 2009) and Migrant Helpline was invited to provide an independent important advice service to foreign national prisoners in Canterbury Prison.\nThe 'European Migrant Advice' service was established in response to the increased call for support from",
"-26.74352783698123"
],
[
"/ godfather of one or more refugees, by given a monthly cooperation to them. Contributors can visit their goddaughters / godsons one or two days per month and receive photos of them. \nToday, the sanctuary has more than 80 animals including pigs, cows, sheep, goats, chickens and ducks. Also, dogs and cats. \nThey have hopes for expansion, possibly to form a sanctuary project in the Los Ríos Region.",
"-26.68039452433004"
],
[
"banking on the newcomers educational backgrounds and skills. \nThe four areas of focus for the program are \"information and orientation; language training and skills development; labour market access; and welcoming communities.\" \nThe IRCC is also funding the Refugee Resettlement Assistance Program by financing individual or family asylum seekers in finding temporary accommodations upon arrival in Canada, and eventually, locating a permanent place to live, supporting the ability to purchase daily basic needs and providing assistance with the development of general life skills. The Government of Canada welcomed 25,000 Syrian Refugees by the end of February 2016 and also partake in",
"-26.678427453385666"
],
[
"within the field of security, focus on disarming and repatriation of the refugees; secondly, within the field of law enforcement.\nThe Socio-Economic Commission was tasked with ten programs: reconciliation, social rehabilitation,\nrepatriation of the refugees, life insurance, physical rehabilitation, normalization of citizen economic activities, social support, development of parenting program, regular evaluation and monitoring, and program developments related to all of these. This program is administered by the Ministry of Social Affairs (Poso Social Service), with the exception of the reconciliation funds being controlled by the Poso Regional Government and the Malino Working Group 1.\nThe amount allocated by the central government to",
"-26.582414687843993"
],
[
"offices in Center Sandholm and roles are clear. Police handle the registration of new asylum seekers, and the Immigration Service is responsible for examining the asylum application. Meanwhile, the Red Cross takes care of a number of basic humanitarian tasks. After months on the run, it is typically a meal, a bath, a comforter and a bed to sleep in.\nApplicants receive basic information about the asylum process in Denmark - and are offered a medical check. Special attention is paid to the most vulnerable, such as asylum seekers with trauma, victims of torture, families with small children or elderly people",
"-26.564166975207627"
],
[
"potential volunteer attorneys. World Refugee Survey The World Refugee Survey is an annual USCRI report presenting information on refugees, internally displaced persons and asylum seekers. The country-by-country analysis is based on information collected from governments, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations and field visits. Each country profiled in the Survey is given a grade. Countries are rated according to refugees' enjoyment of rights under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and are graded on: 1) Refoulement/Physical Protection 2) Freedom of Movement and Residence 3) Detention/Access to Courts 4) Right to Earn a Livelihood and 5) Public",
"-26.532986769627314"
],
[
"inhabitants, such as at Dadaab and Kakuma. Democracy and justice In those camps where elections are held, elected refugee community leaders are the contact point within the community for both community members and aid agencies. They mediate and negotiate to resolve problems and liaise with refugees, UNHCR, and other aid agencies. Refugees are expected to convey their concerns, messages, or reports of crimes, etc. through their community leaders. Therefore, community leaders are considered to be part of the disciplinary machinery and many refugees mistrust them. There are allegations of aid agencies bribing them. Community leaders can decide what a crime",
"-26.530966444901424"
],
[
"allow migrant workers to obtain temporary residency permits, although these permits do not allow them access to the same benefits as possessed by urban residents. However, with living outside the system now much more practical than it used to be, a number of migrant workers don't acquire the temporary residency permits – primarily because they don't have the resources or concrete employment offers to do so – and as such live in danger of being forced to return to the countryside. And in 2014, the central government announced reform that among other things eliminated the division between agricultural",
"-26.518094366736477"
],
[
"refugees at the house and provided hospitality for scientists, former students, and others from around the world.",
"-26.494985456054565"
],
[
"RAPAR Casework RAPAR supports displaced people in a variety of ways, including providing asylum seekers whose application has been rejected by UK Visas and Immigration with the means to develop campaigns against this decision. This may include helping to set up petitions, encouraging advocacy letters to politicians, cultivating press and media interest, providing access to legal assistance and helping to organise protests and demonstrations. More general services include facilitating links to local communities and groups and providing support relating to issues such as education and housing. Research RAPAR develops research projects and learning opportunities relating to displaced people. RAPAR cites",
"-26.458987056073966"
],
[
"Sudan study, 74% of the 304 surveyed Sudanese refugees in the local refugee foster care programs affiliated with the US Unaccompanied Refugee Minors Program reported that they found immigration interviews and processing emotionally difficult.\nWhen the security checks are passed, health assessments and a cultural orientation training follow. The latter should emphasise on the potential challenges for refugees in the receiving country. The cultural orientation trainings do not always happen and they differ in duration and depth. The Gateway Resettlement Programme for example, used to provide two weeks of cultural orientation when it was launched in 2004; however this has shrunk",
"-26.437475753133185"
],
[
"Refugees By the 1990s, residents included refugees from the Kosovo War. Later residents included people who had fled from countries in Africa, Asia, and elsewhere in Europe. Transfer to housing association ownership The position changed dramatically in 2003 when the flats were transferred, after a ballot, to a housing association in the shape of the Glasgow Housing Association Ltd. The practice of transferring housing stock from public to private ownership had initially been launched in the 1970s as a flagship policy promoted by the Conservative Party. At that time, the recipients were individual tenants who opted to buy their homes,",
"-26.406938407424605"
],
[
"63% of U.S. remitters. Many of these migrants have limited education and financial literacy. They typically send monthly remittances averaging $280 directly to their family members, the majority of whom live in rural areas of Guatemala with high levels of poverty. These remittances are primarily used for daily household expenses such as consumption, as well as for education and home improvement. Unskilled labor is the most common employment opportunity for them, with over half of Guatemalan migrants working in areas such as construction. Both senders and receivers of remittances typically have limited access to financial services such as banking or",
"-26.379354380012956"
],
[
"Gateway Protection Programme The Gateway Protection Programme is a scheme operated by the British government in partnership with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and co-funded by the European Union (EU), offering a legal route for a quota of UNHCR-identified refugees to be resettled in the United Kingdom. Following a proposal by the British Home Secretary, David Blunkett, in October 2001, the legal basis was established by the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 and the programme itself launched in March 2004. Since its inception, the programme has enjoyed broad support from the UK's main political parties.\nThe Gateway",
"-26.346902177785523"
],
[
"to provide shelter to referred individuals. However, these motels do not provide the emergency services that most domestic shelters provide, and can also be easily accessible to the women's abusers.\nOther traditional housing offers rent vouchers to help battered women find apartments in different areas in the community. The Housing Voucher Program also known as Section 8, is a subsidized permanent housing program, where women can stay as long as they want where a portion of the rent is paid for, however she needs to pay her portion of the rent. The waiting list to receive a voucher can take weeks",
"-26.339650362788234"
],
[
"refugee family receives a total of $43 per person monthly via a \"food card\" system, which can be spent in the various shops operating in the camp.",
"-26.291117027722066"
],
[
"workers and their families, and for overseas Filipinos in distress. The act specifies, \"Migrant worker refers to a person who is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a state of which he or she is not a legal resident; to be used interchangeably with overseas Filipino worker.\". Regarding deployment of migrant workers, the act mandates, \"The State shall deploy overseas Filipino workers only in countries where the rights of Filipino migrant workers are protected. ...\".\nIn 2010, Republic Act No. 10022 amended some of these provisions, including those quoted above. Among other changes,",
"-26.259123293828452"
],
[
"plan ahead in order to prevent future financial stress. They put money aside and find ways to save money instead of spend it such as learning to fix appliances themselves. Poverty Many Latino families migrate to find better economic opportunities in order to send remittances back home. Being undocumented limits the possibilities of jobs that immigrants undertake and many struggle to find a stable job. Many Latinos report that companies turned them down because they do not have a social security number. If they are able to obtain a job, immigrants risk losing it if their employer finds out they",
"-26.25471975374967"
],
[
"Pickup group A pickup group is a group of professional musicians, which may be session musicians who are hired to play for a limited time period—ranging from a single concert or sound recording session to several weeks of shows—before disbanding. Pickup groups are formed to play in pit orchestras for musical theatre performances, operas, or operettas, accompany jazz singers or instrumental soloists, and act as a temporary backup band for a pop singer for a tour. As well, pickup groups are hired to perform at social events such as weddings or holiday parties. The size of these ensembles ranges from",
"-26.23208079743199"
],
[
"participate, applicants are required to be of Armenian descent and be within a certain age range.\nThe non-profit NGO Repat Armenia, established in August 2012, provides services to assist Diaspora Armenians with their repatriation process. Their mission is to encourage the repatriation of professional and entrepreneurial individuals and families to Armenia to help in the development of the Armenian nation. They also influence government policies, and help to develop a pro-repatriation environment in Armenia.\nAll of these organizations have made efforts to reconnect the Diaspora Armenians with their homeland, in hopes that they will one day repatriate.",
"-26.148988424713025"
],
[
"staff in Nairobi extorted money from refugees for resettlement places. Apart from that, large families are more likely to be considered for resettlement than singles, because resettlement officers have to work through fewer case files per submitted person when referring large families. Also single men, who are likely to receive a more thorough and time consuming security screening from resettlement states, are less likely to be submitted.\nTo be referred for resettlement may involve a tedious game with refugee chairmen, agency personnel or security guards. Chairmen can help making up stories or can ignore real security issues. The refugees themselves may",
"-26.107614307125914"
],
[
"States Interagency Council on Homelessness, which addresses homelessness on the federal level in addition to connecting homeless individuals to resources at the state level. All individuals who are in need of assistance are able, in theory, to access employment and training services under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA), although this is contingent upon funding and program support by the government, with veterans also being able to use the Veterans Workforce Investment Program.\nUnder the Department of Labor, the Veterans' Employment and Training Service (VETS) offers a variety of programs targeted at ending homelessness among veterans. The Homeless Veterans' Reintegration Program (HVRP)",
"-26.10356025362853"
],
[
"be given a bath\". In other cases the children may be removed to another location while the parent is in jail being processed, which generally takes a few hours. \nChildren are held temporarily by the DHS before being transferred to the Department of Health and Human Services' Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR). ORR contracts the operation of around 100 facilities for child migrants to companies and nonprofit organizations. The Flores settlement requires that ORR hold children no longer than 20 days before releasing them.\nChildren are being transferred into foster care placements across the country. The fifty children placed in",
"-26.09178026599693"
],
[
"services created by disaster or conflict, a quick, affordable, and available solution in the form of tents is usually implemented. The aim of refugee shelter is to protect families from outside dangers and create spaces inside to protect their privacy and bring back feelings of security. Tents For the majority of refugee and IDP populations under direct aid via government or humanitarian relief groups, camps of thousands live in small scout-style tents. These emergency shelters consist of unplanned and spontaneously sought locations that are intended only to provide protection from the elements and typically constructed in large open areas. Simple",
"-26.09034823294496"
],
[
"been signed into law.\nThe two main types of housing programs provided for homeless people are transitional and permanent housing. Transitional housing programs are operated with one goal in mind – to help individuals and families obtain permanent housing as quickly as possible. Transitional housing programs assist homeless for a fixed amount of time or until they are able to obtain housing on their own and function successfully in the community, or whichever comes first.\nSome shelters and associated charitable foundations have bought buildings and real estate to develop into permanent housing for the homeless in lieu of transitional Housing.\nThe United States Department",
"-26.07430283149006"
],
[
"adapt to new surroundings around Chicago, Illinois, and Austin, Texas, teaching them English, finance, and social skills. Girls find the organization through referrals or by friends who are involved with the organization. All of the refugees come to America legally with their families through the Office of Refugee Resettlement. Brettschneider travels to the girls' homes to discuss the opportunities the organization has to offer.\nGirlForward is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, while the second location opened in 2016 in Austin, Texas. The organization serves about 200–300 girls a year and has nine people on their staff between the two locations. Both locations",
"-26.043725633848226"
],
[
"for example, would be matched with a community that was not interested in doing that level of organizing or was located in a rural area where little public effort was possible. Volunteers drove refugees to exchange points where they would be transported to their next night's lodging, until they reached their destination. The system was highly decentralized; despite the pre-organization, it was fairly ad hoc; and different groups found varying methods for providing publicity or secrecy as protection.\nOnce the refugees found safe-haven in a Sanctuary community, U.S. congregations, student groups and activists often invited Central Americans to share their",
"-26.007960860733874"
],
[
"be given to migrant workers, laid-off workers, poor people and graduates from universities and colleges in offering works.",
"-25.998419768642634"
],
[
"family backgrounds, and learn the culture of the indigenes in the location they are posted to. This action is aimed at bringing about unity in the country and help the youths appreciate other ethnic groups.\nThere is an \"orientation\" period of approximately three weeks spent in a military controlled \"camp\" away from family and friends. There is also a \"passing out ceremony\" at the end of the three weeks orientation camp after which corp members are posted to their Place of Primary Assignment (PPA). They are expected to work as full time staff at their PPA with exception of one working",
"-25.983783359173685"
],
[
"toiletries, food and clothing to those who do not regularly seek the shelter's services.\nThe Valor House program provides transitional housing and supportive services for up to 17 homeless veterans, both men and women. Residents are able to remain in the program for up to two years while addressing the necessary steps and goals allowing veterans to secure stable, long-term housing. Board of Directors & Staff The Poverello Center consists of a Board of Directors with 13 members of the community. The organization's Executive Director, Eran Fowler-Pehan oversees all three programs. Statistics Since 1982, over 450,000 shelter nights have been provided",
"-25.971680181915872"
],
[
"all programs, and 6) proper coordination among refugee providers and between refugee and mainstream services at the system level. The ORR has also identified a number of areas of improvement in these programs such as need for understanding of employment structure of the community by refugee service agencies, more focus on the difficult to employ, increased creativity in identifying job opportunities and overcoming barriers, creating more appropriate levels of subsidy and training for each position, more understanding of cultural issues that influence program design, etc.\nThe number of refugees resettled to the United States is statutorily limited by an annual ceiling",
"-25.966345786000602"
],
[
"transportation of the migrants to a final destination upon arrival in the U.S., where previously, the smuggler's job solely covered transportation across the border, also incurs additional expenses that the migrant must pay, and increases the likelihood of their being exploited and trafficked by the coyote as forced laborers.\nSmugglers sometimes offer reduced fees to women and children migrants, but then sexually assault or rape them as \"payment\". Human traffickers masquerading as coyotes often use false promises of guaranteed jobs to lure migrants, and will sometimes kidnap women and children along the journey, either for ransom from their families, or to",
"-25.965835108072497"
],
[
"provide housing to one or more migrants employed in agriculture on a seasonal basis are covered by the Migrant Housing Act of North Carolina. People who own housing used by migrants (whether their employees or not) or who make arrangements to use someone else's property to house migrant employees must make sure that the housing meets the standards and that the N.C. Department of Labor is notified prior to the migrants moving in.\nThe law excludes from coverage commercial lodging, such as motels open to the general public, and owner-occupied homes. The law covers any other housing in which migrants live—even",
"-25.950346583267674"
],
[
"facilities, and legal aid information cards.\nOutreach workers may also act as counselors if, through the relationships they build, the youth begin to open up and share their reasons for living on the street. If the youth is a runaway, outreach workers can help the youth communicate with family and return home, if appropriate; if not, an outreach worker can help a young person find a more stable living situation.",
"-25.92768220731523"
]
] |
86kera | What are the benefits of marriage in the U.S.? | [
"I think one of the biggest ones is that your spouse becomes your legal 'next of kin', meaning you can make medical decisions for them, own their property after they die, etc. If you aren't married you are not legally a part of that person's life, so any legal or medical decisions would be up to the parents of that individual. That's why marriage equality was important a few years ago. If someone was with their partner for 15 years and then suddenly dropped dead, their partner had better hope their in-laws liked them or even supported the partnership in the first place. If not, the parents could just take the house and all the money (provided the person didn't have a will). There are probably other benefits, but I think this is one of the big ones.",
"Tax deductions, automatic inheritance, right to visit in prison or in a hospital, medical power of attorney, protection from being forced to testify against your spouse, etc. There are many benefits, and some can be set up independent of marriage, but not all of them.",
"The best thing would have to be inclusion into health insurance. My wife is on mine and she gets to opt out and get a lot more money in her check.",
"There are health benefits, such as lower stress, lower cardiovascular disease risks, and longer lifespan. Legal benefits, such as inheritance rights, health care decision making rights, and spousal immunity. Financial benefits, such as lower insurance rates, possible tax benefits, and shared expenses.",
"One benefit that I don't see mentioned, something more situational: if you're young and going to college, getting married lets you apply for student aid WITHOUT putting your parents on it. This can make a huge difference. The difference between unsubsidized loans and pell grants."
] | [
[
"Effects of marriage Traditional marriage Healthier people in marriages may have a better chance of having a successful marriage. A healthier person may be more appealing to their partner. Married people are generally healthier than unmarried people. It is said that marriage can affect person's health in many ways. For example, having a higher income could improve the health care person receives or lower stress. In certain marriages, a spouse may help in monitoring and encouraging healthy behaviors. As well as discouraging unhealthy habits. Marriage may provide an emotional fulfilling relationship. Which would satisfy the need for a social connection.",
"-28.7574997987831"
],
[
"in the United States, states that \"many same-sex couples want the right to legally marry because they are in love — many, in fact, have spent the last 10, 20 or 50 years with that person — and they want to honor their relationship in the greatest way our society has to offer, by making a public commitment to stand together in good times and bad, through all the joys and challenges family life brings.\"\nJournalist Gail Mathabane likens prohibitions on same-sex marriage to past prohibitions on interracial marriage in the United States. Author Fernando Espuelas argues that same-sex marriage should",
"-27.542995422467357"
],
[
"delay doing so due to unemployment or financial troubles. Furthermore, even couples that are already married may face doubts about the future economic status of themselves or their partners, which can create marital instability. Conversely, strong labor markets (when unemployment is low) may improve the employment situation and financial situation of either partner, which may facilitate marriage and increase economic stability. Thus, when marriage markets are strong and unemployment is low, marriage may be perceived as more attractive to individuals than when marriage markets and weak and unemployment is high. Intersection of class and gender Social class interacts with gender",
"-27.393162527412642"
],
[
"cultivate so they can have greater depth, and views of people within our world\".\nIt has also been claimed that the offspring of interracial marriages have a number of health and well being advantages. United States Interracial marriage in the United States has been fully legal in all U.S. states since the 1967 Supreme Court decision that deemed anti-miscegenation state laws unconstitutional, with many states choosing to legalize interracial marriage at much earlier dates. Anti-miscegenation laws have played a large role in defining racial identity and enforcing the racial hierarchy. The United States has many ethnic and racial groups, and interracial",
"-27.254280885688786"
],
[
"Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States According to the United States Government Accountability Office (GAO), there are 1,138 statutory provisions in which marital status is a factor in determining benefits, rights, and privileges. These rights were a key issue in the debate over federal recognition of same-sex marriage. Under the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), the federal government was prohibited from recognizing same-sex couples who were lawfully married under the laws of their state. The conflict between this definition and the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution led the U.S. Supreme Court",
"-27.05453653575387"
],
[
"of the American people supporting legal recognition for same-sex marriage.\nA separate study shows that, in the United States, the younger generation is more supportive of gay rights than average, and that there is growing support for LBGT rights. In 2011, for the first time, a majority of Americans supported the legalization of same-sex marriage. In 2012, President Barack Obama voiced support for gay marriage, and in the November elections, three states voted to legalize gay marriage at the ballot box for the first time in history while an attempt to restrict same-sex marriage was rejected. In 2016, 55% of U.S.",
"-27.018608075624797"
],
[
"partners and family similar to how a heterosexual male or female comes home to their families. However, these homosexual families are faced with ridicule by a majority of society. Children who are raised in a gay-marriage family are often faced with tougher social challenges because they are not in a more traditional family unit. Although most Americans now support same-sex marriage and \"60% of Fortune 500 companies [now] offer domestic partnership benefits\", the federal government still denies these couples \"1,138 federal benefits\".",
"-26.891170123184565"
],
[
"resources and social support. Findings also indicate that the mental health benefit of marriage for women is primarily driven by the fact that married women tend to be physically healthier than cohabiting and unpartnered women. There may be a selection effect whereby healthy women are more likely to remarry, and subsequently, based on their greater physical health, experience less depression. On the other hand, even when controlling for economic resources, social support, and health, married men experience fewer depressive symptoms compared to cohabiting or unpartnered men. This is likely because depression symptoms in married men are so low. Physical health",
"-26.780336443916894"
],
[
"states – and not every American had to be persuaded to support the freedom to marry, but enough Americans needed to be supportive before elected officials and judges, including the justices of the Supreme Court, would do the right thing.\nOver two decades, the marriage movement built from only 27% support among the American people in 1993 to 63% in 2015; and from 0 states issuing marriage licenses in 2002 to 37 states and the District of Columbia in 2015, when the victories created the powerful momentum and energy that enabled the Supreme Court Justices to finish the job and strike",
"-26.70963756722631"
],
[
"0.6 percent of adults would enter into same-sex marriages if they had the opportunity\" (an assumption in which they admitted \"significant uncertainty\") estimated that legalizing same-sex marriage throughout the United States \"would improve the budget's bottom line to a small extent: by less than $1 billion in each of the next 10 years\". This result reflects an increase in net government revenues (increased income taxes due to marriage penalties more than offsetting decreased tax revenues arising from postponed estate taxes). Marriage recognition would increase the government expenses for Social Security and Federal Employee Health Benefits but that increase would be",
"-26.6818536366045"
],
[
"marriage, at a certain point I've just concluded that for me personally it is important for me to go ahead and affirm that I think same sex couples should be able to get married.\nOn March 1, 2013, Obama, speaking about Hollingsworth v. Perry, the U.S. Supreme Court case about Proposition 8, he said:\nWhen the Supreme Court asks do you think that the California law, which doesn't provide any rationale for discriminating against same-sex couples other than just the notion that, well, they're same-sex couples -- if the Supreme Court asks me or my attorney general or solicitor general, 'Do we",
"-26.637853767257184"
],
[
"rights, and this may have fuelled the subsequent increase in the number of couples living together and having children together outside marriage. United States In the United States, common-law marriage can be contracted in seven states and the District of Columbia. Once they meet the requirements of common-law marriage, couples in those true common-law marriages are considered legally married for all purposes and in all circumstances.\nCommon-law marriage can still be contracted in Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, Rhode Island, Texas, Utah, and the District of Columbia. Common law marriage may also be valid under military law for purposes of a bigamy",
"-26.582857101064292"
],
[
"of federal areas ranging from veteran benefits to immigration were clarified as applying equally to same-sex couples. Marriage The movement to obtain civil marriage rights and benefits for same-sex couples in the United States began in the 1970s but remained unsuccessful for over forty years. On May 17, 2004, Massachusetts became the first U.S. state and the sixth jurisdiction in the world to legalize same-sex marriage following the Supreme Judicial Court's decision six months earlier. Before nationwide legalization same-sex marriage became legal in 37 states; 25 states by court order, 10 by legislative action, and 3 by referendum. Some states",
"-26.540517940346035"
],
[
"countries, young women are pressured to marry for different reasons. One reason is to bear children to help with work, another on a dowry system to increase the families income, another is due to prearranged marriages. These reasons tie back to financial needs of girls' family, cultural norms, religious beliefs and external conflicts.\nAdolescent pregnancy, especially in developing countries, carries increased health risks, and contributes to maintaining the cycle of poverty. The availability and type of sex education for teenagers varies in different parts of the world. LGBT teens may suffer additional problems if they live in places where homosexual activity",
"-26.488973341154633"
],
[
"the argument that legalizing same-sex marriage would benefit the local economy: \"We don't want to balance our books by bringing the sex industry – whether it is same sex or not – to the Virgin Islands\",",
"-26.3662582160905"
],
[
"marriage has increased in recent years. The median age in the early 1970s was 23 for men and 21 for women; and it rose to 28 for men and 26 for women by 2009 and by 2017, it was 29.5 for men and 27.4 for women.\nMarriages vary considerably in terms of religion, socioeconomic status, age, commitment, and so forth. Reasons for marrying may include a desire to have children, love, or economic security. Marriage has been a means in some instances to acquire citizenship by getting a green card; the Immigration Marriage Fraud Amendments of 1986 established laws to punish",
"-26.337050654634368"
],
[
"already have a number of positive indicators of future wellbeing in terms of wealth and education are more likely to get married. \"The distinction between correlation and causation cuts to the heart of the debate about marriage. The evidence is unequivocal; children raised by married couples are healthier, do better at school, commit fewer crimes, go further in education, report higher levels of wellbeing. It is easy for politicians to deduce - and assert - that married couples, therefore, produce superior children. But the children do not necessarily do better because their parents are married and there is actually very",
"-26.331882729144127"
],
[
"country were married at that point in time.\nAccording to Gallup, the percent of cohabiting same-sex couples who are married rose from 38% in 2015 to 49% in 2016 and to 61% in 2017. Case law United States federal and state case law regarding same-sex marriage: Public opinion Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States has shifted rapidly since polling of the American people regarding the issue first began on an occasional basis in the 1980s and a regular basis in the 1990s, with support having consistently risen while opposition has continually fallen. National support rose above 50% for",
"-26.290208920589066"
],
[
"marriage by the federal government; areas affected include Social Security benefits, veterans' benefits, health insurance, Medicaid, hospital visitation, estate taxes, retirement savings, pensions, family leave, and immigration law.\nThe federal Defense of Marriage Act in 1996, prompted by fears of an adverse result in Hawaii's lawsuit Baehr v. Miike, defined a marriage explicitly as a union of one man and one woman for the purposes of all federal laws (See 1 U.S.C. § 7), which was ultimately ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in United States v. Windsor on June 26, 2013. As a result, shortly after Windsor was decided, a number",
"-26.210994030276197"
],
[
"having Church weddings whereas most other nations on that continent insist on civil registrations leaving it up to the couple if they choose to have a religious ceremony as well.\nThe 1984 English Anglican booklet Forward to Marriage showed a tolerance of premarital sex but strongly endorsed marriage as \"a necessary commitment for a long-term relationship\".\nIn 1987, the American Bishop John Shelby Spong's Newark Diocese had commissioned a report that concluded that the \"Episcopal Church should recognize and bless committed non-marital sexual relationships between homosexuals, young adults, the divorced and widowed...\" The report aimed \"to ignite a new debate on sexual",
"-26.176404289581114"
],
[
"to allow same sex marriages to occur such as Canada and Spain (2005). A United States Supreme Court ruling mandated that same sex marriage is constitutional and therefore allowed in all 50 states in the United States (2015). Child-rearing by same-sex couples Children of same-sex couples either come from past relationships or through other opportunities like adoption or artificial insemination. From the data collected in the 2000 U.S. Census, it was suggested that more than 250,000 children in the United States were being raised by lesbian and gay couples. In the 2010 U.S. Census, it was reported that 20% of",
"-26.143436253536493"
],
[
"state to abridge marriage on the basis of sex. From 2004 through to 2015, as the tide of public opinion continued to move towards support of same-sex marriage, various state court rulings, state legislation, direct popular votes (referendums and initiatives), and federal court rulings established same-sex marriage in thirty-six of the fifty states.\nThe first two decades of the 21st century saw same-sex marriage receive support from prominent figures in the civil rights movement, including Coretta Scott King, John Lewis, Julian Bond, and Mildred Loving. In May 2011, national public support for same-sex marriage rose above 50% for the first time.",
"-26.12050141840882"
],
[
"same-sex couples from the designation of marriage clearly is not necessary in order to afford full protection to all of the rights and benefits that currently are enjoyed by married opposite-sex couples.\n[T]he right to marry is not properly viewed simply as a benefit or privilege that a government may establish or abolish as it sees fit, but rather that the right constitutes a basic civil or human right of all people.\"\nIn the concurrence and dissent of Justice Baxter:\nNothing in our Constitution, express or implicit, compels the majority's startling conclusion that the age-old understanding of marriage—an understanding recently confirmed by an",
"-26.11033260419208"
],
[
"now believe them to be immature and provide for their education, should have the stresses, responsibilities and sexual freedom of marriage and the physical strain of childbirth. Child marriages by common consent are bad for the participants and bad for the institution of marriage.\nThe Justice of the Peace and Local Government Review said that \"Acts of Parliament that lay down hard and fast rules interfering with individual liberty are certain to give rise to some unsatisfactory results\" and that this particular Act was \"no exception\".",
"-26.104566830283147"
],
[
"little evidence that marriage alone, in the absence of anything else, benefits children.\" – Penny Mansfield Why the marriage divide? As noted by W. Bradford Wilcox and Wendy Wang,\nA series of interlocking economic, policy, civic, and cultural changes since the 1960s in America combined to create a perfect family storm for poor and working-class Americans.12 On the economic front, the move to a postindustrial economy in the 1970s made it more difficult for poor and working-class men to find and hold stable, decent-paying jobs.13 See, for example, the increase in unemployment for less-educated but not college-educated men depicted in Figure",
"-26.102076295472216"
],
[
"healthy marriage among interested couples, including poor and minority couples who have had babies outside marriage. Careful evaluations of these programs should identify which are most effective.\n\"A marriage movement is underway, as efforts to promote marriage, strengthen two-parent families and reduce divorce gain momentum around the country. And yet, no one can say with certainty how the government should effectively put marriage education and promotion programs into place, or if those programs will achieve their desired goals.\"\n\"Some states are poised to develop and provide programs to support healthy marriages, as called for by the Bush administration.... If political support",
"-26.096464676840696"
],
[
"with romance. However, a recent survey of U.S. undergraduates and older adults found that feminism actually has a positive impact on relationship health for women and sexual satisfaction for men, and found no support for negative stereotypes of feminists.\nVirginia Satir said the need for relationship education emerged from shifting gender roles as women gained greater rights and freedoms during the 20th century:\n\"As we moved into the 20th century, we arrived with a very clearly prescribed way that males and females in marriage were to behave with one another ... The pattern of the relationship between husband and wife was that of",
"-26.06232346536126"
],
[
"married state: \"She has need of a strong Reason, of a truly Christian and well-temper'd Spirit, of all the Assistance the best Education can give her, and ought to have some good assurance of her own Firmness and Vertue, who ventures on such a Trial\".\nAstell warns that disparity in intelligence, character, and fortune may lead to misery, and recommends that marriage be based on lasting friendship rather than short-lived attraction. A woman should look for \"a good Understanding, a Vertuous Mind, and in all other respects let there be as much equality as may be.\" Astell expanded on this theme",
"-26.054871231332072"
],
[
"Men encourage marital instability among their own sisters and nieces while urging marital stability within their own households. Even though the couple's attitudes are taken into consideration, marriage is seen as a competition for alliance, and it is the relatives of a couple who determine marriage. It is this intense competition that provides the broad economic, social, and political security go necessary and so important.\nThe most important role for men is as husband and brother and they rarely favor divorce, even when the wife is difficult, in contrast many women press for divorce or use it as a threat. The",
"-26.029428802008624"
],
[
"Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States has shifted rapidly since the 2000s, with support constantly rising while opposition has consistently fallen. National support for the legal recognition of same-sex marriage rose above 50% for the first time in 2011, and approached 70% by the late 2010s. \nFrom 1988 to 2009, support for same-sex marriage increased between 1% and 1.5% per year and accelerated thereafter. As of 2016, 83% of Americans aged 18–29 support the right to enter a same-sex marriage. As of 2017, there is majority support for",
"-26.006940795399714"
],
[
"Same-sex unions in the United States Federal law The legal issues surrounding same-sex marriage in the United States are complicated by the nation's federal system of government. Traditionally, the federal government does not attempt to establish its own definition of marriage. Instead, any marriage recognized by a state was recognized by the federal government, even if that marriage was not recognized by one or more other states (as was the case with interracial marriage before 1967 due to anti-miscegenation laws). According to the federal Government Accountability Office (GAO), more than 1,138 rights and protections are conferred to U.S. citizens upon",
"-25.995216716924915"
],
[
"partnership based on one of the oldest types of contractual relationships? \nIn 2009, author and journalist Naomi Wolf wrote about getting the state out of marriage in The Times:\nLet's also get the state out of the marriage union. In spite of the dress and the flowers, marriage is a business contract. Women, generally, don't understand this, until it hits them over the head upon divorce. Let's take a lead from our gay and lesbian friends, who, without state marriage, often create domestic partnerships with financial autonomy and unity spelt out. A heterosexual parallel: celebrate marriage with a religious or emotional",
"-25.96883739135228"
],
[
"been shown that variation in sex ratio over time is inversely related to married women's labor supply in the U.S.\nAn additional problem is that many of these men are of low socioeconomic class with limited education. When there is a shortage of women in the marriage market, the women can \"marry up\", inevitably leaving the least desirable men with no marriage prospects. In many communities today, there are growing numbers of young men who come from lower classes who are marginalized because of lack of family prospects and the fact that they have little outlet for sexual energy. There is",
"-25.960928272776073"
],
[
"of the same sex to get married. Rather, these citizens now have the ability to organize their lives according to marital and familial norms and demands. There is no threat to the institution of marriage, but precisely the opposite: this law recognizes and values marriage.\nAware that some people and institutions profoundly disagree with this legal change, I wish to say that like other reforms to the marriage code that preceded this one, this law will not generate bad results, that its only consequence will be to avoid senseless suffering of human beings. A society that avoids senseless suffering of its",
"-25.94439158228488"
],
[
"are unmarried, those who are cohabitating, and those who are single – most of whom\nwill be heterosexual, some of whom will be gay, and some of whom will be lesbian. Further, the\nliterature (including the literature on which opponents to marriage of same-sex couples appear to\nrely) indicates that parents’ financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by\nmarriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally-recognized\nunion. As the CPA stated in 2003, the stressors encountered by gay and lesbian parents and their\nchildren are more likely the result of the way in which society treats them than because",
"-25.84831635368755"
],
[
"ministers, and a number of gay, bisexual, and lesbian ministers have, themselves, now become legally married to their partners. In May 2004, Arlington Street Church, in Boston, Massachusetts, was the site of the first state-sanctioned same-sex marriage in the United States. The official stance of the UUA is for the legalization of same-sex marriage—\"Standing on the Side of Love\". In 2004 UU minister Debra Haffner of The Religious Institute on Sexual Morality, Justice, and Healing published An Open Letter on Religious Leaders on Marriage Equality to affirm same-sex marriage from a multi-faith perspective. In December 2009, Washington, D.C. Mayor Adrian",
"-25.846873960574158"
],
[
"them and their adopted children the benefits and security of marriage. The justices questioned whether the state's position constituted gender discrimination and whether modern science was undermining the idea that only male-female couples could procreate. The state nevertheless maintained that this was a question of social policy within the purview of the legislature in \"furthering the link between procreation and child rearing.\". When a justice asked if the state saw marriage as a fundamental right, the attorney for the state answered \"Yes, but it's a fundamental right between a man and a woman.\" Opinion of the Court On December 20,",
"-25.813222549593775"
],
[
"relationship is recognized and supported by society's institutions, e.g. civil marriage. For example, the Canadian Psychological Association stated in 2006 that \"parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally-recognized union.\" The CPA has stated that the stress encountered by gay and lesbian parents and their children are more likely the result of the way society treats them than because of any deficiencies in fitness to parent.\nThe American Academy of Pediatrics concluded in 2006, in an analysis published in the journal Pediatrics:\nThere is ample evidence to",
"-25.79810609316337"
],
[
"Marriage promotion United States politics Marriage promotion includes laws, budget allocations, administrative regulations, think-tank recommendations, and operating programs that work in the favor of married people while disfavoring unmarried people. Heterosexual couples are told to enter and stay in government-certified marriages in order to be economically successfully and responsible citizens. This concept more or less coincides with the concept of a covenant marriage. Same-sex marriage and cohabitation are ignored by all marriage promotion programs due to moral reasons. This promotion has its roots in the roots in the 1996 Welfare Reform Act. This legislation permitted American states to deny assistance",
"-25.790400574929663"
],
[
"of any marriage) but it will be difficult for the parties to justify their failure to comply with the local laws that unambiguously would have created a valid marriage. Common law In some states, the legal acceptability of common law marriage is very limited. Some couples, whether because there are no local formalities relevant to them or because they have strongly held prejudices against compliance with the local forms, decide to create a marriage either by a simple public exchange of vows (per verbis inter praesentes), or by habit and repute. Because the need for conformity between states requires respect",
"-25.788276992563624"
],
[
"inheritance tax, pensions and property – is likely to attract many more couples.\nThere will still be large legal differences between civil partnership and marriage. For example, a couple can get married and have all the legal rights and benefits after knowing each other for only a few days, but a same-sex couple will almost certainly be required to show a lengthy commitment to each other before they are allowed to register their partnership. Currently, for immigration purposes, a same-sex couple must show they have a relationship of two years' standing, and it is likely that a similar term will be",
"-25.782470775651745"
],
[
"to legalize same-sex marriage by statute.\nWhen the Supreme Court took up the issue in 2015, Sanders issued a statement reaffirming his support, saying gay Americans in every state should be allowed to marry: \"Of course all citizens deserve equal rights. It's time for the Supreme Court to catch up to the American people and legalize gay marriage.\"\nIn May 2017, Sanders was one of forty-six senators to introduce the Equality Act of 2017, described by Representative David Cicilline as ensuring \"that every LGBT person can live their lives free from the fear of discrimination. Above all, it’s about honoring the values",
"-25.763884477782995"
],
[
"the marriage licensing law. Recognizing the right of an individual to marry a person of the same sex will not diminish the validity or dignity of opposite-sex marriage, any more than recognizing the right of an individual to marry a person of a different race devalues the marriage of a person who marries someone of her own race. If anything, extending civil marriage to same-sex couples reinforces the importance of marriage to individuals and communities. That same-sex couples are willing to embrace marriage's solemn obligations of exclusivity, mutual support, and commitment to one another is a testament to the enduring",
"-25.76191321265651"
],
[
"because it included the suggestion that some government officials were homosexual. The group's president, New Vision Ministries Pastor James Petty of St. Thomas, said: \"We do not wish to be America's same-sex paradise\". Pastor Lennox Zamore said that he rejected the argument that legalizing same-sex marriage would benefit the local economy: \"We don't want to balance our books by bringing the sex industry – whether it is same sex or not – to the Virgin Islands\", Same-sex marriage The decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in Obergefell v. Hodges on June 26, 2015, that invalidated bans on same-sex marriage, was",
"-25.72446494840551"
],
[
"30, 2009 ABC News/Washington Post poll found support for allowing same-sex couples to marry in the United States ahead of opposition for the first time: 49% support, 46% opposition, and 5% with no opinion. In addition, 53% believed that same-sex marriages performed in other states should be legal in their states. 62% of Democrats and 52% of Independents supported same-sex marriage, while 74% of Republicans opposed.\nAn April 22–26, 2009, poll by CBS/New York Times found 42% supported marriage for same-sex couples, 25% supported civil unions, and 28% opposed any legal recognition of same-sex couples. 5% of respondents were unsure.\nNate Silver",
"-25.69769953226205"
],
[
"that men with low education are slowly selected out of the marriage market, instead remaining single. The driving force behind this process is that a marriage in which both partners or only the husband have low education end with divorce at a substantially higher rate than marriages where both partners or the husband do not have low education. Young women with medium education levels tend to have the highest rates of marriage. Highly educated men tend to marry highly educated women. Moreover, men and women who have attained high levels of education delay marriage past the age when other individuals",
"-25.668574888302828"
],
[
"legalize same-sex marriage. She responded:\nWell, I think it's great that Americans are able to choose one way or the other. We live in a land where you can choose same-sex marriage or opposite marriage. And, you know what, in my country, in my family, I think that, I believe that marriage should be between a man and a woman, no offense to anybody out there. But that’s how I was raised and I believe that it should be between a man and a woman.\nThe media attention intensified after Hilton added a video blog post to his website, and made comments",
"-25.62891550376662"
],
[
"resolve most of the issues for same-sex and cohabiting couples, while providing less benefits than marriage. Offering civil marriage to same-sex couples would be open to constitutional challenge. They also recommended a legal presumption of partnership for couples which have lived together for three years, or have children together. No recommendations were made for couples in non-conjugal relationships due to lack of research. The cabinet reviewed the report, but no legislation was introduced before the 2007 general election, and in the intervening period the Government rejected opposition legislation, saying that legislation should await the Supreme Court appeal in Zappone v.",
"-25.626603411554242"
],
[
"same-sex marriage have been proposed, are pending, or have passed at least one legislative house in Chile, the Czech Republic, Mexico, Nepal, and Switzerland as well as in the legislatures of several sub-national jurisdictions (Curaçao and most states of Mexico).\nOther countries, including the majority of European nations, Chile, and Ecuador, have enacted laws allowing civil unions or domestic partnerships, designed to give gay couples similar rights as married couples concerning legal issues such as inheritance and immigration.\nSame-sex couples can legally marry in all US states and receive both state-level and federal benefits. Also, several states offer civil unions or domestic",
"-25.613260636193445"
],
[
"poor but also working-class Americans face rising rates of family instability, single parenthood, and lifelong singleness.\" Politics and marriage As part of the marriage gap, unmarried people are \"considerably more liberal\" than married people. With little variation between professed moderates, married people respond to be conservative 9 percent more, and single people respond to be liberal 10 percent more.\nMarried people tend to hold political opinions that differ from those of people who have never married. Party affiliation in the United States In the U.S., being a married woman is correlated with a higher level of support for the Republican",
"-25.60262961802073"
],
[
"Card if married to an American citizen or permanent resident. Another reason for a \"marriage of convenience\" is the lavender marriage, which conceals the homosexual or bisexual orientation of one or both spouses.\nHabituation can be an important factor as well. Frequency of intercourse tends to diminish over time, especially after 1–2 years of marriage. Sex takes place with the same person all the time in the same way. Novelty and interest can be lost, and routine may dominate.",
"-25.565717910940293"
],
[
"less likely to marry, either because they “waited too long” or because the college experience which broadened their minds deluded them into believing “marriage should be between equals.” Others argued college made women better wives and mothers because it “imparted practical skills.”\nIn addition, the 1930s marked great economic hardship in the United States with the start of the Great Depression. At this point in history, a college major was expected to be a practical one. As difficult financial times neared, needing to justify college expenses became very real for women and their families. A study in 1924 that surveyed nearly",
"-25.550656718900427"
],
[
"for the first time endorsed a Federal Marriage Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would define marriage as the union of a man and a woman but allow the states the option of creating other legal arrangements for same-sex couples. Same-sex marriage took on national importance as public officials in several jurisdictions allowed more than 7,000 same-sex couples to wed, including San Francisco (February 12-March 11); Sandoval County, New Mexico (February 20); New Paltz, New York (February 27); Multnomah County, Oregon (March 3); and Asbury Park, New Jersey (March 8).\nThe legislature took no action either to implement Goodridge or block",
"-25.54887055658037"
],
[
"some couples married under the laws of their State, but not other couples, of both rights and responsibilities. By creating two contradictory marriage regimes within the same State, DOMA forces same-sex couples to live as married for the purpose of state law but unmarried for the purpose of federal law, thus diminishing the stability and predictability of basic personal relations the State has found it proper to acknowledge and protect. By this dynamic DOMA undermines both the public and private significance of state-sanctioned same-sex marriages; for it tells those couples, and all the world, that their otherwise valid marriages are",
"-25.543588887609076"
],
[
"aged 18–50 supported same-sex marriage.\nA Washington Post/ABC News poll from February–March 2014 found that a record high of 59% of Americans approved of same-sex marriage, with only 34% opposed and 7% with no opinion. The poll also revealed that 53% of the population in the states that did not allow same-sex couples to marry at the time approved of same-sex marriage. 50% of respondents agreed that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the freedom to marry regardless of sex or sexual orientation, while 41% disagreed, and 9% had no opinion. The same",
"-25.538001185224857"
],
[
"now become legally married to their partners. In May 2004, Arlington Street Church, Boston was the site of the first state-sanctioned same-sex marriage in the United States. The official stance of the UUA is for the legalization of same-sex marriage—\"Standing on the Side of Love.\" In 2004 UU Minister Rev. Debra Haffner of The Religious Institute on Sexual Morality, Justice, and Healing published An Open Letter on Religious Leaders on Marriage Equality to affirm same-sex marriage from a multi-faith perspective. Humanism Humanism is a non-religious, non-theistic approach to life that supports full equality for LGBTQ individuals, including the right to",
"-25.532791268604342"
],
[
"in other states. Federal law According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) in 2004, more than 1,138 federal rights and protections are conferred to U.S. citizens upon marriage; areas affected include Social Security benefits, veterans' benefits, health insurance, Medicaid, hospital visitation, estate taxes, retirement savings, pensions, family leave, and immigration law.\nSince July 9, 2015, married same-sex couples throughout the United States have had equal access to all the federal benefits that married opposite-sex couples have.\n\n \n\nThe Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was enacted in 1996. DOMA's Section 2 says that no state needs to recognize the legal validity of a",
"-25.52635593788"
],
[
"more socially acceptable, young women, especially poor young women, while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s, now see less of a reason to get married before having a child. Her explanation for this is that the economic prospects for poor men are slim, hence poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will be able to provide reliable financial support due to the rise of unemployment from more workers on the market, from just men to women and men.\nSome studies have suggested that both men and women perceive feminism as being incompatible",
"-25.52475368463638"
],
[
"(45), gun and locksmith (33), hunter and trapper (2). There were five lawyers, 24 dentists, and 2,000 doctors. Marriage ages Marriage ages of women can be used as an indicator of the position of women in society. Women's age at marriage could influence economic development, partly because women marrying at higher ages had more opportunities to acquire human capital.\nOn average, across the world, marriage ages of women have been rising. However, countries such as Mexico, China, Egypt, and Russia have shown a smaller increase in this measure of female empowerment than, for example, Japan. Sex and reproduction In the",
"-25.523064057400916"
],
[
"noted that the discrepancy in support for same-sex marriage appeared to result from 5-10% of respondents who favored civil unions over same-sex marriage, but given only two choices, would support same-sex marriage.\nA LifeWay Research poll conducted in August 2009 found that 61% of Americans born between 1980 and 1991 saw nothing wrong with two people of the same gender getting married, while 39% disagreed. The survey was conducted on a demographically representative survey of 1,200 U.S. adults between 18 and 29 years old.\nIn a poll, conducted on July 17, 2008, by the Quinnipiac University Polling Institute, 55 percent opposed same-sex",
"-25.50342925953737"
],
[
"a new partnership will lead to better results.\nAccording to data analyzed by USA Today in 2013, remarriage rates in the United States have dropped by 40 percent over the last 20 years.\nNumerous religions and sects forbid, or formerly forbade, remarriage after divorce. Some still do, although in many countries the percentage of the populace that adhere to them has been shrinking for more than half a century. Old-fashioned terms for second marriage that date to the earlier era of more widespread censure include deuterogamy and digamy, but the terms second marriage or remarriage are more readily understood. Factors influencing likelihood",
"-25.478882137773326"
],
[
"Supporting Healthy Marriage Project Rationale When the program was launched, Heritage Foundation explained: \"The erosion of marriage during the past four decades has had large-scale negative effects on both children and adults: It lies at the heart of many of the social problems with which the government currently grapples. The beneficial effects of marriage on individuals and society are beyond reasonable dispute, and there is a broad and growing consensus that government policy should promote rather than discourage healthy marriage. In response to these trends, President George W. Bush has proposed--as part of welfare reform reauthorization--the creation of a pilot",
"-25.47743090498261"
],
[
"institution of marriage, an institution which the State not only must allow, but which always and in every age it has fostered and protected. It is one thing when the State exerts its power either to forbid extramarital sexuality altogether, or to say who may marry, but it is quite another when, having acknowledged a marriage and the intimacies inherent in it, it undertakes to regulate by means of the criminal law the details of that intimacy. Impact Justice Harlan's general view has had enormous influence on the modern Supreme Court; Justice David Souter endorsed the general reasoning behind Justice",
"-25.476673592755105"
],
[
"state should follow suit? Why or why not?\nPrejean responded:\nWell I think it's great that Americans are able to choose one way or the other. We live in a land where you can choose same-sex marriage or opposite marriage. You know what, in my country, in my family, I think I believe that marriage should be between a man and a woman, no offense to anybody out there. But that's how I was raised and I believe that it should be between a man and a woman. Impact on the competition After the pageant, Perez Hilton published derogatory",
"-25.46818271675147"
],
[
"that wives are agnatic as well as affinal relatives. In fact cousin marriage in general can be seen as trading off one socially valuable outcome, namely marital alliances with outsiders and the resulting integration of society, with the alternative outcome of greater group solidarity. But for demographic reasons the ideal of in-marriage can never be fully realized and hence societies allowing it can always draw on the advantageous aspects of both in- and out-marriage.\nClose agnatic marriage has also been seen as a result of the conceptualization of men as responsible for the control of the conduct of women. Both this",
"-25.43573378675501"
],
[
"'The historic Christian tradition and the Lutheran Confessions have recognized marriage as a covenant between a man and a woman.' Nonetheless, the statement continues, \"Recognizing that this conclusion differs from the historic Christian tradition and the Lutheran Confessions, some people, though not all, in this church and within the larger Christian community, conclude that marriage is also the appropriate term to use in describing similar benefits, protection, and support for same-gender couples entering into lifelong, monogamous relationships. They believe that such accountable relationships also provide the necessary foundation that supports trust and familial and community thriving.\"\nRecognizing the lack of consensus",
"-25.425762653932907"
],
[
"Supreme Court on January 18, 2011, rejected Jackson's appeal without comment. Economic impact A UCLA study concluded that extending marriage to same-sex couples would boost the District of Columbia's economy by over $52.2 million over three years, which would generate increases in local government tax and fee revenues by $5.4 million and create approximately 700 new jobs. Same-sex weddings are fast becoming a significant part of the wedding industry. Many wedding vendors are open to serving same-sex couples, but most do not advertise as such on their public websites. Select vendors in the DC area have come out enthusiastically in support of",
"-25.417756140988786"
],
[
"food stamps, public assistance or disability payments.\nSociologists believe that the rise in the number of older Americans who are not married is a result of factors such as longevity and economics. Women, especially, are becoming more and more financially independent which allows them to feel more secure with being alone, in addition to changing perceptions of being divorced or single. This has resulted in less pressure for baby boomers to marry or stay married. Japan In Japan, divorces were on a generally upward trend from the 1960s until 2002 when they hit a peak of 290,000. Since then, both the",
"-25.41087664454244"
],
[
"couples. By denying same-sex couples the right to marry, the state reinforces and perpetuates the stigma historically associated with homosexuality. Homosexuality remains stigmatized, and this stigma has negative consequences. California's prohibition on marriage for same-sex couples reflects and reinforces this stigma\". They concluded: \"There is no scientific basis for distinguishing between same-sex couples and heterosexual couples with respect to the legal rights, obligations, benefits, and burdens conferred by civil marriage.\" Military service Policies and attitudes toward gay and lesbian military personnel vary widely around the world. Some countries allow gay men, lesbians, and bisexual people to serve openly and have",
"-25.40926455135741"
],
[
"lesbian couples could not be denied the right to marry because of the Equal Protection Clause of the state constitution. This decision made Connecticut the third state (along with Massachusetts and California) to legalize same-sex marriage through judicial decree of the state supreme court. The majority opinion was written by Justice Richard N. Palmer, and joined by Justices Norcott, Joette Katz, and Judge Lubbie Harper Jr.; Justices Peter T. Zarella, Christine S. Vertefeuille, and David Borden dissented.\nMost recently, Justice Norcott wrote the Court's opinion in Bysiewicz v. DiNardo, holding that Secretary of State Susan Bysiewicz did not fulfill the statutory",
"-25.406737773213536"
],
[
"April 2013, a bill was introduced to legalize same-sex marriage while eliminating civil unions and converting them to marriages by July 2014 if not dissolved earlier. W. Francis Malooly, Roman Catholic Bishop of Wilmington, wrote a letter to legislators on April 15 that said that marriage is not \"just about love and commitment between two people\" as many think but \"it is also about the unique expression of love that only and man and woman as husband and wife can give to each other\", that marriage is not a \"label\" but a \"communion\" that \"is impossible without the sexual difference\".",
"-25.395685444382252"
],
[
"Same-sex marriage in the United States History The history of same-sex marriage in the United States dates from the early 1970s, when the first lawsuits seeking legal recognition of same-sex relationships brought the question of civil marriage rights and benefits for same-sex couples to public attention, though they proved unsuccessful. The subject became increasingly prominent in U.S. politics following the 1993 Hawaii Supreme Court decision in Baehr v. Miike that suggested the possibility that the state's prohibition might be unconstitutional. That decision was met by actions at both the federal and state level to restrict marriage to male-female couples, notably",
"-25.392748455837136"
],
[
"our society: \"possible threats to freedom of speech and religious liberty.\" The conference made a point to \"effectively argue for the benefits of traditional marriage to their friends, co-workers and legislators,\" and says that gay marriage is not in the best interest of families and children. The organization stated that same-sex marriage places adult desires above the best interest of our children, \"same-sex marriage intentionally creates motherless or fatherless families.\" Conferences Love Won Out held conferences multiple times a year throughout the United States; as of October 2008, 52 conferences had been held. The conferences said they \"exist to help",
"-25.373306963476352"
],
[
"September 17, 2013. Economic effects In 2006, a study by the Williams Institute at the UCLA School of Law concluded that allowing same-sex couples to marry would have a positive effect on New Mexico's state budget. Allowing same-sex couples to marry would result in a net gain of approximately $1.5 million to $2 million each year for the state. This net impact will be the result of savings in expenditures on state means-tested public benefit programs and an increase in sales and lodging tax revenue from weddings and wedding-related tourism. Public opinion A June 2011 Public Policy Polling survey found",
"-25.367243052402046"
],
[
"pledged its support for gay rights and same-sex marriage, stating that they \"support marriage equality consistent with equal protection under the law provided under the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution\", and has declared that same-sex marriage is a civil right.\nThe Human Rights Campaign, the largest LGBT rights organization in the United States, states that \"many same-sex couples want the right to legally marry because they are in love—many, in fact, have spent the last 10, 20 or 50 years with that person—and they want to honor their relationship in the greatest way our society has to offer, by",
"-25.364679729216732"
],
[
"same-sex marriage in 44 states, plurality support in 4 states, plurality opposition in 1 state, and majority opposition in 1 state.\nThe 2018 General Social Survey found skyrocketing support for same-sex marriage among the American population, with only 22% now opposing it. Overview Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States has changed radically since polling of the American people regarding the issue were first conducted in 1988. The issue of same-sex marriage was not brought up as an issue for public debate until at least the 1950s and wasn't a political issue until the 1970s. According to statistician Nate",
"-25.35925165307708"
],
[
"said that a popular referendum remained the proper way to resolve the issue.\nWhen Representative Mark Larson, on behalf of 59 co-sponsors, introduced a bill to legalize same-sex marriage on February 6, 2009, Governor James Douglas said economic and budgetary issues should be the legislature's first concern. The State Senate approved its version of the legislation on March 23 by a vote of 26 to 4. Kris Mineau, president for the Massachusetts Family Institute, said that advocates of same-sex marriage \"have wisely targeted the New England states, because of their progressive stance on social issues. But we have not conceded defeat.\"",
"-25.34116515167989"
],
[
"recognized union of two people. Economic impact A comprehensive UCLA March 2009 study concluded that extending marriage to same-sex couples would boost Vermont's economy by over $30.6 million in business activity over three years, which would in turn generate increases in state and local government sales tax and fee revenues by $3.3 million and create approximately 700 new jobs. Statistics From September 2009 to June 2013, at least 2,779 same-sex couples had married in the state of Vermont. Public opinion A July 2011 Public Policy Polling survey found that 58% of Vermont voters thought same-sex marriage should be legal, while",
"-25.336689498566557"
],
[
"trust, and more intimate relationships with a partner\". Numerous authors have argued that open marriages disrupt relationships by interfering with intimacy and provoking insecurities.\nSome couples report that open marriage contributed to their divorces. Janus and Janus asked divorced people to list the one primary reason for their divorces. Approximately 1 percent of men and 2 percent of women listed open marriage as the primary reason for their divorce. This seems like a small percentage, but keep in mind that only 1 to 6 percent of the population have open marriages. Open marriage is perceived as a primary cause of divorce",
"-25.325151337659918"
],
[
"Freedom to Marry History In 1983, at a time when same-sex couples had no country- or state-level recognition anywhere in the world, Evan Wolfson wrote his Harvard Law School thesis on the constitutional right to marriage for same-sex couples. He believed that by claiming the vocabulary of marriage, same-sex couples could transform the country's understanding of who gay people were and, as a result, why exclusion and discrimination are wrong. The thesis outlined the arguments that ultimately became a national conversation and a legal and political set of battles that led to a transformation of public understanding and a triumph",
"-25.324995652452344"
],
[
"educators in 1984.\nTwo large scientific studies published in 2011 provided evidence that marriage and relationship education helps reduce divorce among military and distressed couples. Another showed evidence of significant gains for singles, couples and as a potential strategy to reduce rates of teen pregnancy. Other studies, notably the Building Strong Families Program, have shown that relationship education does not \"improve relationship quality/satisfaction\" for low-income, unwed couples, while another provided evidence of statistically significant benefits for low-income married couples. Rationale In 1984, Satir encouraged marriage and family therapists to shift their focus to relationship education:\n\"We’re at a crossroads, an important crossroads",
"-25.318543101020623"
],
[
"of Americans supported the marriages of same-sex couples validly entered into in one state being recognized in all states at 53%. A CNN/Opinion Research poll, conducted from August 6, 2010 to August 10, 2010, found that, for the first time, a majority of Americans supported same-sex marriage at 52%. A Greenberg Quinlan Rosner Research poll, conducted from January 25, 2015 to January 31, 2015, found that, for the first time, 60% of Americans supported same-sex marriage.\nContinual polling by Gallup over the course of more than two decades has shown that support for same-sex marriage has grown rapidly, while opposition has",
"-25.29021095518692"
],
[
"particularly considering there will be a flood of marriages in out-of-state jurisdictions for purposes of obtaining a same-sex marriage license. Protection of conjugal marriage FMA proponents argue that opposite-sex marriage in the United States has been given special legal protection. This protection has historically been granted only to the unique institution of marriage as the cradle for the family and to legitimize lines of inheritance. Proponents of FMA argue that same-sex marriage advocates want to disregard federalism and use the judicial system to make same-sex marriage legal nationwide, which only the Federal Marriage Amendment can forestall. Article V convention initiated",
"-25.277992343122605"
],
[
"to cause inefficiency Children and love as marital public goods One type of marital public good is the enjoyment of children. If both spouses care about the welfare of their children, then a happy child will benefit both parents, and neither spouse can prevent the other from enjoying this benefit. Some of the benefits associated with children are private, e.g., time spent with a child by one spouse while the other spouse is excluded. If spouses’ love for each other is largely a public good (within the marriage), then it also cannot be used to bargain to save a marriage.",
"-25.276186099130427"
],
[
"in a 2014 piece for The New York Times:\nThe progress of the last 40 years has been mostly cultural, culminating, the last couple of years, in the broad legalization of same-sex marriage. But by many other measures, especially economic, things have gotten worse, thanks to the establishment of neo-liberal principles — anti-unionism, deregulation, market fundamentalism and intensified, unconscionable greed — that began with Richard Nixon and picked up steam under Ronald Reagan. Too many are suffering now because too few were fighting then.\nFred L. Block and Margaret Somers, in expanding on Karl Polanyi's critique of laissez-faire theories in The Great",
"-25.271581742024864"
],
[
"community in a heteronormative institution like marriage was that the inclusion of LGBT people in marriage would not challenge or change traditional marriage values, like monogamy. In order to benefit from marriage as an institution, the LGBT community argues their relationships were much akin and perpetuated the same values as heterosexual communities. Women In the United States, there are gendered qualities that define respectable behavior for both men and women. Historically, women's respectability has been defined by certain attributes that, when subscribed to and followed, lead to certain rights and benefits. Some of the most consistent adjectives",
"-25.25731954339426"
],
[
"do not want to marry, to confer all or a portion of the benefits of married status. Civil unions (and registered/domestic partnerships) are currently recognized and accepted in approximately 30 out of 193 countries worldwide and in some U.S. states. However, in countries where it has been adopted, applications for marriage licenses have far exceeded governmental estimates of demand. Some jurisdictions, such as the nations of Israel, Aruba, and the Netherlands Antilles, as well as the U.S. state of New Mexico recognize same-sex marriages lawfully entered into elsewhere, while not permitting them to be performed locally. In addition to civil",
"-25.25498367381806"
],
[
"marriage, and 36 percent were in favor. An ABC News poll found that a majority (58%) of Americans remained opposed to same-sex marriages, while a minority (36%) support them. However, on the question of a constitutional amendment, more were opposed than for it. The majority (51%) of Americans said the issue should be left for the states to decide, while 43% would agree with amending the Constitution.\nWhen asked about the legal status, a July 2008 poll by Quinnipiac University Polling Institute revealed that 32% of respondents would allow homosexual partners to legally marry, 33% would permit them to form civil",
"-25.248206549091265"
],
[
"more rights, should be voted on separately from other proposals. More than one bill allowing for recognition of same-sex relationships was to be discussed in the next parliamentary session beginning in August. United States On 26 June 2015, the US Supreme Court ruled that same-sex marriage is a constitutional right under the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, thereby making same-sex marriage legal throughout the United States.\nPrior to 26 June 2015, same-sex marriages were legal in the District of Columbia, Guam, and thirty-six states.\nIn 2005, California became the first state to pass a bill authorizing same-sex marriages without a court order,",
"-25.231044120620936"
],
[
"in the words of a National Review editorial, \"[F]inds the law's definition of marriage as the union of a man and a woman not just wrong or outdated but irrational... He has never heard of a possible reason to regard marriage as a male-female union. That view of marriage... cannot survive even the lowest level of scrutiny a judge can bring to bear on a statute.\" National Review argued that \"This kind of pseudo-rationalism would undermine any marriage law at all\" because not all marriages fulfill the roles for which they were designed. The magazine considered the decision",
"-25.22113481425913"
],
[
"get married. And this was not trivial to them, by any means\".\nCott was then cross-examined by David Thompson, who asked about her personal feelings on same-sex marriage to establish that she was an advocate rather than a dispassionate scholar. Defense counsel argued that marriage has traditionally been between a man and a woman because it provided a stable unit for procreation and child rearing. Discrimination Professor George Chauncey of Yale University, a social historian who specializes in LGBT history, described how previous government campaigns had attempted \"to demonize gay people as dangerous sexual deviants and child molesters\". He then analyzed",
"-25.206484999711392"
],
[
"by the use of marriage as a social institution. Even while women may work at the same time as doing the majority of the housework and childcare, they are still marginalized as it is deemed socially incorrect to venture outside of the domestic sphere. Dowry Furthermore, gender inequality has also been continued by cultural practices, both legal and illegal, including the use of dowries and certain limiting marriage laws. Dowries have been shown to have both positive and negative effects on women, while on one hand they may enhance their marriageability and allow them to gain in social status, it",
"-25.18981738804723"
],
[
"unions may be available to couples of the same sex and, sometimes, opposite sex. Although similar to marriage, a domestic partnership does not confer the 1,138 rights, privileges, and obligations afforded to married couples by the federal government, but the relevant state government may offer parallel benefits. Because domestic partnerships in the United States are determined by each state or local jurisdictions, or employers, there is no nationwide consistency on the rights, responsibilities, and benefits accorded domestic partners. Some couples enter into a private, informal, documented domestic partnership agreement, specifying their mutual obligations because the obligations are otherwise merely implied,",
"-25.1858734486741"
],
[
"alone. This has resulted in a smaller fraction of the population being married and a higher rate of divorce. Benefit of Marriage 93% of employers in the United States provide health insurance to married couples.\nThere is marital wage premium for males, according to the survey “Summary Statistics of White Young Men Classified by Marital Status in 1976”, which was done by Korenman and Neumark, the hourly wage of married spouses present is $6.57, and hourly wage of the never married is $5.56, which was approximately 15% lower than that of the married spouse present. Uniform Marital Property Act Traditional",
"-25.16749444731977"
],
[
"year. Commuter marriages are on the rise, with recent estimates indicating that as many as 3 million Americans reside in different locations from their spouses. Formation of commuter couples The increase in women's career opportunities also increases the problems of couples pursuing two careers in the same place, and can cause conflict regarding which spouse's career should take precedence. One major concern for dual-career couples is finding employment in the same geographic location. One partner usually compromises by taking a less desirable job so that the other can take a position that might further his or her career. However, if",
"-25.166764421970583"
],
[
"a heterosexual marriage should be decided based on one's biological sex, today individuals are determining their own roles for themselves, ultimately creating equal partnerships. Communication of gender roles in the United States In the U.S., marriage roles are generally decided based on gender. For approximately the past seven decades, heterosexual marriage roles have been defined for men and women based on society's expectations and the influence of the media. Men and women are typically associated with certain social roles dependent upon the personality traits associated with those roles. Traditionally, the role of the homemaker is associated with a woman and",
"-25.158640503999777"
],
[
"Still, however deeply affectionate or long lasting it may be, the relationship between two people of the same sex cannot be a marriage because a marriage, by definition, is between a man and a woman... Let's celebrate all strong relationships, whether they are between a man and a woman or between people of the same sex but let's be careful about describing every lasting sexual bond as a 'marriage'.\" The First Rudd Government and Gillard Government held similar views (although the short-lived second Rudd government reversed Labor's position on the issue).\nIn Government, Abbott reaffirmed that he did not support changing",
"-25.1460171632134"
],
[
"be and always should have been\", and he \"loved every minute of it\". When on June 26, 2015, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled to make same-sex marriage a right across all states of the USA, soapcentral.com took a look back at US daytime drama's first gay weddings, with Will and Sonny's being the first male-male wedding and Bianca and Reese on All My Children being the first female-female wedding, saying both were \"incredibly special\".\nSoap Opera Digest disliked the marital conflict of Will and Sonny They remarked: \"When Will and Sonny tied the knot, it was a groundbreaking",
"-25.141771986847743"
],
[
"marriage laws, which must adhere to rulings by the Supreme Court of the United States that recognize marriage as a fundamental right that is guaranteed by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, as first established in the 1967 landmark civil rights case of Loving v. Virginia.\nCivil rights campaigning in support of marriage without distinction as to sex or sexual orientation began in the 1970s. In 1972, the now overturned Baker v. Nelson saw the Supreme Court of the United States decline to become involved. The issue became",
"-25.1386824119254"
],
[
"the right to marry in 2013, and this right extends to a right to get married in the Church of Denmark, although individual priests have the right to refuse to perform such marriages. On June 26, 2015, Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the ban on same-sex marriages were de jure unconstitutional, which de facto legalized the same-sex marriage process in the United States. Europe To avoid the use of the term \"marriage\", some governments provide civil unions, which are open to couples of the same sex, and in some jurisdictions also to those of opposite sexes who",
"-25.128091326681897"
]
] |
8fq8hm | Due to Time Dialation, are there places in the Cosmos where the Universe is only minutes old instead of 14 billion years? | [
"Theoretically, there are such places (relative to our frame of reference). However, we can't see them because the universe was not [transparent]( URL_0 ) until about 400 thousand years after the big bang, or the universe was expanding faster than the speed of light at the time. --- Edit: I probably mistook the question. My answer talks about the appearance of the universe due to the time it takes for photons to reach us. But time dilation is to do with relativistic effects such as matter moving relative to each other in actual space, or regions of high gravity.",
"Ph.D. in Astrophysics here. Time runs faster in places with less mass and slower in places with mass. So how old the universe is is different in different places. For the age to be only minutes, time would have had to stop minutes after the big bang. That would mean a black hole that formed minutes after the big bang. There are theories that these so called \"primordial\" black holes exist, no proof yet.",
"Minutes is actually quite a tricky timescale - primordial black holes could conceivably have formed before that, around 1 second after the big bang. About 3 minutes to 20 minutes in, the universe is cool enough for nucleons (protons, neutrons) to form, and dense enough to fuse them into heavier elements, but it's still opaque to light. After 20 mins, it's no longer dense enough to support fusion, but remains opaque for basically the next 377,000 years. Why am I going on about opacity? Well, to get something that is still, subjectively, minutes after the big bang, we need something travelling at so close to lightspeed that it basically has to be a massless particle, but they're all being absorbed and reemitted, so I don't think they cut it. The only thing I can think of is to assume primordial black holes exist, and have a photons orbit at the event horizon without being eaten until the black hole evaporates slightly after the 377,000 year mark, then it can begin its timeless journey across the newly transparent universe. With luck, it wouldn't hit anything, and would still be flying now, a particle whose perspective has the big bang mere minutes ago. Edit: the Cosmic Microwave Background, the earliest photons we're aware of, are the legacy of the process that made the universe transparent at 377000 years in - neutral atoms forming rather than plasma. The neutral atoms were still carrying a lot of energy, which they shed as photons in what must have been an incredible show.",
"What really messes with my mind is that in a future when the distance between galaxies is so vast that we only know of our own, any new species that evolves and manages to get to a science age will base all of their scienetific understanding of the universe on the idea that there is only one galaxy. \"Yeah okay Boblor...the universe is filled with trillions of other galaxies we can't see because we drifted too far apart......riiigghhttt\" Leads me to wonder how much stuff we missed",
"The Big Bang isn't like an explosion at one point in space. Instead, it happened everywhere at the same time. You could maybe say \"everywhere\" was all at one point then, but it's unclear how physics works in that situation. Distant galaxies are moving away because space itself is expanding, not because they were flung away by an explosion. There are places where, if you were able to observe light from them, you would see them as they were when the universe was only minutes old. But you can't say that they really are only a few minutes old now. Also, due to conditions at the time you can't observe them.",
"I would suggest watching the episode of Stargate SG-1 titled \"A Matter of Time\" (S2 Ep15) because it illustrates the concept pretty well.",
"What would happen if you placed a special live stream camera on a planet where time moves slower than on earth? Would a viewer on earth view everything happening in slow motion?",
"I can never wrap my head around any of this. As much as I want too. I’ve read tons of books and still get confused. I even just read NDT’s new book and sorta got a understanding of psychics. My question is so it all started at a single point in the universe, correct? The bang happened. And space started expanding outward? And has continued to do so since then? So basically the beginning of time itself is out there? But just super far away from us? And we’re unable to see it?",
"It's because of the fixed speed of light. According to the rules we discovered when measuring magnetic fields (Maxwell’s equations and Lorenz invariance), electric fields have to travel at a fixed speed regardless of the speed of anything else. Photons are a kind of wave in the electric field (electric and magnetic fields are really the same and relativity is what causes magnetic fields too). This is the speed of light. But that’s confusing. If you're on a train going nearly the speed of light and then flip on a flashlight, it seems like either you would perceive the speed of light as slower relative to your fast speed or your speed gets added to the speed of light and a stationary observer would disagree about the speed of light. But the equations say neither happens. Somehow both observers would see the speed of light the same relative to themselves. But are the equations right? Measurements like the Michaelson-Morely experiment seem to back this up. When lasers are fired North-South and compared with lasers fired East-West (adding the rotational speed of the earth, roughly 1,000 mph) there isn't a difference in measured speed of light at all. How can this be? Well Einstein figured out that of you do the math (simple geometry really) the implication is that a bunch of really counter-intuitive things happen to allow light to stay a fixed speed. *Space itself warps* to accommodate a fixed speed of light relative to all observers. One of these warping effects happens in gravitational fields. At the big bang, things were really really compressed, so there was a lot of gravity. As the universe expanded, some parts remained dense with high gravity. Since space was compressed and really space and time are related just like electricity and magnetism are related it means time was compressed too. Areas that did not expand spatially, also didn't expand temporally. Time didn't pass in those places as fast as it has here.",
"I notice a lot of comments saying “expanding into what? That doesn’t make sense to me, I just don’t get it.”. Well, as a physics student who’s studied some cosmology, let me tell you that you might not be missing any deep understanding really. Physicists get used to this idea, just by thinking about it over time. Once you’ve thought about it for a long time it just kinda stops bothering you, even if you haven’t really learned anything concrete that you didn’t understand before.",
"Time dilation is based on perspective of where someone is to view it, but the age of the universe doesn't like time travel just because there is some form of time dilation when you are looking at something that happened in the past. This assumes that there is 1 finite universe across a spectrum of time though. Now if there were sort of 'snapshots' of the universe that somehow got created and by accessing some sort of wormhole or something unproven then you could essentially time travel to that sort of 'snapshot' that was created in time, then I guess there could be the possibility that you could go to a time when dinosaurs existed and stuff, but nothing that we know currently points to that being the case. Time is linear, but there are 'folds' in the universe that we can theoretically use to see into the past only because the light that has reached your current point has had to travel so far, so you would be looking at a glimpse of the past, not what it is currently.",
"So wait, does that mean there could be places \"older\" than where we are ? I've heard there's a theory that our universe is inside a blackhole, could that mean outside of said blackhole more time has passed ?",
"Not really an answer to your question, but I suggest you take a look at the [Kurzgesagt]( URL_0 ) channel. That channel has educational videos (with amazing animations) that makes science seem so **amazing**, or as they say it: > Videos explaining things with optimistic nihilism. We are a small team who want to make science look beautiful. Because it is beautiful. They have **countless** videos on all things space-related and I **HIGHLY** suggest you watch them!",
"The balloon analogy is bad because the 2d balloon surface is expanding in 3 dimensions. In reality our 3d dimensional universe is expanding into a fourth. The universe as we define it is the surface of the balloon - the space that it expands into isn’t really defined"
] | [
[
"longer history, the International Astronomical Union presently use \"age of the universe\" to mean the duration of the Lambda-CDM expansion, or equivalently the elapsed time since the Big Bang in the current observable universe. Observational limits Since the universe must be at least as old as the oldest things in it, there are a number of observations which put a lower limit on the age of the universe; these include the temperature of the coolest white dwarfs, which gradually cool as they age, and the dimmest turnoff point of main sequence stars in clusters (lower-mass stars spend a greater amount",
"-32.323553142370656"
],
[
"Cosmological decade A cosmological decade (CÐ) is a division of the lifetime of the cosmos. The divisions are logarithmic in size, with base 10. Each successive cosmological decade represents a ten-fold increase in the total age of the universe. As expressed in log (seconds per Ðecade) When CÐ is measured in log( seconds/Ð ), CÐ 1 begins at 10 seconds and lasts 90 seconds (until 100 seconds after Time Zero). CÐ 100, the 100th cosmological decade, lasts from 10¹⁰⁰ to 10¹⁰¹ seconds after Time Zero. CÐ is Time Zero.\nThe epoch CÐ −43.2683 was 10 seconds, which represents the Planck time since the",
"-32.18650828010868"
],
[
"time; typically the age would be between 66% and 90% of the Hubble time, depending on the density of matter.\nHubble's early estimate of his constant was 550 (km/s)/Mpc, and the inverse of that is 1.8 billion years. It was believed by many geologists such as Arthur Holmes in the 1920s that the Earth was probably over 2 billion years old, but with large uncertainty. The possible discrepancy between the ages of the Earth and the universe was probably one motivation for the development of the Steady State theory in 1948 as an alternative to the Big Bang; in the (now obsolete)",
"-31.85892969672568"
],
[
"to a Hubble age of around 20 billion years. At the time, many, especially Sandage, believed that the cosmological constant was zero. In such a case, a low Hubble constant is necessary in order for the age of the universe (as opposed to the Hubble age) to be at least as old as the oldest objects it contains, i.e. ca. 14 billion years.\nSandage performed photometric studies of globular clusters, and calculated their age to be at least 25 billion years. This led him to speculate that the universe did not merely expand, but actually expanded and contracted with",
"-31.59070921211969"
],
[
"consistent with these, providing a check of the model, but are less accurately measured at present. Assuming that the Lambda-CDM model is correct, the measurements of the parameters using a variety of techniques by numerous experiments yield a best value of the age of the Universe as of 2015 of 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years.\nOver time, the Universe and its contents have evolved; for example, the relative population of quasars and galaxies has changed and space itself has expanded. Due to this expansion, scientists on Earth can observe the light from a galaxy 30 billion light-years away even though that",
"-31.398663709158427"
],
[
"the age of the universe.\nMore recent measurements from WMAP and the Planck spacecraft lead to an estimate of the age of the universe of 13.80 billion years with only 0.3 percent uncertainty (based on the standard Lambda-CDM model), and modern age measurements for globular clusters and other objects are currently smaller than this value (within the measurement uncertainties). A substantial majority of cosmologists therefore believe the age problem is now resolved.\nNew Research from teams, including one led by Nobel laureate Adam Riess of the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, have found the universe to be between 12.5",
"-31.393454757751897"
],
[
"to people at sea level. It has also been calculated that due to time dilation, the core of the Earth is 2.5 years younger than the crust. \"A clock used to time a full rotation of the earth will measure the day to be approximately an extra 10 ns/day longer for every km of altitude above the reference geoid.\" Travel to regions of space where extreme gravitational time dilation is taking place, such as near a black hole, could yield time-shifting results analogous to those of near-lightspeed space travel.\nContrarily to velocity time dilation, in which both observers measure the",
"-31.246711366722593"
],
[
"merely implied faster evolution. It would take further advances in geology and the discovery of radioactivity that showed that the sun was in fact heated by nuclear fusion that demonstrated the present estimated 4.567 billion years, or ~700,000 times Ussher's value. A way to measure the age of the universe would be discovered by Edwin Hubble in the 1930s, but due to observational constraints, an accurate measurement of the Hubble constant would not be forthcoming until the late 1990s. According to the ESA/Planck data, released in March 2013, the age of the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years or some ~2,000,000 times",
"-31.201170082378667"
],
[
"of time on the main sequence, so the lowest-mass stars that have evolved off of the main sequence set a minimum age). WMAP NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) project's nine-year data release in 2012 estimated the age of the universe to be (13.772±0.059)×10⁹ years (13.772 billion years, with an uncertainty of plus or minus 59 million years).\nHowever, this age is based on the assumption that the project's underlying model is correct; other methods of estimating the age of the universe could give different ages. Assuming an extra background of relativistic particles, for example, can enlarge the error bars of",
"-31.087373020127416"
],
[
"Cosmic age problem The cosmic age problem is a historical problem in astronomy concerning the age of the universe. The problem was that at various times in the 20th century, some objects in the universe were estimated to be older than the time elapsed since the Big Bang, as estimated from measurements of the expansion rate of the universe known as the Hubble constant, denoted H₀. (This is more correctly called the Hubble parameter, since it generally varies with time).\nIf so, this would represent a contradiction, since objects such as galaxies, stars and planets could not have existed in the",
"-31.028943082870683"
],
[
"universe. Consequently, telecommunications received from ancient civilisations are postulated to cover a briefer time-frame than the modern relative second.",
"-31.021137923176866"
],
[
"a period of 80 billion years. The current cosmological estimates of the age of the universe, in contrast, are typically of the order of 14 billion years. As part of his studies concerning the formation of galaxies in the early universe, he co-wrote the paper now referred to as ELS after the authors Olin J. Eggen, Donald Lynden-Bell and Sandage, first describing the collapse of a proto-galactic gas cloud into our present Milky Way Galaxy. He later defended the paper in 1990.\nIn his 1961 paper \"The Ability of the 200-inch Telescope to Discriminate Between Selected World Models,\" he suggested that",
"-30.773054991441313"
],
[
"Big Bang (Time Zero). There were an infinite number of cosmological decades between the Big Bang and the Planck epoch (or any other point in time). The current epoch, CÐ 17.6389, is 10 seconds, or 13.799(21) billion years, since the Big Bang. There have been 60.9 cosmological decades between the Planck epoch, CÐ −43.2683, and the current epoch, CÐ 17.6389.",
"-30.771266468480462"
],
[
"10 orders of magnitude longer than the age of the universe ((13.799±0.021)×10⁹ years).",
"-30.544738927739672"
],
[
"extreme temperatures and densities shortly after the Big Bang.\nSince around 1997–2003, the problem is believed to be solved by most cosmologists: modern cosmological measurements lead to a precise estimate of the age of the universe (i.e. time since the Big Bang) of 13.8 billion years, and recent age estimates for the oldest objects are either younger than this, or consistent allowing for measurement uncertainties. Early years Following theoretical developments of the Friedmann equations by Alexander Friedmann and Georges Lemaître in the 1920s, and the discovery of the expanding universe by Edwin Hubble in 1929, it was immediately clear that tracing",
"-30.460721191135235"
],
[
"that exited inflation later than our region, spent more time than us experiencing runaway inflationary exponential growth. For example, observers in a Universe of 13.7 billion years old (our observed age) are outnumbered by observers in a 13.0 billion year old Universe by a factor of . This lopsidedness continues, until the most numerous observers resembling us are \"Boltzmann babies\" formed by improbable fluctuations in the hot, very early, Universe. Therefore, physicists reject the simple proper-time cutoff as a failed hypothesis. Scale-factor cutoff Time can be parameterized in different ways than proper time. One choice is to parameterize by the",
"-30.35581567371264"
],
[
"of the pre-Copernican universe.\nAnother dial is mounted on the outside wall, driven from the same mechanism. This was first installed in the 14th or 15th centuries, but has been restored a number of times. Description The dial proposes a model of the universe. Against a background of stars, the sun (the large gilded star on the outer ring) moves in a circle, and indicates the time using the 24-hour analogue dial, which is marked in Roman numerals from I to XII, then from I to XII again. Noon is at the top of the dial reflecting the position of the",
"-30.3437106130732"
],
[
"expansion. This was corroborated by Penzias and Wilson in 1965. Subsequent experiments arrived at a 2.7 kelvins temperature, corresponding to an age of the universe of 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang.\nThis dramatic result has raised issues: what happened between the singularity of the Big Bang and the Planck time, which, after all, is the smallest observable time. When might have time separated out from the spacetime foam; there are only hints based on broken symmetries (see Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Timeline of the Big Bang, and the articles in Category:Physical cosmology).\nGeneral relativity gave us our modern notion of the",
"-30.265973564703017"
],
[
"cannot be older than the universe itself, the universe must be older than this. This agrees with known cosmology, which gives an age of the universe of 13.8 billion years. The star (and the Milky Way) must have formed soon after the Big Bang.\nAnother result is the first measurement of the beryllium content of two stars in a Milky Way globular cluster. With this measurement, astronomers found that the first generation of stars in our galaxy must have formed soon after the end of the 200-million-year \"Dark Age\" following the Big Bang. Milky Way black hole Astronomers long suspected that a",
"-30.182708943029866"
],
[
"part of the entire Universe about 13.8 billion years ago. Regularities in nature In order to measure time, one can record the number of occurrences (events) of some periodic phenomenon. The regular recurrences of the seasons, the motions of the sun, moon and stars were noted and tabulated for millennia, before the laws of physics were formulated. The sun was the arbiter of the flow of time, but time was known only to the hour for millennia, hence, the use of the gnomon was known across most of the world, especially Eurasia, and at least as far southward as the",
"-30.04256511380663"
],
[
"the raw data input into the model).\nThe age of the universe based on the best fit to Planck 2015 data alone is 13.813±0.038 billion years (the estimate of 13.799±0.021 billion years uses Gaussian priors based on earlier estimates from other studies to determine the combined uncertainty). This number represents an accurate \"direct\" measurement of the age of the universe (other methods typically involve Hubble's law and the age of the oldest stars in globular clusters, etc.). It is possible to use different methods for determining the same parameter (in this case – the age of the universe) and arrive at",
"-29.783084452275943"
],
[
"that their median age is 6.4 ± 0.7 Ga. Moreover, 75% of stars in the galactic habitable zone are older than the Sun. This makes the existence of potential planets with evolved intelligent life more likely than not to be older than that of the Earth (4.54 Ga). This creates an observational dilemma since interstellar travel, (even of the \"slow\" kind that is nearly within the reach of present Earth technology) could in theory, if this had arisen elsewhere, take from only 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the galaxy. This leads to a conundrum first posed in",
"-29.59376887761755"
],
[
"the astronomical seasons apparently start later; for example, in Tonga (UTC+13), an equinox occurred on September 24, 1999, a date which will not crop up again until 2103. On the other hand, people living far to the west (America) whose clocks run behind UTC may experience an equinox as early as March 19. Change over time Over thousands of years, the Earth's axial tilt and orbital eccentricity vary (see Milankovitch cycles). The equinoxes and solstices move westward relative to the stars while the perihelion and aphelion move eastward. Thus, ten thousand years from now Earth's northern",
"-29.574583338282537"
],
[
"to the age of the universe from modern astronomy Modern scientific astronomy estimates the Age of the Universe as around 13 Billion years (13 * 10⁹ years). Conversion of 1 day of Brahma into human years yields 8.58816 * 10⁹ years (derived as 2 kalpas * 14 Manvantaras * 71 Chaturyugas * 12,000 Deva vatsaras * 360 human years). According to Vedas, there are 504 000 Manus manifested during the lifetime of one Brahmā (311,040,000,000,000 human Earthly years), 5040 Manus in one year of Brahma, and 420 Manus in one month of Brahma. (See for more details: List of numbers",
"-29.562661360600032"
],
[
"of time from the viewpoint of the universe as a whole, which Schroeder interprets to mean at the moment of 'quark confinement,' when stable matter formed from energy early in the first second of the big bang.\" Schroeder calculates that a period of six days under the conditions of quark confinement, when the universe was approximately a trillion times smaller and hotter than it is today is equal to fifteen billion years of earth time today. This is all due to space expansion after quark confinement. Thus Genesis and modern physics are reconciled. Schroeder, though, states in an earlier",
"-29.41028931400797"
],
[
"steady state theory, the universe is infinitely old and on average unchanging with time. The steady state theory postulated spontaneous creation of matter to keep the average density constant as the universe expands, and therefore most galaxies still have an age less than 1/H₀. However, if H₀ had been 550 (km/s)/Mpc, our Milky Way galaxy would be exceptionally large compared to most other galaxies, so it could well be much older than an average galaxy, therefore eliminating the age problem. 1950–1970 In the 1950s, two substantial errors were discovered in Hubble's extragalactic distance scale: first in 1952, Walter Baade discovered there",
"-29.34086009056773"
],
[
"around 150 million years older than the previous record-holder EGSY8p7, and is observed (shortly after but) \"very close to the end of the so-called Dark Ages of the universe\", and (during but) \"near the very beginning\" of the reionization era.\nCompared with the Milky Way galaxy, GN-z11 is ¹⁄₂₅ of the size, has 1% of the mass, and was forming new stars approximately twenty times as fast. With a stellar age estimated at 40 million years, it appears the galaxy formed its stars relatively rapidly. The fact that a galaxy so massive existed so soon after the first stars started to form",
"-29.268698872590903"
],
[
"human life cycle to the universe. BKs believe the universe to follow an eternal, naturally occurring 5,000 year cycle, composed of four ages (yugas): the Golden Age (Sat Yuga), the Silver Age (Treta Yuga), the Copper Age (Dwapar Yuga), the Iron Age (Kali Yuga) and each represents 1250 years of the cycle. The present period of this cycle is sometimes described as a fifth age or \"Confluence age\" as it is considered to be the confluence (the junction or meeting) between the Iron Age and the Golden age.\nThe first half of the cycle (the Golden and Silver ages) is",
"-29.15229985676706"
],
[
"and he argued that as large as a 38% difference between the time on clocks in the Milky Way and those in a galaxy floating in a void exists. Thus, unless we can correct for that—timescapes each with different times—our observations of the expansion of space will be, and are, incorrect. Wiltshire claims that the 1998 supernovae observations that led to the conclusion of an expanding universe and dark energy can instead be explained by Buchert's equations if certain strange aspects of general relativity are taken into account.",
"-29.094979318091646"
],
[
"time in the order of thousands of years, since our solar system needs about 230 million years (galactic year) to move completely around the center of the Milky Way. The space coordinates of this frame of reference form a Cartesian coordinate system.\nIn the reference frame S with and are the (space-time) coordinates at which the star emits a light signal and are the coordinates at which the astronomer receives the light signal.\nIn reference frame S the light signal starts at and stops at time and therefore the light signal did cover the distance ",
"-29.091886919690296"
],
[
"time as the incident on their ship. They then return to Earth and in the course of the investigation they discover a shape-shifting being posing as an android cowboy at a western-themed amusement park. This being has been on Earth and the other inhabited planets for millennia and is not certain of its own origin. It also has no idea what happened to the denizens of Earth.\nThe resolution involves a god who evidently created the universe as an experiment. This god explains that the action of leaving the galaxy on a 40,000 year round-trip is similar to a laboratory",
"-29.0388267878443"
],
[
"determination of two separate populations of Cepheid variable stars in the Andromeda Galaxy, resulted in a doubling of the estimated age of the universe (from 1.8 to 3.6 billion years). Hubble had posited the earlier value; he had considered only the weaker Population II Cepheid variables as standard candles. After Baade's pronouncements, Sandage showed that astronomers' previous assumption, that the brightest stars in galaxies were of approximately equal inherent intensity, was mistaken in the case of H II regions which he found not to be stars and inherently brighter than the brightest stars in distant galaxies. This resulted in another",
"-29.03409928851761"
],
[
"was initiated in 1990 and in theory is playing for another 39 billion years – three times longer than the estimated age of the Universe. Other well known examples are Longplayer by Jem Finer (of the Pogues) sounding from the Trinity Buoy lighthouse near Canary Wharf in London and the yet to be realised 10,000-year Clock of the Long Now by the Long Now Foundation in USA. AS Long As Possible (ASLAP) The work is developed as a GIF animation, with each frame lasting 655090 milliseconds, which is approximately 10,5 minutes. The total number of frames is 48 140 288",
"-28.975095585672534"
],
[
"There are stars that are millions of years older than the sun. There may be a civilization that is millions of years more advanced than man's. We have gone from Kitty Hawk to the moon in some seventy years, but it's possible that a million-year-old civilization may know something that we don't ... I hypothesize an 'M&M' technology encompassing the mental and material realms. The psychic realms, so mysterious to us today, may be an ordinary part of an advanced technology.\"\nIn Hynek and Vallee's 1975 book The Edge of Reality, Hynek published a stereoscopic photograph of a UFO he took",
"-28.863303242833354"
],
[
"expanding universe that started in the Big Bang. Using relativity and quantum theory we have been able to roughly reconstruct the history of the universe. In our epoch, during which electromagnetic waves can propagate without being disturbed by conductors or charges, we can see the stars, at great distances from us, in the night sky. (Before this epoch, there was a time, before the universe cooled enough for electrons and nuclei to combine into atoms about 377,000 years after the Big Bang, during which starlight would not have been visible over large distances.) Reprise Ilya Prigogine's reprise",
"-28.845199999166653"
],
[
"inhabitants and history. They realize that they can continue forward in time and eventually reach the moment that they left in the new copy of the universe. They succeed after overshooting their first attempt, though the new universe is about 10-feet lower than the previous one, causing the time machine to crush their duplicates in the new universe to death as they enter their machine (avoiding a time travel paradox). Fry rushes to meet Leela and manages to make it to their date on time. After dinner, Fry apologizes for losing his birthday card to her, but Leela dismisses it",
"-28.838871608139016"
],
[
"of approximately 70 km/s/Mpc. The higher value meant that an expanding universe would have an age of 2 billion years (younger than the Age of the Earth) and extrapolating the observed number density of galaxies to a rapidly expanding universe implied a mass density that was too high by a similar factor, enough to force the universe into a peculiar closed geometry which also implied an impending Big Crunch that would occur on a similar time-scale. After fixing these errors in the 1950s, the new lower values for the Hubble Constant accorded with the expectations of an older universe and the",
"-28.81050087395124"
],
[
"International Astronomical Union (IAU) took the lead in maintaining the standards relating to time. During the twentieth century it became apparent that the earth's rotation was slowing down resulting in days becoming 1.4 milliseconds longer each century – this was verified by comparing the calculated timings of eclipses of the sun with those observed in antiquity going back to Chinese records of 763 BC.\nIn 1956 the 10th CGPM instructed the CIPM to prepare a definition of the second; in 1958 the definition was published stating that the second (called an ephemeris second) would be calculated by extrapolation using earth's rotational",
"-28.79132253404532"
],
[
"10–20 million years (the Lyapunov time) into the future. Another example is Earth's axial tilt, which, due to friction raised within Earth's mantle by tidal interactions with the Moon (see below), is incomputable from some point between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now.\nThe outer planets' orbits are chaotic over longer timescales, with a Lyapunov time in the range of 2–230 million years.\nIn all cases this means that the position of a planet along its orbit ultimately becomes impossible to predict with any certainty (so, for example, the timing of winter and summer become uncertain), but in some cases the orbits themselves",
"-28.776790462783538"
],
[
"Cosmic Calendar The Cosmic Calendar is a method to visualize the chronology of the universe, scaling its current age of 13.8 billion years to a single year in order to help intuit it for pedagogical purposes in science education or popular science.\nIn this visualization, the Big Bang took place at the beginning of January 1 at midnight, and the current moment maps onto the end of December 31 just before midnight. \nAt this scale, there are 437.5 years per second, 1.575 million years per hour, and 37.8 million years per day.\nThe concept was popularized by Carl Sagan in his book",
"-28.735763877630234"
],
[
"astronomy, as theories of stellar evolution gave ages for the oldest members of globular clusters that were greater than the estimated age of the universe. However, greatly improved distance measurements to globular clusters using the Hipparcos satellite and increasingly accurate measurements of the Hubble constant resolved the paradox, giving an age for the universe of about 13 billion years and an age for the oldest stars of a few hundred million years less.\nOur galaxy has about 150 globular clusters, some of which may have been captured from small galaxies disrupted by the Milky Way, as seems to be the case",
"-28.67709056730382"
],
[
"to time into the past. A galaxy measured at ten billion light years in distance appears to us as it was ten billion years ago, because the light has taken that long to travel to the observer. If one were to look at a galaxy ten billion light years away in one direction and another in the opposite direction, the total distance between them is twenty billion light years. This means that the light from the first has not yet reached the second, because the approximately 13.8 billion years that the universe has existed is not a long enough time to",
"-28.655751793005038"
],
[
"to 10¹⁰⁶ years. After that time, the universe enters the so-called Dark Era and is expected to consist chiefly of a dilute gas of photons and leptons.§VIA With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with extremely low energy levels and extremely long timescales. Speculatively, it is possible that the universe may enter a second inflationary epoch, or assuming that the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state., §VE. It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will reach heat death.,",
"-28.623095636547077"
],
[
"strange behaviour while the universe was still in its infancy.\n\"This galaxy undergoing a major baby boom, producing most of its stars all at once,\" said Peter Capak of NASA's Spitzer Science Center. \"If our human population was produced in a similar boom, then almost all of the people alive today would be the same age.\"\nTo that, the principal investigator of the Cosmic Evolution Surveyor, Nick Scoville of Caltech responded:\n\"We may be witnessing, for the first time, the formation of one of the most massive elliptical galaxies in the universe.\" Colors The red color on the galaxy represent the birth",
"-28.587057185941376"
],
[
"time periods of world history. These are 69, 1850, 1996 and the dystopian future of 2056. These periods are known as junctures and travel between them is possible through the Netherworld. The Netherworld itself is populated by a wide variety of strange inhabitants who, for whatever reason, no longer have a place in any of the junctures. In the second edition the ancient juncture is now at 690AD, and the dystopian future has become a post-apocalyptic one. Superficial and Critical Shifts A means to travel in time inevitably means that people will try to change the",
"-28.51974193175556"
],
[
"from more distant matter must travel longer in order to reach Earth, meaning looking at distant objects is like looking further back in time. This means the evolution in time of the matter distribution in the universe can also be observed directly.\nThe Millennium Simulation was run in 2005 by the Virgo Consortium, an international group of astrophysicists from Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada, Japan and the United States. It starts at the epoch when the cosmic background radiation was emitted, about 379,000 years after the universe began. The cosmic background radiation has been studied by satellite experiments, and the observed",
"-28.519002770539373"
],
[
"Alexander von Humboldt in 1845. It was later popularized in the writings of H. G. Wells in 1901. The shorter term space is older, first used to mean the region beyond Earth's sky in John Milton's Paradise Lost in 1667. Formation and state According to the Big Bang theory, the very early Universe was an extremely hot and dense state about 13.8 billion years ago which rapidly expanded. About 380,000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called recombination epoch. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to",
"-28.468544043018483"
],
[
"Planck cosmology probe released the mission's all-sky map of the cosmic microwave background. The map suggests the universe is slightly older than previously thought. According to the map, subtle fluctuations in temperature were imprinted on the deep sky when the cosmos was about 370,000 years old. The imprint reflects ripples that arose as early, in the existence of the universe, as the first nonillionth (10⁻³⁰) of a second. Apparently, these ripples gave rise to the present vast cosmic web of galaxy clusters and dark matter. Based on the 2013 data, the universe contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter",
"-28.3523868379707"
],
[
"will cease to exist. Chronology The time frame of the Solar System's formation has been determined using radiometric dating. Scientists estimate that the Solar System is 4.6 billion years old. The oldest known mineral grains on Earth are approximately 4.4 billion years old. Rocks this old are rare, as Earth's surface is constantly being reshaped by erosion, volcanism, and plate tectonics. To estimate the age of the Solar System, scientists use meteorites, which were formed during the early condensation of the solar nebula. Almost all meteorites (see the Canyon Diablo meteorite) are found to have an age of 4.6 billion years, suggesting that",
"-28.327780418796465"
],
[
"and 68.3% dark energy. On 5 February 2015, new data was released by the Planck mission, according to which the age of the universe is 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years old and the Hubble constant was measured to be 67.74 ± 0.46 (km/s)/Mpc.",
"-28.3004311817931"
],
[
"City at the End of Time Plot summary City at the End of Time is about the Kalpa, the last city on Earth, one hundred trillion years in the future. The novel's backstory describes how the aging universe continued expanding and its spacetime fabric weakened. With the galaxies burnt out, humanity dispersed across the cosmos, where they encountered the Typhon, an inexplicable entity that was destroying the decaying universe. It consumed matter and replaced space-time with emptiness and inconsistencies beyond the laws of physics. The resulting Chaos spread rapidly, driving some humans back to ancient Earth with its rekindled sun.",
"-28.294454907649197"
],
[
"in the past were separated by millions and then billions of years. Roughly detailed in a few paragraphs, the coils go as far back as the beginning of the universe.\nTwists vary in size depending on which coil was considered its home coil. In the present-day coil (based on 1988, when the game was published), twists were 125 years apart. So, from 1988, one could travel into the past year of 1863 or to the future year of 2113. From the new twist, the time traveller could potentially travel another 125 years, either to return home or move farther away from",
"-28.261042215162888"
],
[
"from the late 1800s through the early 1990s held by the Harvard College Observatory are being digitized by the DASCH project.\nOther causes of time variability are asteroids, eclipses, microlensing, planetary transits, variable stars.",
"-28.22059542441275"
],
[
"How It Began Summary How It Began: A Time Traveler’s Guide to the Universe is a non-fiction book by astronomy professor Chris Impey on the origins of everything from the Moon to the universe itself. The finite speed of light and the vastness of space turn modern large telescopes into time machines and astronomers into armchair time travelers. Looking out in space is looking back in time. Each chapter has vignettes that place the reader in increasingly unfamiliar physical situations that are increasingly unfamiliar. How It Began has an associated web site containing source material on each major topic.\nThe first",
"-28.220082373256446"
],
[
"observation of an expanding universe (which was also predicted from Einstein's equations of general relativity by Alexander Friedmann) with the notion that the universe must be eternally old. Current cosmological models maintain that 13.8 billion years ago, the entire mass of the universe was compressed into a gravitational singularity, the so-called cosmic egg, from which it expanded to its current state (following the Big Bang).\nGeorges Lemaître proposed in 1927 that the cosmos originated from what he called the primeval atom.\nIn the late 1940s, George Gamow's assistant cosmological researcher Ralph Alpher, proposed the name ylem for the primordial substance that existed",
"-28.21651210600976"
],
[
"its details and furthered its context in an article on Wired. He noted that \"Time\" is set 11,000 years in the future, in a future civilization with humanity's present civilization long extinct. It takes place in the basin of the Mediterranean Sea, which has largely evaporated following tectonic activity shutting it off from the Atlantic Ocean. This is modeled after a similar occurrence of this incident approximately 5 million years ago—the Messinian salinity crisis. The eventual flooding crisis at the end of the story is a supposed recurrence of the Zanclean flood. Munroe reportedly researched the plants and wildlife of",
"-28.200449448340805"
],
[
"for astronomical purposes, eventually leading to the world being split into time zones, independent of precise astronomical time, including Germany’s adoption of Central European Time in 1893. Expansion of the railway network Immediately after the completion of the main line, the construction started on a link between the low-lying banks of the Elbe and Altona station, which passed through the Altona Harbour Tunnel, known as the Schellfischtunnel (Haddock Tunnel). This line, which was opened in 1845, involved the haulage of wagons by cable up a 210-metre-long steep slope to overcome a height difference of 30 metres. The port railway in",
"-28.198261328565422"
],
[
"years have passed, but according to those on Earth, the ship comes back 76 years after launch.\nFrom the viewpoint of the astronaut, onboard clocks seem to be running normally. The star ahead seems to be approaching at a speed of 0.87 light years per ship-year. The universe would appear contracted along the direction of travel to half the size it had when the ship was at rest; the distance between that star and the Sun would seem to be 16 light years as measured by the astronaut.\nAt higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, so the astronaut",
"-28.167348161689006"
],
[
"as well as the Earth. The primary challenge for young-universe cosmologies is that the accepted distances in the Universe require millions or billions of years for light to travel to Earth (the \"starlight problem\"). An older creationist idea, proposed by creationist astronomer Barry Setterfield, is that the speed of light has decayed in the history of the Universe. More recently, creationist physicist Russell Humphreys has proposed a hypothesis called \"white hole cosmology\" which suggests that the Universe expanded out of a white hole less than 10,000 years ago; the apparent age of the universe results from relativistic effects. Humphreys' theory",
"-28.154795379028656"
],
[
"merger. Studies of this and other starburst galaxies have shown that their starburst phase can last for hundreds of millions of years, far longer than was previously assumed.\nNGC 4013 is an edge-on spiral galaxy located 55 million light-years from Earth. It has a prominent dust lane and has several visible star forming regions.\nI Zwicky 18 is a young dwarf galaxy at a distance of 45 million light-years. The youngest-known galaxy in the visible universe, I Zwicky 18 is about 4 million years old, about one-thousandth the age of the Solar System. It is filled with star forming regions which are creating",
"-28.144873723533237"
],
[
"messages from Earth's inhabitants addressed to earthlings around the year 52,000, when it is due to return to Earth. As of July 2019, the satellite had not been launched.\nThe International Time Capsule Society was created in 1990 to maintain a global database of all known time capsules. Criticism According to time capsule historian William Jarvis, most intentional time capsules usually do not provide much useful historical information: they are typically filled with \"useless junk\", new and pristine in condition, that tells little about the people of the time. Many time capsules today contain only artifacts of limited value to future historians.",
"-28.12834915795429"
],
[
"Earth time?\" In the science fiction series Mars trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson, the Mars settlers use traditional Earth watches that stop ticking at midnight for 39 minutes and 40 seconds before resuming their timekeeping. This creates something like a \"witching hour\" which compensates for the time difference between a Sol and an Earth day. This follows the method previously given by Philip K. Dick in his novel Martian Time-Slip.\nAn alternative idea was suggested in 1988 by David Powell (the Davidian Mars calendar). In this case the clocks simply run slower than the ones on Earth so that their hour",
"-28.121519105159678"
],
[
"after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years (10¹³–10¹⁴ years), as the smallest, longest-lived stars in our universe, tiny red dwarfs, begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be composed of compact objects: brown dwarfs, white dwarfs that are cooling or cold (\"black dwarfs\"), neutron stars, and black holes. Eventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions. Larger-scale structures Deep sky surveys show that galaxies are often found in groups and clusters. Solitary galaxies that",
"-28.091056293458678"
],
[
"and comparing them to their expected initial temperature, an age estimate can be made. With this technique, the age of the globular cluster M4 was estimated as 12.7 ± 0.7 billion years. Age estimates of the oldest of these clusters gives a best fit estimate of 12.6 billion years, and a 95% confidence upper limit of 16 billion years.\nIn November 2018, astronomers reported the discovery of one of the oldest stars in the universe. About 13.5 billion-years-old, 2MASS J18082002-5104378 B is a tiny ultra metal-poor (UMP) star made almost entirely of materials released from the Big Bang, and is possibly one of",
"-28.077278380747885"
],
[
"there would be a difference between the time elapsed on the astronaut's ship and the time elapsed on Earth.\nFor example, a spaceship could travel to a star 32 light-years away, initially accelerating at a constant 1.03g (i.e. 10.1 m/s²) for 1.32 years (ship time), then stopping its engines and coasting for the next 17.3 years (ship time) at a constant speed, then decelerating again for 1.32 ship-years, and coming to a stop at the destination. After a short visit, the astronaut could return to Earth the same way. After the full round-trip, the clocks on board the ship show that 40",
"-28.070041179307736"
],
[
"the Sun will live. Because of this ability to live for long periods of time, it is likely TRAPPIST-1 will be one of the last remaining stars when the Universe is much older than it is now, when the gas needed to form new stars will be exhausted, and the remaining ones begin to die off.\nThe planet is very likely tidally locked, with one hemisphere permanently facing towards the star, while the opposite side shrouded in eternal darkness. However, between these two intense areas, there would be a sliver of moderate temperature – called the terminator line, where the temperatures",
"-28.05940345034469"
],
[
"is 3 million light-years (919.8 kiloparsecs). As an example, the Milky Way is roughly 100,000–180,000 light-years in diameter, and the nearest sister galaxy to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light-years away.\nBecause we cannot observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe, it is unknown whether the size of the Universe in its totality is finite or infinite. Estimates for the total size of the universe, if finite, reach as high as megaparsecs, implied by one resolution of the No-Boundary Proposal. Age and expansion Astronomers calculate the age of the Universe by assuming",
"-28.05070773162879"
],
[
"physicists for a good many years. The issue concerned various striking numerical relations that are observed to hold between the physical constants (the gravitational constant, the mass of the proton, the age of the universe, etc.). A puzzling aspect of this was that some of the relations hold only at the present epoch in the Earth's history, so we appear, coincidentally, to be living at a very special time (give or take a few million years!). This was later explained, by Carter and Dicke, by the fact that this epoch coincided with the lifetime of what are called main-sequence stars,",
"-28.0435439805442"
],
[
"published the first reasonably accurate measurement of the Hubble constant, at 75 (km/s)/Mpc, which is close to modern estimates of 68–74 (km/s)/Mpc.\nThe age of the Earth (actually the Solar System) was first accurately measured around 1955 by Clair Patterson at 4.55 billion years, essentially identical to the modern value. For H₀ ~ 75 (km/s)/Mpc, the inverse of H₀ is 13.0 billion years; so after 1958 the Big Bang model age was comfortably older than the Earth.\nHowever, in the 1960s and onwards, new developments in the theory of stellar evolution enabled age estimates for large star clusters called globular clusters: these generally gave age",
"-28.033613490406424"
],
[
"permanently opened – to wreak additional havoc. The old world gone, a new dark age dawns and humanity's shrinking population is reduced, due to catastrophe and domestic failure, immeasurably. This period is covered in Palladium's Rifts Chaos Earth spin-off series.\nRifts initially takes place in 101 P.A. (equivalent to the year 2387) 289 years after this event. The \"Post-Apocalypse\" calendar was established by the formation of the Coalition States in 2286.\nWhile many different events that make up the world begin before and after this time, such as with the invasion of Chi-Town by the Federation of Magic (before)",
"-28.026288730907254"
],
[
"radio transmissions from roughly a light year away. Lifetime of such a civilization wherein it communicates its signals into space, L Michael Shermer estimated L as 420 years, based on the duration of sixty historical Earthly civilizations. Using 28 civilizations more recent than the Roman Empire, he calculates a figure of 304 years for \"modern\" civilizations. It could also be argued from Michael Shermer's results that the fall of most of these civilizations was followed by later civilizations that carried on the technologies, so it is doubtful that they are separate civilizations in the context of the Drake equation. In",
"-27.958663454512134"
],
[
"universe erupted 15 billion years ago in an explosion called the 'Big Bang' and has been expanding and cooling ever since. Later there gradually emerged the conditions necessary for the formation of atoms, still later the condensation of galaxies and stars, and about 10 billion years later the formation of planets. In our own solar system and on earth (formed about 4.5 billion years ago), the conditions have been favorable to the emergence of life. While there is little consensus among scientists about how the origin of this first microscopic life is to be explained, there is general agreement among",
"-27.867897662246833"
],
[
"indicating a redshift towards the upper end of this range, around 7. The galaxy's light now observable on Earth would have begun to emanate from its source about 750 million years after the Big Bang. Horizons The limit of observability in our universe is set by a set of cosmological horizons which limit—based on various physical constraints—the extent to which we can obtain information about various events in the universe. The most famous horizon is the particle horizon which sets a limit on the precise distance that can be seen due to the finite age of the universe. Additional horizons",
"-27.83550856771035"
],
[
"discovered that our universe will repeat its events again and again, so the mistakes we make will be repeated forever. prot encourages Powell to make this time count, as it is the only chance we have. Inspired, Powell begins a new, better life by reconciling with his estranged son. Reception K-PAX received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 41% based on 139 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1 out of 10 with the web site's consensus stating \"For those who have seen One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest or Starman, K-PAX may",
"-27.771590669464786"
],
[
"Time domain astronomy Time domain astronomy is the study of how astronomical objects, especially those beyond the Solar System, change with time. This may be due to movement or changes in the object itself. Common targets included are supernovae, novas, flare stars, blazars and active galactic nuclei. Visible light time domain studies include HAT-South, the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, PanSTARRS, SkyMapper, the Wide Angle Search for Planets and the Catalina Real-time Transient Survey.\nIn radio astronomy the LOFAR is looking for radio transients. Radio time domain studies have long included pulsars and scintillation. Cherenkov Telescope Array, eROSITA, AGILE, Fermi, HAWC, INTEGRAL,",
"-27.758872507023625"
],
[
"immense. These projections are based on information about 15 billion past years since the Big Bang, but the habitable future is much longer, spanning trillions of eons. Therefore, physics, astroeclogy resources, and some cosmological scenarios may allow organized life to last, albeit at an ever slowing rate, indefinitely. These prospects may be addressed by the long-term extension of astroecology as cosmoecology.",
"-27.753049300750718"
],
[
"n < 5\". In this era, the Big Bang, the subsequent inflation, and Big Bang nucleosynthesis are thought to have taken place. Toward the end of this age, the recombination of electrons with nuclei made the universe transparent for the first time. The authors discuss the horizon and flatness problems. Stelliferous Era The Stelliferous Era, is defined as, \"6 < n < 14\". This is the current era, in which matter is arranged in the form of stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters, and most energy is produced in stars. Massive stars use up their fuel very rapidly, in as little",
"-27.733167808270082"
],
[
"16 billion light years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event were less than 16 billion light years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event were more than 16 billion light years away.\nAs galaxies approach the point of crossing this cosmological event horizon, the light from them will become more and more redshifted, to the point where the wavelength becomes too large to detect in practice and the galaxies appear to vanish completely (see Future of an expanding universe). Planet",
"-27.715175483754138"
],
[
"the universe (and indeed with the age measured today). This issue was later resolved when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters. While there still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, globular clusters are of interest to cosmology as some of the oldest objects in the universe.\nSignificant progress in Big Bang cosmology has been made since the late 1990s as a result of advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of data from satellites such",
"-27.70120243821293"
],
[
"humans live in artificially created pocket universes. These universes are connected to our own via wormholes maintained on the dark side of the eleven supercomputers orbiting the sun. These artificial universes can be designed to cater to individual populaces and some have different physical laws than our universe. These pocket universes include the technologically advanced world of Topaz, the medieval fantasy themed world of Midgarth, the hunter gatherer world Olduvia, and the aquatic paradise of Hawaiki, among many others.\nVarious advancements in biotechnology have effectively rendered mankind immortal. Humans no longer age normally, and even death has been overcome by means",
"-27.6578273388659"
],
[
"Telescope Interferometer (VLTI), announced the first direct detection of an exoplanet, HR 8799 e, using optical interferometry. Age of the universe With the Very Large Telescope, astronomers have made an independent determination of the age of the universe and shed new light on the earliest stages of the Milky Way. For the first time, they measured the amount of the radioactive isotope uranium-238 in a star born when the Milky Way was still forming.\nLike carbon dating over longer timescales, the uranium clock measures the age of a star. It shows that this star is 12.5 billion years old. Because the star",
"-27.64718555053696"
],
[
"observable universe is 46 billion light-years (14 billion parsecs), making the diameter of the observable universe about 93 billion light-years (28 billion parsecs). The distance the light from the edge of the observable universe has travelled is very close to the age of the Universe times the speed of light, 13.8 billion light-years (4.2×10⁹ pc), but this does not represent the distance at any given time because the edge of the observable universe and the Earth have since moved further apart. For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is 30,000 light-years (9,198 parsecs), and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies",
"-27.626792146111256"
],
[
"without access to superluminal travel or to superluminal communication. Time-measurement details provide an interesting concept in the book: the Qeng Ho measure time primarily in terms of seconds, since the notion of days, months, and years has no usefulness between various star-systems. The timekeeping system uses terms such as kiloseconds and megaseconds. The Qeng Ho's computer and timekeeping systems feature the advent of \"programmer archaeologists\": the Qeng Ho are packrats of computer programs and systems, retaining them over millennia, even as far back to the era of Unix programs (as implied by one passage mentioning that the fundamental time-keeping system",
"-27.612681496073492"
],
[
"Implied Spaces Setting Implied Spaces takes place approximately 1,500 to 2,000 years in the future. Humanity has entered a period of technological singularity fueled by a series of massive supercomputers orbiting the sun. These computers act as giant solar collectors and computational machine for running human society. While humanity numbers in the hundreds of billions, only perhaps a few million live in the solar system. Some have gone on slower than light journeys to establish colonies around other stars, such as Alpha Centauri, Tau Ceti, and Epsilon Eridani, a colony lost after a stellar event known as \"The Big Belch\".\nMost",
"-27.585251183831133"
],
[
"the world is renewed every five thousand years—a period called a \"Sun\" (currently we live in the fifth Sun). The date of the beginning of the \"Sixth World\" is based on the ancient Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, which when Shadowrun was developed was correlated as finishing a 5,200-year-long cycle on 24 December 2011. The understanding of the Maya that resulted in the use of the 2011 date and the use of the \"worlds\" concept is due to the influence of Frank Waters's 1975 book Mexico Mystique: The Coming Sixth World of Consciousness, whose elaborate cosmology is selectively utilized in the",
"-27.564988500380423"
],
[
"time the light was emitted is estimated to have been about 15% of the Milky Way's current mass. The galaxy was making new stars at roughly 80 times the rate of the current Milky Way, or equivalent to 800 M☉ worth of material turning to stars every year. The light reaching Earth was made by stars in EGS-zs8-1 that were 100 million to 300 million years old at the time they emitted the light. The age of EGS-zs8-1 places it in the reionization phase of creation, a time when hydrogen outside the galaxies was switching from a neutral to ionized",
"-27.551046611508355"
],
[
"the very first stars. The discovery of the star in the Milky Way galaxy suggests that the galaxy may be at least 3 billion years older than previously thought.\nSeveral individual stars have been found in the Milky Way's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80-billion-year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523-0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using",
"-27.55006086616777"
],
[
"carbon, by nucleosynthesis. Small rocky planets did not yet exist. If the universe were 10 times older than it actually is, most stars would be too old to remain on the main sequence and would have turned into white dwarfs, aside from the dimmest red dwarfs, and stable planetary systems would have already come to an end. Thus, Dicke explained the coincidence between large dimensionless numbers constructed from the constants of physics and the age of the universe, a coincidence which had inspired Dirac's varying-G theory.\nDicke later reasoned that the density of matter in the universe must be",
"-27.524221778847277"
],
[
"Time Lords from 30,000 years in their future, the first strike (from the Time Lords' point of view) of a time war. The same story also identified the star as Qqaba.\nOmega also appears in the 1998 BBC Books Doctor Who novel The Infinity Doctors by Lance Parkin (which also mentioned Qqaba), although as it is never quite specified if the novel takes place in the actual Doctor Who universe or an alternate reality, whether this was the \"real\" Omega or an alternative version is unclear. The novel reprises various events from both television appearances, although it creates an original story",
"-27.50074047362432"
],
[
"as hours and calendar dates, may have little meaning after 10,000 years. However, every human culture counts days, months (in some form), and years, all of which are based on lunar and solar cycles. There are also longer natural cycles, such as the 25,765-year precession of Earth's axis. On the other hand, the clock is a product of our time, and it seems appropriate to pay homage to our current arbitrary systems of time measurement. In the end, it seemed best to display both the natural cycles and some of the current cultural cycles.\nThe center of the clock will show",
"-27.475011121248826"
],
[
"Culmination Period of time The period between one upper culmination and the next is about 24 hours, while the period between an upper one and a lower one is almost 12 hours. The orbital motion, Earth's rotation and proper motion of Earth affect the period between successive upper culminations. Due to the proper and improper motions of the Sun, one solar day (the interval between like culminations of the Sun) is slightly longer than one sidereal day (the interval between like culminations of any reference star). The mean difference is 1/365.24219, since Earth takes 365.24219 days to complete one orbit",
"-27.44009653478861"
],
[
"rather than years or light-years. In such a scale, the Big Bang corresponds to a redshift of infinity. Alternative theories of gravity that do not have an expanding universe in them need an alternative to explain the correspondence between redshift and distance that is sui generis to the expanding metrics of general relativity. Such theories are sometimes referred to as \"tired-light cosmologies\", though not all authors are necessarily aware of the historical antecedents.",
"-27.424112481297925"
],
[
"and frightened, the couple run into a back alley and enter a void of white space. They discover a man in yellow who helps them out of the void and explains to them that he is the supervisor of the maintenance of time. They have somehow slipped into a loophole and while they should be in an earlier time - 9:33 a.m. - for some reason they have hopped over into 11:37 a.m. Showing them exactly how time is maintained, he reveals to them a new understanding of how the universe works: every minute is essentially a separate world which must be",
"-27.385597287880955"
],
[
"the universe.\nIn 1931 Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion of the universe, if projected back in time, meant that the further in the past the smaller the universe was, until at some finite time in the past all the mass of the universe was concentrated into a single point, a \"primeval atom\" where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence.\nStarting in 1924, Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators, the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder, using the 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. This allowed him to estimate distances",
"-27.377904809080064"
],
[
"The existence of such early protogalaxies suggests that they must have grown in the so-called \"dark ages\". As of May 5, 2015, the galaxy EGS-zs8-1 is the most distant and earliest galaxy measured, forming 670 million years after the Big Bang. The light from EGS-zs8-1 has taken 13 billion years to reach Earth, and is now 30 billion light-years away, because of the expansion of the universe during 13 billion years. Early galaxy formation The detailed process by which early galaxies formed is an open question in astrophysics. Theories can be divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up. In top-down",
"-27.36581375077367"
],
[
"appears to describe his situation. The physicist, Nathan Rosenbluth, theorized a \"disfiguration of time\" that could cause the universe to snap backward and repeat the period of one hour. Over his next three time-loops, Castleman tries desperately to contact Rosenbluth and ask him for advice. In the last of these attempts, Castleman collapses, suffering a heart attack. He realizes he is dying, but is grateful that this will finally break the loop and free him. He dies, and the hour of 1:00 PM arrives. Castleman awakens and sees he has been returned to the place where he begins every hour.",
"-27.30192732658179"
],
[
"across 152 countries and territories, making it the biggest growth year for the campaign since 2009. It was also the first year that Earth Hour was celebrated in space, with Dutch astronaut André Kuipers tweeting at various moments during the event's trek around the globe. 2013 Earth Hour 2013 was held across the world on Saturday, March 23 at 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time to avoid taking place after European Summer Time began, ensuring a greater impact for the lights-off event. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 30 of that",
"-27.28886590595357"
],
[
"Earth-bound experiments are extremely small, with differences being measured in nanoseconds. Relative to Earth's age in billions of years, Earth's core is effectively 2.5 years younger than its surface. Demonstrating larger effects would require greater distances from the Earth or a larger gravitational source.\nGravitational time dilation was first described by Albert Einstein in 1907 as a consequence of special relativity in accelerated frames of reference. In general relativity, it is considered to be a difference in the passage of proper time at different positions as described by a metric tensor of space-time. The existence of gravitational time dilation was first",
"-27.271172988257604"
],
[
"on space-time are significant enough that when not taken into account, they distort our understanding of time and our observations of distant objects. Following Thomas Buchert's publication of equations in 1997 and 2000 that derive from general relativity but also allow for the inclusion of local gravitational variations, a number of cosmological models were proposed under which the acceleration of the universe is in fact a misinterpretation of our astronomical observations and in which dark energy is unnecessary to explain them. For example, in 2007, David Wiltshire proposed a model (timescape cosmology) in which backreactions have causing time to",
"-27.258044756948948"
],
[
"or someone from a different time to the present; again the most popular is a dinosaur being accidentally brought into the present world. Television The 1966-67 series The Time Tunnel.\nIn the 1967 Star Trek episode \"The City on the Edge of Forever\", a temporarily deranged Dr. Leonard McCoy runs into a time portal, an ancient sentient stone-like ring which calls itself the Guardian of Forever, and is transported back to 1930s Depression-era Earth and history is changed as shown when the Enterprise disappears from orbit. Captain James T. Kirk and Mr. Spock follow through the time portal to set things",
"-27.21362722865888"
]
] |
1je2w4 | What is being transgender, and how can there be more than two genders? | [
"I'll attempt to provide some info on the second point. There's a difference between biological sex and gender identity. Your biological sex is assigned at birth based on biological characteristics, male or female. This is in most cases a binary, except in the case of individuals born with ambiguous sexual characteristics, often termed \"intersex\" individuals because their biological sex falls somewhere between simple \"male\" or \"female\". \"Gender\" is socially constructed, meaning that we as societies and individuals determine what it means to be male or female. Behavior, appearance, dress, speech, all are examples of gender norms. Gender roles change over time and space, meaning that what it means to be a woman or a man means different things in different places. People referring to there being more than 2 genders may be in reference to the idea that gender is fluid, or is kind of like a spectrum. People express their gender identity in shades- for instance, some women wear dresses, some women wear pants, some men are masculine, some men are less masculine- there are thousands of ways to express gender.",
"Transgender people feel they were born the wrong sex, i.e. they feel they are a boy when they have female genitalia, and a girl if they have male genitalia. They identify with the opposite sex, are (most of the time) attracted to their own sex, and wish they had the physical body of the opposite sex. They are more comfortable dressing and behaving as the gender they feel they are. A lot of psychological issues are prevalent in transgender people because they feel they are trapped in the wrong body. I'm not an expert, so I can't answer the second half of your question about there being more than two genders.",
"the trans- prefix means across. So these people are living *across* genders. The other part of your question is a social issue so I'm not going to address it (because my opinions differ from what the majority think.)"
] | [
[
"to including people whose gender identity is the opposite of their assigned sex (trans men and trans women), it may include people who are not exclusively masculine or feminine (e.g. people who are genderqueer, non-binary, bigender, pangender, genderfluid, or agender). Other definitions of transgender also include people who belong to a third gender, or conceptualize transgender people as a third gender. Infrequently, the term transgender is defined very broadly to include cross-dressers. General Many feminists consider sex to only be a matter of biology and something that is not about social or cultural construction. For example, Lynda Birke, a feminist",
"-34.95196386234602"
],
[
"use the term), while the term gender difference could be re-defined as due to differential socialization between the sexes of a monomorphic adaptation or byproduct. For example, greater male propensity toward physical aggression and risk taking would be termed a \"sex difference;\" the generally longer head hair length of females would be termed a \"gender difference.\" Transgender and genderqueer Transgender people experience a mismatch between their gender identity or gender expression, and their assigned sex. Transgender people are sometimes called transsexual if they desire medical assistance to transition from one sex to another.\nTransgender is also an umbrella term: in addition",
"-34.25048063884606"
],
[
"usually raised and enculturated as a cisgender heterosexual member of the assigned sex, which may or may not match their emergent gender identity throughout life or some remaining sex characteristics (for example, chromosomes, genes or internal sex organs). Transgender people Transgender people experience a mismatch between their gender identity and their assigned sex. Transgender is also an umbrella term because, in addition to including trans men and trans women whose binary gender identity is the opposite of their assigned sex (and who are sometimes specifically termed transsexual if they desire medical assistance to transition), it may include genderqueer people (whose",
"-33.800033647763485"
],
[
"identities are not exclusively masculine or feminine, but may, for example, be bigender, pangender, genderfluid, or agender). Other definitions include third-gender people as transgender or conceptualize transgender people as a third gender, and infrequently the term is defined very broadly to include cross-dressers.\nSome transgender people seek sex reassignment therapy, and may not behave according to the gender role imposed by society. Some societies consider transgender behavior a crime worthy of capital punishment, including Saudi Arabia and many other nations. In some cases, gay or lesbian people were forced to undergo sex change treatments to \"fix\" their sex or gender: in",
"-33.435509152390296"
],
[
"Transgender inequality Common misconceptions A common misconception is that a transgender person is therefore gay. However, being transgender focuses on gender identity and not sexual orientation. A transgender person may identify with any sexual orientation. Another important misconception is that individuals who crossdress are transgender. However, many crossdressers are comfortable with their assigned sex. Even though individuals who participate in crossdressing are officially under the Transgender Umbrella, most do not identify as transgender.\nThe status of transgenderism as a mental disorder is widely disputed. Many transgender people experience gender dysphoria, which is a disconnect between one's assigned sex at birth and",
"-32.913544020404515"
],
[
"thus by definition \"transgressively gendered\"; and (5) neutered or unsexed/ungendered individuals such as eunuchs. Transgender people and third gender Gender may be recognized and organized differently in different cultures. In some non-Western cultures, gender may not be seen as binary, or people may be seen as being able to cross freely between male and female, or to exist in a state that is in-between, or neither. In some cultures being third gender may be associated with the gift of being able to mediate between the world of the spirits and world of humans. For cultures with these spiritual beliefs, it",
"-32.77868315530941"
],
[
"means \"denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal identity and gender does not correspond with their birth sex.\" However, Heidi M Levitt describes transgender as \"different ways in which people transgress the gender boundaries that are constituted within a society.\" She then describes how one must understand the difference between sex and gender in order to fully understand transgender. She argues that sex is biological whereas \"gender is a social construct.\" Thus people who are transgender express themselves differently than their biological sex. In contrast, Levitt explains that \"transsexual people have a sexual identity that does not",
"-32.53805733565241"
],
[
"Sex and gender distinction The distinction between sex and gender differentiates a person's biological sex (the anatomy of an individual's reproductive system, and secondary sex characteristics) from that person's gender, which can refer to either social roles based on the sex of the person (gender role) or personal identification of one's own gender based on an internal awareness (gender identity). In some circumstances, an individual's assigned sex and gender do not align, and the person may be transgender. In other cases, an individual may have biological sex characteristics that complicate sex assignment, and the person may be intersex.\nIn ordinary speech,",
"-32.399412232858595"
],
[
"differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.\" Not all gender variant people identify as transgender, and not all transgender people identify as gender variant—many identify simply as men or women. Gender identity is one's internal sense of their own gender; while most people have a gender identity of a boy or a man, or a girl or a woman, gender identity for other people is more complex than two choices. Furthermore, gender expression is the external manifestation of one's gender identity, usually through \"masculine,\" \"feminine,\" or gender variant presentation or behavior.\nIn some countries, such as Australia, the term",
"-32.39460669772234"
],
[
"\"male\" and \"female\". Transgender people have a unique place in relation to the gender binary. In some cases, attempting to conform to societal expectations for their gender, transsexual individuals may opt for surgery, hormones, or both. Limitations and rejection Some feminist scholars have contested the existence of a clear gender binary. Judith Lorber explains the problem of failing to question dividing people into these two groups \"even though they often find more significant within-group differences than between-group differences.\" Lorber argues that this corroborates the fact that the gender binary is arbitrary and leads to false expectations of both men and",
"-32.285005026264116"
],
[
"same sex, persons of the opposite sex, or persons of either sex\". In addition, \"not being romantically or sexually attracted to persons of either sex is also a sexual orientation\". Gender identity and expression Transgender persons are allowed to change their legal gender and to have their new gender recognised as a result of the Gender Recognition Act 2009 (c.11).",
"-32.14600216996041"
],
[
"some transgender people have non-binary gender identities, (genderqueer, agender, pangender, culturally-specific third gender identities, and more).\nDiscrimination rates are very high for the transgender community and especially for transgender people of color. Some frequent examples of discrimination and other forms of oppression faced by the transgender community are violence and hate crimes, homelessness, poverty, sexual assault, housing discrimination, employment discrimination, harassment, bullying, disproportionate rates of arrest and incarceration,\nprison and immigration violence and mistreatment, airport security humiliation, HIV/AIDS and health disparities, governmental/bureaucratic barriers to transitioning (documents and surgery requirements), economic and societal barriers to transitioning (the high costs of medical care and",
"-31.97806847334141"
],
[
"Intersex can also be contrasted with transgender, which describes the condition in which one's gender identity does not match one's assigned sex. Some people are both intersex and transgender. A 2012 clinical review paper found that between 8.5% and 20% of people with intersex variations experienced gender dysphoria. LGBT and LGBTI The relationship of intersex to lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans, and queer communities is complex, but intersex people are often added to LGBT to create an LGBTI community. This initialism is used in all parts of The Activist's Guide of the Yogyakarta Principles in Action.\nJulius Kaggwa of SIPD Uganda",
"-31.73536330347997"
],
[
"male) side of the gender spectrum.\nThe term transsexual originated in the medical and psychological communities. However, unlike the term transgender, transsexual is not an umbrella term, and many transgender people do not identify as such. Transsexual is a term for AFAB and assigned male at birth (AMAB) people alike who feel their sex organs do not reflect their gender and have chosen to change some aspect of their body; it is an older term, with GLAAD stating that it is \"still preferred by some people who have permanently changed – or seek to change – their bodies through medical interventions",
"-31.55514766219858"
],
[
"qualities pertaining to both the male and female gender. Other societies have claimed to identify more than five genders, and some non-Western societies have three genders – man, woman, and third gender. Some individuals (not necessarily being from such a culture) identify with no gender at all.\nMany transgender people reject the idea that they are a separate third gender, and identify simply as men or women. However, biological differences between (some) trans women and cisgender women have historically been treated as relevant in certain contexts, especially those where biological traits may yield an unfair advantage such as sport.\nGender role, which",
"-31.42588581358723"
],
[
"Gender variance Terminology The terms gender variance and gender variant are used by scholars of psychology and psychiatry, anthropology, and gender studies, as well as advocacy groups of gender variant people themselves. The term gender-variant is deliberately broad, encompassing such specific terms as transsexual, butch and femme, queen, sissy, tomboy, travesti, or hijra.\nThe word transgender usually has a narrower meaning and different connotations, including an identification that differs from the gender assigned at birth. GLAAD (formerly the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation)'s Media Reference Guide defines transgender as an \"umbrella term for people whose gender identity or gender expression",
"-31.417785659665242"
],
[
"allows for recognition of not only transgender persons defined as the \"other\" gender under Indian law, but would potentially leave the door open for the recognition of other gender identities. Living conditions There are many avenues for the LGBT community in metro cities for meeting and socialising, although not very openly. These include GayBombay (Mumbai), Good as You (Bangalore), HarmlessHugs (Delhi), Orinam (Chennai), Queerala (Kochi), Queerhythm (Thiruvananthapuram), Mobbera (Hyderabad), Parichay Collective (Bhubaneswar), and Sahodaran (Chennai). Groups focused on LGBT women include ASQ (Bangalore), Labia (Mumbai), Sappho for Equality (Kolkata), Chennai Queer Cafe, among others. Trans-specific groups that are focused on",
"-31.375673515694416"
],
[
"Gender Minority Research Office and numerous professional and academic institutions have adopted this term.\nSexual and gender minority is an umbrella term that encompasses populations included in the acronym \"LGBTI\" (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex), and those whose sexual orientation or gender identity varies. It includes those who may not self-identify as LGBTI (e.g., queer, questioning, two-spirit, asexual, men who have sex with men, gender variant), or those who have a specific medical condition affecting reproductive development (e.g., individuals with differences or disorders of sex development, who sometimes identify as intersex). Origins The term sexual minority was coined most likely",
"-31.305508524819743"
],
[
"insist on distinguishing themselves from transvestites, it is because transsexuals consider that they were born into the wrong body, whereas transvestites do not experience as deeply internal conflicts in relation to their male bodies.\nThe formal labor market is largely closed to transgender people. An extremely small minority of transvestites have university educations or professional qualifications. With few exceptions, the only professions open to them are nursing, domestic service, hairdressing, gay entertainment, and prostitution. In some cases, even those who work as hairdressers, gay nightclub artists and domestic servants also double as sex workers. In the central, north and northeastern regions",
"-31.25540091511357"
],
[
"1999. Transgender culture The study of transgender and transsexual culture is complicated by the many ways in which cultures deal with sexual identity/sexual orientation and gender. For example, in many cultures people who are attracted to people of the same sex—that is, those who in contemporary Western culture would identify as gay, lesbian or bisexual—are classed as a third gender with people who would (in the West) be classified as transgender.\nIn the contemporary West there are different groups of transgender and transsexual people, such as groups for transsexual people who want sex reassignment surgery, male, heterosexual-only cross-dressers and Trans men's",
"-31.21084161964245"
],
[
"basis of their gender identity if they are trans, 53% believed being transgender was acceptable while 37% did not, 77% believed that transgender students should be allowed to attend public school, and 8% said they would refuse to work with a transgender co worker. A 2012 study found that the heterosexual cisgender individuals who believe there are natural binary genders and there are natural differences between men and women are more likely to have negative attitudes toward transgender individuals.\nEvents in the LGBT+ community such as Transgender Awareness Week and the International Transgender Day of Visibility are focused on educating and",
"-31.138633389375173"
],
[
"Transsexual persons are allowed to change their legal sex.\nIn 2010, France removed gender identity disorder as a diagnosis by decree, but according to French transgender rights organizations, beyond the impact of the announcement itself, nothing changed. Transsexualism is part of the ALD 31 (fr) and treatment is funded by Sécurité Sociale.\nDiscrimination on the basis of gender identity (sexual identity) has been banned since 2012. In 2016, the term \"sexual identity\" was replaced by \"gender identity\".\nOn 6 November 2015, a bill to allow transgender people to legally change their gender without the need for sex reassignment surgery and forced sterilisation was",
"-30.946303835953586"
],
[
"ambiguous genitalia who self-identify as female. Some sources consider trans women who have sex with men to be MSM, others consider women who are trans \"alongside\" MSM, and others are internally inconsistent (defining transgender women to be MSM in one place but referring to \"MSM and transgender\" in another). Prevalence Determining the number of men who have ever had sex with another man is difficult. Worldwide, at least 3% of men, and perhaps as high as 16% of men, have had sex at least once with a man. These figures include victims of sexual abuse in addition to",
"-30.915206884383224"
],
[
"the transgender students on account of underestimating the gravity of transphobia in their schools. Islam The Islamic faith ordinarily supports a heteronormative binary of gender identification which is reinforced by their cultural norms and traditional readings of sacred texts which prohibit the wide range of identities that are present in today's society. Transgender men and women are acknowledged and accepted in many Islamic cultures around the world. In actuality, the idea of a man or woman identifying as a member of the opposite gender is more likely to be approved than that of a man or woman expressing sexual desire",
"-30.875673796457704"
],
[
"are define by genetic disorders and that it may be permissible or not for those who're scientifically-medically-proven to be part of the LGBT category as with hermaphrodite denoting whether a person is incline towards the naturality of female or male instinct. Same for Mukhannathun (Transgender), in which there are many prophetic Hadith that allows male who have inclinations towards being female (effeminate) that occurred during the Islamic prophet Muhammad's time and that they were accepted as part of the larger community in Madinah having equal rights. Qaradawi is one of many among the leading Islamic scholars who's in this ongoing",
"-30.832134493393824"
],
[
"other people.\" Transgenderism Cantor has written that transsexuality is a phenomenon of the brain, stating that MRI research has verified the Blanchard theory of there being two different kinds of male-to-female transsexuals. One of these types (called \"homosexual transsexuals\") have brains like gay men, which are mostly male with some features more common among women, and another type (called \"autogynephilic transsexuals\" or \"heterosexual transsexuals\") which also have brains that differ from typical, but not with features like those of women.\nIn a subsequent article, Anton Guillamon, another neuroscientist studying transsexuality said, \"Cantor seems to be right.\"\nCantor wrote that transsexuals deserve a",
"-30.829168725264026"
],
[
"from her job at the Georgia Legislative Assembly due to her transgender status. Relying on Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins and other Title VII precedent, the Court concluded that the plaintiff was discriminated against based on her sex because she was transitioning from male to female. The Court stated that a person is considered transgender \"precisely because of the perception that his or her behavior transgresses gender stereotypes.\" As a result, there is \"congruence\" between discriminating against transgender individuals and discrimination on the basis of \"gender-based behavioral norms.\" \"Because everyone is protected against discrimination based on sex stereotypes, such protections cannot",
"-30.807201893650927"
],
[
"showed that transgender people reinforced the idea of heteronormativity, seen in their gender practices and beliefs. Although, there are also transgender people that are set on a path to challenge Western traditional beliefs in gender roles and sexual differences within relationships. Other LGBT groups Several other segments of the LGBTQ+ community have their own communities and cultures, including the deaf queer community. Queer women of color Race, gender, and class can shape the representation and politics of the queer movement and queer identities. According to one study that interviewed 25 Latina and Asian/Pacific Islander women, queer women of color",
"-30.691378756047925"
],
[
"of male bisexual characters in film has been one of negative stereotyping.\" Transgender people Transgender is an umbrella term that encompasses a wide range of people with more specific identities. In general, a person who is transgender identifies with a gender other than their gender assigned at birth. The term may apply to any number of distinct communities, such as cross-dressers, drag queens, and drag kings, in addition to transsexuals. The beliefs that transgender people are all prostitutes and caricatures of men and women are two of many erroneous misconceptions.\nOne common stereotype of trans women is that they are assumed",
"-30.66921592199651"
],
[
"discrimination against a transgender individual because that person is transgender is, by definition, discrimination 'based on ... sex' and such discrimination ... violates Title VII\". This ruling was for a discrimination complaint filed by the Transgender Law Center on behalf of transgender woman Mia Macy, who had been denied a job due to her gender identity. The ruling opens the door for any transgender employees or potential employees who have been discriminated against by a business hiring 15 or more people in the US based on their gender identity to file a claim with the EEOC for sex discrimination.\nIn 2012",
"-30.603045863797888"
],
[
"Parliament adopting a resolution on transgender’ rights as early as 1989, transgender identity is not incorporated into any EU funding and was not mentioned in the law establishing the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) as sexual orientation was. However, the case law of the European Court of Justice provides some protection by interpreting discrimination on the basis of 'sex' to also refer to people who have had 'gender reassignment'. Thus all EU sex discrimination law applies to transgender people. In 2002, the 1976 equal treatment directive was revised to include discrimination based on gender identity, to reflect case law",
"-30.59929384791758"
],
[
"homosexuality is illegal in Iran but transgenderism is legal, some gay individuals have been urged to undergo the surgery and transition into the opposite sex, regardless of their actual gender identity.\nIn Pakistan, the hijras are officially recognized as a third gender that is neither male nor female, a concept that some have compared to mukhannathun.\nSome modern Islamic authorities say that if an individual deemed a khuntha or intersex has an unclear gender, it is not permissible for him to marry a woman until a medical professional confirms that he is male.",
"-30.595682094222866"
],
[
"those identifying with culturally conventional gender roles. Some transgender individuals do not consistently identify as one gender and some consider the conventional sexual orientation labels inadequate. Developments in research suggests that transgender individuals are likely to classify their sexual orientation in non-binary ways, using their past and present sexual experiences and feelings to represent their sexual orientation, as opposed to using those which are based on traditional sex or gender descriptions. Cultural debate The exploration on sexual fluidity initiated by Lisa M. Diamond presented a cultural challenge to the LGBT community; this is because although researchers usually emphasize that changes",
"-30.582093621371314"
],
[
"people. The Asia Pacific Forum states that the legal recognition of intersex people is firstly about access to the same rights as other men and women, when assigned male or female; secondly it is about access to administrative corrections to legal documents when an original sex assignment is not appropriate; and thirdly, while opt in schemes may help some individuals, legal recognition is not about the creation of a third sex or gender classification for intersex people as a population.\nIn March 2017, an Australian and Aotearoa/New Zealand community statement called for an end to legal classification of sex, stating that",
"-30.577827873276874"
],
[
"of Global Action for Trans Equality:\nPeople tend to identify a third sex with freedom from the gender binary, but that is not necessarily the case. If only trans and/or intersex people can access that third category, or if they are compulsively assigned to a third sex, then the gender binary gets stronger, not weaker.\nThe report concludes that two or three options are insufficient: \"A more inclusive approach would be to increase options for people to self-define their sex and gender identity.\" Intersex people Like all individuals, some intersex individuals may be raised as a particular sex (male or female) but",
"-30.558056068082806"
],
[
"UCLA on \"How Many Adults Identify as Transgender in the United States?\", they found that younger adults are more likely to identify as transgender than older adults. This may be a result of a newly wider acceptance of transgender people from the communities, allowing for those who identify as transgender to have a greater voice. In their research they found that an estimated 0.7% of adults between the ages of 18 and 24 identify as transgender, while 0.6% of adults age 25 to 64 and 0.5% of adults age 65 or older identify as transgender.\nThe pink on the transgender",
"-30.50967567053158"
],
[
"disagreed. As for transgender people, 49% agreed that they should have the same rights, 51% believed they should be protected from employment discrimination and 44% believed they should be allowed to change their legal gender.\nAdditionally, according to that same poll, about 40% of Pakistanis would try to \"change\" a neighbour's sexual orientation if they discovered he/she was gay. (43% if it's a woman and 45% if it's a man).",
"-30.509261562488973"
],
[
"equity rates for transgender and intersex individuals may be even lower than others in the LGBTQI community. Societal Discrimination Within Australian society, transgender and other gender diverse peoples have experienced dramatic occurrences of harassment and discrimination.\nThese examples of harassment and discrimination occur in a variety of ways. Purposely misgendering an individual who identifies as gender diverse is an act of discrimination with severe ramifications for the mental health of transgender peoples. Australia came a close second to the United States of America in stating that they would intentionally misgender a trans person as an act of disrespect.\nConsidering these statistics, it",
"-30.487512898398563"
],
[
"Classification of transsexual and transgender people The classification of transsexual people and people with other gender atypicalities has been done since the mid-1960s. In medicine and psychiatry, terms such as heterosexual and homosexual have been based on a person's sex assignment at birth, which has prompted the increased use of androphilia and gynephilia to avoid terminological confusion and bias. In social, political and medical contexts, the classification is often relative to one's desired sex. DSM-III-R The DSM-III-R, published in 1987, retained the term transsexualism. It was located under \"Disorders Usually First Evident in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence\". DSM-IV and",
"-30.42424846685026"
],
[
"for someone who has gone through genital reassignment surgery to change their legal gender in order to reflect their post-operative sex. Transgender people then have the right to marry in accordance with their post-operative sex. United Kingdom The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 made it illegal to discriminate on the ground of anatomical sex in employment, education, and the provision of housing, goods, facilities and services. The Equality Act 2006 introduced the Gender Equality Duty in Scotland, which made public bodies obliged to take seriously the threat of harassment or discrimination of transsexual people in various situations. In 2008, the Sex",
"-30.37422566744499"
],
[
"explicitly compare transgender women to rapists for forcing themselves into women's spaces.\nMany transgender people see gender identity as an innate part of a person. Some feminists also criticize this belief, arguing instead that gender roles are societal constructs, and are not related to any natural factor. Sex-positive feminists support the right of all individuals to determine their own gender and promote gender fluidity as one means for achieving gender equality. Patrick Califia has written extensively about issues surrounding feminism and transgender issues, especially in Sex Changes: Transgender Politics. Debates Like feminism itself, sex-positive feminism is difficult to define, and few",
"-30.366691271483433"
],
[
"assumed to be transgender or crossdressing, by association.\nThe use of the term \"passing\" regarding sexual orientation denotes \"hiding\" one's identity, where use among gender-variant people (as noted above) signals acceptance and concordance with one's internal sense of or desired gender identity. However, for this reason, and because transgender persons who come to live full-time in their desired gender/sex identity often recognize their previous attempts to conceal their identity and be accepted in socially-accepted and designated roles as the real artifice they constructed and protected, some have begun to instead call their previous gender-normative and concealing behaviour as \"passing\".",
"-30.33730964071583"
],
[
"and the Air Force Act, 1950 and allow LGBT people to serve in the Armed Forces. Incidents Actor Kamal Rashid Khan was processed by the police on 9 December 2018 for making obscene comments against the LGBT community. Transgender rights South Asia (modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal) has traditionally recognised a third gender population, considered by society as neither male or female. Such individuals are known as hijras or alternatively hijadas (Hindi, Maithili and Dogri: हिजड़ा; Bengali: হিজড়া; Nepali: हिजडा; Marathi: हिजडा). In Telugu, they are referred to as napunsakudu (నపుంసకుడు) or hijrā (హిజ్రా), in Urdu as khwaja sara",
"-30.328867312564398"
],
[
"trans man and trans woman. Likewise, the term transsexual commonly falls under the umbrella term transgender, but some transsexual people object to this.\nWhen not inclusive of transgender people, the shorter term LGB is used instead of LGBT. Intersex inclusion The relationship of intersex to lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans, and queer communities is complex, but intersex people are often added to the LGBT category to create an LGBTI community. Some intersex people prefer the initialism LGBTI, while others would rather that they not be included as part of the term. LGBTI is used in all parts of \"The Activist's Guide\"",
"-30.308756228303537"
],
[
"or bisexual person may be masculine, feminine, or androgynous, and in addition, many members and supporters of lesbian and gay communities now see the \"gender-conforming heterosexual\" and the \"gender-nonconforming homosexual\" as negative stereotypes. Nevertheless, studies by J. Michael Bailey and Kenneth Zucker found a majority of the gay men and lesbians sampled reporting various degrees of gender-nonconformity during their childhood years.\nTransgender people today identify with the sexual orientation that corresponds with their gender; meaning that a trans woman who is solely attracted to women would often identify as a lesbian. A trans man solely attracted to women would be a",
"-30.268143345834687"
],
[
"groups. Groups encompassing all transgender people, both trans men, trans women, and non-binary people, have appeared in recent years.\nSome transgender or transsexual women and men, however, do not identify as part of a specific \"trans\" culture. A distinction may be made between transgender and transsexual people who make their past known to others and those who wish to live according to their gender identity and not reveal their past (believing that they should be able to live normally in their true gender role, and control to whom they reveal their past).\nAccording to a study done by the Williams Institute of",
"-30.258777226146776"
],
[
"further interpretations on where certain men-identified males who have sex with transgender males or gay-identified males in what category varies greatly. In urban Brazil, for example, generally those that have sex with travestis and women alike, but demonstrate affection only toward women, are seen as straight (and their attraction toward travestis is regarded as mere fetish), but those romantically or sexually attracted to man-identified males are seen as gay (bisexual visibility only appeared in recent years).\nAn exception is to be made among individuals influenced by Western prejudices or taboos on male homosexuality (or non-normative male sexuality in a general manner)",
"-30.187484492897056"
],
[
"to by everyone that they encompass. For example, some argue that transgender and transsexual causes are not the same as that of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) people. This argument centers on the idea that being transgender or transsexual have to do more with gender identity, or a person's understanding of being or not being a man or a woman irrespective of their sexual orientation. LGB issues can be seen as a matter of sexual orientation or attraction. These distinctions have been made in the context of political action in which LGB goals, such as same-sex marriage legislation and human",
"-30.133417713281233"
],
[
"Gender system Non-European gender systems In cultures where the gender binary is prominent and important, transgender people are a major exception to the societal norms related to gender. Intersex people, those who cannot be biologically determined as either male or female, are another obvious deviation. Other cultures have their own practices independent of the Western gender binary. Native American When European settlers first arrived in North America, they discovered different Native American tribes had different concepts of sex and gender. In the Native North American society \"berdaches\" were given that name to identify them as gender variants. The Europeans \"attempted",
"-30.094003547157627"
],
[
"and more can lower or raise one's perceived power.\nWorldwide, there are many individuals and several subcultures that can be considered exceptions to the gender binary or specific transgender identities. In addition to individuals whose bodies are naturally intersex, there are also specific social roles that involve aspects of both or neither of the binary genders. These include Two-Spirit Native Americans and hijra of India. Feminist philosopher María Lugones argues Western colonizers imposed their dualistic ideas of gender on indigenous peoples, replacing pre-existing indigenous concepts. In the contemporary West, non-binary or genderqueer people break the gender binary by refusing terms like",
"-30.09373602704727"
],
[
"Monosexuality Monosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction to members of one sex or gender only. A monosexual person may identify as heterosexual or homosexual. In discussions of sexual orientation, the term is chiefly used in contrast to bisexuality, or pansexuality and various other gender-inclusive or gender-neutral identities. It is sometimes considered derogatory or offensive by the people to whom it is applied, particularly gay men and lesbians.\nThe Kinsey Reports found that, in experiences leading to orgasm, 63% of men and 87% of women could be described as \"exclusively homosexual\" or \"exclusively heterosexual\", and thus monosexual. Alternative definition The term monosexuality",
"-30.063689845381305"
],
[
"women. Visibility, awareness, and public attitudes One of the largest factors that causes and perpetuates transgender inequality is a lack of understanding and awareness among cisgender people. A 2002 survey found that, of the American respondents polled, only 70% had heard of the term transgender, while 67% agreed that it is possible for a person to be born as one gender, but inside feel like another gender. In addition, the survey found that 61% of Americans believe that the country needs anti-discrimination laws to protect transgender individuals, 57% incorrectly believed that it was not legal to fire someone on the",
"-30.062035461334744"
],
[
"what trans people feel about what their gender is, and should be, is itself “constructed” and, therefore, not real. And then the feminist police comes along\".\nJeffreys stated in a 2014 ABC Radio \"Sunday Night Safran\" program that transsexual women are either \"homosexual men who don’t feel they can be homosexual in the bodies of men\" or \"heterosexual men who have a sexual interest in wearing women’s clothes and having the appearance of women\", provoking criticism from members of the Indigenous and trans communities for racism and transphobia.\nIn March 2018, addressing an audience at the House of Commons in a presentation",
"-30.042503793083597"
],
[
"women choose to call their anus their vagina because they can use their anus in many of the same ways that cisgender women can use their vagina. Furthermore, some transgender women choose to refer to other, non sexual, parts of their body as sexual body parts that belong to people who are biologically female, such as the vulva and the clitoris. Transgender men Some trans men choose to call their vagina, their front hole because they feel that it is less gendered. Furthermore, some transgender men choose to refer to other, non sexual, parts of their body as sexual body",
"-30.03321619046619"
],
[
"transgender people, according to Susan Stryker. She illustrates how there exists a lack of accountability to those aggressors who victimize the transgender community, and there is a lack of legal possibility to persecute aggressions against transgender people or to give adequate rights to transgender people. Transgender people, not fitting entirely into the binary of “male” or “female,” are not covered by Sex Discrimination laws. Stryker argues that this means that they are largely unprotected when they are attacked in one way or another for being transgender, and it further alienates them from our definition of humanity, making them an “other,”",
"-30.018913172682005"
],
[
"of LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) people. In fact, discrimination can be found in existing laws on same-sex relationships. One example is the law regarding the age of consent.\nHomosexual relations between consenting adults have been legal in The Bahamas since May 1991, but the age of consent is two years higher than that for heterosexuals – 18 vs. 16. Adult heterosexual men can legally engage in sexual activity with 16-year-old girls, though these teens are considered minors. Homosexual men however, have been charged before the courts for having consensual sex with 16- and 17-year-old males.\nLGBT Bahamians are also subject",
"-30.0075877555646"
],
[
"Legal recognition of non-binary gender History In recent years, some societies have begun to legally recognize non-binary, genderqueer, or third gender identities. Some non-western societies have long recognized transgender people as a third gender, though this may not (or may only recently) include formal legal recognition. Among western nations, Australia may have been the first to recognize a third classification, following recognition of Alex MacFarlane as having indeterminate sex, reported in 2003. Transgender advocate Norrie May-Welby was recognized as having unspecified status in 2014. In 2016, an Oregon circuit court ruled that Jamie Shupe could legally change gender to non-binary.",
"-30.003245075815357"
],
[
"third choice about how to define their gender identity. Those identifying as a third sex / gender should have the same rights as those identifying as male or female.\nThe document also quotes Mauro Cabral of GATE:\nPeople tend to identify a third sex with freedom from the gender binary, but that is not necessarily the case. If only trans and/or intersex people can access that third category, or if they are compulsively assigned to a third sex, then the gender binary gets stronger, not weaker.\nThe report concludes that two or three options are insufficient: \"A more inclusive approach would be to",
"-29.99201534400345"
],
[
"recognizing the third gender category, the Court recognizes that fundamental rights are available to the third gender in the same manner as they are to males and females. Further, non-recognition of third gender in both criminal and civil statutes such as those relating to marriage, adoption, divorce, etc. is discriminatory to the transgender. \n\nLegal Recognition for Persons transitioning within male/female binary : As for how the actual procedure of recognition will happen, the Court merely states that they prefer to follow the psyche of the person and use the \"Psychological Test\" as opposed to the \"Biological Test\". They also declare that",
"-29.98688934184611"
],
[
"in the same category. There are no other articles in the Criminal Code of Transnistria that have laws that are separated in penalizing same-sex sexual activity, or committing 'sodomy and lesbianism.'\nDespite this, LGBT individuals are subject to governmental and societal discrimination. Recognition of same-sex unions Transnistria does not recognize same-sex unions. The Code of Marriage and Family that came into force in 2002 states that marriage is voluntary martial union between a man and a woman. The Code does not recognize other types of partnership for both opposite-sex and same-sex couples other than marriage.",
"-29.985887960880063"
],
[
"deemed them \"berdaches,\" a derogatory term for a man trying to pass as a woman, or \"passing women,\" a derogatory term for women who tried to assume masculine roles.\nTransgender people have been facing inequality and discrimination since before the 1800s. Much inequality has stemmed from the terms used to refer to transgender people.\nLegal measures against non-binary people began to be implemented in the mid-nineteenth century. Laws began to prohibit and make it illegal for anyone to dress in a manner opposed to their biological sex. The current legal institutions that exist today similarly act in a way that discriminates against",
"-29.976878888264764"
],
[
"\"transexuality\" and not their gender non-conformity. The case was appealed to the Sixth Circuit, which overturned that decision and clarified to courts that under Title VII, sex discrimination was to be considered broader than only the traditional assumptions of sex.\nTwelve states currently have legislation which bars discrimination based on gender identity. Despite these efforts, non-binary individuals are subject to higher rates of physical and sexual assault and police harassment than those who identify as men or women, likely due to their gender expression or presentation. Identity documents According to the Transgender Law Center, 70% of transgender people are not able",
"-29.884758428204805"
],
[
"people. Organisations that include intersex people as well as LGBT people include the National LGBTI Health Alliance and community media. Also used are the terms LGBTQI, and LGBTQIA, with the A denoting asexual people, and Q queer people. Demographics In 2014, over half a million people or 3.0% of the adult population identified as gay, lesbian or \"other\". This included 268,000 people who identified as gay or lesbian and 255,000 people who identified as having an \"other\" sexual orientation. Same-sex couples In 2011, same-sex couples accounted for 0.7% of the total number of couples. It increased to 0.9% in the",
"-29.870863900723634"
],
[
"the plaintiff was discriminated against based on her sex because she was transitioning from male to female. The Court stated that a person is considered transgender \"precisely because of the perception that his or her behavior transgresses gender stereotypes.\" As a result, there is \"congruence\" between discriminating against transgender individuals and discrimination on the basis of \"gender-based behavioral norms.\" \"Because everyone is protected against discrimination based on sex stereotypes, such protections cannot be denied to transgender individuals\", the Court ruled. With this decision, discrimination in the workplace based on gender identity is now banned in Alabama. Hate crime law Since",
"-29.85498680116143"
],
[
"pronouns, identifies as intersex \"both as my medical reality and as my gender identification ... It never occurred to me that this was an option, because I thought the gender change laws were strictly for transgender people. I decided to try and use the same framework to have a third gender.\" In December 2016, Keenan received a birth certificate with an 'Intersex' sex marker from New York City, the first birth certificate issued using this term in the United States. Keenan had applied for a \"non-binary\" birth certificate but the City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene required a biological",
"-29.838021551608108"
],
[
"that all people must have either an XX or XY sex-chromosome pair, or, in the case of cisgenderism, a bivalent male or female expression), and that trans people are inferior to cisgender people due to being in \"defiance of nature\". Cisgender privilege is the \"set of unearned advantages that individuals who identify with their biological sex accrue solely due to having a cisgender identity\".\nHarassment and violence directed against transgender people is often called trans bashing, and can be physical, sexual or verbal. Whereas gay bashing is directed against a target's real or perceived sexual orientation, trans bashing is directed against",
"-29.835783506568987"
],
[
"LGBT rights in Niger Law regarding same-sex sexual activity Same-sex sexual activity is legal in Niger but the age of consent is not equal for same-sex and opposite-sex sexual activity. Recognition of same-sex relationships Niger does not legally recognize same-sex unions. Discrimination protections There is no legal protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Living conditions The U.S. Department of State's 2010 Human Rights Report found that \"there were no known organizations of lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender persons and no reports of \nviolence against individuals based on their sexual orientation or gender identity. However, gay persons",
"-29.811127256485634"
],
[
"legislated. Discrimination protections on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity vary across Germany, but discrimination in employment and the provision of goods and services is in principle banned countrywide. Transgender people have been allowed to change their legal gender since 1980. The law initially required them to undergo surgical alteration of their genitals in order to have key identity documents changed. This has since been declared unconstitutional. Intersex rights Intersex people in Germany have no recognition of their rights to physical integrity and bodily autonomy, and no specific protections from discrimination on the basis of sex characteristics. In",
"-29.773612128803506"
],
[
"Same-sex relationship A same-sex relationship is a relationship between people of the same sex and can take many forms, from romantic and sexual, to non-romantic homosocially-close relationships. The term is primarily associated with gay and lesbian relationships. Same-sex marriage refers to the institutionalized recognition of such relationships in the form of a marriage; civil unions may exist in countries where same-sex marriage does not.\nThe term same-sex relationship is not strictly related to the sexual orientation of the participants. As people of any orientation may participate in same-sex relationships (particularly depending on the legal, social and scientific definition of sex), some",
"-29.74953196651768"
],
[
"transgender people of all races (15%), four times the black population (9%), and eight times the U.S. population (4%). Transgender people of color are more likely to be poor, be homeless, or lack a college degree. Multiple factors pile up on each other that force many transgender people of color to be homeless; for instance, many individuals are involved in abusive relationships or live in crime-ridden neighborhoods because of the difficulty finding employment as a transgender person and/or experiencing job loss due to transphobia in the work place. Those with greater socioeconomic status might use their social connections to advocate",
"-29.748270325013436"
],
[
"The demographics of sexual orientation and gender identity in the United States have been studied in the social sciences in recent decades. A 2017 Gallup poll concluded that 4.5% of adult Americans identified as LGBT with 5.1% of women identifying as LGBT, compared with 3.9% of men. A different survey in 2016, from the Williams Institute, estimated that 0.6% of U.S. adults identify as transgender. Ratios of proportions In general, most research agrees that the number of people who have had multiple same-gender sexual experiences is fewer than the number of people who have had a single such experience, and",
"-29.726675891666673"
],
[
"similar terms in reference to transgender people and gender variance; male-to-female individuals are hova among the Hopi, alyha among the Mohave, ilyaxai' among the Maricopa, tüwasawuts among the Southern Paiute, ndéʼsdzan among the Western Apache, elxa' among the Quechan, and elha among the Cocopah, whereas female-to-male individuals are hwame among the Mohave, kwiraxame' among the Maricopa, kwe'rhame among the Quechan, and warrhameh among the Cocopah. Nowadays, the term \"two-spirit\" is increasingly used to refer to these identities.\nThe relative openness to these different gender identities mostly disappeared after European settlement. Even among the Native Americans, societal perceptions began to change. Owing",
"-29.725370781379752"
],
[
"and gender identity. Cabral has also written that, \"People tend to identify a third sex with freedom from the gender binary, but that is not necessarily the case. If only trans and/or intersex people can access that third category, or if they are compulsively assigned to a third sex, then the gender binary gets stronger, not weaker.\" Marriage Upon legalising same-sex marriage on July 15, 2010, Argentina became the first country in Latin America, the second in the Americas, and the tenth in the world to do so.",
"-29.719969593882524"
],
[
"to be drag queens. While historically some trans women have been innovators within the drag scene alongside gay men, trans women are not drag queens. Transsexualism A transsexual is a person born with the physical characteristics of one sex who psychologically and emotionally identifies with a variant or different gender than their physical sex characteristics. Stereotypes of trans women include them always being taller and having larger hands than cisgender women. Trans men, conversely, are often stereotyped as being cuter, more feminine, and more passive than their cisgender counterparts, being classified as \"softboys\" (or \"softbois\"). Both transgender men and women",
"-29.696480013837572"
],
[
"necessarily the case. If only trans and/or intersex people can access that third category, or if they are compulsively assigned a third sex, then the gender binary gets stronger, not weaker”\nThe Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions recognised the right of individuals to non-binary or third sex classifications, but stated that, \"creating a third, separate category for the registration of people born with an intersex trait ... would risk segregating and potentially stigmatising intersex people. It would also remove their right to determine their own sex or gender.\"\nIn March 2017, an Australian and Aotearoa/New Zealand community statement called",
"-29.648269067314686"
],
[
"of \"asexual\" as a form of asexual erasure. There is also the acronym QUILTBAG (queer and questioning, intersex, lesbian, transgender and two-spirit, bisexual, asexual and ally, and gay and genderqueer).\n Similarly LGBTIQA+ stands for \"lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer/questioning, asexual and many other terms (such as non-binary and pansexual)\".\nIn Canada, the community is sometimes identified as LGBTQ2 (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Two Spirit). Depending on the which organization is using the acronym the choice of acronym changes. Businesses and the CBC often simply employ LGBT as a proxy for any longer acronym, private activist groups",
"-29.638801537803374"
],
[
"one's gender identity have also been recognized in the workplace and are actively being asserted in public accommodations. In Iowa, for example, discrimination in public accommodations on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity has been prohibited by law since 2007 through the Iowa Civil Rights Act.\nIn Cruzan v. Special School District #1, decided in 2002, a Minnesota federal appeals court ruled that it isn't the job of the transgender person to accommodate the concerns of cisgender people who express discomfort with sharing a facility with a transgender person. Employers need to offer an alternative to the complaining employee",
"-29.62373009265866"
],
[
"many campuses for transgender students are restrooms and locker rooms designated for “women” and “men.” Anecdotal and research evidence suggest that transgender people often face verbal and physical assault and risk being questioned or even arrested by the police when they use gender-specific facilities (Coalition for Queer Action, 2001; San Francisco Human Rights Commission, 2001).” \n“Whether through cross-dressing, transitioning from one gender to another, or blending in traditionally female and male elements, transgender students violate society’s expectation that someone is either female or male, which makes them vulnerable to harassment and violence” Transgender inequality for people of color Many believe",
"-29.591979214630555"
],
[
"national census.\nIn February 2018, a Senate committee determined that transgender people could inherit property without being required to have their gender decided by a medical board.\nIn May 2019, Shireen Mazari the\nFederal Minister for Human Rights appointed Ayesha Moghul, a transgender woman to her department for the first time. Transgender Person (Protection of Rights) Act 2018 Under the Transgender Person (Protection of Rights) Act 2018 (Urdu: مخنث افراد کے لیے (تحفظ حقوق) قانون 2018ء), Pakistanis may choose to self-identify as male, female, both or neither. They may express their gender according to their own preferences, and they may have their gender",
"-29.584122855030728"
],
[
"a transgender girl is allowed entry to a girls-only class. The memo states in part that \"[a]ll students, including transgender students and students who do not conform to sex stereotypes, are protected from sex-based discrimination under Title IX. Under Title IX, a recipient generally must treat transgender students consistent with their gender identity in all aspects of the planning, implementation, enrollment, operation, and evaluation of single-sex classes.\"\nIn 2014 the Labor Department extended nondiscrimination protections to its transgender employees.\nAlso in 2014, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission filed two lawsuits against companies accused of discriminating against employees on the basis of gender",
"-29.567343228205573"
],
[
"as 'closeted', 'discreet', or 'bi-curious' may apply. Conversely, a person may identify as gay without having had sex with a same-sex partner. Possible choices include identifying as gay socially, while choosing to be celibate, or while anticipating a first homosexual experience. Further, a bisexual person might also identify as \"gay\" but others may consider gay and bisexual to be mutually exclusive. There are some who are drawn to the same sex but neither engage in sexual activity nor identify as gay; these could have the term asexual applied, even though asexual generally can mean no attraction, or involve heterosexual attraction",
"-29.555571271746885"
],
[
"so as to explicitly include all people who are not cisgender and heterosexual; or gender, sexual, and romantic minorities (GSRM), which is more explicitly inclusive of minority romantic orientations and polyamory; but those have not been widely adopted either. Other rare umbrella terms are Gender and Sexual Diversities (GSD), MOGII (Marginalized Orientations, Gender Identities, and Intersex) and MOGAI (Marginalized Orientations, Gender Alignments and Intersex).\nThe National Institutes of Health have framed LGBT, others \"whose sexual orientation and/or gender identity varies, those who may not self-identify as LGBT\" and also intersex populations (as persons with disorders of sex development) as \"sexual and",
"-29.533792493501096"
],
[
"a vibrant culture of hijras (ہیجڑا). While the term is commonly used in South Asia, it is considered derogatory in Urdu and the term khawaja sara (خواجہ سرا) is used instead. They are sometimes referred to as transgender, intersex or eunuchs in English language publications. Like transgender people in many countries, they are sometimes the subjects of ridicule, abuse, and violence. That said, they enjoy a certain level of acceptance due to their position in precolonial society. For example, they are welcome at weddings where they will dance as entertainment for the men, and are also welcome among the women.",
"-29.525137223652564"
],
[
"of how racial and gender identities are formed. The essentialism, or nature, views states that these identities are fixed and inherent from birth, while the social constructionism, or nurture, views sees them as flexible and dependent on one’s environment. Inequality in employment and socioeconomic status Some transgender people face disadvantages in the workplace, although black transgender people are among the most disadvantaged. 32% of black transgender individuals report losing their job due to bias, compared to 26% of Latino transgender people, 24% of white transgender people and 21% of Asian-Pacific American transgender people. In addition, the unemployment rate for transgender",
"-29.52477015426848"
],
[
"policing. Those within the trans community are often left out from the wealthy, able-bodied, American, and white experience that those in the non-trans community often focus on, and are subject to discrimination as a transgender person and as a person of color.\nHistorically, this is in part due to the rejection of an individual by family members at a young age. \"The majority of transgender women of color\", say Juline A. Koken, David S. Bimbi, and Jeffrey T. Parsons, \"experience verbal and physical abuse at the hands of their family members upon disclosing their transgender identity.\"\nAs transgender women of color face",
"-29.509849751892034"
],
[
"is alienating; the term itself implies estrangement from straight people as a separate group. Further, including three groups involved with sexuality and one group exploring transsexual/transgender identity (a broader phenomenon) is artificial.\nMattilda Berstein Sycamore argues that the single-issue focus of LGBT politics, which ignores all intra-group differences, has naturally led to a movement and culture focused on the needs of white, middle-class gay cisgender men, which alienates anyone who does not fit that description. Cultural focus on promiscuity Some gay male commentators who are in monogamous relationships argue that mainstream gay culture's disdain of monogamy and its promotion of promiscuity",
"-29.45757078274619"
],
[
"the U.S. Army, the official policy is that individuals who identify as intersex or have other sex-related disorders are medically problematic and/or psychologically disturbed; hence, they are not eligible to serve. United States Coast Guard Intersex people are allowed to serve in the Coast Guard Auxiliary. However, they must choose to be represented as either \"male\" or \"female\" on their records. United States Marine Corps The USMC takes the same stance as the Army, disqualifying both intersex people and transgender people from service. United States Navy In 2008, many U.S. Navy recruiters believed that intersex people should be disqualified from",
"-29.43896053606295"
],
[
"LGBT rights in Myanmar Recognition of same-sex relationships Myanmar does not recognise same-sex marriages or civil unions. In 2014, a Burmese same-sex couple drew widespread media attention for holding an unofficial wedding ceremony after having lived together for 10 years. It also triggered a backlash from social conservatives, who queried why the anti-homosexuality laws were not being enforced against them. Gender identity and expression Myanmar does not allow transgender people to change the gender assigned to them at birth. Transgender people in Myanmar are subject to rape, mistreatment or extortion by police, and are often targeted using the \"shadow law\"",
"-29.41784529873985"
],
[
"human rights activists have sought to include them as being transgender. In a series of meetings convened between October 2013 and Jan 2014 by the transgender experts committee of India's Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, hijra and other trans activists asked that the term \"eunuch\" be discontinued from usage in government documents, as it is not a term with which the communities identify. Gender and sexuality These identities have no exact match in the modern Western taxonomy of gender and sexual orientation, and challenge Western ideas of sex and gender.\nIn India, some Hijras do not define themselves by specific",
"-29.378211099014152"
],
[
"often employ LGBTQ+, whereas public health providers favour the more inclusive LGBT2Q+ to accommodate twin spirited indigenous peoples. For a time the Pride Toronto organization used the much lengthier acronym LGBTTIQQ2SA, but appears to have dropped this in favour of simpler wording. Transgender inclusion The term trans* has been adopted by some groups as a more inclusive alternative to \"transgender\", where trans (without the asterisk) has been used to describe trans men and trans women, while trans* covers all non-cisgender (genderqueer) identities, including transgender, transsexual, transvestite, genderqueer, genderfluid, non-binary, genderfuck, genderless, agender, non-gendered, third gender, two-spirit, bigender, and",
"-29.329928541672416"
],
[
"identity. In September 2013, the Act was amended to extend protections to transgender and intersex people, whilst also extending protections from offensive conduct to prohibit a person from offending, humiliating, intimidating, insulting or ridiculing another person on the basis of their actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation and/or gender identity.\nFederal law also protects LGBTI people in Tasmania in the form of the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013. Transgender rights In line with its transformation on other LGBT issues, Tasmania's approach to transgender people has changed from strong opposition to one of the most",
"-29.296433034120128"
],
[
"public due to the fear of being looked down upon or physically attacked.\nTransgender community in Pakistan is \"tolerated\" and is believed to possess supernatural power of cursing people. They are the outcasts of the society and work as beggars, street dancers & prostitutes. Mostly a patriarch society, its' the men who call out to them and against them. There is even a belief among people that transgenders are not even real but are just transvestites working as prostitutes for money. Religious clerics would declare them haraam(sinful), un-natural, inhuman and aliens and call upon the society to have no connections or",
"-29.276479294057935"
],
[
"framed LGBT, others \"whose sexual orientation and/or gender identity varies, those who may not self-identify as LGBT\" and also intersex populations (as persons with disorders of sex development) as \"sexual and gender minority\" (SGM) populations. This has led to the development of an NIH SGM Health Research Strategic Plan. Variations on LGBT Another variant is LGBTQIA, which is used, for example, by the \"Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersex, Asexual Resource Center\" at the University of California, Davis. Intersex and children's rights Kimberly Zieselman of interACT has described how the LGBT community has helped open doors, but how intersex rights",
"-29.265390383196063"
],
[
"does not criminalize same-sex sexual acts, and transgender people are able change their gender through the Family Registry if certain conditions are met. However these conditions include requiring “gender confirmation surgery, being over 20 years old, being unmarried while applying to legally change one's gender, having no minor children, and being deprived of their reproductive organ or reproductive ability” according to Amnesty International. If a person has not legally registered to change their gender before being incarcerated, they will be sent a prison that matches their gender assignment at birth. Additionally Japanese prisons are not required to provide hormone therapy",
"-29.245149321621284"
],
[
"Serano has defined cissexual as \"people who are not transsexual and who have only ever experienced their mental and physical sexes as being aligned\", while cisgender is a slightly narrower term for those who do not identify as transgender (a larger cultural category than the more clinical transsexual). For Jessica Cadwallader, cissexual is \"a way of drawing attention to the unmarked norm, against which trans is identified, in which a person feels that their gender identity matches their body/sex\".\nThe terms cisgender and cissexual were used in a 2006 article in the Journal of Lesbian Studies and Serano's 2007 book Whipping",
"-29.236010168446228"
],
[
"sexual (overly masculine) or too feminine (hypo-masculine) or even both also exhibit the gendered nature of racial stereotypes. Thus, passing as the dominant racial or sexuality category also often means passing as gender correct. When Black transgender men transition in the workplace from identifying as female to passing as cisgender males, gendered racial stereotypes characterizing Black men as overly masculine and violent can affect how previously acceptable behaviors will be interpreted. As one such Black trans man discovered, he’d gone from \"being an obnoxious Black woman to a scary Black man\", and therefore had to adapt his behavior to",
"-29.214527135645767"
],
[
"sexual violence against persons who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender amongst other sexualities and sexual minorities.",
"-29.187944350094767"
],
[
"increasingly become common usage. From feminism and gender studies Krista Scott-Dixon wrote in 2009: \"I prefer the term non-trans to other options such as cissexual/cisgendered.\" She holds this view because she believes the term \"non-trans\" is clearer to average people and will help normalize transgender individuals.\nWomen's and Gender Studies scholar Mimi Marinucci writes that some consider the \"cisgender–transgender\" binary to be just as dangerous or self-defeating as the masculine–feminine gender binary, because it lumps together people who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) arbitrarily and over-simplistically with a heteronormative class of people as opposed to with transgender people. Characterizing",
"-29.155472219573312"
],
[
"Sexual minority A sexual minority is a group whose sexual identity, orientation or practices differ from the majority of the surrounding society. Primarily used to refer to LGB individuals, it can also refer to transgender, genderqueer (including third gender) or intersex individuals.\nVariants such as GSM (\"Gender and Sexual Minorities\"), GSSM (\"Gender, Sexual and Sexuality Minorities\") GSRM (\"Gender, Sexual and Romantic Minorities\"), and GSD (\"Gender and Sexual Diversity\") have been considered in academia, but it is SGM (\"Sexual and Gender Minority\") that has gained the most advancement since 2014. In 2015 the NIH announced the formation of the Sexual and",
"-29.146805464522913"
],
[
"the various gender transpositions—male and female homosexuality, heterosexuality, transvestic fetishism, and gender dysphoria—are individual manifestations of two phenomena. The first one operates both in trans women and trans men, and represents a continuum from cis-heterosexual to cis-homosexual and at the extreme, gender dysphoric with (non-erotic) cross-dressing. The second one operates only or nearly only in trans women and represents a continuum from cis-heterosexual to transvestic fetishism (cis- but experiencing eroticism with cross-dressing), to gender dysphoria (with at least some history of eroticism while cross-dressing). The eroticism experienced with cross-dressing and cross-gender images of oneself Blanchard called \"autogynephilia\", which",
"-29.122284878743812"
]
] |
1ar6zm | What would happen if the US govt cut all foreign aid? | [
"US Foreign aid breaks down roughly as follows: 15 billion - Rebuilding Iraq and Afghanistan, which are two countries where we started wars. We feel responsible for trying to repair some of the damage. 3 billion - Military aid for Israel. Mostly in the form of expensive weapons. Without our assistance, Israel would almost certainly get attacked by one of their neighbors (who do not like Israel). 4 billion - Economic and Military aid for Pakistan, Egypt, and Jordan. The goal is to have a few people in the mideast who call us allies. Essentially, we buy their cooperation. That cooperation is sometimes useful. For example, when we killed Osama Bin Laden, we sent troops into Pakistan. Normally, countries don't tolerate troops from other countries. The Pakistanis did complain a little, but they didn't do anything about it. That's what we're buying. 10 billion - Assorted disaster zones around the world. For example, we send 1 billion to Haiti, which is where that horrible tsunami/earthquake happened. A lot of this is done in a spirit of charity, but there's also an element of self-interest. Many of these areas have unstable governments or no governments, and we're hoping that if they do get stable governments, the new government will be friendly to us. Just for perspective: the total money spent by the US government on our *own* citizens and our *own* military is 3,500 billion, that is, roughly 100x more than we spend on foreign aid.",
"Imagine you are very rich. In fact, the richest person in your neighbourhood! But not everyone in your neighbourhood is rich. Some in fact, are incredibly poor. Well, you want to live in a nice neighbourhood right? But how can you make it nice! Well, there are two ways. You could give money to your neighbours, a thousand bucks here, a thousand bucks there, to help them build a nice fence, to be able to afford to tie up their dog, to fix their roof, to send their kids to school, or to deal with the Islamic militants camping in their backyard! You make everyone like you, and more able to deal with their problems. The neighbours talk about what a great guy you are, and let you land your plane in their gardens and your kids sell their kids lemonade. Or you could say fuck you all, and just build a giant ass fence around your house. Well, the neighbourhood starts to get a little shittier. Your neighbours Ivan and Wang are helping where they can, but they care about dumb things you don't care about! Their fences look weird and stuff! And everytime you look out of your window, everyone is giving you the stink eye. You are super rich, but you haven't helped them at all. So why should they help you? They're buying and selling lemonade to wang and Ivan, and even Pierre and Reginald! Some of your neighbours problems are getting bad too. Theres a horrible stink, and those islamic militants just moved into the house opposite you! Well, you're gonna need a bigger fence. Maybe some more guards. No one will let you land your plane in their garden, let alone your helicopter! You have to start handing out bribes to get what you want, or just paying for it yourself, and it's just getting worse and worse! Everyone hates you and you're stuck in your house. Obviously, helping people out is actually cheaper than telling them all to fuck off and then building a giant fence. It's like that with Foreign aid. Apart from ethical and moral arguments, it's a LOT cheaper to give your buddy Israel money to build an army and look out for you in the middle east than it would be to do it yourself. It's easier to pay a small amount now rather than waiting for shit to go wrong and instability to creep into the world.",
"This is a great question! It is important to understand that the US is liked internationally because of a few simple factors: historical ties, trade, foreign aid and security arrangements. Simply put, if all aid was cut then there could be serious backlash on the US diplomatic status quo. Take many African states who rely on US aid, like Lesotho. The US is trying to help prevent AIDS there and the state is barely keeping its head above water. Lesotho is friendly with the US because they are helping them out, the aid gives legitimacy to the government and in return maybe they allow them to have a military base there or sell them rare earth minerals. If the US says no, why would they make the US a priority customer, they might just as easily sell to China or the EU. In the international aid world money = influence! It is one of the best forms of currency as it can be used to help people without directly helping oppressors or can provide leverage and diplomatic dominance over a state that maybe you want to be your friend. The decisions on where to send foreign aid is one of the most complex issues any government can make. In fact I think it is probably the most complex issue. Which is why I cannot be bothered with people who say that they don't want their money going overseas to people who can't help themselves. When used correctly, a little aid can go a very long way and be as good an investment as any blue chip stock.",
"Not a lot would happen. The US's foreign aid is substantial, but there are a lot of other countries giving out a lot of other aid. There would still be plenty to go around. If you only take the top 10 donators of foreign aid the US accounts for only about 16% of it. The main impact would be on foreign relations, and how foreigners view the US. The US is not well liked in much of the world, and looking like a good guy is important."
] | [
[
"favor a cut and 6% who want increased aid. On the other hand, foreign aid has bipartisan support in Congress, and most Americans overestimate foreign aid as a share of the total federal budget. In the past, less than 1% of the national budget went to foreign assistance. As of fiscal year 2017, foreign aid between the U.S. State Department and USAID totaled $50.1 billion, or just over 1% of the budget. World War I During World War One, the Committee for Relief in Belgium (CRB), which sent food to the hungry in that war-torn country, received $387 million from",
"-33.3587820075918"
],
[
"BIAs in 2003, and subsequently saw their development aid funding cut by more than 89 million dollars. According to the Coalition for the International Criminal Court, as of 2006, 52 countries had \"rejected U.S. efforts to sign bilateral immunity agreements (BIAs), despite unrelenting U.S. pressure and the threat and actual loss of military assistance\". By Spring 2006, such agreements had been accepted by approximately one hundred governments and were under consideration by approximately eighteen more.\nBy 2009, with Obama in office, the laws cutting aid unless BIAs were no longer in place; the Nethercutt Amendment had not been renewed, and the",
"-33.00894387962762"
],
[
"for these efforts has been fairly consistent the past two years, the FY2018 budget proposed by President Trump would cut aid to these countries by roughly 30%. It is hard to know what the full implications of this cut to funding would be, but experts have claimed that it would most likely result in backsliding of any progress made in the governance of these countries. Detention centers One cause of the influx of immigrants with children was word of mouth in Central America that families with children were not detained due to lack of facilities. Detention centers with facilities for",
"-32.88901150878519"
],
[
"from the lack of money. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared it would not request aid; it specifically rejected help from the United States. It was also widely reported in the days after the earthquake that the military assisted factory owners in retrieving their machinery rather than in removing the bodies of dead factory workers. At many levels of the government, who was helped and by how much was determined by one's standing vis-à-vis the PRI. Those belonging to the party received preference and those considered opposition received the runaround. President de la Madrid refused to cut foreign debt payments",
"-32.49766435753554"
],
[
"to the region.\nU.S. industries lobbied Congress to amend the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 to ensure that US aid would not be furnished to any foreign business that could compete with US business \"unless the country concerned agrees to limit the export of the product to the US to 20 percent of output\". In addition the industries lobbied Congress to limit all purchases of AID machinery and vehicles in the US. A 1967 study of AID showed that 90 percent of all AID commodity expenditures went to US corporations. Controversies Ivan Illich advanced a \"potent and highly influential critique\" of",
"-32.32897942129057"
],
[
"a letter to President Trump regarding cutting aid to Central America. It encouraged Trump \"to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America,\" asserting that Trump had \"consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance\" since becoming president and that he was \"personally undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity\" by preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S. by helping to improve",
"-32.23000176919595"
],
[
"into law, which will cut about a third of US foreign aid payments to the PA, until the PA ceases making payment of stipends to terrorists and their surviving families.\nIn July 2018, Australia stopped the A$10M (US$7.5M) in funding that had been sent to the PA via the World Bank, and instead is sending it to the UN Humanitarian Fund for the Palestinian Territories. The reason given was that they did not want the PA to use the funds to assist Palestinians convicted of politically motivated violence.\nOn 24 August, the United States cut more than $200 million in direct aid",
"-32.12001395865809"
],
[
"in the U.S. Senate to restrict the exportation of weapons from the U.S. to the Philippines.\nThe US ambassador in Manila announced on December 14, 2016, that the US foreign aid agency, the Millennium Challenge Corporation, would cancel funding to the Philippines due to \"significant concerns around rule of law and civil liberties in the Philippines\", explaining that aid recipients were required to demonstrate a \"commitment to the rule of law, due process and respect for human rights\". The MCC had disbursed $434 million to the Philippines from 2011 to 2015. The funding denial was expected to lead to the cancellation",
"-31.86627636788762"
],
[
"also caused difficulty in carrying out financial transaction with non-PA related individuals and entities, as financial institutions around the world took protective measures regarding the OFAC determination.\nThe US ceased providing both indirect and direct foreign aid to the PA with the exception of some emergency humanitarian assistance. The US said it would withhold $411 million in aid over the next few years and asked for the return of $30 million it had already donated. The CRS Report for Congress wrote on 27 June 2007: \"With the suspension of all USAID-managed economic aid to the West Bank and Gaza Strip",
"-31.290285711133038"
],
[
"United States foreign aid United States foreign aid is aid given by the United States government to other governments. It does not include money from private charitable organizations based in the United States, or remittances sent between family members. There are two broad categories: military aid and economic assistance. The Congressional Research Service divides it into five categories: bilateral development aid, economic assistance, humanitarian aid, multilateral economic contributions, and military aid.\nForeign aid recipients include developing countries, countries of strategic importance to the United States, and countries recovering from war. The government channels about half of its economic",
"-30.943625149317086"
],
[
"United States military aid The United States government first recognized the usefulness of foreign aid as a tool of diplomacy in World War II. It was believed that it would promote liberal capitalist models of development in other countries and that it would enhance national security.\nThe United States is the largest contributor of military aid to foreign countries in the world, providing some form of assistance to over 150 countries each year.",
"-30.85581727977842"
],
[
"countries. However, about 85 percent of foreign aid goes to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and US-government contractors, meaning that most of foreign aid is not being given directly to foreign governments.",
"-30.656928832351696"
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[
"it became necessary to create an official document that specifically \"served to convene important U.S. aid, as well as that of other countries and international organizations\" by adequately addressing US concerns. The Colombian government also considered that it had to patch up a bilateral relationship that had heavily deteriorated during the previous administration of President Ernesto Samper (1994–1998). According to Pastrana, Under Secretary of State Thomas R. Pickering eventually suggested that, initially, the U.S. could be able to commit to providing aid over a three-year period, as opposed to continuing with separate yearly packages.\nAs a result of these contacts, US",
"-30.620478434837423"
],
[
"institutions and student groups to shape public discourse.\"\nIn April 2019 Bennet was one of 34 senators to sign a letter to President Trump regarding cutting aid to Central America. It encouraged Trump \"to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America,\" asserting that Trump had \"consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance\" since becoming president and that he was \"personally undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity\" by preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators",
"-30.5011713586282"
],
[
"the substantial cuts in federal funding they would receive. The largest cut in funding from the federal government would be Medicaid funding. The plan cuts federal funding for the federal-state Medicaid program by 34% by 2022, and by steadily larger amounts in years after that. For services such as education, law enforcement, water treatment, and disaster response, states would lose over $247 billion in federal funding from 2013-2021. The plan also would cut federal funding for state and local transportation and infrastructure projects by $194 billion through 2021. By 2021, the plan would reduce discretionary state and local grants to",
"-30.46214338799473"
],
[
"abstentions—an \"emergency bill\" requiring the government to seek compensation from the U.S. for actions the U.S. has taken against Iran, including the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, which the U.S. helped restore the monarch; the Nojeh coup plot in 1980; United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq war, including compensation for over 800,000 Iranians who died or were injured during the conflict; U.S. espionage in Iran; U.S. support of Israel; the alleged death of 17,000 Iranians at the hands of U.S.-supported terrorist groups; and the confiscation of Iranian assets. The bill requires the government to take \"appropriate legal action\"",
"-30.44663058637525"
],
[
"UN, in the absence of any serious military aid from the US, was forced to open its communication pathways wider than before and urge other countries to join the efforts. The US agreed to support these efforts with finance and some equipment. Early in the relief process, US relief planes began to drop large food packages from the air in hopes of alleviating the suffering in the camps below. Instead, the opposite occurred, as people were slaughtered by mobs trying to reach the precious food. Due to the perils of such chaos in the refugee camps, the US refused",
"-30.326647776761092"
],
[
"government initiatives except foreign aid. This is attributed, by Alice C. Hu, to a gross misconception of how much of the federal budget is actually spent on foreign aid. Recipients of foreign aid A study by Andy Baker, a political scientist at the University of Colorado at Boulder, found that Americans are more likely to support foreign aid going to an African country than they are to support foreign aid going to an Eastern European country. Respondents averaged wanting to cut aid going to those of European descent by 40 percent, while respondents averaged wanting to cut aid going to",
"-30.282576756289927"
],
[
"United States Agency for International Development Disaster relief Some of the U.S. Government's earliest foreign aid programs provided relief in crises created by war. In 1915, USG assistance through the Commission for Relief of Belgium headed by Herbert Hoover prevented starvation in Belgium after the German invasion. After 1945, the European Recovery Program championed by Secretary of State George Marshall (the \"Marshall Plan\") helped rebuild war-torn Western Europe.\nUSAID manages relief efforts after wars and natural disasters through its Office of U.S Foreign Disaster Assistance in Washington D.C. Privately funded U.S. NGOs and the U.S. military also play major roles",
"-30.22684288190794"
],
[
"financial aid/support from foreign countries which the Philippines needed to bring back the economy. Jaime Ongpin also threatened to resign from his position if Cory decided for repudiation. In the end, Cory decided to honor the debt. Later, USA designed a \"Marshall plan\" to help the country, an initiative that would ease Congress constraints on foreign aid programs and allow the private sector to extend more generous assistance; this proposal would expand private sector investment, enhance trade opportunities, and seek solutions for Philippines' external debt. Furthermore, P4 billion of foreign debt (inclusive of interest) was paid off in the span",
"-30.19263569189934"
],
[
"television to defend the announced resumption of military aid: The army massacres and the ensuing refugee flows should be blamed \"on the guerrillas who are fighting the government\", he said. Massacres and refugees are \"the price of stability.\" As opposition to U.S. policy grew, the London Economist, three months later observed, \"What liberal Americans can reasonably expect is that a condition of military help to Guatemala should be an easing of the political persecution of the center – which played into the hands of the extreme left in the first place.\" Support for Army Intelligence The CEH's coordinator, Christian Tomuschat,",
"-30.176594834192656"
],
[
"\"The decision to drastically curtail the refugee program will abandon tens of thousands to the risk of persecution or worse and cede American leadership on a vitally important issue\" and would not make the U.S. safer.\nThe International Rescue Committee condemned the executive order; its president, David Miliband, said that the executive order presented \"a test for the Western world ... of whether or not we hold fast to the values of non-discrimination and to universal values of freedom from persecution.\" Miliband also called it \"a propaganda gift for all those who would do harm to the United States.\"\nThe Inter-American Commission",
"-30.032900552731007"
],
[
"one of the 74 countries that responded by sending aid to the Armenians who had lost their homes and were living in temporary shelters. Through its aid, the U.S. managed to give permanent housing to about 30,000 victims and cleared displaced residents from over 100 buildings.\nOver the past 16 years, the U.S. has provided nearly $2 billion in assistance to Armenia, the highest per capita amount in the NIS. humanitarian aid originally accounted for up to 85% of this total, reflecting the economic paralysis caused by closed borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan related to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, destruction in northern",
"-30.020811163863982"
],
[
"aid of $15 million by half and canceled all planned military aid of $250,000, and the U.S. terminated all economic support by December 1979, when the Soviet occupation of the country was complete. The Afghan government aimed to diminish the U.S. presence in Afghanistan and restricted the number of Peace Corps volunteers and cultural exchange programs. On July 23, the State Department announced the withdrawal of non-essential U.S. embassy staff from Kabul and the majority of the diplomats as security deteriorated, and the U.S. only had some 20 staff members in Kabul by December. Dubs was not replaced by a new",
"-30.01176255918108"
],
[
"to internal corruption, reports from Pakistan also suggest that large amounts of foreign aid were being used to fund its war against India and maintain a position of power against their rivals India. As a result, reportedly nearly half of the aid given to Pakistan is being rendered unused due to corruption and the United States believes that altering its method of channeling the aid is the way to improve the implementation. Security concerns: public perception of U.S. aid As a result of security concerns and inability of American aid workers to deliver the aid to certain regions in Pakistan,",
"-29.984988552168943"
],
[
"billion dollars in 2008. The countries cut funding because of the Late-2000s financial crisis. Ki-moon stated that \"Some governments are cutting back on their response to AIDS. This should be a cause for great concern to us all. We must ensure that our recent gains are not reversed.\"\nIn the United States, the political concern was to give aid to save the most number of lives at the least cost, and there was a debate which argued that more people could be saved by diverting money which had formerly been committed to fighting HIV to instead treating diarrhea and respiratory disease.",
"-29.88816791609861"
],
[
"rate to become less competitive and this impedes the growth of manufacturing sector which is more conducive in the cheap labour conditions. Aid also can take the pressure off and delay the painful changes required in the economy to shift from agriculture to manufacturing.\nJames Shikwati, a Kenyan economist, has argued that foreign aid causes harm to the recipient nations, specifically because aid is distributed by local politicians, finances the creation of corrupt government such as that led by Dr Fredrick Chiluba in Zambia bureaucracies, and hollows out the local economy. In an interview in Germany's Der Spiegel magazine, Shikwati",
"-29.749884396151174"
],
[
"the willingness of the United States to assist them, should events take such a negative turn. Most believed that following a Contra defeat, Washington would cut its losses and withdraw all support from the group.\nContinued (and sharply increased) United States military aid to Honduras was the counterbalance to the prospect of United States withdrawal from the Nicaraguan conflict. For the years 1975–1980, total aid to Honduras had been US$16.3 million. From 1981–1985, the total reached US$169 million. Meanwhile, the percentage of the military budget coming directly (or indirectly) from the United States increased from 7% in",
"-29.74260875704931"
],
[
"United Nations Reform Act of 2005 On June 17, 2005, the United States House of Representatives passed H.R.2745, a bill to cut funds to the United Nations in half by 2008 if it did not meet with certain criteria laid out in the legislation. The United States is estimated to contribute about 22% of the UN's yearly budget—this bill would have had a large impact on the UN. The George W. Bush administration and several former US ambassadors to the UN warned that it would have strengthened anti-American sentiment around the world and would have hurt UN reform movements.\nIt failed",
"-29.73717538197525"
],
[
"organization. The report also concluded that, wartime damage aside, the country appeared to be financially stable. U.S. economic aid, provided in the form of both direct and indirect assistance, was based on prior commitments the United States had made to the Philippines. The U.S. government promised to “assist in making the Philippines...economically secure.” The total direct financial aid provided in 1947 and expected to be fully paid by 1950 exceeded $800 million and was filed under the Philippine Rehabilitation Act. Indirect aid came in the form of military and naval equipment, veterans’ benefits, and army and navy expenditures. The indirect",
"-29.72070244778297"
],
[
"Aid actually damages economic growth and development before ‘traction’ is attained. Death of Local Industries Foreign aid kills local industries in developing countries. Foreign aid in the form of food aid that is given to poor countries or underdeveloped countries is responsible for the death of local farm industries in poor countries. Local farmers end up going out of business because they cannot compete with the abundance of cheap imported aid food, that is brought into poor countries as a response to humanitarian crisis and natural disasters. Large inflows of money that come into developing countries, from the developed world,",
"-29.575876381190028"
],
[
"as significant increase can be seen regarding the distribution of aid payments through UNDP.\nIt is impossible though to say if the increase of foreign aid payments by the US or by the UN have changed receiving countries' voting behavior, as they would never admit being open for bribery. Effectiveness criticisms Some have questioned whether the UN might be relevant in the 21st century.\nWhile the UN's first and second Charter mandates require the UN: “To maintain international peace and security.... (and if necessary to enforce the peace by) taking preventive or enforcement action,”\ndue to its restrictive administrative structure, the permanent members",
"-29.515471919672564"
],
[
"Second World War forced the United States to agree to a compromise solution. The US negotiated an agreement with President Manuel Avila Camacho that amounted to a military alliance. Intervention ends in Latin America Small-scale military interventions continued after 1921 as the Banana Wars tapered off. The Hoover administration began a goodwill policy and withdrew all military forces. President Roosevelt announced the \"Good Neighbor Policy\" by which the United States would no longer intervene to promote good government, but would accept whatever governments were locally chosen. His Secretary of State Cordell Hull endorsed article 8 of",
"-29.495511475543026"
],
[
"drop the supplies within the next few days. The actions were carried out on April 10, but the supply drop failed because they could not establish contact.\nThe U.S. argued that \"The United States initially provided substantial economic assistance to the Sandinista-dominated regime. We were largely instrumental in the OAS action delegitimizing the Somoza regime and laying the groundwork for installation for the new junta. Later, when the Sandinista role in the Salvadoran conflict became clear, we sought through a combination of private diplomatic contacts and suspension of assistance to convince Nicaragua to halt its subversion. Later still, economic measures and",
"-29.44359639985487"
],
[
"any other nation\". Because there was little the United States should or could do toward changing the political atmosphere in other countries, there was no reason to attempt to use economic aid as a political tool. This was the justification to reduce economic aid in Latin America. The Rockefeller report called for some aid to continue, but the report recommended creating more effective aid programs. Welfare and Medicaid In the area of public assistance the Rockefeller administration carried out the largest state medical care program for the needy in the United States under Medicaid; achieved the first major decline in",
"-29.410323564428836"
],
[
"requesting Peru's suspension from the Organization of American States. International lenders delayed planned or projected loans, and the United States, Germany and Spain suspended all non-humanitarian aid to Peru. The coup appeared to threaten the reinsertion strategy for economic recovery, and complicated the process of clearing Peru's arrears with the International Monetary Fund.\nPeruvian–U.S. relations earlier in Fujimori's presidency had been dominated by questions of coca eradication and Fujimori's initial reluctance to sign an accord to increase his military's eradication efforts in the lowlands. Fujimori's autogolpe became a major obstacle to relations, as the United States immediately suspended all military and",
"-29.39202415343607"
],
[
"H. W. Bush, refused to concede that all U.S. aid to Angola had ceased. According to foreign affairs analyst Jane Hunter, Israel stepped in as a proxy arms supplier for the United States after the Clark Amendment took effect.",
"-29.375370248802938"
],
[
"concluded by stressing that US aid was to improve Guatemala's economy and its people's living standards \"in order to eliminate the climate for the growth of Communism\", and therefore the US could not risk giving the Springfjord claim precedence over aid to Guatemala.\nEighteen months after King's secret memo there was still no compensation payment, so on 10 February 1960 Marcus Lipton raised the question in the Commons again. The Conservative MP Robert Allan replied that the UK government had repeatedly asked the Guatemalan government to pay compensation for the sinking. Allan stated that \"At one time the Guatemalan Government intimated",
"-29.354657312331256"
],
[
"letter spearheaded by Tim Kaine and Mike Lee expressing concern that \"increasingly escalatory actions\" by both the US and Iran would \"lead to an unnecessary conflict.\" The senators noted that Congress had not authorized a war against Iran and requested \"a joint Defense, State and Intelligence Community briefing by the end of June to address these policy and legal issues.\" Reducing or eliminating foreign aid Paul has called for reducing or eliminating foreign aid to all countries. In 2011, Paul had proposed budget cuts of US$500 billion from the federal budget in part by cutting off foreign aid.\nPaul stated that",
"-29.34374681254849"
],
[
" program in the Philippines, and conclude that the program actually intensify violence in the short term. There are at least two possible reasons through which aid could intensify conflict. The first is that an inflow of aid will increase the amount of resources, which in turn increases the incentive to fight. The second is that aid increases short-term conflict because it has the potential to weaken insurgents in the long-run, perhaps because it increases peaceful economic opportunities or popular support for the government. If insurgents expect a successful aid program to weaken their",
"-29.335916050709784"
],
[
"assistance led by in-country resident offices — and supplemented it with substantial amounts of financial assistance. Post-war foreign aid Point Four and TCA had been established in the context of a number of other programs in the large-scale U.S. foreign aid effort of the 1940s. Already during the war, in 1943, the U.S. (jointly with its wartime allies, referred to collectively as \"the United Nations\") established the \"United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration\" (UNRRA) for war-affected parts of Europe, China, the Philippines, Korea, and Ethiopia. Immediately after the war, the USG supplied relief in Germany and Japan, funded by appropriations",
"-29.318004384287633"
],
[
"cut off $11 million in aid to the Honduran government in the wake of the coup, and suspended another $4 million in planned contributions to a road project. From 2009 to mid-2016, however, the U.S. provided about $200 million in military and police aid to Honduras, a controversial decision given the violence in Honduras and the government's human rights violations.\nArguments that Zelaya's removal was illegal have been advanced by several lawyers. The Supreme Court never ruled on any of the charges filed by the public prosecutor on 26 June. The arrest warrant was issued for the purposes of taking a",
"-29.237908918585163"
],
[
"the U.S. government (as well as $314 million from the British and French governments and about $200 million from non-governmental sources). These government monies were given in the form of loans, but a considerable portion of those loans was forgiven.\nAfter the war, the American Relief Administration, directed by Herbert Hoover who had also been prominent in the CRB, continued food distribution to war-devastated European countries. It also distributed food and combated typhus in Russia during 1921–23. The U.S. Congress appropriated $20 million for the ARA under the Russian Famine Relief Act of 1921. World War II Levels of United States",
"-29.209085840571788"
],
[
"improving under the administration of president Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García. Angered by this report, the Laugerud government renounced all US military assistance on 11 March 1977. Congress then reduced military aid to Guatemala for that year and prohibited military aid after 1978. Despite the prohibition, covert and overt US support for the Guatemalan army continued as the administration continued to send equipment to Guatemala through the CIA or reclassified military items as non-military. In fiscal years 1978, 1979 and 1980 (the three years for which the Carter administration can be held responsible), the US delivered approximately $8.5 million in direct",
"-29.17613436200554"
],
[
"domestic policies, and the United States government providing the economic and military aid that helped sustain the arrangement. Some disputed the claim that Suazo was subservient to the military, pointing out that the president refused to increase the budget of the armed forces. That budget, however, failed to take foreign military aid into account. The increase in United States military aid from US$3.3 million in fiscal year 1980 to US$31.3 million in FY 1982, therefore, represented a substantial expansion in the military's role in government.\nÁlvarez strongly supported United States policy in Central America. He reportedly assisted",
"-29.13326218421571"
],
[
"coax more aid from the United States\". She told Radio Australia's James Oaten: \"We have a very strong relationship with the United States and we don't want to jeopardise that relationship, because it would affect Palau's economic welfare.\"\nIn 2015, however, Palau voted to condemn the US embargo over Cuba. The motion at the United Nations was supported by 191 member states, with two votes against (the United States and Israel) and no country abstaining.",
"-29.10001602990087"
],
[
"an example of tied aid. Such practises have caused food produce from Canada to arrive several months later than usual, leading to a reduction in sale prices for local farmers.\nPrivate enterprises from donor countries have been looting much of the aid. This has resulted in bad usage of 35 to 40 percent of total international aid. An Afghan-American expatriate who has worked with foreign contractors in Afghanistan said, \"The international companies are more corrupt than the local companies because they’re here short-term, tax-exempt, make a profit and leave.\" Dictation by foreign institutions, such as the World Bank, IMF and UNDP,",
"-29.09350794600323"
],
[
"year. The next year, with his leadership, Congress expanded it to cover all State Department funded assistance. This provision was included in all annual Foreign Operations budget laws until 2008. At that time Congress made the law permanent by amending it into the Foreign Assistance Act. In 2011, Congress revised the law substantially, seeking to enhance its implementation.\nThe United States government has long been a major, if not the largest, provider of assistance—funding, training, non-lethal equipment, and/or weaponry---to foreign military and other security forces. In 2012 it spent $25 billion on training and equipping foreign militaries and",
"-29.04664349160157"
],
[
"focused on practical measures to achieve this, including offering dispersants.\nThat same day, U.S. spokesman P.J. Crowley said the U.S. had received 21 aid offers from 17 countries and four international groups. \"We are maintaining contact with these countries, we are grateful for the offers, and we will take them up on these offers.\" On 19 June, the Coast Guard actively requested skimming boats and equipment from the Netherlands, Norway, France, and Spain. By 25 June, the U.S. State Department listed 70 assistance offers from 23 countries, and indicated that 8 had been accepted. On 29 June the State Department",
"-29.02635261346586"
],
[
"Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.\nMore than 90 percent of the government's budget comes from an agreement with Petrocaribe, a Venezuela-led oil alliance. Foreign aid Haiti received more than US$4 billion in aid from 1990 to 2003, including US$1.5 billion from the United States. The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union. In January 2010, following the earthquake, US President Barack Obama promised US$1.15 billion in assistance. European Union nations pledged more than €400 million (US$616 million). Neighboring Dominican Republic has also provided extensive humanitarian aid to",
"-28.993762950893142"
],
[
"help from the United States, which initially, was hard to obtain. The Guatemalan government was corrupt and poorly managed, however, the Eisenhower administration believed that the fall of the Guatemalan government “would be a disastrous political setback for the United States.” The National Security Council would eventually approve an aid package of $53 million. The Guatemalan's had to rely on American for money due to their inability to borrow money themselves.\nThe political and consequent social instability created in Guatemala six years later resulted in a very long civil war and its consequent, destructive impact upon the society, the economy, human",
"-28.93278691046362"
],
[
"Direct military aid by the United States was eventually forbidden by the Boland Amendment of the Defense Appropriations Act of 1983. The Boland Amendment was extended in October 1984 to forbid action by not only the Defense Department, but also to include the Central Intelligence Agency.\nThe Boland Amendment was a compromise because the U.S. Democratic Party did not have enough votes for a comprehensive ban on military aid. It covered only appropriated funds spent by intelligence agencies. Some of Reagan's national security officials used non-appropriated money of the National Security Council (NSC) to circumvent the Amendment. NSC officials sought to",
"-28.928863117704168"
],
[
"aid was valued at $700 million in 1951.\nThe report emphasized the important political and economic impacts that U.S. assistance had on Filipino government. The improvement of infrastructure, industry, and agriculture helped lift the Philippines out of financial disorganization and possible political instability. The aid also increased popular support for the pro-American Roxas regime. However, while U.S. assistance aimed to build up the nation, it did not come without political objectives. The report described the aims of the U.S. government in providing the aid which included the solidification of a “strong independent, democratic, and friendly Republic.” The report expressed optimistic beliefs",
"-28.91419611537276"
],
[
"a $46 million appeal to the United Nations for financial assistance coping with Durian. This was after the country already depleted its yearly emergency funding for disasters. In response, various United Nations' departments provided about $2.6 million in emergency funding, and by late December 2006, 14 countries had provided donations to the Philippines. By the end of January, only 7.1% of the appeal was raised. By the end of April 2007, four Asian countries – China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore – donated ₱54 million (US$2.2 million) worth of emergency supplies, such as clothing, medicine, and food. Various companies and local organizations donated to the relief",
"-28.848853873787448"
],
[
"to military aid. Instead these programs, such as Employment Generation for Early Recovery (EGER). As of October 2010, the U.S. State Department noted the United States directly obligated over $229 million to support AMISOM, and paid for other UN assistance for the mission indirectly through its obligations to the international body.\nIn January 2013, the U.S. announced that it was set to exchange diplomatic notes with the new central government of Somalia, re-establishing official ties with the country for the first time in 20 years. According to the Department of State, the decision was made in recognition of the significant progress",
"-28.821031338186003"
],
[
"helping the United States respond to natural disasters in Central America by serving as a platform for rescue missions, repairing critical infrastructure, and in meeting high priority health and sanitation needs. JTF-Bravo forces have helped deliver millions of dollars worth of privately donated goods to those in need. Political involvement The Obama Administration's attempts to pressure Honduras into reversing the removal of Zelaya in 2009 were complicated by Republican minority party efforts to reach out to and advocate on behalf of the Roberto Micheletti government, as well as by a recent Republican-commissioned report by US Law Library of Congress that",
"-28.81024639365205"
],
[
"Force Caring Response.\nAs of 26 June 2008, United States assistance had totalled $41,169,769 and continued to be directed by the USAID DART stationed in Thailand. Military junta's blockade of aid In the days after the storm, the junta pursued a CNN reporter covering the effects of the storm. The reporter was eventually forced to leave the country out of fear of being imprisoned.\nOn 9 May 2008, the junta officially declared that their acceptance of international aid relief would be limited to food, medicines and other supplies as well as financial aid, but would not allow additional foreign aid workers",
"-28.809640946914442"
],
[
"such as armaments. Expenditure on foreign technical assistance, inflated salaries of foreigners to work in Afghanistan and home office expenses in U.S are other examples of how aid has been mislabeled. Donor countries, prioritizing their national reputation over helping Afghanistan overcome its development and growth challenges, have built ‘quick impact projects’ like cheap roads and buildings in the recipient country. Such inconsequential uses of aid have accounted for 86 percent of total American aid.\nThis has also been the case with Canada's aid scheme. 60 percent of Canadian aid has been restricted to the purchase of Canadian products only. This is",
"-28.77768879721407"
],
[
"assistance through a specialized agency, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Government-sponsored foreign aid began a systematic fashion after World War II; there were numerous programs of which the largest were the Marshall Plan of 1948 and the Mutual Security Act of 1951–61.\nMilitary aid is frequently provided to foreign countries experiencing civil war, and natural resource rich countries experience civil war more frequently than countries that do not have natural resources. Therefore, resource rich countries are significantly more likely to receive foreign aid.\nForeign aid is generally unpopular with the general public, with a 2017 poll finding 57%",
"-28.734331992221996"
],
[
"reason for the additional removal of aid, since the initial $500 million aid withdrawal in January 2018, is due to a lack of effort by the Pakistan Government in combating terrorist organizations in their country. The issue over the funding caused tensions in both countries. On September 5, 2018, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo visited Pakistan, the first visit of the Trump administration, but did not discuss the postponement of aid to the country. Cultural influence According to the Washington Post, American culture has heavily penetrated Pakistan. In the past decade, the introduction of US cinema, US fashion and US",
"-28.707221021410078"
],
[
"U.S.\" Experts have identified a number of legal, economic, and practical obstacles to such a proposal, saying that it would be impossible to track all money transfers between Mexico and the United States, or to effectively block all remittances. Some economists argue that blocking remittances could harm the U.S. economy. Brookings Institution fellow Aaron Klein said a move to block remittances would be a reversal of the existing U.S. policy \"to encourage the flow of money to come into the official system and to discourage the flow of funds through the underground network\". Executive Order (2017) On January 25, 2017,",
"-28.70275193103589"
],
[
"\"don't like America anymore\" poses great security risks for aid delivery for the United States and form a roadblock to the effective implementation of the aid in Pakistan. The need to outsource delivery to Pakistan leads to a lack of control and difficulty in monitoring and evaluating the implementation of the aid and has been a leading cause of the ineffective implementation of U.S. aid.\nPerception Of US aid in Pakistan \nMost Pakistanis people were not happy about the US aiding the Pakistani government, because view in the streets was that the aid never reached ordinary Pakistanis, who not only suffered",
"-28.699507603421807"
],
[
"government. On 16 June 2007, United States Consul-General Jacob Walles said that the US was planning to lift the ban on direct aid to the emergency government installed by Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas. Some Israeli officials said US$300 to $400 million in Palestinian tax revenues may be transferred to the PA, short of the $700 million Abbas was seeking. The Quartet voiced support for Abbas and concern for the humanitarian situation in Gaza, though they did not announce any change in the ban on direct aid.\nFew days later, the US ended its 15-month economic and political boycott of the Ramallah-based",
"-28.6848482521018"
],
[
"aid organized by the United States and other former enemies.",
"-28.643521302379668"
],
[
"aid national parks and public lands, benefit the $887 billion American outdoor recreation economy, and \"ensure much-needed investment in our public lands and continuity for the state, tribal, and non-federal partners who depend on them.\" Foreign policy In September 2016 Gardner was one of 34 senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of State John Kerry advocating that the United States clearly enforce \"a legally binding Security Council Resolution\" by using \"all available tools to dissuade Russia from continuing its airstrikes in Syria that are clearly not in our interest\".\nIn September 2017, Gardner co-sponsored the Israel Anti-Boycott Act",
"-28.638667087303475"
],
[
"decade, it was experiencing rapid economic growth, dubbed Ceboom.\nThe United States provided $25,000 to Philippine Red Cross for immediate disaster relief needs. The United States Agency for International Development distributed 97 t (107 short tons) of food in Leyte and eastern Samar, and by November 28, the country was granted $432,000 worth of supplies and cash. The United Kingdom provided $38,000 in medicine. France loaned the country $36 million that was expected to be paid back within three decades. Belgium provided $90,252 in relief assistance. Sweden granted nearly $18,000 worth of relief items. Denmark awarded $25,950 in cash. Germany added $132,450 in tents",
"-28.619846120331204"
],
[
"total, the American government provided $37.9 million to fund its efforts in the country. The first flight of American aid arrived in Port-au-Prince on October 8, beginning the transfer of 480 tons of supplies.\nOutside of the Americas, the European Union provided €1.755 million in funds. The United Kingdom pledged £8 million in funds toward providing temporary shelters that had equipment to purify water, as well as cholera prevention. Ireland provided €1.7 million toward the recovery efforts. Two Dutch ships helped relief operations in areas inaccessible by road. France sent two reconnaissance helicopters to survey the affected areas, as well as two water purification systems capable of",
"-28.561198231414892"
],
[
"understanding of U.S. foreign assistance\" since becoming president and that he was \"personally undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity\" through preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S., citing the funding's helping to improve conditions in those countries.\nIn April 2019, Durbin was one of 6 senators to send a letter to Director of the CFPB Kathy Kraninger expressing concern \"CFPB leadership has abandoned its supervision and enforcement activities related to federal student loan servicers\" and opined that such",
"-28.549869453709107"
],
[
"aid, which came as a shock to residents, and president Carlos Roberto Flores alike. The U.S. later increased their offer to $70 million (1998 USD). The Honduran government distributed food, water, and medical services to the hurricane victims, including the more than 4 million without water. In addition, the country initially experienced a sharp increase in the unemployment rate, largely due to the destruction of crop lands. However, rebuilding provided jobs in the following years. In Costa Rica, reconstruction after the hurricane increased the number of jobs by 5.9%, lowering the unemployment rate slightly.",
"-28.50316982343793"
],
[
"the consequences of war on its borders but also never benefited from the aid the US gave due to vast corruption in the government. Total aid since independence In total, the United States obligated nearly $78.3 billion to Pakistan between 1948 and 2016 (adjusted to 2016 value of dollar). United Kingdom United Kingdom pledged £665 million to Pakistan from 2009–2013. Free trade deals Pakistan has been trying to negotiate free trade deals with the EU and America as part of Western assistance in war against terror instead of aid. This policy is supported by the Washington-based think tank Center for Global Development",
"-28.48130091727944"
],
[
"International Monetary Fund also approved a $37.8 million loan to the country in 1986, half of which for emergency aid. Many houses and buildings had to be closed for repairs due to flood damage, including hotels, churches, and schools.",
"-28.44203489588108"
],
[
"solicit aid from the United States in the form of military intervention or war materiel (including two submarines and bombs capable of penetrating the armor of Almirante Latorre), but they were rebuffed both publicly and privately. Acting Vice President Manuel Trucco now found himself in an undesirable position; he had to defeat the rebels before more units joined and bolstered their forces, but if he was too harsh, there was a risk that the populace would think that his policies were too similar to the former dictator Ibáñez del Campo. Trucco decided on a path of reconciliation. He sent a",
"-28.438186538871378"
],
[
"the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 and the Arms Export Control Act should continue, (2) the President is encouraged to draw down United States Department of Defense (DOD) stocks in order to provide non-lethal assistance to the government of Ukraine, and (3) the Administration should conclude its current review of security assistance for the government of Ukraine.\nThe bill would express the sense of Congress that: (1) the Administration should provide assistance to the government of Ukraine to recover assets stolen from the government of Ukraine or linked to acts of corruption by former President Viktor Yanukovych, members of his family,",
"-28.4372350925114"
],
[
"scheduled to happen in January 2014 and $18 billion of the cuts scheduled to happen in 2015. Federal spending would thus be larger in these two years, but would be less in subsequent years until 2023. The deal makes up for this increase in spending by imposing sequester cuts in 2022 and 2023, raising airline fees and changing the pension contribution requirements of new federal workers, among other measures. Paul Ryan said that the bill would lower the deficit by $23 billion overall. The eliminated sequester cuts were spread evenly between defense spending and non-defense discretionary spending. The bill",
"-28.428622955456376"
],
[
"while also suggesting that the Trump Administration's proposed budget cuts could be an opportunity to make needed reforms in the US foreign aid system. In the Daily Signal, Cumber commented on the positive relations between Rick Perry and the Muslim community in Texas.",
"-28.41453856183216"
],
[
"to 1953 – U.S. provides grants and credits amounting to $5.9 billion to Asian countries, especially China/Taiwan ($1.051 billion), India ($255 million), Indonesia ($215 million), Japan ($2.44 billion), South Korea ($894 million), Pakistan ($98 million) and the Philippines ($803 million). In addition, another $282 million went to Israel and $196 million to the rest of the Middle East. The main category was economic aid, but some military aid was provided. All this aid was separate from the Marshall Plan. U.S Aid Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act on 4 September 1961, reorganizing U.S. foreign assistance programs and separating military",
"-28.361189998453483"
],
[
"assistance, and urged her government to initiate a conversation on cutting back on the assistance package. Former Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Arens also opposes continued US aid, arguing that Israel no longer needs it. Several Israeli political parties, including National Union, oppose the aid and propose a gradual reduction in dependency on it.\nThe Kirk-Menendez-Schumer bill would for the first time commit the United States to provide \"diplomatic, military and economic\" support for offensive actions by Israel.\nIn January 2014, it was reported that Israel and the United States had been quietly discussing the prospect of ending US aid, with representatives from",
"-28.328399160993285"
],
[
"U.S. Congress has reconsidered cuts in funding following attacks in other parts of the world. Grants have been given in order to improve security to mass transit systems in the United States, while in the United Kingdom, public transport, due to its \"open nature\", is considered a major potential target for terrorists.",
"-28.328172522364184"
],
[
"of non-intervention—straight, absolute, and peculiar as it may seem to other nations,'\" and insisted that \"[t]he American people must be content to recommend the cause of human progress by the wisdom with which they should exercise the powers of self-government, forbearing at all times, and in every way, from foreign alliances, intervention, and interference.\"\nPresident Ulysses S. Grant attempted to Annex the Dominican Republic in 1870, but failed to get the support of the Radical Republicans in the Senate. The United States' policy of non-intervention was wholly abandoned with the Spanish–American War, followed by the Philippine–American War from 1899–1902. 20th century",
"-28.31518286274104"
],
[
"Tell\", triggering final repeal after 60 days. In August 2011, Panetta publicly warned that deeper cuts in the defense budget risked hollowing out the military and would hamper Pentagon efforts to deal with rising powers such as China, North Korea, and Iran and he urged Congress not to go beyond the roughly $500 billion in defense cuts required over the next decade under the debt reduction bill signed by President Barack Obama. Working with military and civilian leaders at the Department of Defense, Panetta developed a new defense strategy for the 21st century.\nThe need to keep the United States military",
"-28.302842114819214"
],
[
"assistance, military-to-military funding, and micro-credit support in Uzbekistan. U.S. assistance grew to approximately $101.8 million in FY 2004, but fell to $92.6 million in FY 2005. These programs were designed to promote market reform and to establish a foundation for an open, prosperous, democratic society. Starting in 2004, the Secretary of State has been unable to certify that Uzbekistan has met its obligations under the bilateral 2002 Strategic Framework Agreement. As a result, U.S. assistance declined to approximately $20 million in FY 2006.\n However, after the supply routes through Pakistan were interrupted in 2012, the ban on military assistance to",
"-28.301168908714317"
],
[
"Monetization of U.S. in-kind food aid Monetization of U.S. in-kind food aid is the sale of food commodities purchased in and shipped from the United States and sold for local currency in a recipient country by \"cooperating sponsors\", which are typically U.S.-based non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or recipient governments.\nIn the case of the monetization of U.S. food aid, the U.S. provides food commodities for free or under favorable terms to a cooperating sponsor, which could be a recipient country’s government or an NGO working there. The recipient organization sells the commodities to local processors or traders who turn around and sell",
"-28.29914748261217"
],
[
"any interference in the internal affairs of that country [and] calls for the immediate, unconditional and total withdrawal of the foreign troops from Afghanistan in order to enable its people to determine their own form of government and choose their economic, political and social systems free from outside intervention, subversion, coercion or constraint of any kind whatsoever...\" The resolution also appealed to all states and organizations for humanitarian relief for refugees via the UN High Commissioner for Refugees.",
"-28.263211740122642"
],
[
"agreed to supervise the process. Although the Bush administration expressed disapproval of the new agreement, the White House and United States Congress agreed that the Contras' aid would be cut off if the Nicaraguan rebels failed to disband. The United States Congress approved US$49.7 million in humanitarian aid to the Contras through February 1990.\nThe December 5 deadline also proved overly optimistic. As the date approached, the Central American leaders again scheduled a summit. The first site selected was Managua. That venue changed to San José, Costa Rica, however, after the discovery of arms in the",
"-28.252931827213615"
],
[
"also states that for much of the period of her study (World War II to the present) \"foreign aid was used for four main purposes: diplomatic [including military/security and political interests abroad], developmental, humanitarian relief and commercial.\" Extent of aid Most official development assistance (ODA) comes from the 30 members of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), or about $135 billion in 2013. A further $15.9 billion came from the European Commission and non-DAC countries gave an additional $9.4 billion. Although development aid rose in 2013 to the highest level ever recorded, a trend of a falling share of aid going to the neediest",
"-28.200201875995845"
],
[
"by means of foreign loans, but by internal borrowing and war taxation. Unfortunately a similar policy was beyond the power of other European nations. Appeal was therefore made to the Government of the United States; and under the arrangement then arrived at the United States insisted, in substance if not in form, that, though our allies were to spend the money, it was only on our security that they were prepared to lend it. This co-operative effort was of infinite value to the common cause, but it cannot be said that the role assigned in it to this country was",
"-28.180575546764885"
],
[
"to participate in refugee resettlement programs.\nDuring Price's first year in Congress, he voted for the United Nations Reform Act of 2005, which if passed, would have withdrawn up to one-half of US funding for the United Nations, unless various reforms were met. In 2011, Price voted for the United Nations Transparency, Accountability, and Reform Act, which would have limited the kind of funding allowed to be contributed to the United Nations.\nIn 2005, Price voted against the East Asia Security Act, which would have allowed for sanctions to be placed on any country violating the arms embargo on China. In 2007,",
"-28.17488048726227"
],
[
"a coup would oblige the U.S. to cut off most foreign aid to Honduras.\" Cutting off aid was seen as a possibility in the days after the coup, and State Department Director of Policy Planning Anne-Marie Slaughter urged Clinton to \"take bold action\" and to \"find that [the] coup was a 'military coup' under U.S. law.\" Nevertheless, Clinton did not do so, and the U.S. never formally declared that a coup had occurred. By November 2009, the U.S. \"focused on pushing for elections\" in the country. In September 2009, the Board of the U.S. Millennium Challenge Corporation, headed by Clinton,",
"-28.146533210470807"
],
[
"the state receives international aid, it is less dependent on the tax revenue that it collects from its constituents. A higher level of fiscal independence on the part of the state decreases the bargaining power of the citizens. The government is threatened less by the citizens’ “exit” option, and less hurt if it is implemented, hence this takes away a credible threat to use at the negotiation table in order for the citizens to request improvement to their current condition. At the same time, the lack of dependence for revenue decreases the “voice” action of the citizen by weakening the",
"-28.137309502064454"
],
[
"remittances by migrant workers in the United States to their international families was twice as large as that country's humanitarian aid. The World Bank reported that, worldwide, foreign workers sent $328 billion from richer to poorer countries in 2008, over twice as much as official aid flows from OECD members. The United States does not count military aid in its foreign aid figures. Improving aid effectiveness The High Level Forum is a gathering of aid officials and representatives of donor and recipient countries. Its Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness outlines rules to improve the quality of aid. Conditionalities A major",
"-28.137257983209565"
],
[
"federal government's budget be used on foreign aid. In actuality, less than 1 percent of the US federal budget goes towards foreign aid. Less than 19 percent of respondents thought that the percent of the budget that goes towards foreign aid was less than 5 percent. Steven Kull, director of PIPA, relates this overestimation towards an increase in hearing about foreign aid efforts during the Obama administration, but estimates of foreign aid have always been high.\nA poll conducted in 2013 by Research Pew Center found that the majority of Americans wanted to either maintain or increase spending on all US",
"-28.13616103073582"
],
[
"Supplementing reconstruction efforts by China and the United Kingdom, the nation's government allocated a further EC$30 million (US$11 million) to enhancing road safety. The Food and Agriculture Organization allocated EC$300,000 (US$110,000) for farmers in October. Through June 2016, the government provided victims with EC$5–6 million (US$1.8–2.2 million), primarily to cover shelters and food. International assistance Within 48 hours of the storm, Governments of Canada, France, the United Kingdom, the United States, the European Union, and various intergovernmental organizations under the United Nations—such as the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), UNICEF, and United Nations Development Programme—pledged aid; Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Montserrat, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and",
"-28.124288556398824"
],
[
"UNFPA) worked to compensate for the loss of United States federal funding by raising private donations.\nIn January 2009 President Barack Obama restored US funding to UNFPA, saying in a public statement that he would \"look forward to working with Congress to restore US financial support for the UN Population Fund. By resuming funding to UNFPA, the US will be joining 180 other donor nations working collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV/AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries.\" \nIn April 2017, the U.S. announced that it will cut off funding",
"-28.108130742795765"
],
[
"important years). One of the reasons could be that it is easier for the US to fast distribute money, while aid payments of the United Nations mean a lot of bureaucracy beforehand.\nBelieving Kuziemko and Werker, this increase in payments does not happen because the ODA-receiving countries on the security council are able to use the chance and raise awareness for their problems. As soon as the country's time in council is over, the financial aid drops to the level prior to the time serving on the United Nations Security Council. The financial aid payments do however already rise the year",
"-28.072382525730063"
],
[
"ICC States Parties who refused BIAs with the U.S. or were not provided a Presidential waiver. The funds affected support initiatives including peacekeeping, anti-terrorism measures, democracy-building, and drug interdiction. The language of the amendment allowed presidential exemptions for NATO, MNNA (major non-NATO allies), and Millennium Fund countries.\nThe Nethercutt Amendment differed from former anti-ICC provisions of the ASPA by imposing economic aid cuts instead of military aid cuts. Cutting economic assistance is a far more damaging act because, in many countries, it intended to bolster local economies instead of national defense. In addition, existing status of forces agreements (SOFAs) and other",
"-28.060453760437667"
],
[
"to aid became the subject of a UK government inquiry from March 1994. In November 1994, after an application for Judicial Review brought by the World Development Movement, the High Court held that the then Foreign Secretary, Douglas Hurd had acted ultra vires (outside of his power and therefore illegally) by allocating £234 million towards the funding of the dam, on the grounds that it was not of economic or humanitarian benefit to the Malaysian people . In 1997 the administration of the UK's aid budget was removed from the Foreign Secretary's remit with the establishment of the Department",
"-28.051541010616347"
],
[
"Italy and the Soviet Union signed on officially, but ignored the embargo. The attempted suppression of imported materials was largely ineffective, however, and France especially facilitated large shipments to Republican troops. The League of Nations did not try to act. Latin America The main foreign policy initiative of the United States was the Good Neighbor Policy, which was a move toward a more non-interventionist U.S. policy in Latin America. Since the 1890s Americans had seen this region as an American sphere of influence. American forces were withdrawn from Haiti, and new treaties with Cuba and Panama ended their status as",
"-28.03273522714153"
],
[
"all cases, that translates into a US$13.9 billion reduced value of aid for the recipients. If the value on an average only is reduced by 20 percent, it would equal US$9.2 billion. The problems of untying aid The tying of aid is a form of protectionism; however, the literature on this particular subject is rather scanty. One of the major problems in the untying of aid is the prisoner's dilemma. Those donors that want to abolish the practice will see their own interests damaged if the other donors do not follow.\nIn 2001, the donor members of the Development Assistance Committee",
"-28.029211785411462"
],
[
"not return as President.\nHillary Clinton announced after meeting with Zelaya, that the United States was suspending all of the military and some economic aid to Honduras. Suspended aid includes all military aid (about $16.5 million) and support supplied to the government for CAFTA-DR, and USAID programs ($1.9 million). Humanitarian aid to the Honduran people will continue as a policy matter.\nForeign relations minister in the interim government, Enrique Ortez Colindres, said in a TV interview that Obama \"is a little black man who doesn't know where Tegucigalpa is located.\" He later apologised after U.S. Ambassador Hugo Llorens had said: \"I express",
"-28.026668311620597"
],
[
"and non-military aid. The Act was established by President Kennedy two months later. USAID became the first U.S. foreign assistance organization whose primary focus was long-term economic and social development. Public knowledge of aid Several polls have been done assessing the knowledge of the US Public in regards to how much they know about the government's foreign aid spending. A poll conducted by World Public Opinion in 2010 found that the average estimate for how much of the government's budget is spent on foreign aid was 25 percent. The average amount proposed by the public was 10 percent of the",
"-28.016854596789926"
]
] |
8b1boq | I am living in a building where we are several students with one room each and we share a kitchen. How is it possible that all our keys to our rooms fit the lock to the kitchen, but not the other student's rooms? | [
"A lock has a number of tumblers, which all need to be pushed to a certain height in order for the lock to turn. Each key is unique, and the bumps on the key correspond to the heights of the tumblers within the corresponding lock. Imagine keys and locks as a 6 digit password. Now imagine that your kitchen lock is only a 4 digit password - the kitchen lock only has 4 tumblers, not 6. So your keys can all open the kitchen door if they have the right 4 bumps, but you can't open each other's doors. Imagine the kitchen door is 0134. Imagine your door is 013461 and your roommate's door is 013413. You and your roommate can both open the kitchen because your keys have 0134 (which is all the kitchen needs,) but you can't open each other's doors because your keys don't match the lock.",
"Hopefully, this works with Reddit formatting: This is the kitchen key: O=\\^\\^\\^- > This is your bedroom key O=\\^\\^\\^M > This is your roommates bedrooms key: O=\\^\\^\\^U > And your other roommate: O=\\^\\^\\^S > You all share the first part of the key, which unlocks the kitchen, but the last part of your key is different, and that's the part that unlocks your lock.",
"Physical locks come in varying degrees of security. Your kitchen lock uses the least secure function of the key, which are the widest bumps on your key. Your individual room locks use the exact same wide bump patterns, but the narrower teeth of the keys are all different. Your kitchen lock isn't precise enough to notice the differences in the tips/ridges/bumps on the teeth of your keys, whereas your bedroom locks are.",
"Your door locks will have an extra pin, or something similar. Basically all your keys have different bumps/notches but are mostly the same. the front door lock will only care about the bit that is the same, while the bedroom locks will care about all of it."
] | [
[
"doors.\" Lack of dividing walls between the kitchen and combined living room/dining room became more popular in United States in the 1970s.\nA home with this type of layout has one or more large, open rooms that function as multiple rooms within a single living space. The most common is a great room that combines the kitchen, dining room, and living room into one shared space. These floor plans usually work well in homes with a smaller area, while larger homes have more leeway to work with when integrating great rooms into a floor plan. The removal of interior walls increases",
"-26.86862737010233"
],
[
"equipment. As the space below the building is dry and easily accessible some less used areas at its outer limits are used for storage; for example people may collect and store wood here until they are able to build the next house for their relatives. People do not stay upstairs during the day; they only sleep here at night. A separate room beside the main living space, which is often a step lower than the upper floor, is reserved for cooking. Spatial organisation of the house Typically, the kitchen is situated at the back of the house, often some steps",
"-26.207235992420465"
],
[
"home room classes is sometime based on ability in one or more core subjects. For example, students with a talent for science and math might be grouped together in one home room, while students with more practical or artistic skills would be put together in another. In such cases, the class' home room teacher often specializes in one of the core areas used to select his or her class, in addition to provide both academic and life advises to students. Usually there will also be a student elected by the others as a class monitor to assist their teachers with",
"-26.077397961402312"
],
[
"on the first floor, living quarters (a hall, kitchen, dining room, living room, and two bedrooms) on the second, and open storage space on the third. There were no internal staircases connecting the floors, only exterior stairs.",
"-26.01766811896232"
],
[
"House with two rooms House with two rooms or Bing's house is a particular contractible, 2-dimensional simplicial complex that is not collapsible. The name was given by R. H. Bing.\nThe house is made of 2-dimensional panels, and has two rooms. The upper room may be entered from the bottom face, while the lower room may be entered from the upper face. There are two small panels attached to the tunnels between the rooms, which make this simplicial complex to be contractible.",
"-25.949129585642368"
],
[
"is a single space divided by storage units with the kitchen and bathroom on the outer edge. These latter two were designed so that they could be moved to suit the use of the house - and indeed they have been moved and/or adjusted about seven times over the course of fifty years. At one point a small children's room was attached to the bottom of main floor with a small child-sized access door between the two rooms.\nAfter the meeting, Tange left for Massachusetts Institute of Technology to begin a four-month period as a visiting professor. It is possible that",
"-25.721246696601156"
],
[
"second floor, turn left into a small hallway to the first-floor porch. The living room is accessed via a set of French doors and contains a fireplace and separate exit to the first-floor porch. The kitchen is connected to the dining room through a butler's pantry area and is also accessible from a narrow hallway with back servant stairway to the upper floors. Internal access to the basement is via the kitchen. There is a small bathroom off the narrow corridor towards the back of the house.\nThe second floor contains four bedrooms, a center hallway",
"-25.70720289106248"
],
[
"the time, the house has two drawing rooms on the first floor rather than locating one on the second floor. Instead, there are four bedrooms on the second floor.",
"-25.65636895604257"
],
[
"League.\nDickson, as it is more commonly known, also has a notoriously awkward numbering system for rooms. Room numbers start with the floor the room is on, followed by a number indicating which side of the building they are on; rooms in the southwest are said to be on the \"5\" side and rooms in the northeast half are said to be on the \"6\" side. Furthermore, the basement (which is the building's ground floor at the back side due to its being on a hill) is labeled as the first floor. So, for example, a room on",
"-25.592238812794676"
],
[
"bedrooms, a parlor, and a dining room. The basement contains an apartment similar to the one on the second story. There are no interior stairways, so the second story is accessible only via the side and rear porches, and the basement is accessible through a door adjacent to the rear porch.",
"-25.57893758371938"
],
[
"in the kitchen wing. Originally it was a sleeping loft as well, but has since been converted into a children's playroom. The back hall is the primary means of access to all rooms save a guest bedroom.\nAt the top of the back stairs are an identical newel post and balustrade around the stairwell. Most doors have paneled doors and a molded surround. The exception is the two doors on the north side, of tongue-and-groove paneling without surrounds.\nThrough a former closet, an oval door similar to a submarine's bulkhead door leads to the playroom. It is necessary to step down, and",
"-25.567727873509284"
],
[
"to be a single open room, its space ebbing and flowing around two wood blocks; one a wardrobe cabinet and the other containing a kitchen, toilet, and fireplace block (the \"core\"). The larger fireplace-kitchen core seems to be a separate house nesting within the larger glass house. The building is essentially one large room filled with freestanding elements that provide subtle differentiations within an open space, implied but not dictated, zones for sleeping, cooking, dressing, eating, and sitting. Very private areas such as toilets, and mechanical rooms are enclosed within the core. Drawings recently made public by the Museum of",
"-25.514347021089634"
],
[
"the kitchen in the basement, a bathroom, and the library. The second floor contains a large hall and seven bedrooms. The third floor, which is reached by a separate flight of stairs from the second floor hall, contains four further bedrooms and a billiard room.",
"-25.376231646660017"
],
[
"some floors. Bedrooms with three students are less expensive and can be a suitable option for students. It no longer provides telephone service. Each bedroom does have a private bathroom and cable hookup.",
"-25.335829856805503"
],
[
"low ceiling and with the thick walls that have small windows. It is typical to have a kitchen with oven at this floor. At the houses with no mezzanine floor, kitchen is usually placed at the corner of the main hall or the courtyard.\nAt the traditional houses, upper floors are the main living spaces and are designed mostly with outer or inner halls also seen in many settlements of Anatolia. According to the function and the location of the hall many different designs are created. At the plans with outer hall, halls face south and the rooms are located with",
"-25.309819360845722"
],
[
"with broad doorways into each of the home's principle rooms. Of these, the living room, library and kitchen were carved out of the original house, while a rear addition housed a dining room and pantry. Two staircases – one a wide, open, public stair in the central hall, and the other a narrow, winding, and closed service stair – connected the first and second floors. The second floor contained five bedrooms around a single hall bathroom. A finished third story, accessed by the tight service stair, contained two servant bedrooms and a second bathroom. All",
"-25.26728329110483"
],
[
"Most houses are symmetrical with the entrance door occupying the place of honour. Typically this front door leads to a foyer which then either leads to the sala (the main hall for entertaining a large number of guests) or the sala de visita (a smaller hall for entertaining a small number of guests) and in some cases the chapel in the house. From here one can also directly enter the rest of the house, which usually revolved around a courtyard. Typically the master bedroom opens into the sala or is close to it. The dining room is usually perpendicular to",
"-25.088691022028797"
],
[
"was often a timber-framed structure. Many could not afford a large house; however, putting up a wall in the only room created a smaller area in the rear of the house, called a parlor. This was the private room, and usually contained a bed. In early examples, the house is one room wide and two deep. The two adjoining rooms are connected by an interior door. An exterior door leads to the hall, the larger of the two rooms and the one in the front of the house. Behind the hall is the parlor. The hall may have been used",
"-25.082848482910777"
],
[
"times. In some cases this may extend to the next room, provided that the door to the room of the deceased is open. Other traditions consider it acceptable as long as someone is present in the building.",
"-25.08148525111028"
],
[
"mostly empty, allowing easy crossing between rooms, and somewhere for school parties to sit. There are also works downstairs, a gallery devoted to frames, and a digital gallery.\nThe collection is arranged more or less chronologically starting from the entrance and moving toward the farthest room; however there are many doors back to the long central space, so it is straightforward to reach any other room at any point. The visitor chooses between southern, mainly Italian, art to the left, and German and Flemish art to the right. Completing the circuit takes the visitor first forward, then backward,",
"-25.053623087162123"
],
[
"Split-level home Stacked split level The stacked split level has four or five short sets of stairs, and five or six levels. The entry is on a middle floor between two levels. The front door opens into a foyer, and two short sets of stairs typically lead down to a basement and up to a living area (often the kitchen or the living room). Another short set of stairs typically leads to at least one bedroom, located on top of the first living area. Often additional bedrooms are \"stacked\" on top of the second living area, hence the name \"stacked",
"-25.03366697690217"
],
[
"with a large living area being the heart of the house in terms of location and spatial volume. It served multiple functions of living and dining with access to the office, workroom and lavatory as well. All of these rooms were usually linked through large sliding doors, allowing each space to be opened or closed off.\nBaillie Scott states.\n“In making the plan for a house it will be necessary to banish from one’s mind the conception of its interior as a mere group of isolated compartments, and to think of it rather as a central room surrounded by subordinated ones, some",
"-24.97361200490559"
],
[
"single floor. While both the first and second floors of the house have this split-level distinction, the second floor is the one best seen as Raumplan. The second floor is made up of the living area on the lower level and the dining room on the higher level. The dining area is seen as a part of the living area and thus its volumes intersect. The level change gives the dining room volume a distinction from the living room volume. A small staircase connects the two levels. The central column of the building, while creating the distinction between the",
"-24.97228607616853"
],
[
"with a kitchenette; the remaining three are two-bedroom units with a central living area.",
"-24.966514593572356"
],
[
"with two former bedrooms and the kitchen along the eastern wing. Generally these rooms have internal linings similar to that of the office, apart from the kitchen which has no lining boards to the walls. Doors are generally low-waisted four-panelled doors, apart from a boarded door now to the recently constructed ensuite in the second bedroom, which was apparently relocated from the kitchen. On the rear verandah is a small utility room, now a public toilet. Apart from the signs in the office, the building also retains a telephone exchange, now located in the former bedroom.\nThe site is level, well",
"-24.960107949445955"
],
[
"only six feet.\nThe first and second floors have the standard three rooms. On both levels, there is a room to the east, to the west, and a hallway dividing the two. On the first level, the dining room is to the east, while the west room is the drawing-room, more commonly referred to as a family or living room. On the second floor, the east room is the master bedroom, and the west room is the guest bedroom. Only the third floor, which operated as storage space during James's life and then as children's rooms during Joseph's life, strays from",
"-24.912921051029116"
],
[
"on the north and east elevations and extend from the main habitable areas. A smaller balcony is accessed from the main bedroom. The cantilevers define various spaces including the upper-most bedroom (or study) which juts out 2.7m from the main structure.\nThe house was first designed as having no bearers or floor joists, no partition walls, no windows or glass (just canvas blinds), no doors except to bathrooms, no studs as we know them and no painting. Graeme Gunn explained the reason for having no doors or windows was a response to concerns about the risk of vandalism in a place",
"-24.907022870946093"
],
[
"from the other side of that door. When exiting the Room, its door opens not necessarily to the original place of entry, but to any room the holder of the Key has in mind, or to a random room if the user does not focus. To reach a specific room the user must have a clear picture of the room's door and the area around it. The \"Lost\" Room thus serves as a means of instant travel between similar doors anywhere on Earth. Hinged doors with types of locks other than a tumbler lock or with no lock at",
"-24.86803862787201"
],
[
"rooms on the ground floor are the withdrawing room to the right of the hall, and the buttery and kitchen to the left; there is also a small entrance porch at the main Hospital Street entrance. The first floor has five main rooms: the upper hall (never open to the roof) and four solars (private upper rooms, some of which would have contained beds), as well as a small chapel. The attic is divided into five rooms and provided servants' accommodation.\nThe entrance porch has a panelled ceiling with inlaid decoration and a moulded doorcase with an 18th-century oak door. The",
"-24.851782896956138"
],
[
"every floor, there is a hallway or staircase to connect the classroom wing to the office wing, and it is possible, positioned in certain areas of the building, to view five staircases, two elevators, and four hallways.",
"-24.836255949252518"
],
[
"through wood-and-glass doors with transoms; many rooms retain the original wood floors, wood trim, and plaster walls. A dining hall on the first floor is not original. An auditorium and associated coat room, bar area, and restrooms are on the second floor.",
"-24.78876305220183"
],
[
"kitchen is adjacent. The stair hall has stairs to the upper level and the basement. A master bedroom suite lies beyond the stair hall on the main level. There are two bedrooms and two baths on the upper levels. The basement features a large room with a fireplace under the great hall suitable for dancing, while other rooms were used for entertainment. A matching garage is nearby, with space for three cars with a basement beneath. An apartment is attached. The basement was to be used as a workroom and includes a fireplace. The apartment comprises two rooms with a",
"-24.745116093894467"
],
[
"an office, parlor, dining room, and kitchen are also located on the first floor. The second floor contains an L-shaped hallway and four bedrooms, a bathroom, and a maid's quarters. house contains original oak, walnut, and maple trim, as well as elaborate spindlework in the stairway balustrade. There are two fireplaces on the ground floor with wooden mantles and glazed tile surrounds.",
"-24.716134563379455"
],
[
"living quarters and a large room for church services. The second floor has a small bedchamber, and a large room that is believed to be the one used for the school. The extra set of floor beams indicate that the room was designed to accommodate a large number of persons. The floors in the house are of white pine boards, 14–16 inches (36–41 cm) wide. The windows and doors, the originals of which have been replaced, have the low and wide proportions of the originals. Size of original lot The original land grant given to Robert Rider in 1680 by English",
"-24.674371390370652"
],
[
"is an exception to the other residence halls because students must apply to live in this building. Every other residence hall must be selected during room selection in the spring. A panel of judges evaluate L/LC applications and select the residents based on certain criteria. The residence hall itself is for four people, split up into two double bedrooms. It features a kitchen, living room, and a private bathroom. Before fall 2006, students needed to perform individual projects all centered on a topic the group decided on in the selection period. Starting in the 2006-2007",
"-24.660956140200142"
],
[
"room, kitchen, and utility room. The second floor contains a living room, library, and three bedrooms. A fourth bedroom is located on the third level under the dormer.",
"-24.637685460969806"
],
[
"woodwork throughout. The first floor includes a living room, dining room, den, kitchen, foyer, and a small bathroom. The second and third floors consist of seven bedrooms and one bathroom, while the basement is unfinished. There are also a variety of pieces of built-in wood-furniture, such as a bench.",
"-24.619272214593366"
],
[
"of the rooms have their own door to the outside. The center of the house is the \"service core\", built around a large stone hearth and adjacent to a 100 square foot (9.3 m²) study.\nThe original Usonian floorplan provided 1,540 square feet (143 m²) of living space, but when the Rosenbaums had their fourth child they asked Wright to design an extension to the now cramped house. His modifications, completed in 1948, added a further 1,084 square feet (100 m²) in a second L-shape. Recognition It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places individually, and also as a contributing building",
"-24.61305712617468"
],
[
"section.\nInternally, the house has a centrally located entry hall with panelled walls that opens onto a large combined living and dining room. Bedrooms open from either side of the entry, the one on the western side features an ensuite and a five-sided corner bay. A secondary hall runs at the rear of the living/dining room, with additional bedrooms opening from it. The main bedroom and kitchen are located on the eastern side of the house.\nMany original features survive throughout the residence, including ebonised timber detailing, leadlight doors, built-in leadlight display cabinets in the living/dining room and entry hall and timber",
"-24.60682766698301"
],
[
"the front door to prevent anyone seeing into the home, so the house cannot be understood from the street. A flight of splayed stairs from ground level leads to the first floor containing the formal living area, master bedroom, Boyd's study and bathroom. Stairs down to ground floor are situated inside the master bedroom, where furniture has been positioned to take on the role of the balustrading. On the ground floor is the less formal family, dining and kitchen space – as well as access to the courtyard. Located across from the courtyard are the children's quarters. The internal courtyard",
"-24.604016102821333"
],
[
"of thick rough masonry. The corners are usually of ashlars with re-enclosure at all the spans. The entrance is through a gate of one or two arcs, sufficient to allow passage of a cart into an entryway, leading to the kitchen (although in some houses the kitchen is on the upper level), stables, wine cellar, pantry and stairs to the upper floor. In some areas, there are passageways to enter the upper floor from the outside.\nThe upper floor contains the bedrooms, two of which face the balcony. The interior walls originally are usually made of wood, although in recent times",
"-24.591283038491383"
],
[
"second floors of the central section are each divided into four rooms, with a central hall on the first and second floors; the first floor also has an intersecting hall that leads to the laboratory. The attic has three rooms for servants and a larger room for storage. A paint analysis done in 1994 revealed that the house had no wall paper initially and that the walls and woodwork were painted \"a brilliant white\".\nThe house is a frame structure, covered with white wooden clapboards, anchored to a stone foundation. The Priestleys built their home out of wood, dried in trenches",
"-24.57203692069743"
],
[
"upper story from the rear hall. The second floor also had six rooms; front and rear halls, and four bedrooms with access to the attic via a stairwell in the southeast bedroom. The bedrooms, parlors, and kitchen each had fireplaces. Access to the exterior was through doors located at the front and rear halls of the first and second floor. Later photographs show doors at the upper floor, yet no access to a balcony. It can be assumed that there was once a balcony along both sides of the first and second floors (see McKinney Homestead). Each of the rooms",
"-24.50249084609095"
],
[
"to the kitchen below. Next to the rooms is a small hall with stairs to the second floor. The hall also led to a bathroom and an entrance to the kitchen. The largest room on the second floor is on the east. The north side features two small rooms. On the west is a bedroom and a bathroom. The main hall has a stairway to the third floor, which was probably originally a single room, but has been converted into two. In the first floor of the addition, the dining room has a maple floor. The kitchen was also relocated",
"-24.490403447882272"
],
[
"room was meant to serve the functions of a kitchen, laundry, sewing room, and storage. The four studios were originally designated for the four members of the household (Rudolph & Pauline Schindler and Clyde & Marian Chace). Each person was assigned a studio marked in the plans with his or her initials, and everyone converged in the communal kitchen for domestic chores. The house also has a guest studio with its own kitchen and bathroom. The house, at just under 3,500 square feet (330 m²), sits on a 20,000-square-foot (1,900 m²) lot.\nInstead of bedrooms, there are two rooftop sleeping baskets. The baskets",
"-24.482329581602244"
],
[
"kitchen, bathroom, bedroom, and a two-story living room, along with an open stair in the center of the building. The second floor contains two bedrooms and a bathroom. Interior walls are primarily covered with Douglas fir boards.",
"-24.474521648022346"
],
[
"Floor The twelfth floor is home to the University's catering service, as well as a meeting room in suite 1201 reserved for activities held by the President or Vice President of the University. It was usually impossible to get to the twelfth floor without an elevator key, although recently access to the twelfth floor has not been as restrictive as in the past.\nA five bedroom, four-bath suite on the twelfth floor of Bruce Hall also once served as the University's chancellor residence. The Ghost of 1201 Bruce Hall Many students and university employees, as well as various outside sources,",
"-24.43982451822376"
],
[
"a magnificent piece of architecture that is not only remarkable, but also practical enough to ensure that no space is wasted. For example, the office area is separated from the main bedroom by wardrobes, cupboards, and storage. The kitchen and bathroom are located on the narrowest ends of the first and ground floor; however, the free-standing stair wall would create an open slit between the floors making it appear more spacious. An interesting feature about this house is that the dining bench is built into one of the walls. Finally, the widest end of the first floor was made",
"-24.4357603379176"
],
[
"of the basement serves as a large storage area. The two rooms on the first floor formerly served as bedrooms, but they are now used as formal living and sitting rooms. The first floor originally had one fireplace on the east side, but the design was changed around 1915 to allow for a fireplace on the west side as well. The second story consists of two bedrooms, each with a fireplace. The attic is completely open from west to east. The rafters are exposed, and secured together with wooden pins. They still contain markings of letters and numbers that enabled",
"-24.38752283633221"
],
[
"single or double rooms with hardwood or carpeted floors and a sink, a large stone fireplace in the living room, a community sun room, antique furnishings in the common areas, and a computer lab. Lynn Townsend White Hall Named for former Mills College President Lynn T. White, Jr., this residence hall offers housing to both undergraduate and graduate students. The building has three wings, with an open design with modern-style furnishings and a spacious recreation room. Students have the option of living in single or double rooms (some in suites featuring one double and two single rooms) or two-bedroom",
"-24.376060339738615"
],
[
"the rooms in the basement there is also a massive stone table in one piece. The courtyard stands out at the back of the house, bounded by the thick stone walls of the building and the wall, and through which the visitor reaches a space, known as \"lo Portalet\", that overlooks the river.\nAccessing the house through the main entrance, the visitor finds himself in a large hall with stone slabs covering the ground and monastic stalls. A first flight of stairs leads to a spacious game room. Continuing the ascent, now through a covered patio, you get to the first",
"-24.351124773384072"
],
[
"this special style:\nThe ground floor is built of stone and contains a cellar and pantry. Above it are one or two stories, each containing four bedrooms, one antechamber, a kitchen and toilet. Each of the floors is built so that it can easily be converted into one independent flat by closing a single door. This feature allows the married children of families to continue living in the same ancestral home they grew up in. Each floor also has its own separate street access.\nThe rooms have many windows and each room has a corbel and framework which enables the women",
"-24.334095138874545"
],
[
"also contains a kitchen and a small bathroom. The formal rooms on the first floor all have twelve foot ceilings, and have broad and elaborately molded dark stained wood trim. The second floor contains a sitting area at the top of the stair, two bedrooms, a bathroom, and servant's quarters.",
"-24.302983796107583"
],
[
"located at the lower rim of the lowest white band.\nThe basement serves as a storage. A stairway leads from there to the sleeping room. Further up is the kitchen with a coal-heated oven, and a living and service room. The latter has three oriel windows, two of which have the same height as the room itself while the third one leads even higher. The oriels used to host minor lights and point towards North-west, South and North-east. From the service room, a balcony around the lantern can be reached via a stairway. However, it is not possible to walk all",
"-24.28164409175224"
],
[
"\"Houses\", to create a sense of community and competition between different members of the dormitories. These houses are Aquila House (Tau Center), Eridanus and Octans Houses (Maria Hall), and Vela, Volans, Pyxis, & Hydra Houses (Lourdes Hall). These houses act as Living, Learning Communities, in that each is assigned a \"House interest class.\" Students interested in learning about a specific topic can choose to live in that House and take that interest class. These students will also be living in the same house as their classmates. Lourdes Hall Lourdes Hall was acquired by Winona State in the early 1990s.",
"-24.2758227866143"
],
[
"a stairway to the second floor, parlor and dining room. The kitchen was separated from the main living area by an open passage, now closed in with a side door. A narrow stairway ascends from the kitchen to the maid's room above. The second floor has four bedrooms with built-in closets. Only the master bedroom had access to the balcony. The passage between the main house and maid's room at the end of the hall later became a bathroom. A pipe connected to a hand pump located next to the tub carried water from the cistern below. The four fireplaces",
"-24.274749958654866"
],
[
"the interior, the first floor contains a living room, a dining room, a kitchen, and a staircase to the second floor. The second floor space is divided into front and rear rooms.",
"-24.257695021107793"
],
[
"possible with the building, and instead, the small footprint of the three-storey structure is placed in the centre. The House is set at least 2.5m away from its boundaries and neighbours. This allows large openings to be made freely in each elevation of the building without compromising the House's privacy.\nThe interior levels of Ani House are single-room spaces without any partitioning, with the kitchen and bathroom protruding from the main volume. The House is set half a level into the ground, thus offsetting lines of sight between the street and the building's interior, so an open yet",
"-24.250128580839373"
],
[
"It is a simple Greek Revival design, with simple pilasters on each side supporting a rectangular entablature. A closed doorway that would have led to the other bedroom is wider than all the other doorways in the house.\nThat other bedroom is the simplest in the house. It has only the baseboard molding, and simple molding over the closed door. The guest bedroom, in the southwest corner, has rectangular panels below the windows and an acorn doorstop on one of the doors from the master bedroom. It has the baseboard but no ceiling decoration.\nThe bathroom has the baseboard molding. The lower",
"-24.249483198451344"
],
[
"within. House has 25 main rooms, six bathrooms, four kitchens, covers a total of 100-square-metre (1,100 sq ft).\nThe floors on the ground level are limestone paved (entry lobby is travertine), high quality timber parquetry in dining room, former library, central lobby (former dining room), and upstairs bedrooms of English oak with black ebony and American walnut borders.\nThree bedrooms are on the upper floor, as is a servant's bedroom (no.4). All four bedrooms have ensuites/attached bathrooms, mostly original with some 1980s/90s fittings added (vanities etc.). All bathrooms are elaborately tiled with gold, iridescent blue, or green, or plain white tiles. Three main bedrooms",
"-24.22779926734802"
],
[
"of the house contains a small entry foyer opening onto a large central stair hall containing a large, double-run ornamented central staircase with Eastlake newels and railings leading to the second floor. Off the central hall are six main rooms: two connected\nparlors, a bedroom with attached bath, a dining room, a second bathroom, and a rear hallway leading to the kitchen located in the rear wing. The parlors feature fireplaces with highly ornamental mantelpieces. The second story contains four bedrooms in the main wing, and two bathroom and a fifth bedroom over the rear wing. The attic is unfinished.",
"-24.221286044063163"
],
[
"was not common outside of cities at the time, and a dining room which could seat thirty people. A special display shelf in the wood-panelled drawing room, located near the ceiling, displayed a collection of weapons, stuffed birds, walrus tusks and various trophies. The doors of the house were also unusual in that they open both ways. The current internal layout has 14 bedrooms, with a size of 10,000 square feet (930 m²).\nDoyle's three-storey home featured a grand staircase of shallow steps, to prevent Louise Doyle from becoming winded on the way upstairs. It also boasted a billiards room and Doyle's",
"-24.211408936360385"
],
[
"may or may not have a communicating door to the main house, but virtually always has a separate entrance and is usually not part of the original design. Many are located above the garage of the main house or as a separate building in the rear lawn. Legal considerations In many North American municipalities, secondary suites are illegal because they do not conform to the zoning or land use district the property is in, they have been developed without the proper permits, or they do not meet the local building code. However, some localities only prohibit the renting out of",
"-24.20971610585002"
],
[
"areas. In the apartment flats, the whole living space is divided into multiple sections. Each section has two to three layers of beds, which are subdivided with metal cages. With no doors, residents have to keep all of their personal belongings inside the confined space. Each bedspace is very narrow, so an adult can barely lie down, stand, or sit straight. Since residents do not have room for any extra personal belongings inside the cage home, such a bedspace is deemed to be a place for sleeping only. Cage homes are dim, cramped, and hot. The temperature can reach 34",
"-24.194797192933038"
],
[
"(in very original condition), and maid's room over the old kitchen. On the first floor, at the street front, a single room runs the full width of the house, divided into two rooms and a hall by removable cedar floor-to-ceiling panelling incorporating a hinged door leaf. By virtue of its having a central ceiling rose, fireplaces at each end and a continuous boarded floor, the room architecturally reads as a single space, and may derive from the English model of a large first floor reception room that can be adapted for day-to-day use. (This feature is found in a number",
"-24.19120552924869"
],
[
"kitchen wing. Inside, the arrangement of rooms on the first and second floors is, for the most part, symmetrical as well, with rooms opening up from a wide center hallway. Faux marble plaster walls in the first-floor hallway date to 1814.\nThe home was lived in by Josiah and Sarah's descendants until 1885, when the family locked all of their belongings in one half of the house and rented the remainder to tenants who farmed the surrounding land. So things remained for almost 75 years, when the house was donated to Historic Huguenot Street. Today, the house",
"-24.157178169931285"
],
[
"synthetic, and might be white or beige. Windows usually open by sliding laterally, although many kitchen windows open by tilting, with the bottom slanting outwards. One room mansion A one-room mansion (wan rūmu manshon ワンルームマンション) is a Japanese apartment style in which there is only one small room (10 m² or 3.0 tsubo or 110 sq ft in many cases) and usually a compact bathroom. It is the functional equivalent of the Western-style studio apartment. These units are most often rented by single individuals due to their extremely small size; it is hard for more than one person to reside in them. Most",
"-24.14862206095131"
],
[
"to be from outside. Some corridors form labyrinths, and the arrangement of rooms seems to change by itself. The house holds many powerful magical items, some of which have an innocent appearance. Some are dangerous, such as a radio which is fatal to the touch. The basement contains storage, a furnace, and the laundry. The first floor contains living rooms, dining rooms, and the general library. The second floor holds living quarters for Strange, Wong, and any guests they may have. The third floor of the building is specifically the Sanctum Sanctorum, for that is where Strange has his meditation",
"-24.13727013685275"
],
[
"suite houses four people in two rooms. A bathroom connects these two rooms and is shared by all four roommates in the suite. Students can select from a variety of eating options. The Nancy Hogarth Dining Center has several options including vegetarian. Students may also eat at a Subway (restaurant) on-campus.",
"-24.122206530126277"
],
[
"level, the entrance hall and living room occupied the front corners, while a dining room and kitchen split the back of the house. Three or four bedrooms and a bathroom fit into each quadrant of the upstairs. Wright modified this basic plan by shifting the stairs and entrance to a less prominent location at the side of the house, allowing the living room an entire half of the first floor. The wall between the dining room and living room was removed to create a single L-shaped room (see floor plans at right). Related designs Prior to publishing \"A Fireproof",
"-24.043259133337415"
],
[
"was possible to decorate both private and state rooms in the same style, without oppressing the former. The principal entrance is through the Marble Hall, which is in fact made of pink Derbyshire alabaster; this leads to the piano nobile, or the first floor, and state rooms. The most impressive of these rooms is the Saloon, which has walls lined with red velvet. Each of the major state rooms is symmetrical in its layout and design; in some rooms, false doors are necessary to fully achieve this balanced effect. Architects and patron Holkham was built by 1st Earl of Leicester,",
"-24.042473877299926"
],
[
"depend upon the number of preferred roommates, preferred housing, and class status.\nThe Office of Residence Life makes all room assignments for incoming freshman students who do not choose a roommate prior to move-in. There are two dorm halls for freshmen. Upperclassmen are required to pick a roommate or live in a single. The College requires that all prospective residents review and agree to abide by the Residence Hall Occupancy Agreement. This form prohibits certain behaviors, all pets (excluding fish in 10 gallon tanks or less), and includes numerous standard stipulations.\nThe College employs a lottery system for housing assignments. The type",
"-24.038814830433694"
],
[
"were split into two levels, with the kitchen and living room on one floor and the bedrooms above or below. In this way, elevators only had to stop at every third floor. All apartment and elevator access was through open passages. Within the apartments, open space was created by eliminating walls between the living and dining rooms, which was popular in the United States starting in the 1950s and 1960s. Tenants disposed of garbage though chutes to the basement, a novel idea in Mexico at that time. Integration of artwork The complex was one of the largest projects in the",
"-24.029044166614767"
],
[
"storage room/carport. The front and rear elevations of the house are divided into three bays, corresponding to the \"teeth\" in the roof form, and are entirely glazed from floor to ceiling. The end walls are brick, and contain only the entry door on one side and a single window on the other.\nThe interior of the house contains 1,700 square feet (160 m²) of living space, including three bedrooms, two bathrooms, a kitchen, a living room, a dining room and a family room. The basement space below remains unfinished. The walls of the main living space are plaster, while the ceiling",
"-24.010529293955187"
],
[
"consists of 2 sofas, four stools and a television. The dining area is fairly small as it is a small breakfast bar with a few chairs, so not all students can eat together. The living area is sociable and enables the students to interact and have a fun time. Bedroom/Study The Bedroom/Study is decorated in a plain tasteful way. The walls are painted a pale green/blue (depending what block you are in). There are pin boards on each wall so you are allowed to have your own decoration, to make it homely. Each room contains a single bed, a double",
"-23.98902943675057"
],
[
"doors with glass panels. A rounded clear glass arch sits above the doors. Interior The main floor was divided into four areas. The largest was called the Reference Room, which contained shelves of books, chairs and tables, and covered the east side of the building. The west side had two corner rooms used as offices and a large foyer. The library desk was directly across the foyer from the entrance. The basement had a large 26-by-28-foot (7.9 by 8.5 m) area designated as the Children's Reading Room, plus two small offices and a service area.\nThe interior of the building has been",
"-23.988672581946048"
],
[
"steeper than those on the other stairs. There is a small kitchenette in the south room. Many doors are original, with one having an original thumb latch. The floor is wideboard pine, most of it original.\nIn the basement, under the entire house except for the rear extension, the original hand-hewn timber is visible. The beams below the front parlor with the corner fireplace are half-round with bark still attached, and the walls there mortared-over stone instead of the concrete elsewhere in the basement. The heavy board-and-batten doors between the three rooms and their hardware are original. The sub-flooring under the",
"-23.98100171482656"
],
[
"corner at basement level.\nTwo more doors are located on the west (rear) elevation. One leads to the basement; the other to the first floor, with a flight of wooden stairs. All the other bays have windows, either six-over-six double-hung sash windows similar to those elsewhere on the house or six-light casements. A large seam visible in the stoneworks next to the first-story entrance delineates the original section of the house from that added later on. Interior The main entrance is a paneled door set in a plain wooden surround. It opens into a central hall with a stone wall on",
"-23.972837960871402"
],
[
"hardware and there is also a multi-paned, timber and glass door between the front bedroom and hall.\nThe original kitchen is located in the north-west corner of the house, is lined vertical timber v-j boarding and contains some of the original joinery, including a set of tall cupboards. There is a set of three casement windows over the sink and a small timber sash window next to the back door. A toilet is located on the landing outside the backdoor of the kitchen next to a set of timber steps. The second kitchen is located in the north-east corner in the",
"-23.946996856597252"
],
[
"a single room, with access by an external staircase of stone or wood. Early houses might have an open stone hearth and a smoke hole in the roof. The interiors of houses developed with separate chambers and partitions of stone or wood. Additional rooms might be accessed from an external wooden gallery, cantilevered from holes and corbels along the walls, as seen the 13th-century house at Poreč, Croatia.\nDoorways might have a stone or wooden lintel, but were often arched, and in finer houses had mouldings, decorative carvings and perhaps colonnettes and carved capitals around the doors. A common form of",
"-23.9439156022745"
],
[
"house sits on a concrete block foundation. An attached garage is located on one side of the structure. The main entrance to the house is located in the corner formed by the intersecting L.\nOn the interior, the floor plan contains a central living and dining room area from which two perpendicular wings extend. One wing contains a continuous side hallway, off which are located three bedrooms, two bathrooms and an office. The other wing contains the kitchen and garage. The kitchen also contains a stairwell to the basement. The basement contains multiple rooms, including an elaborate fallout shelter, separate",
"-23.914155990525614"
],
[
"on the second floor are said to be made of \"Iron-Wood\".\nThere are 2 staircases made of a so-called \"Balayong\" materials that a person will encounter as he enters the second floor of the house. In totality, there are 3 staircases in the house. Aside from those mentioned, there is one staircase that can be found at the back of the house which, apparently, is in a bad condition already. After climbing up the sturdy and elegant 2 staircases, a person is welcomed with a shiny wooden floor which has a repetitive pattern of brown and dark brown. Then, as you",
"-23.873647742322646"
],
[
"the upper storey between two of the bedrooms, another behind a fireplace in the kitchen of the 14th-century part of the building, and a third under the floor by another fireplace. The first of these rooms, which measured 36 square feet (3.3 m²), was accessed through a trapdoor in the floor. A meat hook hanging from the ceiling of a passageway near the main kitchen had to be pulled in a certain direction to unlock the trapdoor. The room under the floor was reached in a similarly awkward way: if a carving above the mantelpiece was twisted in",
"-23.867925032238418"
],
[
"residences have five rooms each on the first and second floors and four rooms on the third. Upon entrance, the inmate or visitor is ushered into a hall twelve feet wide which runs back to the butler's pantry. To the right of this hall is the parlor and library and to the left the reception and dining rooms. The rear space is taken up by the kitchen, butler's pantry and washrooms with tiled floors. Birdseye maple is used in the finishing of the parlor and quartered oak in that of the library, one with mantles of the same wood in",
"-23.855731721881057"
],
[
"kept by the building manager, so they can enter any room in the building.\nIn a master-keyed lock, some or all of the shaft hole in the lock have three pins in them instead of two. Between the driver pin and the key pin is a third pin called the spacer pin. Thus each pin line has two shear points, one where the driver and spacer pins meet, and one where the spacer and key pins meet. So the lock will open with two keys; one aligns the first set of shear points and the other aligns the second set of",
"-23.8281728347647"
],
[
"These rooms include the entryway, a dining room, kitchen and pantry, and a second pantry now converted into a bathroom. Many of the rooms contain colored art glass windows. The upstairs contains four bedrooms.",
"-23.82265282946173"
],
[
"the bathroom door. There are pocket doors between the dining room and the front bedroom.",
"-23.82090440693719"
],
[
"Doors can have devices such as knockers or doorbells by which people outside can announce their presence and summon someone either to open the door for them or give permission to open and enter. Apart from providing access into and out of a space, doors can have the secondary functions of ensuring privacy by preventing unwanted attention from outsiders, of separating areas with different functions, of allowing light to pass into and out of a space, of controlling ventilation or air drafts so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled, of dampening noise, and of blocking the",
"-23.80573560972698"
],
[
"of the house.\nOn the first through third floors are the individual rooms. All of these floors are L-shaped, with a long South wing and a shorter North wing. There is\none staircase near the front of the South wing and one at the back of it. The east half of the South wing of the building houses most of the single\nrooms, which have eastward facing windows. There is also one single on each floor on the east side of the North wing, near the back stairs. These rooms\nhave northward facing windows.\nThe remaining rooms in the west",
"-23.790259821573272"
],
[
"staircase dominates all three floors and bisects the space into two distinct living areas. The narrow steps call for expert sideways navigational skills. Under the stairwell on the first floor is a tiny utility closet, the only closed storage space in the house. All three floors have fireplaces\". An arched doorway leads to the shared garden in the rear. The house has two bathrooms, and its galley kitchen comes with a microwave built into the base of the winding staircase that rises to the upper floors. Other narrow houses in New York City Although popularly known as the narrowest house",
"-23.784527407560745"
],
[
"spread around the village, and each door requires its own unique key to open it. Once opened, it leads to a distant time and space specific to that door and it can only be reopened when all of the travelers who passed through it return.\nThe only exception is the Door of Time inside the Argo Mansion, which can take the traveler to any place he or she wants, as opposed to the fixed locations the other Doors offer. However, four keys are needed to open that one, making it the most difficult door to access. This particular door leads to",
"-23.772431525983848"
],
[
"large rooms, ignoring the fact that smaller rooms would be easier to heat. They also ignored the abundance of wood available to them to construct an easily heated, yet still sturdy, home.\nThe original floor plan of the house included a kitchen and great hall (which could be divided by partitions into two separate rooms) on the first floor, a stair tower leading to the second floor, three bedroom chambers on the second floor, and a small attic above the chambers. The great hall, which was probably the most used room in the house, is thirty-three feet in length and",
"-23.72356659763318"
],
[
"functions- a dining room, a library, and a sitting area around the freestanding fireplace- but all are unified by the forest views through the glass. In theory, the glass panels slide open horizontally, but there is no balcony to encourage people to go outside.\nThe living area is only half of the house. The other half sits on solid ground at the top of the hill, on the north side of the living room. A row of bedrooms face a narrow courtyard, on the other side of which is the blank wall of the staff wing. Only the kitchen crosses the",
"-23.687431711237878"
],
[
"section of its two-over-two sash is larger than the upper. The wall separating it and a hallway closet curves, and there is a chair rail around the room. Third floor Upstairs, the decoration is simpler. The walls slant due to the mansard roof. There are three bedrooms, one closet, and a stair leading to the roof.\nThe southeast bedroom has a closet with only the lower half of the door. The exterior of the hallway door is paneled, but the interior surface is tongue-and-groove. There is a similar door on the northeast bedroom, which has a curved wall and exposed chimney.",
"-23.684500916220713"
],
[
"hallway is unusual in a house of this period, suggesting the design was the work of a competent architect who maximised the size and functionality of the rooms by offsetting the hallway.\nThe western downstairs room opens off the hallway, and the eastern off the stair hall. There is a doorway in the wall between these two rooms, which also have back-to-back fireplaces. The fireplace in the eastern room is much larger than its twin, and it is likely that originally the eastern room was a kitchen with a connecting door to the western room, which was probably a dining room.",
"-23.67641400077264"
],
[
"were known for their \"pueblo homes\" made of adobe. These were built like an apartment complex with a huge box base, smaller box on top, and an even smaller one on top of that. That way, it had different floors for storing different items and for families. Until recently, no doors were located on the bottom floor, so the only way to access the building was by ladders made from logs. One ladder would reach from the ground to the patio (second floor) and another led through an opening through a roof and down onto the first floor. Other ladders",
"-23.665846680340564"
],
[
"this typical design.\nClimbing the stairs to the third floor and you can see two rooms. The room the stairway leads into on the third floor is believed to have served as the boys' room. This room is two-thirds the width of the home and has two closets cut into its walls. The second room on the third floor is the girls'. It is only one-third the width of the home; however, this room could be shut off from the boys' room, giving the girls more privacy.\nThe Vann House also features a basement with two separate rooms, one of which served",
"-23.649295713054016"
],
[
"error of terminology leads to the confusion of four-room houses with other buildings, such as storehouses and stables, where pillars were widely used, but which were not constructed under the four-room house layout. When an upper floor was included, the inhabitants used it as living quarters, while the ground floor was used as a stable for livestock and for storage.\nThere were multiple variations on the basic four-room house. Some had a five-, three-, or two-room layout, and sometimes the rooms were divided by additional walls into smaller areas. Acknowledging these sub-types of the four-room house, the popularity of the structure",
"-23.639399282517843"
],
[
"a piano and pool table. The individual rooms for residents are large and many have tall ceilings. Due to these amenities, the hall is one of the more requested dorms at the university.",
"-23.636400269635487"
],
[
"smaller than the first floor. It is a 41-by-20-foot (12.5 m × 6.1 m) space running perpendicular to the main hallway on the floor above. There are three small rooms off a basement hallway. One room is a vault; another is for electrical and mechanical equipment; and the third is for general storage. The rest of the space below the main floor is crawl space.",
"-23.60866209192318"
]
] |
1yvztp | Why do some people find GMO controversial when farmers have been modifying crops for centuries? | [
"There are several reasons: * There's an aversion to food that \"comes from a lab,\" as it were. * Selective breeding is generally between crops that are the same or very similar. Genetic modification allows traits from other species to be incorporated into the crop (if you want a tomato that doesn't freeze in a cold snap, you could take genes from a fish that lives in frigid Arctic water, for example). That freaks people out. * GMOs are largely controlled by a handful of corporations, the most notable of which is Monsanto. These are companies that people aren't too fond of, and they use some pretty heavy handed business tactics to shut out any smaller competitors. *Edited for word choice*",
"Most people also don't understand the science behind genetic engineering, whereas selective breeding sounds safe and familiar (even though GMO foods have undergone way more safety testing) - fear of the unknown.",
"It's the \"round up resistant\" crops that concern me. Round up is an increasingly ineffective weed killer and all around toxic chemical. Instead of dealing with evolution and developing better weed killers they created RUR crops allowing farms to use ridiculously high levels of roundup on commercial food crops which then us runoff into the groundwater.",
"GMO and selective reproduction are not the same thing. Selective reproduction means selecting a crop/animal and breading that exclusively. Select the best from this again and plant/bread again. Rinse and repeat. Best compared to \"survival of the fittest\" which is largely natural. GMO on the other hand changes the DNA; fundamentally changing what the crop/animal is or can do. The thing is that we don't know how this impacts what it grows and if it has any impact on human health. It also could be very damaging economically. The main concern is that this may not be a short term issue; it could take 10s of years of constant usage that results in some fatal disease/cancer. On the economics side here is a possible scenario. To increase the yield of a crop, the crop is genetically altered to scare away/kill any bugs that typically eat it. The crop is a success and is sold everywhere. 5 years later a bug has become immune to the implanted defense mechanism and starts to eat the crop. The immune bug multiplies faster than it can be irradicated and entire crops are lost to the bug. No harvest, no money - > bankruptcy with no one being able to buy the older crop as it is now too expensive to produce. While i am pro-gmo on a small scale for long testing, there are definitely concerns.",
"The only reason there is controversy at all is because people are irrationally afraid of the word \"genetically modified.\" There's been a lot of unnecessary scaring of people uneducated on the topic that has led to all GMO crops being labeled as bad for you. While there are most certainly some cases where the genetic modification is under-tested or executed for reasons other than producing a better, healthier crop (anything and everything Monsanto comes to mind), not all genetic modifications are bad, and branding them as so is putting down a field of science with a healthy body of research that could one day put a serious dent in world hunger.",
"I think most of the push away stems from ignorance. This logic applies to any concept that is hard to grasp technically like nuclear energy, fracking, etc. The further a concept becomes from something simple like making mud pies, the more likely you are to hit an ardent militant person that feels their feelings are more pertinant than facts. I don't profess to know, but I'm smart enough to know that since I don't have a fact based arguement, I'd better shut my piehole. Also, URL_0 ",
"In general, it's because of the psuedo-science available on the internet. If you look long enough, you can find enough 'internet evidence' to support just about any position.... like creationism.",
"There's also a very wide misunderstanding of GM. Let's take one example, let's say I develop a crop or fertilizer that kills all other crops, or takes over all others that don't contain a certain gene or property. Perhaps I instead created one of either that requires you to use my super expensive Formula X to continue to grow the crop. Now suppose Joe Idiot hears about this - and makes the ridiculous assumption that ALL GM has this property. It's lunacy at it's finest, but largely what happens when you mention GM. Yes, there are without question ethically questionable products that come out of the industry. Sadly, people paint the entire industry in this way because of a few dodgy products, and this is the kind of rumour and scaremongering that just spreads like a plague and is near on impossible to stop spreading.",
"Selectively breeding is different than GMO. selectively breeding can theoretically happen in the wild with cross pollination, so is viewed in a good light. GMO. Crops can never be replicated in the wild. Literally Genes are spliced together in the lab, so it kinds of freaks people out."
] | [
[
"modified crops and genetically modified livestock. With mutation breeding, crop cultivars were created by exposing seeds to chemicals or radiation. Many of these cultivars are still being used today. Genetically modified plants and animals are said by some environmentalists to be inherently bad because they are unnatural. Others point out the possible benefits of GM crops such as water conservation through corn modified to be less \"thirsty\" and decreased pesticide use through insect – resistant crops. They also point out that some genetically modified livestock have accelerated growth which means there are shorter production cycles which again results in a",
"-37.95621250977274"
],
[
"the decline in sales during this period was linked to changing consumer perceptions of genetically modified crops. The report identified several possible factors, including product labeling and perception of choice, lobbying campaigns, and media attention. It concluded that the tone of media reports on the subject underwent a \"fundamental shift\" in response to a high-profile incident in which Dr. Arpad Pusztai, a researcher for Rowett Research Institute, was fired after making a televised claim about detrimental health effects in lab rats fed a diet of genetically modified potatoes (see the Pusztai affair). Subsequent peer review and testimony by Dr. Pusztai",
"-37.5207209460641"
],
[
"that they reduce the resilience of agricultural systems through reducing the diversity of crops and the genetical diversity within varieties at a time when more diversity is needed from crop/animal to system levels. According to Herren:\n\"Today’s GMOs don’t produce more food, they help cut production costs - in the first few years until insects and weeds catch up again - as we have seen earlier with the use of insecticides. That’s why we introduced Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which was meant to treat the causes of pest outbreaks. The GMO crop cultivars that are used today are basically a step",
"-37.45377842156813"
],
[
"labeling and could in fact mislead consumers.\" The US 2016 National Academy of Sciences report concluded that there was \"no substantiated evidence of a difference in risks to human health between currently commercialized genetically engineered (GE) crops and conventionally bred crops, nor did it find conclusive cause-and-effect evidence of environmental problems from the GE crops.\" \nThere are a number of articles related to the regulation of GM products that deal with issues such as the process involved in introducing new GM products to the market, and governmental oversight of CRISPR and New Breeding Technologies (NBTs). An article reponds to concerns",
"-36.63601909769932"
],
[
"of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy.\nA 2006 United States Department of Agriculture report found the adoption of genetically engineered (GE) soy, corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used overall, but did result in a slightly greater amount of herbicides used for soy specifically. The use of GE soy was also associated with greater conservation tillage, indirectly leading to better soil conservation, as well as increased income from off-farming sources due to the greater ease with which the crops can be managed. Though the overall estimated benefits of",
"-36.547580189577275"
],
[
"traits as well as greater control over traits than previous methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.\nGenetically modifying plants is an important economic activity: in 2017, 89% of corn, 94% of soybeans, and 91% of cotton produced in the US were from genetically modified strains. Since the introduction of GM crops, yields have increased by 22%, and profits have increased to farmers, especially in the developing world, by 68%. An important side effect of GM crops has been decreased land requirements,\nCommercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its unsuccessful Flavr Savr delayed-ripening tomato.",
"-36.39812441036338"
],
[
"approximately 54% of worldwide GM crops grown in developing countries in 2013. Although doubts have been raised, most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers through decreased pesticide use as well as increased crop yield and farm profit.\nThe majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one. Genetically modified crops engineered to resist herbicides are now more available than conventionally bred resistant varieties; in the USA 93% of soybeans and most of the GM maize grown is glyphosate tolerant. Most currently available genes used to",
"-36.04457255799207"
],
[
"cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2006, the figure was 89%. As with other \"Roundup Ready crops\", concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity. However, the RR gene has been bred into so many different soybean cultivars that the genetic modification itself has not resulted in any decline of genetic diversity. Tomato (hydroponics) The largest commercial hydroponics facility in the world is Eurofresh Farms in Willcox, Arizona, which sold more than 200 million pounds of tomatoes in 2007. Eurofresh has 318 acres (1.3 km²) under glass and represents about a third of the commercial",
"-35.63552064448595"
],
[
"are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.\nThe scientific rigor of the studies regarding human health has been disputed due to alleged lack of independence and due to conflicts of interest involving governing bodies and some of those who perform and evaluate the studies.\nGM crops provide a number of ecological benefits, but there are also concerns for their overuse, stalled research outside of the Bt seed industry, proper",
"-35.36373431267475"
],
[
"Most food modifications have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton. Genetically modified crops have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and for better nutrient profiles. Other such crops include the economically important GM papaya which are resistant to the highly destructive Papaya ringspot virus, and the nutritionally improved golden rice (it is however still in development).\nThere is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested",
"-35.31364737833792"
],
[
"of GM ingredients in its own-brand products including GM animal feed. Since 2003 the Co-op has banned the growing of GM crops on their own land (at the time they were the largest lowland UK farming business). The group also published a report on genetic modification which suggested that the majority of customers and members did not support GM crops. In 2013 the Co-op dropped its objection to GM chicken and turkey feed and allowed its suppliers to use such feeds, owing to the increasing difficulty in sourcing guaranteed non-GM feeds. Waste reduction and carrier bags Total waste from the",
"-35.287312419037335"
],
[
"as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.\nGM crops also provide a number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess. However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law. Industrial Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe",
"-35.22077042625642"
],
[
"on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. There are still ongoing public concerns related to food safety, regulation, labeling, environmental impact, research methods, and the fact that some GM seeds are subject to intellectual property rights owned by corporations. Modern ways to genetically modify plants Genetic modification has been the cause for much research into modern",
"-35.07983629384398"
],
[
"and crops are needed to address the world's food needs. These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in most countries.\nThere is much doubt among the public about genetically modified animals in general. It is believed that the acceptance of GM fish by the general public is the lowest of all GM animals used for food and pharmaceuticals. Ethical concerns In transgenic fast-growing fish genetically modified for growth hormone, the mosaic founder fish vary greatly in their growth rate, reflecting the highly variable proportion and distribution of transgenic cells in",
"-35.03034238301916"
],
[
"Genetically modified food controversies Public perception Consumer concerns about food quality first became prominent long before the advent of GM foods in the 1990s. Upton Sinclair's novel The Jungle led to the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act, the first major US legislation on the subject. This began an enduring concern over the purity and later \"naturalness\" of food that evolved from a single focus on sanitation to include others on added ingredients such as preservatives, flavors and sweeteners, residues such as pesticides, the rise of organic food as a category and, finally, concerns over GM food. Some consumers, including",
"-34.96065376925253"
],
[
"photosynthesis, more shoots and flowers, and more seeds than the non-transgenic hybrids. This demonstrates the possibility of ecosystem damage by GM crop usage.\nThere is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with",
"-34.852037430755445"
],
[
"involves consumers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, nongovernmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to GMO foods are whether they should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of GM crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of GM crops for farmers, and the role of GM crops in feeding the world population.\nThere is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be",
"-34.75932156023555"
],
[
"years old. These beliefs are viewed as pseudoscience in the scientific community and are widely regarded as erroneous. Genetically modified foods There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely",
"-34.74191720987437"
],
[
"the non-genetically modified food supply, the rigor of the regulatory process, consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs, exaggeration of the benefits of genetic modification, or concerns over the use of herbicides with glyphosate. Other issues raised include the patenting of life and the use of intellectual property rights.\nThere are large differences in consumer acceptance of GMOs, with Europeans more likely to view GM food negatively than North Americans. GMOs arrived on the scene as the public confidence in food safety, attributed to recent food scares such as Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and other",
"-34.716477370093344"
],
[
"of Texas at Austin, concluded in summary: \"We suggest that any real declines are generally most easily explained by changes in cultivated varieties between 1950 and 1999, in which there may be trade-offs between yield and nutrient content.\"\nThe debate surrounding genetically modified food during the 1990s peaked in 1999 in terms of media coverage and risk perception, and continues today – for example, \"Germany has thrown its weight behind a growing European mutiny over genetically modified crops by banning the planting of a widely grown pest-resistant corn variety.\" The debate encompasses the ecological impact of genetically modified plants, the safety",
"-34.69417507941398"
],
[
"growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster.\nGMOs have been developed that modify the quality of produce by increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities. The Amflora potato produces a more industrially useful blend of starches. Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils. The first commercialised GM food was a tomato that had delayed ripening, increasing its shelf life.\nPlants and animals have been engineered to produce materials they do not normally make. Pharming uses crops and animals as bioreactors to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or the drugs themselves;",
"-34.643918934307294"
],
[
"farmers in 17 countries in 2004. Support of GM crops Many GM crop success stories exist, primarily in developed nations like the USA, China, and various countries in Europe. Common GM crops include cotton, maize, and soybeans, all of which are grown throughout North and South America as well as regions of Asia. Modified cotton crops, for example, have been altered such that they are resistant to pests, can grown in more extreme heat, cold, or drought, and produce longer, stronger fibers to be used in textile production.\nOne of the biggest threats to rice, which is a staple food crop",
"-34.6085876885918"
],
[
"\"labelling,\" and \"traceability.\"\nThe European Parliament's Committee on the Environmental, Public Health, and Consumer Protection pushed forward and adopted a \"safety first\" principle regarding the case of GMOs, calling for any negative health consequences from GMOs to be held liable.\nHowever, although the European Union has had relatively strict regulations regarding the genetically modified food, Europe is now allowing newer versions of modified maize and other agricultural produce. Also, the level of GMO acceptance in the European Union varies across its countries with Spain and Portugal being more permissive of GMOs than France and the Nordic population. One notable exception however",
"-34.559144495673536"
],
[
"make much more revenue because the seeds sold would not be able to be resown. Another concern is that farmers purchasing the seeds would be greatly impacted, given they would have to buy new seeds every year. It has been argued that this would result in higher prices in food. GURT seeds are worried to cause a significant decrease in biodiversity and threaten native species of plants. However, proponents of the technology dispute these claims, making the cases that because non-GMO hybrid plants are used in the same way and GURT seeds could help farmers deal with cross pollination, the",
"-34.4830723303312"
],
[
"facets of GMOs. Despite the overall global increase in the production in GMOs, the European Union has still stalled GMOs fully integrating into its food supply. This has definitely affected various countries, including the United States, when trading with the EU. European Union European Union enacted regulatory laws in 2003 that provided possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world. All GMOs, along with irradiated food, are considered \"new food\" and subject to extensive, case-by-case, science-based food evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The criteria for authorization fall in four broad categories: \"safety,\" \"freedom of choice,\"",
"-34.46988443205191"
],
[
"animals has also been questioned due to concerns that this practice may contribute to strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Genetically modified foods The use of genetically modified seeds to grow commodity and other crops in the U.S. has drawn criticism from organizations such as Greenpeace, The Non-GMO Project, and the Organic Consumers Association among others. Concerns center on both food safety and the erosion of agricultural biodiversity. While the European Union regulates genetically engineered foods as they would any other new product requiring extensive testing to provide it is safe for human consumption, the U.S. does not. The Food and",
"-34.4186708520283"
],
[
"when initially purchasing a food item.\nA review article about European consumer polls as of 2009 concluded that opposition to GMOs in Europe has been gradually decreasing, and that about 80% of respondents did not \"actively avoid GM products when shopping\". The 2010 \"Eurobarometer\" survey, which assesses public attitudes about biotech and the life sciences, found that cisgenics, GM crops made from plants that are crossable by conventional breeding, evokes a smaller reaction than transgenic methods, using genes from species that are taxonomically very different.\nA Deloitte survey in 2010 found that 34% of U.S. consumers were very or extremely concerned about",
"-34.38496544770169"
],
[
"a GM crop is not substantially equivalent to traditional crops. Moreover, they believe that the FDA follows the substantial equivalence rule not because of the science, but because the FDA was corrupted by corporate influence. This is not a belief that the authors' share, but there are smart people of high character who do believe this conspiracy theory, and their side of the story deserves to be heard.\n\nIn The World According to Monsanto, author Marie-Monique Robin describes how the substantial equivalence began with a 1992 policy statement by the FDA under the leadership of a former Monsanto lawyer, who, after",
"-34.36437785059388"
],
[
"that GMOs and the bill are unrelated. Dr. Margaret Ottah Atikpo, head of the microbiology division of the Food Research Institute stated, \"[The Bill] protects the breeders and brings royalty to the breeder and the country.\" Relationship between genetically modified seeds and farmers While praised for their resistance to pests, GM seeds also present challenges. Conventional seeds are able to be used from one season to the next. However, GM seeds have \"Terminator Technology,\" a genetic composition that makes it impossible for seeds from one season to be replanted in the next; this results in farmers having to purchase",
"-34.36384890336558"
],
[
"GM food is voluntary, while in Europe all food (including processed food) or feed which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labelled. In 2014, sales of products that had been labeled as non-GMO grew 30 percent to $1.1 billion. Controversy There is controversy over GMOs, especially with regard to their release outside laboratory environments. The dispute involves consumers, producers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, nongovernmental organizations, and scientists. Many of these concerns involve GM crops and whether food produced from them is safe and what impact growing them will have on the environment. These controversies have led",
"-34.36093438741227"
],
[
"planting or purchasing food grown with GM technology, conventionally, or organically.\" In a Joint Statement, US Senator Patrick Leahy and Representative Peter DeFazio said the USDA had the \"opportunity to address the concerns of all farmers\", but instead \"surrender[ed] to business as usual for the biotech industry.\"\nThe non-profit Center for Food Safety appealed this decision in March 2011 but the District Court for Northern California rejected this motion in 2012. Phytoestrogens in alfalfa and effect on livestock fertility Alfalfa, like other leguminous crops, is a known source of phytoestrogens, including spinasterol, coumestrol, and coumestan. Because of this, grazing on alfalfa",
"-34.26505863421335"
],
[
"rice. His dream was to \"transfer rice immunity to cereals such as wheat, maize, sorghum and barley, and transfer bread-wheat proteins (gliadin and glutenin) to other cereals, especially rice and maize\".\nBorlaug believed that genetically modified organisms (GMO) was the only way to increase food production as the world runs out of unused arable land. GMOs were not inherently dangerous \"because we've been genetically modifying plants and animals for a long time. Long before we called it science, people were selecting the best breeds.\"\nIn a review of Borlaug's 2000 publication entitled Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat",
"-34.200613056484144"
],
[
"many in the US, came to see GM food as \"unnatural\", with various negative associations and fears (a reverse halo effect).\nSpecific perceptions include a view of genetic engineering as meddling with naturally evolved biological processes, and one that science has limitations on its comprehension of potential negative ramifications. An opposing perception is that genetic engineering is itself an evolution of traditional selective breeding, and that the weight of current evidence suggests current GM foods are identical to conventional foods in nutritional value and effects on health.\nSurveys indicate widespread concern among consumers that eating genetically modified food is harmful, that biotechnology",
"-34.18981996396542"
],
[
"to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries. Most concerns are around the health and environmental effects of GMOs. These include whether they may provoke an allergic reaction, whether the transgenes could transfer to human cells and whether genes not approved for human consumption could outcross into the food supply. Before food is released it is tested for animal toxicity and allergenicity.\nThere is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to",
"-34.16247255226335"
],
[
"led to a decrease in production of many staples such as milk, rice, maize, potatoes and lentils. As of 2004 about 150,000 small farmers had left the countryside; including 50% as of 2009 in the Chaco region.\nThe Guardian reported that a Monsanto representative had said, \"any problems with GM soya were to do with use of the crop as a monoculture, not because it was GM. If you grow any crop to the exclusion of any other you are bound to get problems.\"\nIn 2005 and 2006, Monsanto attempted to enforce its patents on soymeal imported into Spain from Argentina by",
"-34.12233014875528"
],
[
"that the additive is not injurious to health. With respect to GM food, the FDA retained its ability to take enforcement action any food it found to be \"adulterated\", which would make its producer \"subject to the full range of enforcement measures under the act, including seizure, injunction, and criminal prosecution of those who fail to meet their statutory duty.\"\nUSDA regulation of genetically modified crops is based on the Plant Protection Act and its definition of \"plant pest.\"",
"-34.10402264889126"
],
[
"and they have not been proven safe in the way that they are used.\"\nCommentators have criticized Stein's statements about GMOs, writing that they contradict the scientific consensus, which is that existing GM foods are no less safe than foods made from conventional crops. Among the critics was Jordan Weissmann, Slate's business and economics editor, who wrote in July 2016: \"Never mind that scientists have studied GMOs extensively and found no signs of danger to human health—Stein would like medical researchers to prove a negative.\"\nIn Environmental Threats to Healthy Aging (2008), Stein concludes her section on pesticides by saying: \"[M]any but",
"-34.055555646816174"
],
[
"to be considered a new species, thus diminishing the conservation worth of genetic modification. Crops Genetically modified crops are genetically modified plants that are used in agriculture. The first crops provided are used for animal or human food and provide resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, spoilage or chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide). The second generation of crops aimed to improve the quality, often by altering the nutrient profile. Third generation genetically modified crops can be used for non-food purposes, including the production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.\nThere",
"-34.0293993720843"
],
[
"approved, all in the USA. A goat and a chicken have been engineered to produce medicines and a salmon that has increased growth. Despite the differences and difficulties in modifying them, the end aims are much the same as for plants. GM animals are created for research purposes, production of industrial or therapeutic products, agricultural uses or improving their health. There is also a market for creating genetically modified pets. Mammals The process of genetically engineering mammals is slow, tedious, and expensive. However, new technologies are making genetic modifications easier and more precise. The first transgenic mammals were produced by",
"-33.87535496548662"
],
[
"contamination of the non-GM food supply, about effects of GMOs on the environment and nature, and about the consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs. Resistances problems Due to the heavy reliance of glyphosate in agriculture, resistance to this chemical is a problem and is prevalent throughout Australia, the USA, and Canada.\nRoundup canola has also emerged as a weed in other crops due to its glyphosate resistance. This is due to canola seed being able to be dormant in the soil for up to 10 years. In California, it has become a significant",
"-33.784638327895664"
],
[
"crops in terms of short-term human health effects, but recommended that further studies of long-term effects be conducted. Substantial equivalence Most conventional agricultural products are the products of genetic manipulation via traditional cross-breeding and hybridization.\nGovernments manage the marketing and release of GM foods on a case-by-case basis. Countries differ in their risk assessments and regulations. Marked differences distinguish the US from Europe. Crops not intended as foods are generally not reviewed for food safety. GM foods are not tested in humans before marketing because they are not a single chemical, nor are they intended to be ingested using specific doses",
"-33.7330145378437"
],
[
"Activist of the Year by the Seattle Hempfest.\nIn 2014 Bronner wrote an advertorial drawing attention to the ways that GMO crops have led to increased pesticide use in the United States. It was initially published as a short article in the Huffington Post and subsequently as an ad in various wide-circulation magazines, ranging from The New Yorker to Scientific American. However, two leading science magazines, Science and Nature, refused to carry the ad, in at least one case due to concern over backlash from the GMO industry.",
"-33.6706173766288"
],
[
"endpoints, and lacked necessary details about methods and results. The authors called for the development of better study guidelines for determining the long-term safety of eating GM foods.\nA 2016 study by the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concluded that GM foods are safe for human consumption and they could find no conclusive evidence that they harm the environment nor wildlife. They analysed over 1.000 studies over the previous 30 years that GM crops have been available, reviewed 700 written presentations submitted by interested bodies and heard 80 witnesses. They concluded that GM crops had given farmers economic",
"-33.617797707865975"
],
[
"Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for commercial production, sale and consumption, making it the first genetically modified animal to be approved for human consumption. Some GM fish that have been created have promoters driving an over-production of \"all fish\" growth hormone. This results in dramatic growth enhancement in several species, including salmonids, carps and tilapias.\nCritics have objected to GM fish on several grounds, including ecological concerns, animal welfare concerns and with respect to whether using them as food is safe and whether GM fish are needed to help address the world's food needs. History and process The first transgenic fish",
"-33.60849189007422"
],
[
"commercialized. Escape of modified crops The escape of genetically modified seed into neighboring fields, and the mixing of harvested products, is of concern to farmers who sell to countries that do not allow GMO imports.\nIn 1999 scientists in Thailand claimed they had discovered unapproved glyphosate-resistant GM wheat in a grain shipment, even though it was only grown in test plots. No mechanism for the escape was identified.\nIn 2000, Aventis StarLink GM corn was found in US markets and restaurants. It became the subject of a recall that started when Taco Bell-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain",
"-33.59989190645865"
],
[
"applied genetic engineering to crops, Robert Fraley, Marc Van Montagu and Mary-Dell Chilton, were awarded the World Food Prize for improving the \"quality, quantity or availability\" of food in the world.\nIn the US, by 2014, 94% of the planted area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn were genetically modified varieties. In developing countries, about 18 million farmers planted 54% of GM crops worldwide by 2013. Methods Genetically engineered crops have genes added or removed using genetic engineering techniques, originally including gene guns, electroporation, microinjection and agrobacterium. More recently, CRISPR and TALEN offered much more precise and convenient",
"-33.534517187599704"
],
[
"However, the Supreme Court overturned the nationwide ban on GM alfalfa and an appeal court allowed the partial deregulation of GM sugar beet crops. After APHIS prepared Environmental Impact Statements for both crops they were deregulated again. Food and Drug Administration The FDA is responsible for the safety and security of human and animal food and drugs, including any that are genetically modified. The FDA was responsible for approving the first commercialized GMO, Genetech's genetically modified human insulin (Humulin) in 1982 and the first commercialized GM whole food, Calgene's Flavr Savr tomato in 1994. When evaluating new GM foods or",
"-33.462778482895374"
],
[
"will be if they escape.\nThere are three main concerns over the safety of genetically modified food: whether they may provoke an allergic reaction; whether the genes could transfer from the food into human cells; and whether the genes not approved for human consumption could outcross to other crops. There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM",
"-33.304905876124394"
],
[
"manipulated plants and animals through selective breeding for tens of thousands of years in order to create desired traits. In the 20th century, a surge in technology resulted in an increase in agricultural biotechnology through the selection of traits like increased yield, pest resistance, drought resistance, and herbicide resistance. The first food product produced through biotechnology was sold in 1990, and by 2003, 7 million farmers were utilizing biotech crops. More than 85% of these farmers were located in developing countries. Traditional breeding Traditional crossbreeding has been used for centuries to improve crop quality and quantity. Crossbreeding mates two sexually",
"-33.29687229542469"
],
[
"in which the country had a relative advantage.\nRationalization started with a controversial 1985 government decision to regulate cropping and production, primarily in the Jordan River valley. Farmers there had repeatedly produced surpluses of tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplants, and squashes because they were reliable and traditional crops. At the same time, underproduction of crops such as potatoes, onions, broccoli, celery, garlic, and spices led to unnecessary imports. The government offered incentives to farmers to experiment with new crops and cut subsidy payments to those who continued to produce surplus crops. In 1986 cucumber production dropped by 25 percent to about 50,000",
"-33.27613610930348"
],
[
"adequately identified and managed, and they have questioned the objectivity of regulatory authorities. They have expressed concerns about the objectivity of regulators and the rigor of the regulatory process, possible contamination of non-GM foods, effects of GMOs on the environment and nature, and the consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs.\nThere is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public",
"-33.24566517316998"
],
[
"produced by Dupont-Dow; armyworm resistance was first discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006, prompting Dow and DuPont to voluntarily stop selling the product on the island. Regulation Regulation of GM crops varies between countries, with some of the most-marked differences occurring between the USA and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on intended uses. Controversy There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public",
"-33.20851077204861"
],
[
"an interview with CBC TV, Suzuki argues that the science showing GMOs are safe is \"very, very bad science\" and that the commercialization of GMOs is \"driven by money\". His foundation's website includes an \"Understanding GMO\" page which claims \"the safety of GMO foods is unproven and a growing body of research connects these foods with health concerns\". Immigration In 2013, in L'Express, the French news magazine, Suzuki called Canada's immigration policy \"disgusting\" (We \"plunder southern countries to deprive them of their future leaders, and wish to increase our population to support economic growth\") and insisted that \"Canada is full\"",
"-33.036900054868056"
],
[
"that GM crops are untested. Objectivity of regulatory bodies Groups such as the Union of Concerned Scientists and Center for Food Safety that have expressed concerns about the FDA's lack of a requirement for additional testing for GMO's, lack of required labeling and the presumption that GMO's are \"Generally Recognized as Safe\" (GRAS), have questioned whether the FDA is too close to companies that seek approval for their products.\nCritics in the U.S. protested the appointment of lobbyists to senior positions in the Food and Drug Administration. Michael R. Taylor, a former Monsanto lobbyist, was appointed as a senior adviser to",
"-32.97741367730487"
],
[
"foods with inputs that could not be derived from GMOs. The Project maintains this is because many products that appear to be inherently non-GMO (such as orange juice) often contain GMO-derived additives (such as citric acid). Some critics say the Project may be using a business model that is based on fear and lack of information.\nSeveral research studies also suggest that there is no health risk to humans stemming from GMO foods.",
"-32.96960144364493"
],
[
"large concentration of animals, animal waste, and dead animals in a small space poses ethical issues to some consumers. Animal rights and animal welfare activists have charged that intensive animal rearing is cruel to animals. Crops The Green Revolution transformed farming in many developing countries. It spread technologies that had already existed, but had not been widely used outside of industrialized nations. These technologies included \"miracle seeds\", pesticides, irrigation, and synthetic nitrogen fertilizer. Seeds In the 1970s, scientists created high-yelding varieties of maize, wheat, and rice. These have an increased nitrogen-absorbing potential compared to other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed",
"-32.881301038039965"
],
[
"and cotton seed oil. These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed; in November 2013 none were available on the market, but in 2015 the FDA approved the first GM salmon for commercial production and consumption.\nThere is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food must be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods",
"-32.86641704225622"
],
[
"correlation to CAE's work \"Molecular Invasion (2002)\" the collective hosted an exhibit about genetically modified crops. They planted Monsanto's genetically modified seeds that were designed to be immune to Monsanto's commercial pesticide roundup (Glyphosate). They successfully grew these crops in their exhibit however once the plants were fully grown they applied an enzyme inhibitor that was reverse engineered to the plants that eradicated the protection that these crops had against the pesticide. The plants quickly died. This exhibit was a statement against genetically modified foods. Cult of the New Eve In 1999, CAE began a new project to draw attention",
"-32.83488836874312"
],
[
"are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.\nAlthough labeling of genetically modified organism (GMO) products in the marketplace is required in many countries, it is not required in the United States and no distinction between marketed GMO and non-GMO foods is recognized by the US FDA. Tami Canal Tami Monroe Canal, a homemaker and mother of two daughters, was living as a resident in California when Proposition 37,",
"-32.76250281017565"
],
[
"food and agricultural issues.\nThe CFS has participated in legal actions against manufacturers of genetically modified crops, such as GE alfalfa, wheat, rice, beets, and claims to have successfully stopped the commercialization of at least seven of these in the US. This includes the introduction of controversial Pharming plants (GE plants which produce biopharmaceuticals).\nThe CFS has also been an advocate for GE food labeling at both the state and federal level, pushing for new legislation and generating public support across the country for the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to take action.\nIn addition to its work on GE foods,",
"-32.712663610174786"
],
[
"producers.\"\nIn 2006, the Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology made public a review of U.S. survey results between 2001 and 2006. The review showed that Americans' knowledge of GM foods and animals was low throughout the period. Protests during this period against Calgene's Flavr Savr GM tomato mistakenly described it as containing fish genes, confusing it with DNA Plant Technology's fish tomato experimental transgenic organism, which was never commercialized.\nA survey in 2007 by the Food Standards Australia New Zealand found that in Australia, where labeling is mandatory, 27% of Australians checked product labels to see whether GM ingredients were present",
"-32.58596178638982"
],
[
"Growers Association, and Oxfam America, argue that subsidizing domestic grains leads to overproduction that is harmful both for farmers and for the general public. They claim that subsidies depress market prices while increasing land values. Many farmers do not own their land, and as a result, the subsidies they receive are capitalized into the value of the land they farm, and therefore provide little benefit to the farmers themselves.\nAuthor Michael Pollan's recent book, The Omnivore's Dilemma suggests that corn subsidies in particular have led to the success of the feedlots or CAFOs that he and journalist Eric Schlosser",
"-32.583625230508915"
],
[
"for the growth of larger (and thus less expensive to produce) corn crops. Environmental groups voiced concern over recent research evidence out of Switzerland, warning of the serious human health and environmental hazards involved with the production and consumption of products made with GMOs. Frito-Lay, due in part to its leverage as one of the world's largest purchasers of corn, became the target of lobbying efforts from both proponents and opponents of GMOs. In late 1999, Frito-Lay asked its suppliers not to use genetically engineered corn. A similar announcement followed in early 2000, when the company asked its farmers not",
"-32.46301043819403"
],
[
"use GMO products when such a choice may be irrational. A lot of consumers express fears that have not been substantiated by science.\nThe bill is backed by Grocery Manufacturers Association, Monsanto, and other large food and beverage corporations. Opponents' view While GMOs are present in 75-80% of food Americans consume and have been termed \"substantially equivalent\" to the corresponding non-GMO foods by the FDA, consumers believe that they have a right to know what is in their food. Thus, a 2013 poll by the New York Times indicated that ninety-three percent of American consumers would like to know if",
"-32.42420292479801"
],
[
"require GM foods to be labeled, instead claiming that GM crops are as safe as crops developed by conventional breeding.\nThe European Food Safety Authority certifies new GM products as safe for consumers and the environment. The European Union's 27 member states then individually decide whether to accept the certification. Genetically modified foods must be labeled. As of 2008 Bt corn had been approved to grow in Spain, Germany, the Czech Republic and Portugal.\nThe seed companies conduct the safety tests for new GM food products, reporting safety and nutritional information to the FDA for its evaluation. Agricultural chemicals From 2006 to",
"-32.4113499344312"
],
[
"GM food, a 3% reduction from 2008. The same survey found gender differences: 10% of men were extremely concerned, compared with 16% of women, and 16% of women were unconcerned, compared with 27% of men.\nA poll by The New York Times in 2013 showed that 93% of Americans wanted labeling of GM food.\nThe 2013 vote, rejecting Washington State's GM food labeling I-522 referendum came shortly after the 2013 World Food Prize was awarded to employees of Monsanto and Syngenta. The award has drawn criticism from opponents of genetically modified crops.\nWith respect to the question of \"Whether GMO foods were safe",
"-32.39856855757171"
],
[
"Marketing Due to its purported effects on fertility, maca grew in agricultural, commercial and research interest over the decades of the 1990s to 2014. Market studies showed low acceptance of the particular maca taste by consumers when first exposed to it, creating a barrier for popularity of this food as a culinary vegetable. The economic interest existed more in the perceived, but unproven, health effects of the root's constituents supplied as an extract in a dietary supplement.\nBy 2014, agricultural and market interest for maca grew in China, but with challenges from Peruvian institutions who accused Chinese companies of illegally exporting",
"-32.37192415557365"
],
[
"of food. According to researchers from the Overseas Development Institute, this may depend on farmers' capacity to respond to changing market conditions. Experience suggests that farmers lack the credit and inputs needed to respond in the short term. In the medium or long term, however, they could benefit, as seen in the Asian Green Revolution or in many African countries in the recent past. Relationship with 2008 Chinese milk scandal As grain prices increased, China's numerous small-holding milk farmers, as well as producers of feed for cattle, were unable to exist economically. As a result, they turned to putting additives",
"-32.35664357510905"
],
[
"by authorities responsible for food safety. The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing. The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about coexistence of GM and non GM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for cultivation of GM crops differ. Learning In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (National Institutes of Health) (NIGMS) instituted a funding",
"-32.336020100541646"
],
[
"allowed the commercialisation of GM canola. New Zealand Genetic engineering is a contentious issue in New Zealand. As of 2004 no genetically modified food was grown in New Zealand, and no medicines containing live genetically modified organisms have been approved for use. However, medicines manufactured using genetically modified organisms that do not contain live organisms have been approved for sale, and imported foods with genetically modified components are sold. Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) must approve any food produced from GM crops, or made using genetically engineered enzymes, before it can be marketed in Australia or New Zealand. FSANZ",
"-32.240474529743096"
],
[
"the labeling law proposal's defeat, an organization called March Against Monsanto was formed to continue to keep alive the public debate about labeling GMO food products. In 2013, a ballot initiative that would have required labels on GMO foods sold in the state of Washington was defeated by voters, again after a campaign against the initiative was led by major food companies. Pesticide use Among the much-heralded impacts of the Green Revolution was the spread of technological advances in the development of pesticides to ensure higher crop yields. Health effects of pesticides have led to a number of regulatory and",
"-32.07274011085974"
],
[
"Drug Administration generally considers a food with origins from genetically modified organisms (GMO) to be as safe as its conventional counterpart. Numerous studies have backed industry claims that GMO foods appear to be safe for human consumption, including an examination of more than 130 research projects conducted in the European Union prior to 2010 and work published by the American Medical Association's Council on Science and Public Health.\nIn the U.S., the political debate has centered primarily on whether or not to label products with GMO origins to better inform the public about the content of the foods they purchase.",
"-32.041331032076414"
],
[
"degrees of regulation. In 2016 thirty eight countries officially ban or prohibit the cultivation of GMOs and nine (Algeria, Bhutan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Madagascar, Peru, Russia, Venezuela and Zimbabwe) ban their importation. Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research using GMOs.\nThe European Union (EU) differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing. The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the market for GMOs in",
"-32.040750616710284"
],
[
"GM crops contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence, modifying flower colour and altering the plants composition.Golden rice is the most well known GM crop that is aimed at increasing nutrient value. It has been engineered with three genes that biosynthesise beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the edible parts of rice. It is intended to produce a fortified food to be grown and consumed in areas with a shortage of dietary vitamin A. a deficiency which each year is estimated to kill 670,000 children under the age of 5 and cause an additional 500,000 cases",
"-31.91450431958947"
],
[
"products.\nGenetically modified cotton, canola, and carnations are grown in Australia. Genetically modified cotton has been grown commercially in New South Wales and Queensland since 1996. GM canola was approved in 2003 and was first grown in 2008 and was first approved in Western Australia in 2010.\nIn 2011 genetically modified plants were grown in all states except South Australia and Tasmania, who have extended their moratoriums until 2019 and 2014. The Queensland and Northern Territory Governments have not implemented any further legislation beyond the national level, but several other states placed bans on planting certain GM crops. In 2007 the New",
"-31.90680057821737"
],
[
"food and feed supply chains of most countries in the world, but the traceability of GMOs is made more challenging by the addition of very strict legal thresholds for unwanted mixing. Within the European Union, since 2001, conventional and organic food and feedstuffs can contain up to 0.9% of authorised GM material without being labelled GM (any trace of non-authorised GM products and would cause shipments to be rejected.).\nIn the United States there is no legislation governing the co-existence of neighboring farms growing organic and GM crops; instead the US relies on a \"complex but relaxed\" combination of",
"-31.858956840253995"
],
[
"by incorporating genes that produced insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).\nThe People's Republic of China was the first country to allow commercialized transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992, which was withdrawn in 1997. The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S., in 1994, was the FlavrSavr tomato. It had a longer shelf life, because it took longer to soften after ripening. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to tolerate the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first commercially genetically engineered crop marketed in Europe.\nIn 1995, Bt Potato was approved by the US Environmental Protection",
"-31.835179867710394"
],
[
"\"Let Them Eat Precaution does a superb job of educating the reading public on the basic issues of genetically modified foods. The distinguished authors provide a devastating point-by-point refutation of the anti-GMO activists' false claims, providing a reasoned, scientifically grounded perspective on this critical issue. As the Marie Antoinette title implies, though the affluent may be leading the charge against GMO foods, it is the poor who are most likely to suffer the effects of activists that falsely claim to speak for the world's poor.\" —Thomas DeGregori, professor of economics, University of Houston, and author of Origins of the Organic",
"-31.832516868424136"
],
[
"the first genetically engineered crop commercialized in Europe. In 1995 Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 1996 a total of 35 approvals had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation), with 8 different traits in 6 countries plus the EU.\nBy 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops and a further 31 countries had granted regulatory approval for transgenic crops to be imported. In 2013 Robert Fraley (Monsanto’s",
"-31.805618595011765"
],
[
"widely differing degrees of regulation.\nNo reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population. GM crop labeling is required in many countries, although the United States Food and Drug Administration does not, nor does it distinguish between approved GM and non-GM foods. The United States enacted a law that requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018. It allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site.\nAdvocacy groups such as Center for Food Safety, Union of Concerned Scientists, Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Fund claim that risks related to",
"-31.800302102870774"
],
[
"Rachel Parent Activism Parent's interest in genetically modified foods began when she was 11 years old. She was required to research material for a school project and chose the subject of GMOs, when she found it troubling that Canada did not require food manufacturers to put labels on genetically modified foods. The Lang and O'Leary Exchange On the May 27, 2013 episode of the CBC television program The Lang and O'Leary Exchange, Kevin O'Leary criticized protestors belonging to the March Against Monsanto movement by saying, \"Monsanto should be held up as a hero because they've developed technologies that help",
"-31.796220375406847"
],
[
"to the non-transgenic varieties and the crop used much less pesticide to produce (85% reduction). The subsequent introduction of a second variety of GM cotton led to increases in GM cotton production until 95% of the Australian cotton crop was GM in 2009 making Australia the country with the fifth largest GM cotton crop in the world. Other GM cotton growing countries in 2011 were Argentina, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, South Africa and Costa Rica.\nCotton has been genetically modified for resistance to glyphosate a broad-spectrum herbicide discovered by Monsanto which also sells some of the Bt cotton seeds",
"-31.775359057472087"
],
[
"Genetically modified food in the European Union Genetic engineering in the European Union has varying degrees of regulation. Labeling and traceability The regulations concerning the import and sale of GMOs for human and animal consumption grown outside the EU involve providing freedom of choice to the farmers and consumers. All food (including processed food) or feed which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labeled. Twice GMOs unapproved by the EC have arrived in the EU and been forced to return to their port of origin. The first was in 2006 when a shipment of rice from America",
"-31.759951454703696"
],
[
"joint paper requesting that individual countries should have the right to decide whether to cultivate GM crops. By the year 2010, the only GMO food crop with approval for cultivation in Europe was MON 810, a Bt expressing maize conferring resistance to the European corn borer that gained approval in 1998. \nIn March 2010 a second GMO, a potato called Amflora, was approved for cultivation for industrial applications in the EU by the European Commission and was grown in Germany, Sweden and the Czech Republic that year. Amflora was withdrawn from the EU market in 2012, and in 2013 its",
"-31.742112910651485"
],
[
"misleading unless accompanied by focused consumer education. The AAAS stated that mandatory labeling \"can only serve to mislead and falsely alarm consumers\".\n[Labeling] efforts are not driven by evidence that GM foods are actually dangerous. Indeed, the science is quite clear: crop improvement by the modern molecular techniques of biotechnology is safe. Rather, these initiatives are driven by a variety of factors, ranging from the persistent perception that such foods are somehow \"unnatural\" and potentially dangerous to the desire to gain competitive advantage by legislating attachment of a label meant to alarm. Another misconception used as a rationale for labeling is",
"-31.69642909126469"
],
[
"corn rather than feed starving local children. Disease-resistant crops languish due to ideological regulations, with bananas resistant to xanthomonas wilt—which is threatening food security in Uganda and eastern Africa where it’s a staple crop—kept from farmers and people who need them....\nPhilosopher Giovanni Tagliabue argued that promoters of GMO conspiracy theories were being taken advantage of by anti-environmental corporate interests:\nThis ideological and political anti-corporate worldview, although sometimes almost paranoid, is legitimate. Yet, while I do not argue whether this attitude is good or bad, right or wrong, I maintain that the avowed anti-industrial struggle in the field of green biotechnologies not",
"-31.69430843518785"
],
[
"a greater role in determining which crops would be planted. This had the effect of making more profitable the planting of such crops as fruit, vegetables and tea. As a consequence, however, traditional grain crops have suffered, as farmers prefer to plant the more profitable cash crops.\nIncreases in light industrial production and more profitable crops brought about by the loosening of market controls had not always been enough to satisfy consumer demand, which in turn led to inflation. Rather than increased demand being met with increased supply, the manufacturing sector and economic infrastructure were still too underdeveloped to supply a",
"-31.686369725241093"
],
[
"tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.\nAdvocacy groups such as Greenpeace, the Non-GMO Project, and Organic Consumers Association say that risks of GM food have not been adequately identified and managed, and have questioned the objectivity of regulatory authorities. They have expressed concerns about the objectivity of regulators and rigor of the regulatory process, about",
"-31.66608946640099"
],
[
"Genetically modified food in Asia India and China are the two largest producers of genetically modified products in Asia. India currently only grows GM cotton, while China produces GM varieties of cotton, poplar, petunia, tomato, papaya and sweet pepper. Cost of enforcement of regulations in India are generally higher, possibly due to the greater influence farmers and small seed firms have on policy makers, while the enforcement of regulations was more effective in China. Other Asian countries that grew GM crops in 2011 were Pakistan, the Philippines and Myanmar. GM crops were approved for commercialisation in Bangladesh in 2013 and",
"-31.609649087738944"
],
[
"The People’s Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the first genetically modified food, the Flavr Savr, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995, Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the",
"-31.58732751494972"
],
[
"the European Union's precautionary rejection of the importation of GMOs, stating that the ban was tantamount to \"denying food to starving people.\" In 2009 he called for a \"second green revolution\" employing biotechnology and genetic engineering.\nIn 1998, as Under Secretary for Marketing and Regulatory Programs at the United States Department of Agriculture, Siddiqui oversaw the release of the National Organic Program's standards for organic food labeling. The standards permitted both irradiated and GMO foods to be labeled as organic. (The standards were subsequently revised in response to public opposition.)\nIn 2005, speaking on behalf of CropLife America, Siddiqui stated his satisfaction",
"-31.58316988412298"
],
[
"containing an experimental GMO variety (LLRice601) not meant for commercialisation arrived at Rotterdam. The second in 2009 when trace amounts of a GMO maize approved in the US were found in a \"non-GM\" soy flour cargo.\nThe coexistence of GM and non-GM crops has raised significant concern in many European countries and so EU law also requires that all GM food be traceable to its origin, and that all food with GM content greater than 0.9% be labelled. Due to high demand from European consumers for freedom of choice between GM and non-GM foods. EU regulations require measures to avoid",
"-31.582209139858605"
],
[
"crops are purchased each year from seed producers. The offspring of the hybrid corn, while still viable, lose hybrid vigor (the beneficial traits of the parents). This benefit of first-generation hybrid seeds is the primary reason for not planting second-generation seed. However, for non-hybrid GM crops, such as GM soybeans, seed companies use intellectual property law and tangible property common law, each expressed in contracts, to prevent farmers from planting saved seed. For example, Monsanto's typical bailment license (covering transfer of the seeds themselves) forbids saving seeds, and also requires purchasers to sign a separate patent license agreement.\nCorporations say that",
"-31.52426861631102"
],
[
"contributor to higher food prices. The FAO/ECMB has reported that world land usage for agriculture has declined since the 1980s, and subsidies outside the United States and EU have dropped since the year 2004, leaving supply, while sufficient to meet 2004 needs, vulnerable when the United States began converting agricultural commodities to biofuels. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), global wheat imports and stocks have decreased, domestic consumption has stagnated, and world wheat production has decreased from 2006 to 2008.\nIn the United States, government subsidies for ethanol production have prompted many farmers to switch to production for",
"-31.403679213413852"
],
[
"and those who oppose that view.\nOther related articles on health and safety investigate potential industry funding of GMO safety studies, examine the lack of \"long-term GMO safety studies or studies on humans\", and whether there are more health benefits in organic foods compared to conventional foods.\nThe Project presents content on sustainability with articles that compare organic, non-GMO, and GMO farming in terms of sustainability. Articles examine GMOs and monoculture, bees, the Monarch butterfly, |insect-resistance, the overuse of glyphosate and agrochemicals, and plant-based fake meat.\nGLP examines labeling GMO foods and examines how and why GMOs are or are not labeled in",
"-31.369550255520153"
],
[
"Over the past decade the government's farm policy focused on the overproduction and the reduction in prices of commodity crops such as corn and soybeans. Low commodity prices offer incentives for firms to create new ways to use the commodity crops. The low prices of corn and soybeans led to the creation of high fructose corn syrup and hydrogenated vegetable oils—ingredients that have been linked to obesity. Throughout the years these ingredients have become a major component of everyday food products. In 1998 over 11,000 food products were introduced to Americans. Out of these products about 75 percent of them",
"-31.366432481885568"
],
[
"modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had specific changes introduced into their DNA with the methods of genetic engineering. These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding. Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr Savr delayed ripening tomato. To date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola,",
"-31.31803430771106"
],
[
"genetically modified foods. Environmental assessments of biotechnology-derived plants are carried out by the CFIA's Plant Biosafety Office (PBO). In Australia Roundup Ready Canola was approved for commercial production in 2003 by the Gene Technology Regulator after undergoing approximately 400 tests and studies to determine it was safe. Food Standards Australia New Zealand also approved this product as being safe for human consumption in the same year. Controversy Controversy exists over the use of food and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of from conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The dispute",
"-31.308090032311156"
],
[
"The Omnivore's Dilemma Summary Noting that corn is the most heavily subsidized U.S. crop, Pollan posits that it has successfully changed the diets in the U.S. of both humans and animals. In the first section, he monitors the development of a calf from a pasture in South Dakota, through its stay on a Kansas feedlot, to its end. The author highlights that of everything feedlot cows eat, the most destructive is corn, which tends to damage their livers. Corn-fed cows become sick as a matter of course, a fact accepted by the industry as a cost of doing business.\nIn the",
"-31.26999868945859"
],
[
"positions in corn futures was the main driver behind the observed hike in corn prices affecting food supply.\nSecond- and third-generation biofuels (such as cellulosic ethanol and algae fuel, respectively) may someday ease the competition with food crops, as can grow on marginal lands unsuited for food crops, but these advanced biofuels require further development of farming practices and refining technology; in contrast, ethanol from maize uses mature technology and the maize crop can be shifted between food and fuel use quickly. Biofuel subsidies in the US and the EU The World Bank lists the effect of biofuels as an important",
"-31.265115292932023"
]
] |
6ackcb | Why is it a ticketable offense to ride in a car without seatbelts on yet a motorcyclist that faces the same risks with less protection doesn't have to worry with such restraints? | [
"The clue is the less protection part. In a car you have a safe cage around the occupants and a lot of crumple zones and airbags to keep you save in the event of a crash. So the best place to be is firmly in place strapped inside the car to the seat where all the protection works best. However in a motorcycle there is nothing protecting you in a crash. You are already sitting on the outside of the vehicle. So the best way to avoid injury is to get away from any potential heavy pieces of wreckage as possible. You would rather have the bike hit something after you have gotten away then if you were squished in the middle of the collision. This is why motorcyclists have protection to their bodies instead of on the vehicle. The helmet, suit, boots and gloves are designed to give someone good protection from smaller bumps and scrapes which make a collision survivable as long as you are able to get away from the biggest impacts.",
"First, in a bike accident it's safest to \"throw\" the bike away and hence avoid being hit by it / trapped under it. Watch some bike racing crash reels, you'll see the riders literally throw the bike away in a crash and go \"ragdoll\" to avoid injury. Second, bikes are one of those inventions that would never be allowed if they hadn't been around for 100 years. If we didn't have them already, you'd never be allowed to introduce them. In many places, riding without a helmet is an offence - although ironically it means the police may not chase you for fear of causing you to fall off & kill yourself. Certainly the case in the UK, a lot of young scrotes on illegal/unlicensed scooters & dirt bikes deliberately ride without helmets so they can't be chased.",
"**ELI5:** Cars and motorcycles are different so there are different rules. **ELI15:** Motorcycles are inherently unsafe. Making them safe turns them into a car. **ELI30:** Insurance companies push safety laws. There are 210 million car drivers and 8 million motorcycle drivers. Also, motorcycles are cheaper and usually do less damage in an accident. Car accidents cost more and are more frequent than motorcycle accidents so insurance companies focus their lobbying money in that area. (Motorcycle accidents often kill the cyclist so health costs are morbidly minimized.) **ELI50:** Why are you asking me? You made the laws!",
"Because a seatbelt is not giving extra protection on a motorcycle since in the case of an accident being bound to the motorcycle is actually more dangerous than flying off. In the case of a car the seatbelt is increasing the safety in the case of an accident very much and is preinstalled in every car, so the only reason not to wear it is you being too lazy to put it on. Therefore they introduced the punishment to make sure people would use it.",
"In addition to everything already said, not wearing a seat belt in a car puts the other occupants of that car at risk. If you're in an accident without a seat belt on you essentially become a projectile around the inside of the vehicle. URL_0 (don't worry he survived)",
"Being tied to a motorcycle in a crash is more likely to kill you than save you. The reverse is true when considering being fixed to a seat within a car.",
"The simplest answer is that for a motorcyclist it is *more* dangerous to be strapped to the bike. In a car you crash and have a seatbelt you're kept relatively safe, the safety devices can activate without you're head being in the wrong area where it'll do more damage than protection, the seatbelt is about keeping you safe in a confined space where many things can hurt you. On a bike, being connected to it can lead to worse outcomes. If it crashes and begins sliding, you need to be able to leave it so it doesn't drag you along asphalt at 60mph, or under a guard rail into a dangerous drop, or even into more vehicles. The ability to disconnect yourself from the crash is more important. That is why the safety precautions are focused on the individual separate from the bike (helmet, padded suits, etc.) A car can't safely take you out of the crash, so it has to make it safer for you during a crash.",
"In a crash, a car is a big protective metal box. You want to be restrained inside it and let the metal box take the worst of the impact. A motorbike is pretty much the opposite. It's a big lump of metal that can only really make things worse for you. Being separated from the bike is very likely to be a good thing. If you're going to slide along the road and slam into a wall, then being strapped to the bike won't stop that happening. Instead it'll mean that you get crushed between the bike and the road or between the bike and the wall.",
"If motorcycles were invented in 2017 there's no way in hell that they'd ever be allowed on public roads, way too dangerous. However, they were invented back in the heroic age of motorized travel when cars had no seat belts and plate glass windshields and steering columns that would jab out and spear you in the chest during a car crash. So now we're kind of stuck with them, not because of anything objective about their relative safety but because there are a bunch of people who ride them now and would be pissed if they got taken away. It'd be kind of stupid to avoid making cars better because motorcycles are worse so meh, it's just kind of how things turned out.",
"U.S. based answer (facts and figures are for U.S., not sure if the trend is the same in other countries): The reason is simple numbers. These are laws being made by politicians so they are looking at numbers primarily. Vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for people in the US under the age of 55. Over half of these deaths happen to people that were not wearing a seat belt. This is not to say that all of them could have been prevented had the person been wearing a seat belt but a lot of them likely could have been. By passing seat belt legislation, politicians are addressing one of the main causes of death for people under the age of 55. That is good politics and has a major impact on reducing traffic fatalities. For motorcycles, there are far less deaths than compared to passenger vehicles. In fact, until the seat belt laws began to take effect, motorcycle deaths regularly made up less than 10% of all vehicle related fatalities. After those laws began being enforced with fines more universally, passenger vehicle fatalities began dropping and motorcycle fatalities began to make up about 12-13% of all vehicle related fatalities. The real issue with motorcycles is the impact that helmets can have and despite this, only 19 states require helmets. Some sources: [CDC facts about motor vehicle fatalities and seatbelts]( URL_1 ) [Insurance Institute for Highway safety facts and figures about vehicle deaths with breakdowns for motorcycles and passenger vehicles]( URL_2 ) [CDC site about impact of wearing a helmet on motorcycle fatalities and costs of accidents]( URL_0 )",
"You really don't want to be attached to a 400lb+ hunk of aluminum, plastic, and iron as it goes tumbling across the road/roadside. It is much less traumatic to the squishy meat sack riding the motorcycle to be thrown clear of it (wearing appropriate protection, always) rather than to remain attached to it.",
"Same reason you don't have to wear a helmet in your car. Different vehicle, different risks.",
"All of these responses are wrong. Politics and laws on the books have nothing to do with common sense or safety, though they can be correlated. The local municipalities want to increase their influence, power, and revenue, and local police departments want more reasons to be able to pull people over and exert authority so that their jobs are easier. This is an easy way to do it because it ties in with peoples innate desire to control what other people are doing and can be masked as a \"public safety\" initiative, which is patently false given motorcycles and other alternative, less safe vehicles are allowed on roadways.",
"It has to do with insurance. Crash studies prove car seatbelts work and Insurance company's incentivise police departments to enforce seatbelt law with tickets and checkpoints . There actually we're politicians who wanted to enact a seatbelt motorcycle law. It got scrapped when enough people told them it was utterly stupid.",
"I guess this is why we have to have seatbelt laws. Because people really can't see the difference between being strapped in a car versus strapped to a motorcycle? Really?",
"A car is a huge metal object moving super fast & close to other moving metal objects that are also moving super fast. If one is not in the driver's seat in a proper position, they cannot control the vehicle. If a person were to lose control of the vehicle, it then becomes a large weapon moving very fast that could veer off into any direction. Motorcycle accidents are usually only fatal to the person on motorcycle and not the other vehicle. Not the case with cars/trucks. Lastly, it seems to me that getting ejected off a motorcycle might be better than being affixed to it while it crashes.",
"This is a simple yet perfect example of why we should never freely give away our personal rights.",
"Of course, all accidents are different, few are expected or happen slow enough to react with any degree of certainty that no one will be hurt. A seatbelt on a motorcycle would be more dangerous in an accident. While it isn't ideal by any means, being separated from the motorcycle is better. Imagine sliding on the road after a collision strapped to hundreds of pounds of tumbling metal. Or even just sliding or falling without being able to get your legs out from under the bike. In some cases, dumping the bike and sliding behind it could be the safe move. In a car it's much more dangerous to be thrown from the vehicle because you're not wearing any protective gear. Hopefully motorcycle riders and passengers are wearing helmets and second skins. It's also not safe to be thrown around in a car, which the motorcycle rider can't do.",
"A car: a big ole box of structural metal designed to keep you inside and in your seat when you crash. A bicycle, no box around you there. Imagine your bike flips. If you had some crazy harness on, you would of course be flipped, crushed, dragged with the bike. Its likely that there are better chances of survival if you're flung off. And you have more discretion on how you take the crash. You may judge its better to bail from the bike before impact in certain situations. A helmet is a whole new ballgame. Personally, my opinion is that you should wear proper riding gear (thick leather or similar) and a helmet always. Especially the helmet.",
"The literal answer is that they have a different license class with different requirements. Much like a class 4 (emergency vehicles) they also aren't required to wear seat belts. So you can't give a cop a seat belt ticket.",
"Seatbelts should be at the drivers discretion if theyre the only one in the vehicle. This is more of another argument for optional seatbelts than a question w a good answer",
"Restraining someone to a 1200 lb, potentially airborne and explosive projectile, is probably more dangerous than letting the rider fall off as the bike goes flying.",
"Because as human beings, \"there oughta be a law\" is a thing, and we're all more familiar with riding in cars than in motorcycles, and so the scrutiny is on cars. We understand intuitively (and statistically) that wearing a seatbelt drastically improves our risk of injury or death during an accident. One could easily argue that I have a right to put myself at risk (the chance that I'm putting somebody ELSE at risk by not wearing my seatbelt is small, though it's clearly real), and so I could argue that I shouldn't have to wear a seatbelt BY LAW. There are a number of other laws on the books that are similar - i.e., regulation of personal behavior that largely impacts the individual and perhaps only tangentially affect a larger group (drug prohibition, for example). Some laws (such as universal health care) have the side affect that we can now argue that people have a responsibility to lower their individual risk for the sake of efficiencies at the larger scale. This is at least part of the reason why advocates of personal responsibility argue that these types of laws are unnecessary (at best) and intrusive/rights-restrictive (at worst). Understanding the consequences of these laws is important, and is why it's important to have a thoughtful, engaged citizenry when enacting legislation that places restrictions on our fellow citizens.",
"Think about what a 'seatbelt' would do for a motorcyclist? Best case scenario you are now strapped down to your crashing bike as it is mangled in a wreck and it tumbles over your body and crushes you to tiny pieces. Seatbelts would be counterproductive in a bike wreck. Now OTHER safety items, like bike helmets and proper riding leathers, are another story. That helmets aren't required in all 50 states baffles me, but even then, i can't tell you how often i may see some schumck riding his bike at 80 mph, weaving through traffic, maybe wearing a helmet, but also just wearing nothing but a tshirt and cargo shorts or and sandles or some shit. riding a bike dressed like that, besides looking like a doofous, is just asking for a series case of road rash if you ever wipe out.",
"This might have already been answered and I'm sure this will get lost but here we go anyway. The seat belt is to keep you in the car, if you're in an accident it doesn't just stop after the initial collision. On a motorcycle it does. But in a car if you're not still in the seat after that initial impact no one is controlling your heavy ass box of death. The car will quite possibly still be rolling and semi controllable. With you being held infront of the wheel and brakes there is still a good chance multiple collisions will be avoided.",
"Helmet laws are the equivalent of safety belt laws. Belting yourself to the top of a motorcycle isn't safer, but wearing a helmet is. Why do we pass laws forcing people to be safer? Because their injuries and deaths impact people other than themselves: they cost the healthcare system, they leave unsupported children behind, etc. If something is proven safer and it's easy to do, it should be a law, period. People whining about their freedom can go live in the woods without the benefits of society. If you want the benefits of society, respect your responsible place in society.",
"A few things: 1. Restraints on a motorcycle are not going to be helpful, whereas they are in a car 1. If you fly off a motorcycle, you are unlikely to hit another person. In a car, you can bounce around and injure another passenger who IS wearing a seatbelt 1. Many safety devices in a car require you to be in a seat in order to work (crumple zones, airbags). Your primary safety devices on motorcycles are your clothes and helmets, so your physical location is irrelevant to the function of those devices.",
"It's an insurance issue. The law was pushed by the insurance company. If you get into a car accident and aren't wearing your seat belt, you're likely to be more hurt than if you wore it. More injuries mean more medical care. It costs them more. If you get into a motorcycle accident without a helmet, death is more likely than if you wore one. So they have there are more medical costs if you wear a helmet. You're a product in this scenario.",
"You asked a question about legality, yet you got many answers about safety. Why is that? Well, it's not nice to mention, but most people aren't particularly intelligent, or even consistent. And lawmakers are, first and (Sadly) foremost, people. So the laws that govern motorcycle safety aren't even reasonably close to those which govern car safety, and if they were then motorcycles would require major changes. They would have to resemble small cars... TL;DR Our laws aren't consistent or reasonable. Deal.",
"Seat belts on a motorcycle are an injury sentence at best, death more likely. Think of when you were little and fell off your bicycle at slow speed. You just kind of stepped and fell away. Now picture if your butt was belted to the seat, now you're practically being slammed into the ground on your side. Now replace the bicycle with a 500 pound piece of burning hot motorcycle. You don't want to be trapped under that.",
"My buddy motorcycles to work. This is in California where lane splitting is legal and allows you to skip a lot of traffic (at the expense of your safety). He says it feels weird to get in a car and put on his seatbelt. \"If I'm strapped in how can I be thrown safely clear in the event of an accident?\" He's only about 20% serious.",
"On average more than one person occupies the car, but more often than not cyclists are alone. The ethical reason, as explained to me by my driving instructor, is your body becomes a projectile in a car crash. It has the chance of bouncing in the car and killing the other passenger because of the contained nature of the vehicle",
"because stopping you for not having a seat belt on gives a cop time to look in your car for probable cause to search it. you can agree that wearing a seat belt is a good idea while at the same time argue that the police should have no authority to chase you down and extort you for it.",
"It would be less safe to strap yourself to your motorcycle. This is why most states have helmet laws. Why not make people in cars wear helmets too? The two things are different and it's all about the amount of safety that society has deemed to be \"acceptable\" given the trade off of inconvenience.",
"I think the simplest explanation is that if you get in a motorcycle crash, you don't want to be strapped ON the motorcycle. That would be more dangerous than rolling away. If you're strapped in, your leg will most likely be crushed under the bike or your entire body could be run over.",
"Modern motor vehicles create a protective cocoon around the passengers, and the use of seatbelts keeps them inside the cocoon in the event of an accident. Motorcycles have no such cocoon, and therefore being physically strapped to one would create far more danger to the rider in the event of an accident.",
"Seatbelts increase occupant security with no real inconvenience. There is absolutely no reason not to wear a seatbelt. There is simply no such solution for motorcycles, other than wearing a helmet and ABS system. Both of which are required in EU (ABS on bikes produced from 2016 onward).",
"Also think about how the back seat passengers often become projectiles in a crash. Often the unbelted passenger kills the ones in front of them. A bike you personally just go flying; more potential personal injury potential.",
"Simple! If you're gonna lose control on a bike; the best thing to do is drop it and let it skid down the road than to lose all your skin being pinned under it.",
"When a motorcycle crashes, more often than not it starts tumbling and flipping violently down the road. I don't want to be strapped to a 400-900 pound sledgehammer that's tumbling down the street.",
"I'm sure it's been said... besides helmet laws.... it's generally much safer to bail from the bike in an accident than to be secured to it by a restraining device.",
"Imagine a motorcycle accident. Now imagine being strapped to the motorcycle during that accident. 9 times out of 10 you would be better off being thrown off of it.",
"I'm no motorcycle rider, but from what I've heard from other riders, the last thing you wanna do when a bike goes down is be strapped to it.",
"Because it doesn't matter. Being strapped to a motorcycle isn't going to improve your chances of survival. This is a classic equity vs equality situation.",
"The same reason we don't have seatbelts on bicycles... ever had your bike fall over and been tied to the seat? Yeah, me neither.",
"The real reason is because the government just wants more of your money and loves making rules",
"Why don't you have to wear a helmet in a car. It would definitely be safer?"
] | [
[
"dangerous driving, an offense which can carry a large fine and a ban of a year or more.\nIn Pakistan, India, and some other countries, it is illegal to perform these kinds of stunts. If someone is caught performing these acts, the rider can have their motorcycle impounded and potentially face jail time. Automobiles Wheelies are common in auto- or motorcycle drag racing, where they represent torque wasted lifting the front end, rather than moving the vehicle forward. They also usually result in raising the center of mass, which limits the maximum acceleration. In the absence of wheelie bars, this effect",
"-30.602646196901333"
],
[
"five US states waive motorcyclist license testing for graduates of rider training courses such as the MSF. Research The US Hurt Report, begun in 1976 and published in 1981, expresses disdain for the ignorance and misinformation about motorcycle safety among riders studied, noting that 92% of riders in accidents had no formal training, compared to 84.3% of the riding population, and that when interviewed, riders frequently failed to take responsibility for their errors, or even perceive that accident avoidance had been possible. Hurt noted they held such misconceptions as the belief that deliberately falling down and sliding was a",
"-29.238068555147038"
],
[
"behavior. Motorcycle insurance may carry lower property-damage premiums because the risk of damage to other vehicles is minimal, yet have higher liability or personal-injury premiums, because motorcycle riders face different physical risks while on the road. Risk classification on automobiles also takes into account the statistical analysis of reported theft, accidents, and mechanical malfunction on every given year, make, and model of auto. Distance Some car insurance plans do not differentiate in regard to how much the car is used. There are however low-mileage discounts offered by some insurance providers. Other methods of differentiation would include: over-road distance between the",
"-29.013060557481367"
],
[
"conclusion the Court drew because it feared that occupants of cars merely stuck in traffic would also be \"seized\" under a contrary holding. But the Court noted that \"incidental restrictions on freedom of movement would not tend to affect an individual's sense of security and privacy in traveling in an automobile.\" Indeed, the California court's holding was a kind of incentive for the police to conduct \"roving patrols\" that would violate the Fourth Amendment rights of drivers.",
"-28.89428378312732"
],
[
"ticket which does not cover their whole journey.\nPenalty fares are not fines, and are used when no legal basis for prosecuting fare evasion exists, prosecution is deemed too drastic and costly, or is unlikely to result in conviction. Civil and criminal penalties On some systems, fare evasion is considered a misdemeanor. In such cases, police officers and in some cases transit employees are authorized to issue tickets which usually carry a heavy fine. Then, charged persons can then be tried in court. Repeat violators and severe cases, such as ticket forgery, are punished more severely and sometimes involve incarceration. Wealthy",
"-28.876156586658908"
],
[
"often make drivers nervous.\nLow perceived safety can have costs. For example, after the 9/11/2001 attacks, many people chose to drive rather than fly, despite the fact that, even counting terrorist attacks, flying is safer than driving. Perceived risk discourages people from walking and bicycling for transportation, enjoyment or exercise, even though the health benefits outweigh the risk of injury. Security Also called social safety or public safety, security addresses the risk of harm due to intentional criminal acts such as assault, burglary or vandalism.\nBecause of the moral issues involved, security is of higher importance to many people than substantive",
"-28.83759341557743"
],
[
"passenger. In the UK, a motorcyclist is not allowed to carry more than one pillion passenger. This is due to motorcycles not being designed to carry more than one pillion passenger.\nIn Australia, the vehicle operator must have held their licence (not including a learner's permit) for a minimum of one year before being legally allowed to carry a passenger where physically possible, following the upgrade to the required licence class. For example, in New South Wales, you must carry a Provisional 2 (Green) licence before being allowed to carry a pillion passenger.\nPillion-riding is associated with terrorist or criminal attacks in",
"-28.830926285038004"
],
[
"However, in the majority of the accidents the car driver is found liable in both regards; in 1999, in 90% of the accidents involving cars and cyclists the car-drivers were found fully liable. Rules As of 28 March 2014, cyclists in Denmark can receive a fine for cycling without lights after a certain time of day; using a hand-held mobile phone while cycling; having defective brakes, reflectors, etc.; cycling against a red light; cycling against the direction of traffic; cycling on a pedestrian crossing; cycling on the left side of a bicycle path; not respecting traffic signs or arrows; breaking the unconditional",
"-28.824404164974112"
],
[
"covered by compulsory insurance, wear seat belts and comply with certain speed limits. Motorcycle riders may additionally be compelled to wear a motorcycle helmet. Drivers of certain vehicle types may be subject to maximum driving hour regulations.\nSome jurisdictions, such as the US states Virginia and Maryland, have implemented specific regulations such as the prohibiting mobile phone use by, and limiting the number of passengers accompanying, young and inexperienced drivers. The State of Safety Report from the National Safety Council released in 2017 ranks states on these road safety regulations. It has been noticed that more serious collisions occur at night,",
"-28.804062568364316"
],
[
"the rider must be at least 14 years of age.\nIn theory, it would be legal to ride any motorized scooter if the rider possessed a category AM UK driving license (for Mopeds) plus number plates; insurance; test certificate; road tax; crash helmet etc. In practice, it remains illegal because a motorized scooter will not meet the requirements of the Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations 1986, so they can only be used on private land.\nOn 12 July 2019 the first UK fatality involving an e-scooter occurred. A 35-year-old YouTube personality, Emily Hartridge, was killed in Battersea, London in a collision",
"-28.683419498163857"
],
[
"in regions with high numbers of such uninsured motorists, no-fault systems may make more sense. Furthermore, traditional insurance is regressive because drivers of inexpensive cars are liable for damage to any car, no matter its value, even though they only add a small amount of liability to the pool with their less valuable cars. This issue is fixed under a no-fault regime.\nCritics of no-fault argue that dangerous drivers not paying for the damage they cause encourages excessive risky behavior, with only raised premiums and a higher risk rating as the potential consequence, and no jury awards or legal settlements. Detractors",
"-28.647615144203883"
],
[
"riding a bicycle, whereas others have no sanctions relevant to cycling. Most such laws extend driving laws to all vehicles (\"all vehicles\" as opposed to \"motor vehicles\"), but a few address impaired bike riding separately. In some states, enhanced penalties are automobile-specific. Some states, notably Oregon, do not extend the implied consent law to cyclists. While police activities targeting impaired cyclists are rare, a cyclist could encounter police in a circumstance where the cyclist would otherwise be ticketed. Physician reporting Six states require physicians to report patients who drive while impaired. Another 25 states permit physicians",
"-28.591158738534432"
],
[
"vehicle owner—similar to a parking ticket. The issue of owner liability has been addressed in the US courts, with a ruling in the District of Columbia Court of Appeals in 2007, which agreed with a lower court when it found that the presumption of liability of the owners of vehicles issued citations does not violate due process rights. This ruling was supported by a 2009 7th US Circuit Court of Appeals ruling in which it was held that issuing citations to vehicle owners (or lessees) is constitutional. The court stated that it also encourages drivers to be cautious in lending",
"-28.351696576195536"
],
[
"in charge ... of any carriage, horse, cattle, or steam engine\" is still in force; \"carriage\" has sometimes been interpreted as including mobility scooters. Definition The criminal offense may not involve actual driving of the vehicle but rather may broadly include being physically in control of a car while intoxicated even if the person charged is not driving. For example, a person found in the driver's seat of a car while intoxicated and holding the keys, even while parked, may be charged with DUI, because he or she is in control of the vehicle. In construing the terms DUI, DWI,",
"-28.290920253435615"
],
[
"right of way; not signaling; cycling with no hands on the handlebars; cycling on the sidewalk or footpath; holding onto another vehicle; cycling with two people on a bicycle that only has one seat (both persons will receive a fine); or positioning oneself in the wrong place before or while making a turn. Cyclists can also receive a warning if their bell does not work. Even though there is no fixed blood alcohol level above which it is illegal to ride a bicycle, cyclists can receive a fine for cycling under the influence if the police assess that doing so",
"-28.196788067696616"
],
[
"rider is a rare accident cause.\" Lane splitting is not recommended for beginning motorcyclists, and riders who do not practice it in their home area are strongly cautioned that it can be risky if they attempt it when traveling to a jurisdiction where it is allowed. Similarly, for drivers new to places where it is done, it can be startling and scary. Responsibility and liability issues Another consideration is that lane splitting in the United States, even where legal, can possibly leave the rider legally responsible. 'Safely' is always very much a judgment call. The mere fact that an accident",
"-28.164067120902473"
],
[
"for driving without a license, twice as likely to be cited for not wearing a seat belt and four times as likely to be cited for driving without proof of insurance.\" The NAACP argued that such statistics were the result of police targeting \"driving while black,\" rather than actual differences in the rate of offenses committed by different groups. Incident In little more than two months preceding this incident, Timothy Thomas had received numerous traffic citations: he was pulled over 11 times by six different white officers and four black officers. They cited Thomas for 21 violations, almost all of",
"-28.048640304099536"
],
[
"bicyclists arrested for not obtaining a parade permit. Because of the large turnout, it was difficult if not impossible for cyclists to follow the sanctioned route. Riders instead found themselves engaged in verbal and physical altercations with motorists and police, as well as among themselves. Two officers reported injuries in confrontations with bike riders. Local media reported that \"about 250\" bicyclists were arrested, most for disrupting traffic, and a few for being drunk in public, battery, and outstanding warrants. March 2007 On the March 2007 ride in San Francisco, a rider was arrested on felony (later reduced to misdemeanor) charges",
"-27.999376266263425"
],
[
"though no incident occurred. Criminality Because passengers typically agree to terms of service that limit criminal liability on the part of drivers, police departments have been reluctant to press charges against individuals who engage in the fraud. However, in late October 2018, a Harwood, North Dakota, man who had driven for both Uber and Lyft was charged with two counts of attempted theft of property for two separate instances of false cleanup claims. In once instance, the man was caught on surveillance video purchasing food, throwing it on the inside and outside of his vehicle, taking photos of the alleged",
"-27.999272941397066"
],
[
"no application.\" Under the common law in California, all vehicle operators (including bike operators) have a general duty to use reasonable care to avoid collisions with other cyclists, cars, runners and pedestrians, since it is not the case that runners and pedestrians (for example) are always prohibited by the CVC from sharing a bike lane. Bicycle helmets for minors CVC 21212 requires cyclists under the age of 18 to wear helmets. The charge can be dismissed if the person charged declares under oath that it is their first violation of this section. Otherwise, the infraction is punishable by a",
"-27.976361360721057"
],
[
"third parties against the financial consequences of loss, damage or injury caused by a vehicle.\nCalifornia and New Jersey have enacted \"Personal Responsibility Acts\" which put further pressure on all drivers to carry liability insurance by preventing uninsured drivers from recovering non economic damages (e.g. compensation for \"pain and suffering\") if they are injured in any way while operating a motor vehicle.\nNorth Carolina is the only state to require that a driver hold liability insurance before a license can be issued. North Carolina does allow for a \"fleet license\" to be issued if the license holder has no insurance, however",
"-27.693708468112163"
],
[
"the behaviour of motorists when they encounter cyclists.\nIn some countries it is legal for cyclists to pass a motor-vehicle on its kerb-side, and cyclists doing so may enjoy the protection of the law. In this case, the use of segregated cycle facilities conforms to existing traffic law. In other jurisdictions similar \"undertaking\" manoeuvres by cyclists are illegal. Such distinctions form the basis of the claim by John Forester that segregated cycle facilities encourage behaviours that flout existing traffic law and in which cyclists enjoy no legal protection.\nCyclists in some countries are also given separate rules and light phases at",
"-27.672940084965376"
],
[
"to do with the crime. The severity of punishment is also considered to be excessive, due to the life-altering impacts that losing one's license can cause. Loss of driving privileges can lead to loss of employment, which a New Jersey study showed happened in 42% of suspension cases. In 45% of these cases, individuals were not able to find another job.\nMany who lose their license also continue to drive, a number PPI estimates to be as high as a 75%. Drivers will then face even more severe punishments if caught, which further ties up police and",
"-27.60749541322366"
],
[
"restraining system; and \n(3) a child eight through 18 years of age shall be restrained in a safety belt system or a child passenger restraining system.\nExemptions\n(b) A person shall not be adjudicated in violation of this section if:\n(1) the motor vehicle is regularly used to transport passengers for hire except a motor vehicle owned or operated by a day care facility; or\n(2) the motor vehicle was manufactured without safety belts.\nFines\n(c) The penalty for violation of this section shall be as follows:\n(1) $25.00 for a first violation;\n(2) $50.00 for a second violation;\n(3) $100.00 for third and subsequent violations\nNo Surcharges” Current interpretation",
"-27.581298461998813"
],
[
"1991) and keeps the sum deposited with the Accountant General of the Supreme Court, against liability for injuries to others (including passengers) and for damage to other persons' property, resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places.\nIt is an offence to use a motor vehicle, or allow others to use it without insurance that satisfies the requirements of the Act. This requirement applies while any part of a vehicle (even if a greater part of it is on private land) is on the public highway. No such legislation applies on private land. However,",
"-27.43863344323472"
],
[
"not have seatbelts at the time. The officer driving stated he had swerved to avoid an oncoming car, and an investigation did not find evidence of negligence. Wheatfall sued for $3 million, and was awarded $20,000 for his injury.\nIn 2004, Jeffrey Alston was awarded $39 million after becoming paralyzed from the neck down as a result of a ride in a Baltimore police van.\nIn 2005, Dondi Johnson Sr., a plumber, was arrested in Baltimore for public urination. Apparently uninjured at the time of his arrest, Johnson emerged from the police van paralyzed with a broken neck, and died two weeks",
"-27.42475533830293"
],
[
"of intoxicated motorists. In such instances, there are two types of cases: a criminal case against the drunk driver as a person, and a civil case against the property used to facilitate the drunk driving, specifically their car. Critics contend that the punishment can be \"deemed out of proportion with the offense\"; for example, after a drunk driver is arrested and convicted and possibly imprisoned, is it proper to punish him or her additionally by civil forfeiture means by confiscating a $50,000 car? Civil forfeiture has been used to discourage illegal activities such as cockfighting, drag racing, gambling in basements,",
"-27.40359231866023"
],
[
"of motorcycle helmets. (The law now does make these demands of those under 18.) A driver does not need to have vehicle insurance but must provide \"proof of financial responsibility\" to the state after an accident. Failure to do so can result in loss of driving privileges until the injured party is paid in full for their loss. Unlike the neighboring states, New Hampshire has no \"bottle bill.\"\nNew Hampshire had no law against having an open container of alcohol in a car until 1990, though it has since cracked down on alcohol in numerous ways, including a 2008",
"-27.318343244925018"
],
[
"to compensate others whom that driver may inadvertently injure, and uninsured or underinsured motorist coverage is available to compensate the driver for injuries inflicted upon the driver by someone else. Therefore, an insurance company will provide a legal defense to the defendant and may settle with the plaintiff (victim).\nAdditional damages for mental injury without a physical injury are less clearly covered, as the insurance policy typically states that it covers only bodily injury. For example, in general liability as of 2001 a minority of courts included emotional distress within the definition bodily injury. Where a mental injury arises from",
"-27.25525759503944"
],
[
"however, as it is just an event where people can test their cars on the strip, see how they match up to other vehicles, and have a good time in a safe environment. In efforts to reduce illegal street racing, this event allows for people to push their cars to the limit in a controlled environment.",
"-27.15978684439324"
],
[
"free ride, your broker must freeze your account for 90 days.\"\nIf someone is trading rapidly and using all the cash available in the account to buy and sell, that person will likely get a \"freeriding violation.\" Freeriding is subject to a mandatory 90-day cash-up-front restriction. Clients can still trade, but they lose the ability to make purchases with unsettled sale proceeds. S.E.C. Enforcement Actions Apart from credit rule violations inherent in free riding, the more significant and direct harm can come when the customer never pays or deposits to cover the trade, leaving the broker to hold the bag (if",
"-27.12316991983971"
],
[
"offence that will be prosecuted by the police and will receive penalty. Same provision is applied when the vehicle is standing on a public road.\nThe minimal insurance policies cover only third parties (included the insured person and third parties carried with the vehicle, but not the driver, if the two do not coincide). Also the third parties, fire and theft are common insurance policies.\nThe victims of accidents caused by non-insured vehicles could be compensated by a Warranty Fund, which is covered by a fixed amount of each insurance premium.\nSince 2013 it is possible to contract an insurance by days as",
"-27.089672205707757"
],
[
"to the free riding violation which results in an automatic restriction. Liquidation and Free Riding A liquidation violation occurs when the client sells a security to satisfy a cash obligation for the purchase of a different security after trade date. This is a violation because the sale of the second security will not be settled by the time the first purchase settles. A liquidation violation carries the same penalties as a good faith violation. Economics In microeconomics, an agent is said to be free riding when it does not pay for its share of the cost of producing a public",
"-27.08918881075806"
],
[
"unlimited medical and rehabilitation benefits.) Claimants involved in an auto accident are wise to submit their own insurance information to their medical providers, as third party carriers are under no legal obligation to pay a claimant's medical bills, while first party carriers are.\nThird party carriers are subject to payment only after a judgment against them, and any payments prior to that are considered voluntary. Settling a claim with a third party carrier is considered a voluntary payment. Other coverage Personal injury protection could also refer to personal injury insurance or coverage, which is insurance in any context which",
"-26.873881566047203"
],
[
"third party and the insured driver is deemed responsible for the injuries. However, in some jurisdictions, the third party would first exhaust coverage for accident benefits through their own insurer (assuming they have one) and/or would have to meet a legal definition of severe impairment to have the right to claim (or sue) under the insured driver's (or first party's) policy. If the third party sues the insured driver, liability coverage also covers court costs and damages that the insured driver may be deemed responsible for.\nIn some states, such as New Jersey, it is illegal to operate (or knowingly allow",
"-26.873634468298405"
],
[
"accusing the officers of braking short and taking \"wide, fast turns\" which slammed her into the walls. Police acknowledged that Abbott was not buckled in during her ride.\nSome media commentators have suggested that the \"rough ride\" practice was a factor in the 2015 death of Freddie Gray, although state prosecutors have not alleged that Gray was subjected to a rough ride. Gray was arrested on April 12, and was conscious and able to speak before being placed into a police van. Following a thirty-minute ride, Gray was comatose and not breathing. He was treated at the R Adams Cowley Shock",
"-26.841125459442992"
],
[
"the only circumstances in which a vehicle can have no insurance is if it has a valid SORN; was exempted from SORN (as untaxed on or before 31 October 1998 and has had no tax or SORN activity since); is recorded as 'stolen and not recovered' by the Police; is between registered keepers; or is scrapped.\nRoad Traffic Act Only Insurance differs from Third Party Only Insurance (detailed below) and is not often sold, unless to underpin, for example, a corporate body wishing to self-insure above the requirements of the Act. It provides the very minimum cover to satisfy the requirements",
"-26.79507637138886"
],
[
"without driver's licenses, especially poor and minority voters\", according to one report. Senator Al Franken criticized the Court for \"eroding individual rights\". However, others argue that the Court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized the Court's decision in Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, on the grounds that habeas corpus was \"limited\" to sovereign territory. Too much power This criticism is related to complaints",
"-26.746102006"
],
[
"states, moving violations, including running red lights and speeding, assess points on a driver's driving record. Since more points indicate an increased risk of future violations, insurance companies periodically review drivers' records, and may raise premiums accordingly. Rating practices, such as debit for a poor driving history, are not dictated by law. Many insurers allow one moving violation every three to five years before increasing premiums. Accidents affect insurance premiums similarly. Depending on the severity of the accident and the number of points assessed, rates can increase by as much as twenty to thirty percent. Any motoring convictions should be",
"-26.7433421050373"
],
[
"Bikeway and legislation One of the potential pitfalls for observers trying to interpret the operation of bikeways (or segregated cycle facilities) is that the same legal assumptions do not apply in all environments. For instance, in contrast to most English speaking countries, some European countries, including Germany, France, Denmark, Belgium, and the Netherlands have defined liability legislation. Thus there is a legal assumption that motorists are automatically considered liable in law for any injuries that occur if they collide with a cyclist. This may hold regardless of any fault on the part of the cyclist and may significantly affect",
"-26.741695513774175"
],
[
"of the Act. Road Traffic Act Only Insurance has a limit of £1,000,000 for damage to third party property, while third party only insurance typically has a greater limit for third party property damage.\nMotor insurers in the UK place a limit on the amount that they are liable for in the event of a claim by third parties against a legitimate policy. This can be explained in part by the Great Heck Rail Crash that cost the insurers over £22,000,000 in compensation for the fatalities and damage to property caused by the actions of the insured driver of a motor",
"-26.71062865667045"
],
[
"in so doing. Thus, it is done unconsciously or negligently, very often by people who consider themselves safe drivers and generally obey some other rules of the road. Evidence shows that more experienced drivers are more likely to be involved in rear-end collisions, possibly because they overestimate their skill and become complacent about allowing sufficient distance to avoid an accident. Coercion In its most uncivil form, it can be a case of road rage and/or intimidation. An example would be where the tailgating driver (the driver in the following vehicle) threatens damage to the leading vehicle and its occupants by",
"-26.701926642039325"
],
[
"every car might make it easier to prevent drunken driving...is an insufficient justification for abandoning the requirement of individualized suspicion,\" he stated.\nJurisdictions that allow sobriety checkpoints often carve out specific exceptions to their normal civil protections, in order to allow sobriety checkpoints. Although the U.S. Supreme Court has found sobriety checkpoints to be constitutionally permissible, ten states (Idaho, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming) have found that sobriety roadblocks violate their own state constitutions or have outlawed them. One other state (Alaska) does not use checkpoints even though it has not made them illegal.",
"-26.698813225467802"
],
[
"privity. Under the Road Traffic Act 1988, motorists are obliged to take out third party liability insurance. This means that victims of car accidents can claim money from the insurer of the driver at fault, even though they are not part of the original contract. Under the Married Women's Property Act 1882 a husband can take out insurance in his own name, but make it enforceable by his wife and children despite the doctrine of privity. Exceptions There are several ways around the original doctrine which were not loopholes created by case law but situations which by their very nature",
"-26.680123106518295"
],
[
"driver's licence of the accused. Nonetheless the accused may be charged with driving while prohibited under criminal law despite possessing a valid driver's licence.\nOften the provincial suspensions are more severe than the criminal prohibition. For instance many jurisdictions require the accused to complete a remedial program and participate in the ignition interlock program, failing which will result in an indefinite suspension until the conditions are met. Also an accused may be suspended from driving for medical reasons if a physician reports that the accused has a serious alcohol problem likely to result in an unacceptable risk to the public should",
"-26.511981357674813"
],
[
"hold a mobile phone whilst driving a moving vehicle. Where fitted, all passengers inside a vehicle must wear a seat belt at all times, regardless of whether they are sitting in the front or the rear.\nThe penalties for drinking and driving in Jersey are up to £2,000 fine or 6 months in prison for the first offence plus unlimited disqualification of driving licence. It is an offence to drive whilst under the influence of drugs. Since July 2014 it has also been illegal to smoke in any vehicle carrying passengers under the age of 18. Parking Single yellow lines",
"-26.47762452207826"
],
[
"the UK, it is illegal for minibikes to be ridden on public roads or off-road on public land. The only places these types of vehicle may be ridden are purpose-built race tracks and privately owned land with the owner's permission (and where they do not cause harassment, alarm or distress). All of these minibikes are regarded as \"motor vehicles\" as defined by section 185 of the Road Traffic Act 1988 and so to be ridden on the public road, a motor vehicle must comply with all aspects of road traffic law and meet the mandatory European construction requirements by having",
"-26.386917026276933"
],
[
"car, which is usually filled with several passengers, then slows abruptly, forcing the driver of the chosen car to collide with the squat car. The passengers in the squat car then file a claim with the other driver's insurance company. This claim often includes bills for medical treatments that were not necessary or not received.\nAn incident that took place on Golden State Freeway June 17, 1992, brought public attention to the existence of organized crime rings that stage auto accidents for insurance fraud. These schemes generally consist of three different levels. At the top, there are the professionals—doctors",
"-26.370965370268095"
],
[
"locations. In the United States, for example, some local governments have laws outlawing hitchhiking, on the basis of drivers' and hitchhikers' safety. In 1946, New Jersey arrested and imprisoned a hitchhiker, leading to intervention by the American Civil Liberties Union. In Canada, several highways have restrictions on hitchhiking, particularly in British Columbia and the 400-series highways in Ontario. In all countries in Europe, it is legal to hitchhike and in some places even encouraged. However, worldwide, even where hitchhiking is permitted, laws forbid hitchhiking where pedestrians are banned, such as the Autobahn (Germany), Autostrade (Italy), motorways (United Kingdom and",
"-26.3588756400859"
],
[
"not have legal power to issue fines or penalties as a result of people parking on private land, as this is classed as misrepresentation of authority. They are able to issue a Parking Charge Notice (PCN) as specified in Schedule 4 of the Protection of Freedoms Act.\nIn parking at the site, a driver may have accepted those terms and conditions, provided they are clearly displayed, and the driver has read and understood them as set out in the case of Vine v London Borough of Waltham Forest [2000] EWCA Civ 106.\nIn his judgment, Lord Justice Roche stated:\nThe act of",
"-26.337200824171305"
],
[
"vehicle. Passengers of a vehicle are similarly prohibited from consuming alcohol in the passenger area, but the law provides exceptions for non-drivers in the back of hired vehicles such as taxis, limousines, and buses, as well as in the living areas of motor homes. The driver is also shielded from prosecution if it is based solely on another occupant of the vehicle having an open container. This law only considers certain parts of a vehicle to be the \"passenger area,\" and excludes locked glove compartment, trunks, and the area behind the rear-most seats if the vehicle has",
"-26.316657383344136"
],
[
"many of these in the city and many operators ignore traffic laws so that cars on the street have to drive slow and carefully in order to avoid hitting them.\nIn fact, the large numbers of motorcycles has become a new business since the past 5 years. Since there are a lot of motorcycles, their owners have started to offer transporting people from one place to other as if they were taxis. This caused a lot of friction between taxis and \"mototaxis\", as many people call them, because it has reduced the demand of people willing to pay for the",
"-26.19469016371295"
],
[
"of motor transportation or sport, motorcycling has become a subculture and lifestyle. Although mainly a solo activity, motorcycling can be social and motorcyclists tend to have a sense of community with each other. Reasons for riding a motorcycle For most riders, a motorcycle is a cheaper and more convenient form of transportation which causes less commuter congestion within cities and has less environmental impact than automobile ownership. Others ride as a way to relieve stress and to \"clear their minds\" as described in Robert M. Pirsig's book Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. Pirsig contrasted the sense of",
"-26.15169454869465"
],
[
"bicycles and mobility scooters are exempt from wearing an approved helmet, but not motorcyclists.\nIn 2008, Baljinder Badesha, a Sikh man living in Brampton, Ontario, Canada, lost a court case in which he challenged a $110 ticket received for wearing a Dastaar instead of a helmet while riding his motorcycle.\nIn September 2016 a court in Quebec, Canada, ruled that Sikh truck drivers working at the Port of Montreal must wear hard hats when required for safety reasons, effectively requiring them to remove their dastaar. The judge stated that their safety outweighed their religious freedom. Previously Sikh drivers were able to avoid",
"-26.136406715027988"
],
[
"statistical analysis of the various characteristics of drivers. Public policy considerations In the United States, automotive insurance covering liability for injuries and property damage is compulsory in most states, but different states enforce the insurance requirement differently. In Virginia, where insurance is not compulsory, residents must pay the state a $500 annual fee per vehicle if they choose not to buy liability insurance. Penalties for not purchasing insurance vary by state, but often include a substantial fine, license and/or registration suspension or revocation, and possible jail time. Usually, the minimum required by law is third party insurance to protect",
"-26.078028263465967"
],
[
"at-fault party either does not have insurance, or does not have enough insurance. In effect, the insurance company pays the insured medical bills, then would subrogate from the at fault party. This coverage is often overlooked and very important. In Colorado, for example, it was estimated in 2009 that 15% of drivers were uninsured. \nUsually the limits match the liability limits. Some insurance companies do offer UM/UIM in an umbrella policy.\nSome states maintain unsatisfied judgment funds to provide compensation to those who cannot collect damages from uninsured driver. Typically, the payout is not more than the minimum liability limits and",
"-26.014146357912978"
],
[
"not be able to avoid a crash even though he has some residual control. In this case, the law is imposing liability for failing to do the impossible. Several commentators, including H. L. A. Hart, have suggested that responsibility for omissions must be framed with reference to the actor's capabilities at the time, rather than the objective test. Voluntariness La Forest J. in the Canadian Supreme Court case of R v Parks, asserted that automatism is \"conceptually a subset of the voluntariness requirement\". One of the main rationales of criminal law is to use the threat of punishment as a",
"-25.960615106858313"
],
[
"been a concern. Some truckers have expressed concern that some idling laws could prevent them from complying with other laws, For example, laws requiring truckers to get a certain amount of uninterrupted rest might be interfered with by anti-idling laws. The transportation blog uShip.com, Ship Happens states that “[anti-idling] laws fail to consider the truckers well-being and place drivers at risk of debilitating fines for noncompliance.” These fines could run as high as $25,000 in Connecticut for idling for more than three minutes. United Kingdom Unnecessary vehicle idling is an offence against the Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Penalty) (England)",
"-25.950250123321894"
],
[
"anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their visibility to other traffic, keeping to the speed limits, and not consuming alcohol or other drugs before riding.\nThe United Kingdom has several organisations dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training beyond what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle licence test. These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications may benefit from reduced insurance costs \nIn South Africa, the Think Bike campaign is dedicated to",
"-25.945610800363283"
],
[
"drivers who resist the hijacker. The requirement of intent is satisfied if the government proves that at the moment the crime is committed, the defendant possessed the intent to seriously harm or kill the driver if this was necessary to steal the car.\nThe court's reasoning was that the federal statute's element of mens rea is directed at the defendant's state of mind at that moment in time when he hijacks the vehicle. A reading of 18 U.S.C. § 2119 shows no distinction between conditional or unconditional intent and therefore does not expressly exclude either species of intent. The court concluded",
"-25.932644683867693"
],
[
"based on indemnity and only cover the damage, and the whole insurance amount is not given every time. \nAs sometimes the driver of the vehicle is often a person of small means and injured person goes without adequate compensation, insurance of motor vehicle covering the third party risk is made compulsory in India and the Motor Vehicles Act provides that, vehicle should not be used in public place without having insurance policy covering third party risks. Third party risk means risk covered for bodily injury, death and damage of property of third party. Third party means any person except owner",
"-25.862138553871773"
],
[
"objections settle specifically around the assertion that a seatbelt is a medical device, and because one is entitled to make their own medical decisions they should also be permitted to make their own decisions about wearing a seatbelt.\nTwo Internet-based groups were founded to advocate this line of thinking. Stick It to Click It or Ticket operated a website and discussion forum, as did The Coalition for Seatbelt Choice. Both groups provided various levels of assistance to citation recipients by encouraging them to take their tickets to court. The groups have sponsored letter-writing campaigns to the editors of newspapers against compulsory",
"-25.86172334011644"
],
[
"property damage or bodily injuries caused by the insured vehicle.\nPolicyholder’s own vehicle damage such as fire, theft, and accidental collision is not covered under the third-party liability insurance policy. United Kingdom In 1930, the UK Government introduced a law that required every person who used a vehicle on the road to have at least third-party personal injury insurance. Today, this law is defined by the Road Traffic Act 1988, (generally referred to as the RTA 1988 as amended) which was last modified in 1991. The Act requires that motorists either be insured, or have made a specified deposit (£500,000 in",
"-25.855281741241924"
],
[
"OWI, and OVI, some states therefore make it illegal to drive a motor vehicle while under the influence or driving while intoxicated while others indicate that it is illegal to operate a motor vehicle. There is a split of authority across the country regarding this issue. Some states permit enforcement of DUI/DWI and OWI/OVI statutes based on \"operation and control\" of a vehicle, while others require actual \"driving\". \"The distinction between these two terms is material, for it is generally held that the word 'drive,' as used in statutes of this kind, usually denotes movement of the vehicle in some",
"-25.78540896718914"
],
[
"Upon conviction, the motorist is generally fined a monetary amount and, for moving violations, is additionally assessed a penalty under each state's point system. If a motorist is convicted of a violation in a state other than the state in which the motorist is registered, information about the ticket is relayed in accord with state policy and agreements between the two states, including the Non-Resident Violator Compact. If the ticket information is not abstracted to the state in which the motorist is licensed, then the record of the conviction remains local to the state where the violation took",
"-25.74445334787015"
],
[
"reasonable person who is handcuffed and placed in the back of a police car would not think they were free to leave). A person subjected to a routine traffic stop on the other hand, has been seized, but is not \"arrested\" because traffic stops are a relatively brief encounter and are more analogous to a Terry stop than to a formal arrest. If a person is not under suspicion of illegal behavior, a law enforcement official is not allowed to place an individual under arrest simply because this person does not wish to state his identity, provided specific state regulations",
"-25.69408252320136"
],
[
"over any driver without cause. This would obviously violate the Fourth Amendment rights of anyone stopped, but people stuck in traffic who were injured by the collateral damage of unconstitutional actions would not be able to sue because none of their rights was violated. Similarly, it is not enough for Heffernan to have shown injury but violation of an actual right as well. For the dissent, even if the dismissal was for the wrong reason and harm was suffered, the dismissal cannot infringe upon rights he never exercised.\nFurther supporting their argument, the dissent cited Monterey v. Del Monte Dunes at",
"-25.679776067612693"
],
[
"known as a \"Cub Van\", a small van with a cage in the back.\nSome police departments, such as the Baltimore Police Department and Philadelphia Police Department, have been accused of braking abruptly or steering sharply in order to inflict injuries on unbuckled prisoners, a technique called a \"rough ride\". Most notably, Freddie Gray allegedly died as a result of such a ride in 2015. Other prisoners have received large settlements after becoming paralyzed during transportation in police vans.",
"-25.67208498355467"
],
[
"abandoned obstructing pedestrians, the dockless vehicles have been called \"litter bikes\".\nDockless cycles left randomly on public footpaths may impede access for wheelchair users and others who use mobility aids, and may be dangerous to people with visual impairments. Pecuniary effects As bicycle-sharing systems continue to grow and provide an affordable alternative for commuters, the relatively low price of these services may induce competitors to offer lower prices. For instance, municipal public transit organizations may lower prices for buses or subways to continue to compete with bike-share systems. Pecuniary effects may even extend to bicycle manufacturers and retailers, where these producers",
"-25.654696068522753"
],
[
"vehicle under the influence and, \"by reason of such operation, caus[e] ... [s]erious bodily injury to another.\" This statute has no mens rea element—it does not require the defendant to have any particular level of intent to commit the crime. In Florida, DUI does not entail the attempted or threatened use of physical force; if DUI is to qualify as a crime of violence, it must so qualify because it involves the use of physical force. The \"use\" of physical force \"most naturally suggests a higher degree of intent than negligent or merely accidental conduct.\" Likewise,",
"-25.635839433263754"
],
[
"licence suspended will have their licences affected, as this is from other countries. A driving licence is a statutory requirement and is commonly used worldwide.\nCurrently, drivers are given demerit points if they commit certain traffic offences such as speeding and passengers not fastening their seat belts. Electronic Road Pricing The Land Transport Authority (LTA) in Singapore implemented an Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) scheme to deter traffic congestion during peak hours at various roads. The ERP scheme requires electronic gantries to be placed over the road at designated locations and that cars be equipped with an In-Vehicle Unit (IU), a rectangular",
"-25.610139926036936"
],
[
"s149 Road Traffic Act 1988 denies the effectiveness of any agreement between a passenger of a motor vehicle and the driver that seeks to exclude liability for negligence where insurance cover for passengers is compulsory. This applies both to express agreements between driver and passenger (e.g. where the driver displays a notice in the vehicle stating that passengers travel at their own risk) and to implied agreements in cases such as Pitts v Hunt (1991) 1 QB 24, where the claimant was a passenger on a motor cycle knowing that the driver was drunk, uninsured, and without a current licence.",
"-25.605981387963766"
],
[
"Vehicle insurance in the United States Vehicle insurance, in the United States and elsewhere, is designed to cover risk of financial liability or the loss of a motor vehicle the owner may face if their vehicle is involved in a collision resulting in property or physical damages. Most states require a motor vehicle owner to carry some minimum level of liability insurance. States that do not require the vehicle owner to carry car insurance include Virginia, where an uninsured motor vehicle fee may be paid to the state; New Hampshire, and Mississippi which offers vehicle owners the option to post",
"-25.58313309782534"
],
[
"another person while driving may face heavier penalties. In addition, many countries have prevention campaigns that use advertising to make people aware of the danger of driving while impaired and the potential fines and criminal charges, discourage impaired driving, and encourage drivers to take taxis or public transport home after using alcohol or drugs. In some jurisdictions, the bar that served an impaired driver may face civil liability. In some countries, non-profit advocacy organizations, a well-known example being Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) run their own publicity campaigns against drunk driving. History The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)",
"-25.58098506659735"
],
[
"defendant was speeding, the plaintiff might ask the defendant to state the speed of the defendant's vehicle at the time of the accident. If the plaintiff alleges that the defendant failed to properly control the car properly or failed to pay proper attention to the road and other vehicles, the plaintiff could ask interrogatory questions that would help prove those allegations or require disclosure of the basis of any denial of negligence by the defendant. The driver may have a defense to those allegations, perhaps if the accident occurred at low speed, and was unavoidable (maybe due to some third",
"-25.567083476271364"
],
[
"which could lead to a sentence of ten years in jail upon conviction. Days after the crash, Cong. Josh Gottheimer pushed for a federal law requiring school buses to have seat belts to prevent deaths in similar types of crashes.",
"-25.527277289182166"
],
[
"program. In the last few years, the state has charged drivers $583 million in surcharge fees, but the majority of those charged could not afford to pay the fines and had their driving privileges suspended because of their inability to pay.\nThe legislature acknowledged that the program created a vicious cycle as many of those who fell behind on payment lost their license and were unable to get to work, making it even less likely that they would ever regain their license or escape the debt. Even those who filed for bankruptcy found themselves unable to escape the fines",
"-25.51168690800114"
],
[
"Uninsured motorist clause Uninsured Motorist Uninsured Motorist Bodily Injury Coverage covers a victim's medical expenses, lost wages, and other injury related expenses in an instance where the other driver is not insured. This coverage applies only if the other party is found to be at fault for the incident. Depending on the state, the insurance company may or may not require the victim to identify the other vehicle/driver. Many states will cover a hit and run incident. Underinsured Motorist Underinsured Motorist Bodily Injury Coverage protects a driver by financially compensating him for his injury in the event that he is",
"-25.508516272588167"
],
[
"\"fixed\" compensation for certain injuries regardless of the unique aspects of the injury or the individual injured. Workers compensation funds typically are run as \"no fault\" systems with usually a fixed schedule for compensation for various injuries.\nProponents of no-fault insurance argue that automobile collisions are inevitable and that at-fault drivers are not necessarily higher risk and should not necessarily be punished; moreover, they note that the presence of liability insurance insulates reckless or negligent drivers from financial disincentives of litigation; also, uninsured motorists are often \"judgment proof\" (i.e., can't and won't end up paying for their liability anyway), so that",
"-25.456283026491292"
],
[
"without registration or in unsafe condition may endorse and attract 3 negative points in each case.\nIn case of two-wheelers, helmet laws is mandatory for the main rider and the pillion rider. Offences such as for drink or drug driving are recorded on the licence and the offender is prosecuted and imprisoned.\nTwelve points on the licence makes the driver liable to cancellation/suspension of driving licence for one year; accumulation of twelve points for the second consecutive time would lead to suspension of driving licence for five years. Production Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving licence while driving. Under",
"-25.36435944434197"
],
[
"circumstances; fewer injuries might occur if these are restricted to violent felonies. Regulation of road users Various types of road user regulations are in force or have been tried in most jurisdictions around the world, some these are discussed by road user type below. Motor vehicle users Dependent on jurisdiction, driver's age, road type and vehicle type, motor vehicle drivers may be required to pass a driving test (public transport and goods vehicle drivers may need additional training and licensing), conform to restrictions on driving after consuming alcohol or various drugs, comply with restrictions on use of mobile phones, be",
"-25.360803408315405"
],
[
"illegal since there was no moving violation and driving without a tag is legal under North Carolina law, when the case was adjudicated in November 2014, the District Attorney threatened to pursue charges against the car's owner for aiding and abetting (which would have accorded the friend the equivalent of a DUI on her record). Bothwell chose to plead guilty instead of challenging the wrongful arrest.\nIn July 2016, he officially de-registered as a Democrat and switched to Independent, as he would not be supporting Hillary Clinton for president due to his previous support for Bernie Sanders and disillusionment with the",
"-25.35263667626714"
],
[
"weapon to joyride.\nA 2017 qualitative study published in Justice Quarterly examined auto theft and carjacking in the context of \"sanction threats\" that promoted fear and influenced \"crime preferences\" among criminals, thereby redirecting (\"channeling\") criminal activity. The study showed that \"auto thieves are reluctant to embrace the violence of carjacking due to concerns over sanction threat severity they attributed to carjacking—both formal (higher sentences) and informal (victim resistance and retaliation). Meanwhile, the carjackers are reticent to enact auto theft because of the more uncertain and putatively greater risk of being surprised by victims, a fear that appears to overcome the enhanced",
"-25.33326391971059"
],
[
"third parties. Russian Federation Motor-vehicle insurance is mandatory for all owners according to Russian legislation. South Africa South Africa allocates a percentage of the money from fuel into the Road Accident Fund, which goes towards compensating third parties in accidents. Spain Each motor vehicle on a public road to have a third party insurance (called \"Seguro de responsabilidad civil\").\nPolice forces have the power to seize vehicles that do not have the necessary insurance in place, until the owner of the vehicle pays the fine and signs a new insurance policy. Driving without the necessary insurance for that vehicle is an",
"-25.26203264418291"
],
[
"wrote that \"The mere fact that a driver in lawful possession or control of a rental car is not listed on the rental agreement will not defeat his or her otherwise reasonable expectation of privacy\". Kennedy added that there can be numerous reasons why a driver unlisted on a rental contract may need to drive the rental car, and that the government had not shown that whether the simple breach of the rental contract would affect the expectation of privacy. Kennedy's decision states that there remained two issues which the Supreme Court remanded back to the lower courts: whether Long",
"-25.244852222851478"
],
[
"if requested by an officer. Proof of having insurance or an exemption must also be provided to pay for the motor tax.\nThose injured or suffering property damage/loss due to uninsured drivers can claim against the Motor Insurance Bureau of Ireland's uninsured drivers fund, as can those injured (but not those suffering damage or loss) from hit and run offences. Italy The law 990/1969 requires that each motor vehicle or trailer standing or moving on a public road have third party insurance (called RCA, Responsabilità civile per gli autoveicoli). Historically, a part of the certificate of insurance must be displayed on",
"-25.22014308978396"
],
[
"least six years of imprisonment but due to the number of fatalities caused by the accident the driver may face life imprisonment instead. Reaction Jason Cantil, legal counsel for Don Mariano Transit, said that the accident was an isolated incident. Cantil said that the tires of the bus involved may not have been inspected but claimed that all other buses of the company were in good condition.\nPresidential Communications Operations Office Secretary Herminio Coloma Jr. encouraged public utility vehicles to use speed-limiting or monitoring devices. He said that such devices would help bus operators to prevent accidents similar to the skyway",
"-25.18910370100639"
],
[
"or murder them. Other warnings were publicized to the hitchhikers themselves, alerting them to the same types of crimes being carried out by drivers. Still, hitchhiking was part of the American psyche and many people continued to stick out their thumbs, even in states where the practice had been outlawed.\nToday, hitchhiking is legal in 44 of the 50 states, provided that the hitchhiker is not standing in the roadway or otherwise hindering the normal flow of traffic. Even in states where hitchhiking is illegal, hitchhikers are rarely ticketed. For example, the Wyoming Highway Patrol approached 524 hitchhikers in 2010, but",
"-25.18159862360335"
],
[
"Driving without due care and attention Driving without due care and attention or careless driving is a legal term for a particular type of moving traffic violation in the United States, Canada (at least in Ontario), United Kingdom, and Ireland. It is often punishable by fines or endorsements on a driver's license.\nIt is usually a less serious offence than reckless driving (United States) or dangerous driving (United Kingdom), though more serious than driving whilst using a mobile phone. United Kingdom In England and Wales and Scotland this offence was created by section 3 of the Road Traffic",
"-25.153849802270997"
],
[
"considered straitjackets humane, gentler than prison chains. The restraint seemed to apply little to no pressure to the body or limbs and did not cause skin abrasions. Moreover, straitjackets allowed some freedom of movement. Unlike patients anchored to a chair or bed by straps or handcuffs, those in straitjackets could walk. Some registered nurse specialists even recommended restrained individuals stroll outdoors, thereby reaping the benefits of both control and fresh air.\nDespite its popular consideration as humane, straitjackets were misused. Over time, asylums filled with patients and lacked adequate staff to provide proper care. The attendants were often ill-trained to work",
"-25.13494279590668"
],
[
"an employee acting in his or her own right rather than on the employer's business is undertaking a \"frolic\" and will not subject the employer to liability. Principals' liability The owner of an automobile can be held vicariously liable for negligence committed by a person to whom the car has been lent, as if the owner was a principal and the driver his or her agent, if the driver is using the car primarily for the purpose of performing a task for the owner. Courts have been reluctant to extend this liability to the owners of other kinds of chattel.",
"-25.103187359229196"
],
[
"include disobeying flagmen, insisting to cross while a crossing's signals are active or when the gate is being lowered, crossing a passive crossing without stopping beforehand, and overtaking, making a U-turn, backing up, stopping or parking on a railway level crossing in a vehicle. Pedestrians can be fined 2,400 new Taiwan dollars for a violation, drivers of non-motorized vehicles such as bicycles can be fined between 1,200 and 2,400 dollars, and drivers of motor vehicles can be fined up to 15,000 to 90,000 new Taiwan dollars for a violation. If an accident occurs, the driver's license can also be revoked",
"-25.061353196622804"
],
[
"the judge not to impose a driving ban, he noted that the incident had caused him \"considerable embarrassment\" and said that the prospect of having to pay £30,000 for private chauffeurs might mean that he would be unable to continue paying for private schools for his three children.",
"-25.05857967271004"
],
[
"the judge ruled that the prosecution had not presented evidence to back that assumption.\nThe department's seatbelt policy had been revised six days prior to Gray's arrest, in an attempt to protect detained individuals from serious injuries during transport. The policy was not followed in Gray's case. According to attorney Michael Davey, who represents at least one of the officers under investigation, the new rules were criticized by some. He explained that in certain situations, like when a prisoner is combative, \"It is not always possible or safe for officers to enter the rear of those transport vans that are",
"-25.027079536142992"
],
[
"the contract may be authorized to drive. It may include an option to purchase auto insurance (motor insurance, UK), if the renter does not already have a policy to cover rentals—another important consideration for multiple drivers. Some agencies may even require a bond payable if the car is not returned in order, often held in the form of a credit-card authorization—voided if the car is returned per agreement. A renter should be advised that he or she will be responsible for any parking or traffic violations incurred upon the vehicle during the rental period. There should also",
"-24.939338232565206"
],
[
"suspicion of operating a motor vehicle while under the influence of alcohol, driving so as to endanger and speeding and driving with no license in possession.",
"-24.93606888418435"
],
[
"defendants and in any regard, must be litigated in the first suit against the John Doe, if at all. The insurance company will ordinarily pay the judgment, up to the policy limits, once a court determines that an uninsured motorist was at fault. Some states' laws also allow additional insurance coverage to the insured policyholder through policy stacking provisions, whereby a claim may be made against multiple uninsured motorist policies.",
"-24.90967147721676"
],
[
"road, inasmuch as his physical condition to his knowledge made it impossible for him to drive in a public road without probable danger to others.\nThe accused had been negligent, not so much in the driving of the vehicle, but in his driving at all, knowing of his physical disability. A reasonable person would have foreseen the likelihood of a fit and refrained from driving. R v Schoonwinkel In a later case with similar facts, R v Schoonwinkel, the accused had suffered an epileptic fit at the time of the accident, rendering his mind a blank. The nature of his epilepsy",
"-24.90360754984431"
],
[
"the city of Kolkata, certain traffic violations such as breaking a red light results in traffic police sending a ticket to the driver's home address. The ticket has to be paid to a state or central bank.\nIndian Police forces do not have mobile credit card readers, so the fine is generally paid in cash. Ireland In the Republic of Ireland, a traffic ticket (which is mailed out to the driver) is in the form of a notice alleging that some crime — traffic offences are all criminal offences — has been committed, but stating that if a payment of a",
"-24.886355834663846"
],
[
"the motorist, and the ticketing officer, are required to attend. If the officer fails to attend, the court judge will often find in favour of the motorist and dismiss the charge, although sometimes the trial date is moved to give the officer another chance to attend. In some provinces, officers are now paid time and a half to attend traffic proceedings. The court will also make provisions for the officer or the prosecutor to achieve a deal with the motorist, often in the form of a plea bargain. If no agreement is reached, both motorist and officer, or their",
"-24.88153923576465"
]
] |
557drz | Why are there so few venomous creatures in the UK and Northern Europe? | [
"A little late to post, but I have some knowledge in this. First off, the two things you mention are very different. **Venomous** means that the creature (animal) is capable of injecting toxins by means of a bite or a sting. **Toxic** creatures (also including things like caterpillars and poison arrow frogs) are not safe to eat because they have toxins in their bodies (or leaves/stems/flowers/roots/berries). Poisonous plants are generally considered toxic. (For true ELI5, scroll down to the TL;DR) Now the two are very different evolutionarily but they do have a common component: making toxins is metabolically expensive. That means that it takes a lot of energy to make toxins. It only makes sense to produce toxins if there is a lot of evolutionary pressure to do so. In fact there have been studies done on plants that suggests when non-native species are introduced to a new area, because there are usually less predators that feed on them in the new area, they tend to lose the potency of their toxicity (the study was specifically on weedy plant species). ** Now, a lot of people in this thread have made two claims: A) that there is a lot less biodiversity in cooler climates (which is true) and B) that human populations have been a driving factor in eliminating venomous/toxic species. To address the second point: this is obviously not the case because there are plenty of toxic/venomous species in tropical areas with high human populations. In fact, regions like Siberia and Canada have a very low human population and fewer venomous/toxic species and places like India and Nigeria have high populations of human and high populations of venomous species. To address the biodiversity claim, thats partially true. Since there are fewer species further north (because there are fewer resources like sunlight), this results in fewer overall numbers of venomous/toxic species. I would argue, however, that there is still a similar percentage of *toxic* species, compared to the tropics. For example there are plenty of toxic caterpillar species (monarch butterfly, for example) and, some amphibian species (Pickerel frog) and many toxic plant species (hemlock, or poison ivy). But that does not address the lack of *venomous* species in northern climates. There are examples, such as many spiders, and bees and wasps, but venomous species make up a smaller percentage of species than warmer climates. The reason for this is two fold: evolution and size. Venomous species tend to have evolved in a couple specific groups. The list includes: spiders, bees/wasps/ants, snakes, a handful of truly venomous lizards (the Gila monster), centipedes, jellyfish, many species of fish, and some mammals. When looking at the list, every singles species that is venomous is cold blooded (ectothermic) with the exception of mammals. When looking at the mammals that are venomous they are all very primitive: insectivores such as shrews, and the platypus (male only). It has been proposed that the reason most mammals never evolved a need for venom is because mammals evolved much stronger jaw bones and jaw muscles than their ancestors the lizards and snakes. Mammals were capable of actively killing their prey with their newly evolved jaws, teeth and retractable claws, whereas most reptiles killed more passively. This makes sense, being ectothermic, that snakes (as well as spiders, scorpions, jellyfish, fish etc) kill their prey with a single bite/sting, and then wait for the animal to die, exerting less energy overall. The venom found in the few species of shrew is a little bit different. From Wikipedia: > Shrews cache various prey in a comatose state, including earthworms, insects, snails, and to a lesser extent, small mammals such as voles and mice. This behaviour is an adaption to winter. In this context, the shrew venom acts as a tool to sustain a living hoard, thus ensuring food supply when capturing prey is difficult. Keep in mind that these shrews are insectivores, meaning that they only eat insects and small vertibrates, no nuts/berries. Comparing this to mice, which do eat nuts and berries, despite their similar size, the mouse jawbow is much stronger than their shrew counterpart. There are handful of venomous shrews, no known venomous mice. Coming back to the main point, there is one species of toxic mammal in Europe, the european mole, which does use it venom to paralyze earthworms. It is likely that mice, being able to store nuts/berries through the winter, AND eat insect in the warmer months, are better equipped to survive in colder months than the weaker jawed shrew. The second point I was going to make was about colder climates, size and body temperature. Bergmann's rule states that generally: the further north you go, the larger the size of the animals. The theory behind this is that when an animal is larger, it's volume increases faster than surface area, making it relatively easier to maintain a constant temperature. Likewise in warmer climates, a smaller body sheds heat faster than larger body. There are exceptions to this, there are mice that live in cold areas and elephants that live in warm areas, but both within species and among species this rule is generally true. For example, in western hemisphere, the white tailed deer live from Venezuela, all the way up to Canada. The tropical subspecies of the deer are significantly smaller than their arctic brethren. Why is this important when talking about venom? Well, the larger the prey, the stronger the venom required to bring down the prey. The stronger the venom (usually) the more expensive it is to metabolically produce. And remember, the northern climates already have less energy available in the food chain than tropical climates. This likely helps to explain why we never see something like poisonous wolves or big cats, as stronger jaws are better at killing large prey faster than a very expensive to produce toxin. The one time we do see something like this is in the Komodo dragon, which is a more passive \"venom\". The lizard will bite it's large prey and then just follow, chill and wait, sometimes a week or more, for the beast to die. (Originally the thought was that the venom is bacterial, recent research has called that into question, as the venom may be an anticoagulant that then encourages infection of the open wound). Since the Komodo Dragon lives in a warm climate, they have less of an issue waiting for an animal to die, compared to a wolf which needs to maintain it's body temperature in the cold climate. **TL;DR**: *Toxic* plants and animals do exist in northern climates. *Venomous* creatures aren't as well represented because northern climates tend to favor larger animals, especially mammals, who have other adaptations like strong jaws that make venom unnecessary. ** (Not ELI5, but a couple people have asked me about metabolic cost of toxin production, specifically in snakes. I was taught, back in the early 2000's that it was more expensive to produce more powerful toxins, but in doing some quick research to answer their question, it seems that the research has changed. Studies [here]( URL_0 ) (caution paywall) and [here]( URL_1 ) both suggest the cost of snake toxin production is quite low. ¯\\\\\\_(ツ)_/¯ I standby the plant studies that plants, over generations without evolutionary pressure, will begin to reduce toxin production in favor of growth (the 'non-native plant species exposed to new lands' study I alluded above).",
"Tropical climates allow more life to survive by having warm temperatures and an abundance of water/vegetation. With that amount of life comes a need to survive against predators. That survival can evolve as creatures really good at hiding/camouflage, but the alternate option is to be venomous so nothing tries to kill you. Therefore, with an abundance of life comes an abundance of venomous life. Europe and other northern climates are slightly less easy to live in. Weather varies more, creatures have to adapt to survive the climate as much as they do other creatures. So you see some venomous animals, but you also see creatures that adapted to the climate to simply out-survive less hardy species. With less life comes less venomous life.",
"Survival usually entails surviving the elements and surviving other creatures who might want to eat you or take over your habitat and ecological niche, leaving you to starve. Venom takes a lot of resources to produce. So having it in stockpile has to be advantageous by a huge margin to\" justify\" passing on the genes for it. Temperate areas usually have winter temperature drops so the survival against the elements plays a huge factor.",
"So there are very few endemic creatures to the UK at all, I'm reading. Really interesting how glaciers basically wiped the isles clean of most living things. > The British Isles have few endemic species due to past frequent glaciations and because of the proximity to Continental Europe and former land bridges which enabled species to re-colonise the islands from the continent following glaciations. > > British Conservationists often describe this as a “wiped clean effect” with repeated glaciations forcing many species out of the modern area of the islands to more southern latitudes in Europe and perhaps even driving some species extinct. URL_0 ",
"I'ts all about climate, most venomous creatures are either reptilian or some sort of arachnid, where the vast majority of those species require more tropical/warm and humid environments,. hence why somewhere like Alaska has almost no venomous creatures (besides Sarah Palin).",
"Venom isn't cheap, metabolically speaking. It's a risky investment in cold climates, since food isn't always readily available. Does no good to pack a venomous bite if there is nothing to bite. That's why you see other \"safer\" adaptations in cold climates, such as hibernation, which conserve resources.",
"Being venomous in an area heavily populated by humans is arguably a tremendous disadvantage, because it marks you as a threat. That's why most dangerous creatures (venomous or not) are absent from Europe - Humans have eliminated them over the centuries. But leaving humans aside, as I understand it, the cooler climate is less favourable to life resulting in lower species diversity, and so less competition- thus less evolutionary pressure to evolve 'novel' advantages. Finally until very recently in evolutionary terms a lot of northern Europe was covered in Ice. That REALLY limits life's options.",
"Enviro science degree holder here. It's because densely populated areas (not so much human populations but moreso competing animal life) breed more competition and threat, necessitating energy intensive adaptive responses. Animal life is only abundant in places because of abundant resources, so the main problem isn't finding food so much as competing for it or avoiding becoming food. The high resource environment allows the energy for animals to develop energy intensive adaptations like funky colors, venom, poison, or other defense mechanisms. Even plants do a bit of this. Animals in areas of low population don't need these adaptations because they aren't competing as much and food energy is more scarce, so spending the energy to produce these fancy adaptations is both a waste of scarce energy and not necessary for survival. To add, equatorial areas are often more populated because it gets more sun which supports more plant life (primary energy) which forms a broad dependable foundation for animal life to subsist upon. Areas like the UK have little sun so barely anything to support the rich and varied ecosystems that the equator does, resulting in a less compelling habitat for animals to live.",
"I don't think the top answer on this thread about more venomous creatures evolving in tropical climates is based in fact. It's huge human population that is the main driving factor.",
"Venomous creatures usually are snakes and spiders. Snakes and Spiders are cold blooded, and england is famously wet and cold. You've heard the story of how St.Patrick drove the snakes from Ireland? There never were any, its too cold. Also it doesn't hurt that both England and Ireland are isolated from the mainland.",
"you need to look at the percentage of species that are venomous to get a better idea and then realize that the majority of all species live in warmer climates. so if there are 1000 species of snakes and 80% of them are found in warmer climates and only 5% of all species are venomous that would mean there are 40 venomous species in the tropics and only 10 in colder regions.",
"Warmer climates simply have more species. Which means more venomous snakes. Snakes are also cold blooded and don't tend to thrive in cold environments.",
"I heard a herpetologist answer an almost identical question on the radio a few days ago: \"Why are most venomous creatures in hot countries\". His answer was two-fold. First of all, there are plenty of venomous creatures outside hot countries and the distribution isn't polarised as you might think. The figure mentioned was 60% of them being in hot countries, but obviously there's a lot of context missing there. His other point was what has already been mentioned here: the fact that most venomous creatures are cold blooded and therefore fare better in hot climates. Something he didn't mention was that there is a higher level of diversity in hot places. Compare the tropics to the poles, or even just temperate regions - there is a much higher density of different species. Even if 1/100 species was venomous in all parts of the globe, that would put a higher overall number of them in the hot tropics.",
"We don't even have natural disasters or any real worry, it's great haha. Here in Cardiff...and much of south west to south east Wales and Bristol and other parts of south west England we were hit with severe floods that are thought to have been a tsunami......400 years ago. Seems likely as thousands died, the water went miles inland and with water marks quite a few metres high above sea level. So on the off chance of a tsunami in the Bristol channel, I have really no worries from mother nature or the environment...even all this Reddit bs about...hottest month on record every month, no it's been standard shit here as usual. 13 degrees c and rain tomorrow... lovely, think we had a few days close to 30c in the past year or 2",
"I assume it's because we killed off any species which could kill humans since Europe has next to no uninhabited areas, it'd be very hard for a species which is dangerous not to be systematically hunted to extinction",
"Most (not all, but most) venemous creatures are cold-blooded. This means that they must regulate their own body temperature. Most cold-blooded creatures do this by sunbathing, going for a swim, or thermo-regulating ([which looks like this]( URL_0 ) and basically involves just laying in a cool area with their mouth open to help release heat). Given the climate of the UK and Northern Europe vs. the climate in a place like the southern United States (which, for reference, is basically like a mini Australia, most everything you find in your back yard can kill you), it's pretty easy to see why cold-blooded creatures aren't huge fans of northern Europe. During the winters, it just gets far too cold for a cold-blooded creature to adapt to the climate, and they would just freeze to death. For instance, the average temperature in central Florida in January is 70^o F (21^o C) with an average of 8 hours of sunshine. So, if you need to regulate your own body temperature in the middle of the winter, you can just climb onto a rock in a sunny spot and lay there for a bit. For comparison, the average temperature in London in January is about 44^o F (7^o C) with around 3 hours of sunshine. So if you have to thermo-regulate in London in January, well.....you're pretty fucked. Of course, some creatures have made the evolutionary jump, but it's not common for a cold-blooded creature to seek out climates that are often cold, since they would have no way of keeping their body warm.",
"Organisms are either ectotherms (cold blooded), endotherms (warm blooded), or heterotherms ( able to be both). Ecto's must get heat from the environment for the reactions that keep them breathing, digesting, moving about, etc. This is an advantage because their bodies don't have to constantly use energy for these things; this is disadvantageous because their bodies rely on the environment to \"power them up\" and temps can vary. Because of this, most ecto's are found where it's constantly warm. Also, ever noticed how lizards are really fast for a short distance then they must stop? Or how fast a viper strikes then recoils, then waits, and strikes again? This is also due to being an ectotherm. For ectotherms who must catch prey with short bursts of energy, venom to kill prey is an adaptation that makes them more efficient! Everything in nature wants to get the most out of the energy it receives. Human population or density has an impact on organism diversity, but not on the naturally occurring patterns of ectotherm populations [Ecology student]",
"Most people are focused on the venomous animals aspect of this question, but I would like to note that poisonous plants (and fungi and other nonplants that are generally considered \"plantlike\" by laypeople) exist almost everywhere. There are a variety of reasons for this, including the fact that some plant components are toxic only to humans or certain livestock as well as very little pressure for humans to exterminate plants because they can't actively envenomate people. But other posters are correct that the increased diversity of tropical climates also contributes to higher numbers of venemous and poisonous organisms.",
"has a little to do with being venomous is a highly rare evolution, only necessary in habitats that have a high volume of diversity and many participants in the food chain. a rainforest for example. also, venom is more common in reptiles and amphibians, which are less common as you steer away from the equator. but don't take my word for it. College dropout here.",
"Jesus the posts here really miss the mark for \"Explain like I'm 5\" ELI5 version: Venomous animals prefer warmer regions (as they're \"wasting\" energy on venom that could be spent on staying warm). There are plenty of poisonous animals/plants in those places. Venomous = they bite you and you get sick, poisonous = you bite them and you get sick"
] | [
[
"other pholcids are often the subject of a popular urban legend about how they are the most venomous known animals except that 'their fangs are too small to penetrate human skin'. While they do possess potent venom against insects and other spiders (some cellar spiders, for example, prey on deadly redback spiders in Australia), their venom is not harmful to humans.",
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"Venomous mammal Venomous mammals are animals of the class Mammalia that produce venom, which they use to kill or disable prey, to defend themselves from predators or conspecifics or in agonistic encounters. In modern nature, venomous mammals are rare. Mammalian venoms form a heterogeneous group having different compositions and modes of action and are present in three orders of mammals, Eulipotyphla, Monotremata, and Chiroptera. A fourth order, Primates, is proposed to have venomous representatives. To explain the rarity of venom delivery in Mammalia, Mark Dufton of the University of Strathclyde has suggested that modern mammalian predators do not need venom",
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"of this species, bites are relatively common. Domestic animals and livestock are frequent victims. In Great Britain, most instances occur in March–October. In Sweden, there are about 1,300 bites a year, with an estimated 12% that require hospitalisation. At least eight different antivenoms are available against bites from this species.\nMallow et al. (2003) describe the venom toxicity as being relatively low compared to other viper species. They cite Minton (1974) who reported the LD₅₀ values for mice to be 0.55 mg/kg IV, 0.80 mg/kg IP and 6.45 mg/kg SC. As a comparison, in one test the minimum lethal dose of venom for a",
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"wild pigs, and monkeys, making them competitors and prey.\nThroughout Western Asia, the species responsible for the majority of bites tend to be more venomous than European snakes, but deaths are infrequent. Studies estimate that perhaps 100 fatal bites occur each year. The Palestine viper and Lebetine viper are the most important species. While larger and more venomous elapids, such as the Egyptian cobra, are also found throughout the Middle East, these species inflict fewer bites. Australasia The vast majority of venomous snakebites in Australasia occur in the Australasian ecozone. At least 300 evenomations occur each year in Papua New Guinea,",
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"because they are able to kill quickly with their teeth or claws, whereas venom, no matter how sophisticated, requires time to disable prey.\nIn spite of the rarity of venom among extant mammals, venom may be an ancestral feature among mammals, as venomous spurs akin to those of the modern platypus are found in most non-therian Mammaliaformes groups.\nVenom is much more common among other vertebrates; there are many more species of venomous reptiles (e.g. venomous snakes) and fish (e.g. stonefish). Some birds are poisonous to eat or touch, and Sinornithosaurus, a dinosaur related to birds, may have had a venomous bite.",
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"venom into its prey. The venom is toxic to both mammals and insects, but does not appear to be strong enough to kill large animals quickly. It can cause severe pain in humans which can last for several days but which can be relieved somewhat by the application of icepacks. Some people report \"intense pain\", while others claim it is no worse than a wasp sting. There has been at least one reported death from the related centipede species Scolopendra subspinipes in which a young girl was bitten and died.",
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"predators, feeding primarily on insects and other invertebrates. Larger specimens have been observed preying on frogs, tarantulas, lizards, birds, snakes, rodents, and even bats. One southeast Asian species, S. cataracta, is amphibious, and swims and walks underwater. Venom The venom is not medically significant for most species, however bites from the species Scolopendra subspinipes and Scolopendra heros are reported to cause extreme pain and swelling, and have caused one reported fatality. In 2014, a fatality was reported for a bite from a Scolopendra gigantea. The venom of certain Scolopendra species were found to contain compounds such as serotonin, haemolytic phospholipase,",
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"the hairy-legged vampire bat (Diphylla ecaudata) and the white-winged vampire bat (Diaemus youngi). These bats produce toxic saliva with anticoagulant properties and have a series of anatomical and physiological adaptations to allow nourishment based solely on blood. The majority of their prey do not perish from the attack or contact with the venom. Primates Slow lorises (of the genus Nycticebus) are accepted as the only known venomous primate. Slow loris venom was known in folklore in their host countries throughout southeast Asia for centuries; but dismissed by Western science until the 1990s. There are nine recognised species of this small-bodied",
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"treatment. Until recently, their venom has often been regarded as less toxic than that of many other species, perhaps because bites are uncommon, but this turned out not to be the case. There are now a number of reports of bites that have led to severe hemorrhaging of internal organs.",
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"anaphylactic shock. Slow lorises (of the genus Nycticebus) are accepted as the only known venomous primate. Slow loris venom was known in folklore in their host countries throughout southeast Asia for centuries, but dismissed by western science until the 1990s. Animal dealers in Southeast Asia keep tanks of water nearby so that in case of a bite, they can submerge both their arm and the slow loris to make the animal let go. It is thought all nine recognised species of this small-bodied nocturnal primate are venomous. They possess a dual composite venom consisting of saliva and brachial gland",
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"fauna by predation while the cane toad poisons the predators by being eaten. The invasive species include birds (Indian mynah) and fish (common carp), insects (red imported fire ant) and molluscs (Asian mussel). The problem is compounded by invasive exotic flora as well as introduced diseases, fungi and parasites.\nCostly, laborious and time-consuming efforts at control of these species has met with little success and this continues to be a major problem area in the conservation of Australia's biodiversity.\nMany of the introduced species are not regulated through wildlife services and can be regularly hunted year-round. Human impact and conservation For at",
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"throughout the British Isles, naturalised, and sometimes considered an invasive species, in many areas around the world, including Australia, Chile, New Zealand, Greenland, and most of Canada and the United States.",
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"unusually potent venom, wide access to antivenom, which is available for all dangerous species, has made deaths exceedingly rare. It is believed that up to 1,500 definite or suspected snakebites occur in Australia each year, of which about 200 are serious enough to warrant antivenom therapy. Approximately 2 to 4 fatalities occur annually. Europe In Europe, nearly all of the snakes responsible for venomous bites belong to the viper family, and of these, the coastal viper, nose-horned viper, asp viper, and Lataste's viper inflict the majority of bites. Although Europe has a population of some 731 million people, snake bites are",
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"species favour steep, south-facing slopes. Toxicity Like all Old World tarantulas, spiders in the genus Cyriopagopus lack the urticating hairs found in their New World counterparts, hence use biting as a primary means of both attack and defence. Some Cyriopagopus species are among those reported to have more toxic venom. Although bites may cause severe pain and a range of other effects, no fatalities are known. Cyriopagopus lividus, C. hainanus, and C. schmidti (under its synonym Selenocosmia huwena) have had their venom characterized. The last two produce hainantoxins and huwentoxins, respectively. Additionally, as with any envenomation, there is the possibility of a",
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"does not always reflect an adaptation to venom delivery. Insectivores With the exception of vampire bats, insectivores are the only mammals so far observed to produce toxic saliva. \nThese species have significantly enlarged and granular submaxillary salivary glands from which the toxic saliva is produced.\nThe Cuban solenodon (Solenodon cubanus) and Hispaniolan solenodon (Solenodon paradoxus) look similar to large shrews. They both have venomous bites; the venom is delivered from modified salivary glands via grooves in their second lower incisors. It was reported that death was frequent among Hispaniolan solenodons kept together in the same enclosure, with bite marks on their",
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"type of envenoming. Australia is unique in that it is the only continent where venomous snakes constitute the majority of species. Nearly all venomous species in Australia are elapids, as vipers are absent from the continent.\nThe brown snakes, death adders, mulga snakes, taipans, and tiger snakes are the five groups that inflict virtually all reported snakebites, although copperheads, rough-scaled snakes, and members of the genus Hoplocephalus are also occasionally involved in bites. Of the five dangerous groups, the highly venomous eastern brown snake, which is widespread and common in both rural and urban environments, is the most important—it is estimated",
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"also found in Great Britain, Ireland, France, Italy, southern Scandinavia, and other countries. Its range includes Turkey.\nThe species has been introduced to North America where it was first found in 1937 and now is known from six Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador) and 16 states, as well as the District of Columbia, in the United States. It does not appear to have the capability to become an invasive pest species in North America, as it lives in leaf litter and forms colonies where the individuals do not tend to spread",
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"Invasive species of Australian origin There are a number of Australian species that have become invasive when introduced into outside Australia or outside Oceania. Animals The Australian magpie was introduced into New Zealand and are considered to be a pest because of attacks on humans and a possible effect on the native bird population.\nThe common brushtail possum was introduced to New Zealand to start a fur industry, and spread nationwide. With no natural controls they have severe impact on native plant species and thereby endanger native animals species too. Possums have also been observed eating the eggs of nesting birds",
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"insects, spiders, millipedes, scorpions, and even tarantulas, but also small vertebrates including small lizards, frogs (up to 95 mm long), snakes (up to 25 cm long), sparrow-sized birds, mice, and bats. Large individuals of S. gigantea have been known to employ unique strategies to catch bats in which they climb cave ceilings and hold or manipulate their heavier prey with only a few legs attached to the ceiling. Venom At least one human death has been attributed to the venom. In 2014, a four-year-old child in Venezuela died after being bitten by a giant centipede which was hidden inside an open soda",
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"feet being the only observable cause. Such use in competition may be a secondary aspect of the insectivore venom.\nThe northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda), Mediterranean water shrew (Neomys anomalus), and Eurasian water shrew (Neomys fodiens) are capable of delivering a venomous bite. Other American short-tailed shrews: the southern short-tailed shrew (Blarina carolinensis), Elliot's short-tailed shrew (Blarina hylophaga), and Everglades short-tailed shrew (Blarina peninsulae) and the Transcaucasian water shrew (Neomys teres) possibly also have a venomous bite. Shrews cache various prey in a comatose state, including earthworms, insects, snails, and to a lesser extent, small mammals such as voles and mice.",
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"is not dangerous to humans and although (in common with nearly all spiders) they have venom, its effect on large mammals is negligible. They are unlikely to bite if carefully handled but if sufficiently provoked they are capable of inflicting an unpleasant \"nip\". They are non-aggressive and generally slow moving and are regarded (by arachnophiles) as \"gentle giants\". Life cycle After mating, females produce a drop-shaped Egg sac (cocoon).\nEgg sacs are tear-shaped white pendants (sometimes with a slightly yellow centre) usually hanging from the roof of the habitat by a silk thread approximately 20 mm long. Egg sacs are usually laid",
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"Platypus venom The platypus is one of the few living mammals to produce venom. Males have a pair of spurs on their hind limbs that secrete venom that is active only in breeding season, supporting the hypothesis that the use of venom is for competition for mates, not for protection. While the spur remains available for defence, outside of breeding season the platypus's venom gland lacks secretion. While the venom's effects are described as excruciatingly painful, it is not lethal to humans.\nMany archaic mammal groups possess similar tarsal spurs, so it is thought that, rather than having developed this characteristic",
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"the venom is relatively harmless and its effects are comparable to those of a wasp's sting. Tarantulas generally bite humans only in self defense, and these bites do not always result in envenomation (known as a \"dry bite\"). Feeding Despite its name, the Goliath birdeater only rarely actually preys on birds; in the wild, its diet consists primarily of other large arthropods, worms, and amphibians. However, because of its size and opportunistic predatory behavior, this species commonly kills and consumes a variety of insects and small terrestrial vertebrates. In the wild, T. blondi has been observed feeding on",
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"July 2018, a South African News website reported that 3 rhino poachers were mauled and eaten by lions at Sibuya Game Reserve in Eastern Cape province, South Africa. Leopards Man-eating leopards are a small percentage of all leopards, but have undeniably been a menace in some areas; one leopard in India killed over 200 people. Jim Corbett was noted to have stated that unlike tigers, which usually became man-eaters because of infirmity, leopards more commonly did so after scavenging on human corpses. In the area that Corbett knew well, dead people are usually cremated completely, but when there is a",
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"The lethal dose of venom in humans is not known. The lethal dose of venom from male Sydney funnel-web spiders for the crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis) is 0.2 milligrams per kilogram (3.2×10⁻⁶ oz/lb). Higher figures were found for other experimental animals, such as 1.5 milligrams per kilogram (2.4×10⁻⁵ oz/lb) for two-day-old mice. The average venom yield for a male is 176 milligrams (2.72 gr). Guinness World Records has ranked the Sydney funnel-web spider as the world's most venomous spider, defining the term \"most venomous\" as \"having the venom most toxic to humans\", although it has also given this title to the Brazilian wandering",
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"real predators in the wild, other than humans. Young rhinos can however fall prey to big cats, crocodiles, African wild dogs, and hyenas.\nAlthough rhinos are large and have a reputation for being tough, they are very easily poached; they visit water holes daily and can be easily killed while they drink. As of December 2009, poaching increased globally while efforts to protect the rhino are considered increasingly ineffective. The most serious estimate, that only 3% of poachers are successfully countered, is reported of Zimbabwe, while Nepal has largely avoided the crisis. Poachers have become more sophisticated. South African officials have",
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],
[
"world. The toxicity of the venom may have evolved due to the intense predation by animals and birds during the day, since Myrmecia is primarily diurnal. In Tasmania, 2–3% of the human population is allergic to M. pilosula venom. In comparison, only 1.6% people are allergic to the venom of the western honeybee (Apis mellifera), and 0.6% to the venom of the European wasp (Vespula germanica). In a 2011 Australian ant-venom allergy study, the objective of which was to determine what native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis, 265 of the 376 participants in the study reacted",
"-25.03329223111723"
],
[
"is the eastern coast of Australia, with specimens found in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland. The only Australian states or territories without members of this family are Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Medical significance Australian funnel-web spiders are one of the most dangerous groups of spiders in the world and are regarded by some to be the most deadly, both in terms of clinical cases and venom toxicity. Six species have caused severe injuries to human victims, including the Sydney funnel-web spider (Atrax robustus), the northern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider (Hadronyche formidabilis), the southern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider",
"-25.004701098201622"
],
[
"admixture with individuals of the European biocontrol strain (estimated at about 40%).\nThis species is widely considered to be one of the world’s most invasive insects, partly due to their tendency to overwinter indoors and the unpleasant odor and stain left by their bodily fluids when frightened or crushed, as well as their tendency to bite humans. In Europe it is currently increasing to the detriment of indigenous species, its voracious appetite enabling it to outcompete and even consume other ladybirds. The harlequin ladybird is also highly resistant to diseases that affect other ladybird species, and carries a microsporidian parasite to",
"-24.911713929992402"
],
[
"Spiders of Australia Australia has a number of highly venomous spiders, including the Sydney Funnel-web, its relatives in the family Hexathelidae, and the Redback Spider, whose bites can be extremely painful and have historically been linked with deaths in medical records. Most Australian spiders do not have venom that is considered to be dangerously toxic. No deaths caused by spider bites in Australia have been substantiated by a coronial inquest since 1979. There are sensationalised news reports regarding Australian spiders that fail to cite evidence. A Field Guide to Spiders of Australia published by CSIRO Publishing in 2017 featuring",
"-24.89969202282373"
],
[
"debate about whether hognose snakes are venomous. Their saliva meets the definition of a venom, since it is toxic to small prey such as frogs and toads; however, it is not likely to cause serious injury to humans, particularly as hognose snakes are rear-fanged,and although they will generally feign a strike, they will bite if threatened.",
"-24.889393106102943"
],
[
"be directly connected.\nFry et al. stated that a venom is a secretion produced in a specialized gland in one animal and delivered to a target animal through the infliction of a wound. This secretion must contain molecules that disrupt normal physiological processes so as to facilitate feeding or defense by the producing animal. Additionally, the feeding secretion of hematophagous specialists (e.g. vampire bats) may be regarded as a specialized subtype of venom. Evolutionary history and paleontology Venomous mammals may have been more common in the past. Most non-therian mammals possess tarsal spurs akin to those of the modern platypus, suggesting",
"-24.858929968671873"
],
[
"species is not unknown in the areas where their range overlaps. Speed There is no information on this category. Venom Their venom is not considered to be dangerous to humans.",
"-24.754217362904456"
],
[
"Asian common toad secretes toxins from glands in their backs to deter predators. These toxins would beyond reasonable doubt severely affect native predators, such as snakes, goannas and quolls.\nThe recent rate of incursions suggests a high likelihood of establishment in Australia. So, experts are calling for the Australian government to develop a “high-priority contingency plan” that includes stronger environmental quarantine and surveillance strategies.",
"-24.695093996822834"
],
[
"arthropod-consuming Echis species was more toxic to locusts than that of vertebrate-consuming species.\nA 2009 study of the venom of four Sistrurus pit viper species found significant variation in the toxicity to mice. This variation was related to the proportion of small mammals in the diet of those species. The idea that Sistrurus venom had evolved to accommodate a mammal-based diet was supported by phylogenetic analysis. The researchers suggested that the basis for the difference in toxicity was the difference in muscle physiology in the various prey animals. Two lineages of elapid snakes, common sea snakes and Laticauda sea kraits, have",
"-24.656701194442576"
],
[
"venom has occasionally been fatal to a human.\nAnimals such as porcupines are considered aposematic, because their spines warn predators that they are dangerous and potentially toxic. Porcupines rattle their quills as a warning to predators, much like rattlesnakes. Treating injuries caused by spines Because many species of fish and invertebrates carry venom within their spines, a rule of thumb is to treat every injury as if it were a snake bite. Venom can cause intense pain, and can sometimes result in death if left untreated.\nOn the other hand, being pricked by a porcupine quill is not dangerous, and the quills",
"-24.645801791222766"
],
[
"canes did not reduce the probability of predation success per attempt. While feeding, skuas, gulls, and other tern species will often harass the birds and steal their food. They often form mixed colonies with other terns, such as common and Sandwich terns. Conservation status Arctic terns are considered threatened or a species of concern in certain states. They are also among the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies. The species reduced population in New England in the late nineteenth-century because of hunting for the millinery trade. Exploitation continues in western Greenland, where the",
"-24.605671087803785"
],
[
"Feeding, hunting, and diet Like most members of the genus Varanus, V. griseus is a carnivore. The preferred prey of the species is mice, eggs, or fish, but it will also prey on smaller mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, insects, or other invertebrates, if the opportunity presents itself. Venom The possibility of venom in the genus Varanus is widely debated. Previously, venom was thought to be unique to Serpentes (snakes) and Heloderma (venomous lizards). The aftereffects of a Varanus bite were thought to be due to oral bacteria alone, but recent studies have shown venom glands are",
"-24.58756919935695"
],
[
"barriers, and certain species of flycatcher are typical. Among semi aquatic animals, the lung-less newts are notable. Certain species of snakes, such as the Schrenk racer, found in the inhabited areas of the North-east and Korea, live in a partially domesticated state and are used to eliminate harmful rodents in orchards and gardens. European wild boars, common hedgehogs, Asian red deer, harvest mice, and field mice are among the more common Eurasian species. Sikas (a type of deer) are prized for their antlers. Valuable pelts include fox, chipmunk, the light-coloured polecat, the Manchurian hare, and the sable. The sable population,",
"-24.580866814416368"
],
[
"the most risk to human beings; several spiders are known to have venom that can cause injury to humans in the amounts that a spider will typically inject when biting.\nOnly a small percentage of species have bites that pose a danger to people. Many spiders do not have mouthparts capable of penetrating human skin. While venoms are by definition toxic substances, most spiders do not have venom that is toxic to humans (in the quantities delivered) to require medical attention. Of those that do, fatal outcomes are exceedingly rare.\nSpider venoms work on one of two fundamental principles; they are either",
"-24.5542921780725"
],
[
"tactics of Australian funnel-web spiders (family Atracidae) include fang display. Their venom, although they rarely inject much, has resulted in 13 attributed human deaths over 50 years. They have been deemed to be the world's most dangerous spiders on clinical and venom toxicity grounds, though this claim has also been attributed to the Brazilian wandering spider (genus Phoneutria).\nThere were about 100 reliably reported deaths from spider bites in the 20th century, compared to about 1,500 from jellyfish stings. Many alleged cases of spider bites may represent incorrect diagnoses, which would make it more difficult to check the effectiveness of treatments",
"-24.55067417200189"
],
[
"ambush predator that uses its excellent camouflage to hide itself in vegetation or leaf litter. It hunts and eats mainly rodents, but also small birds, lizards, and insects. It is often found in and around farmland due to the associated rodent populations. Characteristics The venom of this species varies very little among Japan, China, and Korea in terms of both its potency and its effects. According to Yoshimitsu (2005), this species and the Okinawan habu, another pitviper, are the most venomous snakes in Japan. The venom's lethality as measured by LD₅₀ in mice following intraperitoneal injection is in",
"-24.510730311041698"
],
[
"bites. Commonly used antivenoms in India do not appear to be effective against hump-nosed viper bites. According to the most conservative estimates, at least 81,000 snake envenomings and 11,000 fatalities occur in India each year, making it the most heavily affected country in the world. The Malayan pit viper and banded krait are two other species involved in a significant number of venomous bites.\nIn Myanmar (Burma), approximately 70 to 80% of bites are inflicted by the Russell's viper, which is frequently found in rice fields. In Japan, the majority of venomous bites are inflicted by the Asian pit vipers. In",
"-24.501427261535355"
],
[
"variety of vertebrates. Many of these, including lizards, frogs, birds, and mammals, are generalist predators of all kinds of large arthropods. Mammals that have been known to prey on tarantulas, such as the coati, kinkajou, and opossum in the New World, and mongooses and the honey badger in the Old World, are often immune to the venom of their arthropod prey.\nHumans also consume tarantulas for food in their native ranges. They are considered a delicacy in certain cultures (e.g. Venezuela and Cambodia). They can be roasted over an open fire to remove the hairs (described further below) and then",
"-24.495042925933376"
],
[
"is believed to be decreasing as a result of human encroachment into their habitat and the associated loss of cover. Because they are known to scavenge, persecution by humans may be putting pressure on the population. They also face predation and competition from introduced species such as dogs and cats.\nAnother threat, though less severe than with the four Australian species of Dasyurus, is poisoning by bufotoxins from the introduced cane toad (Rhinella marina, formerly Bufo marinus). Because they have evolved consistently isolated from toads since the Jurassic, all dasyurids possess extremely low resistance to toad toxins, and whilst smaller dasyurids",
"-24.44688273331849"
],
[
"purpose or favorable cost/benefit ratio for this, except for the people like zoo handlers, researchers, and circus artists who deal closely with venomous animals. Mithridatism has been tried with success in Australia and Brazil and total immunity has been achieved even to multiple bites of extremely venomous cobras and pit vipers.\nBecause neurotoxic venoms must travel farther in the body to do harm and are produced in smaller quantities, it is easier to develop resistance to them than directly cytotoxic venoms (such as those of most vipers) that are injected in large quantity and damage immediately upon injection. History The first",
"-24.430964884581044"
],
[
"nigriventer venom necessary to kill a 20 g mouse has been shown to be only 6 μg intravenously and 134 μg subcutaneously as compared to 110 μg and 200 μg respectively for Latrodectus mactans (Southern black widow). This ranks Phoneutria venom among the most deadly spider venoms to mice. The Brazilian wandering spider's prey also includes crickets, katydids, mantids, and other larger animals, including tree frogs and lizards. Danger to humans The genus Phoneutria includes some of the relatively few species of spiders known to present a threat to humans. Danger to humans is not merely a question of toxicity, but requires the capacity",
"-24.370283437281614"
],
[
"on onager foals. In India, mugger crocodiles can be great threats to onagers during migratory river crossings.\nCurrently, the biggest predator for onagers are gray wolves. About 23% of prey proportion of gray wolves were on the Asian wild ass. However, like most equids, they are known to have antipredator protection. Groups of stallions cooperate and try to chase off predators. If threatened, onagers defend themselves and violently kick at the incoming predator. Threats The greatest threat facing the onager is poaching for meat and hides, and in some areas for use in traditional medicine. It is the one of highest",
"-24.3321149747062"
],
[
"toad is poisonous to freshwater crocodiles, although not to saltwater crocodiles, and the toad is rampant throughout the Australian wilderness. The crocodiles are also infected by Griphobilharzia amoena, a parasitic trematode, in regions such as Darwin. Danger towards humans Although the freshwater crocodile does not attack humans as potential prey, it can deliver a nasty bite. Brief and rapidly abandoned attacks have occurred, and were likely the result of mistaken identity (mistaking a part of the human as a typical prey item). Other attacks have occurred in self-defense when the crocodile was touched or approached too closely. There have been",
"-24.329083200209425"
],
[
"it primarily to kill or paralyze their prey so that it can be eaten. The venom consists of a collection of peptides.\nIn general, the venom is fast-acting, allowing for effective prey capture; however, as a general rule, scorpions kill their prey with brute force if they can, as opposed to using venom, which is also used as a defense against predators. The venom is a mixture of compounds (neurotoxins, enzyme inhibitors, etc.), each not only causing a different effect, but possibly also targeting a specific animal. Each compound is made and stored in a pair of glandular sacs and is",
"-24.325496849487536"
],
[
"and damages cell membranes, and thus contributes to a quick death for the prey animal. The study found that the venoms of Crotalus fell into two categories; those that favored metalloproteinases (Type I) and those that favored proteases (Type II). The study stated that these functions were essentially mutually exclusive; venoms had been selected for based on either their toxicity or their tenderizing potential. The researchers also hypothesized that the reason for this dichotomy was that a venom high in neurotoxicity, such as a type II venom, kills an animal quickly, preventing the relatively slower acting metalloproteinase from digesting tissue.",
"-24.304922855546465"
],
[
"autumn.\nMany smaller genera of wolf spiders are found in Britain and Ireland. They live in pastures and fields and feed on smaller prey, playing an important role in natural population control that keeps insect numbers in the wolf spiders' vicinity within acceptable levels. Venom Wolf spiders inject venom if continually provoked. Symptoms of their bites include swelling, mild pain, and itching. In the past, necrotic bites have been attributed to some South American species, but further investigation has indicated that those problems that did occur were probably actually due to bites by members of other genera. Australian wolf spiders have",
"-24.29539691132959"
],
[
"because no-one knew what the place was called.\nBoth the flora and fauna of the continent are extremely dangerous, as Death's Library attests. A book series known as Dangerous Mammals, Reptiles, Amphibians, Birds, Fish, Jellyfish, Insects, Spiders, Crustaceans, Grasses, Trees, Mosses and Lichens of Terror Incognita extends at least into Volume 29c Part Three, while a list of the harmless ones contains only \"Some of the sheep.\" There are few poisonous snakes in XXXX, the explanation being that \"most of them have been eaten by the spiders\".\nFor much of its history, the entire continent was surrounded with a huge anticyclone which",
"-24.290667860332178"
],
[
"not enough. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators whose venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate their preferred prey. A number of other factors are also critical in determining the potential hazard of any given venomous snake to humans, including their distribution and behavior. For example, while the inland taipan is regarded as the world's most venomous snake based on LD₅₀ tests on mice, it is a shy species and rarely strikes, and has not caused any known human fatalities. On the other hand, India's Big Four (Indian cobra, common krait, Russell's viper, and saw-scaled viper), while less venomous than",
"-24.280150320380926"
],
[
"for prey, or slowly stalks its victim. Parasites A long-running field study (1962–2013) suggested that the central European great egrets host 17 different helminth species. Juvenile great egrets were shown to host fewer species, but the intensity of infection was higher in the juveniles than in the adults. Of the digeneans found in central European great egrets, numerous species likely infected their definitive hosts outside of central Europe itself.",
"-24.263161251554266"
],
[
"hunts for mammalian prey on the ground. Reproduction Females give birth to up to 12 young at a time. Newborns are about 15 cm (5.9 in) in total length. Venom Not much is known about their venom except that it is mainly neurotoxic. Besides the neurotoxins, they also carry cytotoxins and fasciculins. Toxicity of individual specimens within the same species and subspecies can vary greatly based on several factors, including geographical region. Even the weather and altitude can influence toxicity (Ernst and Zug et al. 1996). A bite can be fatal to humans without access to proper first aid and subsequent antivenom",
"-24.252672871225514"
],
[
"moose, roe deer, red deer and other medium-sized ungulates. Semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are the main prey for the northern lynx in northern Scandinavia. Predators and enemies of the northern lynx In Russian forests, the most important predator of the Eurasian lynx is the grey wolf. Wolves kill and eat lynxes that fail to escape into trees. Lynx populations decrease when wolves appear in a region and are likely to take smaller prey where wolves are active. \nWolverines are perhaps the most dogged of competitors for kills, often stealing lynx kills. Lynxes tend to actively avoid encounters with wolverines, but",
"-24.25100034440402"
],
[
"are more venomous fish than venomous snakes and indeed more than the combined total of all other venomous vertebrates. Venomous fish are found in almost all habitats around the world, but mostly in tropical waters. They injure over 50,000 people every year.\nThey carry their venom in venom glands and use various delivery systems, such as spines or sharp fins, barbs, spikes and fangs. Venomous fish tend to be either very visible, using flamboyant colors to warn enemies, or skilfully camouflaged and maybe buried in the sand. Apart from the defense or hunting value, venom helps bottom dwelling fish by killing",
"-24.228358320426196"
],
[
"Bite Like almost all other spiders, Argiope are harmless to humans. As is the case with most garden spiders, they eat insects, and they are capable of consuming prey up to twice their size. A. savigny was even reported to occasionally feed on the small bat Rhynchonycteris naso.\nThey can potentially bite if grabbed, but other than for defense, they do not attack large animals. Their venom is not regarded as a serious medical problem for humans; it often contains a wide variety of polyamine toxins with potential as therapeutic medicinal agents. Notable among these is the argiotoxin",
"-24.228172242757864"
],
[
"damage, respectively. Bites from all the members of this family are potentially fatal, some of which are even considered to be the world's most venomous snakes based upon their murine LD₅₀ values, such as the taipans. Large species, mambas and cobras included, are dangerous for their capability of injecting high quantities of venom upon single envenomation and/or striking at a high position proximal to the victim's brain, which is vulnerable to neurotoxicity. Antivenom is promptly required to be administrated if bitten by any elapids. Venom of spitting cobras is more cytotoxic rather than neurotoxic. It damages local cells, especially those",
"-24.215703307912918"
],
[
"on frogs, lizards, and sometimes small mammals or birds. B. thalassinus is not known to be an aggressive species, but may strike quickly when surprised or disturbed. Reproduction Like most other pitvipers, B. thalassinus is ovoviviparous. Average litter size is probably less than 10–12 young per litter. Venom The characteristics of its venom are not yet well known. It is mainly hemotoxic, and possibly contains mild neurotoxic or myotoxic factors. Seldom encountered by humans, there are very few reported bites of humans. Typical envenomation symptoms include local pain, swelling, mild local tissue necrosis, nausea, \"tingling\" of a digit or limb,",
"-24.212452185107395"
],
[
"and wide-headed sculpins. In the Sverdlovsk and Irkutsk Oblasts, mouse-like rodents are their most important foods, followed by birds, fish and insects. In the Russian Far East, where crustaceans are scarce, the American mink feeds extensively on amphipods. In the British Isles, dietary composition varies seasonally and regionally. European rabbits are the most commonly taken prey in areas where they are common, especially in summer. A range of small rodents and insectivores are preyed upon, but to a lesser degree. European hares are occasionally attacked. Minks in Britain prey on several bird species, with ducks, moorhens, and coots being most",
"-24.204611702472903"
],
[
"and hedgehogs. The smallest mammalian prey species known to be attacked by goshawks was the 3.65 g (0.129 oz) masked shrew (Sorex cinereus). Even more sporadically attacked by goshawks, given this prey's nocturnal habits, are bats. In one case a juvenile golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), which was successfully taken by a goshawk. Ungulates such as deer and sheep are sometimes consumed by goshawks but there is no evidence that they prey on live ones (as much larger accipitrids such as eagles can sometimes do), but these are more likely rare cases of scavenging on carrion, which may more regularly occur than",
"-24.198090553691145"
],
[
"species, and will take down individuals far larger than itself. In Russia, its prey includes rodents and lagomorphs such as European water voles, common hamsters, pikas, and others, which it overpowers in their burrows. Prey species of secondary importance include small birds, fish, and shrews and, more rarely, amphibians, lizards, and insects. In Great Britain, European rabbits are an important food source, with the frequency in which stoats prey on them having increased between the 1960s and mid 1990s since the end of the myxomatosis epidemic. Typically, male stoats prey on rabbits more frequently than females do, which depend to",
"-24.194157174846623"
],
[
"the United Kingdom on account of habitat destruction. Other insects reported include the uncommon burrowing bug species Canthophorus dubius, the green forester (Adscita statices), cistus forester (A. geryon), and scarce forester (Jordanita globulariae).",
"-24.174120612675324"
],
[
"that can pose a hazard. Among the largest predatory creatures are the black caiman, jaguar, cougar, and anaconda. In the river, electric eels can produce an electric shock that can stun or kill, while piranha are known to bite and injure humans. Various species of poison dart frogs secrete lipophilic alkaloid toxins through their flesh. There are also numerous parasites and disease vectors. Vampire bats dwell in the rainforest and can spread the rabies virus. Malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever can also be contracted in the Amazon region. Deforestation Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas.",
"-24.153373447916238"
],
[
"shown by studies in Japan (27.5%), Sicily (25.7%, one snake species), Arizona (14.9%, one snake species), Kazakhstan (9.7%, one snake species), and the French Pyrenees (9.7%). Usually colubrid snakes (sometimes called \"harmless snakes\") are hunted but venomous species are also occasionally taken, especially the prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) in North America and the European adder (Vipera berus) in Europe.\nIn some areas tortoises are more important in the diet than snakes, and they displace mammals and birds as the most important prey group in most of Southeastern Europe as well as the Caucasus. Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) and Greek tortoises (Testudo",
"-24.1220346710179"
],
[
"administration.\nThere can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans (cf. paracetamol toxicity), and vice versa. For example, chocolate, comparatively harmless to humans, is known to be toxic to many animals. When used to test venom from venomous creatures, such as snakes, LD₅₀ results may be misleading due to the physiological differences between mice, rats, and humans. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators of mice, and their venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate mice; and mongooses may be exceptionally resistant. While most mammals have a very",
"-24.11456739186542"
],
[
"hunting, but the venom is powerful for killing or paralysing other arachnids. Venom The venom of Plectreurys tristis contains a number of complex compounds. The venom is a calcium channel blocker, specifically inhibiting N-type Ca²⁺ channels, and other unidentified calcium channels. The first novel compound detected was N, N'-bis(4-guanidinobutyl)oxalamide, the major component, but of unknown effects. In addition, there are about 50 different peptide toxins. The most biologically active peptides are collectively called plectoxins, and they show high insecticidal activities on lepidopteran insects. Clinical case The first clinical case of P. tristis bite was reported in 1991. A 15-year-old boy",
"-24.098135593230836"
],
[
"Predators include weasels, stoats, and small raptors such as the merlin and nest predators such as crows and magpies. Nests are also lost due to agricultural operations such as silage cutting (the main factor in the species' decline in western Europe) or trampling by livestock, and are sometimes parasitised by the common cuckoo.\nWhinchats are insectivorous, feeding largely (about 80–90%) on insects, but also consume a wide range of other invertebrates including spiders, small snails and worms. They also eat small amounts of fruit such as blackberries, primarily in autumn. The birds like to perch on elevated spots such as shrubs,",
"-24.02689311469794"
],
[
"fangs reduce the possibility of venom injection, and the venom is of low toxicity. Venom injections are possible in bites of big individuals. The venom is not very dangerous; symptomatic treatment suffices to treat an envenomation. The unthreatening nature of the snake, along with its relatively mild persecution by man, has made it one of the most common species throughout its range, even in areas occupied by humans. Evolution Genetic evidence suggests that the species originated in the Maghreb, migrating into southwestern Europe between 83,000 and 168,000 years ago and into southeastern Europe and western Asia at an earlier time.",
"-24.017826648196205"
],
[
"the world. Not infrequently, they are locally rare due to persecution. The normal cause of persecution is their possible status of predators of small domestic stock, though this is certain to be rare, at least in areas with substantial wild prey populations. An additional threat is the residual effects of pesticides, as poison (usually through rodenticide or poisoned carcasses left out for scavengers such as jackals) consumed through prey may badly affect them. They may be killed by flying into novel man-made objects, including wires and massive dams along reservoirs. \nHabitat destruction can also affect them, as they require ample",
"-24.016080408648122"
],
[
"Cane toads in Australia The cane toad in Australia is regarded as an exemplary case of a \"feral species\"—others being rabbits, foxes, cats and dogs. Australia's relative isolation prior to European colonisation and the industrial revolution—both of which dramatically increased traffic and importation of novel species—allowed development of a complex, interdepending system of ecology, but one which provided no natural predators for many of the species subsequently introduced. The recent, sudden inundation of foreign species has led to severe breakdowns in Australian ecology, after overwhelming proliferation of a number of introduced species for which the continent has no efficient natural",
"-23.97374824131839"
],
[
"consume Arizona bark scorpions, which are the most venomous scorpions in North America: their stings can be fatal to humans.\nPallid bats were found to have one or more missense mutations that substitute amino acids in their voltage-gated sodium channels, which may be responsible for their resistance to scorpion venom. Although pallid bats are primarily insectivores, they exhibit some flexibility in their diet when seasonally feeding on Mexican columnar cacti (particularly cardón cactus) nectar in spring, and even cactus fruit in summer. Pallid bats are also more effective pollinators than some of the nectarivorous bats with whom they compete for cacti.\nPallid",
"-23.973609674489126"
],
[
"in Brazil. In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous. The rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa) from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX), the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by pufferfish. Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible. The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis).\nIn locations where both snake and",
"-23.966781669674674"
],
[
"documented in any insects, with Pogonomyrmex maricopa being the most toxic tested thus far. It has an LD₅₀ of only 0.12 mg/kg, compared to western honey bee venom, at 2.8 mg/kg, and comparable to cobra venom. The venom is presumed to be an antivertebrate defense, specifically against predators that have evolved to selectively feed on them such as horned lizards. Very few insects have had the toxicity of their venoms formally tested, and other insects likely have more potent venoms. Nests These ants dig very deep nests with many underground chambers in which they keep seeds, from which they derive food for",
"-23.963025421791826"
],
[
"cane beetles such as Dermolepida albohirtum, the larvae of which damage and kill the canes. Initial results in many of these countries were positive, but it later became apparent that the toads upset the ecological balance in their new environments. They bred freely, competed with native frog species, ate bees and other harmless native invertebrates, had few predators in their adopted habitats, and poisoned pets, carnivorous birds, and mammals. In many of these countries, they are now regarded both as pests and invasive species, and scientists are looking for a biological method to control them. Culinary Frog legs are eaten",
"-23.885851364204427"
],
[
"doves and charadriiform birds as slug predators.\nMammals that eat slugs include foxes, badgers and hedgehogs. Invertebrates Beetles in the family Carabidae, such as Carabus violaceus and Pterostichus melanarius, are known to feed on slugs. Parasites and parasitoids Slugs are parasitised by several organisms, including acari and a wide variety of nematodes. The slug mite, Riccardoella limacum, is known to parasitise several dozen species of mollusks, including many slugs, such as Agriolimax agrestis, Arianta arbustrum, Arion ater, Arion hortensis, Limax maximus, Milax budapestensis, Milax gagates, and Milax sowerbyi. R. limacum can often be seen swarming about their host's body, and live",
"-23.879988635464542"
],
[
"1,500 described species of insects, many of them probably accidentally introduced by human agency. In Iceland most ectoparasitic insects live in sheltered conditions or actually on mammals; examples include lice, fleas and bedbugs, in whose living conditions freezing is no concern, and most of which were introduced inadvertently by humans.\nSome other aquatic Diptera, such as Simuliidae, do survive in Iceland, but their habits and adaptations differ from those of mosquitoes; Simuliidae for example, though they, like mosquitoes, are bloodsuckers, generally inhabit stones under running water that does not readily freeze and which is totally unsuited to mosquitoes; mosquitoes are generally",
"-23.87364142766728"
],
[
"glands become highly active, producing venom to be delivered by the channeled spur. Echidnas, the other monotremes, have spurs but no functional venom glands. Although not potent enough to be lethal to humans, platypus venom is nevertheless so excruciating that victims may sometimes be temporarily incapacitated. Platypus envenomation was fairly common when the animal was still hunted for its fur. Nowadays any close contact with the animal is rare and restricted to biologists, zookeepers and fishermen (who occasionally catch them in lines or nets).\nWhen platypuses attack, they drive their hind legs together with considerable force so that the spurs are",
"-23.87232009775471"
],
[
"\"least concern\", populations of Eurasian lynx have been reduced or extirpated from Europe, where it is now being reintroduced.\nThe Eurasian lynx is the third largest predator in Europe after the brown bear and the grey wolf. It is a strict carnivore, consuming about one or two kilograms of meat every day. The Eurasian lynx is one of the widest-ranging.\nDuring the summer, the Eurasian lynx has a relatively short, reddish or brown coat which is replaced by a much thicker silver-grey to greyish-brown coat during winter. The lynx hunts by stalking and jumping on its prey, helped by the rugged, forested",
"-23.858163519296795"
],
[
"otters, California sea lions, eared seals and northern elephant seals. In the dry, inland desert areas of states such as California, Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico there are some of the world’s most venomous lizards, snakes and scorpions. The most notorious might be the Gila monster and Mohave rattlesnake, both found in deserts in the Southwest. The Sonoran Desert has eleven species of rattlesnakes - more than anywhere else in the world.\nAlong the southwestern border there are jaguars and ocelots. Other mammals include the Virginia opossum, which occurs throughout California and coastal areas in Oregon and Washington. The North American",
"-23.839370441492065"
],
[
"part of the Rhizostomatidae Family and the genus Phyllorhiza. \nTheir venom is not potent enough to kill their prey which is why they are filter feeders. \nTheir main food source is zooplankton. Normally they travel in large groups, which tends to result in huge swaths of them consuming all of the zooplankton in the area. This leads to detrimental impacts for the local ecosystem in which they travel through. Since they eat all the zooplankton, there is a lack of food for the other species relying on the plankton as their food source.\nTheir native distribution is around Cairns, Queensland, Australia,",
"-23.83751851190027"
],
[
"the prey species of these can be very similar and North American populations of goshawks take many more squirrels and leporids than their Eurasian counterparts do. It was found that the feet and striking force of hunting goshawks was more powerful than that of the red-tailed hawk, despite the red-tails being up to 10% heavier in some parts of North America. Therefore, wild goshawks can dispatch larger prey both on average and at maximum prey size, with some victims of female goshawks such as adult hares and galliforms such as turkey and capercaillie weighing up to or exceeding roughly 4,000 g",
"-23.836081545363413"
],
[
"spiders\" (Latrodectus geometricus) and the \"red widow spiders\" (Latrodectus bishopi). \nThe most prevalent species occurring in eastern Asia and Australia is commonly called the redback (Latrodectus hasselti). Bite Due to the presence of latrotoxin in their venom, black widow bites are potentially dangerous and may result in systemic effects (latrodectism) including severe muscle pain, abdominal cramps, hyperhidrosis, tachycardia, and muscle spasms. Symptoms usually last for 3–7 days, but may persist for several weeks.\nIn the United States each year, about 2,200 people report being bitten by a black widow, but most do not need medical treatment. Some bites have no venom",
"-23.819061845366377"
],
[
"a neurotoxic venom from one of the three major groups of toxins: postsynaptically active neurotoxins, presynaptically active neurotoxins, and myotoxic agents. Spiders venom polypeptides target specific ion channels. This excites components of the peripheral, somatic, and autonomic nervous systems, causing hyperactivity of the channels and neurotransmitter release within the peripheral nervous system. Spider bites or, arachnidism, are mainly a form of predation, but also means of protection. When trapped or accidentally tampered with by humans, spiders retaliate with biting. The recluse spider and widow species have neurotoxins or necrotic agents that paralyze prey. \nThere are several creatures with non-lethal bites",
"-23.80262820230564"
],
[
"normal prey of small rodents, reptiles, other amphibians, birds, and even bats and a range of invertebrates, they also eat plants, dog food, and household refuse. Defenses The skin of the adult cane toad is toxic, as well as the enlarged parotoid glands behind the eyes, and other glands across its back. When the toad is threatened, its glands secrete a milky-white fluid known as bufotoxin. Components of bufotoxin are toxic to many animals; even human deaths have been recorded due to the consumption of cane toads. Dogs are especially prone to be poisoned by licking or biting toads.",
"-23.790437707473757"
],
[
"British species is also sensitive to many kinds of pollution, such as insecticides.",
"-23.78718696112628"
],
[
"V. ursinii is more likely to occur. In Russia, however, it does occur in the forest steppe zone. Conservation status In the United Kingdom, it is illegal to kill, injure, harm or sell adders under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. The same situation applies to Norway under the Viltloven (The Wildlife Act 1981) and Denmark (1981). The common viper is categorised as 'endangered' in Switzerland, and is also protected in some other countries in its range. It is also found in many protected areas. This species is listed as protected (Appendix III) under the Berne Convention.\nThe International Union",
"-23.777759230259107"
],
[
"Britain exhibits a relative lack of snakes, with the European adder being the only venomous snake to be found there. The other notable snakes found in Great Britain are the grass snake and the smooth snake. Great Britain has three native breeds of lizard: slowworms, sand lizards and viviparous lizards. There are also turtles, such as leatherback turtles to be found in the Irish Sea, although these are rarely seen by the public. Other reptile species exist but are not native: aesculapian snake, wall lizard and the green lizard. Birds In general the avifauna of Britain",
"-23.767500274138"
],
[
"are trombidiformans, such as spider mites (Tetranychidae) and Eriophyidae. Many species are also predators, fungivores, and animal parasites. Some of the most conspicuous species of free-living mites are the relatively large and bright red velvet mites, that belong to the family Trombidiidae.\nOribatid mites and to a much lesser extent others are a source of alkaloids in poison frogs (namely small species like the strawberry poison-dart frog Oophaga pumilio). Such frogs raised without these orbatids in their diets do not develop the strong poisons associated with them in the wild.",
"-23.746353300273768"
],
[
"rarely have fatal consequences. However, isolated spider families have a lethal neurotoxic venom: the wandering spider in Brazil and the funnel web in Australia. However, due to limited contact between these spiders and humans, deaths have always been rare, and since the introduction of anti-venom in Australia, there have been no funnel web related deaths. Pathophysiology A primary concern of the bite of a spider is the effect of its venom. A spider envenomation occurs whenever a spider injects venom into the skin. Not all spider bites involve injection of venom, and the amount of venom injected can vary based",
"-23.729764365671144"
],
[
"size to the European species, was the leading identified mammalian prey, making up 10.7% of the diet. The full size range of insectivores may be taken by buzzards, ranging from the world's smallest mammal (by weight), the 1.8 g (0.063 oz) Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus) to arguably the heaviest insectivore, the 800 g (1.8 lb) European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Mammalian prey for common buzzards other than rodents, insectivores and lagomorphs is rarely taken. Occasionally, some weasels (including polecats) and perhaps martens might be attacked by buzzards, more likely the more powerful female buzzard since such prey is potentially dangerous and of similar size to",
"-23.729291666979407"
],
[
"contact with the spiders. The species are not aggressive to humans naturally, but may bite when trapped. As such, bite incidents may be described as accidents. Reports of epidemics were associated with agricultural areas in Europe in the last two centuries. However the European spider is associated with fields and humans come in contact only during harvest. For example, in the 1950s researchers believed that three bites happened each year and with an epidemic up to 180 each year.\nConversely, redback and North American black widows live in proximity with people and several thousand black widow bites are reported to Poison",
"-23.723821281637356"
],
[
"and is substantiated by the National Recording Scheme.\nThe spider is reported to be an established species in Ireland. Medical significance Like almost all spiders, Steatoda nobilis is venomous, but its bite is almost exclusively of mild effect on humans, without the severe consequences that can occur with black widow spiders. It is often alleged to be one of the spiders whose bite involves venom medically significant for humans, even though the few recorded bites do not typically present long-lasting effects. The symptoms of a bite are typically similar to a bee or wasp sting. The bite of this spider, along",
"-23.7183220332372"
],
[
"likely to consume smaller prey such as shrews (averaging 8 g (0.28 oz) and unable to attack subadult eastern cottontail rabbits (averaging 500–1,000 g (1.1–2.2 lb) but Peromyscus was the number one prey item for both young and adult rattlesnakes. Several birds, although always secondary to mammals, are also known to be hunted, mainly ground-dwelling species such as bobwhites, but also a surprising number of passerines. Venom Potentially, this is one of North America's most dangerous snakes, due to its long fangs, impressive size, and high venom yield. This is to some degree offset by its relatively mild disposition and long brumation period. Before",
"-23.695461997995153"
],
[
"is most active at dawn and dusk, but also sometimes forages by day.\nEurasian bitterns feed on fish, small mammals, amphibians and invertebrates, hunting along the reed margins in shallow water. British records include eels up to 35 cm (14 in) and other fish, mice and voles, small birds and fledglings, frogs, newts, crabs, shrimps, molluscs, spiders and insects. In continental Europe, members of over twenty families of beetle are eaten, as well as dragonflies, bees, grasshoppers and earwigs. Some vegetable matter such as aquatic plants is also consumed.\nMales are polygamous, mating with up to five females. The nest is built in the",
"-23.677395619364688"
],
[
"species have been known to kill the males by injecting venom from a claw within their gnathopod.",
"-23.661410144763067"
],
[
"but the great majority are harmless to vertebrates. Australian funnel web spiders are a promising source, as most of the world's insect pests have had no opportunity to develop any immunity to their venom, and funnel web spiders thrive in captivity and are easy to \"milk\". It may be possible to target specific pests by engineering genes for the production of spider toxins into viruses that infect species such as cotton bollworms.\nThe Ch'ol Maya use a beverage created from the tarantula species Brachypelma vagans for the treatment of a condition they term 'tarantula wind', the symptoms of which include chest",
"-23.65867533374694"
],
[
"Chrysopelea ornata Venom This species is considered mildly venomous, with few confirmed cases of medically significant envenomation. Chrysopelea species are not included in lists of snakes considered venomous to man. Geographic range India (North Bengal), Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Western Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China (Hong Kong, Hainan, Yunnan), Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi), and the Philippines.\nIn India Chrysopelea ornata ranges from the Western Ghats, up to the Dangs, Katernia Ghat in Uttar Pradesh, North Bihar, northern West Bengal eastwards to Arunachal Pradesh. It is also found in the forests of the Andaman islands. Conservation Not known to be",
"-23.65132313693175"
]
] |
2zvppv | Why are there so many more poisonous/venomous animals in Australia than the rest of the world? | [
"comformation bias, there are very venomous and poisous animals all over the world alstalia just happens to have a few of the most.",
"Our warm / hot conditions are a good breeding ground for many diverse types of animals. It doesn't snow in many places here, and most animals in the outback can expect fairly consistent conditions. It's been shown that there are usually a lot more diverse types of animals in these conditions compared to areas where animals have to adapt to more extreme temperature variations like having a yearly snowfall.",
"Proportionally, there are just as many venomous snakes and spiders as most of the rest of the world. Due to there being a larger number of snakes and spiders in Australia versus colder places, there are more venomous species. For example, if a certain percentage of snakes are venomous, then the more snakes in a given area the more venomous. Still at the same proportion though. URL_0 ",
"I can't find the article now, but when the Australia has dangerous animals meme started, someone wrote an article on how certain climates/biomes tend to have more poisonous/venomous animals. It showed that most of those biomes were by the equator and that the country with actually the most poisonous/venomous animals is Mexico. But I think we don't hear about it is because A. Mexico is a poorer country so much fewer people are on the internet than Australia and A. they speak mostly Spanish so they wouldn't be on the same places on the internet to see debunk the meme.",
"Maybe because there's lots of big distances and it's underpopulated. So if you're going to get some prey you need to make sure you kill it because the encounters would be relatively infrequent. It's also not very fertile in most of Australia and not as many animals survive.",
"This is an interesting question, particularly when we consider the relative lack of natural predators in Australia. Bill Bryson puts it well in 'Down Under': > \"No one knows, incidentally, why Australia's spiders are so extravagantly toxic; capturing small insects and injecting them with enough poison to drop a horse would appear to be the most literal case of overkill. Still, it does mean that everyone gives them lots of space.” ― Bill Bryson.",
"Don't forget the [Drop Bears]( URL_1 ) - they actually [target tourists]( URL_0 )",
"I'm an American who grew up in Europe, and currently lives in Australia, and I've never really found that they have 'more poisonous/venomous' animals as the rest of the world, it's just a huge exaggeration that aussies love to talk up... just like their damned 'drop-bear' joke. (sorry mates!) I will say though, my partner (female) and many Aussie girls I know, have very little fear of critters like spiders and bugs, compared to the average American female I grew up with. Oh, and they don't really seem to be worried about 'stingers' during 'stinger season,' which are fatal jellyfish that are in the ocean waters at a certain time of year! She is from Cairns, after all though, and they have (fairly regular) dengue outbreaks where the mosquitos just happen to be carrying this terrible disease. Her response is always, 'you'll probably be fine, I always have been!'",
"Isolstion could be part of it, but a big factor may be how relatively unpopulated it's been compared to other land masses. In a world with humans, it's a much more advantageous trait to be delicious that to be dangerous. Pigs, sheep, and cows, none of whom are noted swimmers, have crossed every ocean to establish populations around the world. On the other hand, England used to have wolves (though Ireland never had snakes). Give the 'Strayans a thousand more years or so and they'll even the ledgers.",
"It has a lot to do with Australia's location on the globe. This video explains it nicely: URL_0 ",
"So that annoying tourists scared of their own shadows stay home.",
"Bollocks, Snake Island off the coast of Brazil!"
] | [
[
"type of envenoming. Australia is unique in that it is the only continent where venomous snakes constitute the majority of species. Nearly all venomous species in Australia are elapids, as vipers are absent from the continent.\nThe brown snakes, death adders, mulga snakes, taipans, and tiger snakes are the five groups that inflict virtually all reported snakebites, although copperheads, rough-scaled snakes, and members of the genus Hoplocephalus are also occasionally involved in bites. Of the five dangerous groups, the highly venomous eastern brown snake, which is widespread and common in both rural and urban environments, is the most important—it is estimated",
"-34.198578549025115"
],
[
"wild pigs, and monkeys, making them competitors and prey.\nThroughout Western Asia, the species responsible for the majority of bites tend to be more venomous than European snakes, but deaths are infrequent. Studies estimate that perhaps 100 fatal bites occur each year. The Palestine viper and Lebetine viper are the most important species. While larger and more venomous elapids, such as the Egyptian cobra, are also found throughout the Middle East, these species inflict fewer bites. Australasia The vast majority of venomous snakebites in Australasia occur in the Australasian ecozone. At least 300 evenomations occur each year in Papua New Guinea,",
"-33.517227944723345"
],
[
"explained by innate neophobia and a short field-life of prefeed baits, which together preclude acceptance of poison baits as familiar food. Reptiles and amphibians Reptiles and amphibians are susceptible to 1080, although much less sensitive than mammals. Amphibian and reptile species that have been tested in Australia are generally more tolerant to 1080 poison than are most other animals. McIlroy (1992) calculated that even if lizards fed entirely on insects or other animals poisoned with 1080, they could never ingest enough poison to receive a lethal dose. Laboratory trials in New Zealand simulating worst-case scenarios indicate that both Leiopelma archeyi",
"-32.34703475621063"
],
[
"commonly used in Australia to control introduced pests such as European rabbits, foxes, feral predators, and wild dogs such as dingoes. The poison is extremely toxic to introduced pests, but less so to native animals as it is found naturally in many Australian plants. However, juvenile quolls may be susceptible to the poison. Research is underway to determine whether the number of quolls protected from predators may be less than those killed by the poison. Conservation efforts Since 1770, all Australian quoll species have declined in number owing to habitat loss caused by urbanization. The northern quoll is threatened by",
"-32.01877204869379"
],
[
"from Mexico is not permitted, but cantils of both species are often captive-bred, making them frequently available in the exotic pet trade. They are also well represented in zoos throughout North America and Europe. Venom According to Gloyd and Conant (1990), \"this species is greatly feared throughout its range,\" in some areas even more so than Bothrops asper. In Sonora, Mexico, it is feared more than any other reptile. In Nicaragua, it is considered the country's most dangerous snake.\nBite symptoms, in general, may include nothing more than local pain, swelling and discoloration, but those from adult specimens can cause massive",
"-31.820183924690355"
],
[
"species are nitrophilic, with a preference for calcareous soils. They typically occur in rich humus in broadleaf or conifer woodland, in northern Europe often among nettles (Urtica dioica) or dog's mercury (Mercurialis perennis). A few species are more frequently found in calcareous grassland or in dunes. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, but with a preference for warm areas, meaning there are fewer species in colder climates. Around 400 species are currently recognized worldwide. Toxicity Several species contain amatoxins and are lethally poisonous, if consumed. Those known to have caused fatalities include Lepiota brunneoincarnata, L. brunneolilacea, L. castanea, L. helveola,",
"-31.57717191829579"
],
[
"because no-one knew what the place was called.\nBoth the flora and fauna of the continent are extremely dangerous, as Death's Library attests. A book series known as Dangerous Mammals, Reptiles, Amphibians, Birds, Fish, Jellyfish, Insects, Spiders, Crustaceans, Grasses, Trees, Mosses and Lichens of Terror Incognita extends at least into Volume 29c Part Three, while a list of the harmless ones contains only \"Some of the sheep.\" There are few poisonous snakes in XXXX, the explanation being that \"most of them have been eaten by the spiders\".\nFor much of its history, the entire continent was surrounded with a huge anticyclone which",
"-31.38490354793612"
],
[
"other pholcids are often the subject of a popular urban legend about how they are the most venomous known animals except that 'their fangs are too small to penetrate human skin'. While they do possess potent venom against insects and other spiders (some cellar spiders, for example, prey on deadly redback spiders in Australia), their venom is not harmful to humans.",
"-31.317062176126"
],
[
"of this species, bites are relatively common. Domestic animals and livestock are frequent victims. In Great Britain, most instances occur in March–October. In Sweden, there are about 1,300 bites a year, with an estimated 12% that require hospitalisation. At least eight different antivenoms are available against bites from this species.\nMallow et al. (2003) describe the venom toxicity as being relatively low compared to other viper species. They cite Minton (1974) who reported the LD₅₀ values for mice to be 0.55 mg/kg IV, 0.80 mg/kg IP and 6.45 mg/kg SC. As a comparison, in one test the minimum lethal dose of venom for a",
"-31.283605169639486"
],
[
"unusually potent venom, wide access to antivenom, which is available for all dangerous species, has made deaths exceedingly rare. It is believed that up to 1,500 definite or suspected snakebites occur in Australia each year, of which about 200 are serious enough to warrant antivenom therapy. Approximately 2 to 4 fatalities occur annually. Europe In Europe, nearly all of the snakes responsible for venomous bites belong to the viper family, and of these, the coastal viper, nose-horned viper, asp viper, and Lataste's viper inflict the majority of bites. Although Europe has a population of some 731 million people, snake bites are",
"-31.11204835685203"
],
[
"because they are able to kill quickly with their teeth or claws, whereas venom, no matter how sophisticated, requires time to disable prey.\nIn spite of the rarity of venom among extant mammals, venom may be an ancestral feature among mammals, as venomous spurs akin to those of the modern platypus are found in most non-therian Mammaliaformes groups.\nVenom is much more common among other vertebrates; there are many more species of venomous reptiles (e.g. venomous snakes) and fish (e.g. stonefish). Some birds are poisonous to eat or touch, and Sinornithosaurus, a dinosaur related to birds, may have had a venomous bite.",
"-30.881710306639434"
],
[
"likely to consume smaller prey such as shrews (averaging 8 g (0.28 oz) and unable to attack subadult eastern cottontail rabbits (averaging 500–1,000 g (1.1–2.2 lb) but Peromyscus was the number one prey item for both young and adult rattlesnakes. Several birds, although always secondary to mammals, are also known to be hunted, mainly ground-dwelling species such as bobwhites, but also a surprising number of passerines. Venom Potentially, this is one of North America's most dangerous snakes, due to its long fangs, impressive size, and high venom yield. This is to some degree offset by its relatively mild disposition and long brumation period. Before",
"-30.86398019702756"
],
[
"administration.\nThere can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans (cf. paracetamol toxicity), and vice versa. For example, chocolate, comparatively harmless to humans, is known to be toxic to many animals. When used to test venom from venomous creatures, such as snakes, LD₅₀ results may be misleading due to the physiological differences between mice, rats, and humans. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators of mice, and their venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate mice; and mongooses may be exceptionally resistant. While most mammals have a very",
"-30.849760734199663"
],
[
"ambush predator that uses its excellent camouflage to hide itself in vegetation or leaf litter. It hunts and eats mainly rodents, but also small birds, lizards, and insects. It is often found in and around farmland due to the associated rodent populations. Characteristics The venom of this species varies very little among Japan, China, and Korea in terms of both its potency and its effects. According to Yoshimitsu (2005), this species and the Okinawan habu, another pitviper, are the most venomous snakes in Japan. The venom's lethality as measured by LD₅₀ in mice following intraperitoneal injection is in",
"-30.82916400825343"
],
[
"Invasive species of Australian origin There are a number of Australian species that have become invasive when introduced into outside Australia or outside Oceania. Animals The Australian magpie was introduced into New Zealand and are considered to be a pest because of attacks on humans and a possible effect on the native bird population.\nThe common brushtail possum was introduced to New Zealand to start a fur industry, and spread nationwide. With no natural controls they have severe impact on native plant species and thereby endanger native animals species too. Possums have also been observed eating the eggs of nesting birds",
"-30.523320525331656"
],
[
"to be responsible for up to 60% of all deaths caused by snakebite.\nIn Northern Australia, sea snakes are common and occasionally inflict bites, although far less frequently than terrestrial snakes. Several venomous colubrids exist in Australia as well, such as the brown tree snake, although they have geographically limited distributions and only very rarely deliver a medically significant bite. In Tasmania and Kangaroo Island, which have a cooler, moister habitat than mainland Australia, the tiger snakes and copperhead snakes inflict the majority of bites. The brown snakes are not present on these islands.\nDespite the fact that many Australian snakes have",
"-30.425411883275956"
],
[
"predators, feeding primarily on insects and other invertebrates. Larger specimens have been observed preying on frogs, tarantulas, lizards, birds, snakes, rodents, and even bats. One southeast Asian species, S. cataracta, is amphibious, and swims and walks underwater. Venom The venom is not medically significant for most species, however bites from the species Scolopendra subspinipes and Scolopendra heros are reported to cause extreme pain and swelling, and have caused one reported fatality. In 2014, a fatality was reported for a bite from a Scolopendra gigantea. The venom of certain Scolopendra species were found to contain compounds such as serotonin, haemolytic phospholipase,",
"-30.390245565300575"
],
[
"fauna by predation while the cane toad poisons the predators by being eaten. The invasive species include birds (Indian mynah) and fish (common carp), insects (red imported fire ant) and molluscs (Asian mussel). The problem is compounded by invasive exotic flora as well as introduced diseases, fungi and parasites.\nCostly, laborious and time-consuming efforts at control of these species has met with little success and this continues to be a major problem area in the conservation of Australia's biodiversity.\nMany of the introduced species are not regulated through wildlife services and can be regularly hunted year-round. Human impact and conservation For at",
"-30.375835816077597"
],
[
"versa. For example, chocolate, comparatively harmless to humans, is known to be toxic to many animals. When used to test venom from venomous creatures, such as snakes, LD₅₀ results may be misleading due to the physiological differences between mice, rats, and humans. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators on mice, and their venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate mice; and mongooses may be exceptionally resistant. While most mammals have a very similar physiology, LD₅₀ results may or may not have equal bearing upon every mammal species, such as humans, etc. Animal rights concerns Animal-rights and animal-welfare groups, such as",
"-30.354834472585935"
],
[
"bites. Commonly used antivenoms in India do not appear to be effective against hump-nosed viper bites. According to the most conservative estimates, at least 81,000 snake envenomings and 11,000 fatalities occur in India each year, making it the most heavily affected country in the world. The Malayan pit viper and banded krait are two other species involved in a significant number of venomous bites.\nIn Myanmar (Burma), approximately 70 to 80% of bites are inflicted by the Russell's viper, which is frequently found in rice fields. In Japan, the majority of venomous bites are inflicted by the Asian pit vipers. In",
"-30.325011910448666"
],
[
"not enough. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators whose venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate their preferred prey. A number of other factors are also critical in determining the potential hazard of any given venomous snake to humans, including their distribution and behavior. For example, while the inland taipan is regarded as the world's most venomous snake based on LD₅₀ tests on mice, it is a shy species and rarely strikes, and has not caused any known human fatalities. On the other hand, India's Big Four (Indian cobra, common krait, Russell's viper, and saw-scaled viper), while less venomous than",
"-30.269336469937116"
],
[
"in the less arid regions; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts. Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra. Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world. The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE. Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement, including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European",
"-30.252167124926927"
],
[
"otters, California sea lions, eared seals and northern elephant seals. In the dry, inland desert areas of states such as California, Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico there are some of the world’s most venomous lizards, snakes and scorpions. The most notorious might be the Gila monster and Mohave rattlesnake, both found in deserts in the Southwest. The Sonoran Desert has eleven species of rattlesnakes - more than anywhere else in the world.\nAlong the southwestern border there are jaguars and ocelots. Other mammals include the Virginia opossum, which occurs throughout California and coastal areas in Oregon and Washington. The North American",
"-30.22199413733324"
],
[
"shown by studies in Japan (27.5%), Sicily (25.7%, one snake species), Arizona (14.9%, one snake species), Kazakhstan (9.7%, one snake species), and the French Pyrenees (9.7%). Usually colubrid snakes (sometimes called \"harmless snakes\") are hunted but venomous species are also occasionally taken, especially the prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) in North America and the European adder (Vipera berus) in Europe.\nIn some areas tortoises are more important in the diet than snakes, and they displace mammals and birds as the most important prey group in most of Southeastern Europe as well as the Caucasus. Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) and Greek tortoises (Testudo",
"-30.221887775725918"
],
[
"another with a plastic fork in its stomach. Another swallowed six golf balls that a chicken owner had placed in their coop to prompt their chickens to lay eggs.\nThey are preyed upon by dingoes and birds of prey, and like all Australian goannas, they were a favourite traditional food of Australian Aboriginal peoples, and their fat was particularly valued as a medicine and for use in ceremonies. Venom In late 2005, University of Melbourne researchers discovered that all monitors may be somewhat venomous. Previously, bites inflicted by monitors were thought to be prone to infection because of bacteria in their",
"-30.157890137284994"
],
[
"the world. Not infrequently, they are locally rare due to persecution. The normal cause of persecution is their possible status of predators of small domestic stock, though this is certain to be rare, at least in areas with substantial wild prey populations. An additional threat is the residual effects of pesticides, as poison (usually through rodenticide or poisoned carcasses left out for scavengers such as jackals) consumed through prey may badly affect them. They may be killed by flying into novel man-made objects, including wires and massive dams along reservoirs. \nHabitat destruction can also affect them, as they require ample",
"-30.10585715716661"
],
[
"and isolated populations in northern and central Mexico. Venom Although bites from Sistrurus species are regarded as less dangerous to humans than those from Crotalus rattlesnakes, primarily due to their lower venom yield, every venomous snake bite should be considered serious and prompt medical treatment should always be sought.",
"-29.991038554842817"
],
[
"feeds on reptiles, birds, and small mammals in the wild. Venom The venom of B. dendrophila is not considered life-threatening to humans, and it has been kept as a pet.",
"-29.923518235078518"
],
[
"different from other places. In Malinalco there are very few dangerous animals: among snakes only account: coral snake, rattlesnake (at least four species) and the cliff, and despite its many spiders only one is really dangerous: the black widow and the Twelve species of scorpion registered in the municipality is really a problem only for human health, however one must consider that these species are not aggressive and do not attack if they are not provoked, as well as their presence is so small that we seldom have reported serious cases. Nevertheless, there are a number of myths that have",
"-29.909072662194376"
],
[
"species has been reported eating roadkill, the sloughed skins of other reptiles, and is known to exhibit cannibalism. Specimens in captivity have been observed eating their own faeces. It is opportunistic, eating a higher proportion of frogs in wetter areas.\nKing brown snakes are sensitive to cane toad toxins and have died after eating them. Despite this, field research before and after the arrival of cane toads to the Adelaide River floodplain in the Northern Territory did not show a decline in king brown snake numbers, though this could have been because the snake had already declined in the region. Venom",
"-29.886417061148677"
],
[
"world. The toxicity of the venom may have evolved due to the intense predation by animals and birds during the day, since Myrmecia is primarily diurnal. In Tasmania, 2–3% of the human population is allergic to M. pilosula venom. In comparison, only 1.6% people are allergic to the venom of the western honeybee (Apis mellifera), and 0.6% to the venom of the European wasp (Vespula germanica). In a 2011 Australian ant-venom allergy study, the objective of which was to determine what native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis, 265 of the 376 participants in the study reacted",
"-29.866659247956704"
],
[
"treatment. Until recently, their venom has often been regarded as less toxic than that of many other species, perhaps because bites are uncommon, but this turned out not to be the case. There are now a number of reports of bites that have led to severe hemorrhaging of internal organs.",
"-29.699271667108405"
],
[
"July 2018, a South African News website reported that 3 rhino poachers were mauled and eaten by lions at Sibuya Game Reserve in Eastern Cape province, South Africa. Leopards Man-eating leopards are a small percentage of all leopards, but have undeniably been a menace in some areas; one leopard in India killed over 200 people. Jim Corbett was noted to have stated that unlike tigers, which usually became man-eaters because of infirmity, leopards more commonly did so after scavenging on human corpses. In the area that Corbett knew well, dead people are usually cremated completely, but when there is a",
"-29.692653835576493"
],
[
"does not always reflect an adaptation to venom delivery. Insectivores With the exception of vampire bats, insectivores are the only mammals so far observed to produce toxic saliva. \nThese species have significantly enlarged and granular submaxillary salivary glands from which the toxic saliva is produced.\nThe Cuban solenodon (Solenodon cubanus) and Hispaniolan solenodon (Solenodon paradoxus) look similar to large shrews. They both have venomous bites; the venom is delivered from modified salivary glands via grooves in their second lower incisors. It was reported that death was frequent among Hispaniolan solenodons kept together in the same enclosure, with bite marks on their",
"-29.622405876289122"
],
[
"it is still subject to those threats that threaten all Australian reptiles. These threats include introduced diseases, death on roads, habitat modification, degradation and loss and feral predators such as foxes, dogs, cats and even cane toads.",
"-29.611526060365577"
],
[
"arthropod-consuming Echis species was more toxic to locusts than that of vertebrate-consuming species.\nA 2009 study of the venom of four Sistrurus pit viper species found significant variation in the toxicity to mice. This variation was related to the proportion of small mammals in the diet of those species. The idea that Sistrurus venom had evolved to accommodate a mammal-based diet was supported by phylogenetic analysis. The researchers suggested that the basis for the difference in toxicity was the difference in muscle physiology in the various prey animals. Two lineages of elapid snakes, common sea snakes and Laticauda sea kraits, have",
"-29.560622859746218"
],
[
"rocky habitats, while the species that occur at more northern latitudes prefer lower elevations and environments that have more vegetation and moisture. Behavior All species are terrestrial. Reproduction All members are viviparous, giving birth to live young. Venom Most Vipera species have venom that contains both neurotoxic and haemotoxic components. Bites vary widely in severity.\nV. ammodytes is most likely the one with the most toxic venom. In a study solely involving mice, Brown (1973) shows that the LD50 is about 1.2/mg/kg through an IV, 1.5 mg/Kg when injected in the peritoneum (IP) and 2.0 mg/kg when administered subcutaneously.\nV. berus venom is considered",
"-29.55895776444231"
],
[
"while native animals such as wallabies, small kangaroos, possums, wombats, koalas, and bandicoots are also prey. In some areas, birds such as cockatoos, Australian brushturkeys, ducks, crows, ibises, and even young emus are more frequent prey items. Reptiles are less frequently taken, but can include frill-necked lizards, goannas, and brown snakes.\nThey display considerable adaptability, and have been known to team up to hunt large red kangaroos, to cause goats to fall off steep hillsides and injure themselves, or to drive flocks of sheep or kangaroos to isolate a weaker animal.\nCarrion is a major diet item, also; wedge-tails can spot the",
"-29.391797849879367"
],
[
"the Appendix II list of vulnerable species, which makes the import, export, and trade of listed wild-caught animals illegal. A decline has occurred on the Swan Coastal Plain north of Perth. There, Australian boobook owls are dying after eating the rodents people have killed with second-generation anticoagulant rat poison. Older poisons such as warfarin or coumatetralyl were unlikely to affect owls.",
"-29.383267422615972"
],
[
"from venomous snakebite between 1980 and 2008, an annual mortality of 0.0021 per\n100,000 inhabitants.\nBites from captive venomous snakes to a very specific and limited population of amateur herpetoculturists, zookeepers, and researchers are an issue in Europe, challenging hospital workers with unexpected situations. North America Of the 120 known indigenous snake species in North America, only 20 are venomous to human beings, all belonging to the families Viperidae and Elapidae. However, in the United States, every state except Maine, Alaska, and Hawaii is home to at least one of 20 venomous snake species. Up to 95% of all snakebite-related deaths in",
"-29.377952134542284"
],
[
"is strong enough to kill most vertebrates, including humans. However, it is dangerous only if ingested.\nDue to their toxicity, California newts have few natural predators. Garter snakes are the most common, and some species have developed a genetic resistance to tetrodotoxin. The mutations in the snake's genes that conferred resistance to the toxin have resulted in a selective pressure that favors newts that produce more potent levels of toxin. Increases in newt toxicity then apply a selective pressure favoring snakes with mutations conferring even greater resistance. This evolutionary arms race has resulted in the newts producing levels of toxin far",
"-29.35152288082645"
],
[
"species favour steep, south-facing slopes. Toxicity Like all Old World tarantulas, spiders in the genus Cyriopagopus lack the urticating hairs found in their New World counterparts, hence use biting as a primary means of both attack and defence. Some Cyriopagopus species are among those reported to have more toxic venom. Although bites may cause severe pain and a range of other effects, no fatalities are known. Cyriopagopus lividus, C. hainanus, and C. schmidti (under its synonym Selenocosmia huwena) have had their venom characterized. The last two produce hainantoxins and huwentoxins, respectively. Additionally, as with any envenomation, there is the possibility of a",
"-29.329726024414413"
],
[
"Spiders of Australia Australia has a number of highly venomous spiders, including the Sydney Funnel-web, its relatives in the family Hexathelidae, and the Redback Spider, whose bites can be extremely painful and have historically been linked with deaths in medical records. Most Australian spiders do not have venom that is considered to be dangerously toxic. No deaths caused by spider bites in Australia have been substantiated by a coronial inquest since 1979. There are sensationalised news reports regarding Australian spiders that fail to cite evidence. A Field Guide to Spiders of Australia published by CSIRO Publishing in 2017 featuring",
"-29.29104160820134"
],
[
"the total number of fatalities reported in Australia due to saltwater crocodile attack was 106. The low level of attacks may be due to extensive efforts by wildlife officials in Australia to post crocodile warning signs at numerous at-risk billabongs, rivers, lakes and beaches. Less-publicised attacks have been reported in Borneo, Sumatra, Eastern India (Andaman Islands), and Burma. In Sarawak, Borneo, the average number of fatal attacks is reportedly 2.8 annually for the years from 2000 to 2003. In the Northern Territory in Australia, attempts have been made to relocate saltwater crocodiles who have displayed aggressive behaviour towards humans but",
"-29.276710344594903"
],
[
"Sri Lanka, approximately 40% of bites are caused by the Russell's viper, while 35% are caused by the Indian cobra. In Thailand, the monocled cobra is responsible for the majority of snakebite fatalities. Tea plantations are sometimes associated with elapids such as the common cobras and the king cobra.\nReports of large man-eating pythons are common in Southeast Asia, although the threat is typically exaggerated. However, in the Philippines, more than a quarter of Aeta men (a modern forest-dwelling hunter-gatherer group) have reported surviving a reticulated python attack. Pythons are nonvenomous ambush predators, and both the Aeta and pythons hunt deer,",
"-29.267495717009297"
],
[
"feigning death. Conservation Snakes are commonly feared throughout the world. Bounties were paid for dead cobras under the British Raj in India; similarly, there have been advertised rattlesnake roundups in North America. Data shows that between 1959 and 1986 an average of 5,563 rattlesnakes were killed per year in Sweetwater, Texas, due to rattlesnake roundups, and these roundups have led to documented declines and local extirpations of rattlesnake populations, especially Eastern Diamondbacks in Georgia.\nHabitat destruction is the leading negative impact of humans on reptiles. Humans continue to develop land that is important habitat for the lepidosaurs. The clear-cutting of land",
"-29.252815604791977"
],
[
"diet and actively hunt and kill humans. Most reported cases of man-eaters have involved lions, tigers, leopards, and crocodilians. However, they are not the only predators that will attack humans if given the chance; a wide variety of species have also been known to adopt humans as usual prey, including bears, Komodo dragons and hyenas. Tigers Tigers are recorded to have killed more people than any other big cat, and tigers have been responsible for more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal. About 1,000 people were reportedly killed each year in India during the early 1900s,",
"-29.232908870537358"
],
[
"fish (V. mertensi), birds, snails, smaller lizards, snakes, marsupials, and other small mammals, such as rodents. The giant perentie has been observed killing a young kangaroo, and then biting out chunks of flesh like a dog.\nAll species are carrion eaters, so will feed on the carcasses of dead animals, including livestock and other large creatures. The smell of rotting meat will attract these lizards. Confrontations Like most native fauna, goannas are rather wary of human intrusions into their habitat, and will most likely run away (into the scrub, up a tree, or into the water, depending on the species). A",
"-29.198920979339164"
],
[
"frogs, are especially toxic. The native peoples of South America extract poison from these frogs to apply to their weapons for hunting, although few species are toxic enough to be used for this purpose. At least two non-poisonous frog species in tropical America (Eleutherodactylus gaigei and Lithodytes lineatus) mimic the colouration of dart poison frogs for self-protection. Some frogs obtain poisons from the ants and other arthropods they eat. Others, such as the Australian corroboree frogs (Pseudophryne corroboree and Pseudophryne pengilleyi), can synthesize the alkaloids themselves. The chemicals involved may be irritants, hallucinogens, convulsants, nerve poisons or vasoconstrictors. Many predators",
"-29.1479402117875"
],
[
"venom into its prey. The venom is toxic to both mammals and insects, but does not appear to be strong enough to kill large animals quickly. It can cause severe pain in humans which can last for several days but which can be relieved somewhat by the application of icepacks. Some people report \"intense pain\", while others claim it is no worse than a wasp sting. There has been at least one reported death from the related centipede species Scolopendra subspinipes in which a young girl was bitten and died.",
"-29.14601664930524"
],
[
"victims. The venom is known to paralyse the victim's nervous system and clot the blood, which then blocks blood vessels and uses up clotting factors. Members of this genus are considered to be among the most venomous land snakes based on their murine LD₅₀, an indicator of the toxicity on mice. The inland taipan is considered to be the most venomous land snake and the coastal taipan, which is arguably the largest Australian venomous snake, is the third-most venomous land snake. The central ranges taipan has been less researched than other species of this genus, so the exact toxicity of",
"-29.101651915734692"
],
[
"The pig-nosed turtle is the only Australian turtle not of that family. Australia is the only continent without any living species of land tortoise.\nAustralia is the only continent where venomous snakes outnumber their non-venomous cousins. Australian snakes belong to seven families. Of these, the most venomous species, including the fierce snake, eastern brown snake, taipan and eastern tiger snake are from the family Elapidae. Of the 200 species of elapid, 86 are found only in Australia. Thirty-three sea snakes from family Hydrophiidae inhabit Australia's northern waters; many are extremely venomous. Two species of sea snake from the Acrochordidae also occur",
"-29.07359751682816"
],
[
"poisoning with carbofuran pesticides at livestock baits being used to poison mammalian predators is also an issue in East Africa.\nOn the 20th of June 2019, the carcasses of 468 white-backed vultures, 17 white-headed vultures, 28 hooded vultures, 14 lappet-faced vultures and 10 cape vultures), altogether 537 vultures, besides 2 tawny eagles, were found in northern Botswana. It is suspected that they died after eating the carcasses of 3 elephants that were poisoned by poachers, possibly to avoid detection by the birds, which help rangers to track poaching activity by circling above where there are dead animals.\nThe species may also be",
"-29.066131504776422"
],
[
"owing to various factors including poisoning, hunting, habitat loss and degradation of habitat. Hunting is the most well-known threat to the species, however, poisoning has been shown to have the highest impact on the population. Poisoning of the species has been both unintentional and intentional, with unintentional poisoning being caused through the poisoning of other animals which the species feeds on. Hunting on the other hand is caused by vultures being used by people in traditional medicine and cultural beliefs and as a food source, particularly in West and southern Africa. Researchers interviewed vendors in street markets in northern Nigeria",
"-29.01087855087826"
],
[
"is the eastern coast of Australia, with specimens found in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland. The only Australian states or territories without members of this family are Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Medical significance Australian funnel-web spiders are one of the most dangerous groups of spiders in the world and are regarded by some to be the most deadly, both in terms of clinical cases and venom toxicity. Six species have caused severe injuries to human victims, including the Sydney funnel-web spider (Atrax robustus), the northern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider (Hadronyche formidabilis), the southern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider",
"-28.981638400837255"
],
[
"a certain taxon, or strongly toxic only to a certain taxon, has been found in a number of snakes, suggesting that these venoms have evolved via natural selection to subdue preferred prey species. Examples of this phenomenon have been found in the Mangrove snake Boiga dendrophila, which has a venom specifically toxic to birds, as well as in the genera Echis and Sistrurus, and in sea snakes. However, while several snakes possess venom that is highly toxic to their preferred prey species, the reverse correlation is not necessarily true: the venoms of several snakes are toxic to taxa that they",
"-28.973870321409777"
],
[
"Asian common toad secretes toxins from glands in their backs to deter predators. These toxins would beyond reasonable doubt severely affect native predators, such as snakes, goannas and quolls.\nThe recent rate of incursions suggests a high likelihood of establishment in Australia. So, experts are calling for the Australian government to develop a “high-priority contingency plan” that includes stronger environmental quarantine and surveillance strategies.",
"-28.962703498109477"
],
[
"Studies by DoC have found that the risk of the few losses of native birds; (34 individuals in 70 aerial drop operations) and native invertebrates and mammals are outweighed by the recovery of the native species once the competition for food and predation has been eased. There is the added benefit of killing other invasive species. There have been isolated reports of pets, in particular dogs, succumbing to poisoning from 1080, probably through eating possum carcasses. The Animal Health Board and the Department of Conservation jointly operate poison drops. The effects of these drops on the environment have been considered",
"-28.959148925659974"
],
[
"wolf. Some of these, including the internationally recognised snow leopard are endangered and at risk of extinction. Reptiles There are several different types of reptile native to the country, ranging from pit vipers to monitor lizards. Some of the more prominent examples include the Bengal monitor, Gloydius himalayanus (a pit viper), the elongated tortoise (Indotestudo elongata), Trimeresurus septentrionalis, and the yellow monitor. Although the above are found elsewhere in southeast Asia, there are quite a few reptile species unique to the country, including Sitana fusca and Cyrtodactylus nepalensis.Sitana sivalensis, Japalura tricarinata, the Annapurna ground skink (Scincella capitanea), the lidless skink",
"-28.954201062060747"
],
[
"Toxic bird Toxic birds are birds that use toxins to defend themselves from predators. No species of bird is known to actively inject or even produce venom, but some birds are known to be poisonous to touch or eat. These birds usually sequester poisons from animals and plants that they feed on, commonly from poisonous insects.\nThe pitohui, the ifrita, and the rufous or little shrikethrush sequester batrachotoxin in their skin and feathers. The African spur-winged goose is toxic to eat as it sequesters poison in its tissues, from the blister beetles that it feeds on. Common quail are also known",
"-28.936812192201614"
],
[
"low fluorine soils. Brush-tailed possums, bush rats, and western grey kangaroos native to this region are capable of safely eating plants containing fluoroacetate, but livestock and introduced species from elsewhere in Australia are highly susceptible to the poison, as are species introduced from outside Australia, such as the red fox. The fact that many Gastrolobium species also have high secondary toxicity to non-native carnivores is thought to have limited the ability of cats to establish populations in locations where the plants form a major part of the understorey vegetation.\nThe presence of Gastrolobium species in the fields of farmers in Western",
"-28.879516176413745"
],
[
"grasp at it) first. Indigenous Australians who hunt goannas for food consider the perentie as a high-risk (but tasty) prey.\nThere is a growing debate on whether goannas are venomous. The incessant bleeding caused by goanna bites had been thought to be the result of bacterial infection, but a 2005 study suggests monitor lizards (including goannas) are venomous and have oral toxin-producing glands.\nThe goanna's hefty tail can be dangerous when swung, much like a crocodile's tail; small children and dogs have been knocked down by such attacks. Often, victims in goanna attacks are bystanders, watching the person antagonising the goanna. Alarmed",
"-28.85765256610466"
],
[
"are more venomous fish than venomous snakes and indeed more than the combined total of all other venomous vertebrates. Venomous fish are found in almost all habitats around the world, but mostly in tropical waters. They injure over 50,000 people every year.\nThey carry their venom in venom glands and use various delivery systems, such as spines or sharp fins, barbs, spikes and fangs. Venomous fish tend to be either very visible, using flamboyant colors to warn enemies, or skilfully camouflaged and maybe buried in the sand. Apart from the defense or hunting value, venom helps bottom dwelling fish by killing",
"-28.85182250550133"
],
[
"on species of native birds, mammals, and herpetofauna have been a source of concern for wildlife managers. Venom The incidence of snakebite in the Amami Islands is 2 per 1,000 people, which is considered very high. The venom of this species is of high toxicity, containing cytotoxin and haemorrhagin components, yet the fatality rate is less than 1%. A bite from a habu snake can cause nausea, vomiting, hypotension, and possibly death. There have been cases where victims report the loss of motor function in hands and legs following treatment. If a bite victim receives medical care promptly, bites",
"-28.847047967312392"
],
[
"wild appear to be low. Natural predators include snakes, water rats, goannas, hawks, owls, and eagles. Low platypus numbers in northern Australia are possibly due to predation by crocodiles. The introduction of red foxes in 1845 for hunting may have had some impact on its numbers on the mainland. The platypus is generally regarded as nocturnal and crepuscular, but individuals are also active during the day, particularly when the sky is overcast. Its habitat bridges rivers and the riparian zone for both a food supply of prey species, and banks where it can dig resting and nesting burrows. It may",
"-28.843178552866448"
],
[
"in other regions of the world, snakebites are probably underreported. South America In the Neotropics, the lance-headed vipers inflict the majority of fatal bites, although of the many known species, only two, the common lancehead and terciopelo, are responsible for most fatalities. The tropical rattlesnake is another important species.\nVenomous snakebite in Central and South America was reviewed extensively by Warrell. Estimates of the number of deaths resulting from venomous snakebite based on hospital and Ministry of Health data are underestimates and \"notoriously inaccurate\", ranging from 3,000-4,000 deaths estimated in 1954 to 5,000 deaths out of 300,000 bites in 1998. This",
"-28.821787911118008"
],
[
"real predators in the wild, other than humans. Young rhinos can however fall prey to big cats, crocodiles, African wild dogs, and hyenas.\nAlthough rhinos are large and have a reputation for being tough, they are very easily poached; they visit water holes daily and can be easily killed while they drink. As of December 2009, poaching increased globally while efforts to protect the rhino are considered increasingly ineffective. The most serious estimate, that only 3% of poachers are successfully countered, is reported of Zimbabwe, while Nepal has largely avoided the crisis. Poachers have become more sophisticated. South African officials have",
"-28.820658656852174"
],
[
"gobies, cardinalfish, wrassees, triggerfish and surgeonfish. There are several venomous fish, among them several species of stonefish and pufferfish and the red lionfish, all of which have toxins that can kill humans. There are 11 venomous species of stingray, the largest of which is the smooth stingray. The barracudas are one of the reef's largest species. However, large reef fish should not be eaten for fear of ciguatera poisoning.\nSharks inhabit all the coastal waters and estuarine habitats of Australia's coast. There are 166 species, including 30 species of requiem shark, 32 of catshark, six of wobbegong shark, and 40 of",
"-28.81135519426607"
],
[
"variety of vertebrates. Many of these, including lizards, frogs, birds, and mammals, are generalist predators of all kinds of large arthropods. Mammals that have been known to prey on tarantulas, such as the coati, kinkajou, and opossum in the New World, and mongooses and the honey badger in the Old World, are often immune to the venom of their arthropod prey.\nHumans also consume tarantulas for food in their native ranges. They are considered a delicacy in certain cultures (e.g. Venezuela and Cambodia). They can be roasted over an open fire to remove the hairs (described further below) and then",
"-28.789418276774086"
],
[
"Hunting remains primary means of control of the invasive species; government operations have killed more than 24,000 tahrs by shooting since 1993. As a primary method of tahr population control (although hard to quantify), hunting seems to be an efficient strategy because a large number of people take part in it. Control by poisoning In 1960, sodium monofluoroacetate (also known as compound 1080) was used to poison tahrs. This derivative of fluoroacetic acid is commonly used in many countries such as Mexico, Australia, the United States, and New Zealand as a pesticide. Compound 1080 is highly water-soluble and is",
"-28.77630151140147"
],
[
"the venom is relatively harmless and its effects are comparable to those of a wasp's sting. Tarantulas generally bite humans only in self defense, and these bites do not always result in envenomation (known as a \"dry bite\"). Feeding Despite its name, the Goliath birdeater only rarely actually preys on birds; in the wild, its diet consists primarily of other large arthropods, worms, and amphibians. However, because of its size and opportunistic predatory behavior, this species commonly kills and consumes a variety of insects and small terrestrial vertebrates. In the wild, T. blondi has been observed feeding on",
"-28.688241088297218"
],
[
"species, a few frogs, the American toad, and the Eastern box and painted turtles. Some poisonous snakes have been found, although garter snakes and other non-hazardous species are more common.\nWoodland birds like ruffed grouse and wild turkey are dominant among avian species, with Canada geese and mallard ducks conspicuous in and near the ponds. Smaller birds include the downy and hairy woodpeckers. All are prey for common predator species like the red-tailed hawk, Cooper's hawk and barred owl.\nMost insect species have not been formally counted. The American Museum of Natural History, a consortium member, has counted 296 spider species in",
"-28.678476347460673"
],
[
"consume Arizona bark scorpions, which are the most venomous scorpions in North America: their stings can be fatal to humans.\nPallid bats were found to have one or more missense mutations that substitute amino acids in their voltage-gated sodium channels, which may be responsible for their resistance to scorpion venom. Although pallid bats are primarily insectivores, they exhibit some flexibility in their diet when seasonally feeding on Mexican columnar cacti (particularly cardón cactus) nectar in spring, and even cactus fruit in summer. Pallid bats are also more effective pollinators than some of the nectarivorous bats with whom they compete for cacti.\nPallid",
"-28.63711737680933"
],
[
"toad is poisonous to freshwater crocodiles, although not to saltwater crocodiles, and the toad is rampant throughout the Australian wilderness. The crocodiles are also infected by Griphobilharzia amoena, a parasitic trematode, in regions such as Darwin. Danger towards humans Although the freshwater crocodile does not attack humans as potential prey, it can deliver a nasty bite. Brief and rapidly abandoned attacks have occurred, and were likely the result of mistaken identity (mistaking a part of the human as a typical prey item). Other attacks have occurred in self-defense when the crocodile was touched or approached too closely. There have been",
"-28.619157544195332"
],
[
"jaw closure.\nWhile birds, including raptors, wading birds and roadrunners, and mammals are known to prey on reptiles, the major predator is other reptiles. Some reptiles eat reptile eggs, for example the diet of the Nile monitor includes crocodile eggs, and small reptiles are preyed upon by larger ones.\nThe geographic ranges of snakes and lizards are vast and cover all but the most extreme cold parts of the globe. Amphisbaenians exist in Florida, mainland Mexico, including Baja California, the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, South America, and the Caribbean. The tuatara is confined to only a few",
"-28.614690271257132"
],
[
"which include famous examples such as the black mamba (one of the most deadly snakes in the world), eastern green mamba, boomslang, Cape cobra and rinkhals. Though human fatalities can occur, these snakes are normally timid and prefer to avoid humans. Snakes, both venomous and non-venomous, are important in controlling rodent populations.\nSeveral species of tortoise occur. The most widespread is the leopard tortoise, which inhabits semi-arid and grassland habitats. Fish, sea, and river life South Africa has rich and varied sea life, thanks to the confluence of two major oceans (the Atlantic and the Indian) around its southernmost point,",
"-28.603901849128306"
],
[
"wild ass. Predation The onager is preyed upon by apex predators such as Persian leopard and striped hyenas. A few cases of onager deaths due to predation by leopards were recorded in Iran. Though leopards do not usually feed on equids as in Africa, this may be because Persian leopards are larger and strong enough to prey on Asiatic wild asses.\nIn the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent, Asiatic lions and tigers were the biggest predators of onagers. They were also formerly preyed upon by Asiatic wild dog, Asiatic cheetahs, and possibly bears, though they may have mostly preyed only",
"-28.59553974593291"
],
[
"in clear, cool bodies of water, usually ponds, ditches, pools, or lakes. Reportedly, six subspecies are found through the Japanese islands: Atsumi, Hiroshima, Kanto, Sasayama, and Touhoku, each race originating from the region of Japan after which they are named.\nThese newts are poisonous in the wild, but animals bred in captivity may lose their toxicity. The skin of the wild animals contains tetrodotoxin (TTX), which is one of the most effective known nonpeptide toxins. It is a neurotoxin with no known antidote, and can cause death by suffocation in as quickly as six hours after ingestion. The toxin could",
"-28.592576160561293"
],
[
"parts are poisonous to mammals.",
"-28.58626935716893"
],
[
"under threat in Canada the primary threat is loss of habitat and degradation, followed by alien invasive species. Fifteen invasive species of fish and two invasive species of plant are reported to affect native listed wildlife. The two most common of them are the brown bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus) and the pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus).",
"-28.582831739475296"
],
[
"and tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish.\nDendrobatid poison dart frogs, especially those in the genus Phyllobates, secrete toxins such as Pumiliotoxin 251D and Allopumiliotoxin 267A powerful enough to be used to poison the tips of blowpipe darts. As pets A wide variety of animals are kept as pets, from invertebrates such as tarantulas and octopuses, insects including praying mantises, reptiles such as snakes and chameleons, and birds including canaries, parakeets and parrots all finding a place. However, mammals are the most popular pets in the Western world, with the most kept species being dogs, cats, and rabbits. For",
"-28.572025941502943"
],
[
"Cambodia, India, Laos, Malaysia (northwestern), Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand & Vietnam. Type locality is Rangpur, Bengal [Bangladesh]. Impact on humans & ecology No known human uses. Plays a role in ecosystem by eating various types of insects and otherwise. Threat to humans Non-venomous and harmless to humans. May bite when handled, but is not dangerous. IUCN threat status Not Evaluated (NE). Interesting notes Can break off its own tail when grabbed by predators; the tail regenerative and will grow back over time.",
"-28.532812090648804"
],
[
"a worm or caterpillar and is thus a tempting morsel for a passing lizard. Venom Desert death adders have large fangs, and their glands produce a considerable quantity of toxic venom. Today, it rarely is the cause of snake bites in Australia. They are regarded as very dangerous. The venom is most significantly neurotoxin, which once had a 50% mortality rate. Reproduction Desert death adders mate during spring or early summer, with the babies being produced in late summer or early autumn. Unlike most other snakes, desert death adders give birth to live young. Up to 13 live young may",
"-28.521058073514723"
],
[
"hunts for mammalian prey on the ground. Reproduction Females give birth to up to 12 young at a time. Newborns are about 15 cm (5.9 in) in total length. Venom Not much is known about their venom except that it is mainly neurotoxic. Besides the neurotoxins, they also carry cytotoxins and fasciculins. Toxicity of individual specimens within the same species and subspecies can vary greatly based on several factors, including geographical region. Even the weather and altitude can influence toxicity (Ernst and Zug et al. 1996). A bite can be fatal to humans without access to proper first aid and subsequent antivenom",
"-28.507017334879492"
],
[
"documented in any insects, with Pogonomyrmex maricopa being the most toxic tested thus far. It has an LD₅₀ of only 0.12 mg/kg, compared to western honey bee venom, at 2.8 mg/kg, and comparable to cobra venom. The venom is presumed to be an antivertebrate defense, specifically against predators that have evolved to selectively feed on them such as horned lizards. Very few insects have had the toxicity of their venoms formally tested, and other insects likely have more potent venoms. Nests These ants dig very deep nests with many underground chambers in which they keep seeds, from which they derive food for",
"-28.46490179130342"
],
[
"the Pacific, where Pteropus species are heavily hunted. In continental Africa where no Pteropus species live, the straw-coloured fruit bat, the region's largest megabat, is a preferred hunting target.\nIn Guam, consumption of the Mariana fruit bat exposes locals to the neurotoxin beta-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) which may later lead to neurodegenerative diseases. BMAA may become biomagnified in humans who consume flying foxes; flying foxes are exposed to BMAA by eating cycad fruits. As disease reservoirs Megabats are the reservoirs of several viruses that can affect humans and cause disease. They can carry filoviruses, including the Ebola virus (EBOV) and Marburgvirus. The presence",
"-28.45869190635858"
],
[
"many different habitat types including thornscrub, desert-scrub, woodland, grassland and farmland. It is found in the plains and lower mountain slopes from sea level to 5800 feet (1768 m); often found in rocky areas. Danger to humans New World coral snakes possess one of the most potent venoms of any North American snake. However, relatively few bites are recorded due to their reclusive nature and the fact they generally inhabit sparsely populated areas. According to the American National Institutes of Health, there are an average of 15–25 coral snake bites in the United States each year. \nWhen confronted by humans,",
"-28.457918321480975"
],
[
"controlled, kangaroos were abundant, and this affects the availability of grass.\nDomestic dogs are the only terrestrial predators in Australia that are big enough to kill fully grown sheep, and only a few sheep manage to recover from the severe injuries. In the case of lambs, death can have many causes apart from attacks by predators, which are blamed for the deaths because they eat from the carcasses. Although attacks by red foxes are possible, such attacks are more rare than previously thought. The fact that the sheep and goat industry is much more susceptible to damage caused by wild dogs",
"-28.451887451359653"
],
[
"The lethal dose of venom in humans is not known. The lethal dose of venom from male Sydney funnel-web spiders for the crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis) is 0.2 milligrams per kilogram (3.2×10⁻⁶ oz/lb). Higher figures were found for other experimental animals, such as 1.5 milligrams per kilogram (2.4×10⁻⁵ oz/lb) for two-day-old mice. The average venom yield for a male is 176 milligrams (2.72 gr). Guinness World Records has ranked the Sydney funnel-web spider as the world's most venomous spider, defining the term \"most venomous\" as \"having the venom most toxic to humans\", although it has also given this title to the Brazilian wandering",
"-28.43448413372971"
],
[
"the hairy-legged vampire bat (Diphylla ecaudata) and the white-winged vampire bat (Diaemus youngi). These bats produce toxic saliva with anticoagulant properties and have a series of anatomical and physiological adaptations to allow nourishment based solely on blood. The majority of their prey do not perish from the attack or contact with the venom. Primates Slow lorises (of the genus Nycticebus) are accepted as the only known venomous primate. Slow loris venom was known in folklore in their host countries throughout southeast Asia for centuries; but dismissed by Western science until the 1990s. There are nine recognised species of this small-bodied",
"-28.4251197706908"
],
[
"Africa. The distribution includes Natal, as far south as Durban, Mpumalanga Province Lowveld region, south-eastern Tanzania and Pemba Island and west to southern Angola and northern Namibia. Younger specimens are much more frequently encountered in the open at daytime. Unlike the Egyptian Cobra, this species prefers localities near water, to which it will readily take when disturbed. Toxicology It is considered one of the most dangerous snakes in Africa. Its venom is about as toxic as the American Mojave rattlesnake, considered the world's most venomous rattlesnake. Like the rinkhals, it can spit its venom. Its bite causes severe local tissue",
"-28.424993445150903"
],
[
"its prey with its body and biting it repeatedly. This injects the extremely toxic venom deep into the prey. The venom acts so rapidly that its prey does not have time to fight back. Natural threats The mulga snake (Pseudechis australis) is immune to most Australian snake venom, and is known to also eat young inland taipans. The perentie (Varanus giganteus) is a large monitor lizard that also shares the same habitat. As it grows large enough, it will readily tackle large venomous snakes for prey. Interaction with humans Many reptile keepers consider it a placid snake to work with.\nInland",
"-28.422976203699363"
],
[
"These are lethal to animals, such as sheep and goats, that graze on the plants. Other species of Scadoxus have been used in parts of tropical Africa as components of arrow poisons and fishing poisons.",
"-28.411349473099108"
],
[
"more poisonous species such as the Panther cap (Amanita pantherina).",
"-28.39949158584932"
],
[
"to become man-eaters—only jaguars and snow leopards have a less fearsome reputation. While leopards generally avoid humans, they tolerate proximity to humans better than lions and tigers and often come into conflict with humans when raiding livestock.\nLeopard attacks may have peaked in India during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, coinciding with rapid urbanization. Attacks in India are still relatively common, and in some regions of the country leopards kill more humans than all other large carnivores combined.\nIn Nepal, the rate of leopard predation on humans is estimated to be 16 times higher than anywhere else, resulting in approximately",
"-28.393794315037667"
],
[
"vegetation debris, i.e. oil palm windrows, and coconut palm husk piles. It may be encountered crossing roads following rain at night M. ikaheka hunts small vertebrates, including small rodents and bandicoots, ground-dwelling lizards such as skinks, and snakes, such as the New Guinea ground boa Candoia aspera. It is also cannibalistic. Venom M. ikaheca is considered a dangerous species, having been implicated in numerous fatal bites on humans. The first proven human fatality occurred in 1958 in Wau, Papua New Guinea, where a young man died 36 hours after being bitten on the base of the thumb",
"-28.39208950061584"
],
[
"items if eaten in sufficient quantities can cause seizures, spasms, tremors, gastroenteritis, cardiovascular collapse, coma, and then death. Hunting In North America, animals such as bear, wolf, caribou, moose, elk, boar, sheep and bison are hunted. In South America, deer and other species are hunted. In Europe, sheep, boar, goats, elk, deer, and other species are hunted. In Asia, several species of deer, bear, sheep and other species are hunted. In Australia, several species of deer and wild boar are hunted. Big-game Big-game hunting is the hunting of large game, almost always large terrestrial mammals, for",
"-28.387458439101465"
],
[
"for normal activity. Venom C. adamanteus has the reputation of being the most dangerous venomous snake in North America. While not usually aggressive, it is large and powerful. Wright and Wright mentioned a mortality rate of 30%, but other studies show a mortality rate of 10-20%.\nIn proportion to its length, it has the longest fangs of any rattlesnake species, with calculations leading one to expect an 8-ft specimen would have fangs with a total length of over 1 in (25 mm). For comparison, a 5-ft specimen had fangs measuring ²⁄₃-inch (17 mm) in length. It has a very high venom yield, an average",
"-28.384012700102176"
],
[
"study suggests Australian reptiles are greatly threatened by invasion of the cane toad, more so than any other group. Seventy-five species of crocodiles and freshwater turtles were found to be at risk of invasion, and all species studied were found capable of eating a toad large enough to kill them. All freshwater turtles and crocodiles are predicted to share part of their future distribution with the invasive species by 2030. Australia's varanids and agamids are also at a great risk.\nIt is reported that one native freshwater turtle species, Myuchelys latisternum (saw-shelled turtle), which ranges along rivers and streams from Cape",
"-28.37590228393674"
],
[
"the state's most invasive non-native plant species. Fauna Among mammals, the eastern gray squirrel is by far the most ubiquitous, stealing birdseed from the bird feeders which many locals maintain. Chipmunks and small brown rabbits are common, but it is relatively rare to hear of them doing any damage. Opossum, raccoons, foxes, and now coyotes and armadillos are frequently seen. Garden and meadow snakes are common; three venomous snakes (Eastern diamondback rattlesnake, Water Moccasin, and Copperhead) are indigenous, but reports of bites are rare. Many types of frogs, including tree frogs and bullfrogs, are easily heard in early summer, as",
"-28.364998191653285"
]
] |
20h2bd | Can blind people see their thoughts? | [
"People who are blind from birth won't visualize anything, such as their thoughts. It's difficult for them to understand the concept of seeing something, let alone actually seeing something in their mind. Someone who has experienced sight but then became blind probably will continue to visualize things in their mind. It'll be harder over time, the longer they go without being able to see.",
"This reminds me a bit of Thomas Nagel's paper \"What Is It Like to Be a Bat?\". In this paper, Nagel talks about how bats navigate through the air by echolocation. Put simply, they make a sound and then wait for that sound to bounce back off nearby objects. They then use their super-sensitive hearing to build an 'image' of their surroundings. Nagel's point is that there is an experience, a sensation that the bat is having (sometimes called 'qualia'), that we as humans can't really comprehend. Sure, we can understand the process in quite a lot of detail, but what we can't do is put ourselves directly into that experience to 'feel' what it's like. Similarly, while someone who is blind from birth may be perfectly capable of understanding how sight works, they're completely unable to actually put themselves into the experience first-hand. Not being able to see precludes the possibility of understanding even on a basic level what the experience 'feels like'. Note: I understand that some blind individuals are actually able to echolocate... for the purposes of explaining the issue succinctly, I've assumed that we're dealing with your regular non-echolocating human being!",
"You should check out Tommy Edison's Youtube channel, he is blind from birth. He explains all about his experiences and answers questions people have using his own experience and that of other blind people he's met. He's also a pretty funny guy. URL_0 ",
"Here's a question, how do blind people (from birth) conceptualize sight?"
] | [
[
"interest of the objects are key elements when the brain need to recognise an object in image. In this way, the human vision is vulnerable to small particular changes to the image, such as disrupting the edges of the object, modifying texture or any small change in a crucial region of the image.\nStudies of people whose sight has been restored after a long blindness reveal that they cannot necessarily recognize objects and faces (as opposed to color, motion, and simple geometric shapes). Some hypothesize that being blind during childhood prevents some part of the visual system necessary for these higher-level",
"-32.43628859065939"
],
[
"concept of \"the mind's eye\" first appeared in English in Chaucer's (c. 1387) Man of Law's Tale in his Canterbury Tales, where he tells us that one of the three men dwelling in a castle was blind, and could only see with \"the eyes of his mind\"; namely, those eyes \"with which all men see after they have become blind\". Two ways of generating mental imagery There are two fundamental ways by which mental imagery is generated: voluntary and involuntary.\nThe involuntary and spontaneous generation of mental images is integral to ordinary sensory perception, and cognition, and occurs without volitional intent.",
"-32.274631196807604"
],
[
"the perception as others understand it, imagine a person born blind, endowed however with a happy natural temperament, with a lively and firm intelligence, a sure memory, a straight sprite, who grew up from the time he was an infant in a city where he never stopped learning, by means of the senses he did dispose of, to know the inhabitants individually, the numerous species of beings, living as well as non-living, there, the streets and sidestreets, the houses, the steps, in such a manner as to be able to cross the city without a guide, and to recognize immediately",
"-31.869875568023417"
],
[
"He noted that hearing, not sensation, was the primary sense of the blind, in both waking and dream. He collected first-hand accounts of dreams from visually impaired people, including Helen Keller.",
"-31.75928473456588"
],
[
"in blind people. This is the fact that other senses in blind people seem to be heightened as a result of the loss of vision. Since blind patients are not exposed to the novel function of visual reading, the cortical area normally devoted to this function will be used for a different function. For example, scientists have found that the neural networks devoted to detecting moving sounds in blind people seem to be recruited by the area of the visual cortex responsible for visual movement in the sighted. This supports the theory that novel functions must find a neuronal niche,",
"-31.38878407588345"
],
[
"as a result of his comments and his attitude I began to see, observe, how blind we are to one another's humanity. Blinded by a lot of things that have, perhaps, initiated feelings in that light. We don't see into the depths of our interconnection. The gifts, the strength and potential within other human beings. We stop at color quite often. So one of the things we have to be aware of is who we are in order to have the capacity to like others. But when you cannot visualize the offerings of another human",
"-30.983197962632403"
],
[
"or permanent blindness can be caused by poisons or medications.\nPeople who are blind from degradation or damage to the visual cortex, but still have functional eyes, are actually capable of some level of vision and reaction to visual stimuli but not a conscious perception; this is known as blindsight. People with blindsight are usually not aware that they are reacting to visual sources, and instead just unconsciously adapt their behavior to the stimulus.\nOn February 14, 2013 researchers developed a neural implant that gives rats the ability to sense infrared light which for the first time provides living creatures with new",
"-30.846534493844956"
],
[
"an enhanced ability to hear and recall auditory information in order to compensate for a lack of vision. However, whilst blind adults' neural systems demonstrate heightened excitability and activity compared to sighted adults, it is still not exactly clear to what extent this compensatory hypothesis is accurate. Nevertheless, many studies have found that there appears to be a high activation of certain visual brain areas in blind individuals when they perform non-visual tasks. This suggests that in blind individuals' brains, a reorganization of what are normally visual areas has occurred in order for them to process non-visual input. This supports",
"-30.79570508078905"
],
[
"interesting exercise\" for McKellar.\nMcKellar attended a summer camp for the blind as part of his research. He wanted to observe how blind people interacted in groups. He discovered that excessive expositional dialogue, usually frowned upon by writers, was essential for the groups. McKellar cut one of the last lines in the novel from his screenplay: \"I don't think we did go blind, I think we are blind. Blind but seeing. Blind people who can see, but do not see.\" McKellar believed viewers would by that point have already grasped the symbolism and didn't want the script to seem heavy-handed. He",
"-30.78262661271583"
],
[
"and writing that could bridge the critical gap in communication between the sighted and the blind. In his own words: \"Access to communication in the widest sense is access to knowledge, and that is vitally important for us if we [the blind] are not to go on being despised or patronized by condescending sighted people. We do not need pity, nor do we need to be reminded we are vulnerable. We must be treated as equals – and communication is the way this can be brought about.\"\nIn 1821, Braille learned of a communication system devised by Captain Charles Barbier of",
"-30.561712888767943"
],
[
"is he who causes the blind man to wander in the road,\" also to speak of pleasure. Philo taught that impious pleasure caused the blind to wander, for the outward sense, devoid of reason, is blinded by nature, and the eyes of its reason are put out. Philo taught that it is by reason alone that we attain a true comprehension of things, and not by the outward senses. Pleasure deceived the outward senses, persuading the outward senses to follow a blind guide, making the mind utterly unable to restrain itself. Only through reason does the mind see clearly, and",
"-30.559470912907273"
],
[
"can't see, or don't see, or our brain doesn't let us see, because we think that it's somebody else's problem. That’s what SEP means. Somebody Else’s Problem. The brain just edits it out, it's like a blind spot.\nThe narration then explains:\nThe Somebody Else's Problem field... relies on people's natural predisposition not to see anything they don't want to, weren't expecting, or can't explain. If Effrafax had painted the mountain pink and erected a cheap and simple Somebody Else’s Problem field on it, then people would have walked past the mountain, round it, even over it, and simply never have noticed",
"-30.44933123593364"
],
[
"suggests him to meditate for a few moments. During meditation, he experiences an altered state of consciousness and perceives being transported into another world.\nIn this new world, everyone is blind . They believe the sense of sight to be a lie and that is blasphemous to even talk about it. Children are taught from a very young age that sight does not exist. Raghurāman befriends Ramanagan, a man he saves from death. Raghurāman tries to tell them that there is a world of sight and that he can see, but they refuse to believe him and warn him that such",
"-30.264244150021113"
],
[
"complete sense of vision even though each eye only offers a partial picture and even the combined functioning of both eyes includes blind spots.\nBecause the sense input offered to the brain, even from multiple sources, is woefully incomplete, the mind must join the evidence together in what seems the most sensible manner and then make \"leaps of faith\" in places where the evidence is incomplete or contradictory. The works that Spolsky explores in this book included many cases of the mental leap of faith or a deus ex machina ending where only divine intervention can resolve the problems of the",
"-30.240104969590902"
],
[
"impaired people are able to feel a 3D object and then create a drawing of the object that can be easily recognized by a sighted individual. Kennedy likens the drawings of the average blind-since-birth person to those of a sighted child. He notices that blind children are much more willing to attempt to draw than blind adults who have no prior experience. Kennedy discusses the fact that the blind can perceive a drawing made of raised lines, as well as 3D objects that have shape and form.\nThe book, Arts Culture and Blindness, by Simon Hayhoe, presents a social study of",
"-30.231119832300465"
],
[
"had researched the mannerisms of blind people to understand how they perceive the world and how they make their way through space. Duurvoort not only taught the extras mannerisms, but also to convey the emotional and psychological states of blind people. One technique was reacting to others as a blind person, whose reactions are usually different from those of a sighted person. Meirelles described, \"When you're talking to someone, you see a reaction. When you're blind, the response is much flatter. What's the point [in reacting]?\" Filmmaking style Meirelles acknowledged the challenge of making a film that would simulate the",
"-30.17735023041314"
],
[
"Blindness in literature Blind people in literature written by visually able authors It is impossible to make a blanket statement about how the blind were treated in literature beyond that point – they were marvelous, gifted, evil, malicious, ignorant, wise, helpless, innocent, or burdensome depending upon who wrote the story – except to say that blindness is perceived to be such a loss that it leaves an indelible mark on a person's character.\nEven pioneers in training the blind, such as Dorothy Harrison Eustis, harboured negative stereotypes about them. Blind people had, in her opinion, grown so accustomed to waiting on others as",
"-29.933386623539263"
],
[
"consequence, hallucinate—essentially seeing something that isn't received as an input externally but rather internal (i.e. an error in the filtering of segmented sensory data from the cerebral cortex may result in one seeing, feeling, hearing or experiencing something that is inconsistent with reality).\nNot all people have the same internal perceptual ability. For many, when the eyes are closed, the perception of darkness prevails. However, some people are able to perceive colorful, dynamic imagery. The use of hallucinogenic drugs increases the subject's ability to consciously access visual (and auditory, and other sense) percepts.\nFurthermore, the pineal gland is a hypothetical candidate for",
"-29.843430573819205"
],
[
"None So Blind Plot summary A nerd falls in love with a blind musician, and wonders, “Why aren't all blind people geniuses?” This leads him to develop an experimental procedure to repurpose the visual areas of his own brain to amplify intelligence.",
"-29.824788481928408"
],
[
"parts of the brain; yet it suggests that only certain parts of the brain play a special role in consciousness.\nBlindsight patients show awareness of single visual features, such as edges and motion, but cannot gain a holistic visual percept. This suggests that perceptual awareness is modular and that—in sighted individuals—there is a \"binding process that unifies all information into a whole percept\", which is interrupted in patients with such conditions as blindsight and visual agnosia. Therefore, object identification and object recognition are thought to be separate processes and occur in different areas of the brain, working independently from one another.",
"-29.747446789726382"
],
[
"cortex of the brain and some of the nerve fibers that bring information to it from the eyes) rather than the system that controls eye movements. This phenomenon shows how, after the more complex visual system is damaged, people can use the latter visual system of their brains to guide hand movements towards an object even though they cannot see what they are reaching for. Hence, visual information can control behavior without producing a conscious sensation. This ability of those with blindsight to \"see\" objects that they are unconscious of suggests that consciousness is not a general property of all",
"-29.695837646257132"
],
[
"their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, \"happily without the muses\". In other words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality.\nIn Plato's dialogues, Socrates always insists on his ignorance and humility, that he knows",
"-29.666804624343058"
],
[
" in which vivid, complex visual hallucinations (fictive visual percepts) occur in psychologically normal people. (He documented it in his 87-year-old grandfather, who was nearly blind from cataracts in both eyes but perceived men, women, birds, carriages, buildings, tapestries and scaffolding patterns.) Most people affected are elderly with visual impairments, however the phenomenon does not occur only in the elderly or in those with visual impairments; it can also be caused by damage elsewhere in their optic pathway or brain.\nBonnet's philosophical system may be outlined as follows. Man is a compound of two distinct substances, mind and body, the one",
"-29.6306964084215"
],
[
"Plasticity in the blind Even though the blind are no longer able to see, the visual cortex is still in active use, although it deals with information different from visual input. Studies found that the volume of white matter (myelinated nerve connections) was reduced in the optic tract, but not in the primary visual cortex itself. However, grey matter volume was reduced by up to 25% in the primary visual cortex. The atrophy of grey matter, the neuron bodies, is likely due to its association with the optic tract. Because the eyes no longer receive visual information, the disuse of",
"-29.615874324226752"
],
[
"in the Brain, was released in January 2018. Coauthored by Kevin Simler, the book looks at uncovering mental blind spots in society and for individuals.",
"-29.392537407635245"
],
[
"lost his eyesight at the age of three when his vision was not fully developed; he was not yet able to distinguish shapes, drawings, or images clearly. Consequently, it was anticipated that he would experience difficulty describing the outside world in comparison to a normal-sighted person. For example, it would be difficult for May to differentiate between complex shapes, dimensions, and the orientation of objects. Hannan (2006) hypothesized that the temporal visual cortex uses prior memory and experiences to make sense of shapes, colors, and forms. Hannan proposed that the long-term effect of blindness in the visual cortex is an",
"-29.328596554521937"
],
[
"Molyneux's problem Molyneux's problem is a thought experiment in philosophy concerning immediate recovery from blindness. It was first formulated by William Molyneux, and notably referred to in John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689). The problem can be stated in brief, \"if a man born blind can feel the differences between shapes such as spheres and cubes, could he, if given the ability to see, distinguish those objects by sight alone, in reference to the tactile schemata he already possessed?\" Original correspondence The question was originally posed to Locke by philosopher William Molyneux, whose wife was blind:\nSuppose a man",
"-29.31164712490863"
],
[
"these institutions, \"the lineage of blind biwa players ultimately is traced to ... a blind disciple of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni, called Gankutsu Sonja\".\nHowever, according to Hugh de Ferranti, not all blind biwa players of antiquity \"were completely lacking the sense of vision and knowledge of music\". Indeed, many people called blind were likely \"only impaired in their vision\", evidenced by the denotation of words for blind people such as mōjin (盲人), zatō, and mekura (盲). Also, many blind individuals gain the ailment gradually, resulting from aging, illness, or accident, meaning literacy may have been acquired earlier in life. Hugh",
"-29.29169528069906"
],
[
"this, when they were prompted they could \"guess\" with above-average accuracy about the presence and details of objects, much like the animal subjects, and they could even catch objects that were tossed at them. The subjects never developed any kind of confidence in their abilities. Even when told of their successes, they would not begin to spontaneously make \"guesses\" about objects, but instead still required prompting. Furthermore, blindsight subjects rarely express the amazement about their abilities that sighted people would expect them to express. Describing blindsight Patients with blindsight have damage to the visual system that allows perception (the visual",
"-29.280531185795553"
],
[
"hold that there is a \"picture\" in the brain since this is impossible according to this theory since actual pictures in the external world are not coloured. It is plain that Ryle unthinkingly carried over what the eyes do to the nature of sensation; A. J. Ayer at the time described Ryle's position as \"very weak\". So there is no \"screen\" in front of cortical \"eyes\", no mental objects before one. As Thomas Hobbes put it: \"How do we take notice of sense?—by sense itself\". Moreland Perkins has characterized it thus: that sensing is not like kicking a ball, but",
"-29.234751978190616"
],
[
"congenitally blind individuals have been found to have impaired abilities to infer new paths between familiar locations. Visual perception One of the original nativist versus empiricist debates was over depth perception. There is some evidence that children less than 72 hours old can perceive such complex things as biological motion. However, it is unclear how visual experience in the first few days contributes to this perception. There are far more elaborate aspects of visual perception that develop during infancy and beyond. Essentialism Young children seem to be predisposed to think of biological entities (e.g., animals and plants) in an essentialistic",
"-29.113818010489922"
],
[
"the field are very cautious and say we can't talk about reading individuals' minds, and right now that is very true, but we're moving ahead so rapidly, it's not going to be that long before we will be able to tell whether someone's making up a story, or whether someone intended to do a crime with a certain degree of certainty.\" Natural images Identification of complex natural images is possible using voxels from early and anterior visual cortex areas forward of them (visual areas V3A, V3B, V4, and the lateral occipital) together with Bayesian inference. This brain reading approach uses",
"-29.09281147667207"
],
[
"is too complex to easily discern. As a result, we tend to see the world according to simplified schemas or images of reality. Schemas are generalized mental representations that organize knowledge and guide information processing. Schemas often operate automatically and unintentionally, and can lead to biases in perception and memory. Expectations from schemas may lead us to see something that is not there. One experiment found that people are more likely to misperceive a weapon in the hands of a black man than a white man. This type of schema is actually a stereotype, a generalized set of beliefs about",
"-29.077802456755308"
],
[
"Recovery from blindness Recovery from blindness is the phenomenon of a blind person gaining the ability to see, usually as a result of medical treatment. As a thought experiment, the phenomenon is usually referred to as Molyneux's problem. The first published human case was reported in 1728 by the surgeon William Cheselden. Patients who experience dramatic recovery from blindness experience significant to total agnosia, having serious confusion with their visual perception. As a thought experiment The phenomenon has often been presented in empiricism as a thought experiment, in order to describe the knowledge gained from senses, and\nquestion the correlation between",
"-28.9731249063625"
],
[
"for the perception of color and brightness. Some argue that stereopsis, the perception of depth using both eyes, also constitutes a sense, but it is generally regarded as a cognitive (that is, post-sensory) function of the visual cortex of the brain where patterns and objects in images are recognized and interpreted based on previously learned information. This is called visual memory.\nThe inability to see is called blindness. Blindness may result from damage to the eyeball, especially to the retina, damage to the optic nerve that connects each eye to the brain, and/or from stroke (infarcts in the brain). Temporary",
"-28.96243979979772"
],
[
"that the combination of inattentional blindness and other various measures of processing can be used to address.\nThe theory behind inattentional blindness research suggests that we consciously experience only those objects and events to which we directly attend. That means that the vast majority of information in our field of vision goes unnoticed. Thus if we miss the target stimulus in an experiment, but are later told about the existence of the stimulus, this sufficient awareness allows participants to report and recall the stimulus now that attention has been allocated to it. Mack and Rock, and their colleagues discovered a striking",
"-28.950170078780502"
],
[
"image from the turned eye.\nAdditionally in adults who have had exotropia since childhood, the brain may adapt to using a \"blind-spot\", whereby it receives images from both eyes, but no full image from the deviating eye, thus avoiding double vision, and in fact, increasing peripheral vision on the side of the deviating eye.",
"-28.946510342415422"
],
[
"blind individuals may be active during the performance of nonvisual tasks such as Braille reading, memory retrieval, and auditory localization as well as other auditory functions.\nA direct method to measure functional connectivity is to observe how stimulation of one part of the brain will affect other areas. This can be done noninvasively in humans by combining transcranial magnetic stimulation with one of the neuroimaging tools such as PET, fMRI, or EEG. Massimini et al. (Science, September 30, 2005) used EEG to record how activity spreads from the stimulated site. They reported that in non-REM sleep, although the brain responds vigorously",
"-28.932878679130226"
],
[
"created the Lawrence A. Scadden Outstanding Teacher Award of the Year for Students With Disabilities in his honor. Lucas Murray Lucas Murray, from Poole, Dorset, was born blind. He is believed to be one of the first British people to learn to visualise his surroundings using echolocation, and was taught by Daniel Kish. Kevin Warwick The scientist Kevin Warwick experimented with feeding ultrasonic pulses into the brain (via electrical stimulation from a neural implant) as an additional sensory input. In tests he was able to discern distance to objects accurately and to detect small movements of those objects. Juan",
"-28.91337090943307"
],
[
"G. Wells, is one of the most well-known stories featuring blind characters. A sighted man finds himself in a country that has been isolated from the rest of the world for centuries, wherein all the inhabitants are blind even as their ancestors had been. These people are depicted as self-sufficient, having developed their other senses, but they are ultimately closed-minded and insular to the point of xenophobia. As they themselves have no sight, they wish to deprive the traveler of his own eyes in this allegorical tale of stagnation. The novel Blindness by Jose Saramago follows a viral plague",
"-28.90907402211451"
],
[
"of empirical facts. The following can be taken as representative. There are brain-damaged persons, known as \"agnosics\" (literally \"not-knowing\") who still have vivid visual sensations but are quite unable to identify any entity before them, including parts of their own body. There is also the similar predicament of persons, formerly blind, who are given sight for the first time—and consider what it is a newborn baby must experience. A German psychologist of the 19th century, Hermann von Helmholtz, proposed a simple experiment to demonstrate the non-epistemic nature of qualia: his instructions were to stand in front of a familiar landscape,",
"-28.901850797934458"
],
[
"Blind culture Blind culture is the shared cultural experience among people who are blind.\nPeople who are not blind often imagine that people who are blind share a cultural identity in the way that other minority groups with shared experiences have a distinct culture. Various blind commentators have responded to this perception by explaining that more commonly, blind people integrate with the broader community and culture, and often do not identify blindness as a defining part of their culture.\nPeople who are blind share the cultural experience of experiencing common misunderstandings from people who are not blind.",
"-28.89848125120625"
],
[
"out with sighted people who did not echolocate, these individuals could not perceive the objects and there was no echo-related activity anywhere in the brain. This suggests that the cortex of blind echolocators is plastic and reorganizes such that primary visual cortex, rather than any auditory area, becomes involved in the computation of echolocation tasks.\nDespite this evidence, the extent to which activation in the visual cortex in blind echolocators contributes to echolocation abilities is unclear. As previously mentioned, sighted individuals have the ability to echolocate; however, they do not show comparable activation in visual cortex. This would suggest that sighted",
"-28.72156836022623"
],
[
"of the mind rarely came into focus in literature until the introspective realism movement in the 19th century. Physical basis The biological foundation of the mind's eye is not fully understood. Studies using fMRI have shown that the lateral geniculate nucleus and the V1 area of the visual cortex are activated during mental imagery tasks. Ratey writes:\nThe visual pathway is not a one-way street. Higher areas of the brain can also send visual input back to neurons in lower areas of the visual cortex. [...] As humans, we have the ability to see with the mind's eye—to have a",
"-28.719741263601463"
],
[
"another finds its side and believes it a wall. The insight is that we are all trapped inside our limited experience and cannot know the truth. If the blind men only cooperated, forming a community whose goal is inquiry into the strange multifaceted object, they may begin to overcome the problematic situation and discover the true nature of the object of their respective opinions. By sharing their experiences in a democratic and participatory manner they could arrive at a more comprehensive truth than their impoverished perspectives allow, isolated from each other. They would show each other why one found the",
"-28.70945929104346"
],
[
"in Delhi, there was a school for blind exactly opposite to our school. I used to go there every week and spend time seeing how these students played cricket and did other things normally. That is what inspired me to do something for these people\". In an interview to TOI, the actress said: \"We feel sympathetic towards them, but we never employ them. We are scared because we have not grown up with them. While these people might be visually impaired, their other senses are very strong. So they can effectively give foot and back massages and treatments like reflexology.",
"-28.705362064531073"
],
[
"visual cortex. He sees a simple display of dots that outline an object. Jerry's vision is the same as a severely shortsighted person—equivalent to 20/400. He is able to read two-inch letters at five feet. \nThe Dobelle Eye has been tested in several people, allowing individuals who were once completely blind to see the outlines of images in the form of white dots on a black background. In 2002, 38-year-old Jens Naumann, a blind man, was able to use the device to drive a car in the parking lot of the Dobelle Institute. His story was documented in the film",
"-28.694131065916736"
],
[
"(to open your eyes): if any will see, it will be for (the good of) his own soul; if any will be blind, it will be to his own (harm): I am not (here) to watch over your doings.\n— The Cattle: 006.104 Judaism and Christianity In Judaism and Christianity, the concept is the manifestation of God rather than a remote immanence or delegation of an angel, even though a mortal would not be able to gaze directly upon him. In Jewish mysticism, it is traditionally believed that even the angels who attend him cannot endure seeing the divine countenance directly.",
"-28.688893949380144"
],
[
"Daniel Mazia Quote The gift of the great microscopist is the ability to think with the eyes and see with the brain\n— Daniel Mazia",
"-28.681294527137652"
],
[
"inability to recognize spatial cues.\nAt three years of age, May's vision had still not reached the acuity of an adult person; as a consequence, his brain was still not completely exposed to the full extent of clarity in relation to the images and light of the environment. Such impairment led to difficulties with regards to normal daily life. Cohen et al. (1997) suggested that early blindness causes the poor development of the visual cortex, with a resulting decrease in somatosensory development. Cohen's study proposed that May's long term blindness affects his ability to distinguish between faces of males and females,",
"-28.578945795830805"
],
[
"until their own are dealt with. He links this to the metaphor of the blind leading the blind, if you follow one who cannot see you will simply follow the blind one into disaster.",
"-28.56330721060658"
],
[
"of blind people goes into processing other sensory feedback, and using the brain as a computational unit, the machine relies on the brain processing the tone produced every 14 msec to its corresponding distance and producing a soundscape corresponding to the tones and the body navigating using the same. During experimentation, the test subject could detect obstacles as far away as 2–3 m, with horizontal or vertical movements of the head the blindfolded test subject could understand the basic shape of objects without touching them, and the basic nature of the obstacles.\nSimilar research could potentially revolutionize navigation abilities of blind",
"-28.56193490815349"
],
[
"Shared Visions Contents The book consists of 16 interviews with persons who are blind or have low vision from all continents of the world including Australia, Fiji, Iceland, Japan and Rwanda.\nThe interviews depict the individual differences from one person to the other, but also show certain communalities and demonstrate the strong will and preparedness to struggle to fulfill dreams and participate in the fight for the improvement of conditions for visually impaired persons nationally and internationally. Background Historically, ever since issues on the implications and conditions facing persons with a visual impairment (blind or low vision) became articulated, it has",
"-28.557281650137156"
],
[
"by viewing oneself from the perspective of others. Insight allows a patient to recognize and react appropriately to his symptoms; however, a patient who lacks insight would not realize that he has a mental illness, because of his inability to accurately self-represent. Therapies that teach patients perspective-taking and self-reflection skills can improve abilities in reading social cues and taking the perspective of another person.\nThe majority of the current literature supports the argument that the theory of mind deficit is a stable trait-characteristic rather than a state-characteristic of schizophrenia. The meta-analysis conducted by Sprong et al. showed that patients in remission",
"-28.522644831464277"
],
[
"individuals use areas beyond visual cortex for echolocation. Daniel Kish Echolocation has been further developed by Daniel Kish, who works with the blind through the non-profit organization World Access for the Blind. He leads blind teenagers hiking and mountain-biking through the wilderness, and teaches them how to navigate new locations safely, with a technique that he calls \"FlashSonar\". Kish had his eyes removed at the age of 13 months due to retinal cancer. He learned to make palatal clicks with his tongue when he was still a child—and now trains other blind people in the use of echolocation and in",
"-28.469963097333675"
],
[
"physical world).\nReid (anticipating Mary Warnock) argued that the representational theory is faulty. When we see, he argued, we are not ‘seeing’ an image or sense datum in the mind: we are ‘seeing’ the world, albeit not in the direct fashion imagined by the naïve realist. The ‘seeing’ is in fact the act by which the image or datum is constructed in the first place. Imaging can thus be compared to the act by which a blind person constructs an ‘image’ of the external world on the basis of information transmitted through his or her white cane; for though our",
"-28.446078304434195"
],
[
"areas with her white-cane in search of blind people. She was shocked to see the blind living in worse conditions, some of them not even able to use their limbs properly, simply on account of being blind, she provided guidance and counseling to parents who were full of despair, not knowing what to do. Tiffany went from house to house in public transport with her white cane seeking the blind and trying to rehabilitate them, integrate them, and bring them to the forefront of society. Founder Tiffany Brar, who became blind due to carelessness of doctor during her childhood, due",
"-28.368915540893795"
],
[
"Blindsight Blindsight is the ability of people who are cortically blind due to lesions in their striate cortex, also known as primary visual cortex or V1, to respond to visual stimuli that they do not consciously see. The majority of studies on blindsight are conducted on patients who have the conscious blindness on only one side of their visual field. Following the destruction of the striate cortex, patients are asked to detect, localize, and discriminate amongst visual stimuli that are presented to their blind side, often in a forced-response or guessing situation, even though they do not consciously recognize the",
"-28.35749265151935"
],
[
"such as inattentional blindness – the failure to notice a fully visible but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task, event, or object – has changed views on how the brain stores and integrates visual information, and has led to further questioning and investigation of the brain and importantly of cognitive processes. Cognitive capture Cognitive capture or, cognitive tunneling, is an inattentional blindness phenomenon in which the observer is too focused on instrumentation, task at hand, internal thought, etc. and not on the present environment. For example, while driving, a driver focused on the speedometer and not on",
"-28.286577959544957"
],
[
"when people imagine themselves and when they imagine the perspective of others. For example, when participants were asked to imagine themselves engaging in an activity versus imagining another person engaging in that activity the precuneus and the supplementary motor area (SMA) were activated, suggesting visual imagery and motor movement thoughts were involved in both tasks. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Research has highlighted that it may be more difficult for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to perspective-take. ADHD research has shown that children with this diagnosis have shown impairments in attention and communication. Perspective-taking research has found that",
"-28.281903358380077"
],
[
"perception is important to developing the difference between the inner and outer self. Since blind infants lack visual perceptions, they rely on their mouth for perceiving the world well into their second year of life. This results in failure of differentiating between the self and non-self in blind infants at a normal age. Mental health treatment for children Selma Fraiberg not only researched blindness in infants, but also was a part of developing new techniques for mental health treatment of young children. One technique she proposed was called \"kitchen table therapy.\" In kitchen table therapy, Fraiberg would go into",
"-28.23261842917418"
],
[
"variety of disorders are associated with anosognosia. For example, patients who are blind from cortical lesions might in fact be unaware that they are blind and may state that they do not suffer from any visual disturbances. Individuals with aphasia and other cognitive disorders may also suffer from anosognosia as they are unaware of their deficiencies and when they make certain speech errors, they may not correct themselves due to their unawareness. Individuals who suffer from Alzheimer's disease lack awareness; this deficiency becomes more intense throughout their disease. A key issue with this disorder is that people who do have",
"-28.1850010312628"
],
[
"the patient's family to recognize symptoms of the delusion, mainly that the patient is unable to recognize him or herself in the mirror but has an intact ability to recognize the reflections of others. Neurological basis All patients with mirrored-self misidentification have some type of right hemisphere dysfunction. The right hemisphere, particularly frontal right hemisphere circuits, is involved in processing self-related stimuli and helps one recognize a picture or reflection of oneself. An impairment in the right hemisphere, the likely source of the \"self\" in the brain, can inhibit one's ability to recognize faces, especially one's own.\nPatients tend to experience",
"-28.13121484019939"
],
[
"be guided by sensory information of which we have no conscious awareness. It may be thought of as a converse of the form of anosognosia known as Anton–Babinski syndrome, in which there is full cortical blindness along with the confabulation of visual experience. History We owe much of our current understanding of blindsight to early experiments on monkeys. One monkey in particular, Helen, could be considered the \"star monkey in visual research\" because she was the original blindsight subject. Helen was a macaque monkey that had been decorticated; specifically, her primary visual cortex (V1) was completely removed, blinding her. Nevertheless,",
"-28.117511532851495"
],
[
"such as the memoir of Thérèse-Adèle Husson, enabling scholars to better understand experiences of blind people of the past.",
"-28.103957250277745"
],
[
"Form perception Physiology Form perception is a demanding task for the brain because a retina has a significant blind spot and retinal veins that obstruct light from reaching cells that detect light, or photoreceptor cells. The brain handles the blind spots through boundary processes, includes perceptual grouping, boundary completion, and figure-ground separation, and through surface processing, including compensation for variable illumination (“discounting the illuminant”), and filling blank areas with the surviving illuminant-discounted signals.\nIn addition to photoreceptors, the eye requires a properly functioning lens, retina, and an undamaged optic nerve to recognize form. Light travels through the lens, hits the retina,",
"-27.975475912433467"
],
[
"to eschew what she called 'group-think'. She was not interested in blind faith and blind belief, but in what could be perceived as true by the five senses. She claimed to have an unusual gift of \"far memory\" – the ability to remember previous lives, and something she referred to as \"sensory awareness\". She said that she experienced many realities that are not available to most people.\nA collection of previously unknown writings by Grant was published as Speaking from the Heart: Ethics, Reincarnation & What it Means to Be Human in 2007 by Overlook Press in the United States and",
"-27.96828717229073"
],
[
"then control the blindsight responses.\nAnother explanation for the phenomenon of blindsight is that even though the majority of a person's visual cortex may be damaged, tiny islands of functioning tissue remain. These islands aren't large enough to provide conscious perception, but nevertheless enough for some unconscious visual perception.\nA third theory is that the information required to determine the distance to and velocity of an object in object space is determined by the lateral geniculate nucleus before the information is projected to the visual cortex. In a normal subject, these signals are used to merge the information from the eyes into",
"-27.963873095955933"
],
[
"eyesight, and no neurological conditions which prevent the perception of depth then one is capable of learning to see the images within autostereograms. \"Like learning to ride a bicycle or to swim, some pick it up immediately, while others have a harder time.\"\nMost stereo image are designed for divergent (wall-eyed) viewing. One way to help the brain concentrate on divergence instead of focusing is to hold the picture in front of the face, with the nose touching the picture. With intense lighting, the eye can constrict the pupil, yet allow enough light to reach the retina. The more the eye",
"-27.921755726914853"
],
[
"visual stimulus. Research shows that blind patients achieve a higher accuracy than would be expected from chance alone. Type 1 blindsight is the term given to this ability to guess—at levels significantly above chance—aspects of a visual stimulus (such as location or type of movement) without any conscious awareness of any stimuli. Type 2 blindsight occurs when patients claim to have a feeling that there has been a change within their blind area—e.g. movement—but that it was not a visual percept. Blindsight challenges the common belief that perceptions must enter consciousness to affect our behavior; showing that our behavior can",
"-27.885861436583582"
],
[
"array of visual events to which people are inattentionally blind. However the debate arises whether this inattentional blindness was due to memory or perceptual processing limitations.\nMack and Rock note that explanations for inattentional blindness can reflect a basic failure of perceptual processes to be engaged by unattended stimuli. Or that it may reflect a failure of memorial processes to encode information about unattended stimuli. It is important to note that the memory failure does not have to do with forgetting something that has been encoded by losing access to the memory of the stimulus from time of presentation to time",
"-27.873343942017527"
],
[
"\"the mind's eye\" first appeared in English in Chaucer's (c. 1387) Man of Law's Tale in his Canterbury Tales, where he tells us that one of the three men dwelling in a castle was blind, and could only see with \"the eyes of his mind\"; namely, those eyes \"with which all men see after they have become blind\". The phrase remained rarely used and the OED incorrectly ascribes it to Shakespeare, as the first time the literally introspective phrase ‘the mind's eye’ is used in English was in Hamlet. As an example of introspection, it demonstrates that the internal life",
"-27.872635134030133"
],
[
"\"the eyes of his mind\"; namely, those eyes \"with which all men see after they have become blind\". Psychology Psychologists have studied imaginative thought, not only in its exotic form of creativity and artistic expression but also in its mundane form of everyday imagination. Ruth M.J. Byrne has proposed that everyday imaginative thoughts about counterfactual alternatives to reality may be based on the same cognitive processes on which rational thoughts are also based. Children can engage in the creation of imaginative alternatives to reality from their very early years. Cultural psychology is currently elaborating a view of imagination as a",
"-27.855161871761084"
],
[
"language of the sighted to describe the truths which a blind person experiences. Since she was sighted most of her life, she is able to take the reader on an extraordinary journey, leaving the reader in deep meditative thought. Blind Light is a brilliant and compelling work. It is a testimony to Glenda's talent…. Blind Light allows Glenda to join the elite ranks of writers whose contributions to literature give depth and insight to life's many travails.\"\nCultural critic, essayist and Vice-President of Institutional Advancement at State University of New York, Old Westbury College, Wayne Edwards (who has known Taylor for",
"-27.832417846715543"
],
[
"to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain. Attention Attention is the selection of important information. The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process. Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information. Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness",
"-27.785090792815026"
],
[
"The research that has been done on inattentional blindness suggests that there are four possible causes for this phenomenon. These include: conspicuity, mental workload, expectations, and capacity. Conspicuity Conspicuity refers to an object's ability to catch a person's attention. When something is conspicuous it is easily visible. There are two factors which determine conspicuity: sensory conspicuity and cognitive conspicuity. Sensory conspicuity factors are the physical properties an object has. If an item has bright colors, flashing lights, high contrast with environment, or other attention-grabbing physical properties it can attract a person's attention much easier. For example, people tend to",
"-27.77725248952629"
],
[
"no usable vision, many students are also taught to use their remaining sight to maximum effect, so that some read print (with or without optical aids) and travel without canes.\nA combination of necessary training tailored to the unique needs of each student and solid academics goes long way towards producing blind and visually impaired students capable of dealing with the world independently.",
"-27.69453637735569"
],
[
"Blindism Effects Blindisms can lead to serious consequences if not corrected. Children displaying blindism behaviors may experience teasing or social isolation by other children. Additionally, the skin around the eye may discolor and become callus-like due to constant poking and rubbing. Prevention Early intervention is often helpful in preventing children from displaying blindism behaviors. In most cases, a qualified teacher arranges an early education program to help develop accurate and effective use of the child's senses. The parents are usually included in such programs together with their visually impaired children, as most parents are unaware of techniques used to teach",
"-27.66014701902168"
],
[
"blind spot, or the tendency to recognize biases in other people, but not in ourselves. Several studies he coauthored found that people tend to believe that their own personal connection to a given issue is a source of accuracy and enlightenment, but that such personal connections in the case of others who hold different views are a source of bias. Similarly, he has found that people look to external behavior in evaluating biases in others, but engage in introspection when evaluating their own. Two examples he gave in a talk are that both older and younger siblings felt the other",
"-27.609823371494713"
],
[
"righting reflex function, impairment of vision can be detrimental. Blind patients can rely on vestibular input where visual input is not available, and the visual cortex can become rewired to accommodate other senses taking control. Developmentally blind patients have a larger portion of the brain dedicated to vestibular and somatosensory input than patients with normal visual function. Recently blind patients must form new connections where visual inputs once were, and vestibular therapy may enhance this ability. This principle, called neuroplasticity, is of growing interest to researchers today. Disorders Many inner ear disorders can cause dizziness, which leads to dysfunctional righting",
"-27.598721677204594"
],
[
"and to recognize pictures and images. In spite of the surgery on May's right eye, his newly regained vision is not fully recovered after forty years of blindness. Thinus-Blanc and Gaunet (1997) suggest that people who are blind early in life show a limited ability in the area of spatial representation. The impairment of May's visual cortex, due to the loss of his vision at a very early age, resulted in visual cortex cells that are not accustomed to the stimuli in his surroundings.\nHowever, Cohen et al. (1997) have proposed that, during their early years, blinded subjects develop a strong",
"-27.581667408157955"
],
[
"these experiments when patients were shown an image within the right visual field (which maps to the left brain hemisphere), an explanation of what was seen could be provided. However, when the image was only presented to the left visual field (which maps to the right brain hemisphere) the patients stated that they didn't see anything.\nHowever, when asked to point to objects similar to the image, the patients succeeded. Gazzaniga interpreted this by postulating that although the right brain could see the image it could not generate a verbal response to describe it. Experiments Since the initial discovery, a number",
"-27.545422143070027"
],
[
"The Mind's Eye (book) Case studies One of the case studies concerns Susan R. Barry, nicknamed \"Stereo Sue,\" whom Sacks wrote about in 2006. Due to strabismus, she lived without stereoscopic vision for 48 years, but became able to see stereoscopically through vision therapy.\nAnother case study is of the acclaimed concert pianist Lilian Kallir, who suffered from posterior cortical atrophy yet was surprisingly resilient despite the numerous deficits it caused; the effect on her musical abilities was particularly notable. While her memory and personality were intact, she had problems processing visual stimuli, and was no longer able to read words",
"-27.537939598871162"
],
[
"not relevant. Broader implications Although the bulk of inattentional blindness research has been conducted in laboratory studies, the phenomenon occurs in a variety of everyday contexts. Depending upon the context, the occurrence of inattentional blindness could range from embarrassing and/or humorous to potentially devastating. Safety Several recent studies of explicit attention capture have found that when observers are focused on some other object or event, they often experience inattentional blindness. This finding has potentially tragic implications for distracted driving. If a person's attention is focused elsewhere while driving, carrying on a conversation or text messaging, for example, they could fail",
"-27.50201459939126"
],
[
"He never had met a blind person before. Heinecke started to realize that his pity was misplaced. Being blind is another form of life and contains lots of capabilities. The blind journalist showed him how to cope with fundamental changes in life and unleashed a complete new dimension to perceive our day-to-day world without vision. He had great influence on Heinecke and forced him to question what makes a truly valuable life. Heinecke got an insight into what a world without sight would be.\nAfter the work training was successfully finished, Heinecke switched jobs and began working with the Stiftung Blindenanstalt",
"-27.501983956703043"
],
[
"the brain, leading to increased connections between the somatosensory and visual cortices. Furthermore, the somatosensory cortex acts as a hub region of nerve connections in the brain for the early blind but not for the sighted. With this cross-modal networking the early blind are able to react to tactile stimuli with greater speed and accuracy, as they have more neural pathways to work with. One element of the visual system that the somatosensory cortex is able to recruit is the dorsal-visual stream. The dorsal stream is used by the sighted to identify spatial information visually, but the early blind",
"-27.38906006081379"
],
[
"a color-blind person is not necessarily able to perceive the green color of grass although he is capable of vision. Suppose we give a name to this ability to appreciate the beauty in things we see: one might call it the aesthetic sense. This aesthetic sense does not come automatically to all people with perfect vision and hearing, so it is fair to describe it as something extra, something not wholly reducible to vision and hearing. As the aesthetic sense informs us about what is beautiful, we can analogically understand the moral sense as informing us of what is good.",
"-27.355732957017608"
],
[
"techniques in which photographs are used systematically in interviews to elicit information and insight. In the revised version (1986) of Visual Anthropology he argues that many, including other cultural anthropologists, have been \"blind\" to what can be \"seen\" within the nonverbal sensibility. His chief contributions to anthropology include this view that seeing and representing the visual is as important as speaking or writing words. He challenged modern anthropological viewpoints that regard theory or conceptualization as the endpoint of ethnography or anthropological analysis. Instead, he believed that the very energy of a culture could be seen. Some have theorized that, due",
"-27.336145737906918"
],
[
"Didymus the Blind Early life and education Didymus became blind at the age of four, before he had learned to read. He was a loyal follower of Origen, and opposed Arian and Macedonian teachings.\nDespite his blindness, Didymus excelled in scholarship because of his incredible memory. He found ways to help blind people to read, experimenting with carved wooden letters similar to Braille systems used by the blind today. He recalled and contemplated information while others slept. Teacher in Alexandria According to Rufinus, Didymus was \"a teacher in the Church school\", who was \"approved by Bishop Athanasius\" and other learned churchmen.",
"-27.325667332450394"
],
[
"eye, are unable to see the three-dimensional images.\nPeople with amblyopia (also known as lazy eye) are unable to see the three-dimensional images. Children with poor or dysfunctional eyesight during a critical period in childhood may grow up stereoblind, as their brains are not stimulated by stereo images during the critical period. If such a vision problem is not corrected in early childhood, the damage becomes permanent and the adult will never be able to see autostereograms. It is estimated that some 1 percent to 5 percent of the population is affected by amblyopia. Viewing techniques If one has two eyes,",
"-27.320854080087884"
],
[
"blind that seeks to teach its students how to perform basic tasks and function in the sighted world. Brought together to sing, dance, and act, the students question their own abilities and balk at the spotlight.",
"-27.317030170932412"
],
[
"syndrome may be thought of ideally as the opposite of blindsight, blindsight occurring when part of the visual field is not consciously experienced, but some reliable perception does in fact occur. Causes Why patients with Anton syndrome deny their blindness is unknown, although there are many theories. One hypothesis is that damage to the visual cortex results in the inability to communicate with the speech-language areas of the brain. Visual imagery is received but cannot be interpreted; the speech centers of the brain confabulate a response.\nPatients have also reported visual anosognosia after experiencing ischemic vascular cerebral disease. A 96-year-old man,",
"-27.3038747223909"
],
[
"as the brain attempts to track the moving stripes. There is a good correspondence between the optokinetic and usual eye-chart acuities in adults. A potentially serious problem with this technique is that the process is reflexive and mediated in the low-level brain stem, not in the visual cortex. Thus someone can have a normal optokinetic response and yet be cortically blind with no conscious visual sensation. \"Normal\" visual acuity Visual acuity depends upon how accurately light is focused on the retina, the integrity of the eye's neural elements, and the interpretative faculty of the brain. \"Normal\" visual acuity (in central,",
"-27.289168883144157"
],
[
"might foresee, a blind person cannot see at all, and an autistic person may not relate to the world as a non autistic person. Cases involving infancy and mental disorders potentially invoke excuses to criminal liability because the accused lack full capacity, and criminal systems provide an overlapping set of provisions which can either deal with such individuals outside the criminal justice system, or if a criminal trial is unavoidable, mitigate the extent of liability through the sentencing system following conviction. Notwithstanding, those who have ordinary intellectual capacities are expected to act reasonably given their physical condition. Thus, a court",
"-27.272541555255884"
],
[
"mostly been teachers and psychologists that have told the stories and given the examples. Some specific books about individual persons and their experiences, achievements and struggles have occasionally emerged, but very few books have been published where a number of persons with a visual impairment tell their stories and paint a picture of their lives.\nThis book has been published in order to give visually impaired people their own voices in describing their own lives. Publication Shared Visions is edited by John Heilbrunn, Vice-President of Danish Association of the Blind, Denmark, as a tribute to persons within the blindness movement around",
"-27.255891614360735"
],
[
"who experienced the unreliable looker did not differ for either search locations. These findings suggest that 16-month-old infants can differentially attribute beliefs about a toy's location based on the person's prior record of visual perception. Deficits The theory of mind impairment describes a difficulty someone would have with perspective-taking. This is also sometimes referred to as mind-blindness. This means that individuals with a theory of mind impairment would have a difficult time seeing phenomena from any other perspective than their own. Individuals who experience a theory of mind deficit have difficulty determining the intentions of others, lack understanding of how",
"-27.232921669943607"
],
[
"has been presented in the blind field).\nElectrophysiological evidence from the late 1970s has shown that there is no direct retinal input from S-cones to the superior colliculus, implying that the perception of color information should be impaired. However, more recent evidence point to a pathway from S-cones to the superior colliculus, opposing previous research and supporting the idea that some chromatic processing mechanisms are intact in blindsight.\nPatients shown images on their blind side of people expressing emotions correctly guessed the emotion most of the time. The movement of facial muscles used in smiling and frowning were measured and reacted in",
"-27.189163133967668"
],
[
"with Mrs. Reed again. Mr. Reed talks about how much they are alike and he also claims the blindness is happening because humans have become monkeys—see no evil, speak no evil, etc. Humans have become such an uncaring society, he says, and since we have turned a blind eye to suffering - nature has turned a blind eye to us. Soon, a report surfaces that an explosion at a bio-weapons facility may be responsible for the blindness but Claire starts to realize that Mrs. Reed might be right. Claire soon succumbs to blindness.\nNews arrives about a surgery that will",
"-27.17454737215303"
],
[
"ways that matched the kind of emotion in the unseen image. Therefore, the emotions were recognized without involving conscious sight.\nA 2011 study found that a young woman with a unilateral lesion of area V1 could scale her grasping movement as she reached out to pick up objects of different sizes placed in her blind field, even though she could not report the sizes of the objects. Similarly, another patient with unilateral lesion of area V1 could avoid obstacles placed in his blind field when he reached toward a target that was visible in his intact visual field. Even though",
"-27.132722729133093"
],
[
"error.\nThese mental processes occur subconsciously and utilize information from peripheral vision; this may contribute to the sensation that a \"sixth sense\" alerted the person being gazed upon.",
"-27.105286201112904"
]
] |
2a846b | Why doesn't our moon have an actual name? | [
"Because when it was named \"the moon\" no one knew that other moons existed. Its the same story with the sun, for a long time no one knew other suns existed BONUS EXPLAINER: The first non-moon moons were discovered orbiting Jupiter by Galileo, helping to disprove the geocentric model. Giordano Bruno, the first person to seriously suggest that the sun is just another star was burned at the stake for doing so EDIT: Grammar",
"Moon have name - Moon (capital M), contrary to other moons. it's simmilar to God and god.",
"It does have a name, it's just the Moon ([source]( URL_0 ) if you need one). Luna is not a scientific name for it (not in English anyway), it's just the name of the Moon in Spanish or Latin or a bunch of other languages. Why would it need any other name anyway? How often do you run into situations where there's some confusion as to what moon someone is referring to? On the contrary, calling it Luna, or something else, raises eyebrows and even if people understand you, they'll start to wonder why you decided to call it that. So that creates confusion whereas calling it just the Moon is the clearest possible way to communicate what you want to say. In scifi this of course is a good, though clichéd, way of implying something about the state of the world people live in, hence why calling it Luna is commonplace in scifi. If it ever becomes an actual problem that people mix up the Moon with some other moons, I'm sure we'll figure something out in no time. But for now, we have numerous other better ways to communicate than inventing a new name for the Moon. You can say our Moon or the Moon of Earth if you really need to specify which one, which hardly ever happens. Or you can say a natural satellite to make it abundantly clear that what you're referring to is not in reference to the Moon in specific.",
"The scientific name of Earth's moon is luna. In Latin, our satellite's name is \"Luna.\" Because a significant chunk of English comes from Latin, many terms associated with the moon are related to this Latin name — for example, the adjective \"lunar,\" and the noun \"lunatic,\" an old-fashioned word for a mentally ill person. (Madness was thought to be correlated with the phases of the moon.) In Greek, our moon is named \"Selene,\" as is the moon goddess of ancient Greek mythology. The English word \"selenology,\" or the study of the moon's geology, derives from it.",
"I'm pretty sure the name of the moon is Luna. EDIT: Apparently, in English, the proper name of the the Earth's moon is simply the Moon, capitalized. Still, I like to think that our satellite has much more importance than simply making a common noun proper, so I'm sticking with Luna and Sol. Sounds way cooler than \"the Moon\" and \"the sun\".",
"It does, it's the Moon, just like the Sun is the Sun. When these objects were named, they weren't thought to be individuals in a category. They were thought to be unique. When more like them were discovered the term was applied more widely.",
"Basically because there's only one. There a whole bunch of planets and stars, so we give them names to distinguish them. But we only have one sun and one moon, so it's just \"the Sun\" and \"the Moon\".",
"The Moon is actually a natural satellite. When we reference other natural satellites as moons was used to the man who discovered the Titan (a satellite of Saturn) and them it stuck. More on it: URL_0 "
] | [
[
"2013, names were applied to all moons discovered, regardless of size. Since then, some small moons have not received names. Earth Every human language has its own word for the Earth's Moon, and these words are the ones normally used in astronomical contexts. However, a number of fanciful or mythological names for the Moon have been used in the context of astronomy (an even larger number of lunar epithets have been used in non-astronomical contexts). In the 17th century, the Moon was sometimes referred to as Proserpina. More recently, especially in science-fictional contexts, the Moon has been called by the",
"-35.38873479814356"
],
[
"introduction of the solar Julian calendar in the Roman Empire, and later the Gregorian calendar worldwide, people no longer perceive month names as \"moon\" names. The traditional Old English month names were equated with the names of the Julian calendar from an early time (soon after Christianization, according to the testimony of Bede around AD 700).\nSome full moons have developed new names in modern times, such as \"blue moon\", as well as \"harvest moon\" and \"hunter's moon\" for the full moons of autumn.\nLunar eclipses occur only at full moon and often cause a reddish hue on the near side of",
"-33.28479700535536"
],
[
"of assigning names from Greek mythology, named the moons after magical spirits in English literature: the fairies Oberon and Titania from William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, and the sylphs Ariel and Umbriel from Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock (Ariel is also a sprite in Shakespeare's The Tempest). The reasoning was presumably that Uranus, as god of the sky and air, would be attended by spirits of the air.\nSubsequent names, rather than continuing the \"airy spirits\" theme (only Puck and Mab continuing the trend), have focused on Herschel's source material. In 1949, the fifth moon, Miranda, was named",
"-31.980397059582174"
],
[
"Saturnian moons cannot be given, because there is no objective boundary between the countless small anonymous objects that form Saturn's ring system and the larger objects that have been named as moons. Over 150 moonlets embedded in the rings have been detected by the disturbance they create in the surrounding ring material, though this is thought to be only a small sample of the total population of such objects.\nThere are still 29 moons yet to be named (as of October 2019), using names from Gallic, Norse and Inuit mythology based on the orbital groups of the moons. Twenty of these",
"-31.92899729814235"
],
[
"tradition of naming it after a god. (The same is true, in English at least, of the Sun and the Moon, though they are no longer generally considered planets.) The name originates from the 8th century Anglo-Saxon word erda, which means ground or soil and was first used in writing as the name of the sphere of Earth perhaps around 1300. As with its equivalents in the other Germanic languages, it derives ultimately from the Proto-Germanic word ertho, \"ground\", as can be seen in the English earth, the German Erde, the Dutch aarde, and the Scandinavian jord. Many of the",
"-31.056484710075893"
],
[
"Proper names (astronomy) Some astronomical objects have proper names (common names, popular names, traditional names); as opposed to catalogue numbers or other systematic designations.\nThis trivially includes the naked-eye planets as well as the Sun and Moon.\nA small number of stars have proper names in pre-modern astronomical tradition, but most naked-eye stars are identified by their Bayer or Flamsteed designations.\nIn modern astronomy, there has been a tradition of giving proper names to newly discovered heavenly bodies, initiated with the discovery of the planets beyond Saturn, and later extended to minor planets and moons. Naming The naming of astronomical objects and",
"-30.11858794617001"
],
[
"by its discoverer, Gerard Kuiper, after a thoroughly mortal character in Shakespeare's The Tempest. Current IAU practice is to name moons after characters from Shakespeare's plays and The Rape of the Lock (although at present only Ariel, Umbriel, and Belinda have names drawn from the latter poem, all the rest being from Shakespeare). At first, the outermost moons were all named after characters from one play, The Tempest; but with Margaret being named from Much Ado About Nothing that trend has ended. Neptune The one known moon (at the time) of Neptune was not named for many decades. Although the",
"-30.098752838326618"
],
[
"Latin name Luna, presumably on the analogy of the Latin names of the planets, or by association with the adjectival form lunar. In technical terminology, the word-stems seleno- (from Greek selēnē \"moon\") and cynthi- (from Cynthia, an epithet of the goddess Artemis) are sometimes used to refer to the Moon, as in selenography, selenology, and pericynthion. Mars The moons of Mars (Phobos and Deimos) were named by Asaph Hall in 1878, soon after he discovered them. They are named after the sons of the god Ares (the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mars). Saturn In 1847 the seven then",
"-30.01662484323606"
],
[
"Helene, which received the Roman numeral XII in 1982, but was not named until 1988.) While the International Astronomical Union was assigning names to all satellites from 1975 to 2013, the use of Roman numeral designations diminished, and some are very rarely used; Phobos and Deimos are rarely referred to as Mars I and Mars II, and the Moon is never referred to as \"Earth I\". However, some of the more recently discovered moons have not been named even after their orbital elements were known well enough to receive Roman numerals, and as such the only possible nomenclature for them",
"-29.733873202552786"
],
[
"belongs to the Carme group, made up of irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23 and 24 Gm and at an inclination of about 165°. Name The moon was named in 2019 after Eirene (Εἰρήνη), the daughter of Zeus and Themis and the goddess of peace in Greek mythology; the name originated from a naming contest held on Twitter with 16 tweets suggesting the name, most significantly by users Quadrupoltensor (@Quadrupoltensor) who first suggested the name and PaulR (@PJRYYC).",
"-29.563178519834764"
],
[
"The Moon Represents My Heart \"The Moon Represents My Heart\" (Chinese: 月亮代表我的心; pinyin: Yuèliang Dàibiǎo Wǒ de Xīn) is a Mandarin song. It was made famous by Taiwanese singer Teresa Teng. Background The lyrics to the song were written by Sun Yi (孫儀) and the music was composed by Weng Ching-hsi (翁清溪). It was first sung by Chen Fen-lan (陳芬蘭) in 1972 or 1973 for Chen's album Dreamland (夢鄉) but was made famous by Teresa Teng's version later in 1977. Teng's rendition, which is three minutes and 29 seconds long, was described as a \"love song with a waltz-like lilt\".",
"-28.896402781421784"
],
[
"Ersa (moon) Name The moon was named in 2019 after Ersa, the Greek goddess of dew, daughter of Zeus and Selene: Jupiter L Herse is also named for this goddess. The name was suggested in a naming contest held by the Carnegie Institute on Twitter where more than 20 tweets suggested that name, most significantly by users Aaron Quah (@8603103) who submitted the name first, StSauveur_MoonsProject (@StSauMoons) who are the 12th grade students of Saint Sauveur High School in Redon, France, the fifth grade at Hillside Traditional Academy in British Columbia, Canada (submitted on their behalf by @mrgrouchypants), and a",
"-28.79869940772187"
],
[
"belongs to the Pasiphae group, retrograde irregular moons that orbit Jupiter between 22.8 and 24.1 Gm, at inclinations of roughly 150-155°. Name The moon was named in 2019 after Philophrosyne (Φιλοφροσύνη), the ancient Greek spirit of welcome, friendliness, and kindness, the daughter of Hephaestus and Aglaea and granddaughter of Zeus. The name originated from a naming contest held on Twitter with some users suggesting the name, most significantly by users CHW3M Myth Experts (@Chw3mmyths) which is an 11th-grade history class studying Greek and Roman philosophy as of 2019, Victoria (@CharmedScribe), and Lunartic (@iamalunartic) who has concurrently helped in naming another",
"-28.783484298292024"
],
[
"classification system was made before 433 BCE.\nAs lunar mansions have such an ancient origin, the meanings of most of their names have become obscure. Contributing to later confusion, the name of each lunar mansion consists of only one Chinese word, the meaning of which could vary at different times in history. The meanings of the names are still under discussion.\nBesides the 28 lunar mansions, most constellations are based on the works of Shi Shen-fu and Gan De, who were astrologists during the period of Warring States (481 BCE – 221 BCE) in China.\nIn the late period of the Ming Dynasty,",
"-28.736630127881654"
],
[
"Man in the Moon, the rabbit and the buffalo, among others. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Moon was personified as a deity or other supernatural phenomenon, and astrological views of the Moon continue to be propagated today.\nIn Proto-Indo-European religion, the moon was personified as the male god *Meh₁not. The ancient Sumerians believed that the Moon was the god Nanna, who was the father of Inanna, the goddess of the planet Venus, and Utu, the god of the sun. Nanna was later known as Sîn, and was particularly associated with magic and sorcery. In Greco-Roman mythology, the Sun and",
"-28.692570088489447"
],
[
"their own myths. To the Ancient Greeks, some \"stars\", known as planets (Greek πλανήτης (planētēs), meaning \"wanderer\"), represented various important deities, from which the names of the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were taken. (Uranus and Neptune were also Greek and Roman gods, but neither planet was known in Antiquity because of their low brightness. Their names were assigned by later astronomers.)\nCirca 1600, the names of the constellations were used to name the stars in the corresponding regions of the sky. The German astronomer Johann Bayer created a series of star maps and applied Greek letters as designations",
"-28.653838546946645"
],
[
"of these bodies are named for people, in particular astronomers, as well as figures from mythology and fiction. Many minor planets are also named after places such cities, towns and villages, mountains and volcanoes; after rivers, observatories, as well as organizations, clubs and astronomical societies. Some are named after animals and plants. A few minor planets are named after exotic entities such as supercomputers or have an unknown origin . \nThe first few thousand minor planets have all been named, with the Jupiter trojan (3708) 1974 FV1 currently being the lowest-numbered unnamed minor planet. The first 3 pages in the",
"-28.512005043870886"
],
[
"one of Marius' naming schemes for the moons of Jupiter that is regularly used today. Based on a suggestion from Johannes Kepler in October 1613, he proposed that each moon was given its own name based on the lovers of the Greek mythological Zeus or his Roman equivalent, Jupiter. He named the innermost large moon of Jupiter after the Greek mythological figure Io. Io as a tool: 1610–1809 For the next two and a half centuries, because of the satellite's small size and distance, Io remained a featureless, 5th-magnitude point of light in astronomers' telescopes. So, the determination of its",
"-28.233654508534528"
],
[
"Christian times the sun symbol is said to represent life, warmth, and the love and the Christian God.\nOther cosmomorphic symbols are less commonly seen. The moon is sometimes depicted as a circle with a cross inside it; it is begged to shed its light at night to help the traveller, and to chase away evil powers from the household. Stars are sometimes represented as dots.",
"-28.09967894248257"
],
[
"Stars named after people Over the past few centuries, a small number of stars have been named after individual people. It is common in astronomy for objects to be given names, in accordance with accepted astronomical naming conventions. Most stars have not been given proper names, relying instead on alphanumeric designations in star catalogues. However, a few hundred had either long-standing traditional names (usually from the Arabic) or historic names from frequent usage.\nIn addition, many stars have catalogue designations that contain the name of their compiler or discoverer. This includes Wolf, Ross, Bradley, Piazzi, Lacaille, Struve, Groombridge, Lalande, Krueger, Mayer,",
"-27.93610361525498"
],
[
"\"We actually call it Phattie when we're just talking to each other.\" In a 2019 interview with Derek Muller for the YouTube channel Veritasium, Batygin also suggested, based on an online petition, to name the planet after singer David Bowie, and to name any potential moons of the planet after characters from Bowie's song catalogue, such as Ziggy Stardust or Starman.\nIn 2018, planetary scientist Alan Stern objected to the name Planet Nine, saying, \"It is an effort to erase Clyde Tombaugh's legacy and it's frankly insulting\", suggesting the name Planet X until its discovery. He signed a statement with",
"-27.932990552537376"
],
[
"Eupheme (moon) Discovery It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003. The moon was lost following its discovery in 2003. It was recovered in 2017 and given its permanent designation that year. Name It was named in 2019 after Eupheme, the ancient Greek spirit of words of good omen, praise, acclaims, shouts of triumph, and applause, the daughter of Hephaestus and Aglaea and granddaughter of Zeus. The name was suggested by Twitter user Lunartic (@iamalunartic) in a naming contest held by the Carnegie Institute who concurrently helped in",
"-27.923065810347907"
],
[
"Daphnis (moon) Naming The moon was named in 2006 after Daphnis, a shepherd, pipes player, and pastoral poet in Greek mythology; he was descendant of the Titans, after whom the largest moons of Saturn are named. Both Daphnis and Pan, the only other known shepherd moon to orbit within Saturn's main rings, are named for mythological figures associated with shepherds. Discovery Before it was photographed, the existence of a moon in Daphnis's position had already been inferred from gravitational ripples observed on the outer edge of the Keeler gap. \nDaphnis was discovered by the Cassini Imaging Science Team on May",
"-27.891528907392058"
],
[
"meant the moon, and her name is on analogy with prope serpens ('creeping near'), for she is moved nearer to the earth than the other planets. She is called earth's daughter, because her substance has more of earth in it than of the other elements. By Pluto is meant the shadow that sometimes obstructs the moon. Plutonius In the Hellenistic era, the title or epithet Plutonius is sometimes affixed to the names of other deities. In the Hermetic Corpus, Jupiter Plutonius \"rules over earth and sea, and it is he who nourishes mortal things that have soul and bear fruit.\"\nIn",
"-27.863542842323113"
],
[
"The Sun and Moon are considered husband and wife and are celebrated as the creators of things. Apart from that, the people have various other gods, \"much like our [Spanish] saints\", honoured in temples throughout the area. On top of that, the people all have personal idols, called in Epítome Lares (tunjos). They are described as small figures made of fine gold with emeralds in their bellies. It is described the people wore those on their arms and when going to battle, having them in one hand and the weapons in the other, \"especially in the province of Tunja where",
"-27.78204308322165"
],
[
"etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb ἀπόλλυμι (apollymi), \"to destroy\". Plato in Cratylus connects the name with ἀπόλυσις (apolysis), \"redemption\", with ἀπόλουσις (apolousis), \"purification\", and with ἁπλοῦν ([h]aploun), \"simple\", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, Ἄπλουν, and finally with Ἀειβάλλων (aeiballon), \"ever-shooting\". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric ἀπέλλα (apella), which means \"assembly\", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκός (sekos), \"fold\", in which case Apollo would be the god of",
"-27.652777776267612"
],
[
"named for a Greek deity rather than his Roman counterpart.\nSome Romans, following a belief possibly originating in Mesopotamia but developed in Hellenistic Egypt, believed that the seven gods after whom the planets were named took hourly shifts in looking after affairs on Earth. The order of shifts went Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon (from the farthest to the closest planet). Therefore, the first day was started by Saturn (1st hour), second day by Sun (25th hour), followed by Moon (49th hour), Mars, Mercury, Jupiter and Venus. Because each day was named by the god that started it, this",
"-27.41893108538352"
],
[
"sisters of Cronus. In 1848, Lassell proposed that the eighth satellite of Saturn be named Hyperion after another Titan. When in the 20th century the names of Titans were exhausted, the moons were named after different characters of the Greco-Roman mythology or giants from other mythologies. All the irregular moons (except Phoebe) are named after Inuit and Gallic gods and after Norse ice giants.\nSome asteroids share the same names as moons of Saturn: 55 Pandora, 106 Dione, 577 Rhea, 1809 Prometheus, 1810 Epimetheus, and 4450 Pan. In addition, two more asteroids previously shared the names of Saturnian moons until spelling",
"-27.37720870343037"
],
[
"but since the first three were not known from antiquity, their names derive from the Western names and therefore from Roman myth (resulting in \"sky king,\" \"sea king,\" and \"land king\" respectively). Sailor Uranus uses the forces of the air and wind, Sailor Neptune uses the forces of the sea and ocean, and Sailor Pluto is the Guardian of Space-Time and the Land. Sailor Saturn's element is given as earth, which corresponds to mythological harvest symbolism and to her vastly dark powers over death and destruction, and rebirth. The main character, Sailor Moon, along with the younger Sailor Chibi Moon,",
"-27.36012941444642"
],
[
"names ending in \"e\" for retrograde satellites, and names ending in \"o\" for exceptionally inclined satellites, exactly like the convention for the moons of Jupiter. Pluto The name of Pluto's moon Charon was suggested by James W. Christy, its discoverer, soon after its discovery.\nThe other four moons are named Hydra, Nix, Kerberos, and Styx.\nCharon, Hydra, Nix, and Kerberos are all characters in Greek mythology, with ties to Hades (the Greek equivalent of Pluto). Charon ferries the dead across the River Acheron, Hydra guards the waters of the underworld, and Nix (a respelling of Nyx), mother of Charon, is the",
"-27.22478156653233"
],
[
"Io (moon) Nomenclature Although Simon Marius is not credited with the sole discovery of the Galilean satellites, his names for the moons were adopted. In his 1614 publication Mundus Iovialis anno M.DC.IX Detectus Ope Perspicilli Belgici, he proposed several alternative names for the innermost of the large moons of Jupiter, including \"The Mercury of Jupiter\" and \"The First of the Jovian Planets\". Based on a suggestion from Johannes Kepler in October 1613, he also devised a naming scheme whereby each moon was named for a lover of the Greek mythological Zeus or his Roman equivalent, Jupiter. He named the innermost",
"-27.20799324446125"
],
[
"is exalted in Taurus. In classical Roman mythology, the Moon was Luna, at times identified with Diana. The Moon is large enough for its gravity to affect the Earth, stabilizing its orbit and producing the regular ebb and flow of the tides. The lunar day syncs up with its orbit around Earth in such a manner that the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth and the other side, known as the \"far side of the Moon\" faces towards space.\nAstrologically speaking, the Moon is associated with a person's emotional make-up, unconscious habits, rhythms, memories, moods and their ability",
"-27.194713150616735"
],
[
"Soma (deity) History The earliest use of Soma to refer to the moon is a subject of scholarly debate, with some scholars suggesting that the reference to moon as Soma is to be found in the Vedas, while other scholars suggest that such usage emerged only in the post-Vedic literature. The Hindu texts state that the moon is lit and nourished by the sun, and that it is moon where the divine nectar of immortality resides. Iconography Soma's iconography varies in Hindu texts. The most common is one where he is a white colored deity, holding a mace in his",
"-27.190975836245343"
],
[
"notes that some scholars have argued that the epithet \"the god\" was first used as a title of a moon god, but this is purely \"antiquarian\" in the same sense as the origins of the English word \"god\":\nSome scholars trace the name to the South Arabian Ilah, a title of the Moon god, but this is a matter of antiquarian interest...It is clear from Nabataean and other inscriptions that Allah meant 'the god'.\nThe word \"Allah\" was used by Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in Arabia before the lifetime of Muhammad and is the translation of the phrase \"The God\" as used",
"-27.177364548202604"
],
[
"and favorites of the god Jupiter (Zeus) and, since 2004, also after their descendants. All of Jupiter's satellites from XXXIV (Euporie) onward are named after descendants of Jupiter or Zeus, except LIII (Dia), named after a lover of Jupiter. Names ending with \"a\" or \"o\" are used for prograde irregular satellites (the latter for highly inclined satellites), and names ending with \"e\" are used for retrograde irregulars. Some of the most recently confirmed moons have not received names.\nSome asteroids share the same names as moons of Jupiter: 9 Metis, 38 Leda, 52 Europa, 85 Io, 113 Amalthea, 239 Adrastea. Two",
"-27.159288181050215"
],
[
"name in part to its first two letters, which form the initials of Percival Lowell, the founder of the observatory where its discoverer, Clyde Tombaugh, was working, and the person who inspired the search for \"Planet X\". James Christy, who discovered Charon, followed the principle established with Pluto by choosing a name which shared its first four letters with his wife's name, Charlene. \"Dysnomia\", similarly, has the same first letter as Brown's wife, Diane, and Brown uses the nickname \"Dy\" /ˈdaɪ/ for the moon, which he pronounces the same as his wife's nickname, Di. Because of this, Brown pronounces the",
"-27.148925548885018"
],
[
"Moons of Uranus Uranus, the seventh planet of the Solar System, has 27 known moons, most of which are named after characters that appear in, or are mentioned in, the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. Uranus's moons are divided into three groups: thirteen inner moons, five major moons, and nine irregular moons. The inner moons are small dark bodies that share common properties and origins with Uranus's rings. The five major moons are ellipsoidal, indicating that they reached hydrostatic equilibrium at some point in their past (and may still be in equilibrium), and four of them show signs",
"-27.14381781197153"
],
[
"example, is Hina, associated with the moon, rather than Hinga, \"fallen down\". Thus, the Hawaiian name Hina is probably rather connected to the other meaning of hina, denoting a silvery-grey color (like the full moon); indeed the moon is named Mahina in the Hawaiian language. Kū, Kāne, and Lono caused light to shine in upon the world. They are uncreated gods who have existed from eternity. Guardian statues of Kamehameha I Kūkaʻilimoku was the guardian of Kamehameha I who erected monuments to the deity at the Holualoa Bay royal center and his residence at Kamakahonu. Three enormous statues of",
"-27.10904104250949"
],
[
"specific Nereids (Halimede, Galatea, Neso, Sao, Laomedeia, Psamathe). The most recently discovered moon, Hippocamp, was left unnamed on its official numbering until February 2019; when it was named after the Hippocamp, a mythological creature that was half horse and half fish.\nFor the \"normal\" irregular satellites, the general convention is to use names ending in \"a\" for prograde satellites, names ending in \"e\" for retrograde satellites, and names ending in \"o\" for exceptionally inclined satellites, exactly like the convention for the moons of Jupiter. Two asteroids share the same names as moons of Neptune: 74 Galatea and 1162 Larissa. Characteristics The",
"-26.99566420944757"
],
[
"is automatically tacked onto Greek nouns. The combination would (in Greek) mean \"the same, the very one\". Given that the Greeks are not known to have used lunar stations, the origin of the names is unknown.\nIn 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the name Piautos for Lambda Cancri on 1 June 2018 and it is now so included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names. The WGSN had previously stated that where a component letter (from e.g. Washington Double Star Catalog) is not explicitly",
"-26.905153332831105"
],
[
"the Moon are represented as male and female, respectively (Helios/Sol and Selene/Luna); this is a development unique to the eastern Mediterranean and traces of an earlier male moon god in the Greek tradition are preserved in the figure of Menelaus.\nIn Mesopotamian iconography, the crescent was the primary symbol of Nanna-Sîn. In ancient Greek art, the Moon goddess Selene was represented wearing a crescent on her headgear in an arrangement reminiscent of horns. The star and crescent arrangement also goes back to the Bronze Age, representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and planet Venus, in combination. It came",
"-26.88567957933992"
],
[
"a connection between names and reality. The Shiming preface explains this ancient Chinese theory of language.\nIn the correspondence of name with reality, there is in each instance that which is right and proper. The common people use names every day, but they do not know the reasons why names are what they are. Therefore I have chosen to record names for heaven and earth, yin and yang, the four seasons, states, cities, vehicles, clothing and mourning ceremonies, up to and including the vessels commonly used by the people, and have discussed these terms with a view to explaining their origin.",
"-26.81412031929358"
],
[
"naturally into three groups, one group is named after Norse giants, one after Gallic giants, and one after Inuit giants. The only moon that fails to fit this scheme is the Greek-named Phoebe, which is in the Norse group. Uranus The Roman numbering scheme of Uranus' moons was in a state of flux for a considerable time. Sir William Herschel thought he had discovered up to six moons and maybe even a ring. For nearly fifty years, Herschel's instrument was the only one the moons had been seen with. In the 1840s, better instruments and a more favourable position of",
"-26.768654967469047"
],
[
"Moon Song (1932 song) \"Moon Song (That Wasn't Meant for Me)\" is a popular song and jazz standard with music by Arthur Johnston and lyrics by Sam Coslow that was published in 1932.\nThe song was introduced by Kate Smith in the Paramount movie Hello, Everybody! \nPopular versions in 1933 were by Wayne King, Jack Denny (vocal by Paul Small) and by Art Kassel.\nThe song has since been recorded by many other singers, including Doris Day on her album Day by Night, Louis Armstrong and Oscar Peterson on their 1957 album Louis Armstrong Meets Oscar Peterson, Sue Raney on her 1958",
"-26.66376538539771"
],
[
"known moons of Saturn were named by John Herschel. Herschel named Saturn's two innermost moons (Mimas and Enceladus) after the mythological Greek Giants, and the outer five after the Titans (Titan, Iapetus) and Titanesses (Tethys, Dione, Rhea) of the same mythology. Until then, Titan was known as the \"Huygenian (or Huyghenian) satellite of Saturn\" and the other moons had Roman numeral designations in order of their distance from Saturn. Subsequent discoverers of Saturnian moons followed Herschel's scheme: Hyperion was discovered soon after in 1848, and the ninth moon, Phoebe, was named by its discoverer in 1899 soon after its discovery;",
"-26.62994691621134"
],
[
"years timescale—likely.\nAdditional tiny moons likely exist but remain undiscovered, as they are very difficult for astronomers to detect. Naming The Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) were named by Simon Marius soon after their discovery in 1610. However, these names fell out of favor until the 20th century. The astronomical literature instead simply referred to \"Jupiter I\", \"Jupiter II\", etc., or \"the first satellite of Jupiter\", \"Jupiter's second satellite\", and so on. The names Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto became popular in the mid-20th century, whereas the rest of the moons remained unnamed and were usually numbered",
"-26.619191606339882"
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[
"under different names but lacked the rich narrative traditions that Greek poetic culture had given their gods. During the later period of the Roman Republic, Roman writers borrowed much of the Greek narratives and applied them to their own pantheon, to the point where they became virtually indistinguishable. When the Romans studied Greek astronomy, they gave the planets their own gods' names: Mercurius (for Hermes), Venus (Aphrodite), Mars (Ares), Iuppiter (Zeus) and Saturnus (Cronus). When subsequent planets were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries, the naming practice was retained with Neptūnus (Poseidon). Uranus is unique in that it is",
"-26.617989448131993"
],
[
"the modern system of \"traditional\" full moon names tied to the solstice and equinox points, a supernumerary full moon in such a period is called a blue moon. The term \"blue moon\" used in this sense may date to as early as the 16th century, but it became well known in the United States due to the Farmers' Almanac (published since 1818).\nAccording to the Farmers' Almanac, a \"blue moon\" is the third full moon in any period between either solstice and equinox, or between equinox and solstice, (calculated using the mean tropical year), which contains four full moons. These seasons",
"-26.602609574096277"
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[
"the heavens, where they continue to look down on, and, in a measure, rule over earthly affairs. The basis of mythology is the worship of the solar great father, and the lunar great mother. For centuries, people have worshiped and regarded the luminaries as objects of higher powers. Oftentimes, the sun and moon have been considered as opposite sexes. For example, the sun being \"the father\" and the moon being \"the mother\". In Australia, the Moon was considered to be a man, the Sun a woman, who appears at dawn in a coat of red kangaroo skins. Shakespeare speaks of",
"-26.56226267758757"
],
[
"are said to represent the basic human drives of every individual. The personal planets are the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars. The social or transpersonal planets are Jupiter and Saturn. Jupiter and Saturn are often called the first of the \"transpersonal\" or \"transcendent\" planets as they represent a transition from the inner personal planets to the outer modern, impersonal planets. The outer modern planets Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are often called the collective or transcendental planets. The following is a list of the planets and their associated characteristics. Moon The Moon () is the ruling planet of Cancer and",
"-26.560312896210235"
],
[
"another for more or less the same reason, to express their adoration for the sun, the solar power. Most of them were sun-worshipping peoples, or held respect for the balance of the sun. It’s also a lunar symbol in itself for the sun cultures. Its right or left form reversed is a lunar symbol, too, and it’s a female as well as a male symbol; it represents a lot of different energies. It’s a continuum, it can be a destructive force, it takes a lot of natural philosophies into one. If you read about it, it’s really fascinating. [...] We",
"-26.54246699990472"
],
[
"wouldn't have been there.\"\nCorr finished writing the album in March 2012 and she said it may be called Catch the Moon. The title comes from the idea \"of when somebody comes into your life and they utterly change yours, that you would go to any lengths for them... so you would catch the moon.\" However, on 21 August 2013, it was announced that the album would be titled The Same Sun.\nThe Same Sun was first released in Indonesia, Argentina, Brazil, Chile and the Philippines on 16 September 2013, with selected countries following later.",
"-26.393802916572895"
],
[
"Greek god Apollo \"represents music, dance, light, and poetry\", so she went with it. The latter part of her name came as a producer suggested an equally different surname, exploiting Scharf's oft-complimented smile. She legally changed her name to Apollo Smile in 1991.\nAn injury made Scharf opt to seek a singing career, working with producer Freddie \"Groove Commander\" Richmond. After contributing the song \"Let's Rock\" for A&M Records' soundtrack for the 1989 film Lost Angels, once a Los Angeles friend of Richmond visited his studio, she was impressed with the songs he was working with Smile, and smuggled a tape",
"-26.380892568733543"
],
[
"Moon is named after him.",
"-26.36931778426151"
],
[
"name, he forbade it, insisting that it had to carry his name. While the two were arguing, Tellus (Earth) arose and wanted it to have her name because she had made her body available for it.\nThe judgment is finally rendered by Saturn. He determines that since the spiritus was granted by Jove, he should have it in death; Tellus, or Earth, would receive the body she had given; because Cura, or Care, had been the creator, she would keep her creation as long as it lived. To resolve the debate, homo, \"human being,\" would be the name, because it was",
"-26.366094127413817"
],
[
"not have an official name until the twentieth century. The name \"Triton\" was suggested by Camille Flammarion in his 1880 book Astronomie Populaire, but it did not come into common use until at least the 1930s. Until this time it was usually simply known as \"the satellite of Neptune\". Other moons of Neptune are also named for Greek and Roman water gods, in keeping with Neptune's position as god of the sea: either from Greek mythology, usually children of Poseidon, the Greek Neptune (Triton, Proteus, Despina, Thalassa); lovers of Poseidon (Larissa); classes of minor Greek water deities (Naiad, Nereid); or",
"-26.26807132317481"
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[
"appreciate the moon in the evening, because it is the 15th day of the eighth month of the lunar calendar, when the moon is at its fullest.There is a beautiful myth about the Mid-Autumn festival, that is Chang 'e flying to the moon.\n\nOfferings are also made to a more well-known lunar deity, Chang'e, known as the Moon Goddess of Immortality. The myths associated with Chang'e explain the origin of moon worship during this day. One version of the story is as follows, as described in Lihui Yang's Handbook of Chinese Mythology:\nIn the ancient past, there was a hero named",
"-26.262817716837162"
],
[
"to Bolen, the archetypes of Cassandra and Apollo are not gender-specific. She states that \"women often find that a particular [male] god exists in them as well, just as I found that when I spoke about goddesses men could identify a part of themselves with a specific goddess. Gods and goddesses represent different qualities in the human psyche. The pantheon of Greek deities together, male and female, exist as archetypes in us all ... There are gods and goddesses in every person.\"\n\"As an archetype, Apollo personifies the aspect of the personality that wants clear definitions, is drawn to master a skill,",
"-26.24494901043363"
],
[
"Follower\" in Arabic, because the star always follows behind the Pleiades as both move across the sky.\nMost proper names for stars, especially the Arabic names, are descriptive of the locations of the stars within their parent constellations. For example, the star named Rigel (Arabic for \"foot\") marks the left foot of Orion the Hunter. Deneb (Arabic for \"tail\") marks the tail of Cygnus the Swan.\nWhile most Arabic star names are translations from Ptolemy's Almagest, a small number of stars have retained names from native Arabian tradition; for example, there is a star in Lepus the Hare named Nihal, meaning \"The",
"-26.22508887638105"
],
[
"to a number of associations it had for him. Dysnomia, the daughter of Eris, fits the general historically established pattern of naming moons after lesser gods associated with the primary god (hence, Jupiter's largest moons are named after lovers of Jupiter, both male and female, while Saturn's are named after his fellow Titans). Also, the English translation of \"Dysnomia\", \"lawlessness\", echoes Lucy Lawless, the actress famous for starring in Xena: Warrior Princess on television. Before receiving their official names, Eris and Dysnomia were nicknamed \"Xena\" and \"Gabrielle\", and Brown decided to retain that connection.\nBrown also notes that Pluto owes its",
"-26.14392456226051"
],
[
"nomenclature with additional toponyms. The most notable among these contributors was Johann H. Schröter, who published a very detailed cartograph (map) of the Moon in 1791 titled the Selenotopografisches Fragmenten. Schröter's adoption of Riccioli's nomenclature perpetuated it as the universally standard lunar nomenclature. A vote of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1935 established the lunar nomenclature of Riccioli, which included 600 lunar toponyms, as universally official and doctrinal.\nThe IAU later expanded and updated the lunar nomenclature in the 1960s, but new toponyms were limited to toponyms honoring deceased scientists. After Soviet spacecraft photographed the far side of the Moon,",
"-26.142125203070464"
],
[
"they were named for a Titan and a Titaness respectively. The name of Janus was suggested by its discoverer, Audouin Dollfus.\nCurrent IAU practice for newly discovered inner moons is to continue with Herschel's system, naming them after Titans or their descendants. However, the increasing number of moons that were being discovered in the 21st century caused the IAU to draw up a new scheme for the outer moons. At the IAU General Assembly in July 2004, the WGPSN allowed satellites of Saturn to have names of giants and monsters in mythologies other than the Greco-Roman. Since the outer moons fall",
"-26.094281780329766"
],
[
"derived from the Japanese names given to their planets; even in civilian form, each superheroine has a surname that reflects her planet and her tremendously powerful Sailor powers.\nFour of the Sailor Senshi (Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Venus) have elemental abilities based directly on their planets: Mercury for water, ice, and fog, Mars for fire, flame and heat, Jupiter for lightning, rocks, and plants, and Venus for metal and light. They also take inspiration from Greek mythology, especially Jupiter (lightning) and Venus (love). The other set of four (Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and Saturn) also have powers based on their planet names,",
"-26.06249987107003"
],
[
"not always agree with one another. When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g., Apollo Musagetes is \"Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses\"). Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece.\nMost gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades",
"-26.038506989134476"
],
[
"the definition of planet, and produced one in August 2006. The number of planets dropped to the eight significantly larger bodies that had cleared their orbit (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), and a new class of dwarf planets was created, initially containing three objects (Ceres, Pluto and Eris). Mythology and naming The names for the planets in the Western world are derived from the naming practices of the Romans, which ultimately derive from those of the Greeks and the Babylonians. In ancient Greece, the two great luminaries the Sun and the Moon were called Helios and",
"-25.99632213433506"
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[
"clearly identified with the Maya moon goddess (who can be recognized by her rabbit pet and the lunar crescent), her main functions seem largely to coincide with those of the Moon (excepting the Moon's strong association with water and rain). Mythologically, she has been compared to the underworldly wife of Hun-Hunahpu, Xquic, in the Quichean Popol Vuh, and to the wife of the deer-hunting hero of Qʼeqchiʼ Sun and Moon myth, Po 'Moon'. Thompson has pointed out that in the Qʼeqchiʼ myth—which is about the earthly life of a mountain deity's daughter before her final transformation into the Moon—the themes",
"-25.98587827841402"
],
[
"have been discovered for Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune. Orbital resonance mechanisms, including secular resonance, are believed to be the cause of the missing Saturnian trojans. Natural satellites Saturn has 82 known moons, 53 of which have formal names. In addition, there is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500 meters in Saturn's rings, which are not considered to be true moons. Titan, the largest moon, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings. Saturn's second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own, along with a",
"-25.96341604902409"
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[
"for this is that during the long period when Eris had no formal name, the name 'Xena' – originally Brown's nickname for his discovery – spread and became popular. When the name 'Eris' was chosen, Brown suggested Dysnomia (which until then had been referred to as Gabrielle) as a reference to this. Hence, Dysnomia is the only moon which could be said to be named after an actor. The names Eris and Dysnomia were accepted by the IAU on 14 September 2006. Haumea The name of Haumea and its moons were suggested by David L. Rabinowitz of Caltech and refer",
"-25.93617156666005"
],
[
"\"House of the Moon Goddess\" rather than having any correspondence with Mercury, the ruler of Gemini. The Moon \"rejoiced\" in the third house—that is, it was very dignified if positioned there. The house was also the place of religious cults, particularly unconventional ones (possibly what we would now call the \"occult\") and had nothing to do with writing or speaking. It is true, however, that the Moon was much more involved in the ancient concept of the mind—particularly with memory.\nThe third house also had some connotation for travel but Crane postulates that this derived more from the",
"-25.835571242088918"
],
[
"True name A true name is a name of a thing or being that expresses, or is somehow identical to, its true nature. The notion that language, or some specific sacred language, refers to things by their true names has been central to philosophical study as well as various traditions of magic, religious invocation and mysticism (mantras) since antiquity. Philosophical and religious contexts The true name of the Egyptian sun god Ra was revealed to Isis through an elaborate trick. This gave Isis complete power over Ra and allowed her to put her son Horus on the throne.\nSocrates in",
"-25.8238722680544"
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[
"planets or moons were common in the early Solar System: some of the many craters on the Moon, for example, may have been caused by comets. A recent collision of a comet with a planet occurred in July 1994 when Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 broke up into pieces and collided with Jupiter. Nomenclature The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were simply referred to by the year when they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the \"Great Comet of 1680\", the",
"-25.780934254958993"
],
[
"goddess Selene and the Roman goddess Diana were alternatively called Cynthia. The names Luna, Cynthia, and Selene are reflected in terminology for lunar orbits in words such as apolune, pericynthion, and selenocentric. The name Diana comes from the Proto-Indo-European *diw-yo, \"heavenly\", which comes from the PIE root *dyeu- \"to shine,\" which in many derivatives means \"sky, heaven, and god\" and is also the origin of Latin dies, \"day\". Formation The Moon formed 4.51 billion years ago, some 60 million years after the origin of the Solar System. Several forming mechanisms have been proposed, including the fission of the Moon from",
"-25.690726621018257"
],
[
"only a handful of stars were given individual names. Examples include Chinese Koo She (\"bow and arrow\") and Sanskrit Chitra \"the bright one\".\nThere are also contemporary proper names given to some stars, many of which refer to accomplished astronomers, deceased astronauts and English titles. For example, Gamma Velorum is named Regor, which is \"Roger\" spelled backwards; the name honors Astronaut Roger B. Chaffee, who died in the Apollo I tragedy. Other contemporary names include The Persian (Alpha Indi) and The Head of Hydrus (Alpha Hydri), Herschel's Garnet Star (Mu Cephei), Barnard's Star, etc.\nSome independent astronomical and astrological businesses or organizations",
"-25.66174779209541"
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[
"The Dark Side of the Moon concept by considering the lack of choice one has in human society, while being deluded into thinking one does. It is also speculated that the song is about the fear of making choices. The origin of the title is unclear. One possible origin comes from an answer frequently given by a studio technician to questions put to him, \"You can have it any colour you like,\" which was a reference to Henry Ford's apocryphal description of the Model T, \"You can have it any color you like, as long as it's black.\" (Ford",
"-25.635763586731628"
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[
"Later, the name is spelled logographically as ᴰNANNA.\nThe Semitic moon god Su'en/Sin is in origin a separate deity from Sumerian Nanna, but from the Akkadian Empire period the two undergo syncretization and are identified. The occasional Assyrian spelling of ᴰNANNA-ar ᴰSu'en-e is due to association with Akkadian na-an-na-ru \"illuminator, lamp\", an epitheton of the moon god. The name of the Assyrian moon god Su'en/Sîn is usually spelled as ᴰEN.ZU, or {h⁴8im)5 simply with the numeral 30, (cuneiform: 𒀭𒌍 ᴰXXX). Seats of worship Nanna's chief sanctuary at Ur was named E-gish-shir-gal, \"house of the great light\" (cuneiform: 𒂍𒄑𒋓𒃲 e₂-giš-šir-gal). It was",
"-25.609435062283865"
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[
"Hope, in which he advocated naming the moons of Saturn after the Titans, brothers and sisters of the Titan Cronus (whom the Romans equated with their god Saturn).\nWhen first discovered, Iapetus was among four Saturnian moons labelled the Sidera Lodoicea by their discoverer Giovanni Cassini after King Louis XIV (the other three were Tethys, Dione and Rhea). However, astronomers fell into the habit of referring to them using Roman numerals, with Iapetus being Saturn V. Once Mimas and Enceladus were discovered in 1789, the numbering scheme was extended and Iapetus became Saturn VII. And with the discovery of Hyperion in 1848,",
"-25.49295360357064"
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[
"day is forbidding and burning, while the night is mild and pleasant. Applying these analogies, it appears that the sex of the Sun and Moon would, by some tribes, be the reverse of those ascribed to them by others, climatic conditions being responsible for the confusion.\nAlso many cultures believe the sun and moon to be husband and wife or brother and sister. From the conception that the Sun and Moon were husband and wife many legends concerning them were created, chief among these being the old Persian belief that the stars were the children of the Sun and Moon. As",
"-25.41788871807512"
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[
"Sun and the Moon), are also located in the Upper World. The sky was thought to be a big tent held up by the Tree of Life. The several holes in it are the stars. The Sun, Moon, and symbols of the cosmic word, are known from Hungarian grave findings from the period of Hungarian conquest. Middle World The Middle World is shared among humans and many mythological creatures; the latter are often supernatural. There are ghosts of the forests and waters, who are ordered to scare humans. They have different names in different places. There are females, for example,",
"-25.397707969756084"
],
[
"to the mother goddess and her daughters in Hawaiian mythology. Roman numeral designations The Roman numbering system for satellites arose with the very first discovery of natural satellites other than Earth's Moon: Galileo referred to the Galilean moons as I through IV (counting from Jupiter outward), refusing to adopt the names proposed by his rival Simon Marius. Similar numbering schemes naturally arose with the discovery of multiple moons around Saturn, Uranus, and Mars. The numbers initially designated the moons in orbital sequence, and were re-numbered after each new discovery; for instance, before the discovery of Mimas and Enceladus in 1789,",
"-25.396469279075973"
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[
"origin. Incidentally, this situation parallels the naming motive of ancient terms for humanity, including \"human\" (homo, humanus) itself, derived from a word for \"earth\" to contrast humans as earth-bound with celestial beings (i.e. deities) in mythology.",
"-25.32982044457458"
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[
"Names of God in Judaism Seven names of God The seven names of God that, once written, cannot be erased because of their holiness are the Tetragrammaton, El, Elohim, Eloah, Elohai, El Shaddai, and Tzevaot. In addition, the name Jah—because it forms part of the Tetragrammaton—is similarly protected. Rabbi Jose considered \"Tzevaot\" a common name and Rabbi Ishmael that \"Elohim\" was. All other names, such as \"Merciful\", \"Gracious\" and \"Faithful\", merely represent attributes that are also common to human beings. YHWH The name of God used most often in the Hebrew Bible is YHWH (י ה ו ",
"-25.320507331751287"
],
[
"and States; People; Weapons, Warfare, and the Afterlife; Other. An example of a symbol from each category is provided below. Nature: the Moon The moon is an extremely important symbol in Islam which has astrological, religious, and spiritual significance. Jihadi imagery typically simplifies this complex symbol, using to evoke the notion of the divine and a connection to Islamic identity and, for full moons in particular, the afterlife. When paired with images that reference martyrdom, the moon suggests that there will be a heavenly reward for the martyr. In the example image on the right, the presence of a white",
"-25.257820745711797"
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[
"2 July 2013, Styx officially became the name of one of Pluto's moons. The other moons of Pluto (Charon, Nix, Hydra, and Kerberos) also have names from Greco-Roman mythology related to the underworld.",
"-25.197627455294423"
],
[
"in Roman numerals V (5) to XII (12). Jupiter V was discovered in 1892 and given the name Amalthea by a popular though unofficial convention, a name first used by French astronomer Camille Flammarion.\nThe other moons were simply labeled by their Roman numeral (e.g. Jupiter IX) in the majority of astronomical literature until the 1970s. In 1975, the International Astronomical Union's (IAU) Task Group for Outer Solar System Nomenclature granted names to satellites V–XIII, and provided for a formal naming process for future satellites still to be discovered. The practice was to name newly discovered moons of Jupiter after lovers",
"-25.19556762650609"
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[
"given to the Planets, as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities. In the present more philosophical era it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method and call it Juno, Pallas, Apollo or Minerva, for a name to our new heavenly body. The first consideration of any particular event, or remarkable incident, seems to be its chronology: if in any future age it should be asked, when this last-found Planet was discovered? It would be a very satisfactory answer to say, 'In the reign of King George the Third'.\nHerschel's proposed name was not popular",
"-25.183009831001982"
],
[
"no apparent connection to the moon. Name and attributes The hieroglyphical name of the goddess consists of a female head characterized by a hair-like curl (prefixed or infixed). The curl is not unimportant, since it is usually assumed to be the sign of the earth (kabʼ[an]) or the moon (Landa's u-sign), with the goddess being identified accordingly. However, the curl might, perhaps, better be viewed as the post-Classic rendition of the infix and hair curl characteristic of Classic glyphs for 'woman' (ixik). The head of goddess I is often preceded by the glyph for 'white' (sak). The figure of goddess",
"-25.172651774453698"
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[
"the names of classical deities with those that were better known to his readers. One can only hope that he indeed replaced the names of Greek gods with their fitting Slavic counterparts; however, at least one issue remains problematic: in all Slavic languages, the word for Sun, Sunce, is of neutral or feminine gender, never masculine (however, there is Russian epic character Vladimir Beautiful Sun which has the same place as Arthur in English culture.) Also, in Baltic mythology, which is most akin to Slavic, Sun is a female deity, Saule, while the Moon is a male one. The same",
"-25.160623542615213"
],
[
"stars in the sky and are often the most prominent ones of the constellation. Examples are Betelgeuse, Rigel and Vega. Most such names are derived from the Arabic language (see List of Arabic star names § History of Arabic star names).\nStars may have multiple proper names, as many different cultures named them independently. Polaris, for example, has also been known by the names Alruccabah, Angel Stern, Cynosura, the Lodestar, Mismar, Navigatoria, Phoenice, the Pole Star, the Star of Arcady, Tramontana and Yilduz at various times and places by different cultures in human history.\nIn 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on",
"-25.132366209181782"
],
[
"initiatory rites of early Greek religious practices. In astronomy The planet Saturn is named for the Roman equivalent of the Titan Cronus. Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is named after the Titans generally, and the other moons of Saturn are named after individual Titans, specifically Tethys, Phoebe, Rhea, Hyperion, and Iapetus. Astronomer William Henry Pickering claimed to discover another moon of Saturn which he named Themis, but this discovery was never confirmed, and the name Themis was given to an asteroid, 24 Themis. Asteroid 57 Mnemosyne was also named for the Titan.\nA proto-planet Theia is hypothesized to have been involved in",
"-25.10830711433664"
],
[
"Maya moon goddess The traditional Mayas generally assume the moon to be female, and the moon's phases are accordingly conceived as the stages of a woman's life. The Maya moon goddess wields great influence in many areas. Being in the image of a woman, she is associated with sexuality and procreation, fertility and growth, not only of human beings, but also of the vegetation and the crops. Since growth can also cause all sorts of ailments, the moon goddess is also a goddess of disease. Everywhere in Mesoamerica, including the Mayan area, she is specifically associated with water, be it",
"-25.1074406701955"
],
[
"4 April, 4 May, 3 June, 2 July, 1 August, 30 August, 28 September, 28 October, 26 November and 26 December. Meaning of Amāvásyā In Sanskrit, \"amā\" means \"together\" and \"vásya\" means \"to dwell\" or \"cohabit\". It also means \"na\" +\"ma\"+\"asya\" meaning to \"na\" = \"No, \"ma\"=Moon, \"Asya\"=\"There\" in turn meaning to There is no Moon i.e., Moon is not visible.\nIn the pūrṇimānta māna Hindu lunar calendar used in most parts of the Indian subcontinent, the lunar month starts on the day following the full moon or purnima and therefore Amāvásyā always falls in the middle of the month. However,",
"-25.05721412767889"
],
[
"Benthomangelia enceladus Etymology The specific epithet refers to the moon of Saturn, and is therefore a noun in apposition that does not agree in gender with the genus. Distribution This marine species occurs in the Campos Basin, Southeast Brazil.",
"-25.030204054084606"
],
[
"the guidelines of the International Astronomical Union's (IAU) naming conventions, objects with a similar size and orbit to that of Pluto are named after underworld deities. Accordingly, the discoverers suggested naming the object after Orcus, the Etruscan god of the underworld and punisher of broken oaths. The name was also a private reference to the homonymous Orcas Island, where Brown's wife had lived as a child and that they visit frequently.\nOn 30 March 2005, Orcus's moon, Vanth, was named after a winged female demon of the Etruscan underworld. She could be present at the moment of death, and frequently acted",
"-25.004866876930464"
],
[
"imperfections on a celestial body that was supposed to be composed of perfect aether. As such, because the Moon's imperfections could now be related to those seen on Earth, one could argue that neither was unique: rather, they were both just celestial bodies made from Earth-like material. Galileo could also see the moons of Jupiter, which he dedicated to Cosimo II de' Medici, and stated that they orbited around Jupiter, not Earth. This was a significant claim as it would mean not only that not everything revolved around Earth as stated in the Ptolemaic model, but also showed",
"-24.994101874247463"
],
[
"Legacy Teng died of an asthma attack in 1995, but \"The Moon Represents My Heart\" has been performed frequently in Asia into the 21st century, including in places like Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan—even at political functions. It has been covered by several famous singers, including Katherine Jenkins, Hong Jin-young, Shila Amzah, Faye Wong, David Tao, Andy Lau, Leslie Cheung, Jon Bon Jovi and Hong Kong a cappella group, Metro Vocal Group. The song is considered a \"classic,\" and according to one source, \"Chinese all around the world are familiar with [it].\"\n\"The Moon Represents My Heart\" is also popular in karaoke,",
"-24.986984235350974"
],
[
"the Moon (god)\". Though it is not mentioned in the Hebrew Bible or other Bronze or Iron Age sources, the name may preserve, at least in part, the Canaanite toponym of Ablm-bt-Yrh, \"the city/fort (qrt) of his-majesty Yarih\". As Ablm (Heb. Abel), this location is mentioned in the 14th century BCE Epic of Aqhat, and is thought to be a reference to the Early Bronze Age structure extant at Khirbet Kerak.\nThe name Bet Yerah has generally been accepted and applied to the site of Khirbet Kerak, though the evidence for its being located there is circumstantial. Early Bronze Age (3300/3500-2200",
"-24.98690506722778"
],
[
"say that trios of sister goddess in Greek myth refer to the lunar cycle; in the book in question he treats Athene also as a triple moon goddess, noting the statement by Aristotle that Athene was the Moon but not \"only\" the Moon.\nIn discussing examples of his Great Mother archetype, Neumann mentions the Fates as \"the threefold form of the Great Mother\", details that \"the reason for their appearance in threes or nines, or more seldom in twelves, is to be sought in the threefold articulation underlying all created things; but here it refers most particularly to the three temporal",
"-24.96803430732689"
],
[
"hand, riding a chariot with three wheels and three or more white horses (up to ten).\nSoma as the moon-deity is also found in Buddhism, and Jainism. Zodiac and calendar Soma is the root of the word Somavara or Monday in the Hindu calendar. The word \"Monday\" in the Greco-Roman and other Indo-European calendars is also dedicated to the Moon. Soma is part of the Navagraha in Hindu zodiac system. The zodiac and naming system of Hindu astrology, one that includes Moon as Soma, likely developed in the centuries after the arrival of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, their zodiac",
"-24.963993258716073"
],
[
"Ariel (moon) Discovery and name Discovered on 24 October 1851 by William Lassell, it is named for a sky spirit in Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock and Shakespeare's The Tempest.\nBoth Ariel and the slightly larger Uranian satellite Umbriel were discovered by William Lassell on 24 October 1851. Although William Herschel, who discovered Uranus's two largest moons Titania and Oberon in 1787, claimed to have observed four additional moons, this was never confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious.\nAll of Uranus's moons are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope's",
"-24.961588524631225"
],
[
"to denote personification of Earth's moon.\nThe modern English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar, derived from the Latin word for the Moon, luna. The adjective selenic (usually only used to refer to the chemical element selenium) is so rarely used to refer to the Moon that this meaning is not recorded in most major dictionaries. It is derived from the Ancient Greek word for the Moon, σελήνη (selḗnē), from which is however also derived the prefix \"seleno-\", as in selenography, the study of the physical features of the Moon, as well as the element name selenium. Both the Greek",
"-24.95866912137717"
]
] |
6z9i1m | Why is fear of clowns such a common phobia? | [
"Clown's costumes distort and exaggerate their features for humorous effect. However, we naturally find feature distortions as worrying or frightening because deformities are indicative of disease. There's also the uncanny valley effect, in which we find things that are *almost* human in appearance far more disturbing than things that are obviously fake, probably for the same reason. Children are less easily able to tell that clowns are fake and are thus more likely to fear them, a fear that can carry over to adulthood.",
"Our minds are keyed to recognize patterns, especially as they relate to the human face. We see faces on everything, from toasters to door knots to buildings. And when it is obviously inhuman, like a toaster, it is seen as cute or non-threatening. But there is a point, as the object gets more and more human-looking, that we grow strongly averse to it. He hate it or fear it. Clowns, with their distorted faces (thanks to makeup), fall squarely into this uncanny valley for a lot of people. The reason the uncanny valley exists is because while we are trained to pick up on faces as children, and thus recognize them in non-human objects, when something is *trying* to look human and fails, it creeps us out. We either fear it or hate it. Factor in the fact that clowns' antics invade personal space and the fact that many young children are taken to see clowns at a formative age, and that phobia can last a lifetime.",
"Ahoy, matey! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [ELI5: Why do so many people fear clowns when they're supposed to bring us joy and laughter? ]( URL_4 ) 1. [[ELI5] Why are people afraid of clowns? ]( URL_2 ) 1. [ELI5: Why do people develop an irrational fear of clowns? ]( URL_3 ) 1. [ELI5: Why do some people find things like dolls and clowns scary? ]( URL_0 ) 1. [People with a fear of clowns: What is it about clowns that scares you? ]( URL_1 )",
"I suspect most people actually lie about having this phobia under the assumption it makes them 'cool'",
"For me, personally, I don't like them. Perhaps due to the fact that I was held hostage in an armed robbery by a dude in a clown mask. So, yeah. Phobic."
] | [
[
"that the concept of evil clowns has an independent position in popular culture, arguing that \"the concept of evil clowns and the widespread hostility it induces is a cultural phenomenon which transcends just the phobia alone\". A study by the University of Sheffield concluded \"that clowns are universally disliked by children. Some found them quite frightening and unknowable.\" This may be because of the nature of clowns' makeup hiding their faces, making them potential threats in disguise; as a psychology professor at California State University, Northridge stated, young children are \"very reactive to a familiar body type with an unfamiliar",
"-35.73052724287845"
],
[
"do using \"human foibles\" against their victims. Radford states that, although bad clowns permeate the media in movies, TV, music, comics, and more, the \"good clowns\" outnumber the bad ones. Research shows that most people do not fear clowns but actually love them and that bad clowns are \"the exception, not the rule.\" Interpretations The concept of the evil clown is related to the irrational fear of clowns, known as coulrophobia, a neologism coined in the context of informal \"-phobia lists\".\nThe cultural critic Mark Dery has theorized the postmodern archetype of the evil clown in \"Cotton Candy Autopsy: Deconstructing Psycho-Killer",
"-33.642833876714576"
],
[
"face\". This natural dislike of clowns makes them effective in a literary or fictional context, as the antagonistic threat perceived in clowns is desirable in a villainous character.\nResearcher Ben Radford, who published Bad Clowns in 2016 and is regarded as an expert on the phenomenon, writes that looking throughout history clowns are seen as tricksters, fools, and more; however, they always are in control, speak their minds, and can get away with doing so. When writing the book Bad Clowns, Radford found that professional clowns are not generally fond of the bad-clown (or evil-clown) persona. They see them as \"the",
"-33.040365664171986"
],
[
"rotten apple in the barrel, whose ugly sight and smell casts suspicion on the rest of them,\" and do not wish to encourage or propagate coulrophobia. Yet, as Radford discovered, bad clowns have existed throughout history: Harlequin, the King's fool, and Mr. Punch. Radford argues that bad clowns have the \"ability to change with the times\" and that modern bad clowns have evolved into Internet trolls. They may not wear clown costume but, nevertheless, engage with people for their own amusement, abuse, tease and speak what they think of as the \"truth\" much like the court jester and \"dip clowns\"",
"-32.483602853433695"
],
[
"in which the phobic person will go to great lengths to avoid even potential situations that could even be perceived as \"threatening\".\nEmetophobia is clinically considered an \"elusive predicament\" because limited research has been done pertaining to it. The fear of vomiting receives little attention compared with other irrational fears.\nThe event of vomiting may make anyone with this peculiar phobia flee the scene. Some may fear someone throwing up, while others may fear themselves throwing up. Some may have both. Some may have anxiety which makes them feel like they will throw up when they actually might not. People with emetophobia",
"-31.197125299368054"
],
[
"Fear of Clowns Plot Lynn Blodgett, an artist with coulrophobia, has a nightmare in which she is a young girl and encounters a clown with a decomposing face after a car crash at a carnival. Lynn's nightmares have been getting worse since she filed for divorce from her husband, Doctor Bert Tokyo, who hit her upon getting the news, and is fighting for full custody of their son, Nicholas. One night, a shirtless clown (\"Shivers\") with black eyes and a battle axe gazes at Lynn's house, then walks away. In the morning, Lynn is told that a family living near",
"-30.76739193254616"
],
[
"disorder, many individuals with scopophobia also commonly experience other anxiety disorders. Scopophobia has been related to many other irrational fears and phobias. Specific phobias and syndromes that are similar to scopophobia include erythrophobia, the fear of blushing (which is found especially in young people), and an epileptic's fear of being looked at, which may itself precipitate such an attack. Scopophobia is also commonly associated with schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders. It is not considered indicative of other disorders, but is rather considered as a psychological problem that may be treated independently.\nSociologist Erving Goffman suggested that shying away from casual glances",
"-30.340430066455156"
],
[
"images of the fool in myth and history, and ruminations on the mingling of ecstasy and dread in the Information Age, Dery asserts the evil clown is an icon of our times. Clowns are often depicted as murderous psychopaths at many American haunted houses.\nWolfgang M. Zucker points out the similarities between a clown's appearance and the cultural depictions of demons and other infernal creatures, noting \"[the clown's] chalk-white face in which the eyes almost disappear, while the mouth is enlarged\nto a ghoulish bigness, looks like the mask of death\".\nAccording to psychology professor Joseph Durwin at California State University, Northridge, young",
"-30.151651023887098"
],
[
"\"self-insecure\" personalities who resemble the paranoid personality. \nAccording to Jaspers, such people experience inner humiliation, brought about by outside experiences and their \ninterpretations of them. They have an urge to get external confirmation to their self-deprecation and that makes them \nsee insults in the behavior of other people. They suffer from every slight because they seek the real reason for them in \nthemselves. This kind of insecurity leads to overcompensation: compulsive formality, strict social observances and \nexaggerated displays of assurance.\nIn 1950, Kurt Schneider described the \"fanatic psychopaths\" and divided them into two categories: the combative type that is \nvery insistent",
"-30.04584773920942"
],
[
"rock band Pennywise took its name from the character. 2016 clown sightings The character has also been cited as a possible inspiration for two separate incidents of people dressing up as creepy clowns in Northampton, England and Staten Island, New York. In 2016, several reports of random appearances by \"evil clowns\" were reported by the media, including seven people in Alabama charged with \"clown-related activity\". Several newspaper reports cited the character of Pennywise as an influence for the outbreak, which led to King commenting that people should lower hysteria caused by the sightings and not take his work seriously.\nThe first",
"-30.013381561584538"
],
[
"a generalized anxiety disorder to social phobia, panic disorders and obsessive compulsive disorders. They contribute to impaired quality of life and increased severity of motor symptoms such as on/off fluctuations or freezing episodes.\nPunding in which complicated repetitive aimless stereotyped behaviors occur for many hours is another disturbance caused by anti-Parkinson medication.\nHallucinations or delusions occur in approximately 50% of people with PD over the course of the illness, and may herald the emergence of dementia. These range from minor hallucinations – \"sense of passage\" (something quickly passing beside the person) or \"sense of presence\" (the perception of something/someone standing just to",
"-29.922291293740273"
],
[
"Ailurophobia Ailurophobia is a type of specific phobia: the persistent, irrational fear of cats.\nThe name comes from the Greek αἴλουρος (ailouros), 'cat' and φόβος (phóbos), 'fear'. Other names include felinophobia, elurophobia, and cat phobia. A person with such a fear is known as an ailurophobe. Description The phobia manifests itself in different ways. For most people it is less about fear than about loathing, similar to the reaction many people have to snakes or rats. Some people experience it almost all the time, others just in response to direct stimuli. Some possible situations that can trigger the loathing of",
"-29.76077434627223"
],
[
"commit his crimes while wearing his clown costume.\nThe modern stock character of the evil clown was popularized by Stephen King's novel It, published in 1986, which introduced the fear of an evil clown to a modern audience. In the novel, the eponymous character is a pan-dimensional monster which feeds mainly on children by luring them in the form of Pennywise the Dancing Clown and then assuming the shape of whatever the victim fears the most.\nThe evil clown archetype plays strongly off the sense of dislike it caused to inherent elements of coulrophobia; however, it has been suggested by Joseph Durwin",
"-29.680671864713077"
],
[
"death, rejection, people, snakes, failure, and driving. Common phobias According to surveys, some of the most common fears are of demons and ghosts, the existence of evil powers, cockroaches, spiders, snakes, heights, Trypophobia, water, enclosed spaces, tunnels, bridges, needles, social rejection, failure, examinations, and public speaking. Fear of the unknown Fear of the unknown or irrational fear is caused by negative thinking (worry) which arises from anxiety accompanied with a subjective sense of apprehension or dread. Irrational fear shares a common neural pathway with other fears, a pathway that engages the nervous system to mobilize bodily resources in the face",
"-29.644007083203178"
],
[
"South Carolina and New York. Response to evil clowns in media In 2014, Clowns of America International responded to the depiction of Twisty on American Horror Story, and evil clowns in media generally. President Glenn Kohlberger said, \"Hollywood makes money sensationalizing the norm. They can take any situation no matter how good or pure and turn it into a nightmare. ... We do not support in any way, shape or form any medium that sensationalizes or adds to coulrophobia or 'clown fear.'\"",
"-29.612602229462937"
],
[
"described as \"horrified\" and pressure had been placed on police resources.\nThroughout this time, Internet social media sites received numerous postings related to the phenomenon. The World Clown Association president Randy Christensen took a stance against the current trend of people dressing up as clowns to frighten people. Circuses and other clown-related businesses were affected. In October 2016, McDonald's decided that Ronald McDonald would keep a lower profile as a result of the incidents. A sociologist has called 2016 \"a bad time to be a professional clown\". The killer clown craze has been linked to a significant increase in sales of",
"-29.520716157741845"
],
[
"is called social anxiety. According to Cutting, social phobics do not fear the crowd but the fact that they may be judged negatively.\nSocial anxiety varies in degree and severity. For some people, it is characterized by experiencing discomfort or awkwardness during physical social contact (e.g. embracing, shaking hands, etc.), while in other cases it can lead to a fear of interacting with unfamiliar people altogether. Those suffering from this condition may restrict their lifestyles to accommodate the anxiety, minimizing social interaction whenever possible. Social anxiety also forms a core aspect of certain personality disorders, including avoidant personality disorder.\nTo the extent",
"-29.404050883138552"
],
[
"Gelotophobia Gelotophobia is a fear of being laughed at, a type of social phobia. While most people do not like being laughed at, there is a sub-group of people that exceedingly fear it, and without obvious reasons, they relate laughter they hear to be directed at themselves. Since 2008, this phenomenon has attracted attention from scholars in psychology, sociology, and psychiatry, and has been studied intensively.\nIn his clinical observations, Dr. Michael Titze found that some of his patients seemed to be primarily worried about being laughed at. They tended to scan their environment for signs of laughter and ridicule. Furthermore,",
"-29.327961415983737"
],
[
"gradually develops from fear to a full-blown phobia.\nThe phobia can also be caused by a simple fear of the animal itself. A horse's imposing size and weight and large teeth may scare some people, especially children.\nNegative media portrayals of horses and stallions may add to one's fears. Treatment Many treatment options are available for those suffering from it. Cognitive behavioral therapy is one form of therapy for people who suffer from certain phobias. It focuses on one's fears and the reason they exist. It tries to change and challenge the thought processes behind one's fear. Studies have shown that it",
"-29.22927907691337"
],
[
"an example of the \"snowball effect\", where rumor and legitimate concerns mix with the human penchant for a good story.\nThe Verge dismissed the sightings as a case of mass hysteria, stating that a fear of clowns (which is common in children and adults) may be an underlying cause. Vox likewise claimed that \"The Great Clown Panic of 2016 has been perpetuated by pretty much everyone except actual clowns.\"",
"-29.162574033631245"
],
[
"also be afraid of hearing that someone is feeling like vomiting or that someone has vomited, usually in conjunction with the fears of seeing someone vomit or seeing vomit. Causes There is a strong agreement in the scientific community that there is no specific cause of emetophobia. Some emetophobics report a traumatic experience with vomiting, always in childhood. Some suggest that sufferers are victims of childhood abuse – sexual or physical. While this is occasionally true, it seems to be no more prevalent than in the general population (Christie, 2004). Some experts believe that emetophobia may be linked to worries",
"-29.16005181532819"
],
[
"be placed in both. On the other hand, as with most phobias, scopophobia generally arises from a traumatic event in the person's life. With scopophobia, it is likely that the person was subjected to public ridicule as a child. Additionally, a person with scopophobia may often be the subject to public staring, possibly due to a physical disability. \nAccording to the Social Phobia/Social Anxiety Association, U.S. government data for 2012 suggests that social anxiety affects over 7% of the population at any given time. Stretched over a lifetime, the percentage increases to 13%. Related syndromes Though scopophobia is a solitary",
"-29.13634446274955"
],
[
"the most terrifying clown characters in film and television. In fact, it is \"widely considered the archetype of the [clown horror] genre,\" wrote Jessica Glenza. As The Atlantic summarized the terror of the performance and character, \"He speaks in a kind of singsongy, guttural growl, his teeth are sharp fangs, and the contrast between his comical yellow dungarees and his penchant for ripping off children’s limbs is fairly stark.\" Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins described it as \"the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours",
"-29.09760949225165"
],
[
"in public.\nOften scopophobia will result in symptoms common with other anxiety disorders. The symptoms of scopophobia include an irrational feelings of panic, feelings of terror, feelings of dread, rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, nausea, dry mouth, trembling, anxiety and avoidance. Other symptoms related to scopophobia may be hyperventilation, muscle tension, dizziness, uncontrollable shaking or trembling, excessive eye watering and redness of the eyes.",
"-29.053372132242657"
],
[
"related to specific (performance) social phobia, for example, regarding public speaking (Stemberg et al., 1995). As well as direct experiences, observing or hearing about the socially negative experiences of others (e.g. a faux pas committed by someone), or verbal warnings of social problems and dangers, may also make the development of a social anxiety disorder more likely. Social anxiety disorder may be caused by the longer-term effects of not fitting in, or being bullied, rejected or ignored (Beidel and Turner, 1998). Shy adolescents or avoidant adults have emphasised unpleasant experiences with peers or childhood bullying or harassment (Gilmartin, 1987). In",
"-29.039954787622264"
],
[
"in the generally forgettable Fear of Clowns -- and I'll gladly admit that it's a marked improvement over Hunting Humans -- but it's just too dry and familiar a tale\".\nThe same grade was given by Bloody Disgusting, which wrote that the film was unfocused and overlong, and the characters largely two-dimensional, despite the solid performances of Jacky Reres and Mark Lassise as Lynn and Shivers, respectively. Arrow in the Head's Andre Manseau bestowed a score of 3½ out of 5, and summed up his feelings towards Fear of Clowns by calling it \"a decent low budget slasher\". Ain't It Cool",
"-28.968054665689124"
],
[
"clown pranksters were reported in France, the United States and Germany, possibly inspired by American Horror Story: Freak Show.\nIn 2014, \"the Wasco clown\" attracted social media attention in California. Again this clown would shared similar resemblance to Pennywise, and it was revealed that the social media postings were part of a year-long photography project conducted by the artist's wife. In Bakersfield, California \"menacing\" clowns were reported, some with weapons. In July 2015, a \"creepy\" clown was seen around a local cemetery in Chicago and terrorizing anyone in the graveyard.\nThere was another burst of such sightings in 2016, including in Greenville,",
"-28.7723061919678"
],
[
"be a result of their inability to cope with aggression as well as other people, especially when constantly attending to potential threats in their environment. The attention to threat itself has been proposed as one of the major contributors of violent actions in paranoid people, although there has been much deliberation about this as well. Other studies have shown that there may only be certain types of delusions that promote any violent behaviors, persecutory delusions seem to be one of these.\nHaving resentful emotions towards others and the inability to understand what other people are feeling seem to have an association",
"-28.760356408543885"
],
[
"experience anxiety as a result of the need to vomit, this can contribute to a fear of rides that can involve fast and erratic movements. Traumatic experience If an individual does not have other phobias which can elicit fear responses on a rollercoaster, it's possibly the result of an intense, frightening event that happened while on a ride – in particular being on a ride that experienced mechanical failure or witnessing such a failure. It could also result from someone being allowed to ride a rollercoaster when they were too young to be able to process the sensations they experienced.",
"-28.55718439359771"
],
[
"Emetophobia Emetophobia is a phobia that causes overwhelming, intense anxiety pertaining to vomiting. This specific phobia can also include subcategories of what causes the anxiety, including a fear of vomiting in public, a fear of seeing vomit, a fear of watching the action of vomiting or fear of being nauseated. It is common for emetophobics to be underweight, or even anorexic, due to strict diets and restrictions they make for themselves. The thought of someone possibly vomiting can cause the phobic person to engage in extreme behaviors to escape the perceived (and sometimes very real) threat of that particular situation,",
"-28.514122063512332"
],
[
"to think of the T.I. phenomenon in terms of people with paranoid symptoms who have hit upon the gang-stalking idea as an explanation of what is happening to them\". Mental health professionals say that T.I.s can experience hallucinations and their explanations of being targeted or harassed arise from delusional disorders or psychosis. Yale psychiatry professor Ralph Hoffman states that people often ascribe voices in their heads to external sources such as government harassment, God, or dead relatives, and it can be difficult to persuade these individuals that their belief in an external influence is delusional. Other experts compare these",
"-28.486368757032324"
],
[
"degree, the patient will shun the visitor and escape from his or her sight where this is possible. Scopophobia is more often manifest among women than among men.\nLater in the same paper (p. 285) scopophobia is defined as \"a fear of seeing people or being seen, especially of strange faces\". Causes Scopophobia is unique among phobias in that the fear of being looked at is considered both a social phobia and a specific phobia, because it is a specific occurrence which takes place in a social setting. Most phobias typically fall in either one category or the other but scopophobia can",
"-28.47694185184082"
],
[
"Acrophobia Causes Traditionally, acrophobia has been attributed, like other phobias, to conditioning or a traumatic experience. Recent studies have cast doubt on this explanation; a fear of falling, along with a fear of loud noises, is one of the most commonly suggested inborn or \"non-associative\" fears. The newer non-association theory is that a fear of heights is an evolved adaptation to a world where falls posed a significant danger. The degree of fear varies and the term phobia is reserved for those at the extreme end of the spectrum. Researchers have argued that a fear of heights",
"-28.351505182217807"
],
[
"dark characters, complete with statements about the clowns \"rejoicing in the pain of others\" and \"Violence without measure\", a fabricated profile to help enhance their \"evil\" characters.\nThe team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star, Super Fly and Pegasso). Los Psycho Circus was physically larger than most of the AAA wrestlers and soon established themselves as a dominant force in the ring, booked to easily defeat a series of low card teams. While Los Psycho Circus was booked as Rudos (bad guys) they faced both tecnico",
"-28.33081688103266"
],
[
"to nausea and exposure to cues of vomiting, systemic behavior therapy, psychodynamic and psychotherapy have also shown positive effects for the treatment of emetophobia. However, in some cases it may cause re-traumatization, and the phobia may become more intense as a result. Effects on life Emetophobics may also suffer from other complicating disorders and phobias, such as social anxiety, fear of flying and agoraphobia. These three are very common, because people who fear vomiting are often terrified of doing so, or encountering it, in a public place. Therefore, they may restrict their social activities so they avoid any situations with",
"-28.25752480351366"
],
[
"(DSM-5) mentions paruresis by name.\nKaplan & Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry states, \"Persons with social phobias (also called social anxiety disorder) have excessive fears of humiliation or embarrassment in various social settings, such as in speaking in public, urinating in a public rest room (also called shy bladder), and speaking to a date.\" The Synopsis describes shy bladder as \"inability to void in a public bathroom\" and notes that relaxation exercises are an application of behavior therapy for dealing with this disorder. Some paruretics experience delayed urination and must wait for their need to void to overcome their anxiety, while others",
"-28.239212371001486"
],
[
"psychological disorders and emotional dysfunctions are significantly widespread throughout the Philippines, due to the large poverty population and the numerous out-of-school or out-of-work youths. These \"psychotic vagrants\", as some would call them, are gravely misunderstood. They are commonly called \"taong grasa or \"abnoy\". The phrase \"taong grasa\" is referred to as a slang term, and is the English equivalent to \"grease monkey\" and/or is used when referencing a \"dirty person\". The phrase \"abnoy\" translates to \"abnormal\" in English, and it also used as a slang term to mean \"weirdo\". These phrases is used to demean another person, and are typically",
"-28.198442208347842"
],
[
"Paranoia Signs and symptoms A common symptom of paranoia is the attribution bias. These individuals typically have a biased perception of reality, often exhibiting more hostile beliefs. A paranoid person may view someone else's accidental behavior as though it is with intent or threatening.\nAn investigation of a non-clinical paranoid population found that feeling powerless and depressed, isolating oneself, and relinquishing activities are characteristics that could be associated with those exhibiting more frequent paranoia.\nSome scientists have created different subtypes for the various symptoms of paranoia including erotic, persecutory, litigious, and exalted.\nDue to the suspicious and troublesome personality traits of paranoia, it",
"-28.14146541833179"
],
[
"alcohol or dining out in restaurants. Emetophobics may also limit exposure to children for fear of germs. Females who suffer from this disorder delayed pregnancy or avoided it altogether because of the fear of morning sickness. People who have a fear of vomiting may avoid travel because of the worry about motion sickness or others experiencing it around them. They may also fear roller coasters for the same reason.\nDr. Lipsitz et al.'s findings also showed that those afflicted with emetophobia often have difficulties comfortably leading a normal life. Many find that they have problems being alone with young children, and",
"-28.135918538435362"
],
[
"become extraordinary—and for whom the ridiculous, for a short while, becomes ordinary. This style of comedy has a long history in many countries and cultures across the world. Some writers have argued that due to the widespread use of such comedy and its long history it is a need that is part of the human condition.\nThe \"fear of clowns\", particularly circus clowns, has become known by the term coulrophobia. Origin The \"clown\" character developed out of the zanni \"rustic fool\" characters of the early modern commedia dell'arte, which were themselves directly based on the \"rustic fool\" characters of ancient Greek",
"-28.12019031343516"
],
[
"shame-based problems and non-shame based neurotics and samples of a normal population. Basically, this means that even though gelotophobia shares similar problems, high scores were also found for these criteria in individuals with Asperger's syndrome and Cluster A personality disorders.\nThe fear of being laughed at has also been studied among children and adolescents using modifications of these diagnostic instruments Emotions Although at face value the emotions relating to gelotophobia would be predominantly fear, there is a distinct interplay with three dominant emotions: low levels of joy, high levels of fear, and high levels of shame. More importantly, where",
"-28.08614620915614"
],
[
"daily life. These fears can be triggered by perceived or actual scrutiny from others.\nPhysical symptoms often include excessive blushing, excess sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Stammering may be present, along with rapid speech. Panic attacks can also occur under intense fear and discomfort. Some sufferers may use alcohol or other drugs to reduce fears and inhibitions at social events. It is common for sufferers of social phobia to self-medicate in this fashion, especially if they are undiagnosed, untreated, or both; this can lead to alcoholism, eating disorders or other kinds of substance abuse. SAD is sometimes referred to as an",
"-28.03305137710413"
],
[
"makes it difficult for riders to catch their breath. Both of these issues can trigger claustrophobic responses in riders. Vertigo Vertigo is a type of dizziness where a person feels as if they or the objects around them are moving when they are not. Common causes of vertigo include looking down from a great height and persistent movement, hence it contributing to a phobia of riding rollercoasters. Emetophobia Emetophobia is the fear of vomiting. Individuals who suffer from any degree of motion sickness are more likely to become nauseous and vomit during or after riding a rollercoaster. If they also",
"-28.00895682652481"
],
[
"disorders such as autism and Asperger syndrome.\nBecause of its close relationship and overlapping symptoms, treating people with social phobia may help understand the underlying connections to other mental disorders. Social anxiety disorder is often linked to bipolar disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and some believe that they share an underlying cyclothymic-anxious-sensitive disposition. The co-occurrence of ADHD and social phobia is very high, especially when SCT symptoms are present. Causes Research into the causes of social anxiety and social phobia is wide-ranging, encompassing multiple perspectives from neuroscience to sociology. Scientists have yet to pinpoint the exact causes. Studies suggest",
"-27.91299690498272"
],
[
"lies in the enormous use of stimulants, especially alcohol, which is a daily practice in upper sections of the population. Alcohol is part of each meal and drunken because of boredom and reputation. This mindset is toxic in Tuke's eyes and more importantly degenerates cerebral structures. Prevention of Insanity Although Tuke is already aware that insanity is also partially favored by a specific combination of genetic material and thus predetermined, in the last chapters he designates some characteristics and habits which can avoid insanity and terms this \"auto-prophylaxes\". He emphasizes that in general a mentally as well as physically balances",
"-27.86917343310779"
],
[
"Fear of Clowns 2 Plot The film begins two years after the events of the first film, with Detective Peters at the Doctor's office, who reveals to Peters that he has Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), and there is no treatment; it's fatal.\nTwo months later, it is revealed that after being sent to jail two years ago, Doug Richardson a.k.a. \"Shivers The Clown\" was sent to a mental asylum, and Lynn Blodgett has quit her painting career and gone on to write a book called Coulrophobia, which talks about her \"fear of clowns\" and the story about the stalking killer clown two",
"-27.82703345938353"
],
[
"reported sighting of people dressed as evil clowns was in Greenville, South Carolina, where a small boy spoke to his mother of a pair of clowns that had attempted to lure him away. After such an incident, a number of clowns have since been spotted in various American states including Florida, New York, Wisconsin and Kentucky, and subsequently in other Western countries, from August 2016. By October 2016, in the wake of hundreds of \"clown sightings\" across the United States and Canada, the phenomenon had spread from North America to Europe, Australasia and Latin America.\nSome explanations for the 2016 clown",
"-27.802286603402422"
],
[
"be a rare disorder. It is now recognized that this way of estimating is inappropriate, because people with social phobia rarely seek psychiatric help by the very nature of their disorder. A more reliable source used now is community surveys.\nVarious surveys show that the syndrome of glossophobia is the most prevalent type. An article based on a National Comorbidity Survey reported that 1/3 of people with lifetime social phobia suffered from glossophobia Another survey of a community sample from a Canadian city reported that of people who believed being anxious in one or several social situations 55% feared speaking to",
"-27.798714941600338"
],
[
"Social anxiety disorder Cognitive aspects In cognitive models of social anxiety disorder, those with social phobias experience dread over how they will present to others. They may feel overly self-conscious, pay high self-attention after the activity, or have high performance standards for themselves. According to the social psychology theory of self-presentation, a sufferer attempts to create a well-mannered impression towards others but believes he or she is unable to do so. Many times, prior to the potentially anxiety-provoking social situation, sufferers may deliberately review what could go wrong and how to deal with each unexpected case. After the event,",
"-27.78953265119344"
],
[
"is now used to describe a psychological fear, but Westphal's original description included many symptoms of dizziness and imbalance not included in the modern psychiatric definition. Unlike people who feel anxious in crowds because they feel something bad will happen, people with CSD may dislike crowds because all the movement leads to a sensation of dizziness.",
"-27.787684937931772"
],
[
"a clown, and starts to do comedic antics.\nIn the final scene, the play that Krusty was in is later seen being witnessed by the ghosts of Krusty, Arthur Miller, Rabbi Hyman Krustofsky, and William Shakespeare. Reception Dennis Perkins of The A.V. Club gave this episode a C-, stating, \"Sometimes The Simpsons rolls out an episode that’s so pale an approximation of its best that sticking up for it becomes an exercise in hand-waving and deep, deep sighs. 'Fears Of A Clown' isn’t good. It’s also not bad. It is, instead, irrelevant in its hollow echoes of past, actually memorable, episodes.",
"-27.709551661158912"
],
[
"their anxiety. They are terrified they will humiliate or embarrass themselves. The anxiety can interfere significantly with daily routines, occupational performance, or social life, making it difficult to complete school, interview and get a job, and have friendships and romantic relationships.\nBeing a wallflower can be considered a less-intense form of social anxiety. A person with social anxiety may feel a sense of hesitation in large crowds, and may even have a sense of panic if forced to become the center of attention. This fear may cause them to do something as minor as stand away from the center of a",
"-27.707807758881245"
],
[
"country and world. There has been speculation that this clown is related to an independent horror film due to premiere around Halloween.\nOn October 7, 2016, a Menasha couple dressed up as clowns were arrested for child negligence for leaving their 4-year-old child alone at home while they were outside scaring people. Wyoming In early October, creepy clowns were reported by citizens to be walking around mazes and taking selfies in Natrona County. Internet In one example, threats of violence and the same image of a clown referred to a minimum of 24 schools in Arizona Valley's Phoenix Union and Glendale",
"-27.68068677629344"
],
[
"careless in the way they treat themselves. They frequently fail to alter their behavior in a way that would prevent them from enduring future discomfort.\nBecause an individual's scores may have important consequences for his or her future, the potential for harm if the test is used or administered incorrectly is considerable. The test can only be considered valid if administered by a suitably qualified and experienced clinician under controlled conditions.\nHare has described psychopaths as 'social predators', 'remorseless predators', or in some cases 'lethal predators', and has stated that 'Psychopathic depredations affect people in all races, cultures, and ethnic groups, and",
"-27.631076261168346"
],
[
"When the book on 'The Simpsons' is finally closed...and the inevitable all-time episode rankings are compiled, 'Fears Of A Clown' is one of those installments destined to elicit blank stares, even from die-hard fans. It barely exists.\"\n\"Fears of a Clown\" scored a 0.9 rating with a 4 share and was watched by 2.06 million people, making it Fox's highest rated show of the night.",
"-27.596615538815968"
],
[
"your lunch.\" In all but rare cases, these beliefs are irrational, and can cause the person holding them to behave abnormally. Another frequent type of delusion is a delusion of grandeur, or the “fixed, false belief that one possesses superior qualities such as genius, fame, omnipotence, or wealth.\" Common ones include “the belief that you can fly, that you're famous, or that you have a relationship with a famous person.\"\nAnother criterion present in patients with paranoid schizophrenia is auditory hallucinations, in which the person hears voices or sounds that are not really present. The patient will sometimes hear multiple voices",
"-27.54829575988697"
],
[
"Indians first saw European clowns, they identified them with their own term for clowns, heyoka. History of concept George B. Grinnell introduced the designation Contraries based on his visits to the Cheyenne around 1898. Written accounts of the heyoka (i.e., the Contraries and clowns of the Lakota and Santee) were published even earlier. The cultural anthropologist Julian Steward described various forms of contrary behavior in 1930. In 1945, Verne Ray examined contrary behavior in the ritual dances and ceremonies of North American Indians and differentiated a further characteristic of the contrary complex of the Plains Indians, reverse reaction, which",
"-27.52977554222889"
],
[
"hypomania or mania, some bipolar patients can suffer grandiose delusions. In its most severe manifestation, days without sleep or auditory and other hallucinations and uncontrollable racing thoughts can reinforce these delusions. In mania, this illness not only affects emotions but can also lead to impulsivity and disorganized thinking which can be harnessed to increase their sense of grandiosity. Protecting this delusion can also lead to extreme irritability, paranoia and fear. Sometimes their anxiety can be so over-blown that they believe others are jealous of them and, thus, are undermining their \"extraordinary abilities,\" persecuting them or even scheming to seize",
"-27.421504948288202"
],
[
"fear could be harmed by frightened civilians who may attempt to defend themselves.\nAlso on October 6, two 14-year-old girls were terrorized by two teenage women dressed as clowns, who jumped out of a car and chased them. In a press release after their arrest, the Roseville police chief referred to them as \"morons\" and \"idiots\".\nOn October 7, a 17-year old student in Kalamazoo created a fake clown Facebook profile and threatened to shoot both Loy Norrix and Kalamazoo Central high schools. He was later arrested and tried as an adult. Minnesota Two Boys made a \"Biking Video\" when the came",
"-27.356560893473215"
],
[
"incidents regarding people dressed as clowns, but no arrests were made.\nOn 10 October 2016, organizers of a Halloween haunted house attraction apologised after three people dressed as evil clowns and carrying imitation chainsaws frightened students in the grounds of Newpark Comprehensive School in Blackrock, Dublin. The clowns were said to be publicising the attraction and unaware that the grounds were private property. The attraction's spokesperson said it was \"'in no way linked' to the 'creepy clown' craze sweeping across the UK and US\". After the incident police said they are taking the clown craze seriously and reports will be investigated.",
"-27.32237018563319"
],
[
"diagnoses, including panic attacks, phobias, and generalized anxiety disorder. Panic attacks are relatively short, intense bursts of fear that may or may not have a trigger (a cause in the immediate environment that happens right before they occur). They are sometimes a part of other anxiety disorders. Phobias may be specific to objects, situations, people, or places. They can result in avoidance behaviors or, if avoidance is not possible, extreme anxiety or panic attacks. Generalized anxiety is characterized by long-term, uncontrolled, intense worrying in addition to other symptoms such as irritability, sleep problems, or restlessness. Anxiety has been shown",
"-27.239045130641898"
],
[
"They may also feel uncomfortable meeting people they do not know, and act distant when they are with large groups of people. In some cases, they may show evidence of this disorder by avoiding eye contact, or blushing when someone is talking to them.\nAccording to psychologist B. F. Skinner, phobias are controlled by escape and avoidance behaviors. For instance, a student may leave the room when talking in front of the class (escape) and refrain from doing verbal presentations because of the previously encountered anxiety attack (avoid). Major avoidance behaviors could include an almost pathological or compulsive lying behavior in",
"-27.187801154213957"
],
[
"paranoia.\nEmanuel Messinger reports that surveys have revealed that those exhibiting paranoia can evolve from parental relationships and untrustworthy environments. These environments could include being very disciplinary, stringent, and unstable. It was even noted that, \"indulging and pampering (thereby impressing the child that he is something special and warrants special privileges),\" can be contributing backgrounds. Experiences likely to enhance or manifest the symptoms of paranoia include increased rates of disappointment, stress, and a hopeless state of mind.\nDiscrimination has also been reported as a potential predictor of paranoid delusions. Such reports that paranoia seemed to appear more in older patients who had",
"-27.185705539246555"
],
[
"also recalls the 1980s clown sightings in various US cities, as well as providing a phone number, email address and information about a smartphone app that citizens can use to report suspicious behavior to authorities.\nThat same day the Bucks County Courier Times interviewed Joyce Meder, also known as \"Bubbles the Clown\" regarding the \"creepy clown\" phenomenon. Meder is an Abington, PA-based professional clown who provides entertainment for children. Describing herself as a \"happy\" and \"fun\" clown, Meder expressed disappointment over the recent clown scare, citing her newfound fears of possible run-ins with law enforcement when she is in public dressed",
"-27.16746199069894"
],
[
"(phobie sociale) was first coined in 1903 by French psychiatrist Pierre Janet. He used this term to describe patients of his who exhibited a fear of being observed as they were participating in daily activities such as talking, playing the piano or writing.\nIn 1906 the psychiatric journal The Alienist and Neurologist, described scopophobia:\nThen, there is a fear of being seen and a shamefacedness, which one sees in asylums. [...] We called it scopophobia — a morbid dread of being seen. In minor degree, it is morbid shamefacedness, and the patient covers the face with his or her hands. In greater",
"-27.133626931608887"
],
[
"stutter a word, upon which he or she may worry that other people significantly noticed and think that their perceptions of him or her as a presenter have been tarnished. This cognitive thought propels further anxiety which compounds with further stuttering, sweating, and, potentially, a panic attack. Behavioural aspects Social anxiety disorder is a persistent fear of one or more situations in which the person is exposed to possible scrutiny by others and fears that he or she may do something or act in a way that will be humiliating or embarrassing. It exceeds normal \"shyness\" as it leads to",
"-27.109506577224238"
],
[
"element of social irrationalism in people. “Plague” refers to the contagious, infectious nature and the difficulty of resisting it. Thus, whereas the neurotic character struggles with feelings of guilt in order to suppress destructive drives (e.g. a torture fantasy), people with the emotional plague unconsciously provide each other with a social alibi to act out these suppressed drives. That is, they adopt a group ideology that rationalises acting on irrational, secondary drives. An example would be the Salem witch trials in which dissident Christians were tortured and executed by their own group. Bio-electric experiments In 1934, Reich expanded his orgasm",
"-27.106280393432826"
],
[
"force to help police investigate. The exact nature of these threats has not been made public.\nSuch threats on social media have also affected two grade schools in Alabama, Auburn University, Fairborn High School, Columbus, Ohio, some Las Vegas area schools, and many more around the country. Critical analysis Explanations include that some clown sightings were promotional stunts for Rob Zombie's 31 or Andrés Muschietti's 2017 film adaptation of Stephen King's novel It, both of which feature one or more characters dressed as clowns.\nAuthor and folklorist Benjamin Radford, who wrote the non-fiction book Bad Clowns, said that the craze could be",
"-27.093598879524507"
],
[
"threatening situation seems benign, and 3) a person sees both interpretations at the same time.\nFrom an evolutionary perspective, humorous violations likely originated as apparent physical threats, like those present in play fighting and tickling. As humans evolved, the situations that elicit humor likely expanded from physical threats to other violations, including violations of personal dignity (e.g., slapstick, teasing), linguistic norms (e.g., puns, malapropisms), social norms (e.g., strange behaviors, risqué jokes), and even moral norms (e.g., disrespectful behaviors). The BVT suggests that anything that threatens one's sense of how the world \"ought to be\" will be humorous, so long as the",
"-27.056450929376297"
],
[
"cases of pica in animals. Behavioral disorders Behavioral disorders are difficult to study in animal models because it is difficult to know what animals are thinking and because animal models used to assess psychopathologies are experimental preparations developed to study a condition. Can a monkey effectively communicate that he is sad or that he feels overwhelmed? Lacking the ability to use language to study behavioral disorders like depression and stress questions the validity of those studies conducted. It can be difficult to attribute human afflictions to non-human animals. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) Obsessive compulsive behavior in animals, often called \"stereotypy\"",
"-27.04699542268645"
],
[
"Phagophobia Phagophobia is a psychogenic dysphagia, a fear of swallowing. It is expressed in various swallowing complaints without any apparent physical reason detectable by physical inspection and laboratory analyses. An obsolete term for this condition is choking phobia, but it was suggested that the latter term is confusing and it is necessary to distinguish the fear of swallowing (i.e., of the propulsion of bolus) from fear of choking.\nPhagophobia is classified as a specific phobia and according to DSM-IV classification it belongs to the category of \"other phobias\". Phagophobia may lead to (and be confused with) fear of eating, and the",
"-27.043368876795284"
],
[
"temper), phobias (scotophobia, triskaidekaphobia), mental illnesses (delusions, hallucinations, manic depression), and various self- or externally imposed behaviours (vow, code of honour, addiction). Characters gain extra development points by taking disadvantages, allowing them to buy more advantages and skills. However, only the extremes of behaviour are defined as strong disadvantages, while normal predilections and preferences are referred to as \"quirks\". Also, if a normally-disadvantageous personality trait is used for a character in a game where it would actually be advantageous, it is termed an advantage and costs points. Unknown Armies Characters in Unknown Armies (UA) have \"passions\": specific stimuli that bring",
"-27.033196763019077"
],
[
"Mump and Smoot Mump and Smoot are a Canadian clown duo created by Michael Kennard and John Turner, and directed by Karen Hines. Also referred to as 'clowns of horror', they've produced interactive, improvisational plays aimed squarely at adult audiences. History Kennard and Turner met in Toronto in 1986 in Second City workshops, where they discovered a mutual talent for improvising with gibberish dialogue. While at Second City, they met Karen Hines, who has directed all their shows. Kennard and Turner also studied under Richard Pochinko in a new field of what he called Canadian clowning. On May 13, 1988,",
"-26.94148606597446"
],
[
"health of street children is a controversial topic. Some studies claim that the constant malnutrition, drug usage, sexual activity, abuse and harassment that street children suffer from and engage in results in decreased mental and emotional health. They have found that street children often have low self-esteem and are prone to anxiety and depression. Other studies suggest that street children are more mentally stable than the public perceives and media portrays them to be. A study conducted in Bogotá showed that street children were independent, creative, and well-supported by their peers. In Brazil, surveyed street children said they were optimistic",
"-26.926947007887065"
],
[
"can be linked to major depression or bipolar disorder. Indirect consequences of ODD can also be related or associated with a later mental disorder. For instance, conduct disorder is often studied in connection with ODD. A strong comorbidity can be observed within those two disorders, but an even higher connection with ADHD in relations to ODD can be seen. For instance, children or adolescents who have ODD with coexistence of ADHD will usually be more aggressive, will have more of the negative behavioral symptoms of ODD and thus, inhibit them from having a successful academic life. This will be reflected",
"-26.925956218387"
],
[
"Neurobiological factors Deficits and injuries to certain areas of the brain can lead to serious behavioral problems in children. Brain imaging studies have suggested that children with ODD may have subtle differences in the part of the brain responsible for reasoning, judgment and impulse control. Children with ODD are thought to have an overactive behavioral activation system (BAS), and underactive behavioral inhibition system (BIS). The BAS stimulates behavior in response to signals of reward or nonpunishment. The BIS produces anxiety and inhibits ongoing behavior in the presence of novel events, innate fear stimuli, and signals of nonreward or punishment. Neuroimaging",
"-26.925771285314113"
],
[
"55-year-old man in a clown mask was arrested for menacing at Floyd Light Middle School in Portland. An assistant principal confronted the man, who then allegedly threatened to hurt him. The suspect is facing charges of menacing and disorderly conduct. There has been at least eight \"scary clown\" sightings, and police responding in some cases, in Douglas County since October 1, 2016. Pennsylvania On September 18, 2016, in State College, a person dressed as a clown was seen acting strangely at the parking lot of a YMCA early in the morning. In late September, reports stated that an individual dressed",
"-26.904100549174473"
],
[
"have done so for years. It is commonly recognized in the population. Stage fright may, for example, have a negative impact on the individual's performance, such that it affects their confidence during job interviews. It also affects actors, comedians, musicians, and politicians. Many people with no other problems in communication can experience stage fright, but some people with chronic stage fright also have social anxiety or social phobia which are chronic feelings of high anxiety in any social situation. Stage fright can also be seen in school situations, like stand up projects and class speeches. Effects When someone starts to",
"-26.886817963939393"
],
[
"phobia as a fear of scrutiny by other people leading to avoidance of social situations. The anxiety symptoms may present as a complaint of blushing, hand tremor, nausea or urgency of micturition. Symptoms may progress to panic attacks.\nStandardized rating scales such as the Social Phobia Inventory, the SPAI-B, Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale, and the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale can be used to screen for social anxiety disorder and measure the severity of anxiety. Prevention Prevention of anxiety disorders is one focus of research. Use of CBT and related techniques may decrease the number of children with social anxiety disorder following",
"-26.883703009283636"
],
[
"is largely reliant on absurdity and Okojo's tendency towards melodrama.",
"-26.87517399439821"
],
[
"irrational fears of humiliating themselves in social situations. They often suffer from panic attacks and severe anxiety as a result, which can occasionally lead to agoraphobia. The disorder is common in children and young adults, diagnosed on average around 13 years of age. If left untreated, people with SAD exhibit asocial behavior into adulthood, avoiding social interactions and career choices that require interpersonal skills. Social skills training can help people who suffer from social phobia or shyness to improve their communication and social skills so that they will be able to mingle with others or go to job interviews with",
"-26.800853386055678"
],
[
"tend to stay out of the possibility of even being the center of attention. Social anxiety Social anxiety the extreme fear of being scrutinized and judged by others in social or performance situations: Social anxiety disorder can wreak havoc on the lives of those who suffer from it. Symptoms may be so extreme that they disrupt daily life. People with this disorder, also called social phobia, may have few or no social or romantic relationships, making them feel powerless, alone, or even ashamed.\nAlthough they recognize that the fear is excessive and unreasonable, people with social anxiety disorder feel powerless against",
"-26.779551713727415"
],
[
"(in Mexico) and El Paso, Texas (in the United States), paranoid beliefs seem to be associated with feelings of powerlessness and victimization, enhanced by social situations. Potential causes of these effects included a sense of believing in external control, and mistrust which can be strengthened by lower socioeconomic status. Those living in a lower socioeconomic status may feel less in control of their own lives. In addition, this study explains that females have the tendency to believe in external control at a higher rate than males, potentially making females more susceptible to mistrust and the effects of socioeconomic status on",
"-26.756784464232624"
],
[
"in the street remained one of the characteristic symptoms of psychosis in public. Many scopophobia patients develop habits of voyeurism or exhibitionism. Another related, yet very different syndrome, scopophilia, is the excessive enjoyment of looking at erotic items. Psychoanalytic views Building on Freud's concept of the eye as an erogenous zone, psychoanalysts have linked scopophobia to a (repressed) fear of looking, as well as to an inhibition of exhibitionism. Freud also referred to scopophobia as a \"dread of the evil eye\" and \"the function of observing and criticizing the self\" during his research into the \"eye\" and \"transformed I's.\"\nIn some",
"-26.755062922136858"
],
[
"person sees themselves and how they live their life. Oftentimes, those suffering from MDD lose interest in what they used to enjoy, are constantly in an edgy mood or display slower movements. MDD and anxiety are commonly expressed comorbidly. Smaller volumes of various brain regions, including the frontal cortex, are common in those who suffer from MDD. Mechanism Hypofrontality is a condition that is symptomatic of many neurological disorders and psychiatric diseases. This suggests that the mechanisms that cause hypofrontality and these neurological conditions are likely to be similar. Hypofrontality likely has pathophysiological mechanisms and neuronal mechanisms.",
"-26.736639423834276"
],
[
"various types of anxiety disorders. It is distinguished from paranoia. Paranoid diagnoses, such as can occur in schizophrenia, can seem superficially similar, but are characteristically different. Symptoms People suffering from hypervigilance may become preoccupied with scanning their environment for possible threats, causing them to lose connections with their family and friends. They might 'overreact' to loud and unexpected noises or become agitated in highly crowded or noisy environments. They will often have a difficult time getting to sleep or staying asleep. Sustained states of hypervigilance, lasting for a decade or more, lead to higher sensitivity to disturbances in their",
"-26.725558110512793"
],
[
"actual presence of a destructive, denigrating object.\nConversely, paranoid fears, especially when systematised, may themselves serve as a defence against a deeper, chaotic disintegration of the personality. Persecutory anxiety state (panic attack) and persecutory delusion Paranoid anxiety may reach the level of a persecutory anxiety state (a form of panic attack), including various levels of persecutory delusions (the preferred term to paranoid delusions).\nHeavy drinking is said to sometimes precipitate acute paranoid panic - the protagonist's unconscious hostile impulses being projected onto all those around. Literary examples Hamm in Endgame by Samuel Beckett has been singled out as a character driven by",
"-26.67140058390214"
],
[
"some inexplicable surveillance footage\". Because of the extreme responses, Scumbag has quickly developed a cult following from fans who call themselves \"scumbags\". Themes Scumbag deals with very serious themes: drug addiction, death, domestic abuse, pedophila, spirituality, racism, anti-semitism, transgender identification, respect for minorities in the police force, Quebec separatism, illegal immigration from Mexico, Canadian-American relations, autism, the existence of God, sadomasochism, Satanism, prostitution, bullying, cultural appropriation, feminism, homelessness, homophobia, the economy, crime and political correctness. These issues are often broken up by comic relief from Elmo who speaks of humorous nonsensical flashbacks as well as with musical numbers throughout the",
"-26.651317956275307"
],
[
"PhoPhiKat-45 show that, of course, people can not at the same time fear and like being laughed at (i.e., be gelotophobes and gelotophiles at the same time). However, there is at least a subgroup of gelotophobes that enjoys laughing at others, despite knowing how harmful this can be. Finally, gelotophilia and katagelasticism are positively related; i.e., those who enjoy being laughed at might also enjoy laughing at others.",
"-26.628926006844267"
],
[
"experienced higher levels of discrimination throughout their lives. In addition to this it has been noted that immigrants are quite susceptible to forms of psychosis. This could be due to the aforementioned effects of discriminatory events and humiliation. Psychological Many more mood-based symptoms, grandiosity and guilt, may underlie functional paranoia.\nColby (1981) defined paranoid cognition in terms of persecutory delusions and false beliefs whose propositional content clusters around ideas of being harassed, threatened, harmed, subjugated, persecuted, accused, mistreated, wronged, tormented, disparaged, vilified, and so on, by malevolent others, either specific individuals or groups (p. 518).\nThree components of paranoid cognition have been identified",
"-26.622061314468738"
],
[
"with violence in paranoid individuals. This was based on a study of paranoid schizophrenics' (one of the common mental disorders that exhibit paranoid symptoms) theories of mind capabilities in relation to empathy. The results of this study revealed specifically that although the violent patients were more successful at the higher level theory of mind tasks, they were not as able to interpret others' emotions or claims. Paranoid social cognition Social psychological research has proposed a mild form of paranoid cognition, paranoid social cognition, that has its origins in social determinants more than intra-psychic conflict. This perspective states that in milder",
"-26.607105854782276"
],
[
"generalized anxiety disorder. Patients with phobias are unable to cognitively control their emotional response to the feared stimuli.\nAlthough, not having the ability to use emotional memories for guiding future behaviours can be detrimental, as has been hypothesized as a potential cause to the lack of goal oriented behaviours in schizophrenic individuals.",
"-26.5990885484498"
],
[
"age.\nFollowing Kraepelin, Eugen Bleuler described \"contentious psychopathy\" or \"paranoid constitution\" as displaying the \ncharacteristic triad of suspiciousness, grandiosity and feelings of persecution. He also emphasized that these people's false \nassumptions do not attain the form of real delusion.\nErnst Kretschmer emphasized the sensitive inner core of the paranoia-prone personality: they feel shy and inadequate but at \nthe same time they have an attitude of entitlement. They attribute their failures to the machinations of others but \nsecretly to their own inadequacy. They experience constant tension between feelings of self-importance and experiencing \nthe environment as unappreciative and humiliating.\nKarl Jaspers, a German phenomenologist, described",
"-26.598173082456924"
],
[
"Police are investigating several encounters with creepy clowns in New Brunswick communities. A person dressed as a clown was seen trying to jump out in front of cars in Ripples. Newfoundland and Labrador A complaint about a \"creepy clown\" sighting was received by local authorities, prompting an investigation in Gander, central Newfoundland. Nova Scotia In early October, people dressed as clowns were sighted in Halifax, Hammonds Plains, and Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.\nPolice responded to a sighting at Halifax West High School. People dressed as clowns in Glace Bay have also interfered with traffic.\nPolice in Clark's Harbour arrested a 24-year-old man wearing",
"-26.551897982601076"
],
[
"public self-presentation. In some cases stage fright may be a part of a larger pattern of social phobia (social anxiety disorder), but many people experience stage fright without any wider problems. Quite often, stage fright arises in a mere anticipation of a performance, often a long time ahead. It has numerous manifestations: stuttering, tachycardia, tremor in the hands and legs, sweaty hands, facial nerve tics, dry mouth, and dizziness. People and situations Stage fright can occur in people of all experiences and backgrounds, from those who are completely new to being in front of an audience to those who",
"-26.551378616597503"
],
[
"phobia's genetic underpinnings. One study estimated actual heritability of the phobia at 59%.\nAdditionally, a majority of phobics attribute their fear to environmental factors. For instance, some sort of traumatic event involving blood, injury, or injection that conditioned them to fear those particular stimuli. Others self-report being conditioned by seeing another person react to the stimuli with a consistent pattern of fear.\nIt has been theorized that exhibiting vasovagal response when exposed to blood was evolutionarily advantageous, and that this phobia is a vestige of an ancestral evolutionary mechanism. Fainting may have acted as a form of tonic immobility, allowing primitive humans",
"-26.529926309653092"
],
[
"options like antidepressants and beta-blockers. Prognosis Some desensitization treatments produce short-term improvements in symptoms. Long-term treatment success has been elusive. Epidemiology True acrophobia is uncommon.\nA related, milder form of visually triggered fear or anxiety is called visual height intolerance. Up to one-third of people may have some level of visual height intolerance. Society and culture In the Alfred Hitchcock film Vertigo, John \"Scottie\" Ferguson, played by James Stewart, has to resign from the police force after an incident which causes him to develop both acrophobia and vertigo. The word \"vertigo\" is only mentioned once, while \"acrophobia\" is mentioned",
"-26.525072413962334"
],
[
"disorder and other Cluster B personality disorders; while \"catastrophizing\" is associated with depressive, neurotic or paranoid behavior – focusing on the worst possible outcome, however unlikely, or thinking that a situation is unbearable or impossible when it is really just uncomfortable. Münchausen syndrome by proxy Münchausen syndrome by proxy is a controversial term for a behavior pattern in which a caregiver deliberately exaggerates, fabricates, or induces physical, psychological, behavioral, or mental health problems in those who are in their care. Alarmism Alarmism is excessive or exaggerated alarm about a real or imagined threat e.g. the increases in deaths from",
"-26.523495530811488"
],
[
"to prevent collapsing in the area. The affected person may also attempt to escape these crowded situations. People with agoraphobia then attribute the lack of feared symptoms to the safety behaviors instead of to the lack of danger itself. This incorrect attribution may lead to persisting fears and symptoms. Generalized anxiety disorder People with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) view the world as a highly threatening environment. These people continuously search for safety and use safety behaviors. A common safety behavior used by GAD sufferers is seeking reassurance from a loved one to reduce the excessive worry. The affected person may",
"-26.461650139128324"
],
[
"about lack of control. Many people try to control themselves and their environment in every possible way, but vomiting is difficult or impossible to control which can lead to anxiety or in other cases severe anxiety.\nThere are many factors that can cause a legitimate case of emetophobia. Dr. Angela L. Davidson et al. conducted an experiment where it was concluded through various surveys that people suffering from emetophobia are more likely to have an internal locus of control pertaining to their everyday life as well as health-related matters. A locus of control is an individual's perception of where control comes",
"-26.454788536881097"
]
] |
1x1vbn | Why cant you (legally?) have OSX on a PC, but can have Windows on a Mac? | [
"There is nothing illegal about putting OSX on PC hardware. Apple makes it inconvenient, because they want to ensure a certain standard of quality for their products. And, they make most of their money selling their hardware, so they want to be sure you're buying that instead of the competitors stuff with their OS tacked on.",
"It's more of a civil matter than a crime. You're buying the permission to use Apple's software, and that comes with strings.",
"Windows is designed to install on a 'generic' PC. Since Microsoft is a software company, they don't care what you put it on as long as you paid. Apple is hardware company - they want to sell computers to people. They say \"you can only install this on our computers\" because it doesn't fit in with their business model.",
"Because Apple says you can't and it's their software license you are buying.",
"Many have described the *business* reasons why Apple chooses not to allow OS X on PCs. If you're curious about the *technical* reason, it's because Apple programmed OS X to look for a custom security code in a chip installed in every Mac before booting. Part of the trick in getting a hackintosh to work is getting around this check in one way or another."
] | [
[
"in kernel space. Windows 9x had very little distinction between the interface and the kernel.\nMany computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire. The X Window System in conjunction with GNOME or KDE Plasma 5 is a commonly found setup on most Unix and Unix-like (BSD, Linux, Solaris) systems. A number of Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows, which offer alternatives to the included Windows shell, but the shell itself cannot be separated from Windows.\nNumerous Unix-based GUIs have existed over time, most derived from X11. Competition among the various vendors of",
"-33.01658973633312"
],
[
"operating system available from Ubuntu specifically, to Windows and even OSx86, but disclaiming that they do not and will not sell Mac OS X. Commodore USA's online store sold Microsoft Windows separately and bundled Linux in their keyboard computers. Later, Commodore USA announced that they would officially support, develop, and ship their computers with AROS, but shifted their focus on redesigning Linux as Amiga Workbench 5, and Amiga Workbench X, but decided to name it Commodore OS and dropped all plans of making it resemble an Amiga-like operating system due to additional legal proceedings.\nExamples of announced products that appear to",
"-32.93427191788214"
],
[
"is a Windows NT system and does not use DOS as a base OS, and because the Windows NT architecture is different from Windows 9x. Some DOS programs that cannot run natively on XP, notably programs that rely on direct access to hardware, can be run in emulators, such as DOSBox or virtual machines, like VMware, Virtual PC, or VirtualBox. This also applies to programs that only require direct access to certain common emulated hardware components, like memory, keyboard, graphics cards, and serial ports. With DOS emulators, 32-bit versions of Windows XP can run almost any program designed for any",
"-32.85764069620927"
],
[
"the OS can be deployed onto anything but a full-fledged PC; even though XPe supports the same hardware that XP Professional supports (x86 architecture), licensing restrictions prevent it from being deployed on to standard PCs. However, Microsoft has made some exceptions to this rule, allowing XPe alongside a standard OEM install of Windows. Some Dell notebooks contain an embedded XP installation as part of the MediaDirect 2.0 feature, and they were also found on some Acer ones as well as the Samsung Q1.\nWindows Embedded Standard 2009 succeeded XPe in 2H 2008. Windows Embedded Standard 2009 is derived from Windows XP",
"-32.56435203098226"
],
[
"Xbox Linux Uses An Xbox with Linux installed can act as a full desktop computer with mouse and keyboard, a web/email box connected to a television, a server, router or a node in a cluster. One can either dual-boot or use Linux only; in the latter case, one can replace both IDE devices. One can also connect the Xbox to a VGA monitor. A converter is needed to use keyboards/mice in the controller ports; however this is not difficult, as the Xbox uses standard USB with a proprietary port.\nCurrently only a few distributions of Xbox Linux will run on",
"-32.48934065089179"
],
[
"Bove of the Bove & Rhodes Report generally complained that \"[f]or Unix super-users there is no compelling reason to buy Apple's Unix. For Apple A/UX has always been a way to sell Macs, not Unix; it's a check-off item for users.\" Legacy Because A/UX requires very specific raw hardware access, the execution of A/UX within Macintosh emulation software was impossible until 2014's introduction of the Macintosh II emulator named Shoebill.\nVintage A/UX users had one central repository for most A/UX applications: an Internet server at NASA called Jagubox. It was administered by Jim Jagielski, who was also the editor of",
"-32.220428732573055"
],
[
"Unix, and decrease the user's reliance on the Unix manual. A/UX has a utility that allows the user to reformat third-party SCSI drives in such a way that they can be used in other Macs of that era.\nA/UX runs only on 68k-based Macintoshes with a floating point unit (FPU) and a paged memory management unit (PMMU); even then, it only runs on select models. For example, the Quadra 840AV, Apple's fastest 68k Macintosh, cannot run A/UX. Reception A/UX 1.0 was criticized in a 1988 InfoWorld review for having a largely command-driven user interface as in other Unix variants, rather",
"-31.875481897615828"
],
[
"non-Windows partition formats or drivers so therefore configuring other operating systems is not directly possible through Boot Camp itself. However, any operating system which can utilize the BIOS emulation of Intel Macintosh can be made to work, including non-XP versions of Windows. The Ubuntu Linux distribution is particularly popular for this purpose because they provide an option to use proprietary device drivers along with open source drivers.",
"-31.774682035087608"
],
[
"hard drive.\nAll Macs have one optical drive, except the Mac Pro, which can optionally include two.\nMac OS X, understands the Mac OS Standard and Mac OS Extended file systems. It is also capable of using disks formatted with Windows's FAT or NTFS file systems, as well as the Unix File System. Currently, Mac OS X Leopard betas have read-only support for ZFS, while paid members of Apple Developer Connection get access to an in-development read-write ZFS driver. Peripherals The very first Macs (the Macintosh and the Macintosh 512K) used proprietary connectors for the keyboard and mouse. The Apple Desktop Bus",
"-31.613094288484717"
],
[
"DOS and OS/2 prompts, and running a DOS program under OS/2 will launch a separate DOS window to run the application.\nAll versions of Windows for Itanium (no longer sold by Microsoft) and x86-64 architectures no longer include the NTVDM and can therefore no longer natively run MS-DOS or 16-bit Windows applications. There are alternatives in the form of virtual machine emulators such as Microsoft's own Virtual PC, as well as VMware, DOSBox, and others. Legacy compatibility From 1983 onwards, various companies worked on graphical user interfaces (GUIs) capable of running on PC hardware. However, this required duplicated effort and did",
"-31.508970414171927"
],
[
"however. Availability While Mac OS 9 is no longer supported by Apple, retail copies are still available from several Internet businesses at varying prices.\nAlthough now classed as abandonware, as development on it has ended, it is still in use by those who cannot upgrade to OS X due to hardware limitations or prefer it to OS X. Mac OS 9 is also a popular choice for retrocomputing hobbyists. Mac gamers also sometimes revert to Classic (often via emulation) or native OS 9 in order to play games that are not supported on OS X; for example: Bugdom, Nanosaur, Oregon Trail,",
"-31.465951550751925"
],
[
"Mac OS 9 Mac OS 9 and the Classic Environment PowerPC versions of OS X prior to 10.5 include a compatibility layer (a shell) called Classic, enabling users to run applications and hardware requiring Mac OS 9 from within OS X. This is achieved through running Mac OS 9 without access to its Finder inside OS X. This requires Mac OS 9 to be installed on the computer even though computers that can run the Classic environment are not necessarily able to boot into Mac OS 9. Some Mac OS 9 applications do not run well in Classic. They demonstrate",
"-31.43028904905077"
],
[
"Windows 9x are either multi-user or have multiple user accounts with different access privileges, which allows important system files (such as the kernel image) to be immutable under most user accounts. In contrast, while Windows 95 and later operating systems offer the option of having profiles for multiple users, they have no concept of access privileges, making them roughly equivalent to a single-user, single-account operating system; this means that all processes can modify all files on the system that aren't open, in addition to being able to modify the boot sector and perform other low-level hard drive modifications. This enables",
"-31.241682395804673"
],
[
"applications written for Mac OS 8 or 9 would not run on x86-based Macs. The Classic Environment remains in the PowerPC version of OS X 10.4; however, x86 versions of OS X do not support the Classic environment.\nAs a workaround for Intel-based Macs, Mac OS 9 can be emulated up to version 9.0.4 by using SheepShaver, a PowerPC emulator. It cannot emulate versions newer than 9.0.4 because SheepShaver does not emulate a memory management unit. The PearPC PowerPC emulator does not support Mac OS 9. Recently QEMU added support for emulating Mac OS 9 and PowerPC versions of OS X",
"-31.229901593877003"
],
[
"install macOS on Windows and Linux versions of VMware software through the use of patches, even though the company states it is only officially supported for VMware running on Apple-labeled computers according to Apple's licensing policies.",
"-31.18171309333411"
],
[
"Mac OS X 10.1 Mac OS X 10.1 as the default operating system on new Macs Critics claimed that Mac OS X was still not fully developed in terms of reliability or functionality, and as such could not be used as a main operating system under normal conditions. They believed that Apple's use of Mac OS 9 as the default booting operating system on new computers illustrated their point. Apple switched to using Mac OS X as the default with the 10.1.2 release.",
"-30.848729060962796"
],
[
"which as a version of Windows NT played a similar role in removing viruses.\nBecause DOS was not designed for multitasking purposes, Windows versions such as 9x that are DOS-based lack File System security, such as file permissions. Further, if the user uses 16-bit DOS drivers, Windows can become unstable. Hard disk errors often plague the Windows 9x series. User interface Users can control a Windows 9x-based system through a command-line interface (or CLI), or a graphical user interface (or GUI). For desktop systems, the default mode is usually graphical user interface, where the CLI is available through MS-DOS windows.\nThe GDI,",
"-30.76474476902513"
],
[
"Shell could occasionally cause issues.\nBecause OS/2 only runs the user-mode system components of Windows, it is incompatible with Windows device drivers (VxDs) and applications that require them.\nMultiple Windows applications run by default in a single Windows session – multitasking cooperatively and without memory protection – just as they would under native Windows 3.x. However, to achieve true isolation between Windows 3.x programs, OS/2 can also run multiple copies of Windows in parallel, with each copy residing in a separate VDM. The user can then optionally place each program either in its own Windows session – with preemptive multitasking and full",
"-30.676040227743215"
],
[
"the two companies stated that it and Windows 2.0 would be almost identical. Legal conflict with Apple On March 17, 1988, Apple Inc. filed a lawsuit against Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard, accusing them of violating copyrights Apple held on the Macintosh System Software. Apple claimed the \"look and feel\" of the Macintosh operating system, taken as a whole, was protected by copyright and that Windows 2.0 violated this copyright by having the same icons. The judge ruled in favor of Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft on all but 10 of the 189 graphical user interface elements that Apple sued on, and the court",
"-30.522019516101864"
],
[
"Desktop and others, also support virtual desktops via optional modules.\nWindows 10 offers virtual desktops through a system known as \"Task View\". Mac OS X Despite its Unix underpinnings, Mac OS X does not use X Windows for its GUI, and early versions had no provision for virtual desktops. Beginning with Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard in late 2007, Mac OS X has shipped with native virtual desktop support, called Spaces, which allows up to 16 virtual desktops. It allows the user to associate applications with a particular \"Space\". As of Mac OS X 10.7 Lion, this functionality has been moved",
"-30.521765834797407"
],
[
"Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp. Background Apple had agreed to license certain parts of its GUI to Microsoft for use in Windows 1.0, but when Microsoft made changes in Windows 2.0 adding overlapping windows and other features found in the Macintosh GUI, Apple filed suit. Apple added additional claims to the suit when Microsoft released Windows 3.0.\nApple claimed the \"look and feel\" of the Macintosh operating system, taken as a whole, was protected by copyright, and that each individual element of the interface (such as the existence of windows on the screen, the rectangular appearance of windows, windows could",
"-30.294064886280466"
],
[
"x86 CPUs (including x86-64 CPUs) are able to boot real mode operating systems and can run software written for almost any previous x86 chip without emulation or virtualization.\nThe PC BIOS which IBM introduced operates in real mode, as do the DOS operating systems (MS-DOS, DR-DOS, etc.). Early versions of Microsoft Windows ran in real mode. Windows/386 made it possible to make some use of protected mode, and this was more fully realized in Windows 3.0, which could run in either real mode or make use of protected mode in the manner of Windows/386. Windows 3.0 actually had several",
"-30.233869373390917"
],
[
"Civilization II, and the Marathon Trilogy. Other uses Aside from Apple-branded hardware that is still maintained and operated, Mac OS 9 can be operated in other environments such as Windows and Unix. For example, the aforementioned SheepShaver software was not designed for use on x86 platforms and required an actual PowerPC processor present in the machine it was running on similar to a hypervisor. Although it provides PowerPC processor support, it can only run up to Mac OS 9.0.4 because it does not emulate a memory management unit.",
"-30.179951261699898"
],
[
"design in Mac OS 8.6. Against this, the modern macOS (originally named Mac OS X) is based on Darwin, which uses a hybrid kernel called XNU, which was created by combining the 4.3BSD kernel and the Mach kernel. Microsoft Windows Microsoft Windows was first released in 1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS. Because of its dependence on another operating system, initial releases of Windows, prior to Windows 95, were considered an operating environment (not to be confused with an operating system). This product line continued to evolve through the 1980s and 1990s, with the Windows 9x series adding",
"-30.15499948564684"
],
[
"both APM and GUID partitions can be used in a standard manner with Mac OS X Tiger (10.4) and higher. For starting an operating system, PowerPC-based systems can only boot from APM disks whereas Intel-based systems generally boot from GUID disks. Nevertheless, Intel-based Macs are able to boot from APM, GPT (GUID Partition Table) and MBR (Master Boot Record, using the BIOS-Emulation called EFI-CSM i.e. the Compatibility Support Module provided by EFI).\nIntel-based models that came with Mac OS X Tiger (10.4) or Leopard (10.5) preinstalled had to be able to boot from both APM and GUID disks due to the",
"-30.05880929977866"
],
[
"to interact solely with the operating system. The Classic Environment is not available on Intel-based Mac systems due to the incompatibility of Mac OS 9 with the x86 hardware. 68k emulators Third-party Macintosh emulators, such as vMac, Basilisk II, and Executor, eventually made it possible to run the classic Mac OS on Intel-based PCs. These emulators were restricted to emulating the 68k series of processors, and as such most couldn't run versions of the Mac OS that succeeded 8.1, which required PowerPC processors. Most also required a Mac ROM image or a hardware interface supporting a real Mac ROM chip;",
"-29.96645359293325"
],
[
"II had no onboard graphics chipset and the OS didn't support headless booting). It is possible to connect as many as six displays to a Macintosh II by filling all of the NuBus slots with graphics cards. Another option for expansion included the Mac286, which included an Intel 80286 chip and could be used for MS-DOS compatibility.\nThe original ROMs in the Macintosh II contained a bug that prevented the system from recognizing more than one megabyte of memory address space on a Nubus card. Every Macintosh II manufactured until approximately November 1987 had this defect. This happened because Slot",
"-29.89281453564763"
],
[
"device memory etc.) or go through a DOS device driver. As DOS was not multitasking, each application would have exclusive and complete control over the hardware while running. Though Windows applications don't often communicate directly with hardware, it was the only way for Windows drivers; and still is in the real and standard modes of Windows 3.x.\nWindows/386 and onward allowed multiple DOS applications to execute concurrently by executing each within its own virtual machine. To share physical resources among these virtual machines, Microsoft introduced virtual device drivers. These drivers solved issues relating to conflicting usage of physical resources by intercepting",
"-29.800634490326047"
],
[
"drivers.\nUnlike Windows 3.1x, DOS programs running in Windows 95 do not need DOS drivers for the mouse, CD-ROM and sound card; Windows drivers are used instead. HIMEM.SYS is still required to boot Windows 95. EMM386 and other memory managers, however, are only used by legacy DOS programs. In addition, CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT settings (aside from HIMEM.SYS) have no effect on Windows programs. DOS games, which could not be executed on Windows 3.x, can run inside Windows 95 (games tended to lock up Windows 3.x or cause other problems). As with Windows 3.x, DOS programs that use EGA or VGA graphics",
"-29.779895457206294"
],
[
"it can, to some degree, execute existing Windows binaries in DOS, thus acting like an equivalent of Wine for DOS.\nOn IA-32 and x86-64 Linux one can run Windows' DLLs under loadlibrary.\nMac OS X 10.5 has the ability to load and parse PE files, but is not binary compatible with Windows.\nUEFI and EFI firmware use Portable Executable files for applications, as well as the Windows ABI.",
"-29.760048774594907"
],
[
"and ST both had GUIs with windowing technology. These were inspired by the Apple Macintosh, but at a list price of US$2495 (equivalent to $5,800 in 2018), the Macintosh itself was too expensive for most households. The Commodore Amiga in particular had true multitasking capability and unlike all other low-cost computers of the era could run multiple applications in their own windows. MSX MSX was a standard for a home computing architecture that was intended and hoped to become a universal platform for home computing. It was conceived, engineered and marketed by Microsoft Japan with ASCII Corporation. Computers conforming to",
"-29.719672922277823"
],
[
"Windows will be overcounted.\n— Caitlyn Martin Barriers to adoption The greatest barrier to Linux desktop adoption is probably that few desktop PCs come with it from the factory. A.Y. Siu asserted in 2006 that most people use Windows simply because most PCs come with Windows pre-installed; they didn't choose it. Linux has much lower market penetration because in most cases users have to install it themselves, a task that is beyond the capabilities of many PC users: \"Most users won’t even use Windows restore CDs, let alone install Windows from scratch. Why would they install an unfamiliar operating system on their",
"-29.70454342919402"
],
[
"Windows-only [XO-1 laptops]\". OLPC released the first test firmware enabling XO-1 dual-boot on July 3, 2008. This option did not prove popular. As of 2011, a few pilots had received a few thousand total dual-boot machines, and the new ARM-based machines do not support Windows XP. No significant deployment purchased Windows licenses. Negroponte stated that the dispute had \"become a distraction\" for the project, and that its end goal was enabling children to learn, while constructionism and the open source ethos was more of a means to that end. Charles Kane concurred, stating that anything which detracted from the ultimate",
"-29.571761017665267"
],
[
"to run on MS-DOS and included a number of new features and improvements over LocoScript PC.\nIt supported printers that connected using the then-standard parallel port, such as most HP DeskJets and some Brother HL-series Laser printers (which could be run under DOS using the generic LaserJet4 driver). It did not support printers which required a USB connection or which were labelled \"Windows only\".\nSome issues exist as to its compatibility with Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10 (when run on those systems' DOS mode or using the DOSBox emulator). For example, it loses the WYSIWYG features. However, it can be",
"-29.537496489239857"
],
[
"with DOS/V and Windows from companies such as Hitachi and Panasonic that did not require such license fees (like Epson's 98 clones) flooded the market and displaced NEC. Hardware The PC-98 is different from the IBM PC in many ways; for instance, it uses its own 16-bit C-bus (Cバス) instead of the ISA bus; BIOS, I/O port addressing, memory management, and graphics output are also different. However, localized MS-DOS, Unix, OS/2, or Windows will still run on PC-9801s. Expansion bus All PC-98 desktop models use a 100-pin expansion slot. It has the 16 data and 24 address lines. The bus",
"-29.53197969379835"
],
[
"to saving money on an operating system.\nBecause Microsoft Windows is the de facto standard operating system for PCs, hardware device drivers of different qualities can readily be found that will enable virtually any component designed for the PC architecture to function on a Windows platform. However, the same isn't true for alternative operating systems like Linux and BSD, so these system users have to be careful to avoid hardware that is incompatible with their choice of operating system. Even among hardware devices that technically will \"work\" with these alternative operating systems, some will work better than others. Therefore, many users",
"-29.50210014669574"
],
[
"Ubuntu have out of the box support for the chipset in the device.\nAdditionally, there is currently no official support for Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, or driver for the 64-bit versions of Windows XP or Windows Vista; there are only drivers for 32-bit versions of these operating systems. Internet connection sharing The core functionality of the Nintendo Wi-Fi USB Connector is provided by Windows' Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) feature, which allows a Windows computer to act as a router and automatically configure client devices for Internet access. Unfortunately, due to limitations in ICS, there are a number of caveats with",
"-29.477855567150982"
],
[
"system, however, criticism shifted to lack of support for the new platform. Though Vista drivers were eventually released by Nintendo of Europe and Nintendo of America, it was two years after the first Windows XP drivers were available and several months after Vista's launch. There is no official support for Windows 7/8/10 (although it is possible to install working drivers when under compatibility mode).\nIt is possible to use the Nintendo Wi-Fi USB Connector as a USB Wi-Fi NIC to connect to other access points under Linux and BSD when using the appropriate drivers. Notably, Debian and Debian-based systems such as",
"-29.45081530615562"
],
[
"API to run on Mac OS X. This is reasonably seamless, though \"classic\" applications retain their original Mac OS 9 appearance and do not gain the Mac OS X \"Aqua\" appearance.\nEarly New World ROM PowerPC-based Macs shipped with Mac OS 9.2 as well as Mac OS X. Mac OS 9.2 had to be installed by the user—it was not installed by default on hardware revisions released after Mac OS X 10.4. Most well-written \"classic\" Mac OS applications function properly under this environment, but compatibility is assured only if the software was written to be unaware of the actual hardware and",
"-29.43158463583677"
],
[
"OS/2 and Windows runs in much the same way as native applications do. They can access all of the drives and services, and can even use the host's clipboard services. Because the drivers for file systems and such forth reside in the host system, the DOS emulation needs only provide a DOS API translation layer which converts DOS calls to OS/2 or Windows system calls. The translation layer generally also converts BIOS calls and virtualizes common I/O port accesses which many DOS programs commonly use.\nIn Windows 3.1 and 9x, the DOS virtual machine is provided by WINOLDAP. WinOldAp creates a",
"-29.411899487953633"
],
[
"'desktop', while internal ones were accessed clicking on an icon representing the computer itself. By comparison, the Mac OS places all drives on the desktop itself by default, while in Windows the user can access the drives through an icon labelled \"Computer\".\nAmiga terminology for its desktop metaphor was taken directly from workshop jargon. The desktop was called Workbench, programs were called tools, small applications (applets) were utilities, directories were drawers, etc.\nIcons of objects were animated and the directories are shown as drawers which were represented as either open or closed.\nAs in the classic Mac OS and macOS desktop, an icon",
"-29.31479153338296"
],
[
"by using local system resources. However, local desktop virtualization implementations do not always allow applications developed for one system architecture to run on another. For example, it is possible to use local desktop virtualization to run Windows 7 on top of OS X on an Intel-based Apple Mac, using a hypervisor such as VirtualBox, Parallels Desktop for Mac, or VMware Fusion, as both use the same x86 architecture, and it was possible to run Windows on a PowerPC-based Mac using Virtual PC.",
"-29.303025516448542"
],
[
"of non-Microsoft operating systems choose to build their own computers from components known to work particularly well with their preferred platforms.\nA less common but still relevant option for people who choose to go another route when building their own PC and choosing their operating system may choose to configure what is called a Hackintosh system. This means that the user of the computer builds the computer specifically with the Mac OS in mind. This can often be a very tedious process as Apple has strict standards of what hardware they choose works with their software or not. Following previously built",
"-29.29067674401449"
],
[
"XP, Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10, 32 and 64 bit versions . The driver uses a configuration panel very similar to the Apple's one, and is fully compliant with Apple's implementation. It can then be used to connect a Windows machine with a Macintosh computer, but also embedded systems. As with Apple's driver, the Windows driver creates virtual MIDI ports, which become visible from any MIDI application running on the PC. Access is done through mmsystem layer, like all other MIDI ports. Linux RTP-MIDI support for Linux has been reactivated in February 2013 after an idle period.",
"-29.28708664822625"
],
[
"OEM contracts Computer hardware is usually sold with an operating system other than Linux already installed by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM). In the case of IBM PC compatibles the OS is usually Microsoft Windows; in the case of Apple Macintosh computers it has always been a version of Apple's OS, currently macOS; Sun Microsystems sold SPARC hardware with the Solaris installed; video game consoles such as the Xbox, PlayStation, and Wii each have their own proprietary OS. This limits Linux's market share: consumers are unaware that an alternative exists, they must make a conscious effort to use a different",
"-29.271628768910887"
],
[
"a copy of Windows pre-installed and without paying extra for the license either so that another operating system can be used or because a license was already acquired elsewhere, such as through the MSDN Academic Alliance program. Microsoft encourages original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to supply computers with Windows pre-installed by presenting their dominance in computer sales and arguing that consumers benefit by not having to install an operating system. Because the price of the license varies depending on discounts given to the OEM and because there is no similar computer that the OEM offers without Windows, there is no",
"-29.269619690952823"
],
[
"operating system, and they must either perform the actual installation themselves, or depend on support from a friend, relative, or computer professional.\nHowever, it is possible to buy hardware with Linux already installed. Lenovo, Hewlett-Packard, Dell, Affordy, Purism, and System76 all sell general-purpose Linux laptops, and custom-order PC manufacturers will also build Linux systems (but possibly with the Windows key on the keyboard). Fixstars Solutions (formerly Terra Soft) sells Macintosh computers and PlayStation 3 consoles with Yellow Dog Linux installed.\nIt is more common to find embedded devices sold with Linux as the default manufacturer-supported OS, including the Linksys NSLU2 NAS device,",
"-29.26853840216063"
],
[
"Internet connection is required. On Windows XP, if WGA determines that a user's copy of Windows is unauthorized but was installed from seemingly legitimate media (i.e., the CD/DVD and holographic emblem present on real copies of Windows seems genuine), then Microsoft will supply the user with a new CD/DVD. However, newer versions of Windows will still require the user to purchase a new copy. Microsoft also offers discounts to people who want to purchase a legitimate copy of Windows but do not have a valid CD. Microsoft has indicated that they will continue to deliver critical security updates through their Automatic",
"-29.26581452321261"
],
[
"limitations In contrast to Windows 8 (where the feature had to be enabled by default on OEM devices, but remain user-configurable), Microsoft requires all Windows RT devices to have UEFI Secure Boot permanently enabled, preventing the ability to run alternative operating systems on them. Tom Warren of The Verge stated that he would have preferred Microsoft to \"keep a consistent approach across ARM and x86, though, not least because of the number of users who'd love to run Android alongside Windows 8 on their future tablets\", but noted that the decision to impose such restrictions was in line with similar",
"-29.15527173350347"
],
[
"Intel X79 Partial support for Windows XP The X79 chipset does not support installing Windows XP in AHCI mode for Intel's Serial ATA controllers as Intel won't release AHCI drivers for 32-bit Windows XP. Windows XP can be installed in IDE mode but without SATA features enabled. For users that dual boot Windows XP with another operating system installed in AHCI mode, this means changing to IDE mode every time to boot into Windows XP and changing back to SATA to boot the other OS, or installing the other OS which supports AHCI also in IDE mode to prevent switching",
"-29.155016111326404"
],
[
"Unix, Linux, etc.) are not directly affected. However, a non-Windows system could become vulnerable if it runs software to view Windows WMF files. This could include software that incorporates or clones Windows' native Graphics Device Interface (GDI) Dynamic-link library (DLL) or that run Windows or Windows programs through an emulator or compatibility layer. A Unix-like system that uses Wine to emulate Windows, for example, could be exploited. Gibson wrote the program MouseTrap, which his company distributes as freeware, to detect Windows Metafile vulnerability in systems running Windows and Windows emulators. The vulnerability According to assessments by F-Secure, the vulnerability is",
"-29.129512280902418"
],
[
"kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by reducing the number of context switches required for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating systems that were built this way. Linux and macOS are also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Windows such as Windows Vista implement a graphics subsystem that is mostly in user-space; however the graphics drawing routines of versions between Windows NT 4.0 and Windows Server 2003 exist mostly",
"-29.12235688918736"
],
[
"8, and 10 on their Macs. The software comes bundled with Mac OS X since version 10.5 (Leopard). Previously the application was available in beta version as a download from Apple's website.\nBoot Camp allows non-destructive disk partitioning and resizing of HFS+ filesystems, boot menu options, and an option to burn a CD with necessary device drivers. Since Windows XP is incompatible with Extensible Firmware Interface (the successor to legacy BIOS), the firmware on early Intel Macs needs to be updated to support BIOS emulation first. BIOS emulation is achieved with a compatibility support module (CSM). Apple does not support",
"-29.092623218573863"
],
[
"product.\nIn addition, in the first release of Windows XP, the \"Buy Music Online\" feature always used Microsoft's Internet Explorer rather than any other web browser that the user may have set as his/her default. Under pressure from the United States Department of Justice, Microsoft released a patch in early 2004, which corrected the problem. Backward compatibility Migrating from Windows 9x to XP can be an issue for users dependent upon MS-DOS. Although XP comes with the ability to run DOS programs in a virtual DOS machine, it still has trouble running many old DOS programs. This is largely because it",
"-29.082891338621266"
],
[
"Though it gives more control over advanced features of the graphics chipset, ATI Displays has limited functionality compared to Catalyst for Windows or Linux. Supported features The free and open-source driver supports many of the features available in Radeon-branded cards and APUs, such as multi-monitor or hybrid graphics. Linux The free and open-source drivers are primarily developed on Linux and for Linux. Other operating systems Being entirely free and open-source software, the free and open-source drivers can be ported to any existing operating system. Whether they have been, and to what extent depends entirely on the man-power available. Available support",
"-29.06366110179806"
],
[
"to the introduction of virtual memory.\nWindows 3.0's user interface finally resembled a serious competitor to the user interface of the Macintosh computer. PCs had improved graphics by this time, due to VGA video cards, and the protected/enhanced mode allowed Windows applications to use more memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. Windows 3.0 could run in real, standard, or 386 enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the 8086/8088 up to the 80286 and 80386. This was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel",
"-29.04955686093308"
],
[
"for some devices, using Microsoft's Windows CE operating system, even as the term Handheld was growing.\nThe term PC was helpful, since many Palmtop PCs and Handheld PCs came with some personal-computer, PDA and office applications pre-installed in ROM, and most of them could also run generic, off-the-shelf PC software with minimal if any modifications. Some could also run other operating systems such as GEOS, MINIX 2.0, Windows 1.0-3.0 (in Real mode only), or Linux\nMost palmtop PCs were based on a static hardware design for low power consumption and instant-on/off without a need to reboot. Depending on the model, the",
"-29.04849367472343"
],
[
"by Microsoft alongside the regular, free and open Linux-based operating system with the SugarLabs \"Sugar OS\" GUI. Microsoft developed a modified version of Windows XP and announced in May 2008 that Windows XP would be available for an additional cost of 10 dollars per laptop. James Utzschneider, from Microsoft, said that initially only one operating system could be chosen. OLPC, however, said that future OLPC work would enable XO-1 laptops to dual boot either the free and open Linux/Sugar OS or the proprietary Microsoft Windows XP. Negroponte further said that \"OLPC will sell Linux-only and dual-boot, and will not sell",
"-28.98490024946659"
],
[
"to be used after the Power Macintosh G3 (Blue & White), Apple still used ADB as the internal protocol for their laptop keyboards and trackpads until the last-generation PowerBooks and iBooks; for this reason, ADB drivers can still be found in Mac OS X 10.5 but not Mac OS X 10.6. Even with these operating systems, it is possible to use ADB devices with a USB adapter.\nApple's USB keyboards are mostly compatible with Windows computers, and can be remapped; the Command key works as the Windows key, the ⌥ Option key as the Alt key, the Help key as the",
"-28.96944020286901"
],
[
"(e.g. cmd.exe, odbcad32.exe, to register ODBC connections for 32-bit applications). 16-bit legacy applications for MS-DOS and early versions of Windows are usually incompatible with 64-bit versions of Windows Vista, 7, 8, and 10, but can be run on a 64-bit Windows OS via Microsoft Virtual PC or DOSBox. 32-bit versions of Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10 on the other hand, can usually run 16-bit applications with few to no problems. 16-bit applications cannot be directly run under x64 editions of Windows, because the CPU does not support VM86 mode when running in x64.\nInternet Explorer is implemented as both",
"-28.93514043535106"
],
[
"Only Windows Store apps can be installed by users on Windows RT devices; they must be obtained from Windows Store or sideloaded in enterprise environments. Developers cannot port desktop applications to run on Windows RT since Microsoft developers felt that they would not be properly optimized for the platform. As a consequence, Windows RT also does not support \"new-experience enabled\" web browsers: a special class of app used on Windows 8 that allows web browsers to bundle variants that can run in the Windows RT \"modern-style user interface\" and integrate with other apps but still use Win32 code like desktop",
"-28.931791643379256"
],
[
"Vista or Windows 7 on the earlier model laptop. In high-end versions appearing during 2009, Windows Vista is pre-installed. The lack of a DVD-ROM drive requires creating a bootable USB flash drive (the on-board card reader slots are not bootable) using a USB external DVD drive or PXE boot network install.\nWindows 7 Starter is installed by default on models with a name starting in D such as D255E and D257 as well as other later Aspire models. Mac OS X Through the OSx86 project, an Aspire One can boot and run a modified version of Mac OS X, including iAtkos,",
"-28.901444700197317"
],
[
"IBM PC—often the same-numbered version, but not always, since some OEMs used their own proprietary version numbering schemes (e.g. labeling later releases of MS-DOS 1.x as 2.0 or vice versa)—with a few notable exceptions.\nMicrosoft omitted multi-user support from MS-DOS because Microsoft's Unix-based operating system, Xenix, was fully multi-user. The company planned, over time, to improve MS-DOS so it would be almost indistinguishable from single-user Xenix, or XEDOS, which would also run on the Motorola 68000, Zilog Z8000, and the LSI-11; they would be upwardly compatible with Xenix, which Byte in 1983 described as \"the multi-user MS-DOS of the future\". Microsoft",
"-28.88549181073904"
],
[
"for desktop computers. Other operating systems such as AmigaOS and OS/2 remain in use, if at all, mainly by retrocomputing enthusiasts or for specialized embedded applications.",
"-28.882294475781237"
],
[
"and has been ported to many operating systems. A port for Microsoft Xbox (called DosXbox) was released in 2004. Using the HX DOS Extender, it can even run in DOS. The source code has also been forked to provide compatibility on a number of non-x86 PC computer platforms, including the Palm OS, PlayStation Portable, Android, iOS, Symbian, Maemo, BlackBerry PlayBook, Wii(Require Homebrew Channel with Homebrew Browser installed), and the GP2X, on various computing architectures including PowerPC, SPARC, MIPS and ARM. DOSBox is included in the software repositories of many Linux distributions such as Fedora, Debian, and Ubuntu. There is",
"-28.86161574794096"
],
[
"use of hardware assistance. This model introduced USB ports to the PowerBook line while retaining SCSI support and eliminating ADB entirely (although the keyboard and touchpad still used an ADB interface internally). Graphics were provided by a Rage LT Pro chipset on the PCI bus, to drive its 14.1-inch LCD at a maximum resolution of 1024×768.\nMac OS 8.6–10.3.9 are supported by Apple, but 10.4 is not, although OS X will not install (except for 10.0) if both RAM slots are not occupied with identical size RAM. The use of XPostFacto 4 allows users to upgrade to Tiger, and it runs",
"-28.795116008463083"
],
[
"the Windows graphical shell saw heavy use on new DOS systems. In 1995, Windows 95 was bundled as a standalone operating system that did not require a separate DOS license. Windows 95 (and Windows 98 and ME, that followed it) took over as the default OS kernel, though the MS-DOS component remained for compatibility. With Windows 95 and 98, but not ME, the MS-DOS component could be run without starting Windows. With DOS no longer required to use Windows, the majority of PC users stopped using it directly. Continued use Available DOS systems in 2012 are FreeDOS, DR-DOS, ROM-DOS, PTS-DOS,",
"-28.762602451024577"
],
[
"Parallels Server for Mac allows users to run Intel-powered Apple hardware in a business environment without isolating the Mac servers from the organization’s Windows and Linux systems. Limitations Parallels Server for Mac can run only on Intel-based Apple hardware which must be running Mac OS X Leopard Server, not Mac OS X Tiger Server or on PC hardware. Also, at this time, users cannot run Mac OS X versions newer than 10.6 in a virtual environment due to Apple licensing restrictions. Also Mac OS X 10.7 (Lion) and 10.8 (Mountain Lion) and 10.9 (Mavericks) cannot be virtualized with this software.",
"-28.759715171414427"
],
[
"and PCs. Apple's macOS, a replacement for Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.\nUnix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants. BSD and its descendants A subgroup of the Unix family is the Berkeley Software Distribution family, which includes FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. These operating systems are most commonly found on webservers, although they can also function as a personal computer OS. The Internet owes much of its existence to",
"-28.720017150975764"
],
[
"used with even older classic Mac OS versions such as System 7, although not all features are taken advantage of by the older operating system.\nEver since ATI's acquisition by AMD, ATI no longer supplies or supports drivers for classic Mac OS nor macOS. macOS drivers can be downloaded from Apple's support website, while classic Mac OS drivers can be obtained from 3rd party websites that host the older drivers for users to download. ATI used to provide a preference panel for use in macOS called ATI Displays which can be used both with retail and OEM versions of its cards.",
"-28.70957010080747"
],
[
"other than Windows can just as easily play Copy Control discs, as many players on Windows are proprietary and respect the copy-restrictions. Similarly, the auto-launchers are only written for Windows and will only ambush Windows users (this can be mitigated by disabling autorun). There is little that can be done to stop a user who is not running Windows or who is using non-Microsoft CD ripping software from ripping a Copy Control disc.\nIn Linux, Copy Control discs are easily accessed through cdparanoia or any other software that uses it, such as the KDE \"audiocd:/\" service.\nIn Mac OS X, these discs",
"-28.695892996736802"
],
[
"in 1993.\nThe software runs on Windows based computers but not on other operating systems.",
"-28.67727358973889"
],
[
"for Bill Gates' \"PC plus\" landscape. Unlike Apple, whose mobile and PC devices both use different operating systems (iOS and OS X), Windows 8 was designed to accommodate both traditional PCs and tablets through its use of an updated interface optimized for touchscreen use, and its introduction of Windows Store, a service similar to the App Store for obtaining touch-optimized software. As a compliment, Microsoft also introduced Windows RT, a special stripped down variant of the operating system built for devices that use the ARM architecture commonly used in smartphones and tablets. While Windows 8 devices (including tablets) are closer in",
"-28.674193391168956"
],
[
"Another option would be to load a special DOS device driver or TSR, which would claim the RAM selected for use as the video buffer, causing DOS to load other drivers and programs above it. A fourth option would be not to use MS-DOS, or to use a specially modified version of it. For programs running from ROM cartridges, not using DOS was a very viable option, even in the mid-1980s when the PCjr was being marketed. Differences from other personal computers The PCjr initially shipped with a wireless chiclet keyboard called the \"Freeboard\", powered by four AA",
"-28.673019272566307"
],
[
"can be run on Windows NT 3.1 due to various limitations, one of them being the inability of applications to directly access the hardware. As well, VxD files sometimes needed by applications cannot be used with Windows NT 3.1. While pure DOS applications are run in separate memory spaces, 16-bit Windows applications have to share one memory space. While this is done due to compatibility reasons with applications which depend on this ability, like Schedule+ and Microsoft Mail, it also means that 16-bit Windows applications only run in cooperative multitasking. A faulty 16-bit Windows application is in this way able",
"-28.66292800521478"
],
[
"functionality, as well as its integration of a secondary GPU into the keyboard. However, the lack of certain features, such as LTE connectivity and USB-C ports, was noted along with the price of the highest-specs model (US$3,200 for one with 1 TB of storage and a Core i7). In addition, many reviewers had pre-release issues with the hinge undocking mechanism and graphics display drivers, both of which Microsoft resolved at a later date through a Windows software update. The first review versions of the hardware did not initially have Windows Hello enabled, but after a firmware update enabled it reception of",
"-28.646022389788413"
],
[
"and real-time computing, for older PCs, and for x86-64 PCs. The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware without sources, although such firmware is available in non-free packages and alternative installation media. Desktop environments Debian offers CD images specifically built for Xfce, the default desktop on CD, and DVD images for GNOME, KDE and others. MATE is officially supported, while Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8.0 Jessie. Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Openbox, Fluxbox, IceWM, Window Maker and others are available.\nThe default desktop environment of version 7.0 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce, because GNOME 3 did",
"-28.64380504368455"
],
[
"MacWrite Development When the Mac was first being created, it was clear that users would interact with it differently from other personal computers. Typical computers of the era booted into text-only DOS or BASIC command line environments, requiring the users to type in commands to run programs. Some of these programs may have presented a graphical user interface of their own, but on the Mac, users would instead be expected to stay in the standard GUI both for launching and running programs. Having an approachable, consistent GUI was an advantage for the Mac platform, but unlike prior personal computers, the",
"-28.62740054895403"
],
[
"being a DOS game, users of post-Windows 98 operating systems may have difficulty getting it to run. Primarily this was because of the game using EMS type memory rather than XMS. The expanded memory manager EMM386 had to be configured to use it. Using emulation such as DosBox will get the official shareware version of the game to run on modern operating systems such as Windows 7, Windows XP, Mac OS X and Linux. Also, around 2005 Tom Morton reverse engineered a platform-neutral C version from the game, called GLFrontier, making the game natively and fast playable on modern OSes",
"-28.612656511424575"
],
[
"application at a time. This was so effective that it allowed OS/2 to run a modified copy of Windows 3.0, itself a DOS extender, including Windows 3.0 applications.\nBecause of the limitations of the Intel 80286 processor, OS/2 1.x could run only one DOS program at a time, and did this in a way that allowed the DOS program to have total control over the computer. A problem in DOS mode could crash the entire computer. In contrast, OS/2 2.0 could leverage the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 processor to create a much safer virtual machine in which to",
"-28.59506777205388"
],
[
"frequent application crashes.\nThe introduction of 32-bit file access in Windows for Workgroups 3.11 meant that 16-bit real mode MS-DOS is not used for managing the files while Windows is running, and the earlier introduction of the 32-bit disk access means that the PC BIOS is often no longer used for managing hard disks.\nDOS can be used for running old-style drivers for compatibility, but Microsoft discourages using them, as this prevents proper multitasking and impairs system stability. Control Panel allows a user to see which MS-DOS components are used by the system; optimal performance is achieved when they are bypassed. The",
"-28.589536622457672"
],
[
"calls to the hardware. Instead of a machine port representing an actual device, it would represent a \"virtual\" device, which could be managed by the operating system. Obsolescence Although Windows 98 introduced the Windows Driver Model (WDM), VxD device drivers can be used under Windows 98 and Windows Me. VxDs are not usable in Windows NT or its descendants. Starting with Windows 2000, Windows NT-based operating systems also use the Windows Driver Model, while Windows NT 4 and earlier versions must use drivers written specifically for them. Using VxD drivers instead of WDM drivers in Windows 9x resulted in advanced",
"-28.546884128358215"
],
[
"to manage them, competing OS vendors' relative lack of influence on the desktop OS market compared to Microsoft might mean that, even if signed versions of their operating systems were available, they might face difficulties getting hardware vendors to include their keys, especially if end users won't be able to manage those keys themselves. Boot locking is now required for ARM devices. License refund policy Microsoft does not provide refunds for Windows licenses sold through an OEM, including licenses that come with the purchase of a computer or are pre-installed on a computer. A Microsoft Denmark representative stated that",
"-28.543691573198885"
],
[
"installation media for these universal versions of Mac OS X, which are APM partitioned in order to remain compatible with PowerPC-based systems. However, the installation of OS X on an Intel-based Mac demands a GUID partitioned disk or will refuse to continue, the same way installation on a PowerPC-based system will demand an APM partitioned destination volume. Cloning an already installed OS X to an APM partition on Intel systems will remain bootable even on 2011 Intel-based Macs. Despite this apparent APM support, Apple never officially supported booting from an internal APM disk on an Intel-based system. The one exception",
"-28.526785971982463"
],
[
"previous Microsoft operating system. Only 64-bit versions of XP have major backward-compatibility issues. This is because old 16-bit Windows programs require a tool called NTVDM, which is only present in the 32-bit version of the OS. However, this is true of every version of Windows that comes in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions, and it is not specific to XP. Product activation In an attempt to reduce piracy, Microsoft introduced product activation in Windows XP. Activation required the computer or the user to activate with Microsoft (either online or over the phone) within a certain amount of time in order",
"-28.52587980258977"
],
[
"held on its GUIs. Xerox had invited the Macintosh design team to view their GUI computers at the PARC research lab; these visits had been very influential on the development of the Macintosh GUI. Xerox's lawsuit appeared to be a defensive move to ensure that if Apple v. Microsoft established that \"look and feel\" was copyrightable, then Xerox would be the primary beneficiary, rather than Apple. The Xerox case was dismissed, for a variety of legal reasons. Court case The district court ruled that it would require a standard of \"virtual identity\" between Windows and the Macintosh at trial in",
"-28.517964015431062"
],
[
"compared with \"folder-littered desktops on every other OS\" because it allows users to interact with dynamic information. In contrast, an ExtremeTech article said it was Microsoft \"flailing\" and a review in PC Magazine condemned the Metro-style user interface. Some of the included apps in Windows 8 were considered to be basic and lacking in functionality, but the Xbox apps were praised for their promotion of a multi-platform entertainment experience. Other improvements and features (such as File History, Storage Spaces, and the updated Task Manager) were also regarded as positive changes. Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that while its user",
"-28.481655326118926"
],
[
"other consoles, while being illegally circulated on file-sharing sites like The Underdog for many years.\nCreated with Microsoft BASIC and ZBasic for the Apple Macintosh, the game was ported to MS-DOS, Commodore Amiga and Atari ST. The ports add color, but in a lower resolution (320×200, as opposed to the original version's 512×342). Johnson advises PC-based players to download the Macintosh version and play using an emulator, specifically mentioning Executor, but other open-source emulators will work as well. The non-Macintosh versions of the game were protected by a symbol-based code wheel. The version offered free of charge given by the author",
"-28.479720012226608"
],
[
"– apart from DOS and Unix implementations – is officially supported by Microsoft on almost every version of Windows up to Windows 2000, but its use has decreased quickly since the development of NBT.\nMicrosoft officially dropped support starting with Windows XP, but it is included on the Windows XP CD-ROM and can be installed manually. Windows Vista does not include NetBEUI (means NBF) support at all, but the Windows XP NetBEUI support drivers can be used.",
"-28.455970062874258"
],
[
"The Address Bar DeskBand on the Taskbar is no longer included due to antitrust violation concerns. Processor limits Windows XP Professional supports up to two physical processors;\nWindows XP Home Edition is limited to one.\nHowever, XP supports a greater number of logical processors:\n32-bit editions support up to 32 logical processors, whereas 64-bit editions support up to 64 logical processors. Reception On release, Windows XP received critical acclaim. CNET described the operating system as being \"worth the hype\", considering the new interface to be \"spiffier\" and more intuitive than previous versions, but feeling that it may \"annoy\" experienced users with its \"hand-holding\".",
"-28.444254196656402"
],
[
"memory) can generally be exported, due to file-systems issues; see device access, below.\nThe AutoRun feature of Windows worked on all removable media, allowing USB storage devices to become a portal for computer viruses. Beginning with Windows 7, Microsoft limited AutoRun to CD and DVD drives, updating previous Windows versions. MS-DOS Neither MS-DOS nor most compatible operating systems included support for USB. Third-party generic drivers, such as Duse, USBASPI and DOSUSB, are available to support USB mass-storage devices. FreeDOS supports USB mass storage as an Advanced SCSI Programming Interface (ASPI) interface. Mac OS Apple Computer's Mac OS 9 and X support",
"-28.437169794106012"
],
[
"Mac OS X 10.0 Multilingual snags Mac OS X 10.0 began a short era (that ended with Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar's release) where Apple offered two types of installation CDs: 1Z and 2Z CDs. The difference in the two lay in the extent of multilingual support.\nInput method editors of Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, and Korean were only included with the 2Z CDs. They also came with more languages (the full set of 15 languages), whereas the 1Z CDs came only with about eight languages and could not actually display simplified Chinese, traditional Chinese and/or Korean (except for the Chinese",
"-28.435183873196365"
],
[
"the standard Microsoft iSCSI initiator. Microsoft produces their own iSCSI Target software or alternative third party products can be used. Graphics issues on the host On CPUs without Second Level Address Translation (SLAT), installation of most WDDM accelerated graphics drivers on the primary OS will cause a dramatic drop in graphic performance. This occurs because the graphics drivers access memory in a pattern that causes the translation lookaside buffer to be flushed frequently (cache thrashing).\nIn Windows Server 2008, Microsoft officially supported Hyper-V only with the default VGA drivers, which do not support Windows Aero, higher resolutions, rotation, or",
"-28.412050485872896"
],
[
"architectures. The most severe problem in Microsoft Windows is incompatible device drivers for obsolete hardware. Most 32-bit application software can run on a 64-bit operating system in a compatibility mode, also termed an emulation mode, e.g., Microsoft WoW64 Technology for IA-64 and AMD64. The 64-bit Windows Native Mode driver environment runs atop 64-bit NTDLL.DLL, which cannot call 32-bit Win32 subsystem code (often devices whose actual hardware function is emulated in user mode software, like Winprinters). Because 64-bit drivers for most devices were unavailable until early 2007 (Vista x64), using a 64-bit version of Windows was considered a challenge. However, the",
"-28.400195792724844"
],
[
"(even A/UX, which was an Apple product), usually with virtual memory turned off. PCI Power Macs can be configured to boot into Open Firmware, allowing the firmware to load a boot loader directly, or they can use a specially-prepared floppy disk to trick the Toolbox into loading a kernel (this is used for Linux installation floppy images).\nThe simplest way to identify an Old World ROM Mac is that it will not have a factory built-in USB port. Only New World ROM Macs featured a USB port as factory equipment.",
"-28.32353895844426"
],
[
"issue of InfoWorld, the same author favorably reviewed A/UX 3.0, describing it as \"an open systems solution with the Macintosh at its heart\" where \"Apple finally gets Unix right\". He praised the GUI, single-button point-and-click installer, one year of personal tech support, the graphical help dialogs, and the user's manuals, saying that A/UX \"defies the stereotype that Unix is difficult to use\" and is \"the easiest version of Unix to learn\". Its list price of US$709 (equivalent to $1,266 in 2018) is much higher than that of \"much weaker\" competing PC operating systems such as System 7, OS/2, MS-DOS, and",
"-28.319648045348004"
],
[
"made suggestions supporting a move towards adding Windows XP, which Microsoft was in the process of porting over to the XO hardware. Microsoft's Windows XP, however, is not seen by some as a sustainable operating system. Microsoft announced that they would sell them Windows XP for $3 per XO. It would be offered as an option on XO-1 laptops and possibly be able to dual boot alongside Linux. In response, Walter Bender, who was the former President of Software and Content for the OLPC project, left OLPC and founded Sugar Labs to continue development of the open source Sugar software",
"-28.31526688300073"
],
[
"lacking software, it was faster, cheaper, and included one feature Visi On lacked: a graphical file manager (the Finder). Although it didn't compete directly with Visi On, which was really a \"PC product\", it nevertheless demonstrated that a GUI could indeed be fast and relatively inexpensive, both of which Visi On failed to deliver.\nAdding to the release's problems was Bill Gates, who took a page from VisiCorp's book and announced that their own product, Microsoft Windows, would be available in May 1984. This muddied the waters significantly, notably when he further claimed it would have a similar feature set, didn't",
"-28.31042568385601"
],
[
"So unlike an emulator, one cannot use twoOStwo to run classic Mac OS/PowerPC software on an Intel x86 processor. Another drawback is that it is not normally possible to efficiently nest virtual machines. Finally, although twoOStwo virtual machines run in user mode, twoOStwo itself requires installing various device drivers in the host operating system. Features Besides bridging to network adapters, CD-ROM readers and hard disk drives, twoOStwo also provides the ability to simulate some hardware. For example, an ISO image can be mounted as a CDROM and .hdd files can be mounted as hard disks.",
"-28.30747271666769"
],
[
"on all MacBook Pros since release, starting with version 10.4.4 (Tiger). Along with OS X, iLife has also shipped with all systems, beginning with iLife '06.\nThe MacBook Pro comes with the successor to BIOS, Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) 1.1. EFI handles booting differently from BIOS-based computers, but provides backwards compatibility, allowing dual and triple boot configurations. In addition to OS X, the Microsoft Windows operating system is installable on Intel x86-based Apple computers. Officially, this is limited to both 32-bit and 64-bit versions of Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10 with the necessary hardware drivers included with the Boot",
"-28.282808913558256"
]
] |
452ai5 | The psychology behind why some people are so attractive that they are unattractive? | [
"Is it maybe because you think they could never view you as a viable mate so your brain stops you from considering them as one?",
"TL;DR: We think they're too attractive to keep, so prefer people who are not as attractive. Elaine Hatfield's [Matching Hypothesis]( URL_1 ) suggests that people pair up with others of a similar \"social desirability\" - attractiveness being an important feature that contributes to this. The psychologist Murstein explained the effect you notice as being due to the Matching Hypothesis - more specifically, people would often rather form a relationship with somebody less attractive, as they subconsciously know that they will be more able to form and stay in a relationship with them - which they might struggle to do with somebody more \"socially desirable\" - somebody who is too good looking, in your example. If someone is significantly more socially desirable than their partner, they might be tempted to go off and find a better partner - one who offers a similar level of desirability to themselves, explained in more depth by [Social Exchange Theory]( URL_0 )",
"I understand what you are saying. Like, I would rather bang an '8' than a '10'. I think it is because when someone is so attractive, they themselves know they are attractive and often times they become a little arrogant about it. It's also the fact that a '10' is going to be out of almost anyone's league and we subconsciously dismiss them as a partner because we know we could not get them.",
"It's for the same reason people on Reddit get crushes on less physically-attractive actresses like Jennifer Lawrence and Anna Kendrick who are much more approachable-seeming. To be charismatic you have to 1) be in a position of \"power\" (popularity usually, money, bone structure, confidence, are obvious ones but this could mean a lot of things) and 2) the other person has to feel like you like them. A lot of the really hot women clearly have part 1 covered, but they have none of part 2. If they started treating flirting with you and making you feel like they were actually into you, you'd change your mind and find them really attractive, really quick.",
"It could be that you know what society thinks it's beautiful, but maybe they aren't what you desire. Many models aren't exactly attractive to the average person even if they photograph well.",
"Any one ever see someone so weird or unattractive that they find them strangely attractive? There ever been someone you knew was ugly but you wanted them anyways?",
"I think after awhile you start associating the very attractive with traits like narcissism that is a big turn off.",
"Can you give a few examples of people that fit this criteria for you?",
"Well this thread isn't going where I thought it would go. I thought we were gonna speak objectively about looks and how people like Anne Hathaway and Allison Williams are pretty much perfect looking but it's hard to find them attractive because they're dead in the eyes. Instead everyone's just talking about standards and who they want to sleep with."
] | [
[
"attractive individuals are judged and treated more positively than unattractive individuals. For example, people who think another is physically attractive tend to have positive initial impressions of that person (even before formally meeting them), perceive the person to be smart, socially competent, and have good social skills and general mental health.\nWithin the business domain, physically attractive individuals have been shown to have an advantage over unattractive individuals in numerous ways, that include, but are not limited to, perceived job qualifications, hiring recommendations, predicted job success, and compensation levels. As noted by several researchers, attractiveness may not be the most influential",
"-36.267014506302075"
],
[
"social skills and self-confidence. This cognitive bias could be considered to be a specific kind of halo effect.\nPhysical attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage. In many cases, humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to attractive people without consciously realizing it. Physically attractive individuals are regarded more positively and accurately in first impressions, however the physical attractiveness stereotype will have bias opinions and decisions when comparing people of different attractiveness levels.\nA study done by Pfeifer noted a positive correlation between physical",
"-35.35608390296693"
],
[
"depression.\nMany have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those who are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions; receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system; having more choices in romantic or platonic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships; and marrying into families with more money. Those who are attractive are treated and judged more positively than those who are considered unattractive, even by those who know them. Also, attractive individuals behave more positively than those who are unattractive. One study found that teachers tend to expect that children",
"-35.34284174008644"
],
[
"beauty. One study found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary-looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are considered good-looking. In the market for loans, the least attractive people are less likely to get approvals, although they are less likely to default. In the marriage market, women's looks are at a premium, but men's looks do not matter much.\nConversely, being very unattractive increases the individual's propensity for criminal activity for a number of crimes ranging from burglary to theft to selling illicit drugs.\nDiscrimination against others based",
"-35.307603732915595"
],
[
"assumed to be good; attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. This could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as, from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics. In one study, beautiful people were found to be generally happier than less beautiful or plain people, perhaps because these outgoing personality traits are linked to happiness, or perhaps because beauty led to increased economic benefits which partially explained the increased happiness. In another study testing first impressions in 56 female and 17 male participants at University of British Columbia, personality traits",
"-35.270995597646106"
],
[
"of above average attractiveness are assumed to also be of above average value to the group. Research shows that attractive people are often perceived to have many positive traits based on nothing other than their looks, regardless of how accurate these perceptions are. This phenomenon is known as the Halo effect This means that, in addition to being more well-liked, attractive people are more likely to be seen as bringing actual value to the group, even when they may be of little or no value at all. In essence, physically attractive people are given the benefit of the doubt while",
"-35.12000523426104"
],
[
"to be physically attractive came to behave in a more sociable, warm, and outgoing manner than targets whose partners believed them to be physically unattractive. Consequently, targets behaviorally confirmed the perceivers' beliefs, thus turning the perceivers' beliefs into self-fulfilling prophecies. The study also supported and displayed the physical attractiveness stereotype.\nThese findings suggest that human beings, who are the targets of many perceivers in everyday life, may routinely act in ways which are consistent not with their own attitudes, beliefs, or feelings; but rather with the perceptions and stereotypes which others hold of them and their attributes. This seems to suggest",
"-34.52919986806228"
],
[
"attribute greater negative and egocentric traits to them due to envy. Extremely attractive individuals may be refused by their own sex type who are envious of them. Attractive people are often confused with whether people are attracted to their appearance or their inner qualities. They are also more likely to rely on their looks than on their other attributes.",
"-34.47723392822081"
],
[
"not a requisite and it has been shown that there are instances in which an individual's actual value is relatively low, but they are perceived as highly valuable nevertheless. Attractiveness Attractiveness, specifically physical attractiveness, has been shown to have very profound effects on popularity. People who are physically attractive are more likely to be thought of as possessing positive traits. People who are attractive are expected to perform better on tasks and are more likely to be trusted. Additionally, they are judged to possess many other positive traits such as mental health, intelligence, social awareness, and dominance.\nAdditionally, people who are",
"-34.15155315066454"
],
[
"of physically attractive people were identified more positively and more accurately than those who were less physically attractive. It was explained that people pay closer attention to those they find physically beautiful or attractive, and thus perceiving attractive individuals with greater distinctive accuracy. The study believes this accuracy to be subjective to the eye of the beholder. Recent results from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study confirmed the positive link between psychological well-being and attractiveness (higher facial attractiveness, lower BMI) and also found the complementary negative association with distress/depression. Even though connections and confounds with other variables could not be excluded, the",
"-33.856796583902906"
],
[
"explanations One other possible explanation about the cause of this perception of higher attractiveness is \"mere familiarity or exposure\" (Zajonc, 1968). This means that previously seen stimuli may be perceived more positively than new stimuli. In addition, another explanation comes from the commodity theory (Brock, 1968). According to commodity theory, as people find mates in the bar and leave with them, there is a scarcity of individuals left in the bar. This scarcity increases the desirability and perceived attractiveness of those left in the bar.",
"-33.597186589759076"
],
[
"personality characteristics (e.g., smart, funny, kind), that person was seen as more physically attractive. Conversely, a person with negative personality characteristics (e.g., materialistic, rude, untrustworthy) was seen as less physically attractive. This was true for both females and males. A person may be perceived as being more attractive if they are seen as part of a group of friends, rather than alone, according to one study.\nPhysical attractiveness can have various effects. A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves",
"-33.56823776185047"
],
[
"perspectives; with universal perceptions being common to all human cultures, cultural and social aspects, and individual subjective preferences. The perception of attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.\nSome physical features are attractive in both men and women, particularly bodily and facial symmetry, although one contrary report suggests that \"absolute flawlessness\" with perfect symmetry can be \"disturbing\". Symmetry may be evolutionarily beneficial as a sign of health because asymmetry \"signals past illness or injury\". One study suggested people were able to \"gauge beauty at a",
"-33.389498617762"
],
[
"is the most attractive, whereby the most unattractive individuals would be described as \"1s\", \"2s\", and \"3s\". In manosphere Internet forums, unattractive people are sometimes described as omegas or undateables.\nUnattractiveness is often associated with ageing. Numerous terms have been coined to describe the stage of one's life wherein one's appearance has faded, including the sexpiration date, or in the androsphere, terms such as hitting the wall or simply the wall. Society For some people, ugliness is a central aspect of their persona. Jean-Paul Sartre had a lazy eye and a bloated, asymmetrical face, and he attributed many of his philosophical",
"-33.093658013916865"
],
[
"persuasive. They get what they want and they can easily change others' attitudes. This attractiveness is proven to send favorable messages/impressions of other traits that a person may have, such as talent, kindness, and intelligence. The second factor is similarity. We are more easily persuaded by people we see as similar to ourselves. Authority We have the tendency to believe that if an expert says something, then it must be true. People like to listen to those who are knowledgeable and trustworthy, so if you can be those two things, then you are already on your way to getting",
"-32.89013404637808"
],
[
"that severely constricted their breathing and damaged vital internal organs, in order to achieve a visual effect of an exaggeratedly low waist-to-hip ratio.\nPeople make judgments of physical attractiveness based on what they see, but also on what they know about the person. Specifically, perceptions of beauty are malleable such that information about the person's personality traits can influence one's assessment of another person's physical beauty. A 2007 study had participants first rate pictures for attractiveness. After doing distracting math problems, participants saw the pictures again, but with information about the person's personality. When participants learned that a person had positive",
"-32.83156694157515"
],
[
"of beauty and cultural stereotyping based on appearance as well as gender roles and expectations. Important economic considerations include the question of income gaps based on looks, as well as increased or decreased productivity from workers considered beautiful or ugly by their co-workers. Due to this, new problems arise that are tied to other social issues like racism and ageism (young over old). The idea of beauty is also linked directly to social class because people who have more free time and money have the ability to work on their appearance. Weight is also linked to social class because people",
"-32.769900657382095"
],
[
"attractiveness halo when forming impressions, meaning that those seen as attractive were also rated as more competent, sociable, intelligent, and healthy. Faces and features Physical appearance gives us clear clues as to a person's personality without him/her ever having to speak or move. Women tend to be better than men at judging nonverbal behavior. After viewing pictures of people in a neutral position and in a self-chosen posed position, observers were accurate at judging the target's levels of extraversion, emotional stability, openness, self-esteem, and religiosity. The combined impression of physical characteristics, body posture, facial expression, and clothing choices lets",
"-32.70994193274237"
],
[
"show that nearly symmetrical faces are considered highly attractive compared to unsymmetrical ones, yet more specifically, people tend to find a face unattractive if a person has an unsymmetrical nose, and effect of unsymmetrical lips do not really affect people on judging attractiveness.\nThe most conspicuous directional asymmetries are sometimes only temporary. For example, during speech, most people (76%) tend to express greater amplitude of movement on the right side of their mouth. This is most likely caused by the uneven strengths of contralateral neural connections between the left hemisphere of the brain (linguistic localization) and the right side of the",
"-32.64102140534669"
],
[
"personalities and lead better lives in general. This is also known as the \"what-is-beautiful-is-good effect.\" Discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is sometimes referred to as lookism.\nSome researchers conclude that little difference exists between men and women in terms of sexual behavior. Other researchers disagree. Symmetrical men and women have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners, to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to have more one-night stands. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open",
"-32.607787328503036"
],
[
"less attractive individuals must prove that they are bringing value to the group. It has been shown empirically that being physically attractive is correlated with both sociometric and perceived popularity. Some possible explanations for this include increased social visibility and an increased level of tolerance for aggressive, social interactions that may increase perceived popularity. Aggression The degree to which an individual is perceived as popular is often highly correlated with the level of aggression with which that individual interacts with his or her peers. There are two main categories of aggression, relational and overt, both of which have varying consequences",
"-32.58831676203408"
],
[
"Physical attractiveness stereotype Overview (Dion et al., 1972; Miller, 1970) Studies have found that Western people are more willing to listen to and believe people who are judged, by conventional standards, to be aesthetically attractive.\nIn less-individualistic cultures, beautiful people are assumed to have traits that those cultures value, such as concern for others, loyalty and integrity. (Dion et al., 1972) Regarding the perception of beauty in the East, Wheeler and Kim (1997) found that university students in Korea saw beautiful people as more trustworthy and concerned for others. But they did not share the North American university students' bias towards",
"-32.418352457199944"
],
[
"perceiving beautiful people as more self-assertive and dominant than less attractive people. This can be seen in myths and fairy tales as well as films throughout history: the 'goodies' are young and beautiful, whereas the 'baddies' are ugly. Previous studies have found a recognition bias for information consistent with the physical attractiveness stereotype (Rohner, J.‐C., 2012).\nThe stereotype acts as a self-fulfilling prophecy where the perception of attractive people as more valuable members of society leads to their receiving preferential treatment, positive feedback and tangible benefit. Studies have found that attractiveness does correlate positively with some traits such as personal income,",
"-32.417432652873686"
],
[
"their pictures. Perceived competence level of a candidate measured from first impressions of facial features can directly predict voting results.\nThe “beautiful is good” effect is a very present phenomenon when dealing with first impressions of others. Targets who are attractive are rated more positively and as possessing more unique characteristics than those who are unattractive. Beauty is also found to be somewhat subjective so that even targets who are not universally attractive can receive the benefit of this effect if the observer is attracted to them.\nIn a 2014 study, a group at the University of York reported that impressions of",
"-32.116245159506434"
],
[
"the ethnicity of a face influenced how attractive it was judged to be. A 2014 study by Tsunokai, McGrath and Kavanagh based on data from a dating website, the authors cited race as a factor in dating preferences by Asian-American men, both homosexual and heterosexual. Social effects Perceptions of physical attractiveness contribute to generalized assumptions based on those attractions. Individuals assume that when someone is beautiful, then they have many other positive attributes that make the attractive person more likeable. This is referred to as the halo effect, also known as the 'beautiful-is-good' effect. Across cultures, what is beautiful is",
"-31.935675075364998"
],
[
"anterior cingulate cortex increases with increasing attractiveness. The same study finds that for faces and bodies alike, the medial part of the orbitofrontal cortex responds with greater activity to both very attractive and very unattractive pictures. Male Women, on average, tend to be more attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a V-shaped torso, and broad shoulders. Women also tend to be more attracted to men who are taller than they are, and display a high degree of facial symmetry, as well as relatively masculine facial dimorphism. Women, regardless of sexual orientation, tend to be less interested in",
"-31.917322510067606"
],
[
"attractiveness is driven by a different selection and evaluation of decision-consistent information. Decision makers allow factors such as physical attractiveness to affect everyday decisions due to the works of selective exposure.\nIn another study, selective exposure was defined by the amount of individual confidence. Individuals can control the amount of selective exposure depending on whether they have a low self-esteem or high self-esteem. Individuals who maintain higher confidence levels reduce the amount of selective exposure. Albarracín and Mitchell (2004) hypothesized that those who displayed higher confidence levels were more willing to seek out information both consistent and inconsistent with their views.",
"-31.8859197088168"
],
[
"are sensitive to social situations; they act how they think others expect them to act. They wish to fit in, hence they are very easily influenced by others. Likewise, those who have low self-esteem also seek peer approval; therefore, they participate in \"attractive\" activities such as smoking or drinking to try to fit in.\nPeople with addictive personalities find it difficult to manage their stress levels. In fact, lack of stress tolerance is a telltale sign of the disorder. They find it difficult to face stressful situations and fight hard to get out of such conditions. Long-term goals prove",
"-31.723819698934676"
],
[
"same extent with groups of four and 16 people. Participants in studies looked more at the attractive people than the unattractive people in the group. The effect does not occur because group photos give the impression that individuals have more social or emotional intelligence: this was shown to be the case by a study which used individual photos grouped together in a single image, rather than photos taken of people in a group. 2015 study A 2015 study by van Osch et al. confirmed the results obtained by Walker and Vul. Controversy A 2015 replication of Walker and Vul's study",
"-31.718956269935006"
],
[
"who are attractive are more intelligent, and are more likely to progress further in school. They also consider these students to be more popular. Voters choose political candidates who are more attractive over those who are less attractive. Men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how \"good\" another person is. In 1946, Soloman Asch coined the Implicit Personality Theory, meaning that the presence of one trait tends to imply the existence of other traits. This is also known as the halo effect. Research suggests that those who are physically attractive are thought to have more socially desirable",
"-31.697458549257135"
],
[
"subjects and viewers, these findings are probably culture-independent, indicating that people generally find youthful average faces sexually the most attractive. Explanations The explanation for the averageness phenomenon covers two distinct, but complementary fields of inquiry: cognitive and developmental psychology, and evolutionary biology.\nDarwin's (1859) theory of natural selection states that advantageous characteristics replace their less advantageous counterparts, to become the dominant characteristics of the population. Mate-seeking individuals would therefore be expected to preferentially chose individuals with a minimum of unusual features, or, stated differently, individuals whose characteristics are all close to the mean of the population. These individuals",
"-31.6786724137055"
],
[
"of the Prettiest, argues that human preference for attractiveness is rooted in evolutionary instinct and that trying to prevent it from influencing people would be \"telling them to stop enjoying food or sex or novelty or love\" and thus argues that \"being beautiful and being prized for it is not a social evil.\" Political lookism Lookism has been an issue in politics for centuries, with a long tradition in the United Kingdom of \"mercilessly exaggerat[ing]\" the physical flaws of politicians in newspaper cartoons. In the 1960 Presidential race between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon, it was often believed that",
"-31.67110757442424"
],
[
"been seen to behave quite differently when objects are presented simultaneously, rather than successively. A series of studies found assimilation effects when asking participants to rate the attractiveness of faces that were presented simultaneously. When an unattractive face was presented next to an attractive face, the unattractive face became more attractive, while the rating of the attractive face did not change. In other words, placing oneself next to an attractive person would make you more attractive, as long as you are less attractive than that person. These effects remained even if the number of faces presented increased and remained over",
"-31.639851443615044"
],
[
"been found to hold across different cultures. It has been argued that masculine facial dimorphism (in men) and symmetry in faces are signals advertising genetic quality in potential mates. Low facial and body fluctuating asymmetry may indicate good health and intelligence, which are desirable features. Studies have found that women who perceive themselves as being more physically attractive are more likely to favor men with a higher degree of facial symmetry, than are women who perceive themselves as being less physically attractive. It has been found that symmetrical men (and women) have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse",
"-31.62054795518634"
],
[
"and practice health-promoting behaviors because they used the selective exposure to confirm their prior beliefs. Selective exposure thus creates barriers between the behaviors in different ages, but there is no specific age at which people change their behaviors.\nThough physical appearance will impact one's personal decision regarding an idea presented, a study conducted by Van Dillen, Papies, and Hofmann (2013) suggests a way to decrease the influence of personal attributes and selective exposure on decision-making. The results from this study showed that people do pay more attention to physically attractive or tempting stimuli; however, this phenomenon can be decreased through increasing",
"-31.60077876408468"
],
[
"heuristics\" article (1980). \"Beautiful-is-familiar\" effect Psychologist Benoît Monin reports a series of experiments in which subjects, looking at photographs of faces, have to judge whether they have seen those faces before. It is repeatedly found that attractive faces are more likely to be mistakenly labeled as familiar. Monin interprets this result in terms of attribute substitution. The heuristic attribute in this case is a \"warm glow\"; a positive feeling towards someone that might either be due to their being familiar or being attractive. This interpretation has been criticised, because not all the variance in familiarity is accounted for by the",
"-31.578400527272606"
],
[
"as less attractive. People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. According to further research done on the correlation between looks and earnings in men, the punishment for unattractiveness is greater than the benefits of being attractive. However, in women the punishment is found to be equal to the benefits. Another study suggests that more physically attractive people are significantly more likely on average to earn considerably higher wages. Differences in income due to attractiveness was much more pronounced",
"-31.56741357294959"
],
[
"body satisfaction and appearance esteem continues to increase with the abundance of billboards, magazines, and conversations displaying \"unrealistic images of beauty\" (LiveLifeGetActive, 2016). Weight prejudices brought up in the media or social settings are also prevalent within society. The tendency to link physical attractive qualities with positive personal qualities has been documented since the 1970s. People assign positive personality traits and overall life outcomes to those they perceive as attractive both mentally and physically. The very thin and beautiful models within the media are therefore seen as the most successful and socially desirable people on the planet.\nIn most societies, thinness",
"-31.50429106730735"
],
[
"“self-fulfilling prophecy for male clientele”, the notion that the receiving demographic can be like the A & F models and staff (Khan, 2014).\nVisual: They market beautiful people, which albeit controversial, is scientifically viable as there is a symmetry and averageness of features that is associated with attractiveness is faces. Psychologist's referring to it as the “halo effect” with people automatically assigning good looking people with favorable attributes e.g. talent, kindness, intelligence. This creates a fondness and we have a tendency to comply more with the people we like. In associating these desired people with products A & F sell, they",
"-31.403209630341735"
],
[
"gender-conformity, have been reported to play a role in female preferences for male faces. Studies have found that women who perceive themselves as physically attractive are more likely to choose men with masculine facial dimorphism, than are women who perceive themselves as physically unattractive. In men, facial masculinity significantly correlates with facial symmetry—it has been suggested that both are signals of developmental stability and genetic health. One study called into question the importance of facial masculinity in physical attractiveness in men arguing that when perceived health, which is factored into facial masculinity, is discounted it makes little difference in physical",
"-31.36809553980129"
],
[
"many people share the same opinion as them. This can be especially harmful if someone holds negative views of a particular group because they may not realize that their views are very different from the mainstream. Lack of visual cues and physical attractiveness Physical attractiveness plays an important role in determining if two people will begin a relationship. In face to face conversation, if initial attraction is not present, the relationship is less likely to form. This, however, does not play a role in Internet communication. Relationships online must form based on things such as similarities, values, interests or an",
"-31.351001671049744"
],
[
"their own physical attractiveness. More physically attractive men accrue reproductive benefits from spending more time seeking multiple mating partners and relatively less time investing in offspring. In contrast, the reproductive effort of physically less attractive men, who therefore will not have the same mating opportunities, is better allocated either to investing heavily in accruing resources, or investing in their mates and offspring and spending relatively less time seeking additional mates. Facial similarity and racial preferences Several studies have suggested that people are generally attracted to people who look like them, and they generally evaluate faces that exhibit features of their",
"-31.339482929282894"
],
[
"whose physical features suggest they are healthy are seen as more attractive. The theory suggests that a healthy mate is more likely to possess genetic traits related to health that would be passed on to offspring. People's tendency to consider people with facial symmetry more attractive than those with less symmetrical faces is one example. However, a test was conducted that found that perfectly symmetrical faces were less attractive than normal faces. According to this study, the exact ratio of symmetric to asymmetric facial features depicting the highest attraction is still undetermined.\nIt has also been suggested that people are attracted",
"-31.239553605715628"
],
[
"also have a sense of reputation where what they say matters to whom they are speaking to. In addition, attractive speakers have a stronger influence than those who are unattractive, regardless if the material is factual or not. Defining the What: The Nature of the Communication The characteristics of the nature of the communication impacts the degree of attitude change. One such characteristic is the design of the message; people tend be more persuaded by messages that don't appear to be targeted for them. By nature, there is a primacy effect that occurs with speakers. People are more influenced by",
"-31.05626296439732"
],
[
"same concept can be applied not only to race, ethnicity, gender, etc., but appearance as well. The extent to which one views his/herself as attractive can affect how they perceive feedback. A study by Major, Carrington & Carnevale (1984) found that, as described above, the attractive participants were less likely to believe positive feedback given to them, believing that the observer had an ulterior motive. When the observer could see the attractive participant, they doubted the true motive behind their positive feedback. Unattractive participants were more likely to believe positive feedback than were attractive participants. When an ulterior motive is",
"-30.997818685718812"
],
[
"and Shulman (2009) replaced statements of introversion and extroversion with physical attractiveness. Subjects judged physical attractiveness of subjects based on information in the owner's profile and comments made by the owner's friends; pictures of owners were either male or female and were pre-tested to be at a neutral level of attractiveness.\nWalther et al. (2009) found that when asked to make judgments of attractiveness, results were strongly in line with predictions made by warranting theory. Walther et al. (2009) explain the discrepancies in results between the two experiments by posing that perhaps more is going on when making judgments of internal",
"-30.82889202205388"
],
[
"attractiveness of the photograph. Judgments of morality and fairness Legal scholar Cass Sunstein has argued that attribute substitution is pervasive when people reason about moral, political or legal matters. Given a difficult, novel problem in these areas, people search for a more familiar, related problem (a \"prototypical case\") and apply its solution as the solution to the harder problem. According to Sunstein, the opinions of trusted political or religious authorities can serve as heuristic attributes when people are asked their own opinions on a matter. Another source of heuristic attributes is emotion: people's moral opinions on sensitive subjects like sexuality",
"-30.793480844411533"
],
[
"familiarity. However, exposure does not always increase attraction. For example, the social allergy effect can occur when a person grows increasingly annoyed by and hypersensitive to another's repeated behaviors instead of growing more fond of his or her idiosyncrasies over time. General The proverb \"birds of a feather flock together\" has been used to illustrate that similarity is a crucial determinant of interpersonal attraction. Studies about attraction indicate that people are strongly attracted to lookalikes in physical and social appearance. This similarity is in the broadest sense: similarity in bone-structure, characteristics, life goals and physical appearance. The more these points",
"-30.763764078656095"
],
[
"‘where was the point where you didn’t find me attractive anymore?’ It’s a universal feeling and an unusual word. A lot of people ask me about it and relate to it. And the world is not perfect right now. \"Unbeautiful\" seems like a realistic title for a lot of things that are happening\"",
"-30.74836403806694"
],
[
"in which subjects, looking at photographs of faces, have to judge whether they have seen those faces before. It is repeatedly found that attractive faces are more likely to be mistakenly labeled as familiar. Monin interprets this result in terms of attribute substitution. The heuristic attribute in this case is a \"warm glow\"; a positive feeling towards someone that might either be due to their being familiar or being attractive. This interpretation has been criticised, because not all the variance in the familiarity data is accounted for by attractiveness. Evidence The most direct evidence, according to Kahneman, is a 1973",
"-30.733330239425413"
],
[
"\"type A\" personalities seem to be prone to having negative self-images. This is because such people constantly set the standard for success high above a reasonable, attainable level. Thus, they are constantly disappointed in this \"failure.\"\nAnother factor that contributes to a negative self-image is the beauty values of the society in which a person lives. In the American society, a popular beauty ideal is slimness. Oftentimes, girls feel that they do not measure up to society's \"thin\" standards, which leads to their having a negative self-image. Maintenance When people are in the position of evaluating others, self-image maintenance processes can",
"-30.731849034084007"
],
[
"degree for males.\nAttractive individuals who are overtly aggressive barely suffer any consequences in terms of sociometric popularity. This is a key difference between overt and relational aggression because relational aggression has a strongly negative relationship on sociometric popularity, especially for attractive individuals. For unattractive individuals, there is again a strongly negative relationship between overt aggression and sociometric popularity. This means that attractive individuals stand to gain a lot of perceived popularity at the cost of very little sociometric popularity by being overtly aggressive while unattractive individuals stand to gain very little perceived popularity from acts of overt aggression but will",
"-30.707655831152806"
],
[
"Physical attractiveness Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either. There are many factors which influence one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all human cultures such as facial symmetry, sociocultural dependent attributes and personal preferences unique to a particular individual.\nIn many cases, humans subconsciously attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to physically attractive people. From research done in the United",
"-30.599747934182233"
],
[
"end up looking quite homogeneous—e.g. white, middle-class, urban, and well-educated. Another pattern is the wide discrepancy between the number of studies conducted with children of gay fathers and those with lesbian mothers...\nAnother potential factor of importance is the possibility of social desirability bias when research subjects respond in ways that present themselves and their families in the most desirable light possible. Such a phenomenon does seem possible due to the desire of this population to offset and reverse negative images and discrimination. Consequently, the findings of these studies may be patterned by self-presentation bias.\nAccording to a 2001 review of 21",
"-30.597096944227815"
],
[
"build compared to men who are more social and dominant. However, stereotypes may not always be as accurate as they seem because they can be propagated by a cycle of self-fulfilling prophecies in which our behavior is dictated by the expectations we hold of someone based on the stereotypes they fit to. This in turn causes the target individual to modify their own behavior to confirm those expectations and gives the illusion that the person's traits accurately fits the stereotype from the beginning. For example, physically attractive individuals may become more socially-skilled and confident simply because they internalize the beliefs",
"-30.487276193569414"
],
[
"threatened self-esteem (in the observer), the perceived average individual's attractiveness is rated lower. The perceived able individual is rated higher after the pratfall since the able individual appears more relatable and therefore approachable and likable.\nAn alternative explanation is that the pratfall effect is due to increased attention to the target individuals, which in turn results in better realization of their appropriateness and/or inappropriateness given the evaluation criteria. Examples Notably attributed to Kennedy in the aftermath of the Bay of the Pigs Invasion and to Apple's unsuccessful endeavors in mapping/navigation services. Marketing Research on the potential positive effects of \"blemishes\"",
"-30.47778511181241"
],
[
"fantasies, human mate selection, personality, and racial stereotyping. Much of this research has examined sex differences in social behavior and cognition, and has tested hypotheses derived from evolutionary theory. The following are several illustrative examples:\n1. In some of his early research, conducted with Sara Gutierres, Kenrick demonstrated that exposure to highly attractive people, like those shown in magazines, on television, and in movies, leads people judge average-looking peers as less attractive, and even to lower their commitment to their current partners. Men exposed to beautiful women, for example, rate themselves as less committed to their partners; women do",
"-30.47326633821649"
],
[
"pictured in the advertisement. It has been suggested that ads that use people with positive emotions are perceived as attractive while ads using exclusively text or depicting people with neutral expressions may generally be viewed as unattractive. Unattractive ads activate the anterior insula, which plays a role in the processing of negative emotions. Both attractive and unattractive ads have been shown to be more memorable than ads described as ambiguously attractive, but more research is needed to determine how this translates to the overall brand perception in the eyes of the consumer and how this may impact",
"-30.468825650989857"
],
[
"based on cultural standards may be affected more by social comparisons, particularly when they have a low self-perception of attractiveness.\nImages in the media are notorious for creating unrealistic standards of beauty, most especially for women. Comparisons with media standards can cause an individual with high levels of CSE to acquire feelings of inadequacy. Mass media provides examples of beauty that are often unattainable by the average male or female. Although this is true in most cases, everyone is not equally affected by unrealistic standards of beauty in the media and social comparisons with the people they are surrounded by. One's",
"-30.404938730498543"
],
[
"own ethnic or racial group as being more attractive. Although both men and women use children's \"facial resemblance\" to themselves in \"attractiveness judgments,\" a greater percentage of women in one study (37% n=30) found hypothetical children whose faces were \"self-morphs\" of themselves as most attractive when compared to men (30% n=23). \nThe more similar a judged person is toward the judging person, the more the former is liked. However, this effect can be reversed. This might depend on how attractiveness is conceptualized: similar members (compared to dissimilar ones) of the opposite sex are judged as more likable in a prosocial",
"-30.36653696911526"
],
[
"unattractive faces. The preference also extends to non-human animals such as cats. These findings indicate that lookism is an innate product of how the human visual system functions.\nResearch by Dan Ariely found that American women exhibit a marked preference for dating taller men, and that for shorter men to be judged attractive by women, they must earn substantially more money than taller men. Ethics In the article \"Is Lookism Unjust\", Louis Tietje and Steven Cresap discuss when discrimination based on looks can legitimately be described as unjust. Tietje and Cresap quote evidence that suggests there exists \"a 7–to–9 percent",
"-30.364532686653547"
],
[
"match, the happier people are in a relationship.\nThe lookalike effect plays the role of self-affirmation. A person typically enjoys receiving confirmation of aspects of his or her life, ideas, attitudes and personal characteristics, and people seem to look for an image of themselves to spend their life with. A basic principle of interpersonal attraction is the rule of similarity: similarity is attractive — an underlying principle that applies to both friendships and romantic relationships. The proportion of attitudes shared correlates well with the degree of interpersonal attraction. Cheerful people like to be around other cheerful people and negative people would",
"-30.281141708405812"
],
[
"Attractiveness Visual attractiveness Visual attractiveness or visual appeal is attraction produced primarily by visual stimuli. This type of \"visual stimuli\" and/or what makes a person attractive is typically seen, but not limited to, features portrayed on the fac\ne. Physical attractiveness Physical attractiveness is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as pleasing or beautiful. It can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness, cuteness, similarity and physique.\nJudgment of attractiveness of physical traits is partly universal to all human cultures, partly dependent on culture or society or time period, partly biological, and partly subjective and individual. The",
"-30.257344247496803"
],
[
"a stranger in an Ames room.\nThe effect was related to the strength of love, liking, and trust of the spouse being viewed. Women who were high positive in this area perceived strangers as being more distorted than their partners. Size judgments by men did not seem to be influenced by the strength of their feeling toward their spouse.\nFurther study has concluded that the Honi phenomenon does not reliably exist as first thought, but may be explained as sex difference influencing perception, with women interpreting a larger reading as a more meaningful or valuable perception of things than men's.",
"-30.239409610880102"
],
[
"and Wendy Wood, also a professor in the same department, about sex differences in human behavior, they give the idea that both men and women are looking for certain attractiveness that fits their taste and style. The study states “the value of attractiveness stems from its perceived association with the ability to provide sexual pleasure.” This means that attractiveness suggests information about “sexual warmth” or sexual arousal. The study then proceeds to say that if this is true, then men will seek sexiness in a partner. In addition they will also look for characteristics such as domestic skills. However, Wood",
"-30.22374346391007"
],
[
"the extent of complaints made by patients was associated with the severity of the condition and the number of missing permanent teeth.\nMeta-analyses and theoretical reviews demonstrated that attractive children are seen by others as more intelligent and exhibit more positive social behaviour and traits other than receiving much more positive treatment than their less attractive counterparts. Therefore, a divergence from perceived ideal dentofacial aesthetic, particularly in children, might adversely affect self-esteem and self-confidence besides attracting mockery from peers.\nIt is therefore reasonable to theorize that deviations from “normal” or “ideal” dentofacial aesthetic could be destructive to an individual's psychosocial and emotional",
"-30.196622525290877"
],
[
"fact that attractive people are not always photogenic is that part of their attractiveness may be due to the charisma they bear in real life due to the way they move, express, carry themselves. While this will positively influence the subjective appearance of that person in real life, a still photograph usually fails to reproduce these attributes, possibly rendering a picture of the person less attractive than the real-life perception and contributing to classify that person as less photogenic. Lighting The lighting when the shot is taken can also have a large effect on a person's perceived attractiveness. Also, a",
"-30.166463788948022"
],
[
"to feel inadequate, and thus their self-esteem can decrease from their negative self-image. A negative body image can result in adverse psychosocial consequences, including depression, poor self-esteem, and diminished quality of life.\nThere is significant pressure for girls to conform to feminine beauty ideals, and, since thinness is prized as feminine, many women feel dissatisfied with their body shape. Body dissatisfaction has been found to be a precursor to serious psychological problems such as depression, social anxiety, and eating disorders. The feminine beauty ideal has influenced women, particularly younger women, to partake in extreme measures. Some of these extreme measures include",
"-30.142629077774473"
],
[
"face combined with \"neonate\" features in the \"center of the face\" most appealing in men and women. Upon analyzing the results of his study, Cunningham concluded that preference for \"neonate features may display the least cross-cultural variability\" in terms of \"attractiveness ratings\" and, in another study, Cunningham concluded that there exists a large agreement on the characteristics of an attractive face.\nIn computer face averaging tests, women with averaged faces have been shown to be considered more attractive. This is possibly due to average features being more familiar and, therefore, more comfortable.\nCommenting on the prevalence of whiteness in supposed beauty ideals",
"-30.11206560744904"
],
[
"will bring that happiness, and cosmetic surgery can help them attain this. The study explains that \"celebrities may represent prominent and unique social comparison targets, whose physical attractiveness and condition provide information about socially-idealised standards of beauty.\"\nNotably, celebrity worship makes people more prone to mental health problems such as high levels of neuroticism, anxiety, depression, and an overall strong sense of worry. Being fixated on how a celebrity looks can increase anxiety because it causes the person to constantly compare themselves to them, thus creating unnecessary worry and high maintenance of their appearance, and eventually depression due to the fact",
"-30.067560119889094"
],
[
"high self-esteem becomes a significant challenge. In this case, the person views others as the cause of their personal difficulties in order to preserve a positive self-view.\nThis condition is more common among people who have poor hearing or sight. Also, ongoing stressors have been associated with a higher possibility of developing delusions. Examples of such stressors are immigration, low socioeconomic status, and even possibly the accumulation of smaller daily hassles. Specific delusions The top two factors mainly concerned in the germination of delusions are: 1. Disorder of brain functioning; and 2. background influences of temperament and personality.\nHigher levels of dopamine",
"-30.050973922363482"
],
[
"self-perception of appearance is how an individual measures their own beauty. Women with lower self-perceptions of appearance tend to be more dissatisfied after viewing \"ideal\" images of women in the media. This same issue can also be seen in the male population but isn't as prevalent and widespread as in the female population. In the journal \"Media Images and Women's Self-evaluations\", researchers D. Henderson-King, Henderson-King, and Hoffman demonstrated that the importance that women place on physical attractiveness is associated with images displayed in the media. Body image Body image is a very important developmental concern for children and young",
"-30.03095133210809"
],
[
"in the field of experimental aesthetics and neuroesthetics respectively. Psychological theories see beauty as a form of pleasure. Correlational findings support the view that more beautiful objects are also more pleasing. Some studies suggest that higher experienced beauty is associated with activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex. This approach of localizing the processing of beauty in one brain region has received criticism within the field. Human beauty The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of inner beauty, which includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence,",
"-29.978564106539125"
],
[
"known but irrelevant information. For instance, more attractive people are often attributed with more positive qualities. Research demonstrates that positive affect tends to increase the halo effect, whereas negative affect decreases it.\nA study involving undergraduate students demonstrated a halo effect in identifying a middle-aged man as more likely to be a philosopher than an unconventional, young woman. These halo effects were nearly eliminated when participants were in a negative affective state. In the study, researchers sorted participants into either happy or sad groups using an autobiographical mood induction task in which participants reminisced on sad or happy memories. Then, participants",
"-29.861651358252857"
],
[
"either attractive or unattractive, and the comments suggested either socially desirable or socially undesirable behaviors (Walther et al., 2008).\nIt was found that social attractiveness was positively correlated with the physical attractiveness of commenting friends (Walther et al., 2008). This indicates that the simple observable presence of others in one's social network may be enough to make social judgments. Mixed results were found regarding actual content of friend's comments (Walther et al., 2008). A significant effect was found, although these effects depended on the gender of the profile owner. This confirms the assertion in warranting theory that comments made by others",
"-29.80862268494093"
],
[
"Unattractiveness Unattractiveness or ugliness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically unfavorable. Terminology Ugliness is a property of a person or thing that is unpleasant to look upon and results in a highly unfavorable evaluation. To be ugly is to be aesthetically unattractive, repulsive, or offensive. There are many terms associated with visually unappealing or aesthetically undesirable people, including hideousness and unsightliness, more informal terms such as turn-offs, or slang terms such as \"fugly\", \"boner-shrinker\", \"uggo\" \"detumescent\", \"detumifying\" and \"bonerkiller\". Other measures use a numerical scale of attractiveness, wherein 1 is the ugliest and 10",
"-29.780049355322262"
],
[
"to feel inferior for their physical appearance develop a self-conscious attitude towards their body image, leading them to foster feelings of depression, anxiety and incompetence. \nPsychological detriments of this sort can also have a negative effect on children’s ability to form relationships and make friends with peers. The social stigma surrounding the “perfect body image” can also be extremely degrading to adolescents who feel they are unable to meet the expectations of such situations causing further damage mentally and physically (anorexia and bulimia). From a long- term perspective obesity can also cause negative psychological effects on individuals who are discriminated",
"-29.777743763217586"
],
[
"fight discrimination. Some research indicates a sentencing disparity where unattractive people tend to get heavier prison sentences than attractive people. Prejudice Uglification, defacement or disfigurement refers to efforts to depreciate someone's levels of attractiveness, often in television characters in order to desexualize them. Discrimination or prejudice against unattractive people is sometimes referred to as lookism or cacophobia, and if it is a result of one's disfigurement, ableism. Teratophobia is an aversion or fear of people who appear monstrous, have blemishes or are disfigured.</ref> When such an aversion is coupled with prejudice or discrimination, it may be viewed as a form",
"-29.763909559478634"
],
[
"humor or responsibility.\nThe second explanation involves the role that stereotypes play in the initial stages of forming a judgment about someone. Preliminary opinions generated via thin-slicing are often influenced by the stereotypes a person holds, and these stereotypes often hold a certain, small amount of truth. For example, Berry and McArthur found that adults with baby faces are generally perceived to be more honest, naive and kind. There is also evidence that physical and biological differences are linked with differences in temperament. Shyer and more reserved adult men tend to have more lightly colored eyes and a leaner, more delicate",
"-29.759173991245916"
],
[
"some jurisdictions that already make it illegal to discriminate on the basis of immutable forms of aesthetic appearance, including the Australian state of Victoria, wherein lookism was made illegal in 1995. Similarly, according to The Economist, Washington DC has laws that prohibit lookism. Humans People sometimes subconsciously associate their perception of disagreeable physical attributes with dislikable personality traits. Some of these include an association between unattractive individuals and dishonesty, unintelligence, failure and incompetence. However, attractiveness and intelligence have been shown to be positively correlated. Factors contributing to a perceived unattractiveness among humans include facial asymmetry; however, its significance",
"-29.750436958187493"
],
[
"to be more attractive, while the more average ones suffered decreases in their perceived attractiveness. Later research inspired by Aronson experimentally defined appeal as a combination of liking and respect, and replicated similar results. Gender Effects of pratfall are most directly applicable to males. Women tend to prefer the non-blunderer regardless of gender, and although findings of pratfall cannot be readily generalized to female populations, neither population preferred the mediocre blunderer. Self-esteem Research conducted on self-image suggests that self-esteem influences whether positive aspects of the pratfall effect and self-comparisons will occur. An individual with high self-esteem will prefer the non-pratfalling",
"-29.697172442494775"
],
[
"weigh a certain amount, society puts them down for it. This can cause low self-esteem and an onset of depression because they do not fit the mold of what beauty is seen to be. People get criticized when they do not look like the models in the magazine or on TV. Socially comparing oneself to the people in the media can have negative effects and cause mental anxiety, stress, negative body image and eating disorders. With media being such an important part of our generation, having low self-esteems and negative self-images of ourselves effects society with tragic incidents including suicide",
"-29.673870925442316"
],
[
"Averageness In physical attractiveness studies, averageness describes the physical beauty that results from averaging the facial features of people of the same gender and approximately the same age. The majority of averageness studies have focused on photographic overlay studies of human faces, in which images are morphed together. The term \"average\" is used strictly to denote the technical definition of the mathematical mean. An averaged face is not unremarkable, but is, in fact, quite good looking. Nor is it typical in the sense of common or frequently occurring in the population, though it appears familiar, and is typical in the",
"-29.66920096310787"
],
[
"failed to show any significant results for the group attractiveness effect. The research team hypothesized that this may be due to cultural differences, since the replication study was performed in Japan.",
"-29.643894996814197"
],
[
"the \"cognitive load.\" In this study, increasing cognitive activity led to a decreased impact of physical appearance and selective exposure on the individual's impression of the idea presented. This is explained by acknowledging that we are instinctively drawn to certain physical attributes, but if the required resources for this attraction are otherwise engaged at the time, then we might not notice these attributes to an equal extent. For example, if a person is simultaneously engaging in a mentally challenging activity during the time of exposure, then it is likely that less attention will be paid to appearance, which leads to",
"-29.59370163231506"
],
[
"elderly married people become strangely like one another, although probably Science with its measuring instruments would \"prove\" the exact opposite. It is impossible to exaggerate the formative power of this living pulse, this strong inward feeling for the perfection of one's own type. The feeling for race-beauty—so opposite to the conscious taste of ripe urbans for intellectual-individual traits of beauty—is immensely strong in primitive men, and for that very reason never emerges into their consciousness. But such a feeling is race-forming. It undoubtedly molded the warrior- and hero-type of a nomad tribe more and definitely on one bodily ideal, so",
"-29.542804375756532"
],
[
"similarity' associated with that person. Based on the cognitive consistency theories, difference in attitudes and interests can lead to dislike and avoidance whereas similarity in attitudes promotes social attraction. Miller (1972) pointed out that attitude similarity activates the perceived attractiveness and favorability information from each other, whereas dissimilarity would reduce the impact of these cues.\nThe studies by Jamieson, Lydon and Zanna (1987–88) showed that attitude similarity could predict how people evaluate their respect for each other, and also predict social and intellectual first impressions – the former by activity preference similarity and the latter by value-based attitude similarity.",
"-29.54096881613077"
],
[
"face presented: more money given means more trust in the partner, while less money given means less trust in the partner. The subjects were asked to act as the receiver of money for several rounds to ensure realism. Prosocial behavior Facial resemblance does not only enhance trustworthiness, but also increases the chance of prosocial behavior. One theory is that this prosocial behavior occurs because facial resemblance is a potential cue of kinship. If someone identifies similarities of him/herself in another individual, the tendency to trust is higher. Attractiveness Because of the correlation between facial recognition and trustworthiness, further experiments have",
"-29.523655008990318"
],
[
"face a world where lookism is one of the most pervasive but denied prejudices\". Referring to several studies, Angela Stalcup writes that \"The evidence clearly indicates that not only is there a premium for prettiness in Western culture, there is also penalty for plainness.\" When discrimination on the grounds of a person's appearance turns into fear or conveyed aversion, it is referred to as cacophobia. Sometimes cacophobia may be internalized and thus directed inwards rather than towards others.\nStudies on newborns have found that human infants as young as 14 hours from birth prefer to look at attractive faces rather than",
"-29.508903336340154"
],
[
"such a way usually portrays a lack of confidence, certainty, or truthfulness. However, in the Latino culture, direct or prolonged eye contact means that you are challenging the individual with whom you are speaking or that you have a romantic interest in the person.\nImagine the confusion that this slight difference can cause in professional situations such as an interview. If an Anglo Saxon individual was interviewing a Latino for a position and found the person to be lacking confidence because of their lack of eye contact, the Latino would lose out on the employment opportunity solely because of the",
"-29.483689514250727"
],
[
"Science Behind Attraction According to a study determining the golden ratio for facial beauty, the most attractive face is one with average distances between facial features, and an average length and width of the face itself. Facial attractiveness, or beauty, can also be determined by symmetry. If a face is asymmetrical, this can indicate unhealthy genetic information. Therefore, if a face is symmetrical (see Facial symmetry), healthy genetic information is implied. People will judge potential mates based on the physical expression of the genetic health, which is their apparent attractiveness. This supports the good genes theory, which indicates that attractiveness",
"-29.443862072454067"
],
[
"being. Generally, the more a comparison target resembles a specific person, the more familiar it will be. However, groups of people are considered to be more abstract concepts, which leads to less favorable judgments. With regards to the optimistic bias, when people compare themselves to an average person, whether someone of the same sex or age, the target continues to be viewed as less human and less personified, which will result in less favorable comparisons between the self and others. Egocentric thinking \"Egocentric thinking\" refers to how individuals know more of their own personal information and risk that they can",
"-29.405188701464795"
],
[
"She offers three possible explanations for the correlation. First, those with the more trained spatial ability tend to take part in experiences that require those skills. The unconscious positive reinforcement a person receives from doing something well, and the praise that follows, may make certain activities more attractive and more likely to occur. This phenomenon, where people end up taking part in activities or occupations in a self-directed way, is called self-selection. Second, the experience trained the person to develop spatial abilities. The type of experience determines which traits are developed. Third, an outside factor, such as early exposure to",
"-29.370183373914188"
],
[
"enough and their beauty comes from the man's opinion and his praise. These thoughts become subconscious to women, as they internalize them so much that they don't notice them anymore. Most women wouldn't even be able to recognize that they feel the need to look nice for men or view their bodies as an object for men. It is something that is being planted in women's minds by objectification, and then cultivated into self-objectification.",
"-29.33284366116277"
],
[
"changed agencies to Elite Model Management, which was more accepting of her actual age.\nIn December 2013, Scott responded to a question on Quora, the question and answer website, about \"What does it feel like to go from physically unattractive to attractive?\". She wrote about being awkward and bullied in high school, then getting model looks after college, and the advantages and problems that came with that, while still programming in taped glasses at home. Her answer was reprinted in Slate, Business Insider, and PopSugar.\nUntil that time, Scott had kept her programming separate from her modeling. That Quora post drew attention",
"-29.30843194422596"
],
[
"facial symmetry plays a large role in what we perceive as attractiveness. However there is question whether changes in either symmetry or averageness alone increase facial attractiveness. Experiments show that symmetry and averageness make independent contributions to attractiveness, but when the contribution of symmetry is excluded, averageness remains a significant predictor of attractiveness. In addition, research has shown that when one couples facial symmetry with averageness, attractiveness ratings rise, suggesting these two influences are invariably linked.",
"-29.28200344966899"
],
[
"When they are told what to look like and who to love, it puts a toll on their self-esteem. When people make comments about who they are, what they look like, who they love, etc. it begins to make them feel insecure, and as though they aren't good enough the way they are. \n\"Coming-out\" is when an LGBT individual makes it known that they are gay, lesbian, etc. Coming out can be very stressful, and youth need family support at this time. But often they instead experience rejection, leaving them feeling unwanted and unloved. This can set them into a",
"-29.26679858835996"
],
[
"of different attractiveness. Mother's attitudes toward attractive and unattractive babies Conflict exists in the research concerning mothers' attitudes toward unattractive infants. Some studies establish that mothers of unattractive babies find that their infants interfere more with their lives than do the mothers of attractive infants, and that a mother's attitude toward her child becomes more negative if the child becomes more unattractive, but several studies suggest attractiveness plays no major role in determining maternal attitudes. A study of mothers of infants with craniofacial deformities and normal children stated that mothers of children with deformities reported more positive parenting experiences than",
"-29.23665490251733"
],
[
"lips, are generally considered more attractive on women. Werner syndrome, a condition that causes the appearance of premature aging, causes a \"bird-like\" appearance due to pinching of the nose while, conversely, Down syndrome, a neotenizing condition, causes a flattening of the nose.",
"-29.220868393505953"
],
[
"doesn't meet those very specific standards is deemed physically unattractive and sexually undesirable. In a culture in which the physical body is held in such high esteem and given such power, body fascism then not only deems those who don't or can't conform to be sexually less desirable, but in the extreme – sometimes dubbed \"looksism\" – also deems an individual completely worthless as a person, based solely on his exterior. In this sense it is not unlike racism or sexism or homophobia itself. ... (p. 28) Empirical support According to Nancy Etcoff, a psychologist at Massachusetts General Hospital, \"we",
"-29.17154747591121"
]
] |
8z1i1m | If the blue pigment is so uncommon in nature, where did we get the pigment to create paints in times such as the Renaissance | [
"Pigments (such as paint) were made primarily from lapis lazuli,c cobalt, and azurite. Which are all minerals. Dyes (for clothes and such) were made from plants such as woad. [Source]( URL_0 )",
"“Ultramarine” (blue) was one of the most expensive and rare pigments in the past, and typically saved for religious portraits. It was made from crushed lapis lazuli that was mined “beyond the sea (ultra-marine)” in Afghanistan. There were other blue pigments like cobalt blue used in Chinese porcelain, but a cheap synthetic blue wouldn’t be developed until around the age of the Impressionists.",
"Also blue wasn’t nearly as rare as purple and yellow. Yellow remains one of the more expensive colors today.",
"Actually blue pigment has been rare up until the manufacturing of synthetic pigments. Most of the blue you can see in old paintings is actually black mixed with white (it looks like grayish blue and your eye perceives it as blue because the painter has surrounded it with warm tones). True blue pigment, that was acquired from semiprecious stone lapis lazuli, was very expensive and so was mostly used in church paintings (for the most important figures) or very wealthy commissioner orders. There have been different minerals used as blue too but ultramarine is the most remarkable and stable. There’s also the indigo dye, that was used in dying fabrics and still is. but thats not for paints because it needs substrate to hold onto (which is how synthetic paints also work). Crushed minerals did the work back in the day.",
"I'm surprised nobody has mentioned Egyptian blue. Widely considered the first synthetic pigment it far preceded the Renaissance era. It's made from calcium copper silicate: URL_0 ",
"It's not that blue pigment is uncommon. It's that it's uncommon in living things. Almost every living thing that's blue is blue because of something called [Rayleigh scattering,]( URL_0 ) which is where light bounces around for a certain color. It's easier for pigments like in paints. *Lapis lazuli* has been around since at least Roman times, and blue sapphires too..",
"There are a couple places. Lapiz lazuli, and Cobalt are the ones that come immediately to mind. And they where expensive Purple and bright yellow where even harder to make. There is a reason purple was considered the color of the gods in many places, and only Kings or members of high office could wear it or sometimes only they could afford it.",
"Can confirm, lapis and azurite are the most traditionally used in paint(fun fact that's why Mary almost always had a blue robe, it was the most opulent color-a way to show richness while not draping her in jewels) dyes like indigo can be used in fabric but if you make paint out of them they're not light fast so they had rather quickly(think blue jeans). \\*However\\* if you use a technique invented by the myans, you can bind that dye to a mineral/clay and get some beautiful results. Many companies sell \"Mayan\" color ranges, and that's how it is achieved. I work at a watercolor company and I ♥️ my job:).",
"Purple was even rarer because it had to be “milked” from tiny sea snails that only lived in certain parts of the Mediterranean Sea.",
"They discovered that when vinegar (acetic acid) was exposed to air near lead or copper it would create a powder over the metal, lead would produce a white powder and copper a blue / green powder. The best way to concentrate the reaction was to put a lead and copper rod in a pot with vinegar at the bottom. These were discovered in Iraq and assumed that the ancient inhabitants had the technology to create batteries. 'Baghdad Battery'",
"In Guatemala on the colonial age was the best producer of Indigofera tinctoria Índigo, the plant where we get the color blue from. At some moment it was the best income for the colony. The tint was exported to Spain and it was expensive I think, can't remember.",
"Fun fact: Prussian blue is produced by oxidation of ferrous ferrocyanide salts. The inside of Nazi gas chambers turned blue due to the reaction of the cyanide gas and the steel walls.",
"Any one know about the clay that the Nahuatl people used to mine. It was apparantly used as a blue pigment or color on murals and such.( don't know much about subject).",
"Boiling woad plants gets pigment but it stinks to do the process. Did it in my garage once and wasn't worth it for the strength of colour.",
"Usually lapis, which they'd import from Afghanistan. And until the development of Prussian Blue in the early 1700s, that was pretty much it.",
"In Renaissance times, lapis lazuli (a semiprecious stone) had been recently introduced into the Western European countries, because it was imported and rare it was extremely expensive but people were willing to pay a great price to put it into their religious paintings. Originally lapis lazuli is from the middle east and can be seen in ancient works such as the [Lyres of Ur]( URL_0 ). Ps. If you're interested in the making of blue you should also check out Yves Klein, a contemporary artists who made his own blue pigment that keeps the blue from being diluted. His blue pieces are quite beautiful!",
"Minerals. Uncommon doesn’t mean impossible to find. Thats why ultra marine is / was so expensive. You needed to grind the pigment from a mineral (lapis lazuli) mined in Afghanistan (going off of memory, dont feel like googling, im 90% sure thats where the bulk of lapis came from) Other places human got their blue fix from were vegetable dyes such as woed and indigo. Another source was the element cobalt. Hard to find. Uncommon. But not impossible to get your hands on if you had the money",
"I know this! Lapis Lazuli! Lapis Lazuli is a really cool stone which is what was used back in olden times to create the blue dye you see in old works of arts. And because it was such a precious commodity people used it for the most prestigious of subjects. Hence why many of the paintings of the Virgin Mary are depicted with her in blue!!! Side note: many lapis lazuli stones contain flecks of gold in them further increasing the beauty of the subject painted with them!",
"It's worth noting that the *Indigofera tinctoria* plant (true indigo) native to India has been a source of blue (Indigo) pigment since ancient times. It was traded as a luxury commodity and used in paintings, cosmetics, and as a natural dye. If I'm not mistaken *Indigo* means 'from India' or a variation of it. Precious and rare, Indigo came to be known as 'blue gold'. Edit: Typos",
"Azurite and cobalt have been used for blue since the Minoan period. During the renaissance they used lapis lazuli. But it was super expensive so they used it mainly for things like the robe of the Madonna. It represented purity. PS - I could answer this coz I was at the minoan Palace of Knossos just two weeks ago. It was mind blowing! Totally recommend it!",
"Prussian Blue was invented I think in the mid nineteenth century. It was used a lot in Japanese woodblock prints. There is some debate as to whether or not there were laws called \"sumptuary laws\" that required its use in order to preserve the inventory of rarer colors. Prussian Blue is made in part with cyanide. Those Germans are so clever that way.",
"I don’t know if other people have said this, but the reason that Mary in religious painting is so commonly depicted wearing blue is because it was the most expensive colour, and she was considered the most important person. Or any other character in very early paintings, if they’re wearing blue, they’re very important.",
"Some shades of blue, red and purple came from a few species of snail in the Mediterranean sea which were crushed and the fermented for 10 days. There is a special compound in the snail that was needed. I remember learning this while watching a documentary. Here is the wiki on the process. URL_0 ",
"Wode, (like in Braveheart) which comes from Isatis tinctoria also called dyer's *woad*, or glastum, a flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae. Also known as Asp of Jerusalem. *Woad* is the name of a *blue* dye derived from the ground leaves. Later it was mostly replaced by ***Indigofera tinctoria***, also called **true indigo.**",
"Not necessarily an answer to your question, but a really neat read on the topic. The way that nature makes the color blue (when it does) is often unlike any other color: URL_0 ",
"There are naturally occurring blue pigments from minerals and plants. It’s one of the reasons blues and purples were associated with royalty. They were the only people that could afford it.",
"The pigment was uncommon in certain parts. India for example has always been a centre of blue/indigo dye production. Most early civilizations cultivated it and with time exported it too.",
"On top of what people have said, *because* it was so rare, blue was the most expensive color, which is why it's all over the vatican.",
"If you played minecraft, you would know this.. lapis lazuli!!! (also other mineral pigments like cobalt) Shout out to blue wool"
] | [
[
"the 5th century AD. It produced a blue-green which no other pigment could imitate, but it had drawbacks: it was unstable, it could not resist dampness, it did not mix well with other colors, it could ruin other colors with which it came into contact, and it was toxic. Leonardo da Vinci, in his treatise on painting, warned artists not to use it. It was widely used in miniature paintings in Europe and Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its use largely ended in the late 19th century, when it was replaced by the safer and more stable chrome",
"-36.28932684974279"
],
[
"led in 1809 to the invention of the synthetic pigment chrome orange. Other synthetic pigments, cobalt red, cobalt yellow, and cobalt orange, the last made from cadmium sulfide plus cadmium selenide, soon followed. These new pigments, plus the invention of the metal paint tube in 1841, made it possible for artists to paint outdoors and to capture the colours of natural light.\nIn Britain orange became highly popular with the Pre-Raphaelites and with history painters. The flowing red-orange hair of Elizabeth Siddal, a prolific model and the wife of painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, became a symbol of the Pre-Raphaelite movement, Lord",
"-35.51344045996666"
],
[
"also used later by Medieval artists for the colouring of manuscripts. Pigments were also made in ancient times from a mineral known as orpiment. Orpiment was an important item of trade in the Roman Empire and was used as a medicine in China although it contains arsenic and is highly toxic. It was also used as a fly poison and to poison arrows. Because of its yellow-orange colour, it was also a favourite with alchemists searching for a way to make gold, both in China and in the West.\nBefore the late 15th century, the colour orange existed in Europe, but",
"-35.250615803175606"
],
[
"this colour is that in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, the blue pigment was derived from the rock lapis lazuli, a stone imported from Afghanistan of greater value than gold. Beyond a painter's retainer, patrons were expected to purchase any gold or lapis lazuli to be used in the painting. Hence, it was an expression of devotion and glorification to swathe the Virgin in gowns of blue. Transformations in visual depictions of the Virgin from the 13th to 15th centuries mirror her \"social\" standing within the Church as well as in society. Since the Reformation Over the centuries, devotion and",
"-34.79333135607885"
],
[
"was ideal for painting skies. It was a favourite background colour of the German painter Albrecht Dürer.\nAnother blue often used in the Middle Ages was called tournesol or folium. It was made from the plant Crozophora tinctoria, which grew in the south of France. It made a fine transparent blue valued in medieval manuscripts.\nAnother common blue pigment was smalt, which was made by grinding blue cobalt glass into a fine powder. It made a deep violet blue similar to ultramarine, and was vivid in frescoes, but it lost some of its brilliance in oil paintings. It became especially popular in",
"-34.671120601618895"
],
[
"color is made from clay, the yellow from either soil or tree bark, the reddish brown from camwood tree dye, and the black color from charcoal. The charcoal color is more permanent than the other pigments, leaving behind designs that are then sometimes reworked into new drawings. A blue color, created from a laundry additive introduced by the British, has also been used by some artists. Before the pigments are applied, the walls are first sized using laterite (aja upa), a mud slip that fills in cracks in the wall. The surface is then further burnished using fine pebbles (mkpulu",
"-34.560358732240275"
],
[
"until the early 20th century, the most important scarlet pigment used in western art was vermilion, made from the mineral cinnabar. It was used, along with red lake pigments, by artists from Botticelli and Raphael to Renoir. However, in 1919 commercial production began of an intense new synthetic pigment, cadmium red. made from cadmium sulfide and selenium. The new pigment became the standard red of Henri Matisse and the other important painters of the 20th century.\nIn the 20th century, scarlet also became associated with Revolution. Red flags had first been used as revolutionary emblems, symbolizing the blood of",
"-34.52189910157176"
],
[
"of trye scarlet.\nIn the Middle Ages dark brown pigments were rarely used in art; painters and book illuminators artists of that period preferred bright, distinct colors such as red, blue and green, rather than dark colors. The umbers were not widely used in Europe before the end of the fifteenth century; The Renaissance painter and writer Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) described them as being rather new in his time.\nArtists began using far greater use of browns when oil painting arrived in the late fifteenth century. During the Renaissance, artists generally used four different browns; raw umber, the dark brown clay mined",
"-34.44115373434033"
],
[
"green pigment made with indigo and a mineral called Palygorskite. This blue/green color was highly valued because it was associated not only with jade, but with sacrifice to the gods as well. Spanish explorer Diego de Landa states in one of his accounts:\n\"...they had the custom of painting their faces and bodies red... they thought it very pleasing...the victim....having smeared him with blue... they brought him up to the round alter...\" \nThe evidence for body painting among the Mayan largely comes from various murals. One mural found in Bonampak, Chiapa shows a man being painted red from the neck down by a",
"-34.42574221835821"
],
[
"Today almost all blue clothing is dyed with an indanthrone blue. Impressionist painters The invention of new synthetic pigments in the 18th and 19th centuries considerably brightened and expanded the palette of painters. J. M. W. Turner experimented with the new cobalt blue, and of the twenty colours most used by the Impressionists, twelve were new and synthetic colours, including cobalt blue, ultramarine and cerulean blue.\nAnother important influence on painting in the 19th century was the theory of complementary colours, developed by the French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul in 1828 and published in 1839. He demonstrated that placing complementary colours,",
"-34.329154306797136"
],
[
"degraded into a greenish-black.\nThe introduction of oil painting changed the way colours looked and how they were used. Ultramarine pigment, for instance, was much darker when used in oil painting than when used in tempera painting, in frescoes. To balance their colours, Renaissance artists like Raphael added white to lighten the ultramarine. The sombre dark blue robe of the Virgin Mary became a brilliant sky blue. Titian created his rich blues by using many thin glazes of paint of different blues and violets which allowed the light to pass through, which made a complex and luminous colour,",
"-34.210190131969284"
],
[
"red, orange and yellow was unearthed. Although containers of pigments have been found previously at sites such as Skara Brae, this was the first discovery in Britain, and possibly in Northern Europe, of evidence that Neolithic peoples used paint to decorate their buildings. It is thought that the primitive paint could have been made from iron ore, mixed with animal fat, milk or eggs. Only a week later a stone with a zigzag chevron pattern painted with a red pigment was discovered nearby.\nMore recent excavations have revealed a large temple complex on the site without parallel in western Europe, with",
"-34.02318366020336"
],
[
"coccifera oaks native to the Near East, and the European side of the Mediterranean Basin. Kermes carmine was used as a dye and a laked pigment in ancient Egypt, Greece, Armenia and the Near East and is one of the oldest organic pigments. Recipes for artists' use of carmine appear in many early painting and alchemical handbooks throughout the Middle Ages; the laking process for both pigments was improved in the 19th century. Carmine was not light-fast and was largely abandoned in art.\nSpanish influence changed the way in which Aztecs used pigments, particularly in their manuscripts. For example, Cochineal was",
"-33.77032269362826"
],
[
"the same way. Renaissance During the Renaissance, yellow and red ochre pigments were widely used in painting panels and frescoes. The colours vary greatly from region to region, depending upon whether the local clay was richer in yellowish limonite or reddish hematite. The red earth from Pozzuoli near Naples was a salmon pink, while the pigment from Tuscany contained manganese, making it a darker reddish brown called terra di siena, or sienna earth.\n\nThe 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini described the uses of ochre pigments in his famous treatise on painting. \nThis pigment is found in the earth of mountains, where particular",
"-33.721059912466444"
],
[
"after red, ochre, pink and purple. This is probably due to the perennial difficulty of making good blue dyes and pigments. The earliest known blue dyes were made from plants – woad in Europe, indigo in Asia and Africa, while blue pigments were made from minerals, usually either lapis lazuli or azurite.\nLapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone, has been mined in Afghanistan for more than three thousand years, and was exported to all parts of the ancient world. In Iran and Mesopotamia, it was used to make jewellery and vessels. In Egypt, it was used for the eyebrows on the funeral",
"-33.685744285171495"
],
[
"a medium because of its tendency to dry very slowly, darken, and crack, unlike mastic and wax (the latter of which was used in encaustic painting).\nGreek writers such as Aetius Amidenus recorded recipes involving the use of oils for drying, such as walnut, poppy, hempseed, pine nut, castor, and linseed. When thickened, the oils became resinous and could be used as varnish to seal and protect paintings from water. Additionally, when yellow pigment was added to oil, it could be spread over tin foil as a less expensive alternative to gold leaf.\nEarly Christian monks maintained these records and used the",
"-33.65924051613547"
],
[
"rain, and sun take a toll, and often many layers of different paint exist. Historic paint analysis of old paint layers now allow a corresponding chemical recipe and color to be re-produced. But this is often only a beginning as many of the original materials are either unstable or in many cases environmentally unsound. Many eighteenth century greens were made with arsenic and lead, materials no longer allowed in paints. Another problem occurs when the original pigment came from a material no longer available. For example, in the early to mid-19th century, some browns were produced from bits of ground",
"-33.609027492348105"
],
[
"to a dark hue, depending on differential processing and composition.\nApart from Egypt, it has also been found in the Near East, the Eastern Mediterranean, and the limits of the Roman Empire. It is unclear whether the pigment's existence elsewhere was a result of parallel invention or evidence of the technology's spread from Egypt to those areas. History and background The ancient Egyptians held the color blue in very high regard and were eager to present it on many media and in a variety of forms. They also desired to imitate the semiprecious stones turquoise and lapis lazuli, which were valued",
"-33.51710735885172"
],
[
"1814 in Pompeii, illustrates. It was also found as unused pigment in the tombs of a number of painters. Etruscans also used it in their wall paintings. The related Chinese blue has been suggested as having Egyptian roots. Modern applications Egyptian blue’s extremely powerful and long-lived infrared luminescence under visible light has enabled its presence to be detected on objects which appear unpainted to the human eye. This property has also been used to identify traces of the pigment on paintings produced as late as the 16th century, long after its use was assumed to have died out. The luminescence,",
"-33.4492285180022"
],
[
"Origins Colors in the \"ruddy\" range of reds, browns, and oranges are the first attested colors in a number of ancient textile sites ranging from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age across the Levant, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Europe, followed by evidence of blues and then yellows, with green appearing somewhat later. The earliest surviving evidence of textile dyeing was found at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia, where traces of red dyes, possible from ochre (iron oxide pigments from clay), were found. Polychrome or multicolored fabrics seem to have been developed in the 3rd or",
"-33.43388557915296"
],
[
"pigment unavailable until about 1814. The particles of the chrome yellow are part of the normal layer of paint, meaning that it was not painted afterwards. Therefore, Tarnya Cooper, one of the curators of the Gallery, announced that the painting is a 19th-century forgery, dating from around 1818–1840.",
"-33.38004060066305"
],
[
"Together, they realized that the reaction had occurred because the potash had been contaminated with bone oil.\nWhile neither Diesbach nor Dippel knew what exactly happened chemically, they had inadvertently created the first modern synthetic pigment. This was an important invention, because at that time, the available blue pigments were either not very successful or were not affordable for large scale use.\nThe pigment was first mentioned in a letter, the first of several, from Frisch to the president of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, dated March 1708. By August 1709, the pigment was being referred to as \"Preussisch",
"-33.3376853527443"
],
[
"of black pigments made from charcoal or burnt animal bones, mixed with lead white or a white made of lime, which he warmed with a little red lake color from cochineal or madder. In one painting, the portrait of Margaretha de Geer (1661), one part of a grey wall in the background is painted with a layer of dark brown over a layer of orange, red, and yellow earths, mixed with ivory black and some lead white. Over this he put an additional layer of glaze made of mixture of blue smalt, red ochre, and yellow lake. Using these ingredients",
"-33.27434729368542"
],
[
"red and yellow dyes, and were often forbidden to dye any other colors than those of their own guild. Most purple fabric was made by the dyers who worked with red, and who used dye from madder or cochineal, so Medieval violet colors were inclined toward red.\nOrcein, or purple moss, was another common purple dye. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Hebrews, and was made from a Mediterranean lichen called archil or dyer's moss (Roccella tinctoria), combined with an ammoniac, usually urine. Orcein began to achieve popularity again in the 19th century, when violet and purple became",
"-33.182838561129756"
],
[
"colors, along with blue and yellow. Painters in the Renaissance mixed red and blue to make violet: Cennino Cennini, in his 15th-century manual on painting, wrote, \"If you want to make a lovely violet colour, take fine lac [red lake], ultramarine blue (the same amount of the one as of the other) with a binder\" he noted that it could also be made by mixing blue indigo and red hematite.\nIn modern color theory, also known as the RGB color model, red, green and blue are additive primary colors. Red, green and blue light combined together makes white light, and",
"-33.11081792839104"
],
[
"some first attempts at shaded painting can be observed, influenced probably by contemporaneous panel painting. Notable in this regard is the Group of the Huge Lekythoi, specialised in decorating large grave vessels. During the second half of the 5th century, white-ground vase painting was used nearly exclusively for grave lekythoi. When that vase type went out of use around 400 BC, white-ground vase painting also ceased.\nLater, during the Hellenistic period, various types of white-ground pottery occur in several locations of the Greek World, sometimes painted monochrome, sometimes polychrome. They include Hâdra vases, Canosa Vases and vases of the Centuripe type.",
"-33.05340328293096"
],
[
"malachite. Much azurite was mislabeled lapis lazuli, a term applied to many blue pigments. As chemical analysis of paintings from the Middle Ages improves, azurite is being recognized as a major source of the blues used by medieval painters. Lapis lazuli (the pigment ultramarine) was chiefly supplied from Afghanistan during the Middle Ages, whereas azurite was a common mineral in Europe at the time. Sizable deposits were found near Lyons, France. It was mined since the 12th century in Saxony, in the silver mines located there.\nHeating can be used to distinguish azurite from purified natural ultramarine blue, a more expensive",
"-32.824065463937586"
],
[
"the 17th century, when ultramarine was difficult to obtain. It was employed at times by Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, El Greco, Van Dyck, Rubens and Rembrandt. In the European Renaissance In the Renaissance, a revolution occurred in painting; artists began to paint the world as it was actually seen, with perspective, depth, shadows, and light from a single source. Artists had to adapt their use of blue to the new rules. In medieval paintings, blue was used to attract the attention of the viewer to the Virgin Mary, and identify her. In Renaissance paintings, artists tried to create harmonies between",
"-32.768895867637184"
],
[
"of white into the painting, therefore creating an easy transition between tones. In frescoes, mosaics, and manuscript illuminations, artists like Master Honore, a French manuscript painter, and Pietro, a painter and mosaic designer active in the Middle Ages, modelled from underneath with black and white space to create brightness in their works. In the end, Apollodorus' master creation after years of evolution transformed into something that, though it still resembled the original and served the same purpose, was new and thoroughly necessary to all great works of art.",
"-32.76617296452605"
],
[
"ivy) but, painted on to wood or metal, it hardened into a fine natural plastic, or lacquer surface. The pure sap was dark brown, but beginning in about the 3rd century BC, during the Han Dynasty, Chinese artisans colored it with powdered cinnabar or with red ochre (ferric oxide), giving it an orange-red color. Beginning in about the 8th century, Chinese chemists began making synthetic vermilion from mercury and sulfur, which reduced the price of the pigment and allowed the production of Chinese lacquerware on a larger scale.\nThe shade of red of the lacquerware has changed over",
"-32.737192939501256"
],
[
"paints of the manuscript have been analyzed using PLM, XRD, EDS, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The blue paint proved to be ground azurite with minor traces of the copper oxide cuprite. The clear paint is likely a mixture of eggwhite and calcium carbonate, while the green paint is tentatively characterized by copper and copper-chlorine resinate; the crystalline material might be atacamite or another copper-chlorine compound. Analysis of the red-brown paint indicated a red ochre with the crystal phases hematite and iron sulfide. Minor amounts of lead sulfide and palmierite were possibly present in the red-brown paint. The pigments were",
"-32.675457105731766"
],
[
"in the 1950s.\nBy the 1970s, because of the advent of psychedelic art, artists became used to brighter pigments, and pigments called \"Violet\" that are the pigment equivalent of the electric violet reproduced in the section above became available in artists pigments and colored pencils. (When approximating electric violet in artists pigments, a bit of white pigment is added to pigment violet.) Wrapping the spectrum into a color wheel If the visible spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, violet (additive secondary) appears midway between blue and magenta:",
"-32.623580306288204"
],
[
"Origins The pigment historically originated from mines at Falun, in the province of Dalarna. It was a side product of calcination of copper ore. Mixed with linseed oil and rye flour, it was found to form an excellent anti-weathering paint.\nThe earliest evidence of the use of falu red dates from the 16th century. During the 17th century, falu red was commonly used on smaller wooden mansions, where it was intended to imitate buildings with brick facing.\nIn Swedish cities and towns, wooden buildings were often painted with falu red, until the early 19th century, when authorities began to oppose use of",
"-32.48596416413784"
],
[
"its adoption by artists, notably Van Gogh, Monet (in his London series and other works) and Matisse (Bathers by a river 1916–1919). The presence of cadmium in paints has been used to detect forgeries in paintings alleged to have been produced prior to the 19th century. CdS-CdSe solutions CdS and CdSe form solid solutions. Increasing amounts of cadmium selenide, gives pigments verging toward red, for example CI pigment orange 20 and CI pigment red 108.\n Such solid solutions are components of photoresistors (light dependent resistors) sensitive to visible and near infrared light. Safety Cadmium sulfide is toxic, especially",
"-32.479791093443055"
],
[
"of glass which were painted, with yellows as the dominant colours, and relatively few smaller pieces of glass in other colours. Manuscripts and printmaking Illuminated manuscripts represent the most complete record of Gothic painting, providing a record of styles in places where no monumental works have otherwise survived. The earliest full manuscripts with French Gothic illustrations date to the middle of the 13th century. Many such illuminated manuscripts were royal bibles, although psalters also included illustrations; the Parisian Psalter of Saint Louis, dating from 1253 to 1270, features 78 full-page illuminations in tempera paint and gold leaf.\nDuring the late 13th",
"-32.47774519944505"
],
[
"colors were produced. Ancient history In Ancient Egypt, green was the symbol of regeneration and rebirth, and of the crops made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile. For painting on the walls of tombs or on papyrus, Egyptian artists used finely ground malachite, mined in the west Sinai and the eastern desert; a paintbox with malachite pigment was found inside the tomb of King Tutankhamun. They also used less expensive green earth pigment, or mixed yellow ochre and blue azurite. To dye fabrics green, they first colored them yellow with dye made from saffron and then soaked them",
"-32.45370016952802"
],
[
"by a new layer of tan, then another layer of pots. the heat created by the fermentation, acetic acid vapor and carbon dioxide within the stack did their work, and within a month the lead coils were covered with a crust of white lead. This crust was separated from the lead, washed and ground for pigment. This was an extremely dangerous process for the workmen. Medieval texts warned of the danger of \"apoplexy, epilepsy, and paralysis\" from working with lead white.\nDespite the risks, the pigment was very popular with artists because of its density and opacity; a",
"-32.43795274817967"
],
[
"layers of his paintings because it promoted faster drying. Rembrandt also began to use new brown pigment, called Cassel earth or Cologne earth. This was a natural earth color composed of over ninety percent organic matter, such as soil and peat. It was used by Rubens and Anthony van Dyck, and later became commonly known as Van Dyck brown. 19th and 20th century Brown was generally hated by the French impressionists, who preferred bright, pure colors. The exception among French 19th-century artists was Paul Gauguin, who created luminous brown portraits of the people and landscapes of French Polynesia.\nIn the late",
"-32.387835209519835"
],
[
"Blue History Blue has been an important colour in art and decoration since ancient times. The semi-precious stone lapis lazuli was used in ancient Egypt for jewellery and ornament and later, in the Renaissance, to make the pigment ultramarine, the most expensive of all pigments. In the eighth century Chinese artists used cobalt blue to colour fine blue and white porcelain. In the Middle Ages, European artists used it in the windows of cathedrals. Europeans wore clothing coloured with the vegetable dye woad until it was replaced by the finer indigo from America. In the 19th century, synthetic blue dyes",
"-32.30647264854633"
],
[
"and is painted by craftsmen's hands without using brushes.\nRaw lacquer can be \"coloured\" by the addition of small amounts of iron oxides, giving red or black depending on the oxide. There is some evidence that its use is even older than 8,000 years from archaeological digs in China. Later, pigments were added to make colours. It is used not only as a finish, but mixed with ground fired and unfired clays applied to a mould with layers of hemp cloth, it can produce objects without need for another core like wood. The process is called \"kanshitsu\" in Japan. Advanced decorative",
"-32.30015669768909"
],
[
"the composition have led to the assumption the painting was made with a lower layer of silver and gold leaf. The lower layers of the painting have a gold colour that was assumed to have been achieved with gold leaf. XRF analysis has shown only organic pigments mixed with a small amount of gold. The black in the painting has been assumed to be either silver leaf that has blackened from exposure to sulphur, or blue pigment that has blackened as the azurite in the pigment has come off. Again, XRF imaging has found only organic dyes.",
"-32.2802715728576"
],
[
"pigments of red ochre and five other colors. The Egyptians used the root of the rubia, or madder plant, to make a dye, later known as alizarin, and also used it as a pigment, which became known as madder lake, alizarin or alizarin crimson.\nIn Ancient China, artisans were making red and black painted pottery as early as the Yangshao Culture period (5000–3000 BC). A red-painted wooden bowl was found at a Neolithic site in Yuyao, Zhejiang. Other red-painted ceremonial objects have been found at other sites dating to the Spring and Autumn period (770–221 BC).\nDuring the Han dynasty (200 BC–200",
"-32.26206548697701"
],
[
"clay was crushed, washed to remove impurities, then powdered. It was sometimes called Green of Verona.\nMixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century.\nCobalt green, sometimes known as Rinman's green or zinc green, is a translucent green pigment made by heating a mixture of cobalt (II) oxide and zinc oxide. Sven Rinman, a Swedish chemist, discovered this compound in 1780. Green chrome oxide was a new synthetic green created by a chemist named Pannetier in Paris in about 1835. Emerald green was a synthetic deep green made in the 19th",
"-32.25638759933645"
],
[
"first time by the paint maker Diesbach in Berlin around 1706. Most historical sources do not mention a first name of Diesbach. Only Berger refers to him as Johann Jacob Diesbach. The pigment is believed to have been accidentally created when Diesbach used potash tainted with blood to create some red cochineal dye. The original dye required potash, ferric sulfate, and dried cochineal. Instead, the blood, potash, and iron sulfate reacted to create a compound known as iron ferrocyanide, which, unlike the desired red pigment, has a very distinct blue hue. It was named Preußisch blau and Berlinisch Blau in",
"-32.23915323908295"
],
[
"inhaled, or contacted. History The origin of lead-tin-yellow can be dated back to at least the thirteenth century when Type II was applied in frescos, perhaps having been discovered as a by-product of crystal glass production. Until the eighteenth century, Type I was the standard yellow used in oil painting.\nLead-tin-yellow was widely employed in the Renaissance by painters such as Titian (Bacchus and Ariadne), Bellini (The Feast of the Gods) and Raphael (Sistine Madonna), and during the Baroque period by Rembrandt (Belshazzar's Feast), Vermeer (The Milkmaid), and Velázquez (Apollo in the Forge of Vulcan).\nBy the eighteenth century, lead-tin yellow was",
"-32.14143915823661"
],
[
"researchers at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, who researched a pigment used by the ancient Egyptians known as \"Egyptian blue.\" This color, derived from calcium copper silicate, absorbs visible light, and emits light in the near-infrared range, helping keep roofs and walls cool.",
"-32.1052737031132"
],
[
"arsine gas. Paris green may have also been used in wallpaper to some extent and may have also degraded similarly. Both pigments were once used in printing ink formulations.\nThe ancient Romans used one of them, possibly conichalcite, as a green pigment. The Paris green paint used by the Impressionists is said to have been composed of relatively coarse particles. Later, the chemical was produced with increasingly small grinds and without carefully removing impurities; its permanence suffered. It is likely that it was ground more finely for use in watercolors and inks, too.",
"-32.061055309837684"
],
[
"is the extensive use of blue pigments, including the precious ultramarine pigment derived from lapis lazuli from Afghanistan. In the classification of the art of the region by Ernst Waldschmidt, there are three distinct periods: the murals from the first phase are characterized by the use of reddish pigments, while those from the second phase used bluish pigments in abundance. The earlier paintings reflect more Greco-Indian or Gandharan influences, while the second ones show Iranian (Sassanian) influences. Later caves seem to have fewer legends and/or jatakas, being replaced by the repetitive designs of numerous small Buddhas (the",
"-32.05038329359377"
],
[
"with black pigment.\nIn the second half of the 19th century, the Impressionists rebelled against the use of umber and other earth colors. Camille Pissarro denounced the \"old, dull earth colors\" and said he had banned them from his palette. The impressionists chose to make their own browns from mixtures of red, yellow, green, blue and other pigments, particularly the new synthetic pigments such as cobalt blue and emerald green that had just been introduced.\nIn the 20th century, natural umber pigments began to be replaced by pigments made with synthetic iron oxide and manganese oxide. Natural umber pigments are still being",
"-32.043006683306885"
],
[
"blue and red, lightening the blue with lead white paint and adding shadows and highlights. Raphael was a master of this technique, carefully balancing the reds and the blues so no one colour dominated the picture.\nUltramarine was the most prestigious blue of the Renaissance, and patrons sometimes specified that it be used in paintings they commissioned. The contract for the Madone des Harpies by Andrea del Sarto (1514) required that the robe of the Virgin Mary be coloured with ultramarine costing \"at least five good florins an ounce.\" Good ultramarine was more expensive than gold; in 1508 the German painter",
"-32.0370506460049"
],
[
"pigments have as a result lost their brightness, most notably the red of Christ's robe, which has turned pink.\nNo doubt because it soon left Rome for the artistic backwater of Narbonne, the earliest print of the painting was remarkably late, in an illustrated account of the Orleans Collection, published in 1786 on the eve of its dispersal. This was by R. De Launay, and in reverse.\nThe painting was sold in 1792, included in a block purchase of the Orleans Collection. It came to London in 1793 and was eventually acquired by the English consortium set up to disperse",
"-32.014883872892824"
],
[
"until the 19th century. However, its extreme toxicity and incompatibility with other common pigments, including lead and copper-based substances such as verdigris and azurite, meant that its use as a pigment ended when cadmium yellows, chromium yellows and organic dye-based colors were introduced during the 19th century.\nOrpiment is mentioned in the 17th century by Robert Hooke in Micrographia for the manufacture of small shot. Contemporary uses Orpiment is used in the production of infrared-transmitting glass, oil cloth, linoleum, semiconductors, photoconductors, pigments, and fireworks. Mixed with two parts of slaked lime, orpiment is still commonly used in rural India as",
"-32.01477415507543"
],
[
"emerged as a significant art form with an extensive church building in Albania. They covered sacred building interior walls, floors and domes increased and expanded in size and importance. The use of gold and bright colors was important indeed each color had its own value and meaning. In addition, colors were never mixed together but were always used pure.\nThe earliest icons of Albania date from the thirteenth century and generally estimated that their artistic peak reached in the eighteenth century. No paintings before the thirteenth century, produced by Albanians, have been located to date. Nonetheless few older structures in the",
"-32.01384404723649"
],
[
"to at least 28,000 years ago.\nOne of the oldest paintings is a picture of a zebra, found at the Apollo cave in Namibia.\nIn the renaissance, Charcoal was widely used, but few works of art survived due to charcoal particles flaking off the canvas. At the end of the 15th century, a process of submerging the drawings in a gum bath was implemented to prevent the charcoal from flaking away. Charcoal paintings date as far back as ca.23,000 BC. Since then, many cultures have utilized charcoal for art, camouflage, and in rites of passage. Many indigenous people from Australia, parts",
"-32.00304330518702"
],
[
"almost completely replaced in use by Naples yellow. After 1750, no paintings seem to have been made containing the pigment, and its existence was eventually forgotten for reasons that are not entirely clear. Lead-tin yellow was rediscovered in 1941 by the German scientist Richard Jakobi, then-director of the Doerner Institute. Jakobi called it Blei-Zinn-Gelb; the English \"lead-tin yellow\" is a literal translation of the German term. \nAfter 1967, Hermann Kühn in a series of studies proved its general use in the traditional oil technique of earlier centuries, coining the distinction between the Type I and Type II varieties. Theories about",
"-31.992193587939255"
],
[
"colors for backgrounds.\nDuring the early Renaissance, painters such as Duccio di Buoninsegna learned to paint faces first with a green undercoat, then with pink, which gave the faces a more realistic hue. Over the centuries the pink has faded, making some of the faces look green. In the 18th and 19th century The 18th and 19th centuries brought the discovery and production of synthetic green pigments and dyes, which rapidly replaced the earlier mineral and vegetable pigments and dyes. These new dyes were more stable and brilliant than the vegetable dyes, but some contained high levels of arsenic, and were",
"-31.949802474700846"
],
[
"Blacklight paint History The invention of black light paint is attributed to brothers Joseph and Robert Switzer in the 1930s. After a fall, Robert suffered a severe head injury that resulted in a severed optic nerve. His doctor confined him to a dark room while he waited for his sight to recover. Joseph, who was a chemistry major at the University of California, Berkeley, worked with Robert to investigate fluorescent compounds. They brought a black light into the storeroom of their father's drugstore looking for naturally fluorescing organic compounds and mixed those compounds with shellac to develop the first black",
"-31.944102570501855"
],
[
"Umber History Umber was one of the first pigments used by humans; it is found along with carbon black, red and yellow ocher in cave paintings from the Neolithic period.\nDark brown pigments were rarely used in Medieval art; artists of that period preferred bright, distinct colors such as red, blue and green. The umbers were not widely used in Europe before the end of the fifteenth century; the Renaissance painter and writer Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) described them as being rather new in his time.\nThe great age of umber was the baroque period, where it often provided the dark shades",
"-31.91588548832806"
],
[
"juice of nettles and of leeks, the digitalis plant, the broom plant, the leaves of the fraxinus, or ash tree, and the bark of the alder tree, but they rapidly faded or changed color. Only in the 16th century was a good green dye produced, by first dyeing the cloth blue with woad, and then yellow with Reseda luteola, also known as yellow-weed.\nThe pigments available to painters were more varied; monks in monasteries used verdigris, made by soaking copper in fermenting wine, to color medieval manuscripts. They also used finely-ground malachite, which made a luminous green. They used green earth",
"-31.899708976852708"
],
[
"quality of these paintings have been corroborated by the study of the pigments, which are of better quality and preparation than in other Catalan churches. Some imported pigments have even been found.\nThrough the use of superimposed layers, the painter obtains more intense chromatic effects. Thus blue, obtained from aerinite, is applied over a layer of black, and cinnabar is applied over haematite to get red.\nPainted on one of the columns of the nave is the church’s inscription of consecration by bishop Ramon de Roda from Ribagorza on 10 December 1123. This reference is fundamental for dating the paintings, of which",
"-31.849423801977537"
],
[
"and magenta dye (1859) The color magenta was the result of the industrial chemistry revolution of the mid-nineteenth century, which began with the invention by William Perkin of mauveine in 1856, which was the first synthetic aniline dye. The enormous commercial success of the dye and the new color it produced, mauve, inspired other chemists in Europe to develop new colors made from aniline dyes.\nIn France, François-Emmanuel Verguin, the director of the chemical factory of Louis Rafard near Lyon, tried many different formulae before finally in late 1858 or early 1859, mixing aniline with carbon tetrachloride, producing a reddish-purple dye",
"-31.830772025045007"
],
[
"in traditional Chinese paintings, which are usually black ink on white paper with a little green sometimes added for trees or plants; but the round or square seals which contain the name of the artist are traditionally red. In the 16th and 17th centuries In Renaissance painting, red was used to draw the attention of the viewer; it was often used as the color of the cloak or costume of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or another central figure. In Venice, Titian was the master of fine reds, particularly vermilion; he used many layers of pigment mixed with a semi-transparent glaze,",
"-31.804251963389106"
],
[
"same copper ingredients as Egyptian blue pigment. They also added cobalt, which produced a deeper blue, the same blue produced in the Middle Ages in the stained glass windows of the cathedrals of Saint-Denis and Chartres. The Ishtar Gate of ancient Babylon (604–562 BC) was decorated with deep blue glazed bricks used as a background for pictures of lions, dragons and aurochs.\nThe ancient Greeks classified colours by whether they were light or dark, rather than by their hue. The Greek word for dark blue, kyaneos, could also mean dark green, violet, black or brown. The ancient Greek word for a",
"-31.788589325995417"
],
[
"the last main category of colour accepted in a language – adding the colour blue, probably when blue pigments could be manufactured reliably in the culture using that language. Pigments and dyes Blue pigments were made from minerals, especially lapis lazuli and azurite (Cu\n₃(CO\n₃)\n₂(OH)\n₂). These minerals were crushed, ground into powder, and then mixed with a quick-drying binding agent, such as egg yolk (tempera painting); or with a slow-drying oil, such as linseed oil, for oil painting. To make blue stained glass, cobalt blue (cobalt(II) aluminate: CoAl\n₂O\n₄)pigment was mixed with the glass. Other common blue pigments made from minerals",
"-31.624584391131975"
],
[
"in the late thirteenth century, the colours were reversed, and the red lily (or red giglio,) on a field of white became the symbol of Florence.\nDuring the Middle Ages and the Renaissance period, ‘Iris green' (or 'Verdelis' and 'Vert d'iris'), was a rare, paint pigment colour used by manuscript illuminators and painters. It was made from the juice of the fresh flowers of Iris florentine and/or Iris germanica. The bluish or purplish petal juice was steeped (soaked) in boiling water, then combined and thickened with alum. It then produces a clear green paint. It was used in the 14th and",
"-31.61499451068812"
],
[
"arguably some of the earliest examples of monochrome painting: for instance his plain white sheet of Bristol paper Première communion de jeunes filles chlorotiques par un temps de neige (First Communion of Anemic Young Girls In The Snow) (1883), and a similar red work Apoplectic Cardinals Harvesting Tomatoes on the Shore of the Red Sea (Aurora Borealis Effect) (1884). Allais published his Album primo-avrilesque in 1897, a monograph with seven monochrome artworks, accompanied by the score of his silent funeral march. (Bilhaud was not the first to create an all-black artwork: for example, Robert Fludd published an image of",
"-31.60990258754464"
],
[
"egg tempera. Curtains or glass were often used to protect glue-sized works.\nThe colours would have first appeared bright and crisp, but over five-and-a-half centuries the painting has acquired layers of grey dirt which darken the tone and render the colours faint and pallid. Normally these layers of dirt would be removed by restorers, but given the delicate and fragile nature of a work painted in a water-soluble medium, it is impossible to do so without removing large amounts of pigment. The colours as they appear today have faded from their original hues. The Virgin's mantle is now brown but would",
"-31.60902732994873"
],
[
"the light of the sky as it was reflected onto surfaces.\nImpressionists generally used vivid colors, with often thick application of paint, and real-life subject matter. The new technology of premixed paints in tin tubes aided the development of this style. Previously, painters had made their own paints by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil. \nIn the 1860s, many vivid synthetic pigments became commercially available such as cobalt blue, viridian, cadmium yellow and synthetic ultramarine blue, as well as even newer colors such as cerulean blue.\nAs a result, the Impressionists soon moved toward a brighter style of painting.",
"-31.60877831862308"
],
[
"pigments used by medieval painters, such as cinnabar (contains mercury), orpiment (contains arsenic), or lead white (contains lead) are highly toxic. Most artists today use modern synthetic pigments, which are less toxic but have similar color properties to the older pigments. Even so, many (if not most) modern pigments are still dangerous unless certain precautions are taken; these include keeping pigments wet in storage to avoid breathing their dust. Application Tempera paint dries rapidly. It is normally applied in thin, semi-opaque or transparent layers. Tempera painting allows for great precision when used with traditional techniques that require the application of",
"-31.569831510743825"
],
[
"guarded the formula. Cloth dyed scarlet cost as much as ten times more cloth dyed with blue. 16th to 19th century In the Assumption, by Titian (1516-1518), the figures of God, the Virgin Mary and two apostles are highlighted by their scarlet costumes, painted with vermilion pigment from Venice. The young Queen Elizabeth I (here in about 1563) liked to wear bright reds, before she adopted the more sober image of the Virgin Queen. Her satin gown was probably dyed with kermes. In the 16th century, an even more vivid scarlet began to arrive in Europe from the New World.",
"-31.547330056142528"
],
[
"to the impressionist movement.\nOrange became an important colour for all the impressionist painters. They all had studied the recent books on colour theory, and they know that orange placed next to azure blue made both colours much brighter. Auguste Renoir painted boats with stripes of chrome orange paint straight from the tube. Paul Cézanne did not use orange pigment, but created his own oranges with touches of yellow, red and ochre against a blue background. Toulouse-Lautrec often used oranges in the skirts of dancers and gowns of Parisiennes in the cafes and clubs he portrayed. For him it was the",
"-31.538969055196503"
],
[
"indigo pigment for producing fine greys. Those watercolours where the pigment was used have deteriorated because the pigment fades to red in the light. This unfortunate reddening characteristic of his paintings cannot be applied to them all, but it is sometimes assumed that Thirtle's works are all permanently ruined in this way. Equally, the use of indigo by other painters has meant that their works were in the past sometimes incorrectly attributed to John Thirtle.\nAn example of such a work is his River Scene with laden Wherries and Figures, an undated pencil and watercolour, in which the pink glow of",
"-31.538066033870564"
],
[
"important artists, including J.M.W. Turner.\nAt about the same time that Goethe was publishing his theory, a British physicist, doctor and Egyptologist, Thomas Young (1773–1829), showed by experiments that it was not necessary to use all the colors of spectrum to create white light; it could be done by combining the light of just three colors; red, green, and blue. This discovery was the foundation of additive colors, and of the RGB color model. He showed that it was possible to create magenta by combining red and blue light; to create yellow by mixing red and green light; and to create",
"-31.50987749916385"
],
[
"in artists' paints by (among others) the English painter W. Turner, Impressionists such as Monet and Renoir, and Post-Impressionists such as Gauguin, Cézanne, and Van Gogh. Related pigments Similar natural compounds are the minerals chalcophyllite Cu\n₁₈Al\n₂(AsO\n₄)\n₃(SO\n₄)\n₃(OH)\n₂₇·36H\n₂O, conichalcite CaCu(AsO\n₄)(OH), cornubite Cu\n₅(AsO\n₄)\n₂(OH)\n₄·H\n₂O, cornwallite Cu\n₅(AsO\n₄)\n₂(OH)\n₄·H\n₂O, and liroconite Cu\n₂Al(AsO\n₄)(OH)\n₄·4H\n₂O. These vivid minerals range from greenish blue to slightly yellowish green.\nScheele's green is a chemically simpler, less brilliant, and less permanent, synthetic copper-arsenic pigment used for a rather short time before Paris green was first prepared, which was approximately 1814. It was popular as a wallpaper pigment and would degrade, with moisture and molds, to",
"-31.480997378930624"
],
[
"same pigments as artists' paints, many of which are toxic. For example, exposure to cadmium pigments, which are common and popular bright yellows, oranges, and reds, can lead to cadmium poisoning. Pastel artists, who use the pigments without a strong painting binder, are especially susceptible to such poisoning. For this reason, many modern pastels are made using substitutions for cadmium, chromium, and other toxic pigments, while retaining the traditional pigment names. Pastel art in art history The manufacture of pastels originated in the 15th century. The pastel medium was mentioned by Leonardo da Vinci, who learned of it from the",
"-31.47030520021508"
],
[
"dark medium with white highlighting.\nThe underlying principle is that solidity of form is best achieved by the light falling against it. Artists known for developing the technique include Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio and Rembrandt. It is a mainstay of black and white and low-key photography. It is one of the modes of painting colour in Renaissance art (alongside cangiante, sfumato and unione). Artists well-known for their use of chiaroscuro include Rembrandt, Caravaggio, Vermeer, and Goya. Origin in the chiaroscuro drawing The term chiaroscuro originated during the Renaissance as drawing on coloured paper, where the artist worked from the paper's base",
"-31.417118240635318"
],
[
"ink on purple parchment for its most lavish manuscripts. The gold ink was created by grinding gold and suspending it in a solution. The surrounding decoration of the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Cordoba is similar to and might have been the model for the Blue Qur'an's design. Contemporaneous manuscripts were often written on dyed parchment, particularly saffron-colored parchment, a holdover from the pre-Islamic time. Though the method by which the Blue Qur'an was dyed remains unknown, Ibn Badis related the two contemporaneous methods of dying: dip-dying after the parchment was smoothed, or adding dye during the parchment production",
"-31.39543556678109"
],
[
"Tyrian purple Background Tyrian purple may first have been used by the ancient Phoenicians as early as 1570 BC. It has been suggested that the name Phoenicia itself means 'land of purple'. The dye was greatly prized in antiquity because the colour did not easily fade, but instead became brighter with weathering and sunlight. It came in various shades, the most prized being that of black-tinted clotted blood.\nBecause it was extremely difficult to make, Tyrian purple was expensive: the 4th century BCE historian Theopompus reported, \"Purple for dyes fetched its weight in silver at Colophon\" in Asia Minor. The expense meant that purple-dyed",
"-31.386429228121415"
],
[
"and European techniques sometimes known as Arte Indocristiano. After that, the techniques for its production were lost in Mexico, but in Cuba there are examples from as late as 1830. Resistance to weathering Despite time and the harsh weathering conditions, paintings coloured by Maya blue have not faded over time. The color has resisted chemical solvents and acids such as nitric acid. Its resistance against chemical aggression (acids, alkalis, solvents, etc.) and biodegradation was tested, and it was shown that Maya blue is an extremely resistant pigment, but it can be destroyed using very intense acid treatment under reflux. Research",
"-31.35911804367788"
],
[
"normally only received porcelain via the Islamic world.\nThe blue pigment was derived from cobalt oxide, which had been imported sporadically from Persia in earlier periods. From the 14th century regular imports of the pigment were obtained from Persia. The cobalt was ground and mixed with a medium, then painted onto the dried bodies of the pots, which were then glazed and fired. At a later date a source of cobalt was found within China; this differed from the Persian ore in the proportion of associated manganese. The colour on the fired pots was a grey-blue rather than a pure blue.",
"-31.33834390132688"
],
[
"use of the technique in several areas in the late 11th century, just as the Romanesque style matured. The immediate source of the style remains obscure; various exotic origins have been suggested, but the great expansion in the use of stained glass at the same period is probably connected. Copper or bronze bases were normally used, which were soft and easy to work, as well as relatively cheap, but as they discoloured in heat opaque enamels needed to be used. Blue was now the dominant colour, as in stained glass; the best blues in painting (whether on wall, panel or",
"-31.329356014495715"
],
[
"also evidence that finely powdered minerals, possibly volcanic ash, were used in some grounds.\nSome violins made in the late 18th century used oxen's blood to create a very deep-red coloration. Today this varnish would have faded and currently be a very warm, dark orange. Resin Most resin or \"gum\" varnishes consist of a natural, plant- or insect-derived substance dissolved in a solvent, called spirit varnish or solvent varnish. The solvent may be alcohol, turpentine, or petroleum-based. Some resins are soluble in both alcohol and turpentine. Generally, petroleum solvents, i.e. mineral spirits or paint thinner, can substitute for turpentine. The resins",
"-31.31776332229856"
],
[
"the inside was painted in red. Paints were mostly made with mineral pigments and on rare occasions with plant-based pigments; they were mixed and with bodily fluids such as blood plasma or nasal mucus as a binding agent. In his journal recordings from a Russian scientific expedition, German naturalist Carl Heinrich Merck stated that colours such as black were obtained from mainland Alaska; while white was found near volcanic vents or through trade; green, red, and yellow were produced with the ochre clay found in pond water. Blue was created by mixing together green and black.\nPainted designs included horizontal bands",
"-31.31425655251951"
],
[
"painting techniques, considered oak to be the most useful wooden substrate on which to paint. However, exceptions are seen rather early in the seventeenth century: sometimes walnut, pearwood, cedarwood, or Indian woods were used. Mahogany was already in use by a number of painters during the first decades of the seventeenth century and was used often in the Netherlands in the nineteenth century. Even so, when canvas or copper was not used, the main oeuvre of the northern school was painted on oak panels.",
"-31.309195585228736"
],
[
"lapis lazuli, which was a highly prized stone. Later, a cobalt blue glaze became popular in Islamic pottery during the Abbasid Caliphate, during which time the cobalt was mined near Kashan, Oman, and Northern Hejaz. Tang and Song blue-and-white The first Chinese blue and white wares were produced as early as the first century in Henan province, China during the Tang Dynasty, although only shards have been discovered. Tang period blue-and-white is more rare than Song blue-and-white and was unknown before 1985. The Tang pieces are not porcelain however, but rather earthenwares with greenish white slip, using cobalt blue pigments.",
"-31.305018405546434"
],
[
"Indian yellow History Indian yellow was widely used in Indian art, cloth dyeing and other products. It was noted for its intense luminance and was especially well known from its use in Rajput-Mughal miniature paintings from the 16th to the 19th century. It may have also been used in some wall paintings. The pigment was imported into Europe and its use is known from some artists including Jan Vermeer who is thought to have used Indian yellow in his A woman weighing gold (1662-1663). Indian yellow pigment is claimed to have been originally manufactured in rural India from the",
"-31.303818900196347"
],
[
"with the time when bronze became widely available in ancient Egypt. Occurrences outside of Egypt Egyptian blue was found in Western Asia during the middle of third millennium BC in the form of small artifacts and inlays, but not as a pigment. It was found in the Mediterranean area at the end of the Middle Bronze age, and traces of tin were found in its composition suggesting the use of bronze scrap instead of copper ore as the source of copper. During the Roman period, use of Egyptian blue was extensive, as a pot containing the unused pigment, found in",
"-31.298897982749622"
],
[
"Minium (pigment) Minium, also known as red lead, is a bright orange red pigment that was widely used in the Middle Ages for the decoration of manuscripts and for painting. It was made by roasting white lead pigment in the air; the white lead would gradually turn yellow, then into an orange lead tetroxide. The color varied depending upon how long the mineral was roasted.\nDuring the Roman Empire, the term minium could refer either to the pigment made from ground cinnabar or to the less expensive red lead. The name came from the river Minius in",
"-31.253323762095533"
],
[
"The vibrant colours, still evident today, were produced from dye plants: weld (yellow), madder (red), and woad (blue). \nFirst recorded in 1680 in the Paris home of the de la Rochefoucauld family, the tapestries were looted at the French Revolution. Rediscovered in a barn in the 1850s, they were hung at the family's Château de Verteuil. Since then they have been the subject of intense scholarly debate about the meaning of their iconography, the identity of the artists who designed them, and the sequence in which they were meant to be hung. Although various theories have been put forward, as",
"-31.23497401594068"
],
[
"contrast of cobalt blue water and an orange sun in Canotage sur la Seine (1879–1880). Both Monet and Renoir liked to use pure colours, without any blending.\nMonet and the impressionists were among the first to observe that shadows were full of colour. In his La Gare Saint-Lazare, the grey smoke, vapour and dark shadows are actually composed of mixtures of bright pigment, including cobalt blue, cerulean blue, synthetic ultramarine, emerald green, Guillet green, chrome yellow, vermilion and ecarlate red. Blue was a favourite colour of the impressionist painters, who used it not just to depict nature but to create moods,",
"-31.186609437601874"
],
[
"stable brown copper oxide. \nThis degradation is to blame for the brown or bronze color of grass or foliage in many old paintings, although not typically those of the Early Netherlandish painters such as Jan van Eyck, who often used normal verdigris. In addition, verdigris is a fickle pigment requiring special preparation of paint, careful layered application and immediate sealing with varnish to avoid rapid discoloration (but not in the case of oil paint). Verdigris has the curious property in oil painting that it is initially bluish-green, but turns a rich foliage green over the course of about a month.",
"-31.169538221562107"
],
[
"Eastern Europe to Cuba to Vietnam.\nIn the late 19th and early 20th century, the German chemical industry invented two new synthetic red pigments: cadmium red, which was the color of natural vermilion, and mars red, which was a synthetic red ochre, the color of the very first natural red pigment.\nThe French painter Henri Matisse (1869–1954) was one of the first prominent painters to use the new cadmium red. He even tried, without success, to persuade the older and more traditional Renoir, his neighbor in the south of France, to switch from vermilion to cadmium red.\nMatisse was also one of the",
"-31.162413461963297"
],
[
"was one of the first colors used in art. The Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. Paleolithic artists used calcite or chalk, sometimes as a background, sometimes as a highlight, along with charcoal and red and yellow ochre in their vivid cave paintings.\nIn ancient Egypt, white was connected with the goddess Isis. The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen, and it was used to wrap mummies.\nIn Greece and other ancient civilizations, white was often associated with mother's milk. In Greek mythology,",
"-31.153145247735665"
],
[
"up the beginnings of the Royal Academy of Art, The Hague, and began to make their own paint according to the traditional recipes that had been kept since their establishment. During the 1700s, manufacturers of the painters’ confraternity began to experiment with new color mixtures. As the paint makers continued to improve their recipes, well-known artists of the time, most famously Rembrandt, continued to buy their colors from the confraternity.\nIn 1870, artist Willem Roelofs took over the manufacturing of paint out of the school, collecting the knowledge regarding pigments and paint recipes that the Guild of Saint Luke had passed",
"-31.135169821965974"
],
[
"Watercolor painting History Watercolor painting is extremely old, dating perhaps to the cave paintings of paleolithic Europe, and has been used for manuscript illustration since at least Egyptian times but especially in the European Middle Ages. However, its continuous history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, and landscape watercolors, is generally considered among the earliest exponents of watercolor. An important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol (1534–1593) as part of the Dürer Renaissance.\nDespite this early start, watercolors were generally",
"-31.123843302601017"
],
[
"be seen, and included the same pinks, apple greens, oranges, yellows and pale blues that were employed by Michelangelo's teacher, Domenico Ghirlandaio, one of the most competent fresco painters of the Renaissance.\nThe brilliant palette ought to have been expected by the restorers as the same range of colours appears in the works of Giotto, Masaccio and Masolino, Fra Angelico and Piero della Francesca, as well as Ghirlandaio himself and later fresco painters such as Annibale Carracci and Tiepolo. The reason for employing this range of colours is that many other pigments are not usable in fresco as they have chemical",
"-31.1104093536851"
],
[
"proven unstable over long periods of time; the appearance of many old paintings today is very different from the original. Modern pigments often use synthetic chemicals. The pigment is mixed with oil, usually linseed, but other oils may be used. The various oils dry differently, which creates assorted effects.\nTraditionally, artists mixed their own paints from raw pigments that they often ground themselves and medium. This made portability difficult and kept most painting activities confined to the studio. This changed in the 1800s, when tubes of oil paint became widely available following the American portrait painter John Goffe Rand's invention of",
"-31.097562467999524"
],
[
"ZnO. In 1845, LeClaire in Paris was producing the oil paint on a large scale, and by 1850, zinc white was being manufactured throughout Europe. The success of zinc white paint was due to its advantages over the traditional white lead: zinc white is essentially permanent in sunlight, it is not blackened by sulfur-bearing air, it is non-toxic and more economical. Because zinc white is so \"clean\" it is valuable for making tints with other colors, but it makes a rather brittle dry film when unmixed with other colors. For example, during the late 1890s and early 1900s, some artists",
"-31.092097074812045"
],
[
"disappearance One prominent theory for its disappearance from collective memory is confusion with other yellow pigments like massicot. Lead-tin yellow was sometimes called massicot, although it is a different substance. Prior to the development of modern analytical tools allowing for microscopic testing of paint, it was not always possible for art historians to distinguish between similar pigments, meaning that most yellow pigment containing lead was generally labeled Naples yellow.\nIncreased use of other pigments such as the less-opaque Naples yellow may also have displaced lead-tin yellow in common use. During the nineteenth century, after lead-tin yellow had vanished from common use,",
"-31.081998137378832"
],
[
"Turkestan, and was also known as “Mohammedan blue”, an underglaze brown iron oxide pigment was also used between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries.",
"-31.08139888907317"
]
] |
222qwm | Why do pain killers such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen help with fevers as well? | [
"Don't know what the second one is but can answer for ibuprofen. It belongs to a class of drugs knows as nonsteroidal anti-inflammitory drugs(NSAIDS). Basically inflammation is your body ramping things up to deal with a situation. This involves the release of chemicals that cause inflammation, which(among other things) create pain through direct contact with nerves. They also create fever through a number of mechanisms that basically serves to create a hot hostile environment for what ever is invading your body and increase blood flow to the affected area. NSAIDS work by reducing the amount of these inflammatory chemicals being released in the first place.",
"Interestingly it is argued that the use of antiinflammatory and antipyretic drugs should perhaps be avoided with mild fevers and colds as you're counteracting some of the responses needed to effectively clear the infection!",
"Acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and some other common over-the-counter drugs are \"non-opiod analgesics\" (EDIT: also called NSAIDs, as someone else in the thread mentioned). They work by inhibiting certain mechanisms in the body, including the ones that cause inflammation. Basically, your cells can produce a lipid (fatty) compound called prostaglandin. It's part of your body's immune/pathogenic response, or how your body reacts to an infection, presence of a foreign body, or trauma. It encourages functions that help your body fight off pathogens and begin to heal. \"Inhibitors\" work in a particular way. Essentially, your cells have what are called receptor sites where certain chemicals and compounds can \"connect\" to the cell, if you will. Inhibitors work by taking up some of those spots so there's less room for whatever chemical you're trying to prevent from affecting the cell. Imagine that for whatever reason you want to keep a particular group of people off of a bus. You could try to get other people to fill in all of the seats first. Not a perfect analogy, but I think it sort of helps. Prostaglandin causes inflammation and an increase in temperature, i.e. a fever. Fever, swelling, redness, and pain are all generally interconnected as part of your immune response. To a certain degree, stop the prostaglandin, stop the fever. Prostaglandin also has many other functions, including controlling smooth muscle structures in your body, like blood vessels and the intestines, which is why people who fear they are having a heart attack or are having chest pain will often chew a few \"baby Aspirin.\" It causes widening of the arteries which can help resolve issues with blood supply to the heart muscle. Ultimately, the prostaglandin is one of the common factors in the fever, headache, and sore throat you might be experiencing. Acetominophen and ibuprofen can't stop it from being generated really, but it keeps that stuff from getting where it needs to be to cause a fever, etc. I hope this was helpful, I'm really weak when it comes to pharmacology but I've always found it interesting. Feel free to correct me.",
"NSAIDs such as ibuprofen (acetaminophen/paracetamol is not a NSAID) reduce inflammation and reduce pain by inhibiting the action of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). The COX-1 enzyme is responsible for the protection of the stomach mucosa from its own acids. The COX-2 enzyme is responsible for the prostaglandin synthesis. Prostaglandins act as messenger molecules in the inflammation pathway -- one of the symptoms of inflammation happens to be fever, thus by reducing the amount of prostaglandins the inflammation response reduces, reducing the fever. Some NSAID drugs non-selectively inhibit the COX enzyme, meaning that it inhibits COX-1 and COX-2, which is why it is recommended that these are taken with food, as food reduces the effects of the acid on your stomach mucosa. This also explains why your stomach might hurt after you take one of these drugs without food/water. Drugs, such as Celecoxib, selectively inhibit COX-2, reducing this gastric distress. Acetaminophen/paracetamol is not considered a NSAID because, although it does inhibit COX-2, it only does so in the central nervous system, only blocking the pain, and not the localized inflammation. TL;DR -- NSAID painkillers inhibit an enzyme necessary for an inflammatory response, thereby reducing fever with it. Edit: Spelling",
"I must say, what everyone told you here is true. But ibuprofen just doesn't have the same antipyretic (fever reducing) effect that Paracetamol (acetaminophen) does. Paracetamol is theorized to also work in the hypothalamus in your brain to change what the body temperature should be (this is a theory). Ibuprofen, while reducing mediators such as prostaglandins, doesn't have a direct effect on your temperature because \"only\" IL-1 and IL-6 (interleukin 1 and 6) work in your brain causing you to have a fever. Prostaglandins can activate your white blood cells to produce these Interleukins and so ibuprofen may indirectly reduce your fever but that is not what it was meant to do. It also cannot do it as well as acetaminophen. How acetaminophen works....is still a mystery.",
"When a part of your body is inflamed, that is, when there is anything illiciting an immune reaction(Bacteria, injury etc). Five basic things happen. In medicine these are called Dolor(pain) Calor(heat) Rubor(redness) Tumor(swelling) Function laesa(loss of function) This may be very localized or more systemic, depending on your illness. What drugs like Ibuprofen and Acetaminophen(paracetamol) do, is to inhibit the mediators of these inflammatory responses, thereby reducing the pain, swelling, redness etc. More specifically, they inhibit something called cyclooxygenases in your body (COX-1 and COX-2), which are vital to the synthesis of prostaglandins. Prostaglandins, amongst many other things, are responsible for raising your body temperature when you have a fever. They act on the hypothalamus(control center) in your brain, which generates a systemic temperature-increasing response. As an added note, prostaglandins are also important for the formation of the mucus membrane lining your stomach. That is why excessive use of these blockers might make you more susceptible to ulcers, especially if combined with other risk factors. Another useful fact is that acetaminophen(paracetamol) follows the same pathway of metabolism as does alcohol. This is why it is not advised to combine the two, as you run the risk of exceeding your livers capacity for detoxification, and causing liver damage. Source: Medschool",
"Well little dilli, let me tell you.... When your body has trouble with bacteria or a big ouchy a little cell called the white blood cell comes to the rescue. Think of it as the superhero of the body, protecting the rest of the cells from evildoers. One of its jobs is to shoot out little magic bullets called cytokines including a specific group called interleukins. These interleukins go about setting up the different defense mechanisms of the body. Think of it as a game of a strategy game where you have to build up the different defenses to protect your base. One of the defenses is to raise the body's temperature. Ibuprofen and acetaminophen are \"antipyretics\" which means they fight the fire of increased body temperature by overriding those interleukins in part of the brain. This can be a good thing in cases of high temperatures that backfire and cause more harm then good. In the case of a mild fever though let it ride little dilli because it will help fight off whatever ails you!",
"Paracetamol is a far more effective treament - its anti-pyretic (anti fire), a COX-2 inhibitor (Cyclooxygenase being part of a biological pathway that causes fever, 2 being the particular receptor it acts on) and it affects the hyperthalmus (bit in your brain that controls temperature) to reduce body temperature back to normal (stopping your fever). Ibuprofen is, as pointed out, nonsteroidal anti-inflammitory drug (NSAID) which stops inflammation through the same \"Mechanism\" as Paracetamol (just its less selective about what it targets). It's effect on a fever isn't as good as Paracetamol, and it is mainly used to treat muscle pain/headaches more than fever's. Also note, its very dangerous to take Ibruprofen if your taking Warfarin (blood thinner, anti-coaulant). That is because they both compete with one another and have a higher impact on the body. And don't forgot, cold and flu remedies are a cocktail of drugs that affect other areas like the throat and nose to help alleviate the symptoms of a cold.",
"When you take any drug, it essentially has two types of effects on you. The effect(s) its intended for (Therapeutic effects) and the effects that occur that are not intended (non-therapeutic/side effects). Just like Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines help raise the threshold of seizure activity (makes it harder for someone who is prone to seizures to start convulsing), other drugs have positive side-effects. Though, I wouldn't recommend anti-inflammatory or opiates to help with a fever. Stick to Motrin. edit: typo :(",
"As someone who has a severe allergy to ibuprofen, (or NSAIDs for that matter) I can tell you that Acetaminophen & ibuprofen are certainly not the same thing. NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) have anti-inflammatory (swelling reducer), analgesic (pain reliever), and antipyretic (fever reducer) effects, while Tylenol, or acetaminophen is a pain reliever. Acetaminophen relieves pain by elevating the pain threshold, that is, by requiring a greater amount of pain to develop before it is felt by a person. It reduces fever through its action on the heat-regulating center of the brain. Specifically, it tells the center to lower the body’s temperature when the temperature is elevated. Acetaminophen relieves pain in mild arthritis but has no effect on the underlying inflammation, redness and swelling of the joint. Acetaminophen is actually a safer choice than ibuprofen.",
"Ibuprofen and Acetaminophen kill pain by destroying the spiders that feed on your organs and muscles (your immune system is less able to destroy the spiders when they attempt to enter your body while you sleep if you are ill or becoming ill). The spiders usually create nests in your brain (and sometimes your entire body) and these nests are very warm. These drugs are not only good at killing the spiders, but also their nests, so your fever goes down as the millions of spider babies in the nests in your brain die.",
"Some of the responses make me feel like we shouldn't sell such basic things OTC. People just don't seem to understand how to take them or even they what they are. They can have serious side effects people! Read your labels!",
"Ibuprofen- anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic Acetaminophen- analgesic, antipyretic Even though its not an anti-inflammatory, acetaminophen is still an antipyretic, hence it's ability to help with fever"
] | [
[
"to pain and swelling. Ibuprofen, paracetamol and aspirin are prostaglandin inhibitors. Aspirin and ibuprofen were shown to be effective at blocking both early and late stages of the RWH, and paracetamol was effective in blocking the early stage.",
"-33.46720092567557"
],
[
"ibuprofen is a suggested non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and painkiller that can help alleviate both the headache and nausea associated with AMS. It has not been studied for the prevention of cerebral edema (swelling of the brain) associated with extreme symptoms of AMS.\nFor centuries, indigenous peoples of the Americas such as the Aymaras of the Altiplano, have chewed coca leaves to try to alleviate the symptoms of mild altitude sickness. In Chinese and Tibetan traditional medicine, an extract of the root tissue of Radix rhodiola is often taken in order to prevent the same symptoms, though neither of these therapies has been",
"-33.11949812842067"
],
[
"and opioid formulations. Although each has its own pain-relieving efficacy, they also pose adverse effects. According to two doctors, Ibuprofen-APAP combinations have the greatest efficacy in pain relief and reducing inflammation along with the fewest adverse effects. Taking either of these agents alone or in combination may be contraindicated in those who have certain medical conditions. For example, taking ibuprofen or any NSAID in conjunction with warfarin (a blood thinner) may not be appropriate. Also, prolonged use of ibuprofen or APAP has gastrointestinal and cardiovascular risks. There is high quality evidence that ibuprofen is superior",
"-32.68592560029356"
],
[
"damage especially in those that consume 3 or more drinks/day and those with pre-existing liver disease. Ibuprofen, one of the NSAIDs listed above, is a common choice for pain relief but may also lead to gastrointestinal discomfort.\nAnalgesic/sedative combinations are widely used (e.g., analgesic/antihistamine combinations like Syndol, Mersyndol and Percogesic, analgesic/barbiturate combinations such as Fiorinal). In addition analgesic/caffeine combinations are popular such as the aspirin-caffeine combination (Anacin) or the aspirin, acetaminophen and caffeine combinations (Excedrin Extra-Strength, Excedrin Migraine, and Vanquish). Frequent use (daily or skipping just one day in between use for 7–10 days) of all of the above",
"-32.58377132823807"
],
[
" The efficacy of acetaminophen by itself in children with fevers has been questioned. Ibuprofen is also superior to aspirin in children with fevers. Additionally, aspirin is not recommended in children and young adults (those under the age of 16 or 19 depending on the country) due to the risk of Reye's syndrome.\nUsing both paracetamol and ibuprofen at the same time or alternating between the two is more effective at decreasing fever than using only paracetamol or ibuprofen. It is not clear if it increases child comfort. Response or nonresponse to medications does not predict whether or not a",
"-32.14104816998588"
],
[
"The American College of Rheumatology recommends paracetamol as one of several treatment options for people with arthritis pain of the hip, hand, or knee that does not improve with exercise and weight loss. A 2015 review, however, found it provided only a small benefit in osteoarthritis.\nParacetamol has relatively little anti-inflammatory activity, unlike other common analgesics such as the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) aspirin, and ibuprofen, but ibuprofen and paracetamol have similar effects in the treatment of headache. Paracetamol can relieve pain in mild arthritis, but has no effect on the underlying inflammation, redness, and swelling of the joint. It has",
"-31.50295178894885"
],
[
"problems in giving acetaminophen (paracetamol) to children. The effectiveness of acetaminophen alone as an antipyretic in children is uncertain, with some evidence showing it is no better than physical methods. Therapies involving alternating doses of acetaminophen and ibuprofen have shown greater antipyretic effect than either drug alone. One meta-analysis indicated that ibuprofen is more effective than acetaminophen in children at similar doses when both are given alone.\nDue to concerns about Reye syndrome, it is recommend that aspirin and combination products containing aspirin not be given to children or teenagers during episodes of fever-causing illnesses. Plants Traditional use of higher plants",
"-31.43812708412588"
],
[
"Paracetamol Fever Paracetamol is used for reducing fever in people of all ages. The World Health Organization recommends that paracetamol be used to treat fever in children only if their temperature is higher than 38.5 °C (101.3 °F). The efficacy of paracetamol by itself in children with fevers has been questioned and a meta-analysis showed that it is less effective than ibuprofen. Paracetamol does not have significant anti-inflammatory effects. Pain Paracetamol is used for the relief of mild to moderate pain. The use of the intravenous form for short-term pain in people in the emergency department is supported by limited evidence. Osteoarthritis",
"-31.332377200655174"
],
[
"Propyphenazone/paracetamol/caffeine Medical uses This combination is used for the relief of pain such as headache, toothache, menstrual discomfort, pain and fever associated with colds and flu, and for postoperative and rheumatic pain. Efficacy Paracetamol, an analgesic and antipyretic substance, has slow onset but has a longer duration of action and is lacking anti-inflammatory properties. On the other hand, propyphenazone, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), is proven to have a faster onset but shorter duration of action. The combination of paracetamol and propyphenazone increases and prolongs the therapeutic activity of propyphenazone: peak blood plasma concentrations increase by about 40%, and",
"-31.330977539735613"
],
[
"and severity of outbreaks. Analgesics such as ibuprofen and paracetamol (acetaminophen) can reduce pain and fever. Topical anesthetic treatments such as prilocaine, lidocaine, benzocaine, or tetracaine can also relieve itching and pain. Antiviral Several antiviral drugs are effective for treating herpes, including aciclovir (acyclovir), valaciclovir, famciclovir, and penciclovir. Aciclovir was the first discovered and is now available in generic. Valaciclovir is also available as a generic and is slightly more effective than aciclovir for reducing lesion healing time.\nEvidence supports the use of aciclovir and valaciclovir in the treatment of herpes labialis as well as herpes infections in people",
"-31.11386486934498"
],
[
"Guaifenesin Medical use Guaifenesin is used to try to help with coughing up thick mucous and is sometimes combined with dextromethorphan, an antitussive (cough medicine), such as in Mucinex DM or Robitussin DM. It is also combined with ephedrine to produce Primatene and Bronkaid tablets for symptomatic relief of asthma. Side effects Side-effects of guaifenesin include nausea, vomiting, formation of kidney stones, diarrhea, and constipation. Nausea and vomiting can be reduced by taking guaifenesin with meals. The risk of forming kidney stones during prolonged use can be reduced by maintaining good hydration and increasing the pH of urine.",
"-30.724745590414386"
],
[
"pain such as cancer pain and after surgery. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously. Effects last between two and four hours. Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic. Paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses. NSAIDs Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (usually abbreviated to NSAIDs), are a drug class that groups together drugs that decrease pain and lower fever, and, in higher doses decrease inflammation. The most prominent members of this group of drugs, aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen, are all available over the counter in most countries. COX-2 inhibitors These drugs have been derived",
"-30.585907205590047"
],
[
"Acetaminophen/butalbital Medical uses Acetaminophen/butalbital is indicated for the treatment of tension headaches. It is also commonly prescribed for migraines, although it is not approved by the FDA for this. The usual adult dose is one to two tablets every four hours as needed, not to exceed six tablets in a twenty-four-hour period. Side effects Commonly reported side effects include euphoria, dizziness or lightheadedness, drowsiness or sedation, intoxication, nausea, vomiting, dependence, shortness of breath, and abdominal pain.\nProlonged use can cause rebound headaches.\nRarely, use of barbiturates can lead to Stevens–Johnson syndrome. Overdose Butalbital exerts its toxicity through excessive sedation, resulting in respiratory",
"-30.154714639036683"
],
[
"osteoarthritis. By mouth The pain medication paracetamol (acetaminophen) is the first line treatment for osteoarthritis. Pain relief does not differ according to dosage. However, a 2015 review found acetaminophen to only have a small short term benefit with some laboratory concerns of liver inflammation. For mild to moderate symptoms effectiveness of acetaminophen is similar to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as naproxen, though for more severe symptoms NSAIDs may be more effective. NSAIDs are associated with greater side effects such as gastrointestinal bleeding.\nAnother class of NSAIDs, COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as celecoxib) are equally effective when compared to nonselective NSAIDs,",
"-30.07152313721599"
],
[
"as acetaminophen), aspirin, and caffeine. Several NSAIDs, including diclofenac and ibuprofen have evidence to support their use. Aspirin can relieve moderate to severe migraine pain, with an effectiveness similar to sumatriptan. Ketorolac is available in an intravenous formulation.\nParacetamol, either alone or in combination with metoclopramide, is another effective treatment with a low risk of adverse effects. Intravenous metoclopramide is also effective by itself. In pregnancy, paracetamol and metoclopramide are deemed safe as are NSAIDs until the third trimester. Triptans Triptans such as sumatriptan are effective for both pain and nausea in up to 75% of people. When sumatriptan is taken",
"-30.003115625469945"
],
[
"Salbutamol Medical uses Salbutamol is typically used to treat bronchospasm (due to any cause—allergic asthma or exercise-induced), as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It is also one of the most common medicines used in rescue inhalers (short-term bronchodilators to alleviate asthma attacks).\nAs a β₂ agonist, salbutamol also has use in obstetrics. Intravenous salbutamol can be used as a tocolytic to relax the uterine smooth muscle to delay premature labor. While preferred over agents such as atosiban and ritodrine, its role has largely been replaced by the calcium channel blocker nifedipine, which is more effective and better tolerated.\nSalbutamol has been",
"-29.980658310931176"
],
[
"Sufentanil Medical uses The main use of this medication is in operating suites and critical care where pain relief is required for a short period of time. It also offers properties of sedation and this makes it a good analgesic component of anesthetic regimen during an operation.\nBecause of its extremely high potency, it is often used in surgery and post-operative pain management for patients that are heavily opioid dependent/opioid tolerant because of long term opiate use for chronic pain or illicit opiate use. Currently sufentanil is the most potent opioid painkiller available for use in humans. Although more",
"-29.95215603467659"
],
[
"Ketamine Pain management Ketamine may be used for postoperative pain management. Low doses of ketamine may reduce morphine use, nausea, and vomiting after surgery.\nKetamine has similar efficacy to opioids in a hospital emergency department setting for management of acute pain and for control of procedural pain.\nIt may also be used as an intravenous analgesic with opiates to manage otherwise intractable pain, particularly if this pain is neuropathic. It has the added benefit of counteracting spinal sensitization or wind-up phenomena experienced with chronic pain. At these doses, the psychotropic side effects are less apparent and well managed with benzodiazepines. Ketamine is",
"-29.839569762232713"
],
[
"Analgesic Uses Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provide pain relief in common conditions such as muscle sprains and overuse injuries. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions. Contraindications Each different type of analgesic has its own associated side effects. Classification Analgesics are typically classified based on their mechanism of action. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a medication used to treat pain and fever. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain. In combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is now used for more severe",
"-29.83572871272918"
],
[
"Fexofenadine Medical uses Fexofenadine is used for relief from physical symptoms associated with seasonal allergic rhinitis and for treatment of chronic urticaria. It does not cure but rather prevents the aggravation of allergic rhinitis and chronic idiopathic urticaria and reduces the severity of the symptoms associated with those conditions, providing relief from repeated sneezing, runny nose, itchy eyes or skin, and general body fatigue. Side effects The most common side effect demonstrated in adults was headache, but some also experienced back and muscle pain, miosis or pinpoint pupils, nausea, drowsiness, and menstrual cramps. There have also been rare reports of",
"-29.823225552332588"
],
[
"Austrian, and Swiss headache societies and the German Society of Neurology recommends the use of paracetamol in combination with caffeine as one of several first-line therapies for treatment of tension and migraine headaches. In the treatment of acute migraine, it is superior to placebo, with 39% of people experiencing pain relief at one hour compared with 20% in the control group. Postoperative Paracetamol combined with NSAIDs may be more effective for treating postoperative pain than either paracetamol or NSAIDs alone. Teeth NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac are more effective than paracetamol for controlling dental pain or pain arising",
"-29.734369384939782"
],
[
"nicocodeine, ethylmorphine and propoxyphene and dextropropoxyphene less commonly.\nDrugs of other types can be used to help opioids combat certain types of pain, for example, amitriptyline is prescribed for chronic muscular pain in the arms, legs, neck and lower back with an opiate, or sometimes without it and/or with an NSAID.\nWhile opiates are often used in the management of chronic pain, high doses are associated with an increased risk of opioid overdose. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs The other major group of analgesics are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). They work by inhibiting the release of prostaglandins, which cause inflammatory pain. Acetaminophen/paracetamol is not",
"-29.676174281630665"
],
[
"Motofen Indications and uses Although Motofen is officially indicated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for diarrhea, it has also been successfully used by physicians for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and hyperhidrosis (chronic, severe sweating). Side effects, interactions, and misuse potential Side effects include drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, burning eyes, blurred vision, dry eyes, dizziness, dry mouth, epigastric distress, and constipation. Side effects attributed to the atropine content (especially when taken in excess doses, or in children), include: flushing, dryness in many areas, urinary retention, insomnia, headache, anxiety, hyperthermia, and tachycardia. It is these side effects that",
"-29.621130345971324"
],
[
"around the concept of mindfulness, concluded, \"Findings suggest that MBIs decrease the intensity of pain for chronic pain patients.\" Mild pain Paracetamol (acetaminophen), or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) such as ibuprofen. Mild to moderate pain Paracetamol, an NSAID and/or paracetamol in a combination product with a weak opioid such as tramadol, may provide greater relief than their separate use. Also a combination of opioid with acetaminophen can be frequently used such as Percocet, Vicodin, or Norco. Moderate to severe pain When treating moderate to severe pain, the type of the pain, acute or chronic, needs to be considered.",
"-29.5944107696414"
],
[
"is usually symptomatic. Antipyretics like ibuprofen and paracetamol are used for lowering body temperature and body aches. Antibiotics are also recommended for treating infectious diseases. Antibiotics used in treatment of infectious diseases include chloramphenicol, cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, gentamycin and amikacin.",
"-29.577816782868467"
],
[
"an analgesic that is most effective when used alongside a low-dose opioid; because, while it does have analgesic effects by itself, the doses required for adequate pain relief when it is used as the sole analgesic agent are considerably higher and far more likely to produce disorienting side effects. A review article in 2013 concluded, \"despite limitations in the breadth and depth of data available, there is evidence that ketamine may be a viable option for treatment-refractory cancer pain\".\nLow-dose ketamine is sometimes used in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). A 2013 systematic review found only low-quality evidence",
"-29.547079856100027"
],
[
"in models of chronic pain. Other analgesics Other drugs are often used to help analgesics combat various types of pain, and parts of the overall pain experience, and are hence called analgesic adjuvant medications. Gabapentin—an anti-epileptic—not only exerts effects alone on neuropathic pain, but can potentiate opiates. While perhaps not prescribed as such, other drugs such as Tagamet (cimetidine) and even simple grapefruit juice may also potentiate opiates, by inhibiting CYP450 enzymes in the liver, thereby slowing metabolism of the drug. In addition, orphenadrine, cyclobenzaprine, trazodone and other drugs with anticholinergic properties are useful in conjunction with opioids for",
"-29.52693033660762"
],
[
"by children with asthma or at risk for asthma should be avoided. Other factors In contrast to aspirin, paracetamol does not prevent blood from clotting (it is not an antiplatelet), thus may be used in people who have concerns with blood coagulation. Additionally it does not cause gastric irritation. However, paracetamol does not help reduce inflammation, while aspirin does. Compared with ibuprofen—whose side effects may include diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain—paracetamol has fewer adverse gastrointestinal effects. Unlike aspirin, paracetamol is generally considered safe for children, as it is not associated with a risk of Reye's syndrome in children with viral",
"-29.52216001553461"
],
[
"is deemed reasonable in those between 50 and 70 years old who have a risk of cardiovascular disease over 10%, are not at an increased risk of bleeding, and are otherwise healthy. Pain Aspirin is an effective analgesic for acute pain, although it is generally considered inferior to ibuprofen because aspirin is more likely to cause gastrointestinal bleeding. Aspirin is generally ineffective for those pains caused by muscle cramps, bloating, gastric distension, or acute skin irritation. As with other NSAIDs, combinations of aspirin and caffeine provide slightly greater pain relief than aspirin alone. Effervescent formulations of aspirin relieve pain faster",
"-29.505347542464733"
],
[
"in combination with weak opioids (such as codeine) improved for about 50% of people, but with increases in the number experiencing side effects. Combination drugs of paracetamol and strong opioids such as morphine improve analgesic effect.\nThe combination of paracetamol with caffeine is superior to paracetamol alone for the treatment of common pain conditions, including dental pain, post partum pain, and headache. Patent ductus arteriosus Paracetamol is used to treat patent ductus arteriosus, a condition that affects newborns when a blood vessel used in developing the lungs fails to close as it normally does, but evidence for the safety and efficacy",
"-29.40178365801694"
],
[
"caused by many opioids. Stimulants such as methylphenidate, caffeine, ephedrine, dextroamphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine work against heavy sedation and may elevate mood in distressed patients as do the antidepressants. The use of medicinal cannabis remains a debated issue.\nIn patients with chronic or neuropathic pain, various other substances may have analgesic properties. Tricyclic antidepressants, especially clomipramine and amitriptyline, have been shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner. Nefopam is used in Europe for pain relief with concurrent opioids. The exact mechanism of carbamazepine, gabapentin, and pregabalin is similarly unclear, but these anticonvulsants are used to",
"-29.381464236415923"
],
[
"growing problem with addiction and misuse of opioids. Because of various negative effects the use of opioids for long-term management of chronic pain is not indicated unless other less risky pain relievers have been found ineffective. Chronic pain which occurs only periodically, such as that from nerve pain, migraines, and fibromyalgia, frequently is better treated with medications other than opioids. Paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs including ibuprofen and naproxen are considered safer alternatives. They are frequently used combined with opioids, such as paracetamol combined with oxycodone (Percocet) and ibuprofen combined with hydrocodone (Vicoprofen), which boosts the pain relief but is",
"-29.367989806225523"
],
[
"treating inflammatory bowel disease or other autoimmune conditions, but very little clinical evidence is available. Bupropion—like other antidepressants, with the exception of duloxetine (Cymbalta)—is not effective in treating chronic low back pain. It does, however, show some promise in the treatment of neuropathic pain. Contraindications The drug label advises that bupropion should not be prescribed to individuals with epilepsy or other conditions that lower the seizure threshold, such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, active brain tumors, or concurrent alcohol and/or benzodiazepine use and/or withdrawal. It should be avoided in individuals who are also taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). When switching",
"-29.26948587736115"
],
[
"codeine preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine for sinus-related preparations, or with antihistamine drugs for allergy sufferers.\nWhile the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant",
"-29.197119388480132"
],
[
"potent narcotic pain medications do exist, all medications stronger than sufentanil are approved for veterinary use only. It is also used in surgery and post operative pain control in patients that are taking high dose buprenorphine for chronic pain because it is the only opioid that has a potency and binding affinity strong enough to displace buprenorphine from the opioid receptors in the central nervous system and provide analgesia.\nIn 2018, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Dsuvia, a sublingual tablet form of the drug, that was developed in a collaboration between AcelRx Pharmaceuticals and the United States Department",
"-29.190965796937235"
],
[
"and psychomotor retardation than the older antihistamines because it penetrates the blood/brain barrier to a smaller extent.\nOther possible side effects include headache and antimuscarinic effects such as urinary retention, dry mouth, blurred vision, and gastrointestinal problems. Interactions Substances that act as inhibitors of the CYP3A4 enzyme such as ketoconazole, erythromycin, cimetidine, and furanocoumarin derivatives (found in grapefruit) lead to increased plasma levels of loratadine — that is, more of the drug was present in the bloodstream than typical for a dose. This had clinically significant effects in controlled trials of higher-than-usual doses of loratadine (20 mg).\nAntihistamines should be discontinued about 48 hr",
"-29.169385615037754"
],
[
"individuals. However, other interventions include medications classified as non-opioid analgesics, which are useful in post surgical treatment. For example, acetaminophen or ibuprofen can be used as a non-opioid analgesics. Unlike acetaminophen, ibuprofen has anti-inflammatory property which can be useful for pain in inflammatory conditions. Aspirin is not used in pediatric population due to its association with Reye's syndrome. Medication Acute pain, chronic pain, neuropathic pain and recurrent pain in children is most often managed with medication. Most of these medications are analgesics. These include acetaminophen, NSAIDs, local anesthetics, opioids, and medications for neuropathic pain. The most effective approach to pain",
"-29.103561509749852"
],
[
"(though not aspirin) or skeletal muscle relaxants and these are enough for most people. Benefits with NSAIDs; however, is often small. High-quality reviews have found acetaminophen (paracetamol) to be no more effective than placebo at improving pain, quality of life, or function. NSAIDs are more effective for acute episodes than acetaminophen; however, they carry a greater risk of side effects, including kidney failure, stomach ulcers and possibly heart problems. Thus, NSAIDs are a second choice to acetaminophen, recommended only when the pain is not handled by the latter. NSAIDs are available in several different classes; there is no evidence to",
"-29.098418117908295"
],
[
"Nomifensine Clinical uses Nomifensine was investigated for use as an antidepressant in the 1970s, and was found to be a useful antidepressant at doses of 50–225 mg per day, both motivating and anxiolytic. Side effects and withdrawal from market During treatment with nomifensine there were relatively few adverse effects, mainly renal failure, paranoid symptoms, drowsiness or insomnia, headache, and dry mouth. Side effects affecting the cardiovascular system included tachycardia and palpitations, but nomifensine was significantly less cardiotoxic than the standard tricyclic antidepressants.\nDue to a risk of haemolytic anaemia, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) withdrew approval for nomifensine on March",
"-29.09653032681672"
],
[
"an ongoing migraine headache is not supported by evidence. It is recommended that opioids and barbiturates not be used due to questionable efficacy, addictive potential, and the risk of rebound headache. Children Ibuprofen helps decrease pain in children with migraines and is the initially recommended treatment. Paracetamol does not appear to be effective in providing pain relief. Triptans are effective, though there is a risk of causing minor side effects like taste disturbance, nasal symptoms, dizziness, fatigue, low energy, nausea, or vomiting. Ibuprofen should be used less than half the days in a mouth and triptans less than a third",
"-29.0480743755179"
],
[
"Zaditor) are both commonly prescribed. Ketotifen is available without a prescription in some countries. Corticosteroids Ester based “soft” steroids such as loteprednol (Alrex) are typically sufficient to calm inflammation due to allergies, and carry a much lower risk of adverse reactions than amide based steroids.\n\nA systematic review of 30 trials, with 17 different treatment comparisons found that all topical antihistamines and mast cell stabilizers included for comparison were effective in reducing symptoms of seasonal allergic conjunctivitis. There was not enough evidence to determine differences in long-term efficacy among the treatments.\nMany of the eye drops can cause burning and stinging, and",
"-29.020655577187426"
],
[
"greater and lasted longer than that of esketamine. As such, as an antidepressant, the contrary has been stated (\"R ketamine appears to be a potent and safe antidepressant relative to S ketamine\", \"(2R,6R)-HNK (hydroxynorketamine), a major metabolite of (R)-ketamine\", \"R-ketamine as a longer-lasting antidepressant compared with rapastinel\").\nEsketamine inhibits dopamine transporters eight times more than arketamine. This increases dopamine activity in the brain. At doses causing the same intensity of effects, esketamine is generally considered to be more pleasant by patients. Patients also generally recover mental function more quickly after being treated with pure esketamine, which may be a result of",
"-28.928088107320946"
],
[
"well as in NSAIDs-induced placebo responses.\nNSAIDs are also used in the acute pain caused by gout because they inhibit urate crystal phagocytosis besides inhibition of prostaglandin synthase. Antipyretic activity NSAIDS have antipyretic activity and can be used to treat fever. Fever is caused by elevated levels of prostaglandin E2, which alters the firing rate of neurons within the hypothalamus that control thermoregulation. Antipyretics work by inhibiting the enzyme COX, which causes the general inhibition of prostanoid biosynthesis (PGE2) within the hypothalamus. PGE2 signals to the hypothalamus to increase the body's thermal set point. Ibuprofen has been shown more effective as",
"-28.927755070617422"
],
[
"Antipyretic Antipyretics are substances that reduce fever. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override a prostaglandin-induced increase in temperature. The body then works to lower the temperature, which results in a reduction in fever.\nMost antipyretic medications have other purposes. The most common antipyretics in the United States are ibuprofen and aspirin, which are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) used primarily as analgesics (pain relievers), but which also have antipyretic properties; and acetaminophen (paracetamol), an analgesic with weak anti-inflammatory properties.\nThere is some debate over the appropriate use of such medications, as fever is part of the body's immune response to infection. A study",
"-28.91072253033053"
],
[
"and the Tylenol-with-codeine series, including Tylenol 3 and 1,2, and 4); with aspirin (as co-codaprin); or with ibuprofen (as Nurofen Plus). These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent alone (drug synergy).\nCodeine is also commonly marketed in products containing codeine with other pain killers or muscle relaxers, as well as codeine mixed with phenacetin (Emprazil with codeine No. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), naproxen, indomethacin, diclofenac, and others, as well as more complex mixtures, including such mixtures as aspirin + paracetamol + codeine ± caffeine ± antihistamines and other agents, such as those mentioned above.\nCodeine-only products can be",
"-28.895600757357897"
],
[
"of tension headache.\nAspirin, especially as a component of an aspirin/paracetamol/caffeine combination, is considered a first-line therapy in the treatment of migraine, and comparable to lower doses of sumatriptan. It is most effective at stopping migraines when they are first beginning. Fever Like its ability to control pain, aspirin's ability to control fever is due to its action on the prostaglandin system through its irreversible inhibition of COX. Although aspirin's use as an antipyretic in adults is well established, many medical societies and regulatory agencies, including the American Academy of Family Physicians, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and the Food and",
"-28.818989304825664"
],
[
"found to reduce more pain than the placebo, 15 were found to be significantly better. In regards to the decrease of morning stiffness and the likelihood of adverse events, there was no significant difference between NSAIDs. It was concluded that etoricoxib was more effective in reducing pain of AS, however due to small studies and insufficient evidence, no one NSAID could be determined to be the most effective treatment of AS. After etoricoxib, patients taking oxaprozin experienced the least amount of pain with fewer adverse effects than naproxen. History Oxaprozin was developed and patented by Wyeth-Ayerst. The US patent",
"-28.801492186263204"
],
[
"pain killers are effective to treat the pain caused by otitis media. Oral agents include ibuprofen, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and opiates. Evidence for the combination over single agents is lacking. Topical agents shown to be effective include antipyrine and benzocaine ear drops. Decongestants and antihistamines, either nasal or oral, are not recommended due to the lack of benefit and concerns regarding side effects. Half of cases of ear pain in children resolve without treatment in three days and 90% resolve in seven or eight days. The use of steroids is not supported by the evidence for acute otitis media. Tympanostomy tube",
"-28.801347312051803"
],
[
"Ibuprofen brand names The analgesic and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ibuprofen is sold under a wide variety of brand names across the world; the most common being its first registered trademark name of Brufen, along with Advil, Motrin, and Nurofen. Variants There are 11 variants of Nurofen, all of which contain ibuprofen as an active ingredient. The ibuprofen is variously formulated as the free acid, or the lysine salt. For oral formulations, i.e., taken by mouth, it is available in the conventional solid round tablet, a torpedo-shaped solid caplet, or may alternatively be in the form of a",
"-28.789169017458335"
],
[
"treatment. Efficacy A systematic review indicated \"The efficacy of orally administered ketoprofen in relieving moderate-severe pain and improving functional status and general condition was significantly better than that of ibuprofen and/or diclofenac.\" A Cochrane systematic review investigating ketoprofen as a single-dose by mouth in acute, moderate-to-severe postoperative pain concluded that its efficacy is equivalent to drugs such as ibuprofen and diclofenac.\nThere is evidence for topic ketoprofen for osteoarthritis but not other chronic musculoskeletal pain. Interactions Ketoprofen should not be used in combination with other NSAIDs or corticosteroids, as this increases the risk of gastrointestinal (GI) ulceration. It should also",
"-28.761597938311752"
],
[
"always included in this class of medications. However, acetaminophen may be administered as a single medication or in combination with other analgesics (both NSAIDs and opioids). The alternatively prescribed NSAIDs such as ketoprofen and piroxicam have limited benefit in chronic pain disorders and with long-term use are associated with significant adverse effects. The use of selective NSAIDs designated as selective COX-2 inhibitors have significant cardiovascular and cerebrovascular risks which have limited their utilization. Common NSAIDs include aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen. Antidepressants and antiepileptic drugs Some antidepressant and antiepileptic drugs are used in chronic pain management and act primarily within the",
"-28.740270311478525"
],
[
"analgesic properties comparable to those of aspirin, while its anti-inflammatory effects are weaker. It is better tolerated than aspirin due to concerns about bleeding with aspirin. Lower back Based on a systematic review, paracetamol was recommended by the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society as a first-line treatment for lower back pain. The American College of Physicians as of 2017 noted evidence that it was no different than placebo in the treatment of nonradicular low back pain. Other systematic reviews have also concluded that evidence for its efficacy is lacking. Headaches A joint statement of the German,",
"-28.709435797965853"
],
[
"infection clears up. In both causes non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as naproxen or ibuprofen are recommended to relieve pain. Sometimes stronger pain medications in the opiate category are called for and are frequently prescribed by experienced emergency department physicians. Other animals Orchitis is not rare in bulls and rams. It has also been described in roosters.",
"-28.62689919883269"
],
[
"most common adverse reactions are headache (15%), nausea/vomiting (12%) chills (<2%) and fever (1%). Steroid-sparing agents There is increasing use of immunosuppressants such as mycophenolate mofetil and azathioprine because of their effectiveness. In chronic refractory cases, where immune pathogenesis has been confirmed, the off-label use of the vinca alkaloid and chemotherapy agent vincristine may be attempted. However, vincristine has significant side effects and its use in treating ITP must be approached with caution, especially in children. Intravenous immunoglobulin Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) may be infused in some cases in order to decrease the rate at which macrophages consume antibody-tagged platelets. ",
"-28.574677886266727"
],
[
"such as acetaminophen and NSAIDs, can be used alone to treat mild pain. For moderate to severe pain, it is optimal to use a combination of multiple agents, including opioid and non-opioid agents. Postoperative pain A panel, including the American Pain Society and American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, recommends multimodal analgesia, which they define as a combination of pharmacological agents and non-pharmacological techniques to treat postoperative pain. A significant benefit of this technique is that non-opioid analgesics used in combination with opioids can decrease the amount of opioids required and reduce the risk of opioid-related side",
"-28.509360202471726"
],
[
"are not classified together with the traditional NSAIDs even though they presumably share the same mode of action.\nOn the other hand, there are analgesics that are commonly associated with anti-inflammatory drugs but that have no anti-inflammatory effects. An example is paracetamol (known as acetaminophen or Tylenol in the U.S). As opposed to NSAIDs, which reduce pain and inflammation by inhibiting COX enzymes, paracetamol has - as early as 2006 - been shown to block the reuptake of endocannabinoids, which only reduces pain, likely explaining why it has minimal effect on inflammation; paracetamol is sometimes combined with an NSAID (in",
"-28.504335203557275"
],
[
"pain in other parts of the body, menstrual bleeding and degree of interference with daily activities. NSAIDs Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen and naproxen, are effective in relieving the pain of primary dysmenorrhea. They can have side effects of nausea, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer, and diarrhea. People who are unable to take the more common NSAIDs may be prescribed a COX-2 inhibitor such as celecoxib. Hormonal birth control Use of hormonal birth control may improve symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea. A 2009 systematic review however found limited evidence that the birth control pill, containing low doses or medium doses of",
"-28.47975316090742"
],
[
"Examples There are many different pharmaceutical drugs that can produce adverse effects after biotransformation, interaction with alternate targets, or through drug-drug interactions. All pharmaceuticals can be toxic, depending on the dose. Acetaminophen Acetaminophen (APAP) is a very common drug used to treat pain. High doses of acetaminophen has been shown to produce severe hepatotoxicity after being biotransformed to produce reactive intermediates. Acetaminophen is metabolized by CYP2E1 to produce NAPQI, which then causes significant oxidative stress due to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS can cause cellular damage in a multitude of ways, a few of which being DNA and mitochondrial",
"-28.474013161787298"
],
[
"Mefenamic acid Medical use Mefenamic acid is used to treat moderate pain and menstrual pain.\nThere is evidence that supports the use of mefenamic acid for perimenstrual migraine headache prophylaxis, with treatment starting 2 days prior to the onset of flow or 1 day prior to the expected onset of the headache and continuing for the duration of menstruation. Side effects Mefenamic acid is recommended to be taken with food.\nKnown mild side effects of mefenamic acid include headaches, nervousness, and vomiting. Serious side effects may include diarrhea, hematemesis (vomiting blood), hematuria (blood in urine), blurred vision, skin rash, itching and",
"-28.45825770945521"
],
[
"on high doses of opioids both to combat the somnolence from the painkillers and to boost their pain-killing ability. However, a 1979 study in the Canadian Medical Association Journal found no statistically significant advantage in pain suppression, confusion, nausea, or drowsiness to the Brompton mixture versus a solution of morphine.",
"-28.45176881707448"
],
[
"peripheral epithelium. In high doses, ergotamine is conducive to vascular stasis, thrombosis, and gangrene. It can increase uterine contractivity and occasionally is used therapeutically immediately post-partum to decrease uterine bleeding. See also ergometrine.\nErgotamine continues to be prescribed for migraines. The common form of prescription is Cafergot which is a combination of caffeine and ergotamine.\nContraindications include: atherosclerosis, Buerger's syndrome, coronary artery disease, hepatic disease, pregnancy, pruritus, Raynaud's syndrome, and renal disease.\nIt's also contraindicated if patient is taking Macrolide antibiotics (eg, erythromycin), certain HIV protease inhibitors (eg, ritonavir, nelfinavir, indinavir), certain azole antifungals (eg, ketoconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole) delavirdine, efavirenz or",
"-28.43487079255283"
],
[
"benzodiazepines. However, nonbenzodiazepine (including cyclobenzaprine) treatment was found to have a lower risk of medication abuse and continuation of use against medical advice. Side effects such as sedation and ataxia are also less pronounced with nonbenzodiazepine antispasmodics.\nIn a study on the treatment of musculoskeletal pain treatment with cyclobenzaprine alone or in combination with ibuprofen, no significant differences in pain scores were noted among the three treatment groups. Peak benefit was found to occur on day seven of the treatment for all groups. Formulations By mouth, cyclobenzaprine is marketed as Apo-Cyclobenzaprin, Fexmid, Flexeril and Novo-Cycloprine. It is available in generic form.",
"-28.401930615960737"
],
[
"to interact with warfarin (e.g. simvastatin), INR checks are increased or dosages adjusted until a new ideal dosage is found.\nWhen taken with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), warfarin increases the risk for gastrointestinal bleeding. This increased risk is due to the anti-platelet effect of NSAIDs as well as the possible damage to the gastrointestinal mucosa.\nMany commonly used antibiotics, such as metronidazole or the macrolides, will greatly increase the effect of warfarin by reducing the metabolism of warfarin in the body. Other broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce the amount of the normal bacterial flora in the bowel, which make significant quantities of vitamin",
"-28.32026960904477"
],
[
"and sedative effects. These agents have central effects on pain transmission and block the active reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin.\nAnticonvulsant drugs like gabapentin block the active reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin and have properties that relieve neuropathic pain. However, these drugs take a few weeks to become effective and are rarely used in the treatment of acute pain.\nTopical analgesics like capsaicin may also relieve minor aches and pains of muscles and joints. Prognosis It is difficult to assess the prognosis of a patient because it is hard to convince chronic alcoholics to abstain from drinking alcohol completely. It has",
"-28.299529229174368"
],
[
"Flupirtine Uses Flupirtine is used as an analgesic for acute pain, in moderate-to-severe cases. Its muscle relaxant properties make it popular for back pain and other orthopedic uses, but it is also used for migraines, in oncology, postoperative care, and gynecology.\nIn 2013 due to issues with liver toxicity, the European Medicines Agency restricted its use to acute pain, for no more than two weeks, and only for people who cannot use other painkillers. Side Effects The most serious side effect is frequent hepatotoxicity which prompted regulatory agencies to issue several warnings and restrictions.\nFlupirtine is devoid of negative psychological or motor",
"-28.21476810358581"
],
[
"soft gel cap. It is also available as a topical gel, which is applied directly to the surface of the skin. In some cases these are marketed as being useful for treating specific types of pain; such as back pain or period pain. The primary difference among the various formulations is speed and duration of ibuprofen absorption. According to the UK Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (UK MHRA), the form of ibuprofen in 'Nurofen Tension Headache' (ibuprofen lysine) is absorbed nearly twice as fast as the form in 'Nurofen Period Pain' (ibuprofen free acid), with",
"-28.163406183593906"
],
[
"not been approved for use as an antidepressant, but its active enantiomer, esketamine, has been. Esketamine was developed as a nasal spray for treatment-resistant depression and is approved for use in the United States. While there is evidence to support the effectiveness of ketamine in treating depression, there is a lack of consensus on optimal dosing and the effects and safety of long-term therapy. Ketamine can produce euphoria and dissociative hallucinogen effects at higher doses, and thus has an abuse potential. Moreover, ketamine has been associated with cognitive deficits, urotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and other complications in some individuals with long-term use.",
"-28.06981823540991"
],
[
"Use of this terminology dates back to at least 1973.\nThe term \"spasmolytic\" is also considered a synonym for antispasmodic. Clinical use Spasmolytics such as carisoprodol, cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone, and methocarbamol are commonly prescribed for low back pain or neck pain, fibromyalgia, tension headaches and myofascial pain syndrome. However, they are not recommended as first-line agents; in acute low back pain, they are not more effective than paracetamol or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and in fibromyalgia they are not more effective than antidepressants. Nevertheless, some (low-quality) evidence suggests muscle relaxants can add benefit to treatment with NSAIDs. In general, no high-quality evidence",
"-28.063854164327495"
],
[
"B due to the increased risk if also infected. Use of acetaminophen is generally considered safe at reduced doses. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are not recommended in those with advanced liver disease due to an increased risk of bleeding. Ultrasound surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma is recommended in those with accompanying cirrhosis. Coffee consumption has been associated with a slower rate of liver scarring in those infected with HCV. Medications Approximately 90% of chronic cases clear with treatment. Treatment with antiviral medication is recommended in all people with proven chronic hepatitis C who are not at high risk of dying from",
"-28.063290455799688"
],
[
"Dexketoprofen Medical uses Short-term treatment of mild to moderate pain, including dysmenorrhoea. It is also used for migraines and knee pain. Side effects It may cause dizziness, and patients should not, therefore, drive or operate heavy machinery or vehicles until they are familiar with how dexketoprofen affects them. Concomitant use of alcohol and other sedatives may potentiate this effect. In a small subset of individuals the dizziness may be intolerable and require transition to an alternative treatment. Pharmacology Dexketoprofen belongs to a class of medicines called NSAIDs. It works by blocking the action of a substance in the body called",
"-28.04240759264212"
],
[
"Acemetacin Medical uses Acemetacin has proven effective in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and other kinds of rheumatoid inflammation, as well as in post-operative and post-traumatic pain and attack of gout. Application of a single dose of acemetacin for post-operative pain is not well supported by studies. Contraindications Contraindications are basically the same as with other NSAIDs: hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs in the past (typically asthma or skin reactions), gastrointestinal or cerebral bleeding, peptic ulcer, haematopoietic disorders (anaemia, leukopenia), and during the third trimester of pregnancy. Adverse effects Common side effects (in about 1–10% of patients) include",
"-27.970634228084236"
],
[
"Benzoctamine Anxiety Benzoctamine’s main clinical use is for the treatment of anxiety, and evidence points to it being as effective as other clinical anxiety drugs, in particular diazepam. In the treatment of symptoms of mild anxiety due to psychoneurosis, a daily dosage of 30 to 80 g of benzoctamine was shown to be just as effective as 6–20 mg of diazepam. In another study one group of patients were given 10g of benzoctamine three times a day, while another group was given 5 mg of diazepam, and the treatments were equivalent. While these studies point to higher doses of benzoctamine being needed",
"-27.959987541195005"
],
[
"treat neuropathic pain with differing degrees of success. Anticonvulsants are most commonly used for neuropathic pain as their mechanism of action tends to inhibit pain sensation.\nFlupirtine is a centrally acting K+ channel opener with weak NMDA antagonist properties. It is used in Europe for moderate to strong pain and migraine and its muscle-relaxant properties. It has no anticholinergic properties and is believed to be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin, or histamine receptors. It is not addictive, and tolerance usually does not develop. However, tolerance may develop in single cases. Other uses Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid",
"-27.909919891040772"
],
[
"that have been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain management. Both first-generation (such as amitriptyline) and newer anti-depressants (such as duloxetine) are used alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics, such as using hydroxyzine, promethazine, carisoprodol, or tripelennamine to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid analgesic.\nAdjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include nefopam, orphenadrine, pregabalin, gabapentin, cyclobenzaprine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and other drugs possessing anticonvulsant, anticholinergic, and/or antispasmodic properties, as well as many other drugs with CNS",
"-27.902600856265053"
],
[
"also been observed. It is thought this may be due to increased synthesis of receptor proteins.\nFlumazenil was found to be more effective than placebo in reducing feelings of hostility and aggression in patients who had been free of benzodiazepines for 4–266 weeks. This may suggest a role for flumazenil in treating protracted benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms.\nLow-dose, slow subcutaneous flumazenil administration is a safe procedure for patients withdrawing from long-term, high-dose benzodiazepine dependency. It has a low risk of seizures even amongst those who have experienced convulsions when previously attempting benzodiazepine withdrawal. Clinical pharmacology Flumazenil, an imidazobenzodiazepine derivative, antagonizes the actions of",
"-27.88633527723141"
],
[
"a year. Antihistamines There is little evidence supporting the efficacy of antihistamine for the relief of dermatitis. Sedative antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine, may be useful in those who are unable to sleep due to eczema. Second generation antihistamines have minimal evidence of benefit. Of the second generation antihistamines studied, fexofenadine is the only one to show evidence of improvement in itching with minimal side effects. Immunosuppressants Topical immunosuppressants like pimecrolimus and tacrolimus may be better in the short term and appear equal to steroids after a year of use. Their use is reasonable in those who do not respond to",
"-27.880692512728274"
],
[
"Benzydamine Antimicrobial activity Studies indicate that benzydamine has notable in vitro antibacterial activity and also shows synergism in combination with other antibiotics, especially tetracyclines, against antibiotic-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Contraindications There are no contraindications to the use of benzydamine except for known hypersensitivity. Side effects Benzydamine is well tolerated. Occasionally oral tissue numbness or stinging sensations may occur, as well as itching, a skin rash, skin swelling or redness, difficulty breathing and wheezing. Pharmacology It selectively binds to inflamed tissues (Prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor) and is normally free of adverse systemic effects.\nUnlike other NSAIDs, it does not",
"-27.860422158031724"
],
[
"United States because large doses have been shown to cause allergic reactions, hemolytic anemia, and cytotoxicity in liver cells. Interactions Phylloquinone (K₁) or menaquinone (K₂) are capable of reversing the anticoagulant activity of the anticoagulant warfarin (tradename Coumadin). Warfarin works by blocking recycling of vitamin K, so that the body and tissues have lower levels of active vitamin K, and thus a deficiency of vitamin K.\nSupplemental vitamin K (for which oral dosing is often more active than injectable dosing in human adults) reverses the vitamin K deficiency caused by warfarin, and therefore reduces the intended anticoagulant action of warfarin and",
"-27.80716330325231"
],
[
"because some types such as benzocaine may worsen the reaction; better drugs are lidocaine and pramoxine (brand names Sarna Sensitive and Itch-X). Oral or topical corticosteroids may be effective. Antihistamines are not effective, because the symptoms are not mediated by histamines.\nNative Americans used the plant medicinally: Zigmond (1981, p. 68) reports that the Kawaiisu people used an infusion of the leaves to relieve swellings or rheumatism, and Sparkman (1908, p. 230) also reports that the Luiseño people (who knew it as Atovikut) used it medicinally, though he does not specify for what purpose. No clinical trials have been undertaken to support",
"-27.71688211680157"
],
[
"an alternative to the benzodiazepine line of anxiolytic drugs, other uses for the drug have been discovered. Due to benzoctamine's ability to tranquilize without causing respiratory depression, scientists are moving forward with studies that test its sedative effects in patients with respiratory failure. In one study that used benzoctamine in a clinical setting, researchers showed that the use of benzoctamine for sedation did not result in changes in forced expiratory volume in one second or carbon dioxide partial pressure PCO₂. This confirmed previous statements that claimed the drug did not cause respiratory failure. The main goal of this clinical study",
"-27.715662417176645"
],
[
"drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen or other pain relief medications (analgesics) such as acetaminophen. Severe cases of costochondritis may call for the use of opioid medications such as hydrocodone or oxycodone, tricyclic antidepressant medications such as amitriptyline for pain from chronic costochondritis, or anti-epileptic drugs such as gabapentin may be used. Oral or injected corticosteroids may be used for cases of costochondritis unresponsive to treatment by NSAIDs; however, this treatment has not been the subject of study by rigorous randomized controlled trials and its practice is currently based on clinical experience. Rest from stressful physical activity is often",
"-27.71002283366397"
],
[
"Fenoprofen Pharmacology Decreases inflammation, pain, and fever, probably through inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX-2 inhibitor) activity and prostaglandin synthesis. Contraindications History of significantly impaired renal function; patients with known hypersensitivity to any component of the product; patients who have experienced asthma, urticaria, or allergic-type reactions after taking aspirin or other NSAIDs; treatment of perioperative pain in the setting of coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. Laboratory test interactions False elevation in free and total serum T 3 as measured by Amerlex-M kit.",
"-27.655620517136413"
],
[
"antidepressants (ex. TCA, SSRI, SNRI) as well as others (ex. ketamine, clonidine, gabapentin). In addition, pharmacotherapy that targets the underlying cause of the pain can help alleviate symptoms due to lessening visceral nociceptive inputs. For example, the use of nitrates can reduce anginal pain by dilating the coronary arteries and thus reducing the ischemia causing the pain. The use of spasmolytics (antispasmodics) can help alleviate pain from a gastrointestinal obstruction by inhibiting the contraction of the gut. There are issues associated with pharmacotherapy that include side effects (ex. constipation associated with opiate use), chemical dependence or addiction, and inadequate pain",
"-27.647338994895108"
],
[
"SPS. Drugs that increase GABA activity alleviate muscle stiffness caused by a lack of GABAergic tone. They increase pathways that are dependent upon GABA and have muscle relaxant and anticonvulsant effects, often providing symptom relief. Because the condition worsens over time, patients generally require increased dosages, leading to more side effects. For this reason, gradual increase in dosage of benzodiazepines is indicated. Baclofen, a GABAB agonist, is generally used when individuals taking high doses of benzodiazepines have high side effects. In some cases it has shown improvements in electrophysiological and muscle stiffness when administered intravenously. Intrathecal baclofen administration may not",
"-27.646097409357026"
],
[
"than 24,000 participants provided strong evidence that treatment with celecoxib is not more likely to result in poor cardiovascular outcomes than treatment with naproxen or ibuprofen. As a result, in 2018 an FDA advisory panel concluded that celecoxib poses no greater risk for causing heart attacks and strokes than the commonly-used NSAIDs ibuprofen or naproxen and recommended that the FDA consider changing its advice to physicians regarding celecoxib's safety. Drug interactions Celecoxib is predominantly metabolized by cytochrome P450 2C9. Caution must be exercised with concomitant use of 2C9 inhibitors, such as fluconazole, which can greatly elevate celecoxib serum levels. If",
"-27.600049447883976"
],
[
"anticoagulants is the risk of excessive bleeding. Other side effects include: blood in the urine or feces, severe bruising, prolonged nosebleeds (lasting longer than 10 minutes), bleeding gum, blood in your vomit or coughing up blood, unusual headaches, sudden severe back pain, difficulty breathing or chest pain, in women, heavy or increased bleeding during the period, or any other bleeding from the vagina. Warfarin can cause rashes, diarrhea, nausea (feeling sick) or vomiting, and hair loss. Heparin can cause hair loss (alopecia) thrombocytopenia – a sudden drop in the number of platelets in the blood.\nIt has been reported in a",
"-27.574794637272134"
],
[
"dizziness.\nIn very rare cases, ibuprofen can cause aseptic meningitis.\nAs with other drugs, allergies to NSAIDs might exist. While many allergies are specific to one NSAID, up to 1 in 5 people may have unpredictable cross-reactive allergic responses to other NSAIDs as well. Drug interactions NSAIDs reduce kidney blood flow and thereby decrease the efficacy of diuretics, and inhibit the elimination of lithium and methotrexate.\nNSAIDs cause decreased ability to form a blood clot, which can increase the risk of bleeding when combined with other drugs that also decrease blood clotting, such as warfarin.\nNSAIDs may aggravate hypertension (high blood pressure) and thereby",
"-27.571671120473184"
],
[
"reduce bloating and abdominal pain as a result of an accelerated colon transit time and reduced fecal load, that is, a relief from 'hidden constipation'; defecation was similarly improved.\nReduction in IBS symptoms occurs following antibiotic therapy for small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. However, recent research has shown that the lactulose hydrogen breath test does not actually measure SIBO, and that SIBO is unlikely to be the cause of IBS. Alternative medicine A meta-analysis found no benefits of acupuncture relative to placebo for IBS symptom severity or IBS-related quality of life. Probiotics Probiotics can be beneficial in the treatment of IBS; taking",
"-27.52976496575866"
],
[
"gastrointestinal problems typical of NSAIDs, such as nausea, diarrhoea, stomach pain, and peptic ulcer; central nervous effects like headache and dizziness; and skin reactions. Gastrointestinal tolerability is better than that of the related drug indometacin. Severe allergic reactions and haematopoietic disorders occur in fewer than 0.01% of patients. Pharmacology Acemetacin acts as an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase (COX), producing the anti-inflammatory and analgetic (pain relieving) effects. In the body, it is partly metabolized to indometacin, which also acts as a COX inhibitor. The same mechanism is responsible for the antipyretic and antiplatelet effects, which are however not clinically used, as well",
"-27.523180043091998"
],
[
"Loratadine Medical uses Loratadine is indicated for the symptomatic relief of allergy such as hay fever (allergic rhinitis), urticaria (hives), chronic idiopathic urticaria, and other skin allergies. For allergic rhinitis, loratadine is effective for both nasal and eye symptoms - sneezing, runny nose, and itchy or burning eyes.\nSimilarly to cetirizine, loratadine attenuates the itching associated with Kimura's disease. Forms The drug is available in many different forms, including tablets, oral suspension, and syrup, and in combination with pseudoephedrine. Also available are quick-dissolving tablets, which are marketed as being faster to get into one's circulatory system, but require special handling to",
"-27.501431027572835"
],
[
"drugs that have been approved by the FDA for other indications hold promise for treating chemically induced pulmonary edema. These include β2-agonists, dopamine, insulin, allopurinol, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen. Ibuprofen is particularly appealing because it has an established safety record and can be easily administered as an initial intervention. Inhaled and systemic forms of β2-agonists used in the treatment of asthma and other commonly used medications, such as insulin, dopamine, and allopurinol have also been effective in reducing pulmonary edema in animal models but require further study. A recent study documented in the AANA Journal discussed",
"-27.494768854608992"
],
[
"injury has an anti-inflammatory effect and is often suggested as an injury treatment and pain management technique for athletes. One common approach is rest, ice, compression and elevation. Cool temperatures inhibit local blood circulation, which reduces swelling in the injured tissue. Health supplements In addition to medical drugs, some herbs and health supplements may have anti-inflammatory qualities: bromelain from pineapples (Ananas comosus). Cannabichromene, a cannabinoid, also has anti-inflammatory effect. Honokiol from Magnolia inhibits platelet aggregation, and works as an inverse agonist at the CB2 receptor. Black seed (Nigella sativa) has shown anti-inflammatory effect due to its high thymoquinone content.",
"-27.483980373319355"
],
[
"Flumazenil Medical uses Flumazenil benefits patients who become excessively drowsy after use of benzodiazepines for either diagnostic or therapeutic procedures.\nThe drug has been used as an antidote in the treatment of benzodiazepine overdoses. It reverses the effects of benzodiazepines by competitive inhibition at the GABAA binding site of benzodiazepine receptors, which are present through about 70% of the body. There are many complications that must be taken into consideration when used in the acute care setting. These include lowered seizure threshold, agitation, and anxiousness. Flumazenil's short half-life requires multiple doses. Because of the potential risks of withdrawal symptoms and the",
"-27.453123267157935"
],
[
"intensity of an attack. Side-effects are rare but can be serious. Pain is extremely severe and almost always requires the use of opiates to reduce it to tolerable levels. Pain should be treated as early as medically possible due to its severity.\nNausea can be severe; it may respond to phenothiazine drugs but is sometimes intractable. Hot water baths or showers may lessen nausea temporarily, but can present a risk of burns or falls.\nSeizures often accompany this disease. Most seizure medications exacerbate this condition. Treatment can be problematic: Barbiturates and Primidone must be avoided as they commonly precipitate symptoms. Some benzodiazepines",
"-27.433041183656314"
],
[
"adverse effects can be fatal due to anaphylaxis.\nUse of the amoxicillin/clavulanic acid combination for more than one week has caused mild hepatitis in some patients. Young children having ingested acute overdoses of amoxicillin manifested lethargy, vomiting, and renal dysfunction.\nThere is poor reporting of adverse effects of amoxicillin from clinical trials. For this reason, the severity and frequency of adverse effects from amoxicillin is probably higher than reported from clinical trials. Nonallergic rash Between 3 and 10% of children taking amoxicillin (or ampicillin) show a late-developing (>72 hours after beginning medication and having never taken penicillin-like medication previously) rash, which is",
"-27.376227822736837"
],
[
"of paracetamol for this purpose is lacking. NSAIDs, particularly indomethacin and ibuprofen, have also been used, but the evidence for them is also not strong. The condition appears to be caused in part by overactive prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂), signalling primarily through its EP₄ receptor, but possibly also through its EP₂ receptor and EP₃ receptors. Adverse effects Healthy adults taking regular doses up to 4,000 mg a day show little evidence of toxicity. They are more likely to have abnormal liver function tests, but the importance of this is uncertain. Liver damage Acute overdoses of paracetamol can cause potentially fatal liver damage.",
"-27.359814126597485"
],
[
"Benzyl benzoate Medical Benzyl benzoate is an effective and inexpensive topical treatment for human scabies. It has vasodilating and spasmolytic effects and is present in many asthma and whooping cough drugs. It is also used as an excipient in some testosterone-replacement medications (like Nebido) for treating hypogonadism.\nBenzyl benzoate is used as a topical acaricide, scabicide, and pediculicide in veterinary hospitals. Non-medical Benzyl benzoate is used as a repellent for chiggers, ticks, and mosquitoes. It is also used as a dye carrier, solvent for cellulose derivatives, plasticizer, and fixative in the perfume industry. Side effects Benzyl benzoate has low",
"-27.354801463981858"
],
[
"at the first sign of an attack. Side effects Side effects of ergotamine include nausea and vomiting. At higher doses, it can cause raised arterial blood pressure, vasoconstriction (including coronary vasospasm) and bradycardia or tachycardia. Severe vasoconstriction may cause symptoms of intermittent claudication. Legal status Ergotamine is a controlled substance in the United States as it is a commonly used precursor for the production of LSD.",
"-27.346097005123738"
],
[
"and nasal pruritus.\nAntihistamine drugs can have undesirable side-effects, the most notable one being drowsiness in the case of oral antihistamine tablets. First-generation antihistamine drugs such as diphenhydramine cause drowsiness, while second- and third-generation antihistamines such as cetirizine and loratadine are less likely to.\nPseudoephedrine is also indicated for vasomotor rhinitis. It is used only when nasal congestion is present and can be used with antihistamines. In the United States, oral decongestants containing pseudoephedrine must be purchased behind the pharmacy counter in an effort to prevent the manufacturing of methamphetamine. Steroids Intranasal corticosteroids are used to control symptoms associated with sneezing, rhinorrhea,",
"-27.338670493860263"
],
[
"Levocetirizine Medical uses Levocetirizine is used for allergy symptoms including watery eyes, runny nose, sneezing, hives, and itching. The manufacturers claim it to be more effective with fewer side effects than previous second-generation drugs; however, there have been no published independent studies supporting these comparative assertions. A study part-funded by the manufacturer UCB concluded it may be more effective than some other second- and third-generation anti-histamines, but did not compare it to cetirizine. Side effects Levocetirizine is called a non-sedating antihistamine as it does not enter the brain in significant amounts, and is therefore unlikely to cause drowsiness. Cardiac safety",
"-27.31121246063958"
]
] |
8t7s1p | why are some peppers so hot that they require people to use gloves when handling/eating/cooking with them, yet those same peppers are safe for us to eat? | [
"They wear the gloves to help prevent the juices from getting into eyes and other places they shouldn't get, which are extremely sensitive and will suffer permanent damage. Your stomach on the other hand is designed to eat stuff that may be dangerous for your eyes (think lemon juice).",
"The science behind hotness of peppers is actually really interesting. Capsaicin, the active 'hot' ingredient in peppers activates the channels on our tissues which signal heat (as in fire). Capsaicin literally sends your brain a signal of burning! This can happen to your tongue, skin, and eyes because we have these heat sensing channels pretty much on every tissue which comes in contact with the environment. It's worth mentioning that theoretically capsaicin doesn't cause permanent long term damage, but may cause extreme discomfort, however there HAVE been some anacdotal cases of permanent damage caused to people that did stupid things (like eating a raw whole pepper with over a million scoville for a bet). EDIT: I noticed I didn't answer the original question entirely. Capsaicin and chili peppers are safe to eat because while they activate the heat channel, that's all they do. They don't actually burn us, just send the brain a signal of heat. Source: Biochemistry Masters student studying taste mechanisms (although hot is NOT a taste!).",
"You use gloves when you're handling them because they're freaking hot and you don't want to get the heat all over you. It's not that its dangerous, it sucks to get hot on your hands, then in your eyes, and then on your junk when you have to go pee later."
] | [
[
"most types of commercial gloves, and thus wearing gloves while handling garlic has proven inefficient against the allergy. Treatment includes avoiding any contact with garlic oil or vapours, as well as medication, such as administering acitretin (25 mg/day, orally) or applying psoralen and ultraviolet light to the affected skin area over a period of 12 weeks (PUVA therapy).",
"-27.24704709998332"
],
[
"handled with appropriate care, since it can cause skin burns, permanent eye damage, and irritation to the mucous membranes. Latex gloves offer no protection, so specially resistant gloves, such as those made of nitrile rubber, are worn when handling its salts. Due to incompatibilities, it is recommended to keep bisulfide salts away from acids, peroxides, zinc, aluminum, copper and its alloys.",
"-25.813311059755506"
],
[
"fruit the capsaicin would be diluted by other plant tissues. In 2016 Bosland hypothesized a 3 or 4 million SHU pepper. Super-hots should be handled with gloves and using eye protection, as contact with even a single seed can cause skin irritation. Competition and certification Chili growers compete with one another \"ruthlessly\" to create the world's hottest pepper. According to Marc Fennell, creator of the podcast It Burns, the competition \"is a hugely controversial war – there are scandals, accusations of cheating, death threats.\" According to Maxim, the race has \"ignited heated debate\" among chiliheads (or chileheads) and raised \"deep",
"-25.638532266195398"
],
[
"everyday use. This kind of make-up is used by people who wish to significantly alter their features. Problems Being exposed to high temperatures can cause problems when wearing prosthetics. Glues that were sturdy at normal temperatures can become less effective under heat. This could lead to prosthetics falling apart or peeling from the skin.\nHigher temperatures can cause sweating which can also affect the durability of the prosthetics. The negative effects of sweating can be prevented by cleaning the skin well with 99% alcohol before applying the adhesive. Another way to ensure that the facial prosthetics stay on once they have",
"-24.973436975327786"
],
[
"chili peppers, may relieve joint pain from arthritis and other conditions. Capsaicin blocks the actions of substance P, which helps transmit pain signals, and capsaicin triggers the release of pain-blocking chemicals in the body known as endorphins. Side effects of capsaicin cream include burning or stinging in the area where it is applied. Another topical option is an arthritis cream containing the ingredient, methyl salicylate (Bengay).",
"-24.868948769988492"
],
[
"is the factor that causes heat in chili peppers. The evidence suggesting that capsaicin applied to the skin reduces pain for peripheral neuropathy is of moderate to low quality and should be interpreted carefully before using this treatment option.\nEvidence supports the use of cannabinoids for some forms of neuropathic pain. A 2018 Cochrane review of cannabis-based medicines for the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain included 16 studies. All of these studies included THC as a pharmacological component of the test group. The authors rated the quality of evidence as very low to moderate. The primary outcome was quoted as, \"Cannabis-based",
"-24.475184706156142"
],
[
"from the pressure of stomach fluid and food material entering his abdominal cavity through the tear in his throat.\nEven the hottest peppers are not literally toxic in reasonable quantities; research has suggested that it would take around 3 pounds (1.36 kg) of the highest-Scoville peppers, like ghost pepper, to kill a 150-pound (68 kg) adult. However, there are documented fatalities from cardiac arrest caused by the pain and panic induced by pepper spray, the main ingredient of which is oleoresin capsicum, a concentrated capsaicin wax extracted from chili peppers. Allergic reactions to the substance itself, especially asthma attacks, are more common. These were",
"-23.813158314093016"
],
[
"a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because some people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\nIt is common for people to experience pleasurable and even euphoric effects from ingesting capsaicin. Folklore among self-described \"chiliheads\" attributes this to pain-stimulated release of endorphins, a different mechanism from the local receptor overload that makes capsaicin effective as a topical analgesic. Research and",
"-23.52835213916842"
],
[
"beneficial effect. Skin that has been moisturized by barrier cream may be more susceptible to irritation by sodium lauryl sulfate, which can permeate hydrated skin more easily because of its hydrophilia. Barrier creams that contain petroleum jelly or certain oils may cause rubber or latex gloves to deteriorate. Hand care For hand care they are designed to protect against the harm from detergents and other irritants. To help prevent the spread of pathogens, health care providers are required to wash their hands frequently. Frequent hand washing can result in chronic damage termed irritant contact dermatitis which includes dryness, irritation, itching,",
"-23.514817636227235"
],
[
"recommended that latex or nitrile gloves be worn to protect the hands.\nThis discoloration will disappear as the skin naturally renews itself and the top layer of skin is removed (typically takes a few days or at most a week). Ways of preventing skin discoloration are to wear latex or nitrile gloves to protect the hands and also by applying a thin layer of petroleum jelly or oil-based preparation around the hairline. Gentle abrasives such as moist baking soda or a small amount of toothpaste applied with a toothbrush may also help remove the uppermost layer of skin and dye (neither",
"-23.358145349426195"
],
[
"shops in Europe in the mid 1980s. A thermal bag to keep pizzas being delivered hot was invented by Ingrid Kosar in 1983, and is commonly used now. A cool box is very similar in concept, but typically larger and in the form of a rigid box. Medical use Thermal pharmaceutical bags are designed to transport temperature-sensitive medications, protecting them from damaging temperatures, shocks, and light. Many vaccines are delicate biological substances that can lose part or all of their effectiveness if they are frozen, allowed to get too hot, or exposed to bright light. Such vaccines must be kept",
"-23.331155221618246"
],
[
"hot dogs. They are large enough to stuff with cheeses, potatoes, seafood and meat. Specific recipes include versions of Romesco and rojo cream sauces. Nutritional and medical information Fresno chili peppers are an excellent source of vitamin C and B vitamins, containing significant amounts of iron, thiamin, niacin, magnesium and riboflavin. They are low in calories, fat, and sodium and help to reduce cholesterol. Many of these nutrients reach their highest concentrations in red ripe fruit. The heat element is from capsaicin, a chemical compound that provides a natural anti-inflammatory and pain relief and promotes a feeling of being full.",
"-23.295510122137784"
],
[
"or sprays. Occupational use Since health care workers must wash their hands frequently to prevent disease transmission, hospital-grade lotion is recommended to prevent skin dermatitis caused by frequent exposure to cleaning agents in the soap. A 2006 study found that application of hospital-grade lotion after hand washing significantly reduced skin roughness and dryness.\nCare must be taken not to use consumer lotions in a hospital environment, as the perfumes and allergens may be a danger to those who are immunodeficient or with allergies. Cosmetic uses Most cosmetic lotions are moisturizing lotions, although other forms, such as tanning lotion, also exist.\nCosmetic lotions",
"-23.2535467579728"
],
[
"that contain dyes, perfumes, or peanuts should not be used. Occlusive dressings at night may be useful.\nSome moisturizers or barrier creams may reduce irritation in occupational irritant hand dermatitis, a skin disease that can affect people in jobs that regularly come into contact with water, detergents, chemicals or other irritants. Some emollients may reduce the number of flares in people with dermatitis. Corticosteroids If symptoms are well controlled with moisturizers, steroids may only be required when flares occur. Corticosteroids are effective in controlling and suppressing symptoms in most cases. Once daily use is generally enough. For mild-moderate eczema a weak",
"-23.170398928923532"
],
[
"mild to hot. The Scoville scale measures the pungency of chili peppers, as defined by the amount of capsaicin they contain.\nPungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to",
"-23.138530505559174"
],
[
"microorganisms, plants and animals can have varied effects when exposed to the skin.\nAny form of PPE that acts as a barrier between the skin and the agent of exposure can be considered skin protection. Because much work is done with the hands, gloves are an essential item in providing skin protection. Some examples of gloves commonly used as PPE include rubber gloves, cut-resistant gloves, chainsaw gloves and heat-resistant gloves. For sports and other recreational activities, many different gloves are used for protection, generally against mechanical trauma.\nOther than gloves, any other article of clothing or protection worn for a purpose serve",
"-23.116225043238956"
],
[
"is extruded out. Some sources also claim that pressing with the peel on makes cleaning the press easier. \nGarlic crushed by a press is generally believed to have a different flavor from minced garlic, more of garlic's strong flavor compounds are liberated. A few sources prefer the flavor of pressed garlic. Raw-foods chef Renée Underkoffler says \"a good garlic press makes dealing with garlic a clean pleasure. Pressed garlic has a lighter, more delicate flavor than minced garlic because it excludes the bitter center stem.\" The magazine Cook's Illustrated says \"a good garlic press can break down cloves more finely",
"-23.079879228258505"
],
[
"Italian Frying peppers (also known as the Cubanelle).\nChili peppers are of great importance in Native American medicine, and capsaicin is used in modern medicine—mainly in topical medications—as a circulatory stimulant and analgesic. In more recent times, an aerosol extract of capsaicin, usually known as capsicum or pepper spray, has become used by law enforcement as a nonlethal means of incapacitating a person, and in a more widely dispersed form for riot control, or by individuals for personal defense. Pepper in vegetable oils, or as an horticultural product can be used in gardening as a natural insecticide.\nAlthough black pepper causes",
"-22.85640949025401"
],
[
"where the need for cleanliness is often similar to that in a sensitive medical environment. Chlorination To make them easier to don without the use of powder, gloves can be treated with chlorine. Chlorination affects some of the beneficial properties of latex, but also reduces the quantity of allergenic latex proteins. Alternatives to latex Due to the increasing rate of latex allergy among health professionals, and in the general population, gloves made of non-latex materials such as polyvinyl chloride, nitrile rubber, or neoprene have become widely used. Chemical processes may be employed to reduce the amount of antigenic protein",
"-22.769398545846343"
],
[
"are legally obligated to report tips to the Internal Revenue Service. Delivery bag Bags used to keep pizza hot while being transported are commonly referred to as hotbags or hot bags. Hotbags are thermal bags, typically made of vinyl, nylon, or Cordura, that passively retain heat. Material choice affects cost, durability, and condensation. Heated bags supply added heat through insertion of externally heated disks, electrical heating elements, or pellets heated by induction from electrically generated magnetic waves. Innovations in delivery bag designs have allowed without the usage of a fixed box for bike delivery, such as a hard frame, back",
"-22.752667507564183"
],
[
"hand care they are designed to protect against the harm from detergents and other irritants.\nThe efficacy of barrier creams is controversial. They have not been demonstrated to be useful in preventing hand eczema. A 2010 Cochrane review concluded that there was insufficient evidence to determine whether barrier cream could prevent occupational contact dermatitis. They are a poor substitute for protective clothing for workers. Gloves provide a greater protection than barrier creams. However they are reasonably effective for the protection of face against some airborne substances.\nSome evidence suggests that improper use of barrier cream could cause a harmful rather than a",
"-22.625962022313615"
],
[
"and neoprene. Natural rubber that has been chemically treated to reduce the amount of antibody generators, such as Vytex Natural Rubber Latex, can be used to produce a glove that retains the properties of traditional rubber while exposing the user to significantly reduced amounts of latex allergens.\nGloves are used in the Foodservice Industry for minimizing contact with ready to eat foods. Generally, foodservice employees are required to wash hands before starting work or putting on single-use gloves. Due to the incidence of latex allergies, many people switch to vinyl or nitrile gloves. Poly gloves are a very",
"-22.584153232390236"
],
[
"stores in the states bordering Mexico and in urban areas.\nAfter being roasted and peeled (which improves the texture by removing the waxy skin), poblano peppers are preserved by either canning or freezing. Storing them in airtight containers keeps them for several months. When dried, the poblano becomes a broad, flat, heart-shaped pod; from this form, it is often ground into a powder used as flavoring in various dishes.\n\"Poblano\" is also the word for an inhabitant of Puebla, and mole poblano refers to the spicy chocolate chili sauce originating in Puebla.",
"-22.47789699959685"
],
[
"chili peppers. Finely ground Japanese pepper, kona-zanshō, is nowadays usually sold in sealed packets, and individual serving sizes are included inside heat-and-serve broiled eel packages. While red chili pepper is never used on eel, otherwise, in many usages, the Japanese red chili pepper, or the shichimi blend of peppers can be used in lieu of Japanese pepper alone, according to taste: e.g., to flavor miso soup, various noodles in broth or dipped in tsuyu (dipping sauce), tsukemono (pickles), teriyaki, or fried chicken.\nYoung leaves and shoots, pronounced ki-no-mé or ko-no-mé (木の芽, lit. tree bud) herald the spring season, and often garnish grilled",
"-22.438178250507917"
],
[
"grown in India and Trinidad and, as of 2013, \"were virtually unknown in the US until recently\". Super-hots The new peppers have been termed \"super-hots\". Super-hots are classified as peppers registering over 1 million SHU.\nIn 2015 Bosland and his team, using fluorescence microscopy, found that while most peppers store capsaicin primarily in their pith, super-hot varieties tend to store as much in their flesh as they do in their pith. While for most peppers removing the pith and seeds also removes much of the heat, for super-hots this is not true. Super-hots not only have more capsaicin than other peppers",
"-22.298646221403033"
],
[
"measures include avoidance of the irritant through its removal from the workplace or through technical shielding by the use of potent irritants in closed systems or automation, irritant replacement or removal and personal protection of the workers. Low quality evidence exists for the effectiveness of certain therapies and their ability to specifically prevent hand skin irritation in the workplace. The limited evidence that does exist suggests that moisturizers used alone or in combination with a barrier cream can result in a clinically beneficial effect in the long or short-term primary prevention of occupational irritant hand dermatitis.",
"-22.20124599954579"
],
[
"Oven glove An oven glove, or oven mitt, is an insulated glove or mitten usually worn in the kitchen to easily protect the wearer's hand from hot objects such as ovens, stoves, cookware, etc. They are similar to pot-holders. \nFabric gloves consist of heat insulation surrounded by cotton fabric, usually consisting of decorative patterns. Newer oven gloves are often treated with silicone, which makes them resistant to water and stains, or made of stronger synthetic materials such as Kevlar or Nomex.\nOven mitts are often sold singly rather than in a pair, designed to be worn on either hand.",
"-22.084939124863013"
],
[
"Pramocaine Use Topical anesthetics are used to relieve pain and itching caused by conditions such as sunburn or other minor burns, insect bites or stings, poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, and minor cuts and scratches. The popular itch creams Gold Bond and some forms of calamine lotion use pramocaine hydrochloride to numb sensitive skin, as does the pain relief variant of Neosporin and some formulations of Sarna. The hydrochloride salt form of pramocaine is water-soluble.\nPramocaine is a common component of over the counter hemorrhoid preparations.",
"-22.063419685233384"
],
[
"they are often a main ingredient.\nThey can be preserved in the form of a jam, or by drying, pickling, or freezing. Dried peppers may be reconstituted whole, or processed into flakes or powders. Pickled or marinated peppers are frequently added to sandwiches or salads. Frozen peppers are used in stews, soups, and salsas. Extracts can be made and incorporated into hot sauces.\nThe Spanish conquistadores soon became aware of their culinary properties, and brought them back to Europe, together with cocoa, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tobacco, maize, beans, and turkeys. They also brought it to the Spanish Philippines colonies, whence it spread",
"-22.019579442043323"
],
[
"twice the price of their latex counterparts, a fact that has often prevented switching to these alternative materials in cost-sensitive environments, such as many hospitals. Nitrile is a synthetic rubber. It has no latex protein content and is more resistant to tearing. Also it is very resistant to many chemicals and is very safe for people who are allergic to latex protein. Nitrile gloves are the most durable type of disposable gloves. Although nitrile gloves are known for their durability, extra care should be taken while handling silver and other highly reactive metals because those substances can react with sulfur,",
"-21.98654307515244"
],
[
"Administration. With caution that the concentration of the peppermint constituent pulegone should not exceed 1% (140 mg), peppermint preparations are considered safe by the European Medicines Agency when used in topical formulations for adult subjects. Diluted peppermint essential oil is safe for oral intake when only a few drops are used.\nAlthough peppermint is commonly available as a herbal supplement, there are no established, consistent manufacturing standards for it, and some peppermint products may be contaminated with toxic metals or other substituted compounds. Skin rashes, irritation, or an allergic reaction may result from applying peppermint oil to the skin, and its",
"-21.953314424376003"
],
[
"wound dressings are required they should be blue—an unusual colour for foodstuffs—so that they are noticeable if they fall into food. Facial hair and longer hair are often required to be netted, or trimmed, for food safety. Bandages on the hands are usually covered with nylon gloves. Latex is not typically used for food preparation due to latex allergy.",
"-21.88548552215798"
],
[
"the spread of pathogens and avoid potential cross contamination, the wearing jewelry on the hands was restricted to just plain rings only. \"Except for a plain ring such as a wedding band, while preparing food, food employees may not wear jewelry including medical information jewelry on their arms and hands.\" Jewelry located on the hands and arms can serve as a growth medium for bacteria resulting in food poisoning. In November 2014, Starbucks Corporation issued new guidelines for food safety. Starbucks U.S. Retail Dress Code Guidelines\nIn anticipation of doubling their food offerings in the next 5 years, Their spokesman said",
"-21.86291299502045"
],
[
"(due to production variances, it is up to 16 million Scoville units), marketed by Blair's Sauces and Snacks. By comparison, Tabasco sauce is rated between 2,500 and 5,000 Scoville units (batches vary) - with one of the mildest commercially available sauces, Cackalacky Classic Sauce Company's Spice Sauce, weighing in at less than 1000 Scoville units on the standard heat scale. Remedies Capsaicinoids are the chemicals responsible for the \"hot\" taste of chili peppers. They are fat soluble and therefore water will be of no assistance when countering the burn. The most effective way to relieve the burning sensation is with",
"-21.81705335402512"
],
[
"these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals such as birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant. Because of this, people throughout history have used garlic to keep away insects such as mosquitoes and slugs.\nA large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the \"hot\" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermo-transient receptor potential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.",
"-21.666256431701186"
],
[
"cholesterol problems, etc. Onions also possess several of those abilities. Lemon and Lines and Mace and nutmeg also prevents flus and viruses, the latter also helps clear thinking and helps circulation.\nMint helps/aids/controls: headaches, female conditions, indigestion, nausea, diarrhea, asthma and dryness of breath, toothaches, digestion; poultices for headaches, trouble in muscles and joints. Peanuts, then serve as tension preventatives. It is an oil for massage gout, arthritis, bursitis, and more. Black Pepper is also a cancer pre-emptive, in many occasions a lifespan enhancer. It helps heart problems such as disease and high cholesterol. Hot peppers, a capsaicin main ingredient, is",
"-21.62959771425085"
],
[
"a common material for medical gloves. Due to vinyl gloves having less flexibility and elasticity, several guidelines recommend either latex or nitrile gloves for clinical care and procedures that require manual dexterity and/or that involve patient contact for more than a brief period. Vinyl gloves show poor resistance to many chemicals, including glutaraldehyde-based products and alcohols used in formulation of disinfectants for swabbing down work surfaces or in hand rubs. The additives in PVC are also known to cause skin reactions such as allergic contact dermatitis. These are for example the antioxidant bisphenol A, the biocide benzisothiazolinone, propylene glycol/adipate polyester",
"-21.582053124031518"
],
[
"a hot or cold towel is served depending on the season. As for the dining etiquette, use the provided Oshibori to clean both hands, before starting a meal. It is only used to wipe out hands and therefore it should not be used to wipe face or used for other purposes, as it is considered impolite. Drinking When it comes to drinking alcoholic beverages in Japan, there are several points to keep in mind. The person who first pours the alcoholic drink in the glasses of others, the person should be holding the bottle of the alcoholic drink with both",
"-21.525153327791486"
],
[
"but also store their capsaicin differently. In their report, Bosland et al call it a \"novel discovery that these 'super-hot' chile peppers have developed accessorial vesicles on the pericarp tissue in addition to the vesicles on the placental tissue, thus leading to exceedingly high Scoville heat units for these plants.\"\nSuper-hots also have \"rumpled walls\", likely a genetic mutation, resulting in more area in which to store capsaicin and therefore more heat.\nThe theoretical upper limit of super-hots is 16 million SHU, the level of pure capsaicin, but super-hots are likely to top out lower than this, as in any possible",
"-21.503609838706325"
],
[
"to diallyl disulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan, and allicin, all of which are present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies are often sensitive to many other plants, including onions, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas.\nSeveral reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, indicate care must be taken for these uses, usually testing a small area of skin using a low concentration of garlic. On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of",
"-21.502745373087237"
],
[
"raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged. In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable.\nThe side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown. Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.\nSome breastfeeding mothers have found, after consuming garlic, that their babies can be slow to feed, and have noted a garlic odor coming from them.\nIf higher-than-recommended doses of garlic are taken with anticoagulant medications, this can lead to a higher risk of bleeding. Garlic may interact with warfarin, saquinavir, antihypertensives, calcium channel blockers, the quinolone family of antibiotics",
"-21.496382710465696"
],
[
"hot and dry conditions in the summer, and even experts may not be able to distinguish relative hotness on the same plant.\nFor cooking, a hole is poked in the pepper beforehand to keep expanding hot air from bursting the pepper. It may be skewered then broiled (grilled), or pan-fried in oil, stewed in a soy sauce– and dashi-based liquid, or simply eaten raw in a salad or as a condiment. It is thin-skinned and will blister and char easily compared with thicker-skinned varieties of peppers.",
"-21.479379631273332"
],
[
"compared with emollient cream. However, yet another study on adults found that topical treatment with olive oil \"significantly damages the skin barrier\" when compared to sunflower oil, and that it may make existing atopic dermatitis worse. The researchers concluded that due to the negative outcome in adults, they do not recommend the use of olive oil for the treatment of dry skin and infant massage.\nApplying olive oil to the skin does not help prevent or reduce stretch marks. Other Olive oil is also a natural and safe lubricant, and can be used to lubricate kitchen machinery (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.).",
"-21.363858590950258"
],
[
"carrots, and chayote squash are sometimes used to add flavor, mellow the heat of the chilis, and thicken the sauce's consistency. Artisan hot sauces are manufactured by smaller producers and private labels in the United States. Their products are produced in smaller quantities in a variety of flavors. Many sauces have a theme to catch consumers attention. A very mild chili sauce is produced by Heinz and other manufacturers, and is frequently found in cookbooks in the U.S. This style chili sauce is based on tomatoes, green and/or red bell peppers, and spices; and contains little chili pepper. This",
"-21.36255789163988"
],
[
"and evenly than an average cook using a knife, which means better distribution of garlic flavor throughout any given dish.\"\nOn the other hand, some chefs say garlic crushed in a press has an inferior flavor compared to other forms of garlic. For instance, chef Anthony Bourdain called garlic presses \"abominations\" and advised \"don't put it through a press. I don't know what that junk is that squeezes out of the end of those things, but it ain't garlic.\" The cookery writer Elizabeth David wrote an essay titled \"Garlic Presses are Utterly Useless\". Alton Brown (known for his dislike of single-purpose",
"-21.32893949310528"
],
[
"chili were developed in the United Kingdom and are available as sauces which have been claimed to be the hottest natural chili sauces (without added pepper extract) available in the world (The Naga Viper and Infinity were considered the hottest two chili peppers in the world until the Naga Viper was unseated by the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion in late 2011.) Portugal Piri piri is the popular chili sauce; the term \"piri piri\" came to English through the Portuguese language through contact with Portuguese Mozambique. Pacific Islands The Pacific Islands are influenced by Asian and European cuisines. Hot chili sauce is",
"-21.32543808541959"
],
[
"kitchen tools) has referred to garlic presses as \"useless\" and without a reason to exist.\nCook's Illustrated lists some additional uses for a garlic press, such as mashing other small items (including olives, capers, anchovies, ginger and canned chipotles) or pressing out small quantities of onion or shallot juice.",
"-21.309266342199408"
],
[
"antibiotic resistant strains aren't selected for by antibacterial soaps, they might not be as effective as they are marketed to be.\nA comprehensive analysis from the University of Oregon School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are as effective as consumer-grade anti-bacterial soaps containing triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands. Water Hot water that is comfortable for washing hands is not hot enough to kill bacteria. Bacteria grow much faster at body temperature (37 C). However, warm, soapy water is more effective than cold, soapy water at removing natural oils which hold soils and bacteria. Contrary",
"-21.257037354793283"
],
[
"and allergens penetrating the corneal layer and redness. Wearing gloves can cause further problems since it produces a humid environment favoring the growth of microbes and also contains irritants such as latex and talcum powder.\nHand washing can damage skin because the stratum corneum top layer of skin consists of 15 to 20 layers of keratin disks, corneocytes, each of which is each surrounded by a thin film of skin lipids which can be removed by alcohols and detergents.\nDamaged skin defined by extensive cracking of skin surface, widespread reddening or occasional bleeding has also been found to be more frequently colonized",
"-21.248670152621344"
],
[
"properties and therefore may relax the smooth muscles of the GI tract, allowing for easier passage of food contents. However, since the lower esophageal sphincter may be relaxed, peppermint may aggravate \"heartburn\" or GERD.\nPeppermint also seems to be effective in relieving intestinal gas and indigestion. According to the German Commission E Monograph, real peppermint oil or extract has been used for cramp-like complaints in the gastrointestinal tract. This can help to explain why mints with real peppermint oil, in addition to peppermint tea, have been popular for and are frequently used after meals to help with digestion as well as",
"-21.232278109760955"
],
[
"Rather, chili peppers are most often found in the condiments. One reason for that is that a local chili pepper, called the simojovel, is far too hot to use except very sparingly. Chiapan cuisine tends to rely more on slightly sweet seasonings in their main dishes such as cinnamon, plantains, prunes and pineapple are often found in meat and poultry dishes.\nTamales are a major part of the diet and often include chipilín mixed into the dough and hoja santa, within the tamale itself or used to wrap it. One tamale native to the state is the \"picte\", a fresh sweet",
"-21.173245387413772"
],
[
"the face, scalp and neck: capsaicin (the compound that makes spicy food taste \"hot\"), binds to receptors in the mouth that detect warmth. The increased stimulation of such receptors induces a thermoregulatory response. Antiperspirant Unlike deodorant, which simply reduces axillary odor without affecting body functions, antiperspirant reduces both eccrine and apocrine sweating. Antiperspirants, which are classified as drugs, cause proteins to precipitate and mechanically block eccrine (and sometimes apocrine) sweat ducts. The metal salts found in antiperspirants alters the keratin fibrils in the ducts; the ducts then close and form a \"horny plug\". The main active ingredients in modern antiperspirants",
"-21.13370603520889"
],
[
"otomycosis it is less effective than clotrimazole but remains an effective treatment. Skin irritation Most versions of Burow's solution can be used as a soak or compress. As an FDA approved astringent it is used for the relief of skin irritations due to poison ivy, oak and sumac, and rashes from allergic reactions to soaps, detergents, cosmetics and jewelry. This is due to the combination of two active ingredients found in this version of Burow's solution, i.e. aluminum sulfate tetradecahydrate and calcium acetate monohydrate. Off-label use Many consumers have found off-label uses for Burow's solution. Due to the strength of",
"-21.073144028981915"
],
[
"process. To protect against infection, antibacterial soap is the best way to keep clean. Make sure to not only clean the pierced area itself, but cleaning your hands before touching the piercing is equally important. The most convenient way to wash the piercing is in the shower so the water can run on it, however, never use a loofah or washcloth as those tend to harbor bacteria. Sea salt is recommended by some, but not others. Contact the person who did your piercing to hear their suggestions based on their choice of jewelry. Things to be avoided during the healing",
"-21.029986884794198"
],
[
"regional pain-blocking injections and topical analgesic creams, are safe and effective. The ring block and dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) are the most effective at reducing pain, and the ring block may be more effective than the DPNB. They are more effective than EMLA (eutectic mixture of local anesthetics) cream, which is more effective than a placebo. Topical creams have been found to irritate the skin of low birth weight infants, so penile nerve block techniques are recommended in this group.\nFor infants, non-pharmacological methods such as the use of a comfortable, padded chair and a sucrose or non-sucrose pacifier are",
"-21.003089487219768"
],
[
"barrier creams is controversial. They have not been demonstrated to be useful in preventing hand eczema. According to the National Safety Council, \"shielding lotions can keep the skin from drying out\". Safety A 2002 review found \"some reports indicate that inappropriate BC application might induce a deleterious rather than a beneficial effect.\" Skin that has been moisturized by barrier cream may be more susceptible to irritation by sodium lauryl sulfate, which can permeate hydrated skin more easily due to its hydrophilia. When handling hazardous molecules such as sodium hydroxide, ingredients in barrier cream could react and induce skin irritation. Barrier",
"-21.00178549834527"
],
[
"skin after water contact. Paradoxically, hot baths or showers help many patients, possibly because heat causes mast cells in the skin to release their supply of histamine and to remain depleted for up to 24 hours afterward.\nH1 and H2 blockers, such as loratadine, doxepin, or cimetidine, have historically been the first line of pharmacological treatment, but not all sufferers find relief with these medications. When antihistamines do work, loratadine seems to be the most effective for mild cases and doxepin most effective for more severe cases.\nNaltrexone, hydrocortisone, or propranolol may relieve itching for some people.\nSertraline or other Selective serotonin reuptake",
"-20.980801434721798"
],
[
"be used as a topical anesthetic, due to the numbing effect of cold, though there is risk of frostbite.\nChloroethane may be used as a topical pain reliever, and an alternative to ice pack therapy to reduce inflammation and swelling. Since its boiling point is well above the freezing point of water, there is less risk of freezing the skin, though it can still be dangerous if misused. It may be used to treat sports injuries, where it is sometimes known as ice spray or magic spray. Other Freeze spray has been shown useful for the field marking of animals; for",
"-20.954475309234113"
],
[
"chemical. It is cooked with beans and lentils. The Seminole Maroons also use cumin seed tea to relieve labor pains.\nDandelion greens work to purify the system, especially during leisure. Garlic is supposedly a life span enhancer. Its abilities include: lowering blood pressure, cold and flu prevention, internal vermin, diarrhea, blood sugar problems such as diabetes, pains in the muscles and joints, food poisoning, high cholesterol, urinary tract infections, heals wounds and yeast infections. Ginger, also has a medical use for controlling colds, helps digestion, enhances circulation, helps pain relief and nausea, relieves slight arthritis pain, heart problems, high blood pressure,",
"-20.86048356210813"
],
[
"use on dry skin (especially over large areas of the body). As a result, many formulated lanolin products, having a softer consistency than pure lanolin, are available. Safety Many skin creams include common allergens such as fragrances, parabens, and lanolin.",
"-20.846271890593016"
],
[
"laundering. The manufacturer claims it to be most effective in removing chocolate, baby formula, perspiration, and make-up.\nIt was often used as a home remedy in the treatment of contact dermatitis caused by exposure to poison ivy, poison oak, and other oil-based organic skin-irritants where they have touched the skin but not yet inflamed the area. When the soap contained its namesake naptha washing the skin directly with the soap helped remove urushiol the allergen associated with poison ivy. As with other strong detergents, the revised formulation retains this capability.\nAccording to the manufacturer, about 1/2 of a bar of Fels-Naptha",
"-20.834910761361243"
],
[
"hand sanitizer rubs, particularly when hands are visibly dirty. The increasing use of these agents is based on their ease of use and rapid killing activity against micro-organisms; however, they should not serve as a replacement for proper hand washing unless soap and water are unavailable.\nFrequent use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers can cause dry skin unless emollients and/or skin moisturizers are added to the formula. The drying effect of alcohol can be reduced or eliminated by adding glycerin and/or other emollients to the formula. In clinical trials, alcohol-based hand sanitizers containing emollients caused substantially less skin irritation and dryness than",
"-20.818950637825765"
],
[
"simply as \"peppers\" (or more specifically \"green peppers\", \"red peppers\", etc.), while the hot ones are \"chilli\"/\"chillies\" (double L) or \"chilli peppers\".\nIn the United States and Canada, the common heatless varieties are referred to as \"bell peppers\", \"sweet peppers\", \"red/green/etc. peppers\", or simply \"peppers\", additionally in Indiana they may be referred to as \"mangoes/mango peppers\", while the hot varieties are collectively called \"chile\"/\"chiles\", \"chili\"/\"chilies\", or \"chili\"/\"chile peppers\" (one L only), \"hot peppers\", or named as a specific variety (e.g., banana pepper).\nIn Polish and in Hungarian, the term papryka and paprika (respectively) is used for all kinds of capsicums (the sweet",
"-20.81473763799295"
],
[
"chili peppers come in a wide variety of species and cultivars, some domesticated and many of them wild. These included a great range of heat intensity depending on the amount of capsaicin present, with some being mild and others being very piquant. The chilis were often dried and ground for storage and use in cooking, some roasted beforehand to impart different tastes. Flavors varied significantly from one type to another, including sweet, fruity, earthy, smoky, and fiery hot.\nNative species of plants used as seasonings produced flavors similar to Old World spices that often proved to be more easily accessible in",
"-20.814675190442358"
],
[
"physical exercise. The increase in body heat from wearing a sauna suit gives the impression of getting \"a good workout\". Body wrapping Sauna suits are also worn for body wrapping in some health spas. The wearer is first wrapped in bandages saturated with mineral and/or herbal preparations and then covered with a sauna suit. The objective of this process is to enable the wearer to \"sweat out toxins\", however there is little scientific evidence to support the effectiveness of this practice. Sauna suits are often worn specifically for such sweat excretion rather for exercise or weight",
"-20.80064173003484"
],
[
"soaps or antimicrobial detergents. Allergic contact dermatitis, contact urticaria syndrome or hypersensitivity to alcohol or additives present in alcohol hand rubs rarely occur. The lower tendency to induce irritant contact dermatitis became an attraction as compared to soap and water hand washing.\nDespite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens still remain on the hands.\nAlcohol-free hand sanitizer efficacy is heavily dependent on the ingredients and formulation,",
"-20.793502725813596"
],
[
"\"tiny\" amounts of hot sauce, and lists alternatives such as lemon juice or vinegar. \nThe practice had also been suggested in a 2001 article in Today's Christian Woman magazine, where only \"a drop\" is suggested, and alternative substances are listed.\nWhile these publications are credited with popularizing hot saucing, the practice is believed by some to come from Southern United States culture. It is well-known among pediatricians, psychologists and child welfare professionals. Risks If a child is allergic to any of the ingredients in a hot sauce, it can cause swelling of the child's tongue and esophagus, presenting a choking hazard.",
"-20.767729100422002"
],
[
"without a coating) or on a bun. Japanese Fusion Dogs are not actually from Japan but are a Pacific Northwest invention that pairs hot dogs with Japanese and Asian condiments like wasabi, kimchi and teriyaki. Malaysia In October 2016 the Malaysian Islamic Development Department ruled that hot dog vendors must rename their product or risk not getting halal certification, because in Islam dogs are considered unclean. The Malaysian Tourism and Culture Minister criticized the ruling and said, \"Even in Malay it's called hot dog — it's been around for so many years. I'm a Muslim and I'm not offended.\"",
"-20.763642196689034"
],
[
"because of the endless variety in form manifestations, because of their extraordinary surface texture, because of the power, the force suggested in their amazing convolutions. A box of peppers at the corner grocery hold implications to stir me emotionally more than almost any other edible form, for they run the gamut of natural forms, in experimental surprises.\nAt the same time he expressed a some very candid frustration with those who described his peppers in sexual tones:\nThe peppers which are libeled more than anything I have done, ‒ in them has been found vulvas, penises or combinations, sexual intercourse, Madonna with",
"-20.745900285313837"
],
[
"hot shower and using clean hands and a small amount of a mild soap such as castile soap removes excess matter from the site. Turning or otherwise moving jewelry on a fresh piercing is not advised, as it can irritate and lengthen swelling and healing time. Diluted mouthwash or salt water solution can also be used after meals along with toothbrushing to help remove debris and flush the piercing and is recommended by practitioners.\nInitial jewelry is usually a labret stud or a captive bead ring, manufactured from high-grade surgical stainless steel, implant-grade titanium, or similar lightweight and inert metal. No",
"-20.670936030714074"
],
[
"inexpensive alternative. Latex, Vinyl and Nitrile gloves are available in powder and powder-free varieties. The powder in the gloves are made of USDA cornstarch. Powder-free gloves are generally more expensive than powdered gloves because gloves must be powdered to be removed from the mold they are made on. The majority of disposable gloves are manufactured in China, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam.\nDisposable gloves are sometimes used in childcare during the diapering/ toileting process to protect the caregiver from coming in contact with the child's fecal material/urine. Fecal matter in particular as it is known to carry many diseases. Many caregivers use",
"-20.665710973200476"
],
[
"intended to signify cleanliness as well as repelling heat from the kitchen and is generally worn by highly visible head chefs. Increasingly, other colours such as black are becoming popular as well.\nThe long, wide chef's apron provides many advantages. It is primarily worn for safety purposes. The apron will take the main impact, should hot liquid spill over a pot as the Chef is carrying it, and can be quickly removed to get it away from the undergarments and legs. The apron is worn long to just below the knee to protect the upper part of the legs. Traditionally, the",
"-20.620179531782924"
],
[
"or scraped off and even a delay of a few seconds leads to more venom being injected. Once the stinger is removed, pain and swelling should be reduced with a cold compress. A topical anesthetic containing benzocaine will kill pain quickly and menthol is an effective anti-itch treatment. Itching can also be relieved by antihistamine or by a steroid cream.\nMany traditional remedies have been suggested for bee stings including damp pastes of tobacco, salt, baking soda, papain, toothpaste, clay, garlic, urine, onions, aspirin or even application of copper coins. As with jellyfish stings, ammonia and ammonia-containing liquids, such as window",
"-20.594979998888448"
],
[
"most sensitive areas in the body and during the procedure special attention must be paid to avoid irritation. Pain directly resulting from the procedure can be slight or severe and can continue from several seconds to several minutes. Some people experience less pain during subsequent treatments. It can be helpful to take a mild anti-inflammatory medication (such as ibuprofen) an hour or so before waxing to reduce potential pain from the waxing. Products such as topical anesthetics are available to lessen the pain involved. A bikini wax during pregnancy is generally more painful, due to increased sensitivity. The type of",
"-20.57787718111649"
],
[
"typically they were employed in manual labor or factory work but it is because of them that dishes like spaghetti with meatballs, New York style pizza, calzones, and baked ziti exist, and Americans of today are very familiar with semolina based pasta noodles.\nNew York style hot dogs came about with German speaking emigrants from Austria and Germany, particularly with the frankfurter sausage and the smaller wiener sausage. Today the New York style hot dog with sauerkraut, mustard, and the optional cucumber pickle relish is such a part of the local fabric that it is one of the favorite comestibles of",
"-20.534393860056298"
],
[
"make it too difficult to bypass more damaging, less effective, and more costly methods of control — such as applying herbicides in forests. As of May 2017, there is no legally-approved biological control agent to combat garlic mustard in the United States, for example. Garlic mustard has been researched by the United States since the 1990s and C. scrobicollis has been studied specifically since 2002. The 2012 recommendation to release it into the US was blocked by the TAG group. The biological control research for Microstegium vimineum has begun more recently than that of garlic mustard, making the introduction",
"-20.510713664640207"
],
[
"treatment is a low dosage of clonazepam, a muscle relaxant. Patients may also benefit from other benzodiazepines, phenobarbital, and other anticonvulsants such as valproic acid. Affected individuals have reported garlic to be effective for softening the attacks, but no studies have been done on this.",
"-20.49340809683781"
],
[
"Hot sauce Hot sauce, also known as chili sauce or pepper sauce, is any seasoning, or salsa made from chili peppers and other ingredients.\nMany commercial varieties of mass-produced chili sauce exist. Some commercially produced chili sauces are canned, with red tomato that is processed into a pulp used as the primary ingredient. The H. J. Heinz Company is one major producer of chili sauces. In the United States, commercially produced chili sauces are assigned various grades per their quality. These grades include U.S. Grade A (also known as U.S. Fancy), U.S. Grade C (also known as U.S. Standard) and Substandard.",
"-20.492425402626395"
],
[
"of microorganisms. Gloves are worn for three important reasons in hospitals. First, they are worn to provide a protective barrier for personnel, preventing large scale contamination of the hands when touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, mucous membranes, and non-intact skin. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has mandated wearing gloves to reduce the risk of bloodborne pathogen infections. Second, gloves are worn to reduce the likelihood that microorganisms present on the hands of personnel will be transmitted to patients during invasive or other patient-care procedures that involve touching a patient's mucous membranes and nonintact skin.",
"-20.459508613683283"
],
[
"Criteria in food grading for chili sauces in the U.S. includes coloration, consistency, character, absence of defects and flavor. Ingredients Many recipes for hot sauces exist, but the only common ingredient is some variety of chili pepper. Many hot sauces are made by using chili peppers as the base and can be as simple as adding salt and vinegar. Other sauces use some type of fruits or vegetables as the base and add the chili peppers to make them hot. Manufacturers use many different processes from aging in containers to pureeing and cooking the ingredients to achieve a desired",
"-20.45422486681491"
],
[
"not actually cause a chemical burn, or indeed any direct tissue damage at all, when chili peppers are the source of exposure. The inflammation resulting from exposure to capsaicin is believed to be the result of the body's reaction to nerve excitement. For example, the mode of action of capsaicin in inducing bronchoconstriction is thought to involve stimulation of C fibers culminating in the release of neuropeptides. In essence, the body inflames tissues as if it has undergone a burn or abrasion and the resulting inflammation can cause tissue damage in cases of extreme exposure, as is the",
"-20.435106500503025"
],
[
"handling and care procedures, wear schedules, and replacement schedules are followed. Usage Before touching the contact lens or the eye, it is important to wash hands thoroughly with soap and rinse well. Soaps containing moisturizers or allergens should be avoided as these can cause eye irritation. Drying of hands using towels or tissues before handling contact lenses can transfer lint (fluff) to the hands and, subsequently, to the lenses, causing irritation upon insertion. Towels, unless freshly laundered on high temperature wash, are frequently contaminated with large quantities of bacteria and, as such, should be avoided when handling lenses. Dust, lint",
"-20.415416154661216"
],
[
"in the sense of damage being wrought on tissues. The mechanism of action is instead a chemical interaction with the neurological system.\nThe seemingly subjective perceived heat of hot sauces can be measured by the Scoville scale. The Scoville scale number indicates how many times something must be diluted with an equal volume of water until people can no longer feel any sensation from the capsaicin. The hottest hot sauce scientifically possible is one rated at 16,000,000 Scoville units, which is pure capsaicin. An example of a hot sauce marketed as achieving this level of heat is Blair's 16 Million Reserve",
"-20.372978806495667"
],
[
"repellents applied outdoors will have to be reapplied due to rain or heavy dew, or applied often to new plant growth to be effective. Failure to carefully follow the directions included with repellents can drastically diminish the effectiveness of the product. Some repellents contain toxic chemicals, such as paradichlorobenzene, and are ineffective unless used at hazardous concentrations. Other more natural repellents contain chili pepper or capsaicin extracted from hot peppers.\nHowever, even under the best of conditions, repellents frequently fail to live up to user expectations. The reason for this is twofold. First, many repellents simply don't work. For",
"-20.314645980964997"
],
[
"bacteria and less effective against some viruses. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are almost entirely ineffective against norovirus or Norwalk type viruses, the most common cause of contagious gastroenteritis.\nEnough hand antiseptic or alcohol rub must be used to thoroughly wet or cover both hands. The front and back of both hands and between and the ends of all fingers are rubbed for approximately 30 seconds until the liquid, foam or gel is dry. As well as finger tips must be washed well too rubbing them in both palms alternatively.\nThe Center for Disease Control and Prevention in the USA recommends hand washing over",
"-20.31345164042432"
],
[
"Garlic allergy Garlic allergy or allergic contact dermatitis to garlic is a common inflammatory skin condition caused by contact with garlic oil or dust. It mostly affects people who cut and handle fresh garlic, such as chefs, and presents on the tips of the thumb, index and middle fingers of the non-dominant hand (which typically hold garlic bulbs during the cutting). The affected fingertips show an asymmetrical pattern of fissure as well as thickening and shedding of the outer skin layers, which may progress to second- or third-degree burn of injured skin.\nGarlic dermatitis is similar to the tulip dermatitis and",
"-20.310161733301356"
],
[
"report developing a full-body, itchy rash. Applying a cold compress or ice to the area can help relieve swelling, while application of calamine lotion or 1% hydrocortisone cream can help relieve itching and pain. If neither of these creams are available, a paste made from baking soda and water is an effective sting remedy. The paste should be thick enough to stay on the area of the sting until it dries. Some individuals are known to have severe allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, to wasp stings, so should seek immediate medical attention if severe symptoms begin to present. In very",
"-20.30805714613234"
],
[
"not cause as much irritation to the skin as regular soap. Blackheads can be removed across an area with commercially available pore-cleansing strips (which can still damage the skin by leaving the pores wide open and ripping excess skin) or the more aggressive cyanoacrylate method used by dermatologists.\nSqueezing blackheads and whiteheads can remove them, but it can also damage the skin. Doing so increases the risk of causing or transmitting infection and scarring, as well as potentially pushing any infection deeper into the skin. Comedo extractors are used with careful hygiene in beauty salons and by dermatologists, usually after using",
"-20.281830273306696"
],
[
"them. Outdoor use Most indoor tanning lotions do not offer protection from the sun (have no SPF) and are not intended for outdoor use. However, many tanning lotions now contain SPF.",
"-20.2790890832257"
],
[
"or two strengths higher when moving from cream to ointment. As a rule of thumb, an ointment base is more occlusive and will drive the medication into the skin more rapidly than a solution or cream base.\nThe manufacturer of each topical product has total control over the content of the base of a medication. Although containing the same active ingredients, one manufacturer's cream might be more acidic than the next, which could cause skin irritation or change its absorption rate. For example, a vaginal formulation of miconazole antifungal cream might irritate the skin less than an athlete foot formulation of",
"-20.27129687339766"
],
[
"a client's safety at risk because puncturing the skin with a needle can create infection. Therefore, the city must be able to regulate such activity in order to protect its citizens. California state law requires tattoo artists to register their businesses with country health departments. The city of Hermosa Beach argued in this case that Los Angeles County had limited resources to inspect and regulate tattoo parlors. As a result, the city claimed that a total ban on tattoo parlors was justified because it was the only way to ensure that citizens of Hermosa Beach would not be at risk",
"-20.210634092392866"
],
[
"while the hot red ones are available in the fall. It has different culinary usages depending on its maturity.\nImmature green Fresno chilis are more versatile and can be added to many types of dishes. They add mild heat and flavor to sauces, chutneys, dips, relishes, casseroles, soups, stews and savory dishes. Green Fresnos can also be pickled and eaten whole. They make an excellent garnish for Mexican and Southwestern American cuisine.\nMature red Fresno peppers provide less flavor and more heat. They are often added to salsas, relishes, ceviches, and marinades. They make good toppings for tacos, tostadas, burgers, sausages and",
"-20.180763307966117"
],
[
"sauce is more akin to tomato ketchup and cocktail sauce than predominantly chili pepper-based sauces.\nSriracha sauce, a type of Californian hot chili sauce manufactured by Huy Fong Foods, has become increasingly popular in the United States in contemporary times. West Indies Hot pepper sauces, as they are most commonly known there, feature heavily in Caribbean cuisine. They are prepared from chilli peppers and vinegar, with fruits and vegetables added for extra flavor. The most common peppers used are habanero and Scotch bonnet, the latter being the most common in Jamaica. Both are very hot peppers, making for strong sauces. Over",
"-20.178822039044462"
],
[
"means you can put them in any dish without worrying about overpowering them - there's nothing to overpower! They make an excellent textural addition, though, a little crunchy, a little rubbery, very pleasant. Use them in tomato sauce as a meat substitute, or in a spicy Thai curry. You can't go wrong, because you can't taste them.",
"-20.168668851430994"
],
[
"carefully and according to the prescribed directions because when overused over longer periods of time they can cause thinning of the skin. Also, in some instances such as poison ivy dermatitis calamine lotion and cool oatmeal baths may relieve itching.\nUsually, severe cases are treated with systemic corticosteroids which may be tapered gradually, with various dosing schedules ranging from a total of 12 – 20 days to prevent the recurrence of the rash (while the chemical allergen is still in the skin, up to 3 weeks, as well as a topical corticosteroid. Tacrolimus ointment or pimecrolimus cream can also be used",
"-20.168632587214233"
],
[
"humans—terbinafine, fluconazole, or itraconazole—as well as a topical \"dip\" therapy.\nBecause of the usually longer hair shafts in pets compared to those of humans, the area of infection and possibly all of the longer hair of the pet must be clipped to decrease the load of fungal spores clinging to the pet's hair shafts. However, close shaving is usually not done because nicking the skin facilitates further skin infection.\nTwice-weekly bathing of the pet with diluted lime sulfur dip solution is effective in eradicating fungal spores. This must continue for 3 to 8 weeks.\nWashing of household hard surfaces with 1:10 household sodium",
"-20.161957514181267"
],
[
"claims that using chili peppers as a barrier crop can be a sustainable means for rural African farmers to deter elephants from eating their crops. Notably, an article published in the Journal of Environmental Science and Health in 2006 states that \"Although hot chili pepper extract is commonly used as a component of household and garden insect-repellent formulas, it is not clear that the capsaicinoid elements of the extract are responsible for its repellency.\"\nThe first pesticide product using solely capsaicin as the active ingredient was registered with the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1962. Equestrian sports Capsaicin is a banned",
"-20.16173144977074"
],
[
"of the hot dogs purveyed by hot dog carts in New York City are sourced from Sabrett. Overview A hot dog cart is generally a compact cart, fully self-contained and designed to serve a limited menu. The hot dogs are often kept hot within a pan of hot water, and some refer to them as \"dirty water dogs\" per this method. An on-board cooler is used to keep the hot dogs safely chilled until ready for reheating. It also provides cold storage for beverages, such as sodas, and multiple sinks for washing and cleaning utensils. Most hot dog carts use",
"-20.11388391129003"
],
[
"to place any type of hot mix in cool or cold weather. SMA mixtures can be particularly difficult to place in cool weather because they are placed in thin lifts and they contain a high amount of polymer modified binder. They also do not lend themselves well to applications that require a significant amount of hand work.",
"-20.100023692386458"
],
[
"such as mythical creatures, animals and others.\nTo apply facial prosthetics, Pros-Aide, Beta Bond, Medical Adhesive or Liquid Latex is generally used. Pros-Aide is a water-based adhesive that has been the \"industry standard\" for over 30 years. It's completely waterproof and is formulated for use with sensitive skin. It is easily removed with Pros-Aide Remover. BetaBond is growing in popularity among Hollywood artists who say it's easier to remove. Medical Adhesive has the advantage that it's specifically designed not to cause allergies or skin irritation. Liquid Latex can only be used for a few hours, but can be used to create",
"-20.073826846433803"
]
] |
1ot3xp | Why are some watches so expensive? | [
"You may be surprised to know there are quite a few reasons. Among the most important are craftsmanship, attention to detail, brand pedigree and popularity. The precious metal cases aside, one of the largest factors is the craftsmanship a high-end watch's movement. The movement is what makes the watch tick. I'll save the complex talk for another article, but what is important to note is that a high-end watch typically uses a hand-made, super-accurate automatic movement. These movements are constructed of very small gears, springs and synthetic jewels to prevent friction. So small, in fact, that even a speck of dust can through off the accuracy of a watch. If you compared an expensive watch to a to low-end, you would notice that the more expensive of the two is made of much nicer materials and that everything just seems to look and feel right. I know, it sounds so corny, but it's true. The high-quality watch has the right amount of polish, the movement sounds right (the ticks), the crown clicks and functions flawlessly and the band is heavy duty. And I could write a whole article just about the math and styling behind watch dials. Sure, there is all of this attention to detail, but how can a watch be worth in excess of $10,000. Well, you'd be an idiot to think that watch value is based on those details alone. Many of the best watch brands are rich in history and extremely trusted. When buying a top-tier watch, there is no doubt that you'll be paying a pretty penny to be a part of that history. Lastly, high demand of expensive watches allow them to be priced much higher than most other watches. If people will buy a watch for thousands of dollars, you can bet your life that a brand will charge that much.",
"Because there are people willing to pay for them.",
"Apart from the technical details described by /u/PlaneHijacker, higher-end watches are what is known as a [Vleben good]( URL_0 ), i.e. something that is appreciated for it's rarity rather than it's utility. A similar effect exists for antiques, for example: a table is a table, but a table once owned by George Washington will sell for a lot more than one from IKEA, even if they are similarly useful.",
"Some features of watches are extraordinarily complicated and difficult to produce. You must remember no electronics are used whatsoever, and it's incredible that watchmakers are able to create these functions with just little pieces of metal. Once you grasp this fact, you start to seriously appreciate these watches. It's unbelievable to me that it's even possible to create such things using nothing but little pieces of metal. Some of the features I'm talking about are time repeaters, perpetual calendars, sunsets, tourbillon, etc."
] | [
[
"manufacturing techniques. Nevertheless, the tourbillon is one of the most valued features of collectors' watches and premium timepieces, possibly for the same reason that mechanical watches fetch a much higher price than similar quartz watches that are much more accurate. High-quality tourbillon wristwatches, usually made by the Swiss luxury watch industry, are very expensive, and typically retail for tens of thousands of dollars or euros, with much higher prices in the hundreds of thousands of dollars or euros being common. A recent renaissance of interest in tourbillons has been met by the industry with increased availability of",
"-30.930521924514323"
],
[
"while the more expensive watches, set with diamonds and precious stones, can cost up to £300,000.",
"-30.104804286653234"
],
[
"watch brand. Christopher Ward cut out the middleman by selling directly to customers. By cutting out traditional marketing and distribution costs, Christopher Ward watches are sold with lower margins for a more transparent price. The brand's combined emphasis on technical quality and value included the early advertising phrase, ‘the cheapest most expensive watches in the world.’\nIn addition to utilizing the internet for sales, Christopher Ward handles the servicing requests of its customers through an online form, which the company uses to plan the exact logistics of the watch service. Once the servicing requirements have been determined, the watch is sent",
"-27.94064499309752"
],
[
"standardized to the point that there was little difference between their mechanisms, besides quality of workmanship. So watch manufacturers made the number of jewels, one of the few metrics differentiating quality watches, a major advertising point, listing it prominently on the watch's face. Consumers, with little else to go on, learned to equate more jewels with more quality in a watch. Although initially this was a good measure of quality, it gave manufacturers an incentive to increase the jewel count.\nAround the 1960s this 'jewel craze' reached new heights, and manufacturers made watches with 41, 53, 75, or",
"-26.692655678489245"
],
[
"year. The watches go to Asia (55%), Europe (29%), Americas (14%), Africa and Oceania (both 1%).\nIn 2011, Switzerland led the world by exporting over 20 billion USD value of all types of watches, followed by Hong Kong, at under USD$10 billion. China exported the highest number of watches by far in 2011. Industrial sector Switzerland has one of the most competitive pharmaceutical industries in the world. Major Swiss pharmaceutical companies include Novartis and Roche.\nSwitzerland also has an extensive industrial sector, with globally competitive companies in various industrial sectors. Most noticeably, food processing like Nestlé, chemicals for industrial and construction use",
"-26.256741888530087"
],
[
"some foreign manufacturers and incorporated into watches that meet the requirements of the Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry to be sold as Swiss Made, requiring 60% of the value to have been made in Switzerland. The availability of cheap tourbillons has led industry spectators to worry that another quartz crisis may occur, where the Swiss watch industry will not be able to adapt quickly to cheaper complicated mechanical watches produced in other countries. In 2016, TAG Heuer began offering the Carrera Heuer-02T tourbillon at a suggested retail price of 14,900 CHF (~15,000 USD), significantly lower than the 100,000 CHF",
"-26.171880033565685"
],
[
"the most complicated wristwatch from Patek Philippe until 2014, and is one of the most important wristwatches manufactured in the 21st century. It is estimated that only 3 - 5 pieces are made each year, and the price for each piece is over US$1.2 million. However, every purchase of the piece requires an application from the buyer and has to be approved by Patek Philippe President Thierry Stern. On October 2, 2018, a Sky Moon Tourbillon 6002G was auctioned by Poly Auction in Hong Kong, fetching US$2.707 million (HKD 21,240,000), making it one of the most expensive watches ever sold",
"-26.149704054478207"
],
[
"model and configuration concerned, sales prices range between approx. CHF 6,000 and CHF 21,600 – and can be even higher, if special requests are accommodated. This puts Ochs und Junior AG watches in the upper price range of the luxury watch market segment.",
"-26.07272582036967"
],
[
"the classic sports car, in its Capeland and Clifton collections. Pricing With an average selling price of between US$2,000 and US$5,000, Baume & Mercier watches are in the mid-range luxury watch market.\nIn 2016, Baume & Mercier began to present more affordable offerings under US$1,000 with the launch of its \"My Classima\" models, a sub-collection of its Classima collection of classic dress watches.",
"-25.612915974401403"
],
[
"released a few highly regarded watches. These included watches with retrograde, jumping hour, and double-rotor complications.\nIn terms of pricing, Bernhardt positioned Perrelet in the lower middle of the luxury market, with most of their releases priced between five and ten thousand (US) dollars. Their upper-range watches featuring costlier complications, such as tourbillons or minute-repeaters, typically retailed in the thirty-forty thousand (US) dollar range.\nIn 2009 Rodriguez appointed Fausto Salvi as CEO of Perrelet.",
"-25.486441228480544"
],
[
"cost of watches, based on data from the Elgin National Watch Company.\nWatches require very strict production tolerances and very few manufacturing defects, making labor cost reduction difficult. Other products made via armory practices, such as firearms and sewing machines, generally have much looser tolerances than are necessary for watchmaking, which involves numerous tiny gears that must fit together precisely. The intent of applying armory practices to watchmaking was to emphasize tight tolerances in the manufacturing of the component parts, so that final assembly could be done by lesser-skilled workers without the need for an expert watchmaker to personally oversee",
"-25.27806663204683"
],
[
"quality and exclusivity, Patek Philippe would only slowly increase the number of timepieces produced each year (by 1-3 percent per year) but with a ceiling. Currently, the company is an active member of the Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH.\nSince 2000s, Patek Philippe timepieces have repeatedly fetched high prices in auctions worldwide. As of 2018, among the world's top ten most expensive watches ever sold at auctions, seven are Patek Philippe watches, and among the top 58 most expensive watches sold at auction (over 2 million US dollars), 46 are Patek Philippe watches. A small part of the demand",
"-25.024446251263726"
],
[
"Rolex watches.\nReplica watches are frequently sold from street stands in districts catering to tourists, or from Internet websites (mostly Asian). The auction website eBay was previously known to have lots of listings for fake watches. Search engines have been increasingly pressured to remove search results of websites that sell fakes. Furthermore, many expensive brands do not sanction any online sales, and instruct customers to only buy watches from authorized retailers.\nSwiss Customs estimates that 40% of counterfeit watches come from China, but counterfeits are produced elsewhere, even in the US. EU figures show that at least 54% of fakes seized in",
"-25.0103761900682"
],
[
"and the second most expensive watch ever sold at auction (as of November 2018). \nThe final price of $17,752,500 for the \"Paul Newman\" Daytona Ref. 6239 was the sum of the winning auction bid ($15.5 million) and a buyer's premium of 12.5%. The model was sold by \nPhillips in association with Bacs & Russo in New York City, as part of the \"WINNING ICONS: Milestone Watches of the 20th Century\" auction. The watch, called the \"Holy Grail\" or \"Amber Room\" of watches and long presumed lost, had been \"found\" earlier in 2017. Aurel Bacs, the auctioneer, remarked \"The first question",
"-24.741008368117036"
],
[
"companies made them, with literally hundreds of names on the dials. From around 1905 Ingersoll started selling their watches in the UK as Crown watches.\nTo keep costs down, the watches were often sold in flimsy cardboard boxes, which are now highly collectible.",
"-24.738913045774098"
],
[
"drinks, fashion, cosmetics, fragrances, watches, jewelry, luggage, handbags – was worth close to $170 billion and grew 7.9 percent. The United States has been the largest regional market for luxury goods and is estimated to continue to be the leading personal luxury goods market in 2013, with a value of 62.5 billion euros. The largest sector in this category was luxury drinks, including premium whisky, Champagne, Cognac. This sector was the only one that suffered a decline in value (-0.9 percent). The watches and jewelry section showed the strongest performance, growing in value by 23.3 percent, while the clothing and accessories",
"-24.237527885474265"
],
[
"of the most expensive models, due to cost-problems. For example, the dial-door became a conventional square, and the extra devices, which were traditionally around the dial, were simplified. Massachusetts Shelf clock Arriving in Roxbury, MA. about 1780, and continued to produce tall case clocks, but some time later began to produce Shelf Clocks. This model was much smaller than the tall case clocks and as a result, was suitable for being placed on a mantle, shelf or a piece of furniture.\nNowadays, the Shelf-Clocks are nonetheless considered Aaron's foremost department. They are avidly sought by collectors. Banjo clock (Willard Patent Timepiece)",
"-24.236266020539915"
],
[
"if the luxury goods become quite popular and favourable.\nHowever, cheaper products may draw attention and demand away from a brands upward product line extension. A way to combat this is to increase the quality of the brands luxury goods, as well as targeting aspects of the consumer market that are able and prepared to pay more for the higher quality product.",
"-24.09798060171306"
],
[
"selling-prices of flagship smartphones have had a negative effect on the wireless carriers, who have seen their EBITDA margins drop as they sold more smartphones and fewer feature phones. To help make up for this, carriers typically use high-end devices to upsell customers onto higher-priced service plans with increased data allotments. Trends have shown that consumers are willing to pay more for smartphones that include newer features and technology, and that smartphones were considered to be more relevant in present-day popular culture than feature phones. Market share During the mid-2000s, best-selling feature phones such as the fashionable flip-phone Motorola Razr,",
"-24.093914903816767"
],
[
"and frankly awe-inspiring.”\nEarly in the 2000s, as premium vintage watches dramatically increased in value, purchase of these timepieces moved out of reach for purchase by many buyers. Nevertheless, interest in vintage watches continued to grow, and in December 2014, Henry created an Instagram account and began posting photos and information about his watches. By March 2018, Henry's Instagram account had more than 15,000 followers. Henry's experience with online connection to fellow watch enthusiasts prompted him to create a line of affordable new watches with the features of rare and high-priced classic timepieces. Dan Henry Watches: first series (2016) In September",
"-23.923716548946686"
],
[
"digital watches incorporating innovative technology. Today, Casio is most commonly known for making durable and reliable electronic products. The G-Shock range of shock-resistant watches is also very popular, with the original 1983 G-Shock DW-5000C being highly sought-after by collectors. The scientific calculators made by Casio especially the CLASSWIZ series of calculators are known for being affordable while incorporating a host of functions as compared to their competitors.\nCasio also makes products for local markets, including \"Prayer Compass\" watch series designed to help Muslims pray on time and in the right direction.",
"-23.542925861896947"
],
[
"product. Having a low price on a luxury product would also have a negative impact on the business as in the long run the business would not be profitable. This can be seen as a positive for the consumer as they are not needing to pay extreme prices for the luxury product.\nThere has been an evident change in the marketing area within a business from cost plus pricing to the value. Variable pricing strategies Variable pricing strategy sums up the total cost of the variable characteristics associated in the production of the product. Examples of variable characteristics are: interest rates,",
"-23.496826938469894"
],
[
"auctioning the rare watch, leading James Cox to hire Bacs.\nBidding opened at $1 million, but as the commission bid was being announced, it was interrupted by a $10 M bid, which was raised in increments of $500,000 until it was finally sold at the winning $15.5 M bid. The price of US$17.75 M makes it the most expensive wristwatch ever sold. In 1984, when Newman gave the watch to James Cox, the watch was selling for about $200. Cox announced his plans to donate a significant portion of the proceeds to the Nell Newman Foundation and Newman's Own Foundation.",
"-23.49614043708425"
],
[
"Luxury magazine A luxury magazine is a printed or online magazine marketed to the ultra-affluent that feature high-value products like sports cars, jewelry, mechanical watches, real estate, yachts, private jets and exotic vacations. Nationally, magazines such as Robb Report primarily offer advertisements for expensive goods. In many expensive markets, local titles exist to target the affluent. \nThere are also many online magazines publishers including Modern Luxury and Niche Media .",
"-23.430961539328564"
],
[
"other companies use platinum for producing their limited edition watch series. Watchmakers appreciate the unique properties of platinum, as it neither tarnishes nor wears out (the latter quality relative to gold).\nThe price of platinum, like other industrial commodities, is more volatile than that of gold. In 2008, the price of platinum dropped from $2,252 to $774 per oz, a loss of nearly 2/3 of its value. By contrast, the price of gold dropped from ~$1,000 to ~$700/oz during the same time frame, a loss of only 1/3 of its value.\nDuring periods of sustained economic stability and growth, the price of",
"-23.411178647889756"
],
[
"competitive.\nThere are claims that insufficiently free market competition inflates the prices of frames, which cost an average of $25-$50 US to make, to an average retail price of $300 in the United States. This claim is disputed by some in the industry. Redistribution Some organizations like Lions Clubs International, Unite For Sight, ReSpectacle, and New Eyes for the Needy provide a way to donate glasses and sunglasses. Unite For Sight has redistributed more than 200,000 pairs. Fashion Many people require glasses for the reasons listed above. There are many shapes, colors, and materials that can be used when designing",
"-23.37932667369023"
],
[
"successors to Ref. 1415 include Ref. 2523, Ref. 5230, Ref. 5531 (with minute repeater), and so on.\nAs of 2018, Patek Philippe World Time collection (Ref. 1415, Ref. 2523) holds 6 spots among the 58 world's most expensive watches sold at auction (over 2 million US dollars), with the world record being 4.027 million US dollars (6,603,500 CHF) made at Antiquorum's Geneva auction on April 13, 2002. Nautilus wristwatch In 1976, Patek Philippe introduced the Nautilus collection after deciding it was time to produce an exclusive sport watch with finishes of the highest quality. The first model was Ref. 3700 and",
"-23.28667243930977"
],
[
"the watch movement. Watch specifications The watch has two dials and is made from pure 18K gold with a non-reflective glass of blue sapphire. It includes 834 parts and 16 horological complications, including tourbillon, minute repeater, moon phase, moon age and perpetual calendar, sky chart, sunrise, sunset and the equation of time. Price The Tour de l'lle wristwatch is one of the most complicated wristwatches in the world. In total, only seven pieces were manufactured, each of which had a price of more than US$1 million. On April 3, 2005, a Tour de I'lle wristwatch was auctioned by Antiquorum, reaching",
"-23.274101659539156"
],
[
"cosmetics. Global consumer companies, such as Procter & Gamble, are also attracted to the industry, due to the difficulty of making a profit in the mass consumer goods market. The customer base for various luxury goods continue to be more culturally diversified, and this presents more unseen challenges and new opportunities to companies in this industry. Market size The luxury goods market has been on an upward climb for many years. Apart from the setback caused by the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, the industry has performed well, particularly in 2000. In that year, the world luxury goods market – which includes",
"-23.25525790231768"
],
[
"are now described as eyewear: a fashionable accessory. Much like other fashion designs and accessories, eyewear is created by designers, has reputable labels, and comes in collections, by season and designer. It is becoming more common for consumers to purchase eyewear with clear, non-prescription lenses, illustrating that glasses are no longer a social stigma, but a fashionable accessory that \"frames your face.\" Market The market for spectacles has been characterized as having highly inelastic demand, and advertising restrictions in the USA have correlated with higher prices, suggesting that adverts make the spectacles market more price-competitive. It may also be monopolistically",
"-23.17995574354427"
],
[
"in patient medication cost share was found to be associated with low adherence to medication.\nThe United States is among the countries with the highest prices of prescription drugs mainly attributed to the government's lack of negotiating lower prices with monopolies in the pharmaceutical industry especially with brand name drugs. In order to manage medication costs, many US patients on long term therapies fail to fill their prescription, skip or reduce doses. According to a Kaiser Family Foundation survey in 2015, about three quarters (73%) of the public think drug prices are unreasonable and blame pharmaceutical companies for setting prices so",
"-23.146633281256072"
],
[
"was famous for. For the other brand, it started producing lower-cost watches that fit the emerging mass consumption markets. Thanks to this new orientation, Solvil et Titus was instrumental in the development of mechanical and electronic watches.\nIn 1968, Vogel took the lead of the newly founded Societe des Gardes-Temps SA, a conglomerate of low cost watch manufacturers which was the world's third largest watchmaking company of the time and had a true international dimension (it acquired the American Waltham Watch Company and signed a licensing agreement in 1973 with Elgin Watch – then Swiss watchmaking's biggest foreign investment.\nVogel had foreseen",
"-23.144343332154676"
],
[
"the most sought after pieces in the international vintage markets. Demand exceeds supply. Original blue models can reach $13,000 with decent example for $10,000. The less desirable grey models sell for over $8,000.\nAn advert for the watch was also made in where McQueen races against McLaren Formula 1 racer Lewis Hamilton in \"The Duel\" which uses CGI and archive audio of the Race scene from Le Mans. Here McQueen loses against Hamilton at Le Mans and hands him his TAG Heuer watch as an award but Lewis tells him to keep it because he's living in the Future. Monaco 1533",
"-23.098321335273795"
],
[
"paid for over a period of time and thus can make the product seem more affordable. On the other hand, most newspaper and magazine-type subscriptions are paid upfront, and this might actually prevent some customerfixed price may be an advantage for consumers using those services frequently. However, it could be a disadvantage to a customer who plans to use the service frequently, but later does not. The commitment to paying for a package may have been more expensive than a single purchase would have been. In addition, subscription models increase the possibility of vendor lock-in, which can have fatally business-critical",
"-23.045773488876875"
],
[
"the cheapest. Most of this is off patent. Hospital medication is more often under patent and therefore much more expensive. In 2018 the ministry announced that it planned to adopt an external reference price scheme, as used in other European countries, particularly Sweden and Norway where hospital medicine is respectively 10% and 13% lower than in Denmark. This would require manufacturers to report prices for their products in 9 countries and Denmark would pay at the average rate.\nIt predicts that exports of Danish pharmaceutical products will reach 100 billion kroner in 2018, and increase of 7.5",
"-22.99848495227343"
],
[
"these because the same price-reducing measures were available to all computer makers. Furthermore, software and peripherals for PC style computers tended to cost more than those for 8-bit computers because of the anchoring effect caused by the pricey IBM PC. As well, PCs were inherently more expensive since they could not use the home TV set as a video display. Nonetheless, the overall reduction in manufacturing costs narrowed the price difference between old 8-bit technology and new PCs. Despite their higher absolute prices PCs were perceived by many to be better values for their utility as superior productivity tools and",
"-22.96788204833865"
],
[
"“the highest price yet for a Timex-developed product,” according to Herb Doscher, TX's U.S. brand manager.\n In the U.S., watches came with a two-year warranty. Discontinuation During the period in which The Timex Group fielded the TX Watch Company, it had expanded to include the design and manufacture a range of watches (at the time: Vincent Berard, Versace, Versus, Valentino, Salvatore Ferragamo, Guess, Helix, Nautica, Mark Ecko, Avirex, Timex, TX, Acqua, and Carriage) and had expressed confidence in TX's potential. “TX not only demonstrates our commitment to technological and design leadership, it also shows our determination to penetrate new market",
"-22.932428119587712"
],
[
"Industry, then sold.) The watch was held in the Rockford Time Museum until it was sold at Sotheby's for a record breaking $11,002,500 to an anonymous bidder in New York City on December 2, 1999. The owner was later known to be a member of the Qatari Royal Family, Sheikh Saud bin Muhammed Al Thani. The watch was on loan to the Patek Philippe Museum in Geneva, Switzerland for several years, and was the most expensive single piece on display.\n\nOn July 10, 2014, Sotheby's announced that in November 2014, the watch would once again be auctioned.\nIt sold for 23.2 million",
"-22.842040625051595"
],
[
"watches in the past and has stated in its advertisements that it never will, nor have they ever produced watches with digital displays. In comparison to a large watchmaker like Rolex, which makes about 2,000 watches a day, Blancpain produces fewer than thirty watches per day. Each watch is made by a single watchmaker. Villeret The Villeret collection is marketed as Blancpain's most classic collection. Named after the birth place of Blancpain, the Villeret collection has been a flagship line of the company since 1980s. The collection not only includes wristwatches with simple and elegant designs, but also include watches",
"-22.833838663347706"
],
[
"carry different prices in the general market) because in this way the consumer can place various products in the same paper bag and weighting is simplified a lot, thus achieving higher sales. This is common in apples and pears.\nPrices are always listed on a paper card displayed along with the produce. Dynamic pricing Sellers change their prices frequently within the same day, especially for sensitive products such as fish.\nThe price is usually high early in the morning (8-9h00) and is lowered as the time passes, especially if the product does not sell well that particular day. The new",
"-22.82992102665594"
],
[
"high-quality enameling (such as the Fleurier Miniature Painting models), engraving, and a seven-day self-winding tourbillon. Bovet watches are also unique for the company's tradition of employing women artisans, which is rare for traditional watch making companies in Europe. Some of the limited edition modern Bovet watches can cost more than US$1 million, and the purchaser of such a watch is usually flown out to the manufacturing facility in Switzerland by the company to witness the production process and meet the artisans.",
"-22.806207909467048"
],
[
"consumers and hurt Apple's reputation for simplicity. Apple's retail resellers like Sears and CompUSA often failed to sell or even competently display these Macs. Compounding matters was the fact that, although the machines were cheaper than a comparable PC (when taken into account all the components built-in that had to be added to the 'bare bones PC'), the poor marketing gave the impression that the machines were more expensive. Inventory grew as Apple consistently underestimated demand for popular models and overestimated demand for others.\nIn 1991, Apple partnered with long-time competitor IBM and Motorola to form the AIM alliance. The ultimate",
"-22.756672068557236"
],
[
"futurist Raymond Kurzweil, products start out as highly ineffective and highly expensive.\nGradually, products become more effective and cheaper until they are highly effective and almost free to buy. Some of the products that have followed this example include AIDS medications (which are now affordable to the majority of AIDS sufferers), text-to-speech programs, and digital cameras. However, products that rely primarily on paper (e.g., newspapers and toilet paper) and/or fossil fuels (e.g., electricity in most countries and petroleum gasoline for automobiles) have only increased in price. \nThis directly contradicts the trend of electronic gadgets like netbooks, desktop computers, and laptop",
"-22.729307249945123"
],
[
"the loot-box model of Overwatch that uses only cosmetic items will become the more preferred method of offering this monitization in the future. Despite this, Overwatch's system still does not allow players to directly use real-world funds to purchase a specific cosmetic item, and the rate which they earn in-game currency towards loot boxes can be slow, both aspects which contribute towards in-game spending and the potential for gambling. Star Wars Battlefront II Conversely, Electronic Arts's Star Wars Battlefront II, developed by EA DICE studio and released in November 2017, received heightened attention in the wake of the October",
"-22.692602363531478"
],
[
"Italian market. It also distributes Paris Hilton watches in Italy and upscale Glam Rock watches in the United States, Canada and Italy.\nBinda operates in more than 70 markets with approximately 400 employees worldwide, and ended 2007 with consolidated revenues of €297 million and sales of approximately 5 million pieces. Its watches include those made in the Far East, retailing under $100 (75 euros), Swiss-made ones, averaging about $1,400 (1,000 euros), and complicated tourbillon watches, retailing above $184,000 (130,000 euros).\nBreil Milano’s two brand ambassadors are Oscar-winning actress Charlize Theron and movie star Edward Norton.",
"-22.66459451057017"
],
[
"in 2013 after a report from Rambøll deemed it too expensive.",
"-22.626775028184056"
],
[
"war in Iraq, or used business wear, such as tweed cloth sportcoats.\nWith the stock market crash of 2008, shopping at thrift stores became more widely accepted. Bragging about how much an item of clothing cost was no longer about how expensive it was, but rather how cheap it cost.\nShowing off a six-hundred-dollar pair of shoes when people were losing their jobs was no longer tactful. In the United States, resale stores experienced an average of 35% increase in sales. Purchasing used clothing has lost much of its stigma also due to the growing environmental movement towards consumption.\nBecause textiles can be",
"-22.626441538493964"
],
[
"produces watches with quartz, kinetic, solar, and mechanical movements of varying prices, ranging from around ¥4,000 (US$45) (sold under the brand Alba) to ¥50,000,000 (US$554,000). To separate the customer groups, Seiko has created many different brands in Japan and the international market.\nSeiko has several lines such as the Seiko 5, luxury \"Credor\", \"Prospex\", \"Presage\" and the \"Grand Seiko\" series. Seiko SARB The Seiko SARB is their mid-range mechanical line of watches. They use the Seiko 6R15 movement.\nSome of the examples of the SARB line are SARB033, SARB035, SARB017, SARB065 etc... as well as some of the rarer SARB013, SARB015, SARB031,",
"-22.5994975992362"
],
[
"label. Rollins writes, \"We have kept the price at ten bucks even in these times of inflation. Why? Because talk is cheap and we're all judged by what we do, not what we say.\"",
"-22.58801160305302"
],
[
"work for enough time to ensure the customers will come back to buy again. Perceived obsolescence comes in a lot with fashion and trends and fueled by advertising and media consumption. Through this technique, consumers are convinced that certain products do not have value anymore because it is out of style, and to have value, consumers must buy more up to date styles. As of 2015, the top five consumer markets in the world included the United States, Japan, Germany, China and France. Effects A fundamental effect of overconsumption is a reduction in the planet's carrying capacity. Excessive unsustainable consumption",
"-22.50502280233195"
],
[
"\"Upper Midfield\", suggesting that the manufacturer has taken first actions addressing the impact of its manufacturing activities on the environment and climate change.\nIn jewelry and watchmaking industry, there are general concerns over the lack of transparency in manufacturing activities and the sourcing of precious raw materials such as gold, which is a major cause of environmental issues such as pollution, soil degradation and deforestation. The situation is especially serious in the developing countries which are top producers of gold, including China, Russia and South Africa. It is estimated that the watch and jewelry sector uses over 50% of world's annual",
"-22.467563021811657"
],
[
"stopping the watch. 'Jewel inflation' It is doubtful whether adding jewels in addition to the ones listed above is really useful in a watch. It does not increase accuracy, since the only wheels which have an effect on the balance wheel, those in the going train, are already jeweled. Marine chronometers, the most accurate portable timepieces, often have only 7 jewels. Nor does jeweling additional wheel bearings increase the useful life of the movement; as mentioned above most of the other wheels do not get enough wear to need them.\nHowever, by the early 20th century watch movements had been",
"-22.467077441571746"
],
[
"less likely to be worn down as quickly, but the more usual reason is to profit from the difference between face value and metal value. Debasement of money almost always leads to price inflation. Sometimes price controls are at the same time also instituted by the governing authority, but historically these have generally proved unworkable.\nThe United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though",
"-22.449972849339247"
],
[
"you can get designer-quality frames, like what you’d get from Prada.” When told that some eyeglasses cost as much as $800 in the United States, Butler remarked, “I know. It’s ridiculous. It’s a complete rip-off.”",
"-22.439057759882417"
],
[
"the price \"modest\" for a device of its capabilities, and praised the ten-hour battery life. Others, including PC Advisor and the Sydney Morning Herald, wrote that the iPad would also compete with proliferating netbooks, most of which use Microsoft Windows. The base model's price of $499 (equivalent to $573 in 2018) was lower than pre-release estimates by Wall Street analysts, and Apple's competitors, all of whom were expecting a much higher entry price point.\nThe media also praised the quantity of applications, as well as the bookstore and other media applications. In contrast, some sources, including the BBC, criticized the",
"-22.38955176700256"
],
[
"by retail and economic shifts including online ordering and dual pricing schemes which render books more expensive in Canada than in the USA.",
"-22.386626869498286"
],
[
"It is estimated that the watch and jewelry sector uses over 50% of world's annual gold production (over 2,000 tons), but in most cases the watch companies are not able to or are unwilling to demonstrate where their raw materials come from and if the material suppliers use eco-friendly sourcing technologies. Notable models In general, Rolex has three watch lines: Oyster Perpetual, Professional and Cellini (the Cellini line is Rolex's line of \"dress\" watches). The primary bracelets for the Oyster line are named Jubilee, Oyster, President, and Pearlmaster. The watch straps on the models are usually either stainless steel, yellow",
"-22.380313488960383"
],
[
"for the watches, despite resistance from jewelers because of the low 50% markup, and Timex opened new distribution channels including department stores, cigar stands, drug stores, and other mass market outlets. By 1962, the Timex brand held the number one market share position in the United States, where one out of every three watches sold was a Timex. Foreign markets were added with company sales offices in Canada, Mexico, France, Great Britain, Germany, and Portugal, as well as distributors in about 20 other countries. Plants were built in the United States, Europe, and Asia.\nEdwin H. Land, co-founder of Polaroid Corporation,",
"-22.373980232339818"
],
[
"computers that also have been decreasing in price. However, the prevailing inflation rate of a country or province/state may negate the plummeting costs of software, AIDS medications, and/or digital cameras in certain regions along with certain governmental policies. This has the effect of keeping costs high in certain areas while they are dramatically reduced in others. \nIn theory, this means that the rich people have earlier access to highly inefficient technologies, medical treatments, and therapies (that are prototypical in nature) while the poor get access to these same products when they become more efficient and easier to manufacture several years",
"-22.35308072163025"
],
[
"crystals as a cost-saving move is “a smart way to go about it,” and Time and Tide described its own criticism of the watches as “really scraping the bottom of the barrel.”",
"-22.324927919336915"
],
[
"following December to rename the company United States Time Corporation. United States Time Corporation (1944–1969) Sales declined after the Korean War in the 1950s because of diminishing defense orders, and United States Time president Lehmkuhl was convinced that an inexpensive watch would be a market success if it was both accurate and durable. He felt that low cost could be accomplished through the combination of automation, the precision tooling techniques used in making fuse timers, and a simpler design than that of higher-priced Swiss watches. Durability was accomplished through a new hard alloy called Armalloy, developed through wartime research. Armalloy",
"-22.306492641859222"
],
[
"the most expensive in the world, and the region is estimated to incur excess costs of $1.4 billion to $2.3 billion per year as a result of these high remittance fees.\nThe company has also been criticized for its use of exclusivity agreements with banks in countries that receive remittances, restricting competition and harming the consumer, by requiring the consumer to conduct transactions via nominated banks. This also allows for the imposition of above-average transaction fees.\nIn February 2016, Western Union was questioned by the EU antitrust regulator over its network of agents in order to establish whether the company colluded with",
"-22.300349280703813"
],
[
"the case for the computer market over the past decade or so. Every year, computer based companies market machines that are more and more powerful, and cheaper to make thanks to technological advancements. Computer based companies attempt to promote their newer models every year because of this, as it allows them to further increase their profit margin.\nThe price a buyer would have to pay for a personal computer has immensely decreased over the years, as the index dropped over 20% every year, from 1999-2003, and now decreasing by 11% to 12% annually. Importance of innovation A hypothesis is that by",
"-22.232701519329567"
],
[
"Horloger watch museum at Switzerland. Auctions and collectability Simplicity is the most frequently appearing model at auctions.\nIn 2016, Phillips sold one for €260000.\nIn 2017, Sotheby's sold one for €176,000.\nIn 2017, Phillips sold one for €192,500.\nOne of the 9 Duality models ever produced was sold in 2017 at New York by Phillips for almost $1,000,000. Dufour's private collection Other than his own creations, Dufour is seen wearing only two other watches.\nIn an interview during SIHH 2016 he states \"Datograph is the only neutral watch I bought for myself\" from A. Lange & Söhne. In another interview with Hodinkee.com, he states \"The",
"-22.225892197417124"
],
[
"bulk for around $20. Furthermore, while the standards for labeling a watch \"American Made\" is that nearly 100% of the parts must be physically fabricated in the US, the legal standard in Switzerland for \"Swiss Made\" is that no more than 40% of the \"value\" of the watch can be fabricated overseas. Since the cost of fabricating watch parts overseas that eventually end up in \"Swiss Made\" watches is much lower than fabricating them in Switzerland, its unclear if the \"40% of the value\" limitation is particularly meaningful. Gentrification controversy Some have criticized Shinola for its role in gentrification",
"-22.222137022938114"
],
[
"for smaller devices.\nThe poor demand resulted in price cuts for various Windows RT products; in April 2013 the price of Dell's XPS 10 fell from US$450 US to $300, and Microsoft began offering free covers for its Surface tablet in some territories as a limited-time promotion—itself a US$130 value for the Type Cover alone. Microsoft also reportedly reduced the cost of Windows RT licenses for devices with smaller screens, hoping that this could spur interest in the platform. In July 2013, Microsoft cut the price of the first-generation Surface worldwide by 30%, with its U.S. price falling to $350. Concurrently,",
"-22.10291811474599"
],
[
"unusual, with showbag prices as at 2007 commonly in the A$10–20 range. The rising cost of showbags is often identified as a major negative aspect of shows. In 2008, there was a $10,000 showbag. Despite this, it is generally assumed that the total retail value of the individual contents of a showbag will exceed the price charged for the package.\nCommon themes for showbags include confectionery brands, trademarked toys such as Barbie, The Simpsons, G.I. Joe and Batman, broad areas of children's play interest such as \"cowboy\" or \"pirate\", and sporting teams. Showbags may also be created for and named",
"-22.089733145869104"
],
[
"Too cheap to meter Too cheap to meter describes a commodity so inexpensive that it is cheaper and less bureaucratic to simply provide it for a flat fee or even free and make a profit from associated services. It can also refer to services which it would cost more to itemize bills for the service than it costs to provide the service in the first place, thus it being simpler and less expensive to just provide it in a bundle along with other services.\nAlthough sometimes attributed to Walter Marshall, a pioneer of nuclear power in the United Kingdom, the phrase",
"-22.05296670095413"
],
[
"to maintain tighter quality control of the after-sales service for its watch brands, produce high margins on after sales services (two to four times what an independent watchmaker would ask), and to lower second-hand watchmaking parts on the used and fake market. Training Historically, in England, watchmakers would have to undergo a seven-year apprenticeship and then join a guild, such as the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers in London, before selling their first watch. In modern times, watchmakers undergo training courses such as the ones offered by the BHI, or one of the many other schools around the world following the",
"-22.040315017598914"
],
[
"the watch community. \"It is a modest masterpiece\", says design critic Stephen Bayley. Counterfeits Counterfeits, which are quite common although the price tag of the original is very low, generally have a slightly lower plastic build quality, the LCD viewing angles are not as wide, and are significantly less accurate than the original. The newer modules with the green LED light can be tested by pressing the right button for over 3 seconds in the main timekeeping mode; this action would lead the display to read \"CASIo\", as a test for authenticity. With the advancement in technology, however, counterfeit watches",
"-22.036448834463954"
],
[
"and used by Rolex, Patek and Omega in their electroquartz models. The inherent accuracy and low cost of production has resulted in the proliferation of quartz clocks and watches since that time. By the 1980s, quartz technology had taken over applications such as kitchen timers, alarm clocks, bank vault time locks, and time fuzes on munitions, from earlier mechanical balance wheel movements, an upheaval known in watchmaking as the quartz crisis.\nQuartz timepieces have dominated the wristwatch and clock market since the 1980s. Because of the high Q factor and low temperature coefficient of the quartz crystal, they are more accurate",
"-22.025075586512685"
],
[
"interview. He continued in another interview and said \"If third-party publishers are going to treat the iPad as a serious gaming device, the average selling price per game has to at least double, which is difficult to achieve, especially when you consider that your $19.99 game in the App Store is competing against games that sell for $1 to $5.\"\nOn July 6, 2010, Divnich and Electronic Entertainment Design and Research released a behavioral study showing the influence professional game critics can have on consumers' willingness to purchase and willingness to recommend video games. The study was formally released on G4",
"-21.962951893918216"
],
[
"specific versions of Android was also criticized, along with its poor battery life, which was considered more comparable to a smartphone than a watch.\nIn an infographic posted in September 2013, TUAW compared the Galaxy Gear to the sixth-generation iPod Nano (which attracted unofficial watchband accessories due to its similarly square form factor) considering the three-year-old MP3 player to be a \"better, cheaper [smart]watch\" than the Galaxy Gear because it is not dependent on a \"host\" smartphone or tablet, and contained a larger number of features than the Galaxy Gear (including the ability to, primarily, store and play music from the",
"-21.9592245251406"
],
[
"best quarterly earnings ever, with 53% of its revenue coming from the sale of 37 million iPhones, at an average selling price of nearly $660. The average selling price has remained fairly constant for most of the phone's lifespan, hovering between $622 and $660.\nFor the eight largest phone manufacturers in Q1 2012, according to Horace Dediu at Asymco, Apple and Samsung combined to take 99% of industry profits (HTC took the remaining 1%, while RIM, LG, Sony Ericsson, Motorola, and Nokia all suffered losses), with Apple earning 73 cents out of every dollar earned by the phone makers. As the industry",
"-21.948801044374704"
],
[
"drink prices by increments of about 10 cents every few minutes depending on their popularity. Popular drinks become more expensive, while unpopular drinks become cheaper.",
"-21.94793240794388"
],
[
"but at best they displayed minutes. As a result of industrial manufacturing in the second half of the 19th century, however, the pocket watch became an everyday item.\nSelected examples:",
"-21.9254784824152"
],
[
"were made. Stories about the watch vary between sources\nIn August 2007, Jack Heuer confirmed its production by Heuer which caused so much auction activity in July and August 2007. Being a rarer example of the Monacos, the best example cost more than $10,000. An excellent condition model sold for $7,500. Monaco CS2110/1 \"Heuer Re-Edition\" This model is a reissued version of the original in 1998 produced in a limited edition of 5,000.\nDespite the company being acquired by Techniques d'Avant Garde, meaning all subsequent models now bear the current \"TAG Heuer\" logo on its face, the CS2111 bears the old HEUER",
"-21.907128494989593"
],
[
"prices on loss-leading T-shirts with a sell price of £1, initially conceived a marketing tool to draw in customers. Whilst some of the impact of a weakening currency had been offset by higher sales and subsequentially higher supplier orders, it is still not enough to fully absorb the higher import costs.\nThe retailer's pricing structure sees 95% of all stock priced no higher than £10, with many less. The clothing retailer uses social media as a means to market and compete with its rivals, with one particular case in February 2018 involving Primark, whereby the retailers were embroiled in a light-hearted",
"-21.90195534558734"
],
[
"old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. In price lining, the price remains constant but quality or extent of product or service adjusted to reflect changes in cost. The underlying rationale of this tactic is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable prices. Price lining continues to be widely used in department stores where customers often note racks of garments or accessories",
"-21.86379616969498"
],
[
"and smaller print runs to boost value. Trading cards, however, do not have an absolute monetary value. Cards are only worth as much as a collector is willing to pay. Popularity Popularity of trading cards is determined by the subject represented on the card, their real life accomplishments, and short term news coverage as well as the specifics of the card. Scarcity While vintage cards are truly a scarce commodity, modern day manufacturers have to artificially add value to their products in order to make them scarce. This is accomplished by including serial numbered parallel sets, cards with game worn",
"-21.84788806270808"
],
[
"luxury watches into his products for a long time. Zenbooks were the first opportunity to put this into practice, the crossover being achieved, he said, by \"the unfolding of the laptop from the side recalling the elegance of minute and hour hand movements\". The reference to watches is also reflected in the marketing of Zenbooks; Asus published design sketches overlaying an open Zenbook on a watch face, and video advertisements feature similar imagery. The concentric circles on the lid of Zenbooks were intended to look like ripples in water and to reflect \"philosophical ideas such as the infinite nature of",
"-21.845529884449206"
],
[
"Luxury goods Market trends Originally, luxury goods available only to the very wealthy and \"aristocratic world of old money\" that offered them a history of tradition, superior quality, along with a pampered buying experience. Luxury goods have been transformed by a shift from custom-made (bespoke) works with exclusive distribution practices by specialized, quality-minded family-run and small businesses to a mass production of specialty branded goods by profit-focused large corporations and marketers. The trend in modern luxury is simply a product or service that is marketed, packaged, and sold by global corporations that are focused \"on growth, visibility, brand awareness, advertising,",
"-21.803067677654326"
],
[
"relatively low price for a Swiss-made watch, it gained instant popularity in its home market. Compared to conventional watches, a Swatch was 80% cheaper to produce by fully automating assembly and reducing the number of parts from the usual 91 or more to 51 components, with no loss of accuracy.\nLebanese entrepreneur, Nicolas G. Hayek together with a group of Swiss investors took over a majority shareholding of Swatch during 1985 in the newly consolidated group under the name Societe Suisse de Microelectronique et d'Horlogerie, or SMH. He became Chairman of the board of directors, and CEO in 1986. Later he",
"-21.77825066603691"
],
[
"a stop to the use of totally nonfunctional jewels. However, some experts say manufacturers have continued to inflate the jewel count of their watches by 'upjeweling'; adding functional jeweled bearings to wheels that do not really need them, exploiting loopholes in ISO 1112. Examples given include adding capstones to third and fourth wheel bearings, jeweling minute wheel bearings, and automatic winding ratchet pawls. Arguably none of these additions adds to the accuracy or longevity of the watch. History Peter Henlein has often been described as the inventor of the first pocket watch, the \"Nuremberg egg\", in 1510, but this claim",
"-21.776718107052147"
],
[
"their products due to their income level. The products might be the same but of different qualities and therefore be more appealing to consumers with different income levels. Advertisers advertising premium products will focus on communicating with high income earners because they will be able to afford their products. However, due to each consumer having different priorities in life, not all high income earners will want to spend their money on luxurious items and some low income earners may want to spend their money on high cost products. Therefore, it is important not to rely just on the consumer's income",
"-21.760320422472432"
],
[
"Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013. Effectiveness Tversky and Kahneman’s research (1974, as cited in Ahmetoglu, Furnham, & Fagan) suggests that the reason for drip pricing being so effective is due to consumers “anchoring” on to what matter to them, for example the base price, and consider that the main factor when purchasing a product or service. They then take less recognition of the smaller prices, such as surcharges and therefore underestimate the total price as they are still considering the base price as a good deal.\nXia and Monroes' research (2004, as cited in Ahmetoglu, Furnham, &",
"-21.75234395242296"
],
[
"the production of similar products that perform the same functions. Most of these items are similar but cheaper. They come at lower costs for many reasons. Because these companies can avoid licensing fees, and did not have the same development costs, they can save money that way. They also may use lower quality materials in the production of the accessories, making them cheaper but usually more fragile and less trustworthy. Another common trait with third party accessories is a better value. While most first party accessories only have one version, only one kind of controller for example, many third party",
"-21.7253121319809"
],
[
"without raising the price on the actual item.\nA common form of hidden fees and surcharges is \"fine print\" in advertising. Another way to hide fees that is commonly used is to not include \"shipping fees\" into the price of goods online. This makes an item look cheaper than it is once the shipping cost is added. Many hotels charge mandatory \"resort fees\" that are not typically included in the advertised base price of the room. Manipulation of measurement units and standards Manipulation of measurement units and standards can be described as a seller deceiving customers by informing them with facts",
"-21.720828847537632"
],
[
"production costs, but it ensures future sales opportunities by preventing the market from becoming saturated with high-quality, long-lasting goods. The forces of a free market tend to preclude the sale of substandard staples, while disposability, technological innovations, and a culture of collection all facilitate planned obsolescence.\nMany mass marketed items are considered staples. These are items people are accustomed to buying new when their old ones wear out (or are used up). Cheaper versions of durable goods are often marketed as staples with the understanding that they will wear out sooner than more expensive goods, but they are so",
"-21.718881504391902"
],
[
"of a product higher than similar products. This strategy is sometimes also called skim pricing because it is an attempt to “skim the cream” off the top of the market. It is used to maximize profit in areas where customers are happy to pay more, where there are no substitutes for the product, where there are barriers to entering the market or when the seller cannot save on costs by producing at a high volume.\nLuxury has a psychological association with premium pricing. The implication for marketing is that consumers are willing to pay more for certain goods and not for",
"-21.705207614024403"
],
[
"Star (Jeffree Star Cosmetics), and Michelle Phan (Ipsy), and pop-star Rihanna with her Fenty Beauty line of cosmetics, have also contributed to California's rising popularity in the beauty industry.\nBecause the US dollar is so valuable to other countries around the world, it has become extremely expensive for most countries to import American beauty products and to export their own products to America. However, there are a few countries with beauty products that are in popular demand in America due to their quality and value including France, Canada, Italy, and the United Kingdom. As of 2018, “These four countries account for",
"-21.679323851014487"
],
[
"the quantity demanded is 300 televisions. This illustrates that sellers are seeking to sell 700 more televisions than buyers are willing to purchase. Hence, an excess supply of 700 televisions exists, indicating that the market is in a state of disequilibrium. \nIn this situation, producers would not be able to sell all the televisions they produce at the desired price of $600. This will induce them to reduce their price in order to make the product more attractive for the buyers. In response to the reduction in the price of the product, consumers will increase their quantity demanded",
"-21.677062248578295"
],
[
"the market by the late 1980s. Even the most basic U.S-made fans sold for $200 to $500, while the most expensive imported fans rarely exceeded $150.\nSince 2000, important inroads have been made by companies such as Monte Carlo, Minka Aire, Quorum, Craftmade, Litex and Fanimation - offering higher price ceiling fans with more decorative value. In 2001, Washington Post writer Patricia Dane Rogers wrote, “Like so many other mundane household objects, these old standbys are going high-style and high-tech.” Uses Unlike air conditioners, fans only move air—they do not directly change its temperature. Therefore, ceiling fans that have a mechanism",
"-21.651692309584178"
],
[
"again be auctioned. On November 11, 2014, the watch was sold in Geneva, Switzerland. The final price, bid via proxy for an anonymous entity, reached 23,237,000 Swiss Francs, equivalent to US$24 million at the time. The sum was the highest price that anyone has ever paid for a timepiece, including both pocket watches and wrist watches. Construction and complications The timepiece contains 920 individual parts, with 430 screws, 110 wheels, 120 removable parts, and 70 jewels, all of them handcrafted on a tiny scale. The timepiece is a gold, double-dialled and double-openfaced, minute repeating clockwatch with Westminster chimes, grande and",
"-21.64898123778039"
],
[
"2499 were made from 1950 to 1985 - around 9 pieces each year. Over the course of 35 years, four series of Ref. 2499 were introduced, exerting a strong influence on the watch designs of many other renowned watchmakers. As of June 2019, Ref. 2499 holds eleven spots among the 59 world's most expensive watches sold at auction (over 2 million US dollars) and at least 18 pieces of Ref. 2499 have been auctioned for more than 1.5 million US dollars, with the world record being 3.880 million US dollars (3,915,000 CHF) made at Sotheby's Geneva auction on November 13,",
"-21.64817602475523"
],
[
"competition because prices can be adjusted to the company’s changing conditions. It can also provide comfort to investors because rate-of-return regulation constrains the regulator’s discretion in setting prices. This lowers investor risk, which lowers the cost of capital. Company profits can be kept within acceptable levels from the perspectives of both investors and customers. Unless the regulator chronically underestimates the cost of capital (and courts do not reverse the regulator in this regard), investors can be confident they have a fair opportunity to receive the profits they expect and thus are willing to make investments. Customers can observe that the",
"-21.63557594420854"
],
[
"the Middle East and countries in South America, particularly Brazil, Argentina and Venezuela. Montres Tudor SA discontinued sales of Tudor-branded watches in the United States in the early 2000s, but Tudor returned to the United States market in the summer of 2013 and to the UK in 2014.",
"-21.635508744395338"
],
[
"Casio Edifice Edifice are a brand of watches manufactured by the Japanese electronics company Casio. The Edifice watches are designed to attract buyers engaged in professional careers. The watches have multiple functions, ranging from multiple dials to world time and multiple alarms. Technology Edifice watches range from basic chronograph to more advanced models with more computerised movements. Many Edifice watches utilise Tough Solar, Casio's brand name for solar powered batteries. More advanced models are \"Waveceptors\" which can calibrate themselves with atomic clocks via radio waves. Some models have Bluetooth connectivity which enable them to be monitored via a smart",
"-21.606895326985978"
],
[
"National Football League (NFL) and the National Hockey League (NHL) both have hard salary caps, making it unnecessary to utilize the luxury tax.\nSeveral other leagues in the United States and abroad use salary caps, but the luxury tax is uncommon.",
"-21.571442059939727"
],
[
"clock face, and Disney-licensed designs, such as Mickey Mouse and Kermit the Frog, bringing to a total of 18 clock faces. Three more background images were also added.\nAlthough not specifically designed as one, some accessory makers produced watchbands for the 6th generation Nano, allowing it to be worn like a watch. In September 2013, TUAW compared the iPod Nano to the Samsung Galaxy Gear, and considered the three-year-old model to be a \"better, cheaper smartwatch\" than the Galaxy Gear because of its more complete functionality in comparison, and its inclusion of a headphone jack. 7th generation Apple announced the",
"-21.564906932180747"
]
] |
3mkbon | How does apps like whatsapp get profit, even when they don't have advertisment? | [
"**$1 at a time** In some countries the app costs $1 to download, in others the first year is free and every subsequent year will cost the user $1. And with roughly 700M active users this results in $700M of annual revenue. However, WhatsApp has been criticized before for not effectively monetizing their app. Other messaging apps like the Chinese WeChat or the Korean KakaoTalk have ads and make more revenue per user than WhatsApp does. However this might just be a smart strategic move from WhatsApp to expand first and to gain a customer base as big as possible. Afterwards they'll have a much larger crowd to reach out to and it is easier for them to make more money should they change their policies. Another fun fact: The giant WhatsApp has only **55 employees**.",
"For a lot of things.. remember this rule: If you're not paying for it, you're not the customer - you're the product. They're likely selling your data.",
"What about Kik? That's free in all countries and has zero adds.",
"They don't really have to, since they were bought by Facebook. And Facebook makes *loads* of money from advertising. From a [CNN article]( URL_0 ) on Facebook's acquisition of Whatsapp: > Facebook said it is not looking to drive revenue from WhatsApp in the near term, instead focusing on growth. Zuckerberg said he doesn't anticipate trying to aggressively grow WhatsApp's revenue until the service reaches \"billions\" of users. This is a common approach for many consumer Internet companies, even those that don't have Facebook's hefty bank account to fund them. This is particularly true if your product relies on any kind of social network, because the value of those products increase with the amount of users on the network. The more people who have Whatsapp installed, the more people you can communicate with through it, and the more valuable it becomes to each of those users. It's hard to make money if you only have a ten thousand users because (a) putting hurdles like fees or ads in front of users will slow growth and (b) it's too easy for that small group of users to all jump ship for a competing service. Therefore, many vendors -- especially those of social apps -- first focus on building a *huge* user base. Because if you have ten million users, it's likely they depend on that network more heavily than they do if you only had ten thousand users. Once you've got them hooked, then you can start finding ways to squeeze money out of the users (or, if you take the ad approach, use that huge user base to squeeze money out of advertisers).",
"They don't advertise, but they get their money by collecting your information you give them and selling them to ad companies who could target you ads in different places later.",
"They gather and sell a ton of data from your phone. This is why I refuse to use it to speak with my friends who have moved to South Korea for work. On Android, you are shown all the permissions an app needs before installing it. Nope'd out. Read their Privacy Statement for proof."
] | [
[
"commercials), improved internal and external corporate communications, enhanced overall brand awareness, and better operational efficiency and innovativeness. As a result, corporations are investing at an increasing rate in social business software and services. The belief is that the benefits outweigh the potential risks of bad press, customer complaints, and brand bashing. Benefits also include, being able to be more one on one with the consumers and being able to talk directly to them, it makes companies seem more reliable and open to work with consumers.\nConversely, businesses can find themselves in a bad situation when they use social media poorly. An",
"-27.675100476761145"
],
[
"to increase user engagement. In February 2018, Unilever, one of the world's leading spenders on advertising, threatened to pull adverts from digital platforms if they \"create division, foster hate or fail to protect children.\" \nDespite recent criticism from media figures and politicians, the large privately owned platforms tend to remain \"wildly popular\" among ordinary consumers. After leading US platform companies revealed high Q1 revenue growth in late April 2018, the Financial Times reported they are untouched by the backlash, in a \"stunning demonstration of their platform power\". While conceding there are risks, many commentators and institutions remain overall highly",
"-26.646952211653115"
],
[
"\"this reliance on altruism [is] a little strange given that Google already has an app, Google Opinion Rewards, which has a financial incentive for user feedback. It works slightly differently, but I don't see why the same reward scheme could not be applied.\" The review also expressed concern with this model, citing that users would be less likely to complete these tasks without more substantial rewards, writing that Crowdsource is \"banking on the kind nature of its users\", and asking \"How are users, who generally want everything free and without adverts, going to respond to this in the long-term? Why",
"-26.5821815776726"
],
[
"the customer and help build a stronger relationship. This will lead to an increase in brand loyalty and increased customer spending. Xie, and Lee (2015) recommends managers invest in social media advertisement, although be hesitant of the amount as it is still not completely clear of the direct results. It is noted that social media advertisement is more likely to enhance brand image and create brand loyalty, than sales on a particular product? This is because the consumer may not need or want the product being advertised, but they are still seeing the brand and becoming familiar with it. Security",
"-26.51974475341558"
],
[
"adopt.\nSocial advertisement targets audiences' demographics based on customers browsing histories. This helped companies understand users' interests and target a specific group of users. Whether it is location or personal interest, different categories of companies can make the consumers on social media rely heavily on their advertisements. This is one of the reasons why social advertising has grown over time. Targeting their audience to real life stakeholders generally increase the attention of the advertised deal which brings up more profits for companies. Subsequently, the psychological effects that social media gives off to its users play a huge role in advertisement",
"-26.289548400738568"
],
[
"portion of this revenue was from app install ads, of which developers buy on a Cost per Install basis.\nAnother type of advertising is using a tool called \"buy buttons\". Some networks are already getting involved with \"buy buttons', or being direct marketers for various products a business wishes to promote on their social media platform. Social networks like Facebook and Twitter are already involved with such partnerships, and this is still just the beginning. The \"buy button\" is the gateway to impulsive online shopping. These advertisements pop up in the news feed of social media interfaces and also give you",
"-26.271855980085093"
],
[
"primarily come from selling ads and sponsored listings to small businesses. Advertisers can pay to have their listing appear at the top of search results, or feature ads on the pages of their competitors. As of 2016, advertising revenue was growing at a rate of 30% year over year. Yelp will only allow businesses with at least a three-star rating to sign up for advertising. Originally a sponsored \"favorite review\" could place a positive review above negative ones, but Yelp stopped offering this option in 2010 in an effort to deter the valid criticism that advertisers were able to obtain",
"-26.228535864316655"
],
[
"new technology and internet businesses which find extremely innovative ways of generating revenues, often ways which seemed not to be possible. As a result, technology-based businesses are constantly updating their revenue models in order to remain competitive. \nAdvertising can be seen as a component of the revenue model, however, when the business is advertising its own products, this would result as a cost for the business which is the exact opposite of revenue. On the other hand, advertising can lead to an increase in sales thus revenue over a period of time. For the majority of businesses which will add",
"-26.03657761857903"
],
[
"is better.\nOrganic results. Ads make up a significant portion of many SERPs. Organic traffic is any traffic that you don't have to pay for. SMO Social media optimization (SMO) is the process of increasing the awareness of a product, brand or event by using a number of social media outlets and communities to generate viral publicity.\nSocial media optimization includes using RSS feeds, social news and bookmarking sites, as well as social media sites and video and blogging sites. SMO is similar to SEO (search engine optimization) in that the goal is to drive traffic to your Web site. Google AdWords",
"-25.990702565963147"
],
[
"goals of buzz marketing, to provide each customer with a unique experience that motivates them to purchase a product.\nMany companies are also using their online presence to generate buzz by allowing users to post reviews on their sites, as well as the use of reviews posted on third party sites. This concept of online reviewing also works to generate negative buzz, and has been a topic of criticism. Online review site Yelp has been subject to criticism after allegations that business owners were paying the site to only publish the positive reviews, in an attempt to boost sales and hide",
"-25.96615162553644"
],
[
"then charging these same companies for taking ownership of the content or removing former employees from accessing internal corporate communication. The use of Yammer and other forms of internal social media, such as Microsoft Teams, in corporate settings has also been criticized for the inevitable internal fights. Customers Yammer is used by 85% of Fortune 500 companies around the world. Organizations such as Goodyear, Cerner, Telstra, Air France, Virgin Trains, Sanofi Pasteur and more. Non-Profits use Yammer At UNICEF, Yammer is used to improve collaboration and keep their mission moving forward. Integrations Yammer integrates closely with Microsoft O365 technologies. ",
"-25.83859323440265"
],
[
"and therefore the return on investment that can be expected for the dollars expended. Marketing buzz in the digital age With the addition of new interactive and digital media technologies into the marketing industry, a significant emphasis has been put on the use of online content to generate buzz about a product, service, or company. Companies well known for this practice are Amazon and Netflix, both of which utilize individual customer patterns and usage trends on these sites to cater the customers' future experiences on the site around the individuals. As a result, this works towards one of the main",
"-25.836643449089024"
],
[
"a new and effective form of advertising, it allows consumers to try out the content before they actually install it. This type of marketing can also really attract the attention of users like casual players. These advertising blur the lines between game and advertising, and provide players with a richer experience that allows them to spend their precious time interacting with advertising.\nThis kind of advertisement is not only interesting, but also brings some benefits to marketers. As this kind of in-gaming mobile marketing can create more effective conversion rates because they are interactive and have faster conversion speeds than general",
"-25.794888776988955"
],
[
"Sales were nearly double what the company expected, but the campaign resulted in a $300,000 donation (Levine 2005).\nAdvertisers and retail consultants have said that because of consumer cynicism, a company can benefit from marketing its support for a cause such as breast cancer awareness only when the company treats that support as \"a commitment and not a marketing opportunity\". Andrew Benett, an executive at Euro RSCG said that because consumers \"have become more mindful, more thoughtful, about how they consume, where they consume, why they consume\", companies cannot succeed by \"just slapping a pink ribbon on a product and [expecting",
"-25.77182377482677"
],
[
"to the ads shown, thereby validating the ads. The social pressure by the peer group has the ability to not make the users view ads but also encourage them to change attitudes, and consequent behavior in order to adapt to group customs.\nBusinesses could interact with customers on social media, because not only they spend more time there, but also listen to recommendations from friends and family more than advertisers. Companies could reward customers for recommending products. Digital applications could include features that will allow them to share reviews or feedbacks on social media etc.",
"-25.746074072667398"
],
[
"countries. Concept and funding Vero’s content feed resembles Instagram’s although users can share a wider variety of content and the app has a chronological content feed whereas Facebook and Instagram’s feeds are algorithm- based. Vero’s business plan is also distinct from similar social media apps. Whereas its competitors such as Facebook or Instagram make money from in-app advertising revenue and the sale of user data,; Vero’s business plan was to invite the first one million users to use the app for free then charge any subsequent users a subscription fee. \nThe app was entirely funded by its founder and generated",
"-25.64377937275276"
],
[
"an alternative source of revenue. The idea was that as users fast-forward through certain commercials of TiVo advertisers, they would also see a static image ad more suitable and effective than the broken video stream.\nAt its announcement, the concept of extra advertisements drew heavy criticism from subscribers. Some lifetime subscribers were upset that they had already paid for a service based upon their previous ad-free experience, while others argued that they had purchased the service for the specific purpose of dodging advertisements. In 2007, TiVo made changes to its pop-up ad system to show pop-up ads only if the user",
"-25.543032691188273"
],
[
"can also be done through advertising strategies that are both paid and organic, but more natural to the world of marketing such as social media advertising, SEO focused content, and even webinars. More awareness leads to more candidates and further growth of a given company's talent pipeline.\nThe second main source of value is from increasing the rate at which job seekers apply for jobs, or conversion rates. For example, if 5% of your career site visitors currently apply for a job, and you increase that number to 10% by having more compelling content on your careers site, then",
"-25.52779531230044"
],
[
"information and advertisements to boost their sales. Managers invest in social media to foster relationships and interact with customers. This is an ethical way for managers to send messages about their advertisements and products to their consumers.\nSince social media marketing first came to be, strategists and markets have been getting smarter and more careful with the way they go about collecting information and distributing advertisements. With the presence of data collecting companies, there is no longer a need to target specific audiences. This can be seen as a large ethical gray area. For many users, this is a",
"-25.52039625817997"
],
[
"to generate revenues. By incorporating some ad space, many popular apps such as Twitter and Instagram have strengthened their mobile revenue potential after previously having no real revenue stream. Sponsored ranking model The sponsored ranking model is a variant of the Advertising model. The sponsored ranking model is mainly used by search engine platforms like Google and specialized products- and IT-services- platforms where users are offered free search functionality in return for sponsored results in front of other search results. The sponsor is often paying per click, per view or as a Subscription model Commission model The commission model is",
"-25.49038216228655"
],
[
"paid for advertising in this way is less than the old method and so the earning potential for them is reduced.\nProgrammatic is not without its drawbacks however as without the appropriate management adverts can appear against unsavoury content or inappropriate news topics. This issue became front-page news in Feb 2017 when advertisers on YouTube were found to be showing on terror group websites and fake news sites. As a result, a number of major advertisers paused all of their online advertising until they could put the appropriate measures in place to prevent this occurring again.",
"-25.48856901479303"
],
[
"enabled an opt-out feature for iAds, Apple's developer-driven advertisement system. The app was removed shortly afterwards for violating guidelines.\nIn April 2013, Apple removed AppGratis, a then-successful app store market that promoted paid apps by offering one for free each day. Apple told All Things Digital that the app violated two of its developer agreement clauses, including \"Apps that display Apps other than your own for purchase or promotion in a manner similar to or confusing with the App Store will be rejected\" and \"Apps cannot use Push Notifications to send advertising, promotions, or direct marketing of any kind\". Apple did,",
"-25.399618549563456"
],
[
"marketing, customers often see social media influencers getting free sponsorships or PR boxes just to advertise their products. At times, users who become customers through these social influencers will get a better deal than regular customers which stands as a very commonly used marketing technique. By doing this, users think they are receiving special treatment when in reality it very much benefits social influencers and brands. Especially for brands that are just starting, they use this marketing technique so that their names can be out there, and people will start talking, which is their initial goal.",
"-25.34937939883639"
],
[
"additional revenues by charging affiliate fees when someone buys a product they find on Vero. Privacy Vero has faced some criticism over the wording of their manifesto, in particular;\n“Vero only collects the data we believe is necessary to provide users with a great experience and to ensure the security of their accounts.” – Vero Manifesto. \nBecause this policy does not implicitly state that the app will not sell data on to third parties some users fear that the need to monetise the app through data might prove too tempting. There have also been concerns over Vero’s broad terms of service",
"-25.166192805496394"
],
[
"seeing it as an invasion of privacy. Indeed, 68% of those surveyed said they are \"not okay\" with targeted advertising because they do not like having their online behavior tracked and analyzed.\nAnother issue with targeted advertising is the lack of 'new' advertisements of goods or services. Seeing as all ads are tailored to be based on user preferences, no different products will be introduced to the consumer. Hence, in this case the consumer will be at a loss as they are not exposed to anything new.\nAdvertisers concentrate their resources on the consumer, which can be very effective when done right.",
"-25.15793506783666"
],
[
"the advertising market takes a downturn, companies that protect their users' data are the most insulated from harm. Personal life He lives in San Jose, California.",
"-25.137453023853595"
],
[
"the App Store was that developers could keep 70% of the revenue (with the App Store taking 30%), and make money in unprecedented ways due to the consumer distribution of the App Store. Google soon followed with their own version of the App Store (initially called Android Market), and soon after Flurry became the de facto analytics platform for mobile apps.\nFlurry also merged with a company called Pinch Media based in New York that was working on a similar product, and together they had almost 80% marketshare for mobile analytics. Flurry Analytics Flurry Analytics enables users to analyze consumer behavior",
"-25.124638487846823"
],
[
"which acted as middlemen between these two groups (publishers and advertisers). Each time a (believed to be) valid Web user clicks on an ad, the advertiser pays the advertising network, which in turn pays the publisher a share of this money. This revenue-sharing system is seen as an incentive for click fraud.\nThe largest of the advertising networks, Google's AdWords/AdSense and Yahoo! Search Marketing, act in a dual role, since they are also publishers themselves (on their search engines). According to critics, this complex relationship may create a conflict of interest. This is because these companies lose money to undetected click",
"-25.11562477692496"
],
[
"Advertising revenue Overview There are a variety of methods and providers which individuals and online organizations can use in order to earn monetary income in the form of advertisements accompanying their website or digital media content. Digital technology giants such as Google, Facebook, YouTube, Amazon, and Microsoft allow website owners and content creators to engage in partnerships and display advertisements with their online media; these owners and creators can subsequently receive a share of the advertising revenue. Individuals and organizations can earn significant income through advertising revenue. In 2018, it was reported that major YouTube content creators such as Jake",
"-25.097091712465044"
],
[
"and redirections. These include revenues from the sale of advertising, mostly through click-based advertising and, to a lesser extent, display-based and subscription-based advertising. The company also has master advertising contracts with its advertising partners.\nIts advertisers usually depend on this advertising to generate sales leads, customers, bookings, or revenue. Click-based advertising revenue accounts for the majority of its advertising revenue. Its CPC pricing for click-based advertising depends, in part, on competition between advertisers. Its advertisers currently focus more on traffic volume rather than per-click profit. Hence they do not reduce the CPC. Employment statistics As of 2017, Tripadvisor employed 3,217 part",
"-25.023901301115984"
],
[
"money in the marketing online, they can use their financial resources in improving other aspects of their businesses. The companies receive advertising space instead of cash for their stock.\nMedia for equity funding fills a gap in funding which exists after a new company has spent its initial seed money, and hasn't yet grown enough to attract large venture capitalists. The company uses the advertising to increase its customer base, thereby increasing the value of its stock. The start-up company makes money directly, and the media company can sell the stock at a profit.\nThis method of funding new and small",
"-24.987806912104134"
],
[
"world of the user, and to strengthen products based on user-generated content.\nIn-stream purchases\nOne of the major challenges of social commerce has been linking social media marketing to actual sales. There are some extremely encouraging statistics about brand engagement and in-store purchases, but marketers seeking to shorten the sales cycle have preferred customers click on a product link.\nIn 2014, however, in-stream purchases will make social ROI even more immediate. Companies like Starbucks have enabled users to buy items without ever leaving the platform – in this case, customers can \"tweet-a-coffee\" with a tweet that sends a friend a $5 Starbucks gift",
"-24.890069935026986"
],
[
"operating system the app is installed on. The service may, on an opt-out basis, also collect information for use in connection with marketing and loyalty programs.\nIn response to the concerns surrounding its security issues and the anti-competitive actions performed by MCX members, a semi-organized campaign emerged on the iOS App Store and Google Play Store to give the CurrentC software negative and low-scoring reviews in protest.\nOn April 28, 2015, Best Buy announced that it would begin to support Apple Pay at its locations, explaining that \"today's consumers have many different ways to spend their money and we want to give",
"-24.886321137833875"
],
[
"programs, part of six known applications developed by the company, and downloaded hundreds of millions times, were clicking on internet ads – even when the devices were idle, and unbeknownst to end users, in order to increase revenue generated by \"clicks\". Just one of the apps, all of which were available on Google Play Store, had been downloaded 50 million times alone and carried a user rating of 4.5 stars by tens of thousands evaluators.\nGoogle banned DO Global and more than 100 of its apps from the Google Play Store on April 26, 2019. DO Global was also banned from",
"-24.869083377576317"
],
[
"they have competitive advantage because they are able to analyse their co-marketers influence and brand associations.\nTo cease opportunity, the firm should summarize their current customers' personas and purchase journey from this they are able to deduce their digital marketing capability. This means they need to form a clear picture of where they are currently and how many resources they can allocate for their digital marketing strategy i.e. labour, time etc. By summarizing the purchase journey, they can also recognise gaps and growth for future marketing opportunities that will either meet objectives or propose new objectives and increase profit. 2) Strategy",
"-24.84487903455738"
],
[
"such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. This type of advertising is unpredictable, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and \"embedded\" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various campaigns utilizing social network services such as Facebook or Twitter.\nThe advertising business model has also been adapted in recent years. In media for equity, advertising is not sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for equity. If",
"-24.83706266304216"
],
[
"achieve everyday duties in a much simple way and mostly free. The downside to take in consideration is that some of the apps may be unreliable or will require organizations to advertise them.",
"-24.830095879748114"
],
[
"to drive revenue streams and show noticeable ROI. Of course, brands have different experiences with social media, and what works for one company may not be as successful for another. Therefore, it may be more accurate to say that 2012 will become the year of social media maturation – it's time to figure out how to use the channel to increase sales.\nStrongMail reported that financial investments in social media marketing will increase next year. However, eMarketer recently published its \"US Digital Media Usage: A Snapshot of 2013\" report, which points out some potential areas where growth could occur online.\nThe eMarketer",
"-24.825597599141474"
],
[
"Revenue Timing: not all revenue is created equal. Companies make different revenues at different times. For example, customers are shopping more in the fourth quarter for the holidays due to the bigger sales in shops. Sales that are made in off-peak seasons may be more profitable because they fill unused production capacity or may be done at a slightly higher price.\n3. Referrals and buzz: nowadays consumers tend to trust peer reviews, posts in social networks and tweets more than corporate advertising. If a customer is willing to buzz about company's products/services it can be a powerful endorsement.\n4. Retention: It is",
"-24.82477424460376"
],
[
"Forbes article. Consumers engaging in pretail are known as an early adopter, fan, backer, supporter, or presumer (pre-launch consumer). Growth Pretail demand is growing in consumer retail: electronics, movies, music, video games, books, fashion, software apps, connected devices, cars, toys, cosmetics, art, events, etc. This trend is being driven by companies to enhance new product development, better organize product releases, lower market risk, and increase early fan adoption. Large companies such as Amazon and Apple are pre-tailing new products to measure demand, manage supply chain market dynamics, and monetize fandom anticipation. Small companies are embracing crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter",
"-24.788551127683604"
],
[
"comments right below an online ad or an online post by a company about its product. Companies are increasing using their social media strategy as part of their traditional marketing effort using magazines, newspapers, radio advertisements, television advertisements. Since in the 2010s, media consumers are often using multiple platforms at the same time (e.g., surfing the Internet on a tablet while watching a streaming TV show), marketing content needs to be consistent across all platforms, whether traditional or new media. Heath (2006) wrote about the extent of attention businesses should give to their social media sites. It is about finding",
"-24.781018511093862"
],
[
"performance of their paid social ads. For example, Toyota leveraged UGC for their \"Feeling the Streets\" Facebook ad campaign and were able to increase their total ad engagement by 440%. Retailers Some bargain hunting websites feature user-generated content, such as eBay, Dealsplus, and FatWallet which allow users to post, discuss, and control which bargains get promoted within the community. Because of the dependency of social interaction, these sites fall into the category of social commerce. Educational Wikipedia, a free encyclopedia, is one of the largest user-generated content databases in the world. Platforms such as YouTube have frequently been used as",
"-24.76265646862157"
],
[
"and to hold existing customers. Sales promotions and brand loyalty Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, and to jump start sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action. Criticisms While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs. Unsolicited commercial e-mail and other forms of",
"-24.740672920597717"
],
[
"where a startup tries to expand at a high rate through large funding rounds and price cutting to gain an advantage on market share and push away rival competitors as fast as possible. The rapid exponential returns through this strategy seems to be attractive to all parties involved. However, there is always the cautionary note of the dot-com bubble of 2000 and the lack of long-term sustainability in value creation of the companies born from the Internet age. Company buyouts Many unicorns were created through buyouts from large public companies. In a low interest rate and slow-growth environment, many companies",
"-24.714240830828203"
],
[
"legal action against the hacker.\nOn April 13, 2010, Twitter announced plans to offer paid advertising for companies that would be able to purchase \"promoted tweets\" to appear in selective search results on the Twitter website, similar to Google Adwords' advertising model. As of April 13, Twitter announced it had already signed up a number of companies wishing to advertise, including Sony Pictures, Red Bull, Best Buy, and Starbucks.\nThe company generated US$45 million in annual revenue in 2010, after beginning sales midway through that year; the company operated at a loss through most of 2010.\nUsers' photos can generate royalty-free revenue for",
"-24.701531436498044"
],
[
"and promotions that have nothing to do with them. Many even expressed that they would leave a site if the marketing on the site was the opposite of their tastes, such as prompts to donate to a political party they dislike, or ads for a dating service when the visitor to the site is married. In addition, the top two reasons customers unsubscribe from marketing emailing lists are 1) they receive too many emails and 2) the content of the emails is not relevant to them.\nPersonalized marketing helps to bridge the gap between the vastness of what is available and",
"-24.68501228376408"
],
[
"that shows intrusive advertisements on users' phones. Even after such apps are force-closed by the user, advertisements remain. Google removed some of the apps after receiving reports from Sophos, but some apps remained. When asked for comment, Google didn't respond. In August 2017, 500 apps were removed from Google Play after security firm Lookout discovered that the apps contained an SDK that allowed for malicious advertising. The apps had been collectively downloaded over 100 million times, and consisted of a wide variety of use cases, including health, weather, photo-editing, Internet radio and emoji.\nIn all of 2017, over 700,000 apps were",
"-24.656625388626708"
],
[
"workers to click on ads on the click farmer's own site. This way, the money lost by the advertisers is gained by the click farmer, rather than by the search engines and content networks as in the first method.\nThe need for click farming arises because, as The Guardian states, \"31% will check ratings and reviews, including likes and Twitter followers, before they choose to buy something.\" This shows the increasing importance that businesses, celebrities and other organisations put on the number of likes and followers they have. This creates monetary values for likes and followers which means that businesses and",
"-24.654828977934812"
],
[
"of technological advances, promotions can be done outside of local contexts and across geographic borders to reach a greater number of potential consumers. The goal of a promotion is then to reach the most people possible in a time efficient and a cost efficient manner.\nSocial media, as a modern marketing tool, offers opportunities to reach larger audiences in an interactive way. These interactions allow for conversation rather than simply educating the customer. Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, Google Plus, Tumblr, as well as alternate audio and media sites like SoundCloud and Mixcloud allow users to interact and promote music online",
"-24.645508754023467"
],
[
"slow ... When the average user can be sure to see them we truly don’t know because we’re just going to be very data-driven and user feedback-driven on making that decision\". Facebook told TechCrunch that the advertisements' placement in the inbox depends on factors such as thread count, phone screen size, and pixel density. In a TechCrunch editorial by Devin Coldewey, he described the ads as \"huge\" in the space they occupy, \"intolerable\" in the way they appear in the user interface, and \"irrelevant\" due to the lack of context. Coldewey finished by writing \"Advertising is how things get paid",
"-24.635333556201658"
],
[
"2017, Yelp announced that it had acquired Wi-Fi marketing company Turnstyle Analytics for $20 million. In May, 2017 Yelp's stocks dropped by 30% following disappointing sales. Features for businesses Yelp added the ability for business owners to respond to reviews in 2008. Businesses can respond privately by messaging the reviewer or publicly on their profile page. In some cases, Yelp users that had a bad experience have updated their reviews more favorably due to the businesses' efforts to resolve their complaints. In some other cases, disputes between reviewers and business owners have led to harassment and physical altercations. The system",
"-24.551711598192924"
],
[
"makes a company or a product stand out from its competitors, whether it is through; pricing, quality, customer service or innovation.\nEach successful company has a unique selling proposition (USP). A USP can be created through the element of being first to a market, for example Uber was the first company to allow for taxicab hailing via mobile app. Because Uber had reached this market first, it had a USP and therefore it received loyal customers. However; with fierce competition copying Uber's business model, Uber has had to develop its service through innovation. Problem solving Business ideas that solve problems are",
"-24.54496276656573"
],
[
"content such as items, maps, and expanded customization options. Some games, such as id Software's Quake Live, also use in-game advertising to provide income for free-to-play games. In addition to making in-game items available for purchase, EA integrates in-game advertising into its games. In August 2007, EA completed a deal with Massive Incorporated, which lets Massive update and change in-game advertising in real-time within EA games. Independent game developer Edmund McMillen has claimed that he makes most of his money from sponsors by placing advertisements into the introduction of a game and the game's title screen. Comparison with traditional model",
"-24.536684867038275"
],
[
"as being able to track consumers’ habits, allows firms to better determine what advertising campaigns and marketing efforts are bringing customers in and what demographics they are influencing. This allows firms to drop efforts that are ineffective, as well as put more money into the techniques that are bringing in customers.\nSome personalized marketing can also be automated, increasing the efficiency of a business's marketing strategy. For example, an automated email could be sent to a user shortly after an order is placed, giving suggestions for similar items or accessories that may help the customer better use the product he or",
"-24.496189557554317"
],
[
"to convert the maximum number of new leads or customers and gets paid for its work only when a new lead or a new customer is passed on to the advertiser. But this is not always a viable performance metric when the agency cannot fully control all aspects of the customer acquisition and conversion process.\nAdvertising with the purpose of generating a lead (which may be defined in a variety of ways), may not always result in a customer because there might be a number of steps after response to an ad and between first contact and final sale.\nP4P advertising became",
"-24.47323041051277"
],
[
"generation. For each public viewing, the advertising revenue is shared with the artist or others who hold rights to the video content. A previously free product may have premium options added thus becoming freemium.\nFailure to monetize web sites due to an inadequate revenue model was a problem that caused many businesses to fold during the dot-com bust. \nEqually, David Sands, CTO for Citibank Equity Research, affirmed that failure to achieve monetization of the Research Analysts' models as the reason the de-bundling of Equity Research has never taken hold. United States agricultural policy In United States agricultural policy, \"monetization\" is a",
"-24.43521396894357"
],
[
"speech. Telephony app Burner has regularly been a top grossing utilities app in the iOS and Android app stores using its phone number generation technology. Despite the success of some anonymous apps, there are also apps, such as Secret, which have yet to find a way to generate revenue. The idea of an anonymous app has also caused mixed opinions within investors. Some investors have invested a large sum of money because they see the potential revenue generated within these apps. Other investors have stayed away from investing these apps because they feel these apps bring more harm than good.",
"-24.41386994792265"
],
[
"for a two-way conversation with customers can develop allowing the company to gain customer feedback instantly and monitor customer satisfaction. This two-way interaction is becoming a co-creative process where consumers are encouraged to relay feedback of their preferences and experiences of a brand for the company's consideration and comparison to improve their existing advertising of that brand . However, if a company is not consistently active on social media this can lead to a high level of customer created content. This can result in both positive and negative outcomes as social media is great for networking a product but negative",
"-24.41385583299052"
],
[
"is trying to market specific products to help service the consumer. It is also a way to make a business stand out in the marketplace. Without marketing exposure, campaigns would be non-existent and therefore companies would suffer. Purpose Marketing exposure is a major part that determines a company's success in their market. Although it is never directly identified or defined, it crucial for helping a company progress, creating competition for other companies, making the company more credible with consumers, and overall benefit both the company while satisfying consumers. While all of this may seem easy, it typically takes months of",
"-24.413309668056172"
],
[
"sites are businesses which need funding to provide their platforms. So they accept that advertising is the way the platforms are funded and therefore accept it, as necessary. However this does not mean the consumers may not feel negatively too excessive and annoying advertising, which could in turn reduce reciprocity to the message or damage their connection with the brand. Savulescu's question, however, is a reminder to businesses that they should respect the forums as a place of peer to peer conversations and social leisure and ensure their presence in these forums is not over bearing or intrusive. The use",
"-24.407353948390664"
],
[
"side―start diffusing through a market at approximately the same time. Each platform's vendor competes with the other vendors, via platform evangelism, to gain market share among the market's potential developers. Self-fulfilling prophecy If it is expensive to re-develop an application to target a second (or third) platform, then developers will tend to adopt, first, the platform which they believe has the highest lifetime profit opportunity. This tends to become a self-fulfilling prophecy, in which the platform which is initially perceived to have the highest lifetime profit opportunity tends to accumulate the most applications, which then makes it more attractive to",
"-24.398287117099244"
],
[
"tried to shut down third-party sites and apps that provide paid services to individual accounts for buying followers, likes, comments, and more, but there still are paid websites that allow you to buy followers.\nA marketing agency researched to test whether fake influencer accounts can profit. The company created two fictitious accounts - with their presence built up through paid followers and engagement (likes and comments) - and applied to campaigns on popular influencer marketing websites. They published their results with a step-by-step explanation of how the false accounts were created and the brands which had sponsored them.\nAn analysis involving over",
"-24.386122909316327"
],
[
"were released, \"What we didn't mention is how funny they are.\" Sony Computer Entertainment America Senior Vice President Peter Dille said that the commercials had \"been tremendously successful. Consumers love it. It's great to hear people like you guys love it. And the results are really in the sales because it's really been flying since this coincided in September with the launch of the new PS3.\" Engadget also loved the commercials saying, \"We have to hand it to Sony, they've followed up nicely on their \"worst kept secret\" trade show jokes with an ad campaign that is fittingly self-aware\". Destructoid",
"-24.37527830452018"
],
[
"its revenues from advertising. This includes sales of apps, purchases made in-app, digital content products on google and YouTube, android and licensing and service fees, including fees received for Google Cloud offerings. 46% of this was from clicks (cost per clicks), amounting to US$109,652 million in 2017. This includes three principal methods, namely AdMob, AdSense (such as AdSense for Content, AdSense for Search, etc.) and DoubleClick AdExchange.\nFor the 2006 fiscal year, the company reported $10.492 billion in total advertising revenues and only $112 million in licensing and other revenues. In 2011, 96% of Google's revenue was derived from its advertising",
"-24.33969754310965"
],
[
"shareholders of a company are, the price and quantity of their latest transactions, and the other stocks these investors have in their portfolios. The mobile app also allows users to 'follow' their favourite counters or celebrity investors, and keep tabs on their movements. The users can form private chat groups.\nThe app provides sophisticated investors (those who invest in more than 5 percent of a public-listed company) with resources to conduct due diligence, influence board decisions and access to more intimate knowledge than most other investors.\nSpiking Finance aggregates recent news headlines, announcements, tweets and buy/sell activity of the companies and",
"-24.32290757125884"
],
[
"success of any business. In the case of customer to customer marketing, advertising often relates to online auctions and listings. As opposed to the pricey costs to advertise in media such as newspapers and magazines, products are already being promoted and publicized once users decide to officially put them on the internet. Potential buyers will become aware of products or services by conducting searches on the websites. Aside from possible fees and commissions imposed by the auction or listing site, advertising in this market does not require a substantial amount of money. Advantages Customer to Customer C2C marketing has become",
"-24.315586143246037"
],
[
"social media. Social media marketing gives users a high degree of confidence about the information posted by their real life or online friends, and by trusted opinion leaders. The trust that people place in their relationship chain reassures users with a higher degree of confidence in recommendations by friends and acquaintances online. Taking advantage of the social relationship chain allows advertisers to make use of the benefits of social media and television marketing. There are several enterprises to broaden viewer's awareness of their product such as Facebook, Twitter and other social networking sites. According to social media facts and statistics,",
"-24.29981486005272"
],
[
"offer payment options such as try-before-you-buy, rentals and subscriptions. Mobile marketing and advertising In the context of mobile commerce, mobile marketing refers to marketing sent to mobile devices. Companies have reported that they see better response from mobile marketing campaigns than from traditional campaigns. The primary reason for this is the instant nature of customer decision-making that mobile apps and websites enable. The consumer can receive a marketing message or discount coupon and, within a few seconds, make a decision to buy and go on to complete the sale - without disrupting their current real-world activity.\nFor example, a busy mom",
"-24.26806326206497"
],
[
"It is easier to detect youth marketing in phone apps because they tend to pop up as little advertisement banners and users are having to close the ad because it is disruptive when playing.\nAccording to the director of Saatchi & Saatchi Interactive, \"[the internet] is a medium for advertisers that is unprecedented... there's probably no other product or service that we can think of that is like it in terms of capturing kids' interest.\" Advertisers reach the young demographic by eliciting personal information. It's as easy as getting them to fill out quick, simple surveys prior to playing these games.",
"-24.25664007715386"
],
[
"announced that it would no longer permit paid advertising by Viagogo, with a spokesperson stating \"When people use [Google] for help in purchasing tickets, we want to make sure that they have an experience they can trust. This is why we have strict policies and take necessary action when we find an advertiser in breach.\" Legislation In the UK, Labour MP Sharon Hodgson's proposal that legislation be introduced to cap resale prices at face value +10% was rejected by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. After the company failed to appear before the Culture, Media and Sport Select",
"-24.237601519285818"
],
[
"2012, the year this product was released. Purposes and tactics One of the main purposes of employing social media in marketing is as a communications tool that makes the companies accessible to those interested in their product and makes them visible to those who have no knowledge of their products. These companies use social media to create buzz, and learn from and target customers. It's the only form of marketing that can finger consumers at each and every stage of the consumer decision journey. Marketing through social media has other benefits as well. Of the top 10 factors that correlate",
"-24.23028641806377"
],
[
"the amount of advertising money becomes a direct incentive to the consumer. Two sellers may offer the same product at the same price, but provide differing incentives to consumers through advertising money.\nWith the addition of transparent revenue sharing to the CPA model, VPA becomes a consumer-friendly approach in which the seller's advertising money provide a direct benefit to the consumer--effectively driving down the net price. Placed in a comparison shopping marketplace, the competition between sellers to provide better revenue provides additional downward pressure to the net price paid by consumers.\nOne example of VPA is Jellyfish.com.",
"-24.22533495235257"
],
[
"show that cause-related marketing has helped to increase a company's profits. For example, in the cause marketing campaign by American Express (to which the term \"cause marketing\" is attributed), the company saw a 17% increase in new users and a 28% increase in card usage. Evidence shows that CSR voluntarily initiated by firms will result in more opportunities for profit than CSR mandated by the government. Benefits and concerns The possible benefits of cause marketing for nonprofit organizations include an increased ability to promote the nonprofit organization's cause via the greater financial resources of a business, and an increased",
"-24.21729632962888"
],
[
"computer screen. Plaintiff's theory Plaintiff argues that it has been harmed by the creation of an \"impermissible affiliation between Plaintiff and Defendant\", since because of Defendants' pop-up advertising, users \"are likely to have the impression that the pop-up advertisements operate in cooperation with, rather than in competition against, the Plaintiff\". William D. Neal, an expert for 1-800 Contacts, conducted a study to determine if consumers were likely to be confused as to the source of the popup advertisements displayed by the defendants software. The conclusion of this survey was the 76% of users who had the SaveNow software on their",
"-24.21196243558734"
],
[
"advertisers should not patronise their customers or doubt their intelligence, as it may harm their business. Marketing expert Austin McGhie used the quotation to show that respecting customers and overcoming their potential cynicism to a product is essential to success. He goes on to say \"the customer is you\", explaining that we are all capable of spotting each other's hype and disbelieving it. Business author James Leibert has used Ogilvy's quotation, adding \"if we want to understand our customers, we're going to have to understand them extremely well\".\nIn 1990, BBC 2 broadcast a documentary Washes Whiter: She's Not a Moron—She's",
"-24.14831214266451"
],
[
"customer's proximity to their retail outlet. Benefits Personalized marketing is being adopted in one form or another by many different companies because of the benefits it brings for both the businesses and their customers. Businesses Before the Internet, it was difficult for businesses to measure the success of their marketing campaigns. A campaign would be launched, and even if there was a change in revenue, it was nearly impossible to determine what impact the campaign had on the change. Personalized marketing allows businesses to learn more about customers based on demographic, contextual, and behavioral data. This behavioral data, as well",
"-24.129523794833176"
],
[
"the reality that their customer service is being mediated through social media. (Many are now monitoring Twitter and Facebook for negative chatter and pouncing on it to mitigate damage.) As this trend continues Robson argues that a major opportunity for sustainable competitive advantage is opening up. Organisations that challenge this emerging paradigm, put the technology behind them in support rather than as a mediator of the interaction, and refocus on treating customers in a way that satisfies the customer, not the technology, will have better customer retention, lower costs of customer replacement and will build their brand value through better",
"-24.09169898836626"
],
[
"For these nine companies, buzz had a greater effect than traffic and accounted for approximately 11% of the total variation of stock returns, with 6% due to the firms’ own marketing driving the stock price up and 5% due to rival firms’ buzz driving it down.\nAs consumers increasingly expect to have access to buzz about products as part of their purchasing decisions and to interact with the brand in social media, successful companies are being driven to adopt social media marketing strategies to stay competitive. To successfully plan and implement these campaigns requires the ability to predict their effectiveness",
"-24.08094722707392"
],
[
"media marketing Social media marketing has increased due to the growing active user rates on social media sites. For example, Facebook currently has 2.2 billion users, Twitter has 330 million active users and Instagram has 800 million users. One of the main uses is to interact with audiences to create awareness of their brand or service, with the main idea of creating a two-way communication system where the audience and/or customers can interact back; providing feedback as just one example. Social media can be used to advertise; placing an advert on Facebook's Newsfeed, for example, can allow a vast number",
"-24.072876453050412"
],
[
"the pricing for the app and in-app purchases in each country. Developers receive 70% of the application price, while the remaining 30% goes to the distribution partner and operating fees. Developers can set up sales, with the original price struck out and a banner underneath informing users when the sale ends. Google Play allows developers to release early versions of apps to a select group of users, as alpha or beta tests. Developers can also release apps through staged rollouts, in which \"your update reaches only a percentage of your users, which you can increase over time.\" Users can pre-order",
"-24.031337145686848"
],
[
"by The Prodigy were paid for by ad sales revenue. In 2015, with The Prodigy News' move to online advertisements no longer paid for the content in the news. To date, The Prodigy does not run advertisements online or otherwise.",
"-24.022292923822533"
],
[
"businesses can create competitive advantage through various means. To reach the maximum potential of digital marketing, firms use social media as its main tool to create a channel of information. Through this a business can create a system in which they are able to pinpoint behavioral patterns of clients and feedback on their needs. This means of content has shown to have a larger impingement on those who have a long-standing relationship with the firm and with consumers who are relatively active social media users. Relative to this, creating a social media page will further increase relation quality between new",
"-24.01216069682323"
],
[
"had begun to generate revenue through advertising, making approximately $60,000 in its first 6 weeks. The company reportedly is, “not recreating the wheel when it comes to monetization, just taking a model that worked for Facebook and Twitter and applying it to the cannabis sector.” The company enables dispensaries and cannabis brands to reach their target consumers. Website and mobile application The mobile application for iOS and Android was launched before the web version. MassRoots allows users to interact with each other via photo or video uploads with text to accompany it, from there, users can interact with each other",
"-24.00797482219059"
],
[
"Adwords buyer in Europe and Israel, helping them to penetrate both local and international advertising network. Due to the company’s heavy usage of Google Adwords, they have established close ties with Google, with both companies working closely towards developing website content for the best user experience.\nRevenueHits, iBario's sister company, is estimated to account 30-40% of their overall revenue. It works with other advertising networks in Israeli namely Matomy Media Group and Marimedia. Revenue is earned only if user has performed a transaction from the advertisement. It also allows users to run controlled test on the various marketing communication channels. Revenue",
"-23.994845403904037"
],
[
"not emulate the YouTube viral video sharing and friends and family video hosting model,\" according to ZDNet writer Donna Bogatin. All revenue from advertising was split 50/50 between content producers and Blip.\nSince the site's launch in 2005, Blip had amassed over of 2,500-plus independent producers and collaborated with more than 300 blue chip advertisers and 26 of the top 50 advertisers in the US, including GM, P&G, Microsoft, Google, Geico, and more. Blip also enabled advertising partners to delivered fully customizable video advertising, including interactive pre-rolls and video overlays. Popularity In 2012, according to figures from ComScore and Quantcast, Blip",
"-23.97254071572388"
],
[
"grow and find new lenders and buyers by utilizing social networks. Risks Due to the real-time nature of social media, financial services companies must be on constant alert for potential issues so they can be mitigated before any serious damage control is necessary. Any negative experience a customer has can easily be shared online and if it ends up going viral, those comments could likely have a detrimental effect on the company’s stock price and reputation. On the other hand, any positive experience a customer has can also be shared online. However, positive experiences are much less likely to become",
"-23.967068255784397"
],
[
"their ads to them, the consumer's relationship with the advertisements, following this data collection, is frequently positive. However, when data is covertly collected, consumers can quickly feel like the company betrayed their trust. It is important for brands to utilize personalization in their ads, without making the consumer feel vulnerable or that their privacy has been betrayed.",
"-23.956394945198554"
],
[
"UpShot was the first company in Silicon Valley to provide cloud computing solutions. Within two years, UpShot released its first product, and by 2003 the company provided services for small, midsize, and large organizations. UpShot competed with Salesforce.com for market share among large, Fortune 1000 companies. In July 2003, Salesforce.com filed a complaint against UpShot in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, claiming that advertising put out by Raffel's firm had violated state and federal laws pertaining to fair business competition. Raffel argued that his firm's ads were truthful, and noted",
"-23.938126591106993"
],
[
"the brand due to its positive association.\nThese psychological effects are forced upon consumers by producers and advertisers. This is seen due to companies tricking their consumers into \"placing a greater importance on extrinsic values is associated with higher levels of prejudice, ... and weak (or absent) concern about human rights.\" These occurrences are now showing up in large scale topics, such as the presidential election. Large scale companies are able to pay for advertisements of their choosing, causing major waves in political elections. These advertisements play a large role in who is elected, due to association of those who",
"-23.93801133470697"
],
[
"popular with the advent of the internet that allows real time measurement of a marketing campaign's ROI (return on investment). It has reversed the traditional value proposition of advertising whereby an advertiser is required to pay for the creative work of the advertising agency and the media first regardless of the return on investment of the campaign. In the P4P model, the onus is on the agency to create a performing ad campaign that converts into good leads or customers if the agency wants to receive payments from its client. In contrast with traditional advertising agency pricing models, the advertiser",
"-23.933298367643147"
],
[
"still new to businesses, although they can see the opportunity it is hard to determine the return on investment of advertising in the virtual world. Kumar, Bezawada, Rishika, Janakiraman, & Kannan (2016) conducted a study to determine the effects of social media advertising on consumers, the results showed that social media advertising is effective, although it is more effective when cross-channel advertising is used. Cross-channel advertising is when a business advertises in different channels, for example, on social media and magazines. Kumar et al. (2016) recommends that managers choose to embrace social network as a means to further interact with",
"-23.923969345180012"
],
[
"make them.\"\nDespite the advancement of the internet businesses are still seller oriented. Even successful businesses like Google still have the point of view of the sellers, with their revenue coming nearly all from advertising. Searls describes the current condition as a series of silos. The only option a buyer has is merely moving from silo to silo. Nothing has fundamentally changed.\nSome sites have similar characteristics of an intention economy. For example, flight booking services Priceline.com, which let users name their price for an airline ticket still functions like a \"silo.\" In an intention economy a site like Priceline might",
"-23.90612134453113"
],
[
"of irrelevant advertisements. The application initially targeted towards rideshare drivers of Uber, Lyft and Sidecar, but it has since attracted attention from taxi companies. Vugo claimed that drivers using its application could make more than $6,000 per year, with the advertising revenue from the application distributed by the company to the driver.",
"-23.891826422772283"
],
[
"to face interaction between an in-the-market consumer and a sales person or expert in that field.\nSometimes these visitors are the result of targeted or un-targeted advertisements that may lead to impulse buys that fulfill desires for luxury or non-essential items. These ads might show up as banner ads, pay per click ads, social network ads and other revenue generators through ad networks and affiliate marketing.\nFirst-party leads differ from third-party leads based on where they originate. If they originate from the direct efforts of the website owner, then they are a first-party lead. i.e. When someone visits the",
"-23.87754089999362"
],
[
"(2005) Many companies have targeted marketing products towards children and in turn, have made them into “commercialized children.” Schor looks at how advertising strategies convince kids that products are necessary to their social survival and this is adopted into their mindsets for their future as well. Schor also provides a sort of optimism at the end, advising parents and teachers on how to deal with this problem.",
"-23.86147134374164"
],
[
"consumers, which makes it more attractive to developers, etc., in a virtuous cycle, until a critical mass (also known as a tipping point) is reached, such that it out-competes the other platforms…and eventually does indeed come to offer the highest lifetime profit potential, as prophesied. This makes it very important for a platform vendor to convince developers from the outset, even before the platform becomes commercially available to consumers, that its platform will have the highest lifetime profit potential. This contributes to the high-tech industry's hype cycle. Network effects, path dependence, and de facto standards If the market has strong",
"-23.85258471913039"
],
[
"to your site by up to 50%.\". Sites as Marketing Land and Pot Pie Girl are examples of the growing attention in the use of this tool and how to get the best result of it. Pinterest, by itself, gives several tutorials of selling, pinning, using the social media and also presents many success stories with the winning strategies used.\nUse customer-created Facebook ads\nAnother trend is the use of customers reviews and photos in place of professional ad creative, creating ads that are a seamless fit in customers' newsfeeds, increasing the possibility that potential customers will enjoy the products and/or the",
"-23.830995950382658"
],
[
"revenue from retails is divided among the parties along the distribution chain, such as — developer, publisher, retail, manufacturer and console royalty. Many developers fail to profit from this and go bankrupt. Many developers seek alternative economic models through Internet marketing and distribution channels to improve returns., as through a mobile distribution channel the share of a developer can be up to 70% of the total revenue and through an online distribution channel almost 100%. Producer Development is overseen by internal and external producers. The producer working for the developer is known as the internal producer and manages the",
"-23.8260917701773"
],
[
"many companies (including Google, Mozilla, and Canonical) have moved towards an economic model of advertising-supported software. For instance, the open-source application AdBlock Plus gets paid by Google for letting whitelisted Acceptable Ads bypassing the browser ad remover. As another example is SourceForge, an open-source project service provider, has the revenue model of advertising banner sales on their website. In 2006, SourceForge reported quarterly takings of $6.5 million and $23 million in 2009. Selling of optional proprietary extensions Some companies sell proprietary but optional extensions, modules, plugins or add-ons to an open-source software product. This approach is a variant of the",
"-23.824854386621155"
],
[
"from social media that may help them connect to customers in order to create a more genuine sales lead. The technique frequently focuses on approaching potential clients in a less direct way, meaning they don't interrupt their daily lives with cold calls and hard sells. Koka Sexton was interviewed and spoke about how salespeople can use social media to leverage their connections to gather insights and build relationships. Sexton stated that the art of social selling is said to speed up many sales processes, while also improving relationships. Arguments for and against Supporters advocate for social selling as a necessary",
"-23.80076175719296"
]
] |
38xn4y | My eyes are red from allergies. Rubbing them makes it worse but it feels oh so good. Why? | [
"Allergies make you itchy. Rubbing things that itch makes it feel better. In turn you're rubbing your eyes with something that's probably covered in the stuff your allergic to, Making the irritation worse.",
"Allergies are a false-positive response to a substance that doesn't harm you (pollen for example). The body responds with itching, giving you a signal to scratch, in order to remove the substance faster. No wonder it feels good - your system is rewarding you for the actions.",
"The strategy that works best for me is to take an allergy pill like cetirizine and then wash my face and splash cold water in my eyes for a few minutes. This usually calms it down until the antihistamines kick in.",
"It feels better because you are overwhelming the nerve receptors responsible for the itchy feeling. So temporarily the rubbing stimulates more nerves overwhelming the itchy feeling."
] | [
[
"result in allergic reactions and/or skin irritation. Individuals allergic to gluten for example, will need to be cautious when purchasing hair color since certain hair dye includes gluten. Gluten does not need to be ingested for it to cause an allergy. Skin contact with gluten may cause a reaction; therefore, leading to an allergy. Symptoms of these reactions can include redness, sores, itching, burning sensation and discomfort. Symptoms will sometimes not be apparent immediately following the application and processing of the tint, but can also arise after hours or even a day later.\nTo help prevent or limit allergic reactions, the",
"-35.86809169988146"
],
[
"Allergic conjunctivitis Signs and symptoms The conjunctiva is a thin membrane that covers the eye. When an allergen irritates the conjunctiva, common symptoms that occur in the eye include: ocular itching, eyelid swelling, tearing, photophobia, watery discharge, and foreign body sensation (with pain).\nItching is the most typical symptom of ocular allergy, and more than 75% of patients report this symptom when seeking treatment. Symptoms are usually worse for patients when the weather is warm and dry, whereas cooler weather with lower temperatures and rain tend to assuage symptoms. Signs in phlyctenular keratoconjunctivitis include small yellow nodules that",
"-35.83652719021484"
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[
"rash. The affected areas are always dry, scaly, reddish and may ooze sometimes. Eczema cannot be cured, but its symptoms can be controlled. One should use moisturizers, use cold compresses and avoid frequent hot showers. There are over the counter corticosteroids creams which can be applied. Sometimes, an anti histamine has to be used to prevent the chronic itching sensations. There are also many individuals who have allergies to a whole host of substances like nuts, hair, dander, plants and fabrics. For these individuals, even the minimal exposure can lead to a full blown skin rash, itching, wheezing and coughing.",
"-35.3240706861252"
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[
"Urticaria pigmentosa Signs and symptoms Urticaria pigmentosa is characterized by excessive amounts of mast cells in the skin. Red or brown spots are often seen on the skin, typically around the chest and forehead. These mast cells, when irritated (e.g. by rubbing the skin, heat exposure), produce too much histamine, triggering an allergic reaction that leads to hives localized to the area of irritation, sometimes referred to as Darier's sign. Severe itching usually follows, and scratching the area only serves to further symptoms. Symptoms can be mild (flushing and hives that require no treatment), moderate (diarrhea,",
"-35.294788701226935"
],
[
"a simple red area. The main difference between the rash caused by allergic contact dermatitis and the one caused by irritant contact dermatitis is that the latter tends to be confined to the area where the trigger touched the skin, whereas in allergic contact dermatitis the rash is more likely to be more widespread on the skin. Another characteristic of the allergic contact dermatitis rash is that it usually appears after a day or two after exposure to the allergen, unlike irritant contact dermatitis that appears immediately after the contact with the trigger.\nOther symptoms may include itching, skin redness",
"-34.56508139532525"
],
[
"from those caused by ingestion. Early symptoms include a cough and fever.\nWhen skin or inhalation exposure occur, ricin can cause an allergy to develop. This is indicated by edema of the eyes and lips; asthma; bronchial irritation; dry, sore throat; congestion; skin redness (erythema); skin blisters (vesication); wheezing; itchy, watery eyes; chest tightness; and skin irritation.\nAn antidote has been developed by the UK military, although it has not yet been tested on humans. Another antidote developed by the US military has been shown to be safe and effective in lab mice injected with antibody-rich blood mixed with ricin, and has",
"-34.22699351172196"
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[
"which collectively is called urushiol. After injury, the sap leaks to the surface of the plant where the urushiol becomes a blackish lacquer after contact with oxygen.\nUrushiol binds to the skin on contact, where it causes severe itching that develops into reddish inflammation or uncoloured bumps, and then blistering. These lesions may be treated with Calamine lotion, Burow's solution compresses, dedicated commercial poison ivy itch creams, or baths to relieve discomfort, though recent studies have shown some traditional medicines to be ineffective. Over-the-counter products to ease itching—or simply oatmeal baths and baking soda—are now recommended by dermatologists for the treatment",
"-34.17504065670073"
],
[
"Dermatographic urticaria Signs and symptoms The condition manifests as an allergic-like reaction, causing a warm red wheal to appear on the skin. As it is often the result of scratches, involving contact with other materials, it can be confused with an allergic reaction, when in fact it is the act of being scratched that causes a wheal to appear. These wheals are a subset of urticaria (hives), and appear within minutes, in some cases accompanied by itching. The first outbreak of urticaria can lead to other reactions on body parts not directly stimulated, scraped, or scratched. In a normal case,",
"-34.053433019900694"
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[
"Periorbital dark circles Allergies, asthma, and eczema Any condition that causes the eyes to itch can contribute to darker circles due to rubbing or scratching the skin around them. Hay fever sufferers in particular will notice under-eye \"smudges\" during the height of the allergy season. Medications Any medications that cause blood vessels to dilate can cause circles under the eyes to darken. Because the skin under the eyes is very delicate, any increased blood flow shows through the skin. Anemia The lack of nutrients in the diet, or the lack of a balanced diet, can contribute to the discoloration of",
"-33.97793106397876"
],
[
"Tinea cruris Signs and symptoms This condition is most clearly identified by the ring like rash which forms. It is typically a red or brown irritated patch of skin with clear rings. \nThe infection causes itching or a burning sensation in the area which is affected. Most likely originating from the groin, thigh skin folds or anus. Infection may involve the inner thighs and genital areas, as well as extending back to the perineum and perianal areas, and the rash can spread to any part of the body and is considered highly contagious. \nAffected areas may appear reddish, tan, or",
"-33.90096909587737"
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[
"and mustard. The European Union additionally recognizes other gluten-containing cereals as well as celery and lupin.\nAnother allergen is urushiol, a resin produced by poison ivy and poison oak, which causes the skin rash condition known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis by changing a skin cell's configuration so that it is no longer recognized by the immune system as part of the body. Various trees and wood products such as paper, cardboard, MDF etc. can also cause mild to severe allergy symptoms through touch or inhalation of sawdust such as asthma and skin rash.\nAn allergic reaction can be caused by any form",
"-33.56089259387227"
],
[
"redness and sometimes even swelling of the affected area will occur. For those severely allergic, a reaction may resemble that of someone with a severe food allergy, and such reactions require emergency medical care. Lower exposure Allergens that are airborne survive for months or even years by themselves, hence removing anything that can trap and hold the allergens (carpet, rugs, pillows) and cleaning regularly and thoroughly with HEPA filters and electrostatic air purifier systems reduces risk. Frequent hand washing, especially after handling the cat, and washing hands prior to touching eyes, nose, or mouth, and limiting the cat's access to",
"-33.481834645033814"
],
[
"the swelling will decrease without treatment within 15–30 minutes, but, in extreme cases, itchy red welts may last anywhere from a few hours to days. Diagnosis This condition is diagnosed by a health care provider writing or drawing on the patient's skin with a tongue depressor or other implement, to see whether a red wheal appears soon afterwards. Treatment Dermographism can be treated by substances which prevent histamine from causing the reaction (i.e. an antihistamine). These may need to be given as a combination of H₁ antagonists, or possibly with an H₂-receptor antagonist such as cimetidine.\nOver-the-counter vitamin C, 1000 mg daily,",
"-33.46792841836577"
],
[
"is warmed, the blood flow returns, and the skin color first turns red (rubor), and then back to normal, often accompanied by swelling, tingling, and a painful \"pins and needles\" sensation.\nAll three color changes are observed in classic Raynaud's. However, not all patients see all of the aforementioned color changes in all episodes, especially in milder cases of the condition. Symptoms are thought to be due to reactive hyperemias of the areas deprived of blood flow.\nIn pregnancy, this sign normally disappears owing to increased surface blood flow. Raynaud's has also occurred in breastfeeding mothers, causing nipples to turn white and",
"-33.448018112336285"
],
[
"Photodermatitis Signs and symptoms Photodermatitis may result in swelling, difficulty breathing, a burning sensation, a red itchy rash sometimes resembling small blisters, and peeling of the skin. Nausea may also occur. There may also be blotches where the itching may persist for long periods of time. In these areas an unsightly orange to brown tint may form, usually near or on the face. Prevention Prevention includes avoiding exposure to chemicals that can trigger the reaction, such as by wearing gloves, or avoiding sunlight or wearing sunscreen preferably with at least factor 30 and with a high UVA protection level on",
"-33.4016705120157"
],
[
"listed by its name by mandatory labeling conventions.\nIt can cause allergic reactions, with numerous large surveys identifying it as being in the \"top five\" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions. It may cause inflammation, redness, swelling, soreness, itching, and blisters, including allergic contact dermatitis, stomatitis (inflammation and soreness of the mouth or tongue), cheilitis (inflammation, rash, or painful erosion of the lips, oropharyngeal mucosa, or angles of their mouth), pruritus, hand eczema, generalized or resistant plantar dermatitis, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis. Collection Balsam of Peru is an aromatic viscous resin obtained by scorching or inflicting V-shaped wounds on",
"-33.29208137729438"
],
[
"is dryness and itching on the upper eyelids. This condition is often seeing in young people and can lead to reddish dry eye and scaly eyebrows. To relieve the itching sensation, one may need to apply warm compresses and use topical corticosteroid creams. Skin Eczema is another cause of chronic irritation and affects millions of individuals. Eczema simply means a dry skin which is itchy. The condition usually starts at an early age and continues throughout life. The major complaint of people who suffer from eczema is an itchy dry skin. Sometimes, the itching will be associated with a skin",
"-33.19501118926564"
],
[
"other chemicals) are released. This causes itching, swelling, and mucus production.\nSymptoms vary in severity between individuals. Very sensitive individuals can experience hives or other rashes. Particulate matter in polluted air and chemicals such as chlorine and detergents, which can normally be tolerated, can greatly aggravate the condition.\nCharacteristic physical findings in individuals who have allergic rhinitis include conjunctival swelling and erythema, eyelid swelling, lower eyelid venous stasis, lateral crease on the nose, swollen nasal turbinates, and middle ear effusion.\nEven if a person has negative skin-prick, intradermal and blood tests for allergies, they may still have allergic rhinitis, from a local allergy",
"-33.12989601196023"
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[
"and progesterone. The discharge is usually white or slightly gray, and may have a musty smell. The normal discharge of pregnancy does not contain blood or cause itching. The pH of the vaginal discharge in pregnancy tends to be more acidic than normal due to increased production of lactic acid. This acidic environment helps to provide protection from many infections, though conversely it also makes women more susceptible to vaginal yeast infections. Menopause With the drop in estrogen levels that comes with menopause, the vagina returns to a state similar to pre-puberty. Specifically, the vaginal tissues thin, become less elastic;",
"-32.93458114385794"
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[
"report developing a full-body, itchy rash. Applying a cold compress or ice to the area can help relieve swelling, while application of calamine lotion or 1% hydrocortisone cream can help relieve itching and pain. If neither of these creams are available, a paste made from baking soda and water is an effective sting remedy. The paste should be thick enough to stay on the area of the sting until it dries. Some individuals are known to have severe allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, to wasp stings, so should seek immediate medical attention if severe symptoms begin to present. In very",
"-32.91480542982026"
],
[
"by an allergic reaction, in which there is sudden swelling of the salivary glands. It is associated with other allergic conditions such as asthma, urticaria, allergic rhinitis and food allergy.",
"-32.86860249063466"
],
[
"Balanitis circinata Signs and symptoms At the beginning, people show pin-sized dots with white plaque on them which constantly grow into flat, red areas hardly sourrounded by white plaque. Despite of the visible symptoms, patients in nearly all cases do not suffer from burning or itching, nor does it smell strange. Due to its analogy to a fungal skin infection, balanitis circinata is often misdiagnosed as mycosis – especially in cases where patients have no other symptoms of reactive arthritis. Cause Reactive arthritis is characterized by nongonococcal urethritis, conjunctivitis, and arthritis. Reactive arthritis belongs to the group of arthritides known",
"-32.612519272079226"
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[
"additionally to the corticosteroid creams or instead of these. Oral antihistamines such as diphenhydramine or hydroxyzine may also be used in more severe cases to relieve the intense itching. Topical antihistamines are not advised as there might be a second skin reaction (treatment associated contact dermatitis) from the lotion itself.\nThe other symptoms caused by allergic contact dermatitis may be eased with cool compresses to stop the itching. It is vital for treatment success that the trigger be identified and avoided. The discomfort caused by the symptoms may be relieved by wearing smooth-textured cotton clothing to avoid frictional skin irritation or",
"-32.59842982974078"
],
[
"them precipitate and aggregate, producing a rough, \"sandpapery\", or dry sensation in the mouth. The tannins in some teas and red grape wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot produce mild astringency. Uses In medicine, astringents cause constriction or contraction of mucous membranes and exposed tissues and are often used internally to reduce discharge of blood serum and mucous secretions. This can happen with a sore throat, hemorrhages, diarrhea, and peptic ulcers. Externally applied astringents, which cause mild coagulation of skin proteins, dry, harden, and protect the skin. People with acne are often advised to use astringents if they have oily",
"-32.56527744984487"
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[
"from santonin is due to respiratory paralysis, and post-mortem examination revealed in one instance a contracted and empty right ventricle, and about an ounce of liquid, black blood in the left heart, an inflamed duodenum, and inflamed patches in the stomach (Kilner).\n. . .\nSantonin often produces a singular effect upon the vision, causing surrounding objects to appear discolored, as if they were yellow or green, and occasionally blue or red; it also imparts a yellow or green color to the urine, and a reddish-purple color if that fluid be alkaline. Prof. Giovanni was led to believe that the apparent yellow",
"-32.51722336001694"
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[
"color from red to dark brown, before disappearing. Overall, measles usually resolves after about three weeks. Complications Complications of measles are relatively common, ranging from mild ones such as diarrhea to serious ones such as pneumonia (either direct viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial pneumonia), laryngotracheobronchitis (croup) (either direct viral laryngotracheobronchitis or secondary bacterial bronchitis), otitis media, acute brain inflammation (and very rarely subacute sclerosing panencephalitis), and corneal ulceration (leading to corneal scarring). In addition, measles can suppress the immune system for weeks to months, and this can contribute to bacterial superinfections such as otitis media and bacterial pneumonia.\nThe death rate",
"-32.45917687827023"
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[
" If it gets in the eyes, the skin, ingested, or inhaled it will cause irritation in the respective areas: eyes, skin, gastrointestinal system, and lungs.",
"-32.42028506094357"
],
[
"use of makeup, touching the contact allergen with the fingers can trigger an allergic reaction on the eyelids.\nThis is due to local skin memory T-cells, which remain in the original sensitization site. In a similar fashion, cytotoxic T lymphocytes patrol an area of skin and play an important role in controlling both the reactivation of viruses (such as the \"cold sore\" virus) and in limiting its replication when reactivated. Memory response, or \"Retest Reactivity\", usually takes 2 to 3 days after coming in contact with the allergen, and can persist for 2 to 4 weeks. Diagnosis Diagnosing allergic",
"-32.38034279944259"
],
[
"is specifically set to protect infants. Benzocaine applied to the gums or throat (as commonly used in baby teething gels, or sore throat lozenges) can cause methemoglobinemia. Congenital Due to a deficiency of the enzyme diaphorase I (NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase), methemoglobin levels rise and the blood of met-Hb patients has reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. Instead of being red in color, the arterial blood of met-Hb patients is brown. This results in the skin of Caucasian patients gaining a bluish hue. Hereditary met-Hb is caused by a recessive gene. If only one parent has this gene, offspring will have normal-hued skin, but",
"-32.379309037991334"
],
[
"cause itchy red rashes with raised pustules in areas where the larvae have got trapped under swimwear and discharged their stinging cells into the skin. Cases caused by Linuche aquila have been reported from Thailand and the Philippines. Most cases occur between the months of March and August, peaking in May and June.",
"-32.321820476136054"
],
[
"or inflammation, localized swelling and the area may become more tender or warmer. If left untreated, the skin may darken and become leathery and cracked. Pain can also be present.\nThe symptoms of allergic contact may persist for as long as one month before resolving completely. Once an individual has developed a skin reaction to a certain substance it is most likely that they will have it for the rest of their life, and the symptoms will reappear when in contact with the allergen. Mechanism ACD arises as a result of two essential stages: an induction phase, which primes and sensitizes",
"-32.24900822411291"
],
[
"Allergy Skin Substances that come into contact with the skin, such as latex, are also common causes of allergic reactions, known as contact dermatitis or eczema. Skin allergies frequently cause rashes, or swelling and inflammation within the skin, in what is known as a \"weal and flare\" reaction characteristic of hives and angioedema.\nWith insect stings a large local reaction may occur (an area of skin redness greater than 10 cm in size). It can last one to two days. This reaction may also occur after immunotherapy. Cause Risk factors for allergy can be placed in two general categories, namely host and",
"-32.245457342593"
],
[
"aware of symptoms of an allergic reaction, such as: rash, itching, swelling, dizziness, and trouble breathing. \nProstaglandin analogs may cause changes in iris color and eyelid skin, growth of eyelashes, stinging, blurred vision, eye redness, itching, and burning. Beta blockers' side effects include low blood pressure, reduced pulse rate, fatigue, shortness of breath, and in rare occasions, reduced libido and depression. Alpha agonists can cause burning or stinging, fatigue, headache, drowsiness, dry mouth and nose, and also they have a higher likelihood of allergic reaction. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors may cause stinging, burning, and eye discomfort.\nLubricant eye drops may cause some",
"-32.18705312022939"
],
[
"Allergic rhinitis Signs and symptoms The characteristic symptoms of allergic rhinitis are: rhinorrhea (excess nasal secretion), itching, sneezing fits, and nasal congestion and obstruction. Characteristic physical findings include conjunctival swelling and erythema, eyelid swelling with Dennie–Morgan folds, lower eyelid venous stasis (rings under the eyes known as \"allergic shiners\"), swollen nasal turbinates, and middle ear effusion.\nThere can also be behavioural signs; in order to relieve the irritation or flow of mucus, people may wipe or rub their nose with the palm of their hand in an upward motion: an action known as the \"nasal salute\" or the \"allergic salute\". This",
"-32.18494166166056"
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[
"of salt on a reddish background.\" Recognizing these spots before a person reaches their maximum infectiousness can help reduce the spread of the disease.\nThe characteristic measles rash is classically described as a generalized red maculopapular rash that begins several days after the fever starts. It starts on the back of the ears and, after a few hours, spreads to the head and neck before spreading to cover most of the body, often causing itching. The measles rash appears two to four days after the initial symptoms and lasts for up to eight days. The rash is said to \"stain\", changing",
"-32.16630818399426"
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[
"brush it away. The resulting inflammation will also be linear. Because Paederus species are widely dispersed around the world, this syndrome has many different local nicknames including \"whiplash dermatitis\", \"spider lick\", and \"Nairobi fly dermatitis\". In East Africa, conjunctivitis from getting pederin in the eye is called \"Nairobi eye\".\nOnce pederin is on the skin from the initial beetle contact, it may also be spread elsewhere on the skin. \"Kissing\" or \"mirror-image\" lesions where two skin areas come in contact (for example, the elbow flexure) are often seen. Washing the hands and skin with soap and water is strongly recommended",
"-32.1456562805688"
],
[
"result from inflammation or congestion of the vaginal mucosa. In cases where it is yellowish or gives off an odor, a doctor should be consulted since it could be a sign of several disease processes, including an organic bacterial infection (aerobic vaginitis) or STD.\nAfter delivery, leukorrhea accompanied by backache and foul-smelling lochia (post-partum vaginal discharge, containing blood, mucus, and placental tissue) may suggest the failure of involution (the uterus returning to pre-pregnancy size) due to infection. A number of investigation such as wet smear, Gram stain, culture, pap smear and biopsy are suggested to diagnose the condition. Parasitic leukorrhea Leukorrhea",
"-32.12334704643581"
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[
"Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis Signs and symptoms The conjunctiva provides lining for the inside of the eyelid as well as a coating for the sclera, the white portion of the eyeball. It typically serves to provide lubrication for the eye through the production of mucus and tears. When infected with AHC, patients will experience painful, red eyes, swelling of the conjunctival tissue, and frequent mucus discharge from the eyes accompanied by excessive tearing and subconjunctival hemorrhaging. This hemorrhaging is caused by the rupture of blood vessels beneath the conjunctiva giving the eyes a bright red appearance. Some patients also experience blurry",
"-32.11089263798203"
],
[
"Phytophotodermatitis Symptoms A reaction typically begins within 24 hours of exposure and peaks at 48–72 hours after exposure. Initially, the skin turns red and starts to itch and burn. Large blisters (or bullae) form within 48 hours. The blisters may leave black, brown, or purplish scars that can last for several years. This hyperpigmentation of the skin is caused by the production of melanin triggered by the furanocoumarins.\nAlthough media reports have suggested that eye exposure to the sap can lead to temporary or permanent blindness, the risk of permanent blindness is not supported by existing research.\nPhytophotodermatitis can affect people of any age.",
"-32.071209090878256"
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[
"facial flushing after the ingestion of alcohol. In very high doses it can increase secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which can lead to hyponatremia. It also markedly raises the serum level of alkaline phosphatase. Chemical properties Chlorpropamide is a white crystalline powder with no characteristic taste or smell. It exhibits polymorphism. Its acid dissociation constant pKₐ is 5.0 at 20 °C.",
"-32.05473574416828"
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[
"contact. Symptoms include fatigue, sweating, headaches, nausea, stomach aches and fever. It is also an irritant for the eyes. Skin contact causes burns and it turns yellow. For pregnant women this substance is especially dangerous as it can cause growth defects in unborn children (it is teratogenic).\nDinoseb interferes with the oxidative phosphorylation by acting as an uncoupler, which is the production of ATP in the mitochondria. This is done by making the inner membrane of the mitochondria more permeable to protons. The protons can return to the mitochondrial matrix more easily, which results in a lower difference in proton concentration",
"-32.04976996211917"
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[
"look and feel more pronounced in color and texture during the colder months when moisture levels in the air are lower. The symptoms may also worsen during pregnancy or after childbirth. It is speculated that increased sun exposure can mitigate the symptoms of KP. Pathophysiology Keratosis pilaris occurs when the human body produces excess amounts of the skin protein keratin, resulting in the formation of small, raised bumps in the skin often with surrounding redness. The excess keratin, which is the same color of the person's natural skin tone, surrounds and entraps the hair follicles in the pore. This causes",
"-32.04052261565812"
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[
"many creams and lotions, commonly based on vegetable oils/butters, petroleum oils/jellies, and even lanolin are widely available. As a preventive measure, such products may be rubbed onto the affected area as needed (often every other day) to prevent dry skin. The skin is then patted dry to prevent removal of natural lipids from the skin. Treatment Repeated application (typically over a few days) of emollients or skin lotions/creams to the affected area will likely result in quick alleviation of xeroderma. In particular, application of highly occlusive barriers to moisture, such as petrolatum, vegetable oils/butters, and mineral oil have been shown",
"-31.942522463214118"
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[
"urticaria (a rash), dizziness, weakness, wheezing, and angioedema (a temporary itchy, pink or red swelling occurring around the eyes or lips); a few people experience an allergic reaction. The site of the bite should be washed and a cold compress applied. Scratching the wound should be avoided and an antihistamine preparation can be applied. In most cases, the symptoms subside within a few hours, but if the wound becomes infected, medical advice should be sought. In literature In Prometheus Bound, which is attributed to the Athenian tragic playwright Aeschylus, a gadfly sent by Zeus's wife Hera pursues and torments his",
"-31.903429157348"
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[
"because the mouth is coated in saliva, which washes away antigens and acts as a barrier. The oral mucosa is also more vascular (has a better blood supply) than skin, meaning that any antigens are more quickly removed from the area by the circulation. Finally, there is substantially less keratin in oral mucosa, meaning that there is less likelihood that haptens will form.\nAllergic contact stomatitis appears as non-specific inflammation, so it may be mistaken for chronic physical irritation. There may be burning or soreness of the mouth and ulceration. Chronic exposure to the allergen may result in a lichenoid lesion.",
"-31.807774497254286"
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[
"touched, causing swelling and itching. If the swelling is less than 5 mm, it is possibly due to error by the healthcare personnel causing inflammation to the area.\nAnother source of false positive results can be allergic reaction or hypersensitivity. Although rare, (about 0.08 reported reactions per million doses of tuberculin), these reactions can be dangerous and precautions should be taken by having epinephrin available. Anergy testing In cases of anergy, a lack of reaction by the body's defence mechanisms when it comes into contact with foreign substances, the tuberculin reaction will occur weakly, thus compromising the value of Mantoux testing.",
"-31.746072853915393"
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[
"that can cause a dampened or even white reflex, occurs in 1 in every 20,000 children. Regardless of the effectiveness, it is a fast, inexpensive, and noninvasive exam that could identify ocular pathology which with early identification can alter the course of the disease. Red reflex technique There are two techniques used to assess the red reflex listed below. Both are noninvasive, inexpensive, and quick. Dilation of the eyes is unnecessary and not recommended due to the theoretical but rarely seen risks of sympathmimetics and antimuscarinic systemic effects – tachycardia (fast heart rate), hypertension (high blood pressure), and arrhythmia",
"-31.735705180908553"
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[
"a slight stinging or burning sensation. There may also be mild itching at the site of injection afterwards. Normal values People who don't have clinical leprosy (Hansen's disease, or HD) may have little or no skin reaction to the antigen, or may have a strong reaction to it. This is because lepromin only tests for infection, not for ongoing disease. It is believed that most people exposed to Mycobacterium leprae are not infected and thus would not respond, or are infected but self-resolve or never manifest overt symptoms and therefore would respond to the lepromin skin test. Paradoxically however, patients",
"-31.727909791166894"
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[
"described share similarity to symptoms of the flush (flushing of the skin, accelerated heart rate, shortness of breath, throbbing headache, mental confusion and blurred vision). Treatment Since the mutation is a genetic issue, there is currently no cure for the flush reaction.",
"-31.72674017091049"
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[
"oil (common ingredient in cosmetics, including some baby oil brands) will damage the surface of the acrylics.\nTingle is a standard description for indoor tanning lotions that contain ingredients that increase blood flow at the skin level, or cause a \"tingling\" sensation. Bronzers Some lotions have a bronzing effect to them. There are three different types of bronzers; cosmetic, natural and DHA. DHA (dihydroxyacetone) is a higher level of bronzer that stays on the skin for about 4–5 days depending on how much one exfoliates. Natural bronzers that are made from plant extracts, and stay on the skin for about 3–4",
"-31.69804456701968"
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[
"allergy attacks or skin or eye irritation, you may still have some mold.\"",
"-31.66893668567718"
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[
"Red eye (medicine) Visual acuity A reduction in visual acuity in a 'red eye' is indicative of serious ocular disease, such as keratitis, iridocyclitis, and glaucoma, and never occurs in simple conjunctivitis without accompanying corneal involvement. Ciliary flush Ciliary flush is usually present in eyes with corneal inflammation, iridocyclitis or acute glaucoma, though not simple conjunctivitis.\nA ciliary flush is a ring of red or violet spreading out from around the cornea of the eye. Corneal abnormalities The cornea is required to be transparent to transmit light to the retina. Because of injury, infection or inflammation, an area of opacity may",
"-31.63745928707067"
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[
"Erythema Causes It can be caused by infection, massage, electrical treatment, acne medication, allergies, exercise, solar radiation (sunburn), photosensitization, cutaneous radiation syndrome, mercury toxicity, blister agents, niacin administration, or waxing and tweezing of the hairs—any of which can cause the capillaries to dilate, resulting in redness. Erythema is a common side effect of radiotherapy treatment due to patient exposure to ionizing radiation. Diagnosis Erythema disappears on finger pressure (blanching), while purpura or bleeding in the skin and pigmentation do not. There is no temperature elevation, unless it is associated with the dilation of arteries in the deeper layer of the",
"-31.61616122041596"
],
[
"Bacterial vaginosis Signs and symptoms Common symptoms include increased vaginal discharge that usually smells like fish. The discharge is often white or gray in color. There may be burning with urination. Occasionally, there may be no symptoms.\nThe discharge coats the walls of the vagina, and is usually without significant irritation, pain, or erythema (redness), although mild itching can sometimes occur. By contrast, the normal vaginal discharge will vary in consistency and amount throughout the menstrual cycle and is at its clearest at ovulation—about two weeks before the period starts. Some practitioners claim that BV can be asymptomatic in almost half",
"-31.571584637626074"
],
[
"perennial allergic conjunctivitis (PAC) are two acute allergic conjunctival disorders. SAC is the most common ocular allergy. Symptoms of the aforementioned ocular diseases include itching and pink to reddish eye(s). These two eye conditions are mediated by mast cells. Nonspecific measures to ameliorate symptoms include cold compresses, eyewashes with tear substitutes, and avoidance of allergens. Treatment consists of antihistamine, mast cell stabilizers, dual mechanism anti-allergen agents, or topical antihistamines. Corticosteroids are another option, but, considering the side-effects of cataracts and increased intraocular pressure, corticosteroids are reserved for more severe forms of allergic conjunctivitis such as vernal keratoconjunctivitis",
"-31.54513719677925"
],
[
"Eyelid dermatitis Eyelid dermatitis is commonly related to atopic dermatitis or allergic contact dermatitis. Volatile substances, tosylamide, epoxy hardeners, insect sprays, and lemon peel oil may be implicated, with many cases of eyelid contact dermatitis being caused by substances transferred by the hands to the eyelids.",
"-31.54386601000442"
],
[
"color of objects observed by the eye, when under the influence of santonin, did not depend upon an elective action on the optic nerves, but rather to the yellow color which the drug itself takes when exposed to the air. Santonin colored by the air does not produce this effect, which only follows the white article. The air gives the yellow color to santonin, to passed urine containing it, and to the serum of the blood when drawn from a vein, and, according to Giovanni, it is owing to its direct action upon the aqueous humor, where it is carried",
"-31.45601485914085"
],
[
"also combination drugs available for those patients who require more than one type of medication. Allergies Some eye drops may contain histamine antagonists or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs), which suppress the optical mast cell responses to allergens including (but not limited to) aerosolized dust particles. Pink eye Antibiotic eye drops are prescribed when conjunctivitis is caused by bacteria but not when it is caused by a virus. In the case of allergic conjunctivitis, artificial tears can help dilute irritating allergens present in the tear film. Mydriatic eye drops These make the eye's pupil widen to maximum, to let an optometrist",
"-31.4235593979829"
],
[
"include: solvents (alcohol, xylene, turpentine, esters, acetone, ketones, and others); metalworking fluids (neat oils, water-based metalworking fluids with surfactants); latex; kerosene; ethylene oxide; surfactants in topical medications and cosmetics (sodium lauryl sulfate); and alkalis (drain cleaners, strong soap with lye residues).\nPhysical irritant contact dermatitis may most commonly be caused by low humidity from air conditioning. Also, many plants directly irritate the skin. Allergic contact dermatitis Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is accepted to be the most prevalent form of immunotoxicity found in humans, and is a common occupational and environmental health problem. By its allergic nature, this form of contact dermatitis",
"-31.40630643151235"
],
[
"yellowish scalp rash, often accompanied by a diaper rash. In severe cases, symptoms may appear along the hairline, behind the ears, on the eyebrows, on the bridge of the nose, around the nose, on the chest, and on the upper back. Cause The cause of dermatitis is unknown but is presumed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Environmental The hygiene hypothesis postulates that the cause of asthma, eczema, and other allergic diseases is an unusually clean environment in childhood which leads to an insufficient human microbiota. It is supported by epidemiologic studies for asthma. The hypothesis states",
"-31.363911838940112"
],
[
"rashes on the scrotum, vulva, philtrum of the lip, or the nasolabial folds. The eyes can become itchy, watery, bloodshot and sensitive to light. Due to interference with iron absorption, even mild to moderate riboflavin deficiency results in an anemia with normal cell size and normal hemoglobin content (i.e. normochromic normocytic anemia). This is distinct from anemia caused by deficiency of folic acid (B₉) or cyanocobalamin (B₁₂), which causes anemia with large blood cells (megaloblastic anemia). Deficiency of riboflavin during pregnancy can result in birth defects including congenital heart defects and limb deformities. Prolonged riboflavin insufficiency is",
"-31.32611009813263"
],
[
"Herpetic whitlow Symptoms Symptoms of herpetic whitlow include swelling, reddening and tenderness of the skin of infected finger. This may be accompanied by fever and swollen lymph nodes. Small, clear vesicles initially form individually, then merge and become cloudy, unlike in bacterial whitlow, when there is pus. Associated pain often seems largely relative to the physical symptoms. The herpes whitlow lesion usually heals in two to three weeks. It may reside in axillary sensory ganglia to cause recurrent herpetic lesions on that arm or digits. Blistering can occur in severe cases. Causes In children the primary source of infection is",
"-31.304877540795133"
],
[
"the eye where blood usually pools. Flashes of light, known as photopsia, and floaters are common symptoms. Persistent color patterns may also be perceived in the affected eye. Initially, these may be mistaken for psychological hallucinations, but are actually the result of both retinal detachment and foreign fluids mechanically interacting with the photoreceptors located on the retina.\nOne early warning sign of Coats' disease is yellow-eye in flash photography. Just as the red-eye effect is caused by a reflection off blood vessels in the back of a normal eye, an eye affected by Coats' will glow yellow in photographs as light",
"-31.301669980748557"
],
[
"was historically known as chlorosis or green sickness for the distinct skin tinge sometimes present in patients, in addition to more general symptoms such as a lack of energy, shortness of breath, dyspepsia, headaches, a capricious or scanty appetite and amenorrhea. Acquired forms Hypochromic anemia may be caused by vitamin B6 deficiency from a low iron intake, diminished iron absorption, or excessive iron loss. It can also be caused by infections (e.g. hookworms) or other diseases (i.e. anemia of chronic disease), therapeutic drugs, copper toxicity, and lead poisoning. One acquired form of anemia is also known as Faber's syndrome. It",
"-31.29128160237451"
],
[
"irritation to the respiratory system. Ingestion may cause irritation.\nIn a 1983 report by the Cosmetic Ingredient Review, shampoos containing up to 31% ALS registered 6 health complaints out of 6.8 million units sold. These complaints included two of scalp itch, two allergic reactions, one hair damage and one complaint of eye irritation.\nThe CIR report concluded that both sodium and ammonium lauryl sulfate “appear to be safe in formulations designed for discontinuous, brief use followed by thorough rinsing from the surface of the skin. In products intended for prolonged use, concentrations should not exceed 1%.”\nThe Human and Environmental Risk Assessment (HERA)",
"-31.264083816786297"
],
[
"be erythematous (red) and edematous (swollen). With months and years of sun exposure, the lesion becomes chronic and may be grey-white in color and appear dry, scaly and wrinkled.\nThere is thickening whitish discoloration of the lip at the border of the lip and skin. There is also a loss of the usually sharp border between the red of the lip and the normal skin, known as the vermillion border. The lip may become scaly and indurated as AC progresses.\nWhen palpated, the lip may have a texture similar to rubbing the gloved finger along sandpaper.\nAC may occur with skin",
"-31.260850092472538"
],
[
" Skin and soft tissue will discolor within minutes to hours after contact and fade away (via surface shedding) within a few days. SDF should not be placed in patients who are allergic to silver or patients suffering from ulcerative gingivitis or stomatitis.\nSilver diamine fluoride darkens carious lesions. At least for children, many parents have seen the color changes as a positive indication that the treatment was effective and it was reported to be acceptable by parents and young children, possibly because primary teeth exfoliate.\nFor adults acceptability may also vary depending on patient expectations. Application of a saturated solution",
"-31.23235069292423"
],
[
"product), use Olean brand olestra. Side effects Starting in 1996, an FDA-mandated health warning label read \"This Product Contains Olestra. Olestra may cause abdominal cramping and loose stools (anal leakage). Olestra inhibits the absorption of some vitamins and other nutrients. Vitamins A, D, E, and K have been added\".\nThese symptoms, normally occurring only by excessive consumption in a short period of time, are known as steatorrhea, and caused by an excess of fat in stool.\nThe FDA removed the warning requirement in 2003, as it had \"conducted a scientific review of several post-market studies submitted by P&G, as well as adverse",
"-31.231247646152042"
],
[
"burning sensation, followed by urticaria. The sting site typically swells into a bump within hours, which can cause further pain and irritation, especially following several stings at the same place. The bump may develop into a white pustule within 24–36 hours which can become infected if scratched, but will spontaneously flatten within a few days if left alone. The pustules are obtrusive and uncomfortable while active and, if they become infected, may cause scarring. Some people may become allergic to the venom, and if untreated, may become increasingly sensitive to the point of experiencing anaphylaxis following fire ant stings, which",
"-31.200462297652848"
],
[
"Acrodynia Symptoms Besides peripheral neuropathy (presenting as paresthesia or itching, burning or pain) and discoloration, swelling (edema) and desquamation may occur.\nSince mercury blocks the degradation pathway of catecholamines, epinephrine excess causes profuse sweating (diaphora), tachycardia, salivation and elevated blood pressure. Mercury is suggested to inactivate S-adenosyl-methionine, which is necessary for catecholamine catabolism by catechol-o-methyl transferase.\nAffected children may show red cheeks and nose, red (erythematous) lips, loss of hair, teeth, and nails, transient rashes, hypotonia and photophobia. Other symptoms may include kidney dysfunction (e.g. Fanconi syndrome) or neuropsychiatric symptoms (emotional lability, memory impairment, insomnia).\nThus, the clinical presentation may resemble pheochromocytoma or",
"-31.19938251610438"
],
[
"itchy skin. More rarely, it may appear on the genital area, such as the vulva or scrotum. Symptoms of this type of dermatitis may be very intense and may come and go. Irritant contact dermatitis is usually more painful than itchy.\nAlthough the symptoms of atopic dermatitis vary from person to person, the most common symptoms are dry, itchy, red skin. Typical affected skin areas include the folds of the arms, the back of the knees, wrists, face and hands. Perioral dermatitis refers to a red bumpy rash around the mouth.\nDermatitis herpetiformis symptoms include itching, stinging and a burning sensation. Papules",
"-31.19551779968606"
],
[
"blemishes on average. After eight weeks, around 50–66% saw a 40% reduction on average.\nBenzoyl peroxide can have a drying effect on the skin, can cause erythema (redness) and fine scaling, though these effects are usually mild, and can increase sensitivity to sunlight. One in 500 may experience allergic contact dermatitis. It is categorized as a pregnancy category C agent, \"suggesting that its use in pregnancy may not be prudent,\" according to a literature review in the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology. If benzoyl peroxide comes into contact with clothing it is likely to bleach it.\nThe US Food and Drug",
"-31.19303435862821"
],
[
"the eyebrows, on the bridge of the nose, around the nose, on the chest, and on the upper back.\nCommonly, patients experience mild redness, scaly skin lesions and in some cases hair loss. Other symptoms include patchy scaling or thick crusts on the scalp, red, greasy skin covered with flaky white or yellow scales, itching, soreness and yellow or white scales that may attach to the hair shaft.\nSeborrhoeic dermatitis can occur in infants younger than three months and it causes a thick, oily, yellowish crust around the hairline and on the scalp. Itching is not common among infants. Frequently, a stubborn",
"-31.18107503808642"
],
[
"ab igne skin lesions. Treatment Discontinuing contact with the heat source is the initial treatment of erythema ab igne. If the area is only mildly affected with slight redness, the condition may resolve itself in a few months. If the condition is severe and the skin pigmented and atrophic, resolution is unlikely. In this case, there is a possibility that a squamous cell carcinoma or a neuroendocrine carcinoma such as a Merkel cell carcinoma may form. If there is a persistent sore that does not heal or a growing lump within the rash, a skin biopsy should be performed to",
"-31.174789477998274"
],
[
"intestinal symptoms from Crohn's disease often feel better when they do not eat and might lose their appetite. People with extensive small intestine disease may also have malabsorption of carbohydrates or lipids, which can further exacerbate weight loss. Extraintestinal Crohn's disease can affect many organ systems beyond the gastrointestinal tract. Inflammation of the interior portion of the eye, known as uveitis, can cause blurred vision and eye pain, especially when exposed to light (photophobia). Inflammation may also involve the white part of the eye (sclera), a condition called episcleritis. Both episcleritis and uveitis can lead to loss of vision if",
"-31.14123730690335"
],
[
"staining reaction in response to bruising, so some specimens may turn deep blue almost immediately, while others turn blue weakly and slowly.\nThe tubes comprising the pore surface (the hymenium) are 9–15 mm deep, yellow to olivaceous yellow (mustard yellow), turning dingy blue when bruised. The pores are small (2 to 3 per mm), circular, and until old age a deep red color that eventually becomes paler. The pore surface is often beaded with yellowish droplets when young (a distinguishing characteristic), and readily stains blue when bruised. The stipe is 4 to 12 cm (1.6 to 4.7 in) long, and 1 to 2.5 cm (0.4",
"-31.139117076294497"
],
[
"clothing fabrics such as wool or cotton, so it is not only the exposed skin of victims that gets burned. If the victim's eyes were exposed then they become sore, starting with conjunctivitis (also known as pink eye), after which the eyelids swell, resulting in temporary blindness. In rare cases of extreme ocular exposure to sulfur mustard vapors, corneal ulceration, anterior chamber scarring, and neovascularization have occurred. In these severe and infrequent cases, corneal transplantation has been used as a treatment option. Miosis, when the pupil constricts more than usual, may also occur, which is probably the result of the",
"-31.108943466388155"
],
[
"of the section of gut through which stool no longer passes. This condition arises because normally the lining of the gut obtains some of its nutrients from the fecal stream. This condition may cause a foul smelling, mucous rectal discharge from the distal, unused colon.",
"-31.097306640818715"
],
[
"reflects off cholesterol deposits. Children with yellow-eye in photographs are typically advised to immediately seek evaluation from an optometrist or ophthalmologist, who will assess and diagnose the condition and refer to a vitreo-retinal specialist.\nCoats' disease itself is painless. Pain may occur if fluid is unable to drain from the eye properly, causing the internal pressure to swell, resulting in painful glaucoma. Presentation Coats' usually affects only one eye (unilateral) and occurs predominantly in young males 1/100,000, with the onset of symptoms generally appearing in the first decade of life. Peak age of onset is between 6–8 years of age, but",
"-31.080003842827864"
],
[
"of wheals or rashes. And to guarantee the accuracy, there would be further confirmation for any of the positive observations by repeating the test with another arm. The results reveals that the allergy reaction is extremely rare among the public consumer. Only 0.23% of the 15,765 were diagnosed with the allergy. Also, the cause for the Philippine case is the mighty and rush way of rubbing laundry with hands. After various with abundant volunteers worldwide, it is found that exposure to laundry enzymes leads to neither skin allergy (Type I sensitization) nor skin erosion. Therefore, consumers’ concern about laundry enzyme",
"-31.079029858636204"
],
[
"symptoms may be green-brown or grey-black in color then will progress until grey when dry, turning black when wet. The outer edge typically form a ring of chlorosis around the necrotic tissue within the lesion. The rings originate as 3-5mm diameter spots that can potentially grow up to 2–3 cm. If the infection spreads far enough it may lead to premature defoliation of the host. Environment The disease has been especially prevalent in areas of Great Britain and south-west England. Infection is most common at 16-20 °C during wet periods to allow for easy entry through the stomata. Poor soil drainage can",
"-31.07203200965887"
],
[
"Stomatitis nicotina Signs and symptoms The palate may appear gray or white and contain many papules or nodules that are slightly elevated with red dots in their center. These red dots represent the ducts of minor salivary glands which have become inflamed by heat. The condition is painless. If a denture is normally worn while smoking, then the mucosa underneath the denture appears unaffected by the condition. In severe cases, the mucosa may show fissuring and develop a \"dried lake bed\" appearance. Other changes associated with tobacco use may be evident such as brown or black extrinsic staining of teeth",
"-31.065702225168934"
],
[
"prickly hairs that are used as the active ingredient, whereas the body (rather than the wing) of the bigleaf maple samara is covered with spiny hairs that cause skin irritation, and are used to make itching powder.\nItching powder was created in the early 19th century as a cure for lost feeling in the epidermis. When a person would lose feeling on their skin where a rash has formed which should be itchy the powder would force the irritated area to create the itchy sensation.",
"-31.056426120350807"
],
[
"a chronic itch. Over time, the skin becomes red and often oozes.\nPerspiration is also a chronic type of irritation which can be very annoying. Besides being socially unacceptable, sweat stain the clothes and can present with a foul odor. In some individuals, the warm moist areas often become easily infected. The best way to treat excess sweating is good hygiene, frequent change of clothes and use of deodorants/antiperspirants. Vaginal irritation One of the most common areas of the body associated with irritation is the vagina. Many women complain of an itch, dryness, or discharge in the perineum at some point",
"-31.045096138230292"
],
[
"experiment. In such foods, both the dye and reducing agents are incorporated in the same solution. When the solution is blue, oxygen is present. On the addition of NaOH, a reaction occurs that removes the oxygen, turning the solution clear. The dye turns back to blue once it is reoxidized by swirling the solution, incorporating oxygen from the air as an oxidizing agent. Health and safety The dye is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and 95% of the ingested dye can be found in the feces.\nWhen applied to the tongue or shaved skin, Brilliant Blue FCF can be absorbed",
"-31.006268941331655"
],
[
"Pterygium (conjunctiva) Signs and symptoms Symptoms of pterygium include persistent redness, inflammation, foreign body sensation, tearing, dry and itchy eyes. In advanced cases the pterygium can affect vision as it invades the cornea with the potential of obscuring the optical center of the cornea and inducing astigmatism and corneal scarring. Many patients do complain of the cosmetic appearance of the eye either with some of the symptoms above or as their major complaint. Cause The exact cause is unknown, but it is associated with excessive exposure to wind, sunlight, or sand. Therefore, it is more likely to occur in populations",
"-30.965859812684357"
],
[
"solution as an eye wash. Dilute boric acid can be used as a vaginal douche to treat bacterial vaginosis due to excessive alkalinity, as well as candidiasis due to non-albicans candida. As an antibacterial compound, boric acid can also be used as an acne treatment. It is also used as prevention of athlete's foot, by inserting powder in the socks or stockings. Various preparations can be used to treat some kinds of otitis externa (ear infection) in both humans and animals. The preservative in urine sample bottles in the UK is boric acid.\nBoric acid solutions used as an eye wash",
"-30.946029926153642"
],
[
"dry skin and redness. If skin exposure occurs, first aid includes rinsing and then washing the affected area with soap and water as well as removing any contaminated clothing and thoroughly cleaning and drying before reuse. Exposure can be prevented through the use of protective gloves. Eyes Exposure of p-xylene to eyes can cause redness and pain. If eyes are exposed, first aid includes rinsing of the eyes with water for several minutes, removal of contact lenses if applicable, and medical attention. Eye exposure can be prevented through the use of safety glasses or safety goggles.",
"-30.937149803387"
],
[
"Abnormal urine color Cause Infection, disease, medicines, or food can all affect urine color temporarily. For instance, cloudy or milky urine usually accompanied by bad smell possibly indicates urinary tract infection, excessive discharge of crystals, fat, white blood cells, red blood cells, or mucus.\nDark urine that looks brown but clear might be a warning sign of a serious liver disease like hepatitis or cirrhosis. In which, an excess of bilirubin being discharged through urine.\nIn case the urine looks in pink, red, or lighter brown is generally caused by beets, blackberries, certain food colorings, hemolytic anemia, renal impairment, urinary tract infection,",
"-30.93534190094215"
],
[
"Administration (FDA) warned in 2014 that over-the-counter acne products containing benzoyl peroxide and/or salicylic acid, including Proactiv, can cause severe irritation, as well as rare but life-threatening allergic reactions. Consumers were advised to stop using the products if they experience hives or itching, and to seek emergency medical attention if they feel faint, or experience throat tightness, breathing problems, or swelling of the eyes, face, lips or tongue. The FDA noted that it remains unclear whether the reactions are caused by the active ingredients, inactive ingredients or a combination. Sales Proactiv is marketed and distributed by Guthy-Renker, and is responsible",
"-30.908961393346544"
],
[
"handling is required.\nLow concentrations cause prickling sensations on the skin, but high concentrations or prolonged exposure to field concentrations can cause severe irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, and mild cough and moderate contact dermatitis can result. Liquid CSA causes acid burns of skin and exposure of eyes can lead to severe eye damage.\nAffected body parts should be washed with water and then with sodium bicarbonate solution. The burns are then treated like thermal burns. The skin burns heal readily, while cornea burns can result in residual scarring.\nRespirators are required for any concentrations sufficient to cause any coughing,",
"-30.89518363866955"
],
[
"Chorioretinitis Symptoms Symptoms may include the presence of floating black spots, blurred vision, pain or redness in the eye, sensitivity to light, or excessive tearing. Causes Chorioretinitis is often caused by toxoplasmosis and cytomegalovirus infections (mostly seen in immunodeficient subjects such as people with HIV/AIDS or on immunosuppressant drugs). Congenital toxoplasmosis via transplacental transmission can also lead to sequelae such as chorioretinitis along with hydrocephalus and cerebral calcifications. Other possible causes of chorioretinitis are syphilis, sarcoidosis, tuberculosis, Behcet's disease, onchocerciasis, or West Nile virus. Chorioretinitis may also occur in presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome (POHS); despite its name, the relationship of",
"-30.883470867876895"
],
[
"methanol splashes to the eye cause only moderate and reversible eye irritation.",
"-30.856469885911793"
],
[
"Molybdovanadate reagent Physical properties The reagent appears as a clear, yellow liquid without odour. It is harmful if inhaled, a recognised carcinogen and can cause eye burns.",
"-30.855256793140143"
],
[
"will be no purulent discharge. There may be regional lymphadenitis.\nWhen pus forms, the pressure increases, with increasing pain, until it spontaneously drains and relieves the pain. When pus drains into the mouth, a bad taste and smell are perceived. Usually drainage occurs via the periodontal pocket, or else the infection may spread as a cellulitis or a purulent odontogenic infection. Local anatomic factors determine the direction of spread (see fascial spaces of the head and neck). There may be systemic upset, with an onset of malaise and pyrexia. Diagnosis Periodontal abscesses may be difficult to distinguish from periapical abscesses. Since",
"-30.85087775118882"
],
[
"Actinic cheilitis Signs and symptoms AC almost always affects the lower lip and only rarely the upper lip, probably because the lower lip is more exposed to the sun. In the unusual cases reported where it affects the upper lip, this may be due to upper lip prominence. The commissures (corners of the mouth) are not usually involved.\nAffected individuals may experience symptoms such as a dry sensation and cracking of the lips.\nIt is usually painless and persistent.\nThe appearance is variable. White lesions indicate hyperkeratosis. Red, erosive or ulcerative lesions indicate atrophy, loss of epithelium and inflammation. Early, acute lesions may",
"-30.82353565702215"
],
[
"urine, typically to a dark orange to reddish color. This effect is common and harmless, and indeed a key indicator of the presence of the medication in the body. Users of phenazopyridine are warned not to wear contact lenses, as phenazopyridine has been known to permanently discolor contact lenses and fabrics. Some may be mistakenly concerned that this indicated blood in the urine.\nPhenazopyridine can also cause headaches, upset stomach (especially when not taken with food), or dizziness. Less frequently it can cause a pigment change in the skin or eyes, to a noticeable yellowish color. This is due to a",
"-30.80286374106072"
],
[
"also occur. A rash occurs in 50–80% of those with symptoms in the first or second day of symptoms as flushed skin, or later in the course of illness (days 4–7), as a measles-like rash. A rash described as \"islands of white in a sea of red\" has also been observed. Some petechiae (small red spots that do not disappear when the skin is pressed, which are caused by broken capillaries) can appear at this point, as may some mild bleeding from the mucous membranes of the mouth and nose. The fever itself is classically biphasic or saddleback in nature,",
"-30.794142509112135"
],
[
"Interstitial keratitis Signs and symptoms Acutely, early symptoms include a painful, photophobic, red watery eye. This is due to active corneal inflammation resulting in vascular invasion and stromal necrosis which can be diffuse or localized. This causes the pinkish discoloration of what was a clear transparent normal corneal tissue (called Salmon patch of Hutchinson).\nSuch vascularization is likely to result in blurring of vision secondary to corneal stromal scarring, the presence of ghost vessels, and thinning of the cornea, especially if it involves the visual axis. Cause By far the most common cause of IK is syphilitic disease. However, there are",
"-30.79270707879914"
],
[
"eyes, it causes extreme pain and mechanical damage to the eyeball. If not properly flushed out, it can result in permanent blindness due to its tissue destroying properties.\nAntivenin for the Samar cobra is produced in the Philippines, but is not widely available due to this species' restricted distribution and thus, relatively low numbers of individuals.",
"-30.790659667312866"
]
] |
32vvyl | How do automatic guns deal with the heat that would be created from the friction of so many bullets passing through the barrel so quickly? | [
"Some automatic guns, typically machine guns, have replaceable barrels that are meant to be interchanged when they overheat. Some older machine guns were even water-cooled, or had rotating barrels that would share the thermal load (i.e. the classic Gatling gun). Otherwise, the barrels are just kept well ventilated so that airflow will cool them off. Most automatic weapons, like assault rifles, aren't really meant to be fired continuously, so overheating isn't much of a problem in normal use.",
"Just like a car engine, it takes time for metal to heat up. In some guns they use thinker barrels, in some they have removable barrels, in some they have liquid cooling, and in Gatling guns they use multiple barrels.",
"Several things play into the reduction of heat. * Barrel size * Bore size (caliber) * Barrel shape * Fluting (holes in the barrels or vents) * Length of barrel * Barrel density/material These are all specially calibrated to mitigate the damage specifically to keep the heat down and allow for rapid fire without damage.",
"Tactics. 6-9 round bursts instead of full on automatic fire.",
"Usually poorly. You either have to have active or passive cooling. Otherwise, stop shooting so fast.",
"Some of the weapons have cooling features such as vented shrouds to radiate heat, or even water-filled cavities to obsorb heat. In many cases heat is a limiting factor into the actual operational use of the weapon, limiting use to shorter bursts and not true sustained fire even if the other mechanisms are capable of firing longer. The *friction* isn't really a problem, it's all the *explosions* over and over again.",
"For something small like an assault rifle, the volume of fire isn't high enough to be a problem. With heavy machine guns, some have multiple barrels that can be cycled through as the cool, and some have built in water cooling."
] | [
[
"fire shooters, as rapid release of the gas results in a rapid drop in the temperature of the liquid.\nThe issue of temperature change is not readily addressable, other than by the use of readily adjustable sights, so the shooter can adjust the sights to match the point of impact based on the current ambient conditions. In the case of rapid fire, there is a solution that can provide far greater stability for many guns. The original CO₂ airguns were filled from an external source of CO₂, but in 1954 Crosman introduced the 12 gram Powerlet, a compact, disposable tank now ubiquitous",
"-31.353127910377225"
],
[
"the burn rate because as the outside burns inward (thus shrinking the burning surface area) the inside is burning outward (thus increasing the burning surface area, but faster, so as to fill up the increasing volume of barrel presented by the departing projectile). Fast-burning pistol powders are made by extruding shapes with more area such as flakes or by flattening the spherical granules. Drying is usually performed under a vacuum. The solvents are condensed and recycled. The granules are also coated with graphite to prevent static electricity sparks from causing undesired ignitions.\nFaster-burning propellants generate higher temperatures and higher",
"-31.30491609708406"
],
[
"with only a slight decrease in muzzle velocity, perhaps providing a more advantageous performance tradeoff. Static friction and ignition Since the burning rate of smokeless powder varies directly with the pressure, the initial pressure buildup,(i.e. \"the shot-start pressure\"), has a significant effect on the final velocity, especially in large cartridges with very fast powders and relatively light weight projectiles. In small caliber firearms, the friction holding the bullet in the case, determines how soon after ignition the bullet moves, and since the motion of the bullet increases the volume and drops the pressure, a difference in friction can change",
"-30.439431634815264"
],
[
"recoil, and may also work to extend the life of the mechanism and its parts. More sophisticated designs use hydraulic or pneumatic shock absorbers; systems of springs, cams and levers to modify, dampen, or dissipate the rearward impulse generated as the projectile is fired down the bore of the firearm. Aftermarket buffers are often moulded bumpers or additional springs placed between operating metal parts which impact one another, such as the slide and the frame of a semi-automatic pistol. This type of buffer cushions the battering force of repeated metal on metal impact, reducing wear on parts and lengthening the",
"-29.897699615277816"
],
[
"required only a two-man crew to pull into position and operate ), and at the same time was cheaper in construction, the basic design proved to be flawed. The reinforcing materials acted as an insulator, and did not allow heat to dissipate fast enough. After only a few shots the gun would be too hot to use. The heat would also deform the tube and drastically decrease accuracy; once damaged this way, even after being left to cool, the barrel was prone to burst, severely injuring the loader. As a field weapon it was too unreliable to be viable.\nBut the",
"-29.649569909139245"
],
[
"barrel rifling; smoothbore guns, which do not have rifling, achieve shot start pressure by initially driving the projectile into a \"forcing cone\" that provides resistance as it compresses the projectile obturation ring. Kinetic friction The bullet must tightly fit the bore to seal the high pressure of the burning gunpowder. This tight fit results in a large frictional force. The friction of the bullet in the bore does have a slight impact on the final velocity, but that is generally not much of a concern. Of greater concern is the heat that is generated due to the",
"-29.64170269648821"
],
[
"flash as the gases combine with the oxygen in the air and finish combusting.\nThe propellant gases continue to exert force on the bullet and firearm for a short while after the bullet leaves the barrel. One of the essential elements of accurizing a firearm is to make sure that this force does not disrupt the bullet from its path. The worst case is a muzzle or muzzle device such as a flash-hider that is cut at a non-square angle, so that one side of the bullet leaves the barrel early; this will cause the gas to escape in an asymmetric",
"-29.53592599154217"
],
[
"ricocheting, the bullet would \"stick\" to the armour and punch a roughly 20 mm diameter hole. Calculated kinetic energy, by shot, before brake was about 11,850 J. The high energy was due to the relatively long barrel, and nitro powder giving a muzzle velocity of 1,275 m/s. Ammunition In the late 1920s the Polish General Staff started the development of a light anti-tank weapon for the Polish infantry. In 1931 Lt. Colonel Tadeusz Felsztyn from the Institute of Armament Technology in Warsaw started the first tests of various low-calibre cartridges. After the tests of German-made Hagler bullets proved the possibilities of that type",
"-29.337236576204305"
],
[
"much carbide does not increase the energy of the explosion but instead weakens it due to high fuel to air ratio. After the shot, fresh air is needed in the tube in order to have another explosion after more carbide is added.\nThe operating principle also works with other combustible fuels besides acetylene, but since most others have narrower explosive limits, the effect is not as reliable. Common examples are solvent-containing aerosol consumer products such as spray paint or hairspray.\nLess-volatile fuels can also work, with skill, such as 200ml of hot kerosene, poured into a small hole near the breech",
"-29.306388215045445"
],
[
"fire, approximately every 1,000 rounds) which were quick and easy to perform with a special wrench. The barrel could attain a temperature of about 400 °C, at which temperature it would be dark red in color. At this point the barrel dissipated heat as fast as it was generated. This only occurred after long continuous firing in a combat emergency situation. The most common complaint about the Hotchkiss was its weight: the gun and tripod weighed a total of 110 pounds. There were also complaints concerning the tripods, particularly the \"Omnibus\" tripods, which were perceived as too high above ground and",
"-29.22058859205572"
],
[
"burn off and cover up lubricants. The bolt, extractor, ejector, pins, and springs are also heated by the same high-temperature gas. These combined factors reduce service life of these parts, reliability, and mean time between failures. Muzzle booster The French Chauchat, German MG-42 machine gun, the British Vickers machine gun, and some other recoil operated firearms use a gas trap style mechanism to provide additional energy to 'boost' the energy provided by recoil. This \"boost\" provides higher rates of fire and/or more reliable operation. It is alternately called a gas assist, and may also be found in some types of",
"-29.13296741610975"
],
[
"experience) to the principle of pulling the trigger for each successive shot, like the action of a semi-automatic weapon.\nIt has been pointed out that this was a practical design that should have worked, but it did not. Apart from possible inconsistencies in the ammunition supplied, the real problem was that the gun used to trial the gear, a gas-operated Hotchkiss 8 mm (.323 in) machine gun borrowed from the French army, was fundamentally unsuitable for \"semi-automatic\" firing. Following initial unsuccessful tests, the gun had to be returned, and the experiments ceased. Unsynchronized guns and the \"deflector wedge\" concept When the pilots",
"-28.936453700764105"
],
[
"being a much larger bulk of metal than other, single-barreled guns, they are thus much slower to rise in temperature for a given amount of heat. Simultaneously they are much better at shedding the excess, as the extra barrels not only provide a larger surface area from which to dissipate it, but in the nature of the design are spun at very high speed, which has the benefit of producing enhanced air-cooling as a side-effect.\nIn weapons where the round seats and fires at the same time, mechanical timing is essential for operator safety, to prevent the round from firing before",
"-28.935942566371523"
],
[
"the light emitted in the vicinity of the muzzle by the hot propellant gases and the chemical reactions that follow as the gases mix with the surrounding air. Before projectiles exit, a slight pre-flash may occur from gases leaking past the projectiles. Following muzzle exit, the heat of gases is usually sufficient to emit visible radiation – the primary flash. The gases expand but as they pass through the Mach disc, they are re-compressed to produce an intermediate flash. Hot, combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen and carbon-monoxide) may follow when they mix with oxygen in the surrounding air to produce",
"-28.888859546976164"
],
[
"overthickens in low temperatures, causing the gun to \"freeze up\". Gas springs also have less lateral vibrations than coil springs, hence are usually less \"hold-sensitive,\" making it easier to achieve consistent shot groupings. Pneumatic Pneumatic airguns propel the projectiles by utilizing the pneumatic potential energy within compressed air, which is pressurized beforehand and stored inside the gun, and then released through valves during shooting. Single-stroke and multi-stroke pump guns utilize an on-board hand pump to pressurize air in an internal reservoir, while pre-charged pneumatic guns' reservoirs are filled from an external source using either a high-pressure stand pump",
"-28.87153553549433"
],
[
"than the fixed 75×714mm R shell from the Pak 40 and rather than firing a conventional armor-piercing round it could have fired a HEAT round. The advantage is if it fired a HEAT round the size of the propellant charge, its muzzle velocity and amount of recoil could all be lessened since HEAT rounds rely on chemical energy to penetrate armor and not velocity. However, the ammunition used and the gun's performance are unknown.",
"-28.688872413302306"
],
[
"during a contact shot; this may have also improved grip against the target, decreasing the chance of missing.\nThe ported barrel of the Welrod serves two purposes: it releases the powder gases gradually into the rear of the suppressor, reducing the sound of firing, and it reduces the velocity of the bullet to subsonic speeds (especially important in the 9 mm version since the standard 9 mm loading is supersonic). The metal baffles and rubber wipes that follow the barrel serve to further slow the gases of firing, releasing them over a longer period of time and avoiding the sharp explosion that occurs",
"-28.613830553222215"
],
[
"recoil spring are enough to absorb the recoil energy of the round, due to the round's relatively low bolt thrust. Blowback operation also permits the barrel to be permanently fixed to the frame, which promotes accuracy, unlike a traditional short recoil-operation pistol, which requires a \"tilting\" barrel to unlock the slide and barrel assembly when cycling. A drawback of the blowback system is that it requires a certain amount of slide mass to counter the recoil of the round used. The higher the power of the round, the heavier the slide assembly has to be in order for its inertia",
"-28.61239690039656"
],
[
"such a way as to return the gun to firing position after the recoil.\nWhat made the gun really revolutionary lay in the technique of the construction of the gun barrel that allowed it to withstand much more powerful explosive forces. The \"built-up\" method involved assembling the barrel with wrought-iron (later mild steel was used) tubes of successively smaller diameter. The tube would then be heated to allow it to expand and fit over the previous tube. When it cooled the gun would contract although not back to its original size, which allowed an even pressure along the walls of the",
"-28.579729573742952"
],
[
"\"flash\" is produced. \nThe projectile continues to accelerate as long as the pressure behind it is sufficient to overcome bore friction. The excess energy will continue to accelerate the projectile until it exits the muzzle. If the pressure behind the projectile drops sufficiently before the projectile leaves the bore, the projectile can and will slow while still within the barrel, despite residual bore pressure behind the projectile. A light charge with insufficient pressure to expel the projectile will result in a \"squib\", or projectile lodged in the bore. This pressure is reduced by the increasing barrel volume the gas",
"-28.56889260277967"
],
[
"as the barrel recoils backward, then is dissipated via hydraulic damping as the barrel returns forward to the firing position. The recoil impulse is thus spread out over the time in which the barrel is compressing the air, rather than over the much narrower interval of time when the projectile is being fired. This greatly reduces the peak force conveyed to the mount (or to the ground on which the gun has been emplaced).",
"-28.44527505838778"
],
[
"and then drops precipitously as the bullet leaves the barrel, which causes the gases to expand very rapidly in the atmosphere since they are now no longer pressurized.\nBecause the weight of the combined barrel and slide are much greater than the weight of the bullet, the barrel and slide will resist being moved by the inertia of the bullet and thus will move much more slowly in recoil. The bullet will leave the barrel and the pressure will drop to a much lower level after the barrel and slide have recoiled for some distance. The barrel and slide are held",
"-28.379486943711527"
],
[
"powder, producing a muzzle velocity in the neighborhood of 1070 ft/s (326 m/s).\nWhile this is a cartridge of considerable power to use in a blow-back action, the pistol design itself is so sturdy that the arm has given satisfaction through the years.\nThe firing chamber in this design is part of the receiver proper. The magazine is housed in the grip and is loaded with a stripper clip through the top of the open action. Because of the extremely simple lock work employed, the pistol has a minimum bulk for an arm of its type. Breechblock design The moving breechblock of this pistol",
"-28.250989620340988"
],
[
"(Waffenfabrik Bern) prototype pistol. The Barnitzke system uses gas pressure from the ignited cartridge and feeds it through a small port in the barrel in front of the chamber to retard the rearward motion of the slide.\nThis is accomplished by using the fixed piston formed by the outside of the barrel, inside a moving cylinder formed by the inside of the slide, gas pressure in the space between them opposing the rearward motion of the slide until the gas pressure has declined (at which point the bullet has left the muzzle) thereby allowing the slide to continue its rearward motion.\nThereafter",
"-28.22461784951156"
],
[
"to make the volume safer for the handler's ears. Hot gases and debris A firearm emits hot gases, powder, and other debris when discharged. Some weapons, such as semi-automatic and fully automatic firearms, typically eject spent cartridge casings at high speed. Casings are also dangerously hot when ejected. Revolvers store spent casings in the chamber, but may emit a stream of hot gases and possible fine particulate debris laterally from the interface between the revolving chamber and the gun barrel. Any of these may hurt the handler or bystanders through burning or impact damage. Because eyes are particularly vulnerable to",
"-28.21983820508467"
],
[
"heats, causing shots to \"walk\" as the barrel heats and cools. To prevent this, careful post-machining heat treatment is often used to stress-relieve the barrels. The amount of good this does depends on the technique used to make the barrel. For example, the hammer forging method of manufacture leaves a significant amount of stress in the barrels, which could be addressed through stress-relieving heat treatment. Wear Barrel wear is also an important issue, particularly in high-powered firearms. High temperatures tend to erode the barrel at the throat, preventing the bullet from entering the rifling cleanly. One way to produce a",
"-28.20778653997695"
],
[
"the target.\nA bullet, while moving through its barrel, is being pushed forward by the gas expanding behind it. This gas was created when the trigger was pulled, causing the firing pin to strike the primer, which in turn ignited the solid propellant packed inside the bullet cartridge, making it combust while situated in the chamber. Once it leaves the barrel, the force of the expanding gas ceases to propel the bullet forth. When a bullet is fired from a handgun with a 2-inch (51 mm) barrel, the bullet only has a 2-inch (51 mm) \"runway\" to be spun before it leaves the",
"-28.193085309234448"
],
[
"without placing undue strain on the gun. In internal ballistics terms, if the base of a projectile is thought of as a piston propelled by the expanding gas, then as barrel length increases the volume swept by the piston also increases, and hence the amount of energy that can be extracted from the gas's burning increases. A longer barrel allows more propellant to be used: the propellant is all burned fairly early in the projectile's journey along the barrel, except in the very common instance where combustion is still occurring as the projectile leaves the muzzle and a visible muzzle",
"-28.015773048624396"
],
[
"in order to reduce the kinetic energy of a bullet or shrapnel on impact, because of its moldable properties.",
"-28.00309512289823"
],
[
"reducing flash intensities. Faster-burning powders, however, produce less projectile velocity, which reduces the accuracy, due to introducing a more parabolic bullet flight path in place of a \"flat\" trajectory, while also reducing the lethality of the weapon by reducing the distance of the projectile's penetration of the target.\nFlash suppressors reduce, or in some cases eliminate, the flash by rapidly cooling the gases as they leave the end of the barrel. Although the overall amount of burning propellant is unchanged, the density and temperature are greatly reduced, as is the brightness of the flash. Types A number of different flash",
"-27.960365038365126"
],
[
"the weapon in order to maintain a reasonable rate of fire. A mechanism that was strong enough to handle the stresses of moving the large round was too heavy to move quickly enough to fire rapidly. One attempt to solve this problem used zinc shell cases that burned up when fired. This proved to leave heavy zinc deposits in the barrel, and had to be abandoned. In the summer of 1930 experiments were made with a new test gun that did away with controlled feed and instead flicked the spent casing out the rear whereafter a second mechanism reloaded the",
"-27.922692511056084"
],
[
"suitable for use in even higher-velocity armor-piercing rounds, due to their very high shock tolerance and shatter resistance, and to their high melting and boiling temperatures. They also have very high density. Energy is concentrated by using a reduced-diameter tungsten shot, surrounded by a lightweight outer carrier, the sabot (a French word for a wooden shoe). This combination allows the firing of a smaller diameter (thus lower mass/aerodynamic resistance/penetration resistance) projectile with a larger area of expanding-propellant \"push\", thus a greater propelling force and resulting kinetic energy. Once outside the barrel, the sabot is stripped off by a combination",
"-27.913483087773784"
],
[
"firing pin. As the round left the chamber, it pushed the lever forward again to recock it. The pistol lacked a removable magazine; rounds had to be pushed down from the open \"bolt\" and then held in place by quickly sliding a cover over them on the top of the gun. Reloading quickly was impossible.\nTests in 2003 claimed that the acceleration, rather than being constant, started at a high value and decreased, leading to velocities at close range which were not as low as expected, about 100fps at 1-foot instead of the calculated 20fps. The testers suggested that the (secret)",
"-27.90059592526086"
],
[
"which often involve sustained firing, is the heat sensitivity of the ammunition. Nitrocellulose, the primary component of modern gunpowder, ignites at a relatively low temperature of around 170 °C (338 °F). One of the functions of the metallic cartridge case is as a heat sink; when extracted after firing, every metallic case carries away a significant amount of the heat from the combustion of the propellant, slowing the rate at which heat builds up in the chamber. The thermal insulation provided by the case also works the other way around, shielding the propellant from built-up heat in the chamber walls.\nWithout a case",
"-27.877991216955706"
],
[
"slight delay in primer function, and the gun reverts to a simple blowback without the benefit of a massive bolt and stiffer driving spring to soften the recoil impact. [...] The exacting requirements in design and construction of gun and ammunition reduce this type almost to the point of academic interest only.\"\nAPI mechanisms are very sensitive to the ammunition used. For example, when the Germans switched their MG FF (an Oerlikon FFF derivative) to their new, lighter Minengeschoß shell, they had to rebalance the spring strength and bolt weight of the gun, resulting in a new MG FF/M model with",
"-27.871598527155584"
],
[
"and for velocities of steel shotshell loaded ammunition.\nSome indoor shooting ranges prohibit the use of steel shot over concern of it causing a spark when hitting an object down range and causing a fire.\nAnother problem is ricochet. Steel is very elastic and can reflect back to the shooter. Spread and patterning Most modern sporting shotguns have interchangeable choke tubes to allow the shooter to change the spread of shot that comes out of the gun. In some cases, it is not practical to do this; the gun might have fixed choke, or a shooter firing at receding targets may",
"-27.85118250141386"
],
[
"designed to work with a given weight of slide and barrel, and a given power of cartridge, adding the extra weight to the barrel by screwing on a suppressor will interfere with the gun's ability to properly cycle the action after each shot, resulting in stoppages. By incorporating a recoil booster (also known as a Nielsen device), the weight of the suppressor can be uncoupled from the barrel at the moment of firing, allowing the pistol to function properly by boosting the recoil energy of the barrel and slide, and by temporarily decreasing the effective attached weight. This is achieved",
"-27.832969271112233"
],
[
"fuze. If the fuze was set correctly then the shell would break open, either in front or above the intended target, releasing its contents (of musket balls). The shrapnel balls would carry on with the \"remaining velocity\" of the shell. In addition to a denser pattern of musket balls, the retained velocity could be higher as well, since the shrapnel shell as a whole would likely have a higher ballistic coefficient than the individual musket balls (see external ballistics). Industrial era The Industrial Revolution introduced steam-powered ironclad warships seemingly impervious to cast cannon. The inadequacy of naval artillery caused the",
"-27.810574216477107"
],
[
"spring, and when the trigger was pressed it was released rubbing against a 'flinty substance' contained in the cap where the front sight of the pistol would be. This action was said to produce a constellation of sparks sufficient to light an acetylene lamp in the wildest wind. At the time acetylene lighting was standard for motor vehicles. The long barrel made the Pisto-Liter a practical choice for applying sparks to harder-to-reach places, such as motor vehicle engines. Touch tip and striker lighters In the early 1930s Art Metal Works, Inc., began to manufacture a new line of Touch-Tip table",
"-27.766245361417532"
],
[
"of the barrel, near the sight and trigger assemblies, was an asbestos heat shield to protect the gunner's shoulder and neck from the heat of the barrel when firing.\nIt was capable of maintaining a sustained fire rate of one round per minute, but the weapon could also be rapid fired at an increased rate of one round every six seconds (10 rpm) by a well trained crew. The rapid firing was limited to five rounds, with a mandatory 15 minute cool-off period afterward.\nThe M49A1 sub-caliber device, which uses NATO 7.62 mm rounds, is typically used for zeroing the sight and for",
"-27.75451935584715"
],
[
"each charge before firing reduced the rate of fire to about one round per minute. \nThere were other methods, including small cloth bags containing the correct amount of powder for a single shot, that might be carried on a bandolier (again requiring a container for a supply for refilling). An important safety concern was that when reloading a muzzle-loading gun soon after a shot there might be small pieces of wadding burning in the muzzle, which would cause the new load of powder to ignite as a flash. So long as no part of the loader faced the end of",
"-27.75357462957618"
],
[
"had recoiled due to the energy of expelling the bullet from the barrel was it possible for the link to pivot downward, tilting the barrel and unlocking the action. The velocity of movement as high enough to push the slide against its recoil spring to its rear most position. From there the spring was strong enough to push the slide forward, where it would strike the base of an unfired cartridge in the magazine which had risen after the breech block had moved rearward, thus pushing the unfired cartridge into the chamber, effecting the semi-automatic reloading process.\nIn the",
"-27.71260261698626"
],
[
"This greatly reduces the peak force conveyed to the mount (or to the ground on which the gun has been placed).\nIn a soft-recoil system, the spring (or air cylinder) that returns the barrel to the forward position starts out in a nearly fully compressed position, then the gun's barrel is released free to fly forward in the moment before firing; the charge is then ignited just as the barrel reaches the fully forward position. Since the barrel is still moving forward when the charge is ignited, about half of the recoil impulse is applied to stopping the forward motion of",
"-27.69247101523797"
],
[
"automatic weapon, using an action that would close the breech and compress a spring, by storing the recoil energy released by a shot to prepare the gun for its next shot. He thoughtfully ran announcements in the local press warning that he would be experimenting with the gun in his garden and that neighbours should keep their windows open to avoid the danger of broken glass.\nMaxim founded an arms company with financial backing from Edward Vickers to produce his machine gun in Crayford, Kent, which later merged with Nordenfelt. Subsequently, part of the Barrow Shipbuilding Company purchase by Vickers Corporation",
"-27.684182580269407"
],
[
"gun barrel. The high pressure gas is separated by the vacuum by a diaphragm that breaks down as its resistance is exceeded.\nPrior to a test run commencing, a membrane separates the compressed air from the gun barrel breech. A rifle (or similar) is used to rupture the membrane. Compressed air rushes into the breech of the gun barrel, forcing a small projectile to accelerate rapidly down the barrel. Although the projectile is prevented from leaving the barrel, the air in front of the projectile emerges at hypersonic velocity into the working section. Naturally the duration of the test is extremely",
"-27.68085933837574"
],
[
"internal combustion engines, except that the bullet leaves the barrel, while the piston transfers its motion to other parts and returns down the cylinder. As in an internal combustion engine, the combustion propagates by deflagration rather than by detonation, and the optimal gunpowder, like the optimal motor fuel, is resistant to detonation. This is because much of the energy generated in detonation is in the form of a shock wave, which can propagate from the gas to the solid structure and heat or damage the structure, rather than staying as heat to propel the piston or bullet. ",
"-27.58728017343674"
],
[
"propelled by a 30-grain charge of black powder, which was ignited by a small copper percussion cap that contained a volatile charge of fulminate of mercury (a substance that explodes upon being subjected to a sharp impact). The percussion cap, when struck by the hammer, ignited the powder charge. When fired, balls had a muzzle velocity of about 900 feet per second (274 meters/second), although this depended on how much powder it was loaded with.\nThe unfluted cylinder was \"rebated\", meaning that the rear of the cylinder was turned to a smaller diameter than the front. The barrel was rounded",
"-27.530588919253205"
],
[
"service life of the firearm. Reduction of perceived recoil discomfort is an immediate added benefit of this type recoil buffer.\nSome pneumatic recoil buffers used in firearms are fast, low-power gas springs. When compressed, they present initial resistance as the rod-to-seal grip is broken and then they move in a regular manner. An additional small spring can be used inside the gas spring if rapid turnaround times are needed. Springs twist and the coils try to ride over each other when moving and this chaotic movement does not exist with gas springs, hence reducing twist and jump of the firearm. These",
"-27.51451463849662"
],
[
"vary directly with pressure of gunpowder or smokeless powder gases pushing the shell out of a gun barrel. A gun will deform (or explode) if chamber pressures strain the barrel beyond the elastic limit of the metal from which it is made. Thickness of homogeneous cast metal gun barrels reached a useful limit at approximately one-half caliber. Additional thickness provided little practical benefit, since higher pressures generated cracks from the bore before the outer portion of the cylinder could respond, and those cracks would extend outward during subsequent firings.\nClaverino's 1876 treatise on the \"Resistance of Hollow Cylinders\" was published in",
"-27.504568644217215"
],
[
"when high pressure powder gases are suddenly released to the atmosphere.\nThe Welrod uses a bolt-action design because it is simple, reliable and quiet. The bolt-action has only the noise of the firing pin hitting the primer, and the bolt can be cycled quietly.\nThe Welrod is extremely quiet for a gun, producing a sound of around 73 dB when fired.\nMagazines of six and eight rounds were produced. Operation The pistol is manually operated using a rotary bolt, locking with two lugs. Loading is performed with a pull/push action using the round knurled knob to the rear of the weapon. The trigger",
"-27.490766577917384"
],
[
"an accidental discharge.\nWhen a flintlock was fired it sprayed a shower of sparks forwards from the muzzle and another sideways out of the flash-hole. One reason for firing in volleys was to ensure that one man's sparks didn't ignite the next man's powder as he was in the act of loading.\nAn accidental frizzen strike could also ignite the main powder charge, even if the pan had not yet been primed. Some modern flintlock users will still place a leather cover over the frizzen while loading as a safety measure to prevent this from happening. However, this does slow down the",
"-27.47750428575091"
],
[
"from rolling out.\nA common practice with heated shot was to fire it with a reduced charge of gunpowder. This would cause the shot to lodge in the wood of the target ship rather than penetrating it, and also cause greater splitting and splintering of the wood. Molten iron shells In 1860, the Martin molten iron shell was introduced to Royal Navy service. These shells were filled with iron melted in a cupola furnace and were intended to break up on impact, splashing molten iron on the target and setting fire to any combustible material present. The shells were named after",
"-27.46177147142589"
],
[
"firearm action used. Effective rate of fire Firing any firearm generates a very high temperature in the firearm's barrel and elevated temperature throughout much of its structure. If fired too fast, the components of the firearm will suffer a structural failure. This means that all firearms, regardless of whether they are semi-automatic, fully automatic, or burst mode in their firing methods, will overheat and fail if fired too often. This is especially a problem with fully automatic fire. In actual use (for example the MG34), a gun might be able to fire at 1200 rounds per",
"-27.448167315480532"
],
[
"absorb and disperse the impact energy that is transmitted to the bullet proof vest from the bullet causing the bullet to deform, otherwise known as a \"mushroom\". Additional energy is absorbed by each successive layer or material in bullet proof vests until such time as the bullet has been stopped.\nCeramic plates work by locally shattering where the projectile strikes, and are capable of dispersing the energy of the projectile to the point where the bullet has been stopped. Unfortunately, this means that ceramic plates become progressively less capable of stopping additional bullets, and may be rendered unusable after a certain",
"-27.425138484337367"
],
[
"Burnishing (metal) Mechanics The action of a hardened ball against a softer, flat plate illustrates the process of burnishing. If the ball is pressed directly into the plate, stresses develop in both objects around the area where they contact. As this normal force increases, both the ball and the plate's surfaces deform.\nThe deformation caused by the hardened ball increases with the magnitude of the force pressing against it. If the force on it is small, when the force is released both the ball and plate's surface will return to their original, undeformed shape. In this case, the stresses in the",
"-27.41160661286267"
],
[
"served to hold a measured charge of powder and a bullet in one convenient package; the paper also served to seal the bullet in the bore. Still, the source of ignition was handled separately from the cartridge. With the advent of chemical primers, it was not long before several systems were invented with many different ways of combining bullet, powder, and primer into a single package which could be loaded quickly from the breech of the firearm. This greatly streamlined the reloading procedure and paved the way for semi- and fully automatic firearms.\nThis big leap forward came at a price.",
"-27.407066725485492"
],
[
"Canon de 75 modèle 1897 Description of the hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism The gun's barrel slid back on rollers, including a set at the muzzle, when the shot was fired. The barrel was attached near the breech to a piston rod extending into an oil-filled cylinder placed just underneath the gun. When the barrel recoiled, the piston was pulled back by the barrel's recoil and thus pushed the oil through a small orifice and into a second cylinder placed underneath. That second cylinder contained a freely floating piston which separated the surging oil from a confined volume of compressed air. During",
"-27.400169264525175"
],
[
"\"automatic\" fire long before the advent of the machine gun. Matchlock Matchlocks were the first and simplest firearms firing mechanisms developed. Using the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece of burning cord called a \"match\". The match was wedged into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel. As the trigger (often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought into the open end of a \"touch hole\" at the base of the gun barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun",
"-27.39719205362053"
],
[
"secure them in the bore.\nKoehler's design had the further advantage of absorbing the recoil caused by firing the gun. Ordinary carriages had no mechanism to absorb this recoil. The entire gun and mount would jump violently, causing the gun crew to have to reposition it before they could fire the next shot. Koehler's carriage mounted the gun on a sliding bed attached to the main body of the carriage via a vertical spindle. Firing the cannon forced the bed to slide upwards, rather than making the entire carriage recoil. As an eyewitness, John Drinkwater, noted, \"the carriage, when the gun",
"-27.397097594410297"
],
[
"to provide these functions, caseless rounds using nitrocellulose will begin to cook off, firing from the residual chamber heat, much sooner than cased cartridges do. Cooking off can be avoided by designing the weapon to fire from an open bolt, but this greatly impacts accuracy, and thus is only suitable for machine guns and submachine guns.\nThe normal solution to the problem of heat is to increase the heat resistance by switching to a propellant with a higher ignition temperature, typically a non-crystalline explosive carefully formulated to provide an appropriate rate of combustion. Heckler & Koch, in concert with Dynamit Nobel,",
"-27.371103414072422"
],
[
"from the gas port to enter the gas tube, driving the bolt carrier to the rear and the counter-recoil upper rail forward. The critical timing of the reciprocating parts is accomplished by a star-shaped sprocket that links and synchronizes both components, causing both to reach their maximum extension, or null point where forces are exactly equal, at exactly the same instant. The felt recoil is therefore eliminated, enhancing accuracy and assisting control during fully automatic fire. The travel distance of the AK-107 reciprocating parts is less than other Kalashnikov designs, so the cyclic rate is higher at 850–900 rounds/min rather",
"-27.366563878313173"
],
[
"second (4,500 mph), and substantial overpressures, up to 20 bars (290 psi). The main mechanism of detonation propagation is of a powerful pressure wave that compresses the unburnt gas ahead of the wave to a temperature above the autoignition temperature. In technical terms, the reaction zone (chemical combustion) is a self-driven shock wave where the reaction zone and the shock are coincident, and the chemical reaction is initiated by the compressive heating caused by the shock wave. The process is similar to ignition in a Diesel engine, but much more sudden and violent.\nUnder certain conditions, mainly in terms of geometrical conditions (such",
"-27.3534656096017"
],
[
"air bubbles trapped in the metal were common back in the days, and played key factors in many gun explosions; these defects made the barrel too weak to withstand the pressures of firing, causing it to fail and fragment explosively. Construction A gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out. If the barrel material cannot cope with the pressure within the bore, the barrel itself might suffer catastrophic failure and explode, which will not only",
"-27.343482171796495"
],
[
"an electronically fired primer, the projectile was set in motion, and at the same time a reactive force acted on the remaining stacked projectiles in the barrel, pushing them backwards. By design, the remaining projectiles would distort under this load, expanding radially against the gun barrel wall. This created a seal (obturation), which prevented the hot propellant gases (expanding behind the lead projectile) from leaking past them and prematurely igniting the remaining propellant charges in the barrel. As each of these propellant charges was selectively (electronically) ignited, the force \"unlocked\" the projectile in front and propelled it down the gun",
"-27.316036302014254"
],
[
"of the combustion gases into the action in order to cycle the weapon, is typically located either midway down the barrel or near the muzzle of the weapon. In this way it functions as a delay, ensuring that the bolt remains locked until chamber pressure has subsided to a safe level.\nRotating bolts are found in delayed blowback, gas-operated, recoil-operated, bolt action, lever-action and pump-action weapon designs. Another form of delayed blowback which the bolt head rotates as the firing pin strikes locking the chamber until the gas pressure reaches a safe level to extract. As the firing pin retracts, the",
"-27.278408574231435"
],
[
"turn, increase the resistance to heat transfer. Lubricants and friction At high temperatures and pressures, the oxygen in air-pressurized crankcases, or in the working gas of hot air engines, can combine with the engine's lubricating oil and explode. At least one person has died in such an explosion.\nLubricants can also clog heat exchangers, especially the regenerator. For these reasons, designers prefer non-lubricated, low-coefficient of friction materials (such as rulon or graphite), with low normal forces on the moving parts, especially for sliding seals. Some designs avoid sliding surfaces altogether by using diaphragms for sealed pistons. These are some of the",
"-27.24536584923044"
],
[
"that minimize their exposure time by quickly moving from cover to cover. For targets that can be fired on by a machine gun for longer periods than just a few seconds the cyclic firing rate becomes less important.\nFor a third hybrid class of weapons, common in handguns and rifles, known as a semi-automatic firearm, the rate of fire is primarily governed by the ability of the operator to actively pull the trigger. No other factors significantly contribute to the rate of fire. Generally, a semi-automatic firearm automatically chambers a round using blowback energy, but does not fire the new round",
"-27.232701847457065"
],
[
"to piston pumpers, but had a spring-loaded piston inside. The Quick Blast had a firing valve, which automatically opened once a certain pressure was reached. The spring would then push the water out the nozzle.\nThe Super Soaker Shot Blast, released in 2010, used a system nearly identical to the Quick Blast with different styling.\nIn 2013, Super Soaker produced the Flash Blast. While this blaster was spring-powered, this pistol-sized blaster used a system different from the previous two. Its slide was cocked back once. Then the trigger was pulled, firing a short stream of water. Function of this gun is similar",
"-27.200550904890406"
],
[
"as a \"spring\" and slowing the barrel when it begins to travel forwards again (which would only slow the rate of fire). The barrel continues to the rear on its own momentum, and actuates the operating mechanism. The resulting action can be seen as a composite of the recoil action and a gas action — the barrel being acted upon as if it were the piston. Muzzle boosters in other weapons act in a similar fashion.\nAs one can see, the pressure within the muzzle shroud is exerted equally in all directions, pushing forwards on the shroud with the same force",
"-27.197477330453694"
],
[
"edge of the steel rubbed against the pyrite, generating sparks. These sparks were directed into a pan, called the \"flash pan\", filled with loose powder which led into the touchhole. The flashpan usually was protected by a spring-loaded cover that would slide out of the way when the trigger was pulled, exposing the powder to the sparks. The wheel-lock was a major innovation — since it did not rely on burning material as a source of heat, it could be kept ready for extended periods of time. The covered flashpan also provided some ability to withstand bad weather. Wind, rain,",
"-27.1810969049111"
],
[
"the striker, under pressure of the striker spring, begins to rotate on its axis. This causes the safety lever to be thrown clear, the striker continues to rotate until it hits the percussion cap, which fires and ignites the delay pellet. The heat of the burning delay pellet melts solder holding a retaining ring, allowing the detonator to move under the influence of a spring from the safe to armed position. The delay pellet continues to burn and after between 3 and 4 seconds burns out and produces a flash that forces aside a flap valve allowing ignition. When the",
"-27.17971366562415"
],
[
"need for a large bore made HEAT rounds relatively ineffective in existing small-caliber anti-tank guns of the era. Germany worked around this with the Stielgranate 41, introducing a round that was placed over the end on the outside of otherwise obsolete 37 millimetres (1.5 in) anti-tank guns to produce a medium-range low-velocity weapon.\nAdaptations to existing tank guns were somewhat more difficult, although all major forces had done so by the end of the war. Since velocity has little effect on the armor-piercing ability of the round, which is defined by explosive power, HEAT rounds were particularly useful in long-range combat where",
"-27.106721294810995"
],
[
"the magnetic or acoustic sensors are fully activated.\nIn modern artillery shells, most fuzes incorporate several safety features to prevent a fuze arming before it leaves the gun barrel. These safety features may include arming on \"setback\" or by centrifugal force, and often both operating together. Set-back arming uses the inertia of the accelerating artillery shell to remove a safety feature as the projectile accelerates from rest to its in-flight speed. Rotational arming requires that the artillery shell reach a certain rpm before centrifugal forces cause a safety feature to disengage or move an arming mechanism to its armed position. Artillery",
"-27.097264982992783"
],
[
"and down the barrel of the firearm. If the high-pressure gas were not confined within certain parts of the weapon, it could damage the firearm or injure the shooter. A 'locked breech' barrel confines the high-pressure gas to the barrel, allowing the gas to expand and cool without risk of damaging weapon or shooter. Because of the pressure drop, a breech block can be opened in a self-reloading firearm due to the recoil inertia generation by the movement of the projectile. Recoil Recoil is described by Newton's third law of motion, which states that for every action there is",
"-27.081017623655498"
],
[
"velocity. The role of inertia In the first few centimeters of travel down the bore, the bullet reaches a significant percentage of its final velocity, even for high-capacity rifles, with slow burning powder. The acceleration is on the order of tens of thousands of gravities, so even a projectile as light as 40 grains (2.6 g) can provide over 1,000 newtons (220 lbf) of resistance due to inertia. Changes in bullet mass, therefore, have a huge impact on the pressure curves of smokeless powder cartridges, unlike black-powder cartridges. The loading or reloading of smokeless cartridges thus requires high-precision equipment,",
"-27.080482174176723"
],
[
"firing of a projectile results in a rearward impulse on the remaining projectiles stacked in the barrel. This results in the skirts of the remaining shells in the barrel being compressed against the following shell heads, effectively creating a seal that prevents hot gases in the barrel triggering unintended propellant ignition (\"blow-by\") along the length of the barrel. Metal Storm also introduced inductive electronic ignition of the propellant, effectively from outside the barrel. Products A minigun with a belt of separate firing chambers also exists.\nThe Multi-shot Accessory Under-barrel Launcher (MAUL) is an electronically fired, 12-gauge shotgun for use as an",
"-27.071605605073273"
],
[
"recoil operation; here, a significant portion of the recoil energy is diverted to cycle the action, effectively prolonging the recoil-phase pulse. Of course, other considerations affect the user's perceived recoil, such as the weight of the weapon, front to back balance, moving mass, height difference between the shooter's grip parallel to the barrel, and grip.\nIn comparing the energy levels of premium self-defense ammunition, the muzzle energy of 584 ft⋅lbf (792 J) of the 125 grains (8.1 g) 1,450 feet per second (440 m/s) .357 SIG load is greater than either the 475 ft⋅lbf (644 J) generated by a 155 grains (10.0 g) 1,175 feet per second (358 m/s)",
"-27.071356428714353"
],
[
"gas escape port opened in the form of a hole that lets some combustion gas escape during cycling. Position #2 closes the gas escape port and directs extra combustion gas to the piston increasing the recoil velocity of the gas-piston system and felt recoil. It is used for when the rifle does not reliably cycle due to carbon fouling build-up in the gas port, when shooting in extreme cold or high altitude or using low-powered ammunition.\nAfter discharging the last cartridge from the magazine, the bolt carrier and bolt are held back on a bolt catch that is released by pulling",
"-27.067116552905645"
],
[
"the slide, thus increasing the chance that the gun will function normally.\nAfter heat treatment the metal parts are finished with a proprietary nitriding process called Tenifer Plus+. This finish is characterized by extreme wear and corrosion resistance; it penetrates the metal, and treated parts have similar properties even below the surface to a certain depth. The Tenifer Plus+ process produces a matte gray-colored, non-glare surface with a 64 Rockwell C hardness rating and a 1,200–1,300 N/mm² tensile strength. This finish makes the HS2000 particularly suitable for individuals carrying the pistol concealed, as the highly chloride-resistant finish allows the pistol to better",
"-27.059121448568476"
],
[
"the barrel's recoil the floating piston was forced forward by the oil, compressing the air even further. This action absorbed the recoil progressively as the internal air pressure rose and, at the end of recoil, generated a strong but decreasing back pressure that returned the gun forward to its original position. The smoothness of this system had no equal in 1897, and for at least another ten years. Each recoil cycle on the French 75, including the return forward, lasted about two seconds, permitting a maximum attainable firing rate of about 30 rounds per minute. Rapid fire capability The French",
"-27.007144632167183"
],
[
"for gases and powder. Oxygen and fuel (acetylene most common) are fed into the barrel along with a charge of powder. A spark is used to ignite the gas mixture, and the resulting detonation heats and accelerates the powder to supersonic velocity through the barrel. A pulse of nitrogen is used to purge the barrel after each detonation. This process is repeated many times a second. The high kinetic energy of the hot powder particles on impact with the substrate results in a buildup of a very dense and strong coating. Plasma spraying In plasma spraying process, the material to",
"-27.00460844540794"
],
[
"case, adding 200–250 ft/second to the existing velocity of 750–1200 ft/second. The shell body dropped to the ground mostly intact and the bullets continued in an expanding cone shape before striking the ground over an area approximately 250 yards × 30 yards in the case of the US 3 inch shell. The effect was of a large shotgun blast just in front of and above the target, and was deadly against troops in the open. A trained gun team could fire 20 such shells per minute, with a total of 6,000 balls, which compared very favorably with rifles and machine-guns.\nHowever, shrapnel's relatively",
"-26.992621223267633"
],
[
"bomb. HEAT shells are less effective if spun (i.e., fired from a rifled gun).\nHEAT shells were developed during the Second World War as a munition made of an explosive shaped charge that uses the Munroe effect to create a very high-velocity partial stream of metal in a state of superplasticity, and used to penetrate solid vehicle armour. HEAT rounds caused a revolution in anti-tank warfare when they were first introduced in the later stages of World War II. A single infantryman could effectively destroy any existing tank with a handheld weapon, thereby dramatically altering the nature of mobile operations.",
"-26.991919939639047"
],
[
"heat capacity for sustained fire, feature a chrome-lined rifled bore (six right-hand grooves) and are manufactured in two versions: with a 178 mm (1:7 in) twist rate used to stabilize the heavier Belgian 5.56×45mm SS109 projectile, or a 305 mm (1:12 in) twist for use with American M193 ammunition. The barrels have a quick-change capability; a lever is provided on the left side of the weapon that unlocks the barrel allowing the shooter to push it forward removing it from its trunnion. A carrying handle is also fixed to the barrel and assists in the barrel change process. A trained soldier can",
"-26.977269727154635"
],
[
"the gas pressure in the barrel drops after the bullet leaves the barrel. As the bullet is being propelled down the barrel, it is pushed by high-pressure gases which are formed due to the combustion of the propellant contained in the metallic case. When the bullet first starts to move, the pressure in the cartridge case and barrel rises to more than 16,000 pounds per square inch. As the bullet moves down the barrel, the pressures begin to dissipate due to the greater volume of the space from the shell casing to the bullet as it travels through the barrel,",
"-26.95815604546806"
],
[
"by the primer and subsequently released in a luminous outer flame zone where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like steam and carbon monoxide.\nThe heat transfer rate of smokeless propellants increases with pressure; so the rate of gas generation from a given grain surface area increases at higher pressures. Accelerating gas generation from fast burning propellants may rapidly create a destructively high pressure spike before bullet movement increases reaction volume. Conversely, propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may cease decomposition into gaseous reactants if bullet movement decreases pressure before a slow burning propellant has",
"-26.950997978099622"
],
[
"lack of back pressure that would normally occur as the bullet traps the expanding propellant gases until the bullet clears the barrel. This is important on gas-operated firearms, as they rely on tapping some of the pressure built up behind an accelerating bullet moving up the barrel. Without a bullet to act as a \"plug\", the gases simply rush out the muzzle without generating enough pressure to cycle the weapon properly, since such devices are often fine-tuned to work only within a certain limited range of gas pressures.",
"-26.949602728549507"
],
[
"been consumed. Unburned propellant grains may remain in the barrel if the energy-releasing flame zone cannot be sustained in the resultant absence of gaseous reactants from the inner zones. Ratio of propellant to projectile mass Another issue, when choosing or developing a cartridge, is the issue of recoil. The recoil is not just the reaction from the projectile being launched, but also from the powder gas, which will exit the barrel with a velocity even higher than that of the bullet. For handgun cartridges, with heavy bullets and light powder charges (a 9×19mm, for example, might use 5",
"-26.949506521457806"
],
[
"into a cannon to ensure that the red-hot shot did not prematurely ignite the cannon's charge of gunpowder.\nA cartridge bag of gunpowder was loaded first. A double bag was used with heated shot to prevent leakage of grains of gunpowder as the bag was rammed down the cannon. Once the bag was in place, a wad of moistened clay or cloth was rammed down against the bag to shield it from the heated shot, which was loaded next. If the cannon was to be fired at a downward angle, another wet wad was rammed against the ball to prevent it",
"-26.922471960890107"
],
[
"weapons are usually detonated above the ground (not upon impact, because some of the energy would be dissipated by the ground motions), to maximize the effect of their spherically expanding fireball and blast wave. Immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a hot-air balloon.\nOne way to analyze the motion, once the hot gas has cleared the ground sufficiently, is as a 'spherical cap bubble', as this gives agreement between the rate of rise and observed diameter.\nAs it rises, a Rayleigh–Taylor instability is formed, and air is drawn upwards and",
"-26.87291398205707"
],
[
"facing forward; like any device which allows the gases to expand before leaving the firearm, they are effectively a type of muzzle shroud. They reduce muzzle rise similarly to the mechanism by which a sideways brake does: since all the gas is escaping in the same direction, any muzzle rise would need to alter the velocity of the gas, which costs kinetic energy. When the brake redirects the gases directly backward, instead, the effect is similar to the reverse thrust system on an aircraft jet engine: any blast energy coming back at the shooter is pushing \"against\" the recoil, effectively",
"-26.855018230329733"
],
[
"the shotgun recoils after firing, inertia causes the bolt body to remain stationary while the recoiling gun and locked bolt head move rearward. This movement compresses the spring between the bolt head and bolt body, storing the energy required to cycle the action. Since the spring can only be compressed a certain amount, this limits the amount of force the spring can absorb, and provides an inherent level of self-regulation to the action, allowing a wide range of shotshells to be used, from standard to magnum loads, as long as they provide the minimum recoil level to compress the spring.",
"-26.853578824200667"
],
[
"firing a projectile at 17 MJ or more will increase directly with the increase in muzzle energy in accordance to Newton's third law of motion and successful implementation of recoil reduction mechanisms will be vital to the installation of an ETC powered gun in an existing vehicle design. For example, OTO Melara's new lightweight 120 mm L/45 gun has achieved a recoil force of 25 t by using a longer recoil mechanism (550 mm) and a pepperpot muzzle brake. Reduction in recoil can also be achieved through mass attenuation of the thermal sleeve. The ability of ETC technology to",
"-26.851367594557814"
],
[
"kits and an illustrated booklet on the subject by Will Eisner. Cleaning The ordinary firing action releases fine particles of gunpowder, metals (mostly lead and copper from the bullet moving over the riflings) and other contaminates into the inner spaces of a firearm, which may cause malfunctions or in rarer cases of extreme buildup may raise the barrel pressure too high causing the firearm to explode (catastrophic failure) upon being fired. It has been widely reported that firearms without a spring to control the inertia of the firing pin require constant cleaning of the bolt assembly, as extremely dangerous",
"-26.84212914449745"
],
[
"(in terms of chemical burn speed and expansion), the mass of the projectile, and the length of the barrel. A slower-burning propellant needs a longer barrel to finish its burn before leaving, but conversely can use a heavier projectile. This is a mathematical tradeoff. A faster-burning propellant may accelerate a lighter projectile to higher speeds if the same amount of propellant is used. Within a gun, the gaseous pressure created as a result of the combustion process is a limiting factor on projectile velocity. Consequently, propellant quality and quantity, projectile mass, and barrel length must all be balanced to achieve",
"-26.838800529516448"
],
[
"that Armstrong was able to construct a viable solution. The gun combined all the properties that make up an effective artillery piece. The gun was mounted on a carriage in such a way as to return the gun to firing position after the recoil.\nWhat made the gun really revolutionary lay in the technique of the construction of the gun barrel that allowed it to withstand much more powerful explosive forces. The \"built-up\" method involved assembling the barrel with wrought-iron (later mild steel was used) tubes of successively smaller diameter. The tube would then be heated to allow it to expand",
"-26.838081458816305"
],
[
"in all environments.\nThe barrel is made by cold forging, which guarantees its durability and permanence. The interior of the barrel is chrome plated, which provides unaltered ballistic characteristics for several thousands of fired rounds. The barrel is quickly and easily stripped from the machine gun, so when the gun is heavily used it is possible to cool it quickly and replace it with the spare one. The set of the gun contains a spare barrel. During the fire, cartridge cases are ejected forward, which increases the safety of the shooter and people nearby.\nWhen conditions are extreme, the position of gas",
"-26.826385540363844"
],
[
"first-round hit probability of 70% when firing a kinetic projectile. Under the same conditions, it could expect 25% when firing a HEAT round. This affects combat on the open battlefield with long lines of sight; the same T-62 could expect a 70% first-round hit probability using HEAT rounds on target at 500 meters.\nA further problem is that, if the warhead is contained inside the barrel, its diameter becomes overly restricted by the caliber of that barrel. In non-gun applications, when HEAT warheads are delivered with missiles, rockets, bombs, grenades, or spigot mortars, the warhead size is no longer a limiting",
"-26.816625635139644"
],
[
"(3% of the speed of light) by 2000. A shot has the energy of 5 pounds of TNT exploding. Doughnut-shaped rings of plasma and balls of lightning exploded with devastating thermal and mechanical effects when hitting their target and produced pulse of electromagnetic radiation that could scramble electronics, the energy would shower the interior of the target with high-energy x-rays that would potentially destroy the electronics inside. Current status As of 1993, the project appeared to be in the early experimental stages. The weapon was able to produce doughnut-shaped rings of plasma and balls of lightning that exploded with devastating",
"-26.793350883031962"
],
[
"too compressed nor too loose, a wooden bung pounded in to seal the chamber from the barrel when assembled, and the projectile placed on. A carefully determined empty space was necessary for the charge to burn effectively. When the cannon was fired through the touchhole, turbulence from the initial surface combustion caused the rest of the powder to be rapidly exposed to the flame.\nThe advent of much more powerful and easy to use corned powder changed this procedure, but serpentine was used with older guns into the 17th century. Corning For propellants to oxidize and burn rapidly and effectively,",
"-26.78208599286154"
]
] |
33845d | Quantum mechanics vs. standard particle physics. | [
"I'm confused by the question. What do you mean by \"standard particle physics\"? The Standard Model of particle physics is a relativistic quantum field theory.",
"When you're looking at a golf ball made up of trillions and quadrillions of tiny pieces it doesn't really matter how wierd the pieces behave by themselves if they're forced into a giant golf ball pattern. As a whole, they are still a golf ball. We can measure the weight, speed, distance of a golf ball as well as we care to. Golf balls behave predictably. That's classical physics. Quantum physics looks at these tiny pieces of the golf ball individually, and looks at just how wierd they really are. When you look at tiny enough pieces, they behave so strangely that we can't explain most of what they do. The tiny pieces do things that the golf ball can't.",
"'Standard particle physics' I'm going to assume refers to classical physics, the kind you learn in high school. Perhaps the biggest difference, in that sense, is that classical physics is purely deterministic. Particles have location and momentum, and that's basically it. If you know these things accurately enough, then you know exactly what they will do in any given situation. Quantum physics, by contrast, shows that the more certain you are about one of those, the less certain you can be about the other, since you've changed it when you measured it. Think about it like this: I want to know where something is, so I look at it. The process of looking requires photons to have bounced off it and then hit my retina. Now, for the sort of objects we're familiar with, photons bouncing off it has no real impact. When you're talking about incredibly small things though, the photons have similar momentum (energy, technically) so they have a significant effect. It's like instead of throwing bouncy balls at a car, you're throwing motorbikes. Now, an interesting and related property is that on a quantum scale, things exist as probabilities, they don't really have a discrete location, just areas where they are more or less likely to be, and can pop in and out of existence at random. *All* things in the universe smaller than an atom behave like this (and possibly some atoms too, research on that is ongoing). The reason we don't see this sort of behavior from larger objects is because of probability again, in order for a classically sized object to randomly disappear, a **huge** number of constituent particles would need to do something unlikely, all at once (like if you were to take 10,000,000,000,000 dice and roll them all at once, and every single one comes up six) tl;dr: when things get really, really small, we can't find them anymore.",
"If you would really like to understand in the most basic form Quantum Mechanics. I suggest you look up the videos for [this show.]( URL_0 ) It does a great job of not only showing you how things work, but it is done in a way that is very easy to understand. [Link to Amazon.]( URL_1 )"
] | [
[
"it is precise in predicting the behavior of matter, the nature of chemical bonds, and the properties of materials like semiconductors and superconductors.\nQuantum mechanics is the firm foundation on which all of physical science rests. It is the study of a system in terms of its most fundamental (and tiny) constituents such as electrons, neutrons, photons: particles that also act like waves—or is it waves having the properties of particles? On this atomic scale, which is governed by Planck's constant, the properties of a system are very different than that of bulk matter. This diverging behavior leads to emerging phenomena",
"-31.426307855115738"
],
[
"be known using this vector basis. Many-particle systems When turning to N-particle systems, i.e., systems containing N identical particles i.e. particles characterized by the same physical parameters such as mass, charge and spin, an extension of the single-particle state function to the N-particle state function is necessary. A fundamental difference between classical and quantum mechanics concerns the concept of indistinguishability of identical particles. Only two species of particles are thus possible in quantum physics, the so-called bosons and fermions which obey the rules:\n (bosons),\n (fermions).\nWhere we have interchanged two coordinates of the state function. The usual wave",
"-29.921550585888326"
],
[
"what exactly quantum physics says about the nature of reality. \nDespite the fact that every physicist agrees that quantum physics works, a bitter debate has raged over its meaning for the past ninety years, since the theory was first developed.\nThe book deals with the personalities behind the competing interpretations of quantum physics as well as the historical factors that influenced the debate -- factors such as military spending on physics research due to World War II, the Cold War ethos that caused the eschewing of physicists thought to be Marxist, the assumed infallibility of John von Neumann, the sexism that",
"-29.765445499273483"
],
[
"lecture, Night Thoughts of a Quantum Physicist, to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences which expounded his view on the manner by which a new \"standard model\" for physics requires a change, similar to the paradigm shift which Jakob saw in the change from classical physics to quantum mechanics.",
"-29.672131764241612"
],
[
"realm of physics. The field was pioneered by quantum physicists Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Niels Bohr, and Eugene Wigner, as well as contentions of Louis DeBroglie, Max von Laue and Albert Einstein. One contention, among others, is that quantum mechanics is a statistical approximation to a deeper reality which behaves predictably via the observer being an inextricable part of reality (Observer effect (physics)).\nAs quantum theories such as Wave–particle duality and the behavior of matter on a subatomic behavior evolves, theories have emerged that life is central to being, reality, and the cosmos. Biocentrism, a theory proposed in 2007",
"-29.61801020996063"
],
[
"unless physical states of the luminiferous aether—presumed to fill all space whether within matter or in a vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic field—aligned all phenomena and thereby held valid the Newtonian principle relativity or invariance. The Standard Model The Standard Model of particle physics was developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century. In the Standard Model, the electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions associate with elementary particles, whose behaviours are modelled in quantum mechanics (QM). For predictive success with QM's probabilistic outcomes, particle physics conventionally models QM events across a field set to special relativity, altogether relativistic quantum",
"-29.444834357011132"
],
[
"quantum physics can completely describe every physical process.\nAn earlier version of this thesis for classical computers was stated by Alan Turing's friend and student Robin Gandy in 1980.",
"-29.347782014723634"
],
[
"the result of the measurement of the second particle will match (in a complementary sense) the result of the measurement of the first particle, in that they will be opposite in their values.\nThe above result may or may not be perceived as surprising. A classical system would display the same property, and a hidden variable theory (see below) would certainly be required to do so, based on conservation of angular momentum in classical and quantum mechanics alike. The difference is that a classical system has definite values for all the observables all along, while the quantum system does not. In",
"-29.33432149707005"
],
[
"applicable definition of a particle does not require it to be elementary or even \"microscopic\", but it requires that all its degrees of freedom (or internal states) that are relevant to the physical problem considered shall be known. All quantum particles, such as leptons and baryons, in the universe have three translational motion degrees of freedom (represented with the wave function) and one discrete degree of freedom, known as spin. Progressively more \"complex\" particles obtain progressively more internal freedoms (such as various quantum numbers in an atom), and when the number of internal states, that \"identical\" particles in an ensemble",
"-29.23196100530913"
],
[
"mechanics in the correspondence limit.\nBecause quantum mechanics only reproduces classical mechanics in a statistical interpretation, and because the statistical interpretation only gives the probabilities of different classical outcomes, Bohr has argued that quantum physics does not reduce to classical mechanics similarly as classical mechanics emerges as an approximation of special relativity at small velocities. He argued that classical physics exists independently of quantum theory and cannot be derived from it. His position is that it is inappropriate to understand the experiences of observers using purely quantum mechanical notions such as wavefunctions because the different states of experience of an observer",
"-29.217415973194875"
],
[
"physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them. In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high-energy accelerators, detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called \"high-energy physics\" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.\nCurrently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model. The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces. Dynamics are described in",
"-29.12738120893482"
],
[
"to an entirely new branch of physics. At the time, computer scientists were turning to Newtonian physics to try to resolve certain fundamental puzzles in the field. But during a conversation at Wheeler’s party, Deutsch realised that this was the wrong approach. Physics is fundamentally governed by quantum theory, and Deutsch could see immediately that using quantum theory instead of Newtonian physics would give a different result. As a consequence of this insight, Deutsch published the paper in 1985 that is now generally regarded as a classic in the field. The paper describes how a computer might run using quantum",
"-29.04498217161745"
],
[
"amenable to a quantum approach, there are a number of common ideas, themes, and concerns. The most fundamental is that, since its inception, social science has been based on a classical worldview, which needs to be updated in accordance with the teachings of quantum physics. In particular, quantum theory disputes the key tenets or assumptions of materialism, reductionism, determinism, and mechanism.\nAn example is the notion of entanglement. In mechanistic or pre-quantum science, particles are seen as individual entities that interact only in a mechanistic sense. In quantum mechanics, particles such as electrons can become entangled so that a measurement on",
"-28.974934644065797"
],
[
"hold that the probabilistic nature of quantum physics is not necessarily incompatible with the notion of computability. Quantum versions of digital physics have recently been proposed by Seth Lloyd, Paola Zizzi, and Antonio Sciarretta.\nRelated ideas include Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker's binary theory of ur-alternatives, pancomputationalism, computational universe theory, John Archibald Wheeler's \"It from bit\", and Max Tegmark's ultimate ensemble. Overview Digital physics suggests that there exists, at least in principle, a program for a universal computer that computes the evolution of the universe. The computer could be, for example, a huge cellular automaton (Zuse 1967), or a universal Turing machine,",
"-28.930450178682804"
],
[
"such as a more precise formulation of the hoop conjecture. Relationship with quantum theory If general relativity were considered to be one of the two pillars of modern physics, then quantum theory, the basis of understanding matter from elementary particles to solid state physics, would be the other. However, how to reconcile quantum theory with general relativity is still an open question. Quantum field theory in curved spacetime Ordinary quantum field theories, which form the basis of modern elementary particle physics, are defined in flat Minkowski space, which is an excellent approximation when it comes to describing the behavior of",
"-28.851203727368556"
],
[
"Particle statistics Classical statistics In classical mechanics, all particles (fundamental and composite particles, atoms, molecules, electrons, etc.) in the system are considered distinguishable. This means that individual particles in a system can be tracked. As a consequence, changing the position of any two particles in the system leads to a completely different configuration of the entire system. Furthermore, there is no restriction on placing more than one particle in any given state accessible to the system. These characteristics of classical positions are called Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics (or M–B statistics). Quantum statistics The fundamental feature of quantum mechanics that distinguishes it from",
"-28.792490097053815"
],
[
"was derived. Following the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson at CERN in 2012, all fundamental particles predicted by the standard model, and no others, appear to exist; however, physics beyond the Standard Model, with theories such as supersymmetry, is an active area of research. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities and groups. Philosophy In many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales' first attempt to characterise matter, to Democritus' deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy",
"-28.62139569287683"
],
[
"Physics beyond the Standard Model Problems with the Standard Model Despite being the most successful theory of particle physics to date, the Standard Model is not perfect. A large share of the published output of theoretical physicists consists of proposals for various forms of \"Beyond the Standard Model\" new physics proposals that would modify the Standard Model in ways subtle enough to be consistent with existing data, yet address its imperfections materially enough to predict non-Standard Model outcomes of new experiments that can be proposed. Theoretical predictions not observed Observation at particle colliders of all of the fundamental particles",
"-28.546965142711997"
],
[
"of particle physics, based on quantum field theories and its generalizations, have led to understand the deep cohomological nature of the quantities describing both classical and quantum fields. The turning point was the discovery of the famous BRST transformation. For instance, it was understood that observables in field theory are classes in horizontal de Rham cohomology which are invariant under the corresponding gauge group and so on. This current in modern theoretical physics is actually growing and it is called Cohomological Physics.\nIt is relevant that secondary calculus and cohomological physics, which developed for twenty years independently from each other, arrived",
"-28.494348551561416"
],
[
"quantum theory conclude that quantum mechanics is a nonlocal theory, QBists do not.\nFuchs introduced the term \"QBism\" and outlined the interpretation in more or less its present form in 2010, carrying further and demanding consistency of ideas broached earlier, notably in publications from 2002. Several subsequent papers have expanded and elaborated upon these foundations, notably a Reviews of Modern Physics article by Fuchs and Schack; an American Journal of Physics article by Fuchs, Mermin, and Schack; and Enrico Fermi Summer School lecture notes by Fuchs and Stacey.\nPrior to the 2010 paper, the term \"quantum Bayesianism\" was used to describe the",
"-28.41581301865517"
],
[
"and quantum mechanics Special relativity can be combined with quantum mechanics to form relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. It is an unsolved problem in physics how general relativity and quantum mechanics can be unified; quantum gravity and a \"theory of everything\", which require a unification including general relativity too, are active and ongoing areas in theoretical research.\nThe early Bohr–Sommerfeld atomic model explained the fine structure of alkali metal atoms using both special relativity and the preliminary knowledge on quantum mechanics of the time.\nIn 1928, Paul Dirac constructed an influential relativistic wave equation, now known as the Dirac equation in",
"-28.398978395445738"
],
[
"a description of the continuum, and an agnostic view of atoms and their structure. Quantum mechanics, the dominant physical theory after about 1925, was formulated in a way which raised questions of both types.\nIn the Newtonian framework there was indeed a degree of comfort in the answers one could give. Consider for example the question of whether the Earth really goes round the Sun. In a frame of reference adapted to calculating the Earth's orbit, this is a mathematical but also tautological statement. Newtonian mechanics can answer the question, whether it is not equally the case that the Sun goes",
"-28.31005096716399"
],
[
"classical treatment. Quantum ideas have been particularly influential in psychology, but are starting to affect other areas such as international relations and diplomacy in what one 2018 paper called a “quantum turn in the social sciences.” History The idea that quantum physics might play an important role in living systems has long been considered by physicists. Niels Bohr for example believed that his principle of complementarity extended into both biology and psychology, while Erwin Schrödinger wrote in his 1944 book What is Life? of a “quantum theory of biology” that saw genetic mutations in terms of quantum leaps. In his",
"-28.296151794565958"
],
[
"each applying to this or that but none applying to all. In physics In physics, the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework—derived from a small set of basic postulates (usually symmetries—like equality of locations in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc.)—that is capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. A good example is classical electromagnetism, which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes called gauge invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell's equations. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed \"laws of electromagnetism,\"",
"-28.29413819045294"
],
[
"relativity, we can now see that classical physics, imported from the world of our everyday experience, includes notions for which there is no actual evidence. For example, one commonly held idea is that there exists one absolute time shared by all observers. Another is the idea that electrons are discrete entities like miniature planets that circle the nucleus in definite orbits.\nThe correspondence principle says that classical accounts are approximations to quantum mechanics that are for all practical purposes equivalent to quantum mechanics when dealing with macro-scale events.\nVarious problems occur if classical mechanics is used to describe quantum systems, such as",
"-28.25349725643173"
],
[
"Branches of physics Physics deals with the combination of matter and energy. It also deals with a wide variety of systems, about which theories have been developed that are used by physicists. In general, theories are experimentally tested numerous times before they are accepted as correct as a description of Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These \"central theories\" are important tools for research in more specialized topics, and",
"-28.210849076451268"
],
[
"Quantum information Relation to quantum mechanics Quantum mechanics is the study of how microscopic physical systems change dynamically in nature. In the field of quantum information theory, the quantum systems studied are abstracted away from any real world counterpart. A qubit might for instance physically be a photon in a linear optical quantum computer, an ion in a trapped ion quantum computer, or it might be a large collection of atoms as in a superconducting quantum computer. Regardless of the physical implementation, the limits and features of qubits implied by quantum information theory hold as all these systems are all",
"-28.208644679543795"
],
[
"Philosophical interpretation of classical physics Classical Newtonian physics has, formally, been replaced by quantum mechanics on the small scale and relativity on the large scale. Because most humans continue to think in terms of the kind of events we perceive in the human scale of daily life, it became necessary to provide a new philosophical interpretation of classical physics. Classical mechanics worked extremely well within its domain of observation but made inaccurate predictions at very small scale – atomic scale systems – and when objects moved very fast or were very massive. Viewed through the lens of quantum mechanics or",
"-28.158583025680855"
],
[
"Quantum brain dynamics In neuroscience, quantum brain dynamics (QBD) is a hypothesis to explain the function of the brain within the framework of quantum field theory.\nAs described by Harald Atmanspacher, since quantum theory is the most fundamental theory of matter that is currently available, it is a legitimate question to ask whether quantum theory can help us to understand consciousness.\nLarge systems, such as those studied biologically, have less symmetry than the idealized systems or single crystals often studied in physics. Jeffrey Goldstone proved that where symmetry is broken, additional bosons, the Nambu–Goldstone bosons, will then be observed in the",
"-28.158035817963537"
],
[
"Quantum In physics, a quantum (plural: quanta) is the minimum amount of any physical entity (physical property) involved in an interaction. The fundamental notion that a physical property may be \"quantized\" is referred to as \"the hypothesis of quantization\". This means that the magnitude of the physical property can take on only discrete values consisting of integer multiples of one quantum.\nFor example, a photon is a single quantum of light (or of any other form of electromagnetic radiation). Similarly, the energy of an electron bound within an atom is quantized and can exist only in certain discrete values. (Indeed, atoms",
"-28.08870439842576"
],
[
"a surge of interest in this topic. Quantum mechanics involves profound issues around the interpretation of reality (e.g. the Copenhagen interpretation, many-worlds, de Broglie-Bohm theory etc are all competing interpretations that try to explain the unintuitive results of quantum theory) . It is hoped that by trying to specify the quantum-mechanical definition of work, dealing with open quantum systems, analyzing exactly solvable models, or proposing and performing experiments to test non-equilibrium predictions, important insights into the interpretation of quantum mechanics and the true nature of reality will be gained.\nApplications of non-equilibrium work relations, like the Jarzynski equality, have recently been",
"-28.067869668389903"
],
[
"Quantum dynamics In physics, quantum dynamics is the quantum version of classical dynamics. Quantum dynamics deals with the motions, and energy and momentum exchanges of systems whose behavior is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. Quantum dynamics is relevant for burgeoning fields, such as quantum computing and atomic optics.\nIn mathematics, quantum dynamics is the study of the mathematics behind quantum mechanics. Specifically, as a study of dynamics, this field investigates how quantum mechanical observables change over time. Most fundamentally, this involves the study of one-parameter automorphisms of the algebra of all bounded operators on the Hilbert space of observables",
"-28.054031794075854"
],
[
"understood classical and quantum physics to much less understood boundaries of physics in cosmology and high energy physics. He believes that the 2T-physics approach provides powerful new tools to explore the less known aspects of the universe and build the right unified theory.\nItzhak Bars's current interests include String Field Theory, 2T-Physics which he originated in 1998, Cosmology and Black Holes and Particle Physics at accelerators. In 2006 he established that all the physics we know today, as embodied in principle in the Standard Model of Particles and Forces and General Relativity, emerges from a new kind of gauge symmetric theory",
"-28.01221677599824"
],
[
"quantum computers may be built. These could demonstrate which type of computer is capable of conscious, intentional thought. But they don't exist yet, and no experimental test has been demonstrated.\nQuantum mechanics is a mathematical model that can provide some extremely accurate numerical predictions. Richard Feynman called quantum electrodynamics, based on the quantum mechanics formalism, \"the jewel of physics\" for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift of the energy levels of hydrogen. So it is not impossible that the model could provide an accurate prediction about",
"-27.98774289683206"
],
[
"a quantum theory corresponding to a given classical theory. It attempts to carry out quantization, for which there is in general no exact recipe, in such a way that certain analogies between the classical theory and the quantum theory remain manifest. For example, the similarity between the Heisenberg equation in the Heisenberg picture of quantum mechanics and the Hamilton equation in classical physics should be built in.\nOne of the earliest attempts at a natural quantization was Weyl quantization, proposed by Hermann Weyl in 1927. Here, an attempt is made to associate a quantum-mechanical observable (a self-adjoint operator on a Hilbert",
"-27.899589398439275"
],
[
"theory, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642–1727).\nThese central theories are important tools for research into more specialised topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialisation, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity. Classical physics Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognised and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted",
"-27.85661370944581"
],
[
"be thought of as a local theory, because the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) criterion of reality can be rejected. The EPR criterion states, \"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\" Arguments that quantum mechanics should be considered a nonlocal theory depend upon this principle, but to a QBist, it is invalid, because a personalist Bayesian considers all probabilities, even those equal to unity, to be degrees of belief. Therefore, while many interpretations of",
"-27.83581777929794"
],
[
"explored for applications that can revolutionize the modern world.\nAll those quantum phenomena and many more are the basis of technologies that are surreptitiously invading our daily life. Quantum mechanics is what drives lasers or determines the bonding of a drug to a protein. It is the basis of light-matter interactions and spectroscopic techniques.\nScientists at the University of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon University, and Duquesne University work in diverse fields of physics, chemistry, and engineering towards a wide range of applications. They investigate surfaces and heterojunctions, quantum dots and potential energy surfaces, non-linear optical systems and entangled qubits. They postulate, develop, fabricate,",
"-27.77620313828811"
],
[
"states as states of physical reality, and the epistemic view, which describes quantum states as states of our incomplete knowledge about a system. Both views have had strong support over the years; notably, the ontic view was supported by Heisenberg and Schrödinger, and the epistemic view by Einstein. The majority of 20th-century quantum physics was dominated by the ontic view, and it remains the generally accepted view by physicists today. There is, however, a substantial subset of physicists who take the epistemic view. Both views have issues associated with them, as both contradict physical intuition in many cases, and neither",
"-27.77345193082965"
],
[
"approximating quantum mechanics with classical mechanics.",
"-27.71271917707054"
],
[
"that particle physics was in danger of becoming a branch of aesthetics, since these theories could be validated only by subjective criteria, such as elegance and beauty, rather than through experimentation.",
"-27.711734656011686"
],
[
"special) relativity, and computational particle physics deals with problems motivated by particle physics.\nComputational astrophysics is the application of these techniques and methods to astrophysical problems and phenomena.\nComputational biophysics is a branch of biophysics and computational biology itself, applying methods of computer science and physics to large complex biological problems. Applications Due to the broad class of problems computational physics deals, it is an essential component of modern research in different areas of physics, namely: accelerator physics, astrophysics, fluid mechanics (computational fluid dynamics), lattice field theory/lattice gauge theory (especially lattice quantum chromodynamics), plasma physics (see plasma modeling), simulating physical systems (using",
"-27.697245099465363"
],
[
"elementary particles. In many ways, classical mechanics can be considered a mainly macroscopic theory. On the much smaller scale of atoms and molecules, classical mechanics may fail, and the interactions of particles are then described by quantum mechanics. Near the absolute minimum of temperature, the Bose–Einstein condensate exhibits effects on macroscopic scale that demand description by quantum mechanics.\nIn the Quantum Measurement Problem the issue of what constitutes macroscopic and what constitutes the quantum world is unresolved and possibly unsolvable. The related Correspondence Principle can be articulated thus: every macroscopic phenomena can be formulated as a problem in quantum theory. A",
"-27.64296587355784"
],
[
"such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas that have not been explored well by theorists. Scope and aims Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the \"fundamental science\". Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in",
"-27.62777583967545"
],
[
"call quantum mechanics today, may be nothing else than an ingenious technique to handle this dynamics statistically.\" In their paper Blasone, Jizba and Kleinert \"have attempted to substantiate the recent proposal of G. ’t Hooft in which quantum theory is viewed as not a complete field theory, but is in fact an emergent phenomenon arising from a deeper level of dynamics. The underlying dynamics are taken to be classical mechanics with singular Lagrangians supplied with an appropriate information loss condition. With plausible assumptions about the actual nature of the constraint dynamics, quantum theory is shown to emerge when the classical",
"-27.619897276512347"
],
[
"matter (electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, and others). Quantum mechanics has strongly influenced string theories, candidates for a Theory of Everything (see reductionism).\nQuantum mechanics is also critically important for understanding how individual atoms are joined by covalent bond to form molecules. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as quantum chemistry. Quantum mechanics can also provide quantitative insight into ionic and covalent bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are energetically favorable to which others and the magnitudes of the energies involved. Furthermore, most of the calculations performed in modern computational chemistry rely on quantum mechanics.\nIn many aspects",
"-27.591611726325937"
],
[
"smaller elementary particles such as quarks). These descriptions include the simultaneous wave-like and particle-like behavior of both matter and radiation energy as described in the wave–particle duality.\nIn classical mechanics, accurate measurements and predictions of the state of objects can be calculated, such as location and velocity. In the quantum mechanics, due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the complete state of a subatomic particle, such as its location and velocity, cannot be simultaneously determined.\nIn addition to describing the motion of atomic level phenomena, quantum mechanics is useful in understanding some large-scale phenomenon such as superfluidity, superconductivity, and biological systems, including the",
"-27.568952939705923"
],
[
"that cannot be explained or accounted for in classical terms.\nQuantum mechanics can thus predict or explain a variety of phenomena in a variety of systems, from the well established photoelectric effect to the transmission of information via entangled quantum objects. These phenomena arise from the concepts of quantum mechanics; for instance, the wave-particle duality allows electron to tunnel through classically unsurmountable barriers, the condensation of electrons into Cooper pairs, which is the basis of superconductivity, is made possible only because of Pauli's exclusion principle. In addition, previously inaccessible states of matter such as photonic matter or topological insulators are being",
"-27.52400432966533"
],
[
"particle (in the EPR scenario) does not influence subsequent measurement results on the second particle, thus ruling out non-locality as a viable explanation for the EPR correlations.\nHowever, Bell's theorem does not apply to all possible philosophically realist theories. It is a common misconception that quantum mechanics is inconsistent with all notions of philosophical realism. Realist interpretations of quantum mechanics are possible, although as discussed above, such interpretations must reject counterfactual definiteness. Examples of such realist interpretations are the consistent histories interpretation and the transactional interpretation (first proposed by John G. Cramer in 1986). Griffiths notes that it is not \"local",
"-27.513143795891665"
],
[
"determinism in natural phenomena. In the early twentieth century, newly discovered atomic and subatomic phenomena seemed to defy those conceptions. In 1925–1926, quantum mechanics was invented as a mathematical formalism that accurately describes the experiments, yet appears to reject those classical conceptions. Instead, it posits that probability, and discontinuity, are fundamental in the physical world. Classical physics also relies on causality. The standing of causality for quantum mechanics is disputed.\nQuantum mechanics cannot easily be reconciled with everyday language and observation, and has often seemed counter-intuitive to physicists, including its inventors.\nThe Copenhagen interpretation intends to indicate the proper ways of thinking",
"-27.41118048381759"
],
[
"classical mechanics is that particles of a particular type are indistinguishable from one another. This means that in an assembly consisting of similar particles, interchanging any two particles does not lead to a new configuration of the system (in the language of quantum mechanics: the wave function of the system is invariant up to a phase with respect to the interchange of the constituent particles). In the case of a system consisting of particles of different kinds (for example, electrons and protons), the wave function of the system is invariant up to a phase separately for both assemblies of particles.\nThe",
"-27.34315991087351"
],
[
"modifications to the theory. The non-unitarity is discussed, for example in Chapter 3 of Kastner's book The Transactional Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics: The Reality of Possibility (CUP, 2012).\n4. \"It is not clear how the transactional interpretation handles the quantum mechanics of more than one particle.\"\nThis issue is addressed in Cramer's 1986 paper, in which he gives many examples of the application of TIQM to multi-particle quantum systems. However, if the question is about the existence of multi-particle wave functions in normal 3D space, Cramer's 2015 book goes into some detail in justifying multi-particle wave functions in 3D space.\nA",
"-27.328396003722446"
],
[
"mechanics In quantum mechanics an object is a particle or collection of particles. Until measured, a particle does not have a physical position. A particle is defined by a probability distribution of finding the particle at a particular position. There is a limit to the accuracy with which the position and velocity may be measured. A particle or collection of particles is described by a quantum state.\nThese ideas vary from the common usage understanding of what an object is. String theory In particle physics, there is a debate as to whether some elementary particles are not bodies,",
"-27.285767341789324"
],
[
"Quantum optics Quantum optics (QO) is a field of research that uses semi-classical and quantum-mechanical physics to investigate phenomena involving light and its interactions with matter at submicroscopic levels. In other words it is quantum mechanics applied to photons or light. Concepts According to quantum theory, light may be considered not only to be as an electro-magnetic wave but also as a \"stream\" of particles called photons which travel with c, the vacuum speed of light. These particles should not be considered to be classical billiard balls, but as quantum mechanical particles described by a wavefunction spread over a finite",
"-27.283744466491044"
],
[
"by deterministic equations. Day-to-day physics Since the beginning of the 20th century, quantum mechanics—the physics of the extremely small—has revealed previously concealed aspects of events. Before that, Newtonian physics—the physics of everyday life—dominated. Taken in isolation (rather than as an approximation to quantum mechanics), Newtonian physics depicts a universe in which objects move in perfectly determined ways. At the scale where humans exist and interact with the universe, Newtonian mechanics remain useful, and make relatively accurate predictions (e.g. calculating the trajectory of a bullet). But whereas in theory, absolute knowledge of the forces accelerating a bullet would produce an absolutely",
"-27.270718946820125"
],
[
"is not simply the kinetic minus the potential energy of a particle. Also, it is not straightforward to handle multiparticle systems in a manifestly covariant way, it may be possible if a particular frame of reference is singled out. Quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, action and quantum-mechanical phase are related via Planck's constant, and the principle of stationary action can be understood in terms of constructive interference of wave functions.\nIn 1948, Feynman discovered the path integral formulation extending the principle of least action to quantum mechanics for electrons and photons. In this formulation, particles travel every possible path between the",
"-27.24573694751598"
],
[
"(see quantum mechanics).",
"-27.230263404017023"
],
[
"specific category of models that fulfill the necessary criteria. (See Theories as models for further discussion.) In physics In physics the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework—derived from a small set of basic postulates (usually symmetries, like equality of locations in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc.)—which is capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. One good example is classical electromagnetism, which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes called gauge invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell's equations. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic",
"-27.218672213319223"
],
[
"in the formation and application of physical theories is also investigated. In addition, our researchers are also interested in the broader topics of the philosophy of science, such as issues of causality, time, non-locality, and ontology, approaches to confirmation theory, inconsistency in theories, and thought experiments, with a special interest in Einstein's body of work on special and general relativity.\nQuantum mechanics is intrinsically non-intuitive, with concepts that greatly differ from the principles of the classical world we navigate in. Those concepts may be hard to grasp and even harder to explain. PQI member Chandralekha Singh investigates pedagogical approaches for the",
"-27.212289915420115"
],
[
"relativity. Present By the end of the 20th century, classical mechanics in physics was no longer an independent theory. Along with classical electromagnetism, it has become imbedded in relativistic quantum mechanics or quantum field theory. It defines the non-relativistic, non-quantum mechanical limit for massive particles.\nClassical mechanics has also been a source of inspiration for mathematicians. The realization that the phase space in classical mechanics admits a natural description as a symplectic manifold (indeed a cotangent bundle in most cases of physical interest), and symplectic topology, which can be thought of as the study of global issues of Hamiltonian mechanics, has",
"-27.20640377199743"
],
[
"physics are each individual sub-fields of AMO that study the physical properties of the atom, molecules, and light, respectively. Condensed matter physics The study of the physical properties of matter in a condensed phase. High energy/particle physics and nuclear physics Particle physics studies the nature of particles, while nuclear physics studies the atomic nuclei. Cosmology Cosmology studies how the universe came to be, and its eventual fate. It is studied by physicists and astrophysicists.",
"-27.205879352637567"
],
[
"large quantum numbers. Since classical formulas are much simpler and easier to compute than quantum formulas, classical approximations are used and preferred when the system is large enough to render the effects of quantum mechanics insignificant. Free particle For example, consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, a free matter is described by a wave function. The particle properties of the matter become apparent when we measure its position and velocity. The wave properties of the matter become apparent when we measure its wave properties like interference. The wave–particle duality feature is incorporated in the relations of",
"-27.19006330514094"
],
[
"Pittsburgh Quantum Institute Basic scientific research \"Quantum\" comes from the Latin meaning \"how much.\" It refers to the discrete units of matter and energy that make up every single object in the universe. The laws of physics that govern objects on a macroscopic scale are well understood, both scientifically and intuitively. At atomic and sub-atomic scales, these “classical” laws break down. At the turn of the twentieth century, a series of scientific crises challenged our perception of the world. What emerged from this period of scientific turmoil was the development of quantum mechanics, a theory that is as strange as",
"-27.18412862351397"
],
[
"the Bohr–Einstein debates Also at the Fifth Solvay Congress, Max Born and Werner Heisenberg made a presentation summarizing the recent tremendous theoretical development of quantum mechanics. At the conclusion of the presentation, they declared:\n[W]hile we consider ... a quantum mechanical treatment of the electromagnetic field ... as not yet finished, we consider quantum mechanics to be a closed theory, whose fundamental physical and mathematical assumptions are no longer susceptible of any modification....\nOn the question of the 'validity of the law of causality' we have this opinion: as long as one takes into account only experiments that lie in the domain",
"-27.171876512977178"
],
[
"Particle physics Standard Model The current state of the classification of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model, gaining widespread acceptance in the mid-1970s after experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, using mediating gauge bosons. The species of gauge bosons are eight gluons, \nW⁻\n, \nW⁺\n and \nZ\n bosons, and the photon. The Standard Model also contains 24 fundamental fermions (12 particles and their associated anti-particles), which are the constituents of all matter. Finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of a type of boson known as the",
"-27.153477090527304"
],
[
"instance bound states and solitons.) Still, physicists widely accept the Standard Model as science's most experimentally confirmed theory.\nBeyond the Standard Model, some theorists work to unite the electroweak and strong interactions within a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). Some attempts at GUTs hypothesize \"shadow\" particles, such that every known matter particle associates with an undiscovered force particle, and vice versa, altogether supersymmetry (SUSY). Other theorists seek to quantize the gravitational field by the modelling behaviour of its hypothetical force carrier, the graviton and achieve quantum gravity (QG). One approach to QG is loop quantum gravity (LQG). Still other theorists seek both",
"-27.11271968757501"
],
[
"the ultraviolet catastrophe in black-body radiation, the Gibbs paradox, and the lack of a zero point for entropy.\nSince classical physics corresponds more closely to ordinary language than modern physics does, this subject is also a part of the philosophical interpretation of ordinary language, which has other aspects, as well. The measurement process In classical mechanics it is assumed that given properties – speed or mass of a particle; temperature of a gas, etc. – can in principle be measured to any degree of accuracy desired.\nStudy of the problem of measurement in quantum mechanics has shown that measurement of any object",
"-27.11002066259971"
],
[
"the classical analogy becomes so complicated that it is not even included in a university course of astronomy.\nIn such a way, it is classical mechanics that could in some sense be interpreted in terms of quantum mechanics (the correspondence principle). By itself, quantum mechanics is a self-consistent deterministic theory that does not need any interpretation. Perturbation theory Quantum field theory is a generalization of quantum mechanics. Krivchenkov believed that people need to understand at least the non–relativistic theory. He almost asked students to excuse him for the field theory, where only perturbation theory can be offered. Not only do the",
"-27.104379815864377"
],
[
"of a physical theory that takes a deliberately macroscopic viewpoint is thermodynamics. An example of a topic that extends from macroscopic to microscopic viewpoints is histology.\nNot quite by the distinction between macroscopic and microscopic, classical and quantum mechanics are theories that are distinguished in a subtly different way. At first glance one might think of them as differing simply in the size of objects that they describe, classical objects being considered far larger as to mass and geometrical size than quantal objects, for example a football versus a fine particle of dust. More refined consideration distinguishes classical and quantum mechanics",
"-27.02721214577832"
],
[
"Conceptual programs in physics Different subfields of physics have different programs for determining the state of a physical system. Other routes Other routes may encounter issues in defining localized particle states. In the Heisenberg picture and the non-relativistic limit, (with a one-particle state with momentum ) is often identified with a momentum space wave function, but this cannot be localized. When attempting to reduce a relativistic quantum mechanics to non-relativistic quantum mechanics, although the Hamiltonian yields the Newton-Wigner propagator and defines a Lorentz scalar , unfortunately this propagator is not Lorentz invariant.",
"-26.976762196572963"
],
[
"QM/MM The hybrid QM/MM (quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics) approach is a molecular simulation method that combines the strengths of the QM (accuracy) and MM (speed) approaches, thus allowing for the study of chemical processes in solution and in proteins. The QM/MM approach was introduced in the 1976 paper of Warshel and Levitt. They, along with Martin Karplus, won the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for \"the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems\".\nAn important advantage of QM/MM methods is their efficiency. The cost of doing classical molecular mechanics (MM) simulations in the most straightforward case scales as O(N²), where",
"-26.97512023174204"
],
[
"to electroweak theory (EWT), and the strong nuclear field was modeled as quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Comprised by EWT, QCD, and Higgs field, this Standard Model of particle physics is an \"effective theory\", not truly fundamental. As QCD's particles are considered nonexistent in the everyday world, QCD especially suggests an aether, routinely found by physics experiments to exist and to exhibit relativistic symmetry. Confirmation of the Higgs particle, modeled as a condensation within the Higgs field, corroborates aether, although physics need not state or even include aether. Organizing regularities of observations—as in the covering law model—physicists find",
"-26.967231336107943"
],
[
"described by quantum mechanics. Sub - disciplines The following are two lists of various subjects that are studied in mechanics.\nNote that there is also the \"theory of fields\" which constitutes a separate discipline in physics, formally treated as distinct from mechanics, whether classical fields or quantum fields. But in actual practice, subjects belonging to mechanics and fields are closely interwoven. Thus, for instance, forces that act on particles are frequently derived from fields (electromagnetic or gravitational), and particles generate fields by acting as sources. In fact, in quantum mechanics, particles themselves are fields, as described theoretically by the wave function.",
"-26.944664808223024"
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[
"that the normal physical theory of quantum mechanics that holds for real physics is time-asymmetric. He consequently rejected the conventional view that physical time asymmetry is only explained by asymmetric boundary conditions on the universe, and claimed it is a law-like feature of quantum physics.\nTime-symmetric interpretations of quantum mechanics were first suggested by Walter Schottky in 1921, and later by several other scientists. Watanabe proposed that information given by forwards evolving quantum states is not complete; rather, both forwards and backwards evolving quantum states are required to describe a quantum state: a first state vector that evolves from the initial",
"-26.904399692895822"
],
[
"quantum states as epistemic, which they state is \"closely aligned in its philosophical starting point\" with QBism. However, they remain deliberately agnostic about what physical properties or entities quantum states are information (or beliefs) about, as opposed to QBism, which offers an answer to that question. Another approach, advocated by Bub and Pitowsky, argues that quantum states are information about propositions within event spaces that form non-Boolean lattices. On occasion, the proposals of Bub and Pitowsky are also called \"quantum Bayesianism\".\nZeilinger and Brukner have also proposed an interpretation of quantum mechanics in which \"information\" is a fundamental concept, and in",
"-26.89724533353001"
],
[
"the graduate level and one for laymen. His graduate quantum mechanics book, Elements of Quantum Mechanics, Oxford University Press, 2000, is an advance introduction to quantum theory. \nFayer’s book, Absolutely Small – How Quantum Theory Explains Our Everyday World, AMACOM, 2010, is a rigorous introduction to the concepts of quantum mechanics and its application to the molecular and atomic systems that are all around us, but with no math. The book is popular among non-scientists who are interested in science as well as scientists who are not in the field of molecular physics and want a conceptual understanding of quantum",
"-26.879442217208634"
],
[
"the Standard Model is widely considered to be a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one, since it is not known if it is compatible with Einstein's general relativity. There may be hypothetical elementary particles not described by the Standard Model, such as the graviton, the particle that would carry the gravitational force, and sparticles, supersymmetric partners of the ordinary particles. Fundamental fermions The 12 fundamental fermions are divided into 3 generations of 4 particles each. Half of the fermions are leptons, three of which have an electric charge of −1, called the electron (\ne⁻\n), the muon (\nμ⁻\n), and the tau (\nτ⁻\n),",
"-26.86085612513125"
],
[
"formulated quantum mechanics in a way that is close to an axiomatic system, as did Hermann Weyl with the assistance of Erwin Schrödinger.\nIn the 1930s, probability theory was put on an axiomatic basis by Andrey Kolmogorov, using measure theory.\nSince the 1960s, following the work of Arthur Wightman and Rudolf Haag, modern quantum field theory can also be considered close to an axiomatic description.\nIn the 1990s-2000s the problem of \"the limiting processes, there merely indicated, which lead from the atomistic view to the laws of motion of continua\" was approached by many groups of mathematicians. Main recent results are summarized by",
"-26.82878588081803"
],
[
"in superpositions of states. A theoretical model is the quantum Turing machine, also known as the universal quantum computer. Quantum computers share theoretical similarities with non-deterministic and probabilistic computers; one example is the ability to be in more than one state simultaneously. The field of quantum computing was first introduced by Yuri Manin in 1980 and Richard Feynman in 1982. A quantum computer with spins as quantum bits was also formulated for use as a quantum space–time in 1968.\nAs of 2014, quantum computing is still in its infancy but experiments have been carried out in which quantum computational",
"-26.80730858060997"
],
[
"described by classical theories like classical mechanics and classical electrodynamics. If quantum mechanics were to be applicable to macroscopic objects, there must be some limit in which quantum mechanics reduces to classical mechanics. Bohr's correspondence principle demands that classical physics and quantum physics give the same answer when the systems become large. A. Sommerfeld (1924) referred to the principle as \"Bohrs Zauberstab\" (Bohr's magic wand).\nThe conditions under which quantum and classical physics agree are referred to as the correspondence limit, or the classical limit. Bohr provided a rough prescription for the correspondence limit: it occurs when the quantum numbers",
"-26.802135462174192"
],
[
"these alternatives is quantum computing. Just as physics models have evolved from classical to quantum, so has computing. Quantum computers have been shown to outperform classical computers when it comes to simulating\nquantum mechanics as well as for\nseveral other algorithms such as Shor's algorithm for factorization and Grover's algorithm for quantum search, making them an attractive area to research for solving computational finance problems. Quantum continuous model Most quantum option pricing research typically focuses on the quantization of the classical Black–Scholes–Merton equation from the perspective of continuous equations like the Schrödinger equation. Haven builds on the work of Chen and others,",
"-26.798036775551736"
],
[
"well-established theories in those domains where the old theories work. This concept is somewhat different from the requirement of a formal limit under which the new theory reduces to the older, thanks to the existence of a deformation parameter.\nClassical quantities appear in quantum mechanics in the form of expected values of observables, and as such the Ehrenfest theorem (which predicts the time evolution of the expected values) lends support to the correspondence principle. Quantum mechanics The rules of quantum mechanics are highly successful in describing microscopic objects, atoms and elementary particles. But macroscopic systems, like springs and capacitors, are accurately",
"-26.789877735311165"
],
[
"a separate approach to quantum social science was taken by a number of interdisciplinary researchers, working in what became known as quantum cognition, who argued that quantum probability theory was better than classical probability theory at accounting for a range of cognitive effects of the sort studied in behavioral economics. Others worked on developing “weak” or “generalised” versions of quantum theory which extended concepts such as complementarity and entanglement to the social domain. In their 2013 book Quantum Social Science, Emmanuel Haven and Andrei Khrennikov developed mathematical formalisms for the application of quantum models to topics including psychology, economics, finance,",
"-26.76899566082284"
],
[
"energies needed to test these theories experimentally, there is so far no experimental evidence that would unambiguously point to any of these models being a correct fundamental description of nature. This has led some in the community to criticize these approaches to unification and question the value of continued research on these problems. Particle physics The currently accepted theory describing elementary particles and their interactions is known as the standard model of particle physics. This theory provides a unified description of three of the fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism and the strong and weak nuclear forces. Despite its remarkable success",
"-26.757701070804615"
],
[
"Complementarity (physics) Concept For example, the particle and wave aspects of physical objects are such complementary phenomena. Both concepts are borrowed from classical mechanics, where it is impossible to be a particle and wave at the same time. Therefore, it is impossible to measure the full properties of the wave and particle at a particular moment. Moreover, Bohr implies that it is not possible to regard objects governed by quantum mechanics as having intrinsic properties independent of determination with a measuring device, a viewpoint supported by the Kochen–Specker theorem. The type of measurement determines which property is shown. However the",
"-26.757560313644717"
],
[
"between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of the action principle in classical mechanics. Copenhagen interpretation of quantum versus classical kinematics A big difference between classical and quantum mechanics is that they use very different kinematic descriptions.\nIn Niels Bohr's mature view, quantum mechanical phenomena are required to be experiments, with complete descriptions of all the devices for the system, preparative, intermediary, and finally measuring. The descriptions are in macroscopic terms, expressed in ordinary language, supplemented with the concepts of classical mechanics. The initial condition and the final condition of the system are respectively described by values",
"-26.732107899151742"
],
[
"is nearly synonymous to \"particle physics\" since creation of particles requires high energies: it occurs only as a result of cosmic rays, or in particle accelerators. Particle phenomenology systematizes the knowledge about subatomic particles obtained from these experiments.",
"-26.72939433978172"
],
[
"(though peer-reviewed models have been proposed). There is debate over which formalisms of quantum mechanics apply to propulsion physics under such circumstances, the more refined Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), or the relatively undeveloped and controversial Stochastical Quantum Electrodynamics (SED). SED describes electromagnetic energy at absolute zero as a stochastic, fluctuating zero-point field. In SED the motion of a particle immersed in the stochastic zero-point radiation field generally results in highly nonlinear behaviour. Quantum effects emerge as a result of permanent matter-field interactions not possible to describe in QED The typical mathematical models used in classical electromagnetism, quantum electrodynamics (QED) and the",
"-26.724614448525244"
],
[
"Quantum reference frame A quantum reference frame is a reference frame which is treated quantum theoretically. It, like any reference frame, is an abstract coordinate system which defines physical quantities, such as time, position, momentum, spin, and so on. Because it is treated within the formalism of quantum theory, it has some interesting properties which do not exist in a normal classical reference frame. Reference frame in classical mechanics and inertial frame Consider a simple physics problem: a car is moving such that it covers a distance of 1 mile in every 2 minutes, what is its velocity in metres",
"-26.72015126812039"
],
[
"satisfactorily addressed in traditional quantum logic. Categorical quantum mechanics as foundation for quantum mechanics Categorical quantum mechanics allows a description of more general theories than quantum theory. This enables one to study which features single out quantum theory in contrast to other non-physical theories, hopefully providing some insight in the nature of quantum theory. For example, the framework allows a succinct compositional description of Spekkens' Toy Theory that allows one to pinpoint which structural ingredient causes it to be different from quantum theory.",
"-26.71822138619609"
],
[
"programs that can simulate or embody consciousness.\nA few theoretical physicists have argued that classical physics is intrinsically incapable of explaining the holistic aspects of consciousness, but that quantum theory may provide the missing ingredients. Several theorists have therefore proposed quantum mind (QM) theories of consciousness. Notable theories falling into this category include the holonomic brain theory of Karl Pribram and David Bohm, and the Orch-OR theory formulated by Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose. Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness, as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness. None of the quantum mechanical theories have been confirmed",
"-26.70872646261705"
],
[
"forced to lose accuracy in measuring the other. \"These uncertainty relations give us that measure of freedom from the limitations of classical concepts which is necessary for a consistent description of atomic processes.\"\nThis is where statistical mechanics come into play, and where physicists begin to require rather unintuitive mental models: A particle's path simply cannot be exactly specified in its full quantum description. \"Path\" is a classical, practical attribute in our every day life, but one that quantum particles do not meaningfully possess. The probabilities discovered in quantum mechanics do nevertheless arise from measurement (of the perceived path of the",
"-26.702633154112846"
],
[
"paradigm toward many-body systems and statistical mechanics. As above, it can be approached by the usual infinite number of degrees of freedom argument.\nMuch like statistical mechanics has some overlap between quantum and classical mechanics, statistical field theory has links to both quantum and classical field theories, especially the former with which it shares many methods. One important example is mean field theory. Continuous random fields Classical fields as above, such as the electromagnetic field, are usually infinitely differentiable functions, but they are in any case almost always twice differentiable. In contrast, generalized functions are not continuous. When dealing carefully",
"-26.698529276443878"
],
[
"theory of general relativity and quantum theory being indisputably supported by rigorous and repeated empirical evidence, and while they do not directly contradict each other theoretically (at least with regard to their primary claims), they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model.\nGravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory of quantum gravity is an important issue in physical cosmology and the search by physicists for an elegant \"Theory of Everything\"",
"-26.6788057659287"
],
[
"philosophical analysis can indicate key differences in the types of models, and they can show what type of experimental differences might be observed. But since there isn't a clear consensus among philosophers, it isn't conceptual support that a quantum mind theory is needed.\nThere are computers that are specifically designed to compute using quantum mechanical effects. Quantum computing is computing using quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement. They are different from binary digital electronic computers based on transistors. Whereas common digital computing requires that the data be encoded into binary digits (bits), each of which is always",
"-26.67854251503013"
],
[
"obtainable, and has stated so publicly in his lecture \"Gödel and the End of Physics\" (2002). Attempts at a unified field theory The quest to unify the fundamental forces through quantum mechanics is still ongoing. Quantum electrodynamics (or \"quantum electromagnetism\"), which is currently (in the perturbative regime at least) the most accurately tested physical theory in competition with general relativity, has been successfully merged with the weak nuclear force into the electroweak force and work is currently being done to merge the electroweak and strong force into the electrostrong force. Current predictions state that at around 10¹⁴ GeV the three",
"-26.673625600989908"
],
[
"and its environment, which includes information about the experimental setup including the context of co-measured observables; in no sense does the system itself possess the property being measured, as would have been the case in classical physics. Measurements, the quantum formalism, and observer independence De Broglie–Bohm theory gives the same results as quantum mechanics. It treats the wavefunction as a fundamental object in the theory, as the wavefunction describes how the particles move. This means that no experiment can distinguish between the two theories. This section outlines the ideas as to how the standard quantum formalism arises out of quantum",
"-26.671298961620778"
],
[
"physics, quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles, which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields.\nIn quantum field theory, one typically computes the probabilities of various physical events using the techniques of perturbation theory. Developed by Richard Feynman and others in the first half of the twentieth century, perturbative quantum field theory uses special diagrams called Feynman diagrams to organize computations. One imagines that these diagrams depict the paths of point-like particles and their interactions.\nThe starting point for string theory is the idea that the point-like particles of quantum field theory can also be",
"-26.67115008167457"
],
[
"quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that \"similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable\" yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an \"implicate order\". The models involve",
"-26.669216804904863"
],
[
"the Standard Model of particle physics is described by φ⁴ theory (see Quartic interaction). If the latter has a Landau pole, then this fact is used in setting a \"triviality bound\" on the Higgs mass. The bound depends on the scale at which new physics is assumed to enter and the maximum value of the quartic coupling permitted (its physical value is unknown). For large couplings, non-perturbative methods are required. Lattice calculations have also been useful in this context. Connections with statistical physics A deeper understanding of the physical meaning and generalization of the\nrenormalization process leading to Landau poles",
"-26.654168844645028"
]
] |
2qp0zq | How is the camera not visible in the mirror when there is a shot of the character looking in the mirror? | [
"You will love this one: [gif]( URL_0 ) Better quality: [link]( URL_1 )",
"The usual way these shots are taken is that the actor is looking at the camera's reflection in the mirror. Just like the actor cannot see their own reflection in the mirror because the angle is wrong, so the camera cannot see its own reflection. The mirror is carefully angled so that the camera cannot be seen. If this cannot be achieved, then the image in the mirror is added by computers later.",
"In many cases, there is no mirror. Instead, it is an open space and instead of a reflection, there is a duplicate room. The person whose face is seen is played by the actor starring in that role, while their body double is the one whose face is obscured or who we only see from behind. Famously, in Terminator 2, when they filmed a scene in a mirror, they had Linda Hamilton play her part, and her identical twin sister played the part in the mirror.",
"As someone who works in vfx and does more camera removals than I'd like to admit... A lot of times the camera is removed in post by artists. Glasses reflections, car reflections, mirrors, windows... Etc",
"Here is a not very good example of the fake mirror with double technique. You can see that the double does not move in synch with the actor facing the camera. 1986 film \"Peggy Sue Got Married\". URL_0 "
] | [
[
"stage machinery, pyrotechnics, substitution splices, and dissolves. The mirror sequence in the film is based on a routine that had long been popular in music halls. The effect was not produced with a real mirror, which would have reflected the studio windows and the camera; instead, there were two actors on the set, one of whom mimicked the other's gestures from the opposite side of the imaginary \"glass.\" The comedian Max Linder revived the mirror routine in his 1921 film Seven Years Bad Luck. Release The film's original title is Les Hallucinations du baron de Münchausen; it is also known",
"-37.52225147478748"
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[
"see is different from what the actor sees, because the camera is not right behind the actor, but the position of the actor is often chosen so that his or her image is nicely framed in the mirror for the camera.\nAlthough the name of the effect refers to a woman, Venus, the effect is more general. The effect is seen with an animal apparently looking at itself in a mirror in The Lady and the Unicorn (French: La Dame à la licorne) tapestries, where the unicorn appears to be gazing at its own reflection as it kneels on the ground.\nBertamini",
"-37.414833679649746"
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[
"frame and collides with both of them.\nAlthough its appearance in Duck Soup is the best known instance, the concept of the mirror scene did not originate in this film. Harold Lloyd used essentially the same routine in his short The Marathon (1919). Max Linder included it in Seven Years Bad Luck (1921), where a man's servants have accidentally broken a mirror and attempt to hide the fact by imitating his actions in the mirror's frame. Charlie Chaplin used a similar joke in The Floorwalker (1916), though it did not involve a mirror.\nThis scene has been imitated many times; for instance,",
"-37.13629711547401"
],
[
"The Image in the Mirror \"The Image in the Mirror\" is short story by Dorothy L. Sayers, featuring Lord Peter Wimsey and published as the first story in Hangman's Holiday in 1933. Plot summary This story is notable for its inaccurate depiction of right/left mirror image twins, and more generally for its use of popular science to explore the subject of inversion.\nA man, who states that his body is a mirror image of the normal body plan, confesses to Lord Peter Wimsey that he is worried he is going mad, due to blackouts in which he (or somebody identical to",
"-36.89158622769173"
],
[
"the image in the mirror serves an artistic purpose. \"Extraordinary sections like ... linking the falling hair to the semi-reflected face of the girl in the mirror (Girl in the mirror, 1964) ... which cut up, analyse, and unite, all have the one aim of intensifying the signifying fragment.\"",
"-36.79289938256261"
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[
"the mirror. The image, which at first copies his movements in complete synchrony, seamlessly emerges from the mirror frame (through effective changes in lighting) as another dancer in a gray full body stocking.",
"-36.35512106423266"
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[
"holding up a mirror while the one on the left may be applying make-up using a brush. There is nudity and near nudity which Delacroix did not include in his scene.\nThe figure in the top right corner of the picture is apparently greeting a visitor, whose arrival also attracts the attention of the woman on the left. There is a sense that the arrival of the visitor is unexpected or sudden. The woman at the top has her hand up, perhaps in surprise or to delay access while preparations for the encounter continue. One reading of the painting is that",
"-35.98324804799631"
],
[
"Merleau-Ponty has called a mirror 'the instrument of a universal magic that changes things into spectacles, spectacles into things, me into others, and others into me.' We, the viewers, stand opposite the barmaid on the other side of the counter and, looking at the reflection in the mirror, see exactly what she sees... A critic has noted that Manet's 'preliminary study shows her placed off to the right, whereas in the finished canvas she is very much the centre of attention.' Though Manet shifted her from the right to the center, he kept her reflection on the right. Seen in",
"-35.79056046705227"
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[
"a mirror-like appearance, so that the person looking at the cover would see his own head, a play on the album title Head. Peter Tork said, \"That was something special... [Jack] Nicholson coordinated the record, made it up from the soundtrack. He made it different from the movie. There's a line in the movie where [Frank] Zappa says, 'That's pretty white.' Then there's another line in the movie that was not juxtaposed in the movie, but Nicholson put them together in the [soundtrack album], when Mike says, 'And the same thing goes for Christmas'... that's funny... very different from the",
"-35.60711980203632"
],
[
"at the television, even though the man is never seen looking at the television within the same shot.\nAlfred Hitchcock's Rear Window, for example, makes frequent use of eyeline matches. The main character, played by James Stewart, is confined to his apartment and often looks out its rear window at events in the buildings across from him. Hitchcock frequently cuts from Stewart looking off-screen to various people and events that are assumed to be the focus of his gaze.\nEyeline match also refers to the practice of setting off-camera eyelines for single shots of characters within a scene such that, when these",
"-35.509088917053305"
],
[
"view the true image (not a mirror image) on a fixed circular table 5 feet (1.5m) in diameter, with a concave metal surface, and turn the mirror by hand to change the direction of view. William West's Camera Obscura is now one of the only three working Camera Obscuras in the UK. It has been placed on the top of Clifton Tower since 1828. Cave West also built a tunnel from the Observatory to St Vincent's Cave (also known as Ghyston's Cave or Giants' Cave), which opens onto St Vincent's Rocks on the cliff face, 250 feet (76 m) above the",
"-35.4016937057022"
],
[
"a human being both as others see him and as he sees himself.\" Museum of Modern Art In the Museum of Modern Art retrospective (2010), it was suggested that the pieces of the mirror falling into the ocean waves set up At Land (1944) as a direct sequel, while Deren's last scene in the latter film (running with her hands up with a chess piece in one of them) is then echoed by a scene in Ritual in Transfigured Time (1946) with that character still running. Influence A cloaked, mirror-faced figure appears in John Coney's 1974 Sun Ra vehicle, Space",
"-35.3313987266738"
],
[
"respond to a mirror, very few show any evidence that they recognize it is in fact themselves in the mirror reflection.\nThe Asian elephants in the study also displayed this type of behavior when standing in front of a 2.5-by-2.5-metre (8.2 ft × 8.2 ft) mirror - they inspected the rear and brought food close to the mirror for consumption.\nEvidence of elephant self awareness was shown when the elephant Happy repeatedly touched a painted X on her head with her trunk, a mark which could only be seen in the mirror. Happy ignored another mark made with colorless paint that was also on her",
"-35.301083059515804"
],
[
"Moreover, in showing the figures whom the painter observes, and also, through the mediation of the mirror, the figures who are observing him, the painter achieves a reciprocity of gazes that makes the interior oscillate with the exterior and which causes the image to \"emerge from its frame\" at the same time that it invites the visitors to enter the painting.\nJonathan Miller asks: \"What are we to make of the blurred features of the royal couple? It is unlikely that it has anything to do with the optical imperfection of the mirror, which would, in reality, have displayed a focused",
"-35.16779436595971"
],
[
"Mirror (1975 film) Structure and content Mirror depicts the thoughts, emotions and memories of Alexei, or Alyosha (Ignat Daniltsev), and the world around him as a child, adolescent, and forty-year-old. The adult Alexei is only briefly glimpsed, but is present as a voice-over in some scenes including substantial dialogue. The structure of the film is discontinuous and nonchronological, without a conventional plot, and combines incidents, dreams and memories along with some news-reel footage. The film switches among three different time-frames: prewar (1935), war-time (1940s), and postwar (1960s or '70s).\nMirror draws heavily on Tarkovsky's own childhood. Memories such as the evacuation",
"-35.03518497505365"
],
[
"aligned, by design, there is a small vertical axis error inherent for each camera body. This error implies that all pictures (and videos as well) taken with a wrong vertical parallax are harder to look at, because one eye is looking up while the other is looking down. To effectively correct this optical discrepancy, the camera offers a vertical parallax correction in its menu system: MENU/SET/OPT AXIS CONTROL. The best way to use this adjustment is to zoom at maximum, take a picture, then analyse it with a software stereoscopic player(using row or column interlaced view) to obtain the subject",
"-34.98445609470946"
],
[
"Girl before a Mirror Background Marie-Thérèse Walter, one of Picasso's muses and paramours, is the subject of the painting. During the 1930s, she became his favorite subject and in this painting he used colors and symbols to which suggest different ways to view her. The mirror and the reflected subject suggest one possibility for her own view of herself. Description The painting depicts a woman looking into a mirror, with a familiar yet contrasting mirror-image looking back at her. While the woman is painted with brighter colors and exhibits a more beautiful face, the figure in the mirror is darker",
"-34.917601283523254"
],
[
"field of view rather than only what is within the zoomed area. There is no zoom when viewing pictures or videos, and no way to edit them on the phone. Orientation Picture orientation is recorded such that photos (but not videos) are always right-side-up, and are cropped on their ends if being viewed in the opposite orientation from which they were taken. However, the phone only recognizes upright (portrait) and rotated onto its left side (landscape), and does not recognize right-side or upside-down orientation. When put this way or flat on a table, it uses the previously recognized orientation. When",
"-34.83589608830516"
],
[
"the center, traditionally arranged so that it can be viewed only indirectly with a mirror. There are several theories as to why, such as the mirror represents the entrance to the beyond or underworld, a representation of eternity or a symbol that the person is no longer here. Around the photo are various offerings of things that the person liked in life. The most common are food items such as plates of mole, tamales, sweets, fruit, hot chocolate, atole, tequila, mezcal and beer. There are also particular breads baked for these kinds of altars in this town such as “hojaldra”",
"-34.804523716680706"
],
[
"a camera aimed at a mirror, showing itself at the moment of exposure, the snapshots differing by film speed, exposure time, and aperture size. The 70 images were laid out in a rigid grid with one optimal \"correct\" image in the center. This changing of the mechanics of each shot revealed the intention of the unseen photographer. In 1974, Hilliard showed in Cause of Death four images of the same human body covered in a sheet. The images were taken from the same photographic negative but each one suggested a different cause of death, accomplished by cropping the print to",
"-34.743599178968"
],
[
"The mirror's background is dusted with mica to give it a glittering effect.\nThe print bears the title Sugatami Shichinin Keshō, which suggests it was—or was intended to be—part of a seven-print series. The young woman in the print is seen from behind, her body cropped off the right edge. Her face appears reflected as she peers into a large mirror with her right hand on her hair. Both her face and the nape of her neck are visible; the nape of the neck was considered particularly sensual in Edo-period Japan. The subject does not pose like a model, but rather",
"-34.63877951307222"
],
[
"her camera angle, she discovered a similar effect to the refractive properties of the water. In the only self-portrait she produced since the 1970s, Self Portrait 1990, Imboden imperfectly lines up her profile in front of the mirror with a models face behind the mirror, creating a distorted portrait by combining two different views into one, reminiscent of the quality of space in a Cubist painting.\nThe smearing and scraping of the mirrors soon lead to generating a marred, scratched texture on their surface. Resembling the “hatching” technique in medieval printmaking, many of Imboden's images that illustrate this texture",
"-34.62708143575583"
],
[
"that the reader should look closely at it. The photo initially shows four adults, three men and one woman, standing in a forest with a house looming at their back and a car on their left. The woman is holding an infant and initially nothing seems odd about the photo. The majority of the film follows, as the camera zooms in and pans across the photo repeatedly. With each pass of the camera, details of the scene shift and become more sinister: some are merely points of interest that could easily be missed, such as markings on the hands of",
"-34.618602923932485"
],
[
"The Mirror (1999 film) Plot The film is divided into five unrelated segments with the mirror on an antique dressing table serving as the plot device.\nThe first segment is set in a brothel in ancient China. A courtesan is murdered and her blood spills onto the mirror on her dressing table.\nThe second segment is set in Shanghai in 1922. Mary, an heiress to a large mansion, receives an antique dressing table as a birthday gift. She notices that there is something strange about the mirror and starts receiving eerie phone calls reminding her about her dark secrets in the past.",
"-34.61533257830888"
],
[
"Gråbrødre Torv) is in the Copenhagen City Museum. It is a reversed image of the square, as was normal for daguerreotypes unless a mirror was used together with the camera. A careful analysis of the photograph is claimed to show that it dates back to July 1840. The exposure time of about 15 minutes in sunlight explains why the only figure to be seen is a man sleeping at the foot of the Pillar of Shame towards the left of the picture.",
"-34.576666345470585"
],
[
"him slightly into the mirror to get his attention that he returns to his character. The rag doll properly courts the doll and is about to kiss the doll's hand, when she retracts her hand from him just in time. Rigidity wins out. Only at the end of the movie do Caractacus and Truly truly see eye to eye.",
"-34.520968697499484"
],
[
"an expression on his face, while the camera pulls back to reveal that the negative room where Oakey, Wright, and Sulley were working in is yet another set (the camera can be seen in the mirror's reflection).\nFilmed on a cold, wet, winter night, it was shot on 35mm film instead of the cheaper video tape prevalent at the time. Susan Sulley claims that Steve Barron was heavily influenced by the cinematography of Ultravox's video for \"Vienna\" (directed by Russell Mulcahy earlier that year). Steve Barron was also influenced by François Truffaut and his film Day for Night, and because of",
"-34.50145118182991"
],
[
"On the Thank You Bonus DVD, the last shot of the video features a woman looking at a mirror image of herself viewing her whole body while the mirror image drifts away. In another version, she is looking at a mirror image of her face, with water (possibly rain) dripping down the reflection of the mirror. Acoustic version Weiland and Stone Temple Pilots guitarist Dean DeLeo performed an impromptu acoustic version of \"Plush\" on the MTV show Headbangers Ball in 1992. The recording was originally only available on a CD single from the United Kingdom for their single, \"Creep\", and",
"-34.40637983958004"
],
[
"the object's size or distance from the camera. Wim van Utrecht has reproduced a copy of the photograph with devices. A computer graphics simulation method to reproduce the photograph was developed by a Belgian mathematician, Thierry Veyt at The University of Liège Laboratory of Astrophysics, wherein the apparent \"shake\" motion, that results in the lights of the craft appearing blurred or out of focus in the photograph contradicts eye-witness statements. This, along with the anonymity of the photographer and fact that the image was not produced publicly until 4 months after the alleged event, also brought the authenticity of the",
"-34.39083293895237"
],
[
"it is able to \"see\". He argued that merely looking outward into the mirror ignores the fact that the mirror has a non-reflecting side, which is also a part and parcel of reality. The backside of the mirror was created by evolution to gather as much information as needed to better survive. The picture in the mirror is what we see within our mind. Within our cultural evolution we have extended this picture in the mirror by inventing instruments that transform the most needed of the invisible to something visible.\nThe back side of the mirror is acting for itself as",
"-34.36848516855389"
],
[
"European culture of representation. Using a mirror, the artist directs the sun's rays toward the lens of a video camera that is filming him. The overexposure gradually deletes the recorded image. “Blinding the medium with light,” writes Gerz of this performance, and also: “P. ... is the man who resists being reproduced (...). ” Purple Cross for Absent Now (1979) At the Centre d’Art Contemporain in Geneva in 1979, two video cameras with monitors were installed, along with an elastic rope that divided the room into two halves. The sight lines of two monitors, together with that of the cord,",
"-34.35623267176561"
],
[
"visual problem solving, and when headset-cameras became available, also during driving.\nThe picture to the right shows what may happen during the first two seconds of visual inspection. While the background is out of focus, representing the peripheral vision, the first eye movement goes to the boots of the man (just because they are very near the starting fixation and have a reasonable contrast).\nThe following fixations jump from face to face. They might even permit comparisons between faces.\nIt may be concluded that the icon face is a very attractive search icon within the peripheral field of vision. The foveal vision adds",
"-34.277086106303614"
],
[
"Mirror Mirror (M2M song) Music video The video shows footage of Marion and Marit singing separately both indoors and outdoors in the rain. This footage is mixed with romantic scenes between Marion and a young man, and footage of Marion playing piano and Marit playing guitar together, laying on a couch together, and looking in the Mirror. It was directed by Matthew Rolston. Hours of footage was shot outside, though only a few seconds of outdoor footage appeared in the finished video; the illusion of rain was created with a hose. MTV began airing the video in the US and",
"-34.229601507176994"
],
[
"a reflection, and paparazzi taking pictures (one of whom is dressed as Freddy Krueger) are seen behind the mirror. The floor begins to crumble as Perry finally shatters the mirror and the shards of the glass become butterflies.\nThe little girl is then seen pushing a wheelchair in which Perry sits in a hospital gown, trembling with the poisoned strawberry in one hand. In the hallway, they are met by two minotaur guards who block their way. The little girl furiously goes up to them and stomps her foot, sending the minotaurs flying. Perry gets up from the wheelchair, grabbing the",
"-34.18245933079743"
],
[
"gaze of the portrait image invited the viewer to find out what dwelled behind the surface. When the audience entered the installation, they confronted a glass bin, which held a reflection of both the changing projected photographic portrait and the viewer. The glass serves as a mirror, and encouraged the viewer to recognise that, as with the changing portrait image, they too might be identified as 'the Other'. In response, viewers were encouraged to develop their own narrative, depending on their life experience. The audience was afforded contrasting experiences through the softly billowing fabric that surrounds the installation and through",
"-34.11621630148875"
],
[
"image from others. The implication is that he finds himself in the third stage, yet his view of himself is far from complete, which becomes evident when he looks in the little mirror in his compass. The image that is supposed to lead him on his way is incomplete, because the mirror is so small that even when held at arm's length it cannot project his full face. Only after his separation from Arne does he become symmetrical to his mirror image, as borne out by his own description of his baffled face in the mirror when he discovers he",
"-34.03842012314999"
],
[
"in the mirror, and the crew shot the mirror without the actors for one take so Cage's reflection could be edited out from the take with both.\nOther special effects involved a \"going to the light\" afterlife depiction, in which Seth walks with a little girl, played by Sarah Dampf, who has died. After cinematographer John Seale shot the scene in a hallway, Sony Pictures Imageworks' John Nelson increased the brightness to end in white, adding splinters of light. \nSome of the film was shot at Lake Tahoe's surrounding areas and Kern County. The \"falling\" scene was partially shot at the",
"-34.00564083713107"
],
[
"his mirror image. At this point he is fully subjective and has no self-image. Inaugurating the second stage is Narcissus's discovery of the mirror image. Now there exists an I registering a self, and these are symmetrical. The third stage begins with the invention of photography and this hands out the final blow of the truth, for a picture is an objective fixation of the image the outside world holds of a person. The image that man loves (his self-image or ideal image) and the circulating photographs of him (the different images of him that the outside world develops) are",
"-33.97484760731459"
],
[
"layers of mirror metaphors remind the beholder to examine himself thoroughly according to his own virtuous or vicious life. This is all the more true if the mirror is combined with iconography of death. Not only is Death as a corpse or skeleton holding the mirror for the still living personnel of paintings, illuminations and prints, but the skull appears on the convex surfaces of depicted mirrors, showing the painted and real beholder his future face.",
"-33.90680245147087"
],
[
"arm's length, the aureole effect appearing in the picture will be seen radiating from the shadow of the camera, although the photographer would still see it around their head's shadow while taking the picture. This happens because the aureole effect always appears directly opposite the sun, centered at the antisolar point. The antisolar point itself is located within the shadow of the viewer, whatever this is: the eyes of the viewer or the camera's lens. As a matter of fact, when aureole effects are photographed from a plane, it is possible to tell where the photographer was seated.",
"-33.905377285133"
],
[
"the film \"the unhappiest\" and called him \"a cold director – he gave me nothing at all as an actress\".\nAt the end of the film a shot of Valerie Hobson staring into a mirror was taking longer than anticipated and was suspended – it was lunchtime – and returned to in the afternoon. Later, some three months after the film had been on exhibition, a cinema-goer asked what was meant by a Chad being reflected in the mirror. It seems that a worker on the film had drawn it on the wall during the break in filming, and it",
"-33.876152980024926"
],
[
"the viewer can recognize a part of themselves in the image of Muñoz. Aliento, (Breath), installation art - mirrors, 1995–2002 This series consists of seven small oval mirrors screen printed with grease installed at eye level for viewers. At first the mirrors appear to be normal mirrors, but if the viewer moves closer to breathe on them, an image of another person is revealed in the vapor of the viewer's breath. The pictures that are revealed are of deceased people whose pictures were taken from newspaper obituaries, which Muñoz had collected over the years (many of whom had died due",
"-33.848254763986915"
],
[
"photography Robert Richardson broke his finger and the replacement cameraman cut his eye. According to Oliver Stone, he was not popular with the camera department on set that day. For the scenes involving rear projection, the projected footage was shot prior to principal photography, then edited together, and projected onto the stage, behind the live actors. For example, when Mallory drives past a building and flames are projected onto the wall, this was shot live using footage projected onto the facade of a real building.\nThe famous Coca-Cola polar bear ad is seen twice during the film. According to Stone, Coca-Cola",
"-33.842889667721465"
],
[
"off the reticle entirely when the mirror is pointed away from the target. To address this, the center of the reticle is painted with a 50% transmission pattern, so when the image crosses it the output becomes fixed. But because the mirror moves, this period is brief, and the normal interrupted scanning starts as the mirror begins to point toward the target again. The seeker can tell when the image is in this region because it occurs directly opposite the point when the image falls off the seeker entirely and the signal disappears. By examining the signal when it is",
"-33.84157044274616"
],
[
"as well, both in front of and behind the camera.",
"-33.83984036539914"
],
[
"the ruling couple are standing beside the viewer or have replaced the viewer, who sees the scene through their eyes. Lending weight to the latter idea are the gazes of three of the figures—Velázquez, the Infanta, and Maribarbola—who appear to be looking directly at the viewer.\nThe mirror on the back wall indicates what is not there: the king and queen, and in the words of Harriet Stone, \"the generations of spectators who assume the couple's place before the painting\". Writing in 1980, the critics Snyder and Cohn observed:\nVelázquez wanted the mirror to depend upon the useable (sic) painted canvas for",
"-33.82377576385625"
],
[
"Mirror Mirror (film) Casting Roberts was the first to be cast, because very early on Tarsem Singh wanted an Evil Queen with whom audiences could relate. He stated that in the film, the queen is not evil, but rather insecure. He also suggested that the Queen's true ugliness may be revealed at the very end of the film. Originally Saoirse Ronan was considered for the role of Snow White but the age difference between her and Armie Hammer was too large (he was 25 and she was 17). Felicity Jones was offered the part but turned it down. Collins was",
"-33.77195556007791"
],
[
"shots are cut together, each of the characters appear to be looking at the correct character, without any confusion. Factors influencing the position of the off-camera eyeline (usually by placing the other actors off camera but sometimes by giving the on-camera actor a mark to look at) include the 180 degree rule, camera lens/height/distance to subject and geography of the set. For instance, matching close-ups of two actors in a scene would be shot on the same lens with the camera placed at a matching height (either the same height, or at the off-camera actor's height or the on-camera actor's",
"-33.76606807811186"
],
[
"graphics. He matched the digital prosthetic make-up pieces on Vosloo's face during filming. Berton said, \"When you see his film image, that's him. When he turns his head and half of his face is missing and you can see right through on to his teeth, that's really his face. And that's why it was so hard to do.\" Vosloo described the filming as a \"whole new thing\" for him; \"They had to put these little red tracking lights all over my face so they could map in the special effects. A lot of the time I was walking around the",
"-33.76004387057037"
],
[
"foreground or that of the man in the background. The viewer cannot distinguish the features of the king and queen, but in the opalescent sheen of the mirror's surface, the glowing ovals are plainly turned directly to the viewer. Jonathan Miller points out that apart from \"adding suggestive gleams at the bevelled edges, the most important way the mirror betrays its identity is by disclosing imagery whose brightness is so inconsistent with the dimness of the surrounding wall that it can only have been borrowed, by reflection, from the strongly illuminated figures of the King and Queen\".\nAs the maids of",
"-33.712778962100856"
],
[
"is missing. Looking up towards the doors, Paul notices another man running out the door of the bus depot. Pursuing this individual down the street, Paul discovers that he is chasing his own copy, whose face shows excited delight. His copy disappears as Paul calls out \"Where are you?\" while looking around in confusion and shock. Episode notes In a short film pitching the Twilight Zone series to a Dutch television station, creator Rod Serling claimed to have gotten the idea for \"Mirror Image\" following an encounter at an airport. Serling noticed a man at the other side of the",
"-33.694729627575725"
],
[
"Flipped image Photography Many large format cameras present the image of the scene being photographed as a flipped image through their viewfinders. Some photographers regard this as a beneficial feature, as the unfamiliarity of the format allows them to compose the elements of the picture properly without being distracted by the actual contents of the scene. The technique is meant to bypass or override the brain's visual processing which normally sees what is expected rather than what is there.\nFlipping is occasionally used as a trompe l'oeil effect in scenes which incorporate reflections in a body of water. The image",
"-33.675379203632474"
],
[
"her wig, looks into the mirror, and the setting turns to a dark labyrinth, with Perry holding a lantern. The camera pans up to show the entire labyrinth, while also revealing a hill with light shining through the clouds onto it. Perry sees a strawberry, picks it off and eats it, and the walls close in on her. Perry pushes the walls, as a firework shoots from her chest into the dark sky. A door opens to reveal a younger version of Perry, and their hands touch. The two reach a mirror in which the younger Perry does not have",
"-33.662278309464455"
],
[
"of body standardization\", and also talks about the cinematography, mentioning shots blurring characters or showing them through mirrors, which she describes as \"a call for self-awareness\" and says is used \"to emphasize the particularities of each body present\". At the start of the film, images of bodies are relegated to the edges of the screen to deliberately obscure expectations of narrative, which Belloto says also alerts the audience to ignorance of one's body.\nThe character Ariel also works at a clothing factory, showing her confinement within a place full of things used to define and conceal bodies; it is also a",
"-33.635874934028834"
],
[
"makes the viewer \"identify with the suspense of the character in his or her particular space\", but that Lynch at moments also \"disconnects the camera from any particular point of view, thereby ungrounding a single or even a human perspective\" so that the multiple perspectives keep contexts from merging, significantly troubling \"our sense of the individual and the human\". Andrew Hageman similarly notes that the camera work in the film \"renders a very disturbing sense of place and presence\", such as the scene in Winkie's where the \"camera floats irregularly during the shot-reverse shot dialogue\" by which the \"spectator becomes",
"-33.52463757537771"
],
[
"an accelerometer in camera image stabilization systems, to stabilize the image by moving the eyes. When a rotation of the head is detected, an inhibitory signal is sent to the extraocular muscles on one side and an excitatory signal to the muscles on the other side. The result is a compensatory movement of the eyes. Typically eye movements lag the head movements by less than 10 ms.",
"-33.39561226119986"
],
[
"and the other 3/4 or full towards camera, two people looking towards camera either side by side or with one behind the other, one person with their back to the other while the other looks at them, either profile, 3/4, or full face, or the mirror two shot.\nAn \"American two shot\" shows the two heads facing each other in profile to the camera.\nIn a \"two shot west,\" one character will turn 180º away from the other character while the other character looks at them.\nIn a \"full two shot,\" the two characters are shown from head to toe. A \"wide two",
"-33.3157549292082"
],
[
"shoulder of anyone looking into the mirror. All this was used in the Mexican translation of the film title, released as \"El espejo asesino\" (the killer mirror).\nStylistically, Lommel stated that he wanted to make a \"movie about outrageous killings set in an average-looking environment with ordinary actors. First establish things an audience can identify with, then inject the horror into a normal environment.\" Filming Filming took place on location in the Waldorf, Maryland area, with additional photography occurring in Los Angeles, California. Box office The film was given a limited release theatrically in the United States by The Jerry Gross",
"-33.2655162218648"
],
[
"the mirrors to see their reflection make the adjustments to their makeup/hair that they felt they needed. These actions made Hickox consider about the self-being presented in the public, and that that self may be different from the ones we truly are and what we truly believe. Nevertheless, the mirrors being photographed are unable to reflect as the mirror images are transformed into a sea of black by the scanning process. The reflection is no longer available. Dialogue, 2012 These works picture a young girl in different moments of her life. According to Hickox, these photos of a young female",
"-33.25267923506908"
],
[
"This is why on the second iteration of Campus's walk we see a single image of his body when he is close to the camera and a double image when he is further away. On the third iteration, had he perfectly rotated the cameras further inward, the point of convergence would be located even closer to the camera. The imperfection in his process has been said to underscore the difference between the mode of sight performed by the cameras and human perception. 4. Fovea The two images are combined in a new way. In the center of",
"-33.14524717174936"
],
[
"not clearly decipher what was real and what was just an image. Film In Charlie Chaplin's 1928 movie The Circus, Charlie Chaplin is chased into a mirror maze by a thief and the police. Charlie Chaplin Official Youtube Movie Clip: Charlie Chaplin - The Mirror Maze (The Circus)\nIn John Boorman's 1974 movie Zardoz, character \"Z\" (Sean Connery) battles against \"The Vortex\" in a mirror maze.\nOne of the most famous ending sequences in film history related to a house of mirrors is in Enter the Dragon starring Bruce Lee. The finale takes place in a house of mirrors, where Lee learns",
"-33.113390752347186"
],
[
"to have a mirror look. Visual effects Visual effects supervisor John Dykstra was hired to produce the film's visual effects in May 2000. He convinced Raimi to make many of the stunts computer-generated, as they would have been physically impossible. Raimi had used more traditional special effects in his previous films and learned a lot about using computers during production. Raimi worked hard to plan all the sequences of Spider-Man swinging from buildings, which he described as, \"ballet in the sky.\" The complexity of such sequences meant the budget rose from an initially planned $70 million to around $100 million. Shots were",
"-33.10851417282538"
],
[
"rule of thirds suggests that the subject's eyes, as a center of interest, are ideally positioned one-third of the way down from the top of the frame. With a subject placed one-third of the way down from the top of frame, the subject aligns with the proper head room to make an image pleasing to the eye. This technique has carried on with other visual forms of art such as photography and cinematography. Psychology of headroom Perceptual psychological studies have been carried out with experimenters using a white dot placed in various positions within a frame to demonstrate that observers",
"-33.0821968736127"
],
[
"intensified in two distinct ways whereby the captured moment acquires an almost unsettling quality: on the one hand, Barbara Probst abandons the single-eye gaze of the camera and divides it into various points of view. On the other, she multiplies and diversifies the short moment of the shot. Thanks to a radio-controlled release system she can simultaneously trigger the shutters of several cameras pointed at the same event or subject from different angles and various distances. The depictions of each specific instant generated by this method constitute a series. The relationship of single shots to one another within a series",
"-33.073492120194715"
],
[
"right, as was normal for daguerreotypes unless a mirror was used together with the camera. Careful analysis of the photograph suggests that it dates back to July 1840. The exposure time of about 15 minutes in sunlight explains why the only figure to be seen is a man sleeping at the foot of the Pillar of Shame towards the left of the picture.\nIts status in the history of Danish photography is rivalled by a portrait of Bertel Thorvaldsen sitting at an easel outside his studio in the garden of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at Charlottenborg Palace in",
"-33.051291813579155"
],
[
"Mirror lock-up Reducing vibration Normal operation in an SLR camera involves flipping the mirror up out of the light-path just before the shutter opens, and then returning it when the shutter closes (although very early SLR's required the shutter to be cocked for the mirror to return). This causes vibration of the camera, particularly when the mirror slaps into the top of the mirror box. This vibration quickly dies away so the most motion blur is actually seen with short shutter times that capture multiple 'swings' of the vibration (shutter speeds of 1/2 to 1/60 second are often affected by",
"-33.05026325379731"
],
[
"many viewers have become accustomed. Ben Thomas, Walter Iooss Jr. of Sports Illustrated, Vincent Laforet and many other photographers have used this technique. Shape control When the camera back is parallel to a planar subject (such as the front of a building), all points in the subject are at the same distance from the camera, and are recorded at the same magnification. The shape of the subject is recorded without distortion. When the image plane is not parallel to the subject, as when pointing the camera up at a tall building, parts of the subject are at varying distances from",
"-33.021223265561275"
],
[
"about what exactly is - or is not - happening in the picture he or she is looking at. ... These pockets of uncertainty are enhanced by Macdonald’s deliberately style-less or impersonal approach to making images.\" Works Beginning in the mid 1990s, Macdonald’s early videos were single takes that captured specific, everyday events. One of his earliest works, Interval (1997), is a single channel, hand held video of a view from a high-rise building of afternoon traffic passing through two long palm tree shadows on a sunny boulevard in Los Angeles. About Interval, curator Barbara Fischer writes \"What this",
"-33.00883472140413"
],
[
"prints on composite panel. He then hand paints around the image with custom mixed layers of paint before multi layers of epoxy resin and automotive finish are applied to the top, achieving a mirror like reflective surface. Cameras of Cinema Similar to Guns of Cinema, the Cameras of Cinema series expresses Georgopoulos' affinity for the film and television industry as he photographed a number of motion picture and television cameras which were used to make Titanic, Star Wars, Michael Jackson's Thriller music video, James Bond, Kill Bill, and Apocalypto, among others. Sculpture Identity also plays a role in a series",
"-32.989387451671064"
],
[
"However, it is unclear as to who or what is the true subject of the picture. Is it the royal daughter, or perhaps the painter himself? The king and queen are seen reflected in a mirror on the back wall, but the source of the reflection is a mystery: are the royal pair standing in the viewer's space, or does the mirror reflect the painting on which Velázquez is working? Dale Brown says Velázquez may have conceived the faded image of the king and queen on the back wall as a foreshadowing of the fall of the Spanish Empire that",
"-32.95752991200425"
],
[
"See the Whole Room...and There's Nobody in It! and Look Mickey. In this painting, Donald's large eyes indicate his belief that he has caught something big while Mickey's small eyes indicate his disbelief that Donald has caught anything significant. Like Lichenstein's works with subjects looking through a periscope (Torpedo...Los!), a mirror (Girl in Mirror) or a peephole (I Can See the Whole Room ... and There's Nobody in It!), Look Mickey, with a subject looking at his reflection in the water, is a prominent example of the theme of vision. He uses narrative to emphasize this motif, while presenting several visual",
"-32.935784768196754"
],
[
"through the camera and expose the footage again to create a double exposure. These films included The Cave of the Demons, in which transparent ghosts haunt a cave, and The Four Troublesome Heads, in which Méliès removes his own head three times and creates a musical chorus. Achieving these effects was extremely difficult and required skill. In a 1907 article, Méliès noted: \"Every second the actor playing different scenes ten times has to remember, while the film is rolling, exactly what he did at the same point in the preceding scenes and the exact place where he was on the",
"-32.88923370465636"
],
[
"light blue against the background of space, in the same style as the Superman films.\nMany of the promotional items for this movie feature an stylized image from the film, of the male leads, standing in a line, with their right hands on their glasses (or where glasses would be if they were wearing any) while looking their left wrist as if they were checking a watch. This mirrors promotional images from the Back to the Future franchise, that have featured both Michael J. Fox and Christopher Lloyd in the same pose. Reception Critical reception has been mixed. Review aggregator Rotten",
"-32.875770862039644"
],
[
"camera for the first time, breaking the fourth wall, and someone shouts from off-screen, \"Mina, don't look into the camera!\" The movie is a real-life capture of events thereon (or that is how it seems). Mina announces that she doesn't want to act in the movie any more and wants to go home. In the end she goes home after returning the microphone. Meaning In a 2006 interview, Panahi said that the film was meant to show how \"reality and the imagination are intertwined, they are very similar\". Also he mentioned about how the film is staged in a way",
"-32.80395987647353"
],
[
"the mirror present yielded no pecking at the dot. When the mirror was revealed, the pigeon became active, looked in the mirror and then tried to peck on the dot under the bib. However, untrained pigeons have never passed the mirror test.\nManta rays repeatedly swim in front of the mirror, turning over to show their undersides and moving their fins. When in front of the mirror, they blow bubbles, an unusual behaviour. They do not try to socially interact with the mirror image, suggesting that they recognise that the mirror image is not another ray. However, a classic mirror test",
"-32.8016901044175"
],
[
"stand in front of a mirror with the torso exposed to view. She looks in the mirror for visual signs of dimpling, swelling, or redness on or near the breasts. This is usually repeated in several positions, such as while having hands on the hips, and then again with arms held overhead.\nThe woman then palpates her breasts with the pads of her fingers to feel for lumps (either superficial or deeper in tissue) or soreness. There are several common patterns, which are designed to ensure complete coverage. The vertical strip pattern involves moving the fingers up and",
"-32.7614850716127"
],
[
"I'm ready for my close-up\" as she is taken into police custody in the film's finale.\nClose-up shots do not show the subject in the broad context of its surroundings. If overused, they may leave viewers uncertain as to what they are seeing. Close-ups are rarely done with wide-angle lenses, because perspective causes objects in the center of the picture to be unnaturally enlarged. This may convey a sense of confusion, intoxication, or other unusual mental state.",
"-32.7423377558589"
],
[
"image thereof in a clear mirror. Which indeed it was: let but the mirror be clear, this is the great point; the picture must and will be genuine. How the babbling Bozzy, inspired only by love, and the recognition and vision which love can lend, epitomises nightly the words of Wisdom, the deeds and aspects of Wisdom, and so, by little and little, unconsciously works together for us a whole Johnsoniad; a more free, perfect, sunlit and spirit-speaking likeness than for many centuries had been drawn by man of man!\nMore recent critics have been mostly positive. Frederick Pottle calls it",
"-32.74184468970634"
],
[
"moves through the space creating points of light or illuminated lines drawn with flashlights or flashes made by reflecting mirrors. The results are detailed photographs interrupted by patterns of light. And because of the long exposures, Sato’s movements across the scene remain undetectable by the camera; the photograph captures his presence but not his image.\nSato’s photographs are held throughout the world in public and private museums including the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (New York); the Los Angeles County Museum of Art; the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston; The Art Institute of Chicago; the Cleveland Museum of Art; Museum of Modern",
"-32.72041701502167"
],
[
"in a photograph. For a head shot, they would want the viewer to be completely at ease and be drawn to the person in the shot. They would frame it perfectly. For a piece of art about mental illness, they may give the viewer either too much headroom or entirely too little. It depends on the overall effect a photographer wants. Headroom in cinematography Cinematography has the added factors of the movement of the subject, the movement of the camera, and the possibility of zooming in or out.\nHeadroom changes as the camera zooms in or out, and the camera must",
"-32.70780320750782"
],
[
"that position. NASA Engineer Thomas Canning provided an analysis of the photograph taken by Hugh Betzner from the rear of the limousine a moment prior to the first shot (according to Betzner, he took the picture and began winding his camera to take another when the first shot sounded). It has been determined that Betzner's photograph was simultaneous with Zapruder frame 186. Mr. Canning could not see the Governor's shoulder in Betzner's photograph and concluded that this meant that the shoulder was obscured by the person standing in front of Betzner. This, he said, put the shoulder well to the",
"-32.70611434165039"
],
[
"the Lakes (1778) Thomas West explained \"The person using it ought always to turn his back to the object that he views. It should be suspended by the upper part of the case ... holding it a little to the right or the left (as the position of the parts to be viewed require) and the face screened from the sun.\" He recommended carrying two different mirrors: \"one to manage reflections of great and near objects and a flatter glass for distant and small objects.\"\nThe Claude glass is named for Claude Lorrain, a 17th-century landscape painter, whose name in the",
"-32.68347956700018"
],
[
"many, for the photographer was obliged to stand in the water and take the picture instantaneously, when the water was at its lowest ebb, and while water was still running down the side of the rock.\" Several attempts were required to get a good photo. Bannon's paper described some inscriptions on the rock that had been unknown previously. Bannon concluded that \"Such was the only time, within the memory of any living man, that the Indian's head has been seen, except when covered with water. In all probability neither the Indian's head, nor the rock upon which it is cut,",
"-32.680642901483225"
],
[
"try to hide their mistake by having one of them dress just like their employer. Then, when Max looks into the non-existent glass, the disguised servant mimics his every action.\nMax Linder's movie in turn inspired many similar scenes, most famously in the Marx Brothers film Duck Soup. Later renditions can be found in the Bugs Bunny cartoon Hare Tonic, the Mickey Mouse cartoon Lonesome Ghosts, the Tom and Jerry cartoon Cat and Dupli-cat and in the TV series Family Guy and The X-Files. A scene in The Pink Panther, with David Niven and Robert Wagner wearing identical gorilla costumes, mimics",
"-32.63174326333683"
],
[
"close-up photography, using rotation sensors to compensate for changes in pointing direction becomes insufficient. Moving, rather than tilting, the camera up/down or left/right by a fraction of a millimeter becomes noticeable if you are trying to resolve millimeter-size details on the object. Linear accelerometers in the camera, coupled with information such as the lens focal length and focused distance, can feed a secondary correction into the drive that moves the sensor or optics, to compensate for linear as well as rotational shake. In biological eyes In many animals, including human beings, the inner ear functions as the biological analogue of",
"-32.62210076930933"
],
[
"wrapped a camera and much of the lens in sponge padding so that it could be punched by other actors to portray the leading character's point of view during a fist fight, part of a larger snowball fight between schoolboys including young Napoleon. Gance wrote in the technical scenario that the camera \"defends itself as if it were Bonaparte himself. It is in the fortress and fights back. It clambers on the wall of snow and jumps down, as if it were human. A punch in the lens. Arms at the side of the camera as if the camera itself",
"-32.60234468005365"
],
[
"a shattered mirror that has been interpreted to symbolize the reflection of each unique viewer, suggesting that the embedded message is directed towards everyone who views the piece. This image, like others in Kruger's oeuvre, has been used to discuss aspects of critical theory concerning perception and the nature of self.",
"-32.594188276911154"
],
[
"than a portrait. Not all of the portraits were successful ones, however. The subject was generally required the subject to sit without moving from between five or ten seconds (at best) and several minutes. The discomfort of having one's head fitted into the jaws of an iron positioning apparatus could produce startling results: stony stares, wild-eyed glares, and eyes frightened by the monstrous staring lens of the camera. Despite this unflattering image, however, photography was establishing a new standard for visual reputation. The portrait's most treasured quality was that it was an exactly corresponding record of",
"-32.593233637395315"
],
[
"positions of those objects, as well as the camera's viewpoint, over the period of exposure determined by the shutter speed. In such an image, any object moving with respect to the camera will look blurred or smeared along the direction of relative motion. This smearing may occur on an object that is moving or on a static background if the camera is moving. In a film or television image, this looks natural because the human eye behaves in much the same way.\nBecause the effect is caused by the relative motion between the camera, and the objects and scene, motion blur",
"-32.57487047442555"
],
[
"a gooseneck stalk, which can be mounted in front of the viewer's seat. In the back of the theater is an LED display that shows the captions in mirror image. The panel reflects captions for the viewer but is nearly invisible to surrounding patrons. The panel can be positioned so that the viewer watches the movie through the panel, and captions appear either on or near the movie image. A company called Cinematic Captioning Systems has a similar reflective system called Bounce Back. A major problem for distributors has been that these systems are each proprietary, and require separate distributions",
"-32.56960039015394"
],
[
"they were all that was visible through the transparent mirror and appeared to be moving within the suggested space that was reflected from the background and floor cards. The set appeared with 20 strips (all based on previous standard praxinoscope strips), 12 backgrounds and a mirror intended for background effects for the swimming figure. This set also sold very well and appeared in slight variations, including a deluxe version made of thuja-wood with ebony inlays.\nReynaud mentioned the possibility of projecting the images in his 1877 patent. He presented a praxinoscope projection device at the Société française de photographie on 4",
"-32.52794222321245"
],
[
"or turned away from the camera in order to generate find potentially matching images. When the system fails to generate a response, officials have been recorded passing celebrity look-a-likes through the database, such as in 2017 when a photograph of Woody Harrelson was used to generate image matches for a person stealing beer, or an unknown New York Knicks player (name redacted by the NYPD) used in pursuit of a man wanted for assault, which were both revealed after a two year court case between the NYPD and Georgetown University Law Center . Edited images cannot be processed accurately",
"-32.51551878116334"
],
[
"For example, when the police car is driving down the street, the scene (shot from the back of the car over the driver's shoulder) can be seen fading into another scene to convey a sense of time passing. In 1930, movie cameras weren't portable enough to be used in the back of cars yet, however Charles Cline invented a camera used for filming The Bat Whispers, more often used in Ray June's cinematography, for fluidity and to show The Bat in flight. It was \"a lightweight 24-foot-long camera dolly that could send a camera zooming 18 feet in a fraction",
"-32.51384162332397"
],
[
"As Seen Through a Telescope Production The film was shot in Furze Hill, Hove, England outside the entrance to St. Ann's Well Gardens, where Smith had his studio. Synopsis An old gentleman is shown on a village street, looking for something through a field glass. Suddenly, he levels the glass on a young couple coming up the road. The girl's shoe string came loose, and her companion volunteers to tie it. Here the scene changes, showing how it looks through the old man's glass. A very pretty ankle at short range. Scene changes back again and shows the old fellow",
"-32.512769835069776"
],
[
"glass pane or half-silvered mirror tilted at 45 degrees. This superimposes a direct view of the drawing surface beneath, and a reflected view of a scene horizontally in front of the artist. This design produces an inverted image which is right-left reversed when turned the right way up. Also, light is lost in the imperfect reflection. \nWollaston's design used a prism with four optical faces to produce two successive reflections (see illustration), thus producing an image that is not inverted or reversed. Angles ABC and ADC are 67.5° and BCD is 135°. Hence, the reflections occur through total internal reflection,",
"-32.50673279090552"
],
[
"further from the camera than the tank, not small, local objects.\"\nHartmann did, however, also point out the possibility that the images were manufactured. He noted that \"The object appears beneath a pair of wires, as is seen in Plates 23 and 24. We may question, therefore, whether it could have been a model suspended from one of the wires. This possibility is strengthened by the observation that the object appears beneath roughly the same point in the two photos, in spite of their having been taken from two positions.\" and concludes \"These tests do not rule out the possibility that",
"-32.48388617456658"
],
[
"correspond to the spouting water, reminiscent of gargoyle fountains. Each face is cropped so that no hair and usually no ears are visible. Since there is no tripod designed for cameras turned on their sides, an adjustable barber/dentist's chair was used to minimize the need for the movement of the state-of-the-art camera during filming. Nonetheless, in some case, digital manipulation was necessary to properly simulate puckering in the exact proper location on the video. Many of the faces had to be stretched in order to get the mouths properly positioned. Additionally, each video was color-corrected for brightness, contrast",
"-32.48345299961511"
],
[
"the image is viewed in a curved mirror, so that the distortions resolve into a recognizable picture. Unlike perspective anamorphosis, catoptric images can be viewed from many angles. The technique was originally developed in China during the Ming Dynasty. The first European manual on mirror anamorphosis was published around 1630 by the mathematician Vaulezard.\nWith Channel anamorphosis or tabula scalata two different images are on different sides of a corrugated carrier. A straight frontal view shows an unclear mix of the images, while each image can be viewed correctly from a certain angle. Early Use of Distorted Perspective The prehistoric cave",
"-32.475853915151674"
],
[
"drop off as objects approached closer to the lens. The effect was that close-ups would slightly overstretch an actor's face, a problem that was soon referred to as \"the mumps\". This problem was avoided at first by composing wider shots, but as anamorphic technology lost its novelty, directors and cinematographers sought compositional freedom from these limitations. Issues with the lenses also made it difficult to photograph animation using the CinemaScope process. Nevertheless, many animated short films and a few features were filmed in CinemaScope during the 1950s, including Walt Disney's Lady and the Tramp (1955). CinemaScope 55 CinemaScope 55 was",
"-32.4550760720449"
],
[
"The view will also flash back when the player takes a hard shot, or red when they are hit by a punch that makes their face bleed. Taking substantial numbers of punches to the head will even result in simulated double vision. Other camera views include a bird's-eye view and a free-roaming camera that can be positioned at an angle and distance of the player's choosing.\nDepending on the action in the ring, the crowd responds with different speech effects; for example, someone might shout \"Good shot!\" when a punch is landed, or \"Fight, you bum!\" if there is little action",
"-32.445338937686756"
]
] |
3qxy5l | If the golden rule of the stock market is to buy when low, sell when high, who is doing it the other way around? | [
"The golden rule of the stock market is basically akin to saying that the golden rule of roulette is to always pick the winning number. True, but not very helpful in practice. If you knew exactly what a given stock was going to do in the next 24 hours you could make a fortune on almost any stock. In many cases you could actually do it without any startup money since under the right circumstances you can sell before you have to pay. That's why insider trading is illegal, because even a vague idea of what a stock will do is really powerful. To reuse our roulette example it's like knowing whether a particular roll will be red or black. Not as good as knowing the number, but a hell of a lot better than random.",
"The person doing it the other way round is the person who mis-judges what the market is going to do. They buy when it's a little high, thinking they ought to have bought yesterday when it was lower but it's still going up and still worth buying so they haven't missed their chance. Then, unexpectedly (to them, at least) it goes down and they lose money. This might be simple poor judgement, or it might be that something unexpected happened that no one could have predicted... a profit warning, or am unfavourable news story, for example, which might catch out even the most diligent and experienced investor.",
"Everybody who isn't smart enough to know when exactly the high point and low point have been reached. Which is to say, everybody.",
"That's the goal of traders. Most investors should buy now and hold for a while. And it's not like it is a binary system where the only two options are high and low. People enter and exit at various time and some make money and some lose money.",
"People that get scared when the market falls. They sell low thinking if they don't their stocks will only get lower and lower. (In the long run they will eventually go back up tho)",
"Nearly everyone, unfortunately. Investing is the only place where people flock to buy when prices are high, and run away when you hold a bargain sale.",
"also, side note, because this is what i thought you meant before i saw the comments. the people that buy low sell high are people that \"long\" (as a verb(to long or to *go* long)). the other people are said to short. they borrow some of a stock or currency in some respect, promising to pay back later with some interest. and immediately sell the stock or currency at high. then, they wait for the assumed low, and buyback only what they need to repay (original borrowed plus interest.) the assumption here is that the percent decrease in stock value exceeds the percent increase due to interest. the person is left with the surplus money after paying back the orginal stock or currency from the lender, who also profited, though marginally less so.",
"It should be pointed out that you can also get money by buying high and selling low. It's called shorting stock and its relatively common when investors suspect a stock price will drop. It works like this. You speak to your broker. You tell him you want to short some stock in ABC company. They then lend you the stock (either from their company's shares or sometimes from another investor's account) which you sell immediately. When the stock drops, you buy back the stock at the lower price and keep the difference."
] | [
[
"The fair trade minimum price means that when the world market price collapses, it is the non-fair trade farmers, particularly the poorest, who have to cut down their coffee trees. This argument is supported by mainstream economists, not just free marketers. Secrecy Under EU law (Directive 2005/29/EC on Unfair Commercial Practices) the criminal offence of Unfair Trading is committed if (a) 'it contains false information and is therefore untruthful or in any way, including overall presentation, deceives or is likely to deceive the average consumer, even if the information is factually correct', (b) 'it omits material information that the average",
"-25.875322374457028"
],
[
"selling short – essentially, borrowing and selling stock with the belief that its price will fall – and trading on margin – trading with debt – were strictly prohibited in China. However, in March 2010, China implemented a testing phase for their stock exchange in which 90 selected companies were authorized to be sold short and traded on margin. This list was expanded over time, with over 280 companies being given the same authorization in late 2011. Shortly thereafter, the CSRC implemented a total policy shift which legalized both practices across the entire stock market. These regulation changes led",
"-25.638412948217592"
],
[
"Golden share A golden share is a nominal share which is able to outvote all other shares in certain specified circumstances, often held by a government organization, in a government company undergoing the process of privatization and transformation into a stock-company. Purpose This share gives the government organization, or other shareholder, the right of decisive vote, thus to vote all other shares, in a shareholder meeting. Usually this will be implemented through clauses in a company's articles of association, and will be designed to prevent stakebuilding above a certain percentage ownership level, or to give a government, or other shareholder,",
"-25.616488378378563"
],
[
"block of stocks that lack a clear and immediate market value because there are often no buyers or sellers on the order board.\nUnofficial market makers are free to operate on order driven markets or, indeed, on the LSE. They do not have the obligation to always be making a two-way price, but they do not have the advantage that everyone must deal with them either.\nExamples of UK Market makers since Big Bang Day are Peel Hunt LLP, Winterflood Securities, Liberum Capital, Shore Capital, Fairfax IS and Altium Securities.\nPrior to the Big Bang, jobbers had exclusive rights of market making on",
"-25.54923793982016"
],
[
"sale\" in contract law. As a result of this case, Parliament amended the statute concerned to end this discrepancy.\nThe golden rule is used when use of the literal rule would obviously create an absurd result. There are two ways in which the golden rule can be applied: a narrow method, and a broad method. Under the narrow method, when there are apparently two contradictory meanings to the wording of a legislative provision, or the wording is ambiguous, the least absurd is to be preferred. Under the broad method, the court modifies the literal meaning in such a way as to",
"-25.495035608211765"
],
[
"government bonds. In each case, this will affect the price of both types of assets.\nIdeally, investors would wish to use market timing to buy low and sell high, but they may end up buying high and selling low. Contrarian investors and traders attempt to \"fade\" the investors' actions (buy when they are selling, sell when they are buying). A time when most investors are selling stocks is known as distribution, while a time when most investors are buying stocks is known as accumulation.\nAccording to standard theory, a decrease in price will result in less supply and more demand, while an",
"-25.486130620993208"
],
[
"2008, (Germany), Ireland, Switzerland and Canada banned short selling leading financial stocks, and France, the Netherlands and Belgium banned naked short selling leading financial stocks. By contrast with the approach taken by other countries, Chinese regulators responded by allowing short selling, along with a package of other market reforms. Views of short selling Advocates of short selling argue that the practice is an essential part of the price discovery mechanism. Financial researchers at Duke University said in a study that short interest is an indicator of poor future stock performance (the self-fulfilling aspect) and that short sellers exploit market mistakes",
"-25.34245809319964"
],
[
"will find it profitable to sell the same contract if another trader is willing to buy it for more than 42.3 cents. Taking a long position A trader takes a long position by buying low and selling high. Consider an investor who considers the purchase of a contract in the Blue Party, which is currently offered for 39.3 cents in the market. The investor predicts that the Blue Party will win more than 41%, and buys a contract of the Blue Party for 39.3 cents. On election day the Blue Party wins 42.5% of the popular vote, and the trader",
"-25.20270831441303"
],
[
"Investors will buy the stock, which creates a high demand and raises the prices. This rise in prices can entice more people to believe the hype and then buy shares as well. The stockbrokers will then sell their shares and stop promoting, the price will drop, and other investors are left holding stock that is worth nothing compared to what they paid for it. In this way, brokers use their knowledge and position to gain personally at the expense of others.\nThe Enron scandal is a major example of pump and dump. Executives participated in an elaborate scheme, falsely reporting profits,",
"-25.170791653275955"
],
[
"X-inefficiency Monopoly A monopoly is a price maker in that its choice of output level affects the price paid by consumers. Consequently, a monopoly tends to price at a point where price is greater than long-run average costs. X-inefficiency, however tends to increase average costs causing further divergence from the economically efficient outcome. The sources of X-inefficiency have been ascribed to things such as overinvestment and empire building by managers, lack of motivation stemming from a lack of competition, and pressure by labor unions to pay above-market wages.",
"-25.131149900553282"
],
[
"if the price of gold is below $1,250 at 1:30 p.m., the option expires at $0. Therefore you lose the $44.50 invested. This is called being \"out of the money.\"\n\nThe bid and offer fluctuate until the option expires. You can close your position at any time before expiry to lock in a profit or a reduce a loss (compared to letting it expire out of the money).\nIn the U.S., every binary option settles at $100 or $0, $100 if the bet is correct, 0 if it is not.\nIn the online binary options industry, where the contracts are sold by a",
"-25.09928828003467"
],
[
"Buying in (securities) Buy-in rule on the UK equity market On the English stock exchange, a transaction by which, if a member has sold securities which he fails to deliver on settling day, or any of the succeeding ten days following the settlement, the buyer may give instructions to a stock exchange official to \"buy in\" the stock required. The official announces the quantity of stock, and the purpose for which he requires it, and whoever sells the stock must be prepared to deliver it immediately. The original seller has to pay the difference between the two prices, if the",
"-25.00172709079925"
],
[
"a temporary ban on short-selling the stock of financial firms. Arguments against restricting short-selling The ratio of those \"long\" (i.e., those who are betting the stock will go up) or \"short\" (i.e., those who are betting the stock will go down) sends important signals regarding the future direction of the stock or expectations of future performance. Short selling is only harmful if it reduces the price of the investment below what its value should be. However, if that occurs, then the short seller would suffer a loss since the price would tend to go back up to its appropriate value;",
"-24.98298640846042"
],
[
"as long as , Firm B will not enter the market when Firm A charges . That is, the market for good X is an effective monopoly if:\nSuppose, on the contrary, that:\nIn this case, if Firm A charges , Firm B has an incentive to enter the market, since it can sell a positive quantity of good X at a price above its marginal cost, and therefore make positive profits. In order to prevent Firm B from having an incentive to enter the market, Firm A must set its price no greater than . To maximize its profits subject to",
"-24.905427389632678"
],
[
"Buy and hold Buy and hold, also called position trading, is an investment strategy \nwhere an investor buys stocks and holds them for a long time, with the goal that stocks will gradually increase in value over a long period of time.\nThis is based on the view that in the long run financial markets give a good rate of return even while taking into account a degree of volatility. Buy-and-hold says that investors will never see such returns if they bail out after a decline. This viewpoint holds that market timing (i.e. the concept that one can enter the market",
"-24.806098128923622"
],
[
"(that is, how much power each generator should produce). The dual variables provide the market clearing prices. By clearing the market based on the dual prices, participants are charged on marginal values, rather than as bid. Thus, every seller is guaranteed to receive at least as much as was bid and possibly more. Every buyer is guaranteed to pay no more than was offered, and possibly less. Without the smart market, the line operator, all generators, and all distributors would have to be part of a monopoly in order to guarantee system coordination.\nNatural gas markets are sometimes cleared by smart",
"-24.74906786941574"
],
[
"AG’s dark pool for failing to follow rules designed to ensure stock trades are executed fairly. In ordering UBS to pay $14.4 million, including a $12 million fine that exceeds all prior penalties against an alternative trading system, the Securities and Exchange Commission flagged a series of violations from 2008 to 2012. It said UBS let customers submit orders at prices denominated in increments smaller than a penny, something SEC rules prohibit because it can be used to get a better place in line when buying or selling stock. The ability to trade in sub-penny increments also wasn’t widely disclosed",
"-24.685473045072285"
],
[
"product. When this finally occurs, all monopoly profit associated with producing and selling the product disappears, and the initial monopoly turns into a competitive industry. In the case of contestable markets, the cycle is often ended with the departure of the former \"hit and run\" entrants to the market, returning the industry to its previous state, just with a lower price and no economic profit for the incumbent firms.\nProfit can, however, occur in competitive and contestable markets in the short run, as firms jostle for market position. Once risk is accounted for, long-lasting economic profit in a competitive market is",
"-24.523957941739354"
],
[
"Market value of the business Frequently the market value for shares will be higher than the book value. Investors will not receive full value unless the proceeds equal the market value. When this shortfall is triggered by the exercise of employee stock options, it is a measure of wage expense. When new shares are issued at full value, the excess of the market value over the book value is a kind of internalized capital gain for the investor. He is in the same position as if he sold the same % interest in the secondary market.\nAssuming that markets are efficient, the",
"-24.497378817934077"
],
[
"is 100, premium paid is 10, then a spot price of 100 to 90 is not profitable. He would make a profit if the spot price is below 90.\nIt is important to note that one who exercises a put option, does not necessarily need to own the underlying asset. Specifically, one does not need to own the underlying stock in order to sell it. The reason for this is that one can short sell that underlying stock. Short call A trader who expects a stock's price to decrease can sell the stock short or instead sell, or \"write\", a call.",
"-24.47996004577726"
],
[
"if they refused to purchase any. \n\nSince the new law tied stock prices to their nominal values, there was no official oscillation of stock prices, and consequently, no way to negottate them directly in the Stock Exchange in order to both minimize losses or maximize profits. This in practice not only restricted the trading of securities to the OTC market, congesting it by supply, but also led to a deadlock for new issues in the stock market, preventing those legitimate business that could take off out of the process, besides causing a total loss to many inexperienced investors.\nInstead of help",
"-24.425059407774825"
],
[
"can be traded off market without printing the trade to a publicly accessible data source. As the proportion of the daily volume of the asset that is traded in such a hidden manner increases, the public price might still be considered fair. However, if public trading continues to decrease as hidden trading increases, it can be seen that the public price does not take into account all information about the asset (in particular, it does not take into account what was traded but hidden) and thus the public price may no longer be \"fair\".\nYet when trades executed in dark pools",
"-24.412721687549492"
],
[
"selling bans in 2011 and again in 2012. Worldwide, economic regulators seem inclined to restrict short selling to decrease potential downward price cascades. Investors continue to argue this only contributes to market inefficiency. Shorting stock in the U.S. To sell stocks short in the U.S., the seller must arrange for a broker-dealer to confirm that it can deliver the shorted securities. This is referred to as a locate. Brokers have a variety of means to borrow stocks to facilitate locates and make good on delivery of the shorted security.\nThe vast majority of stocks borrowed by U.S. brokers come from",
"-24.388458825965245"
],
[
"market is rising because of the 'Greater Fool Theory'. You buy a share in the hope that a greater fool will eventually pay more for it. In the end it is bought by 'The Greatest Fool of All', just before the end. The market is like a balloon, the more air you put in, the nearer you are to bursting point.\" Personal life Beckman married Arlette having previously been married to Penny for many years and a long term girlfriend Mari. From 1987 he was based permanently in Monaco where he appeared on Riviera Radio. In 1992, he wrote of",
"-24.313452424335992"
],
[
"buy. This difference is known as the \"spread\". The market maker is indifferent as to whether the stock goes up or down, it simply tries to constantly buy for less than it sells. A persistent trend in one direction will result in a loss for the market maker, but the strategy is overall positive (otherwise they would exit the business). Today there are about 500 firms who participate as market makers on ECNs, each generally making a market in four to forty different stocks. Without any legal obligations, market makers were free to offer smaller spreads on electronic communication networks",
"-24.24704698716232"
],
[
"than the market over time. If you limit yourself to, say, small-cap stocks, then your return, over time, will be no better or worse than the returns on the aggregate of small stocks. We believe that you're not going to be able to do much better than that because the market doesn't misvalue securities. The prices are right. If you believe in active management, you're saying that there are people who can make valuation judgments that are superior to the market.\nIn 2005, he retired from DFA because he was “bored” and returned to St. Louis, where he became involved in",
"-24.210079670708637"
],
[
"of information), incentives exist for the seller to pass off low-quality goods as higher-quality ones. The buyer, however, takes this incentive into consideration, and takes the quality of the goods to be uncertain. Only the average quality of the goods will be considered, which in turn will have the side effect that goods that are above average in terms of quality will be driven out of the market. This mechanism is repeated until a no-trade equilibrium is reached.\nAs a consequence of the mechanism described in this paper, markets may fail to exist altogether in certain situations involving quality uncertainty. Examples",
"-24.173033099796157"
],
[
"the previous closing price. Thus, traders could purchase mutual funds on a day when the market was up, at the previous day's lower closing price, and then sell at the purchase date's closing price for a guaranteed profit. To prevent the exploitation of backward pricing, the SEC issued Rule 22c-1, requiring forward pricing of mutual fund transactions. This rule was enforced by randomly checking timestamps on orders, but intentional falsification of timestamps was difficult to catch.\nIn addition, New York's Martin Act can be interpreted to prohibit late trading as well, due to the unfair advantage the",
"-24.105214530449302"
],
[
"market can break through, with the expectation that the break-outs will fail and the market will reverse.\nOne break-out above the previous highest high or ceiling of a trading range is termed a higher high. Since trading ranges are difficult to trade, the price action trader will often wait after seeing the first higher high and on the appearance of a second break-out followed by its failure, this will be taken as a high probability bearish trade, with the middle of the range as the profit target. This is favoured firstly because the middle of the trading range will tend to",
"-24.09416114416672"
],
[
"that, on the other hand, where competition is active, it frequently cuts prices to a point which leaves even the Standard little or no profit, and which more often leaves no profit to the competitor, whose costs are ordinarily somewhat higher.\nOn May 15, 1911, the US Supreme Court upheld the lower court judgment and declared the Standard Oil group to be an \"unreasonable\" monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act, Section II. It ordered Standard to break up into 34 independent companies with different boards of directors, the biggest two of the companies were Standard Oil of New Jersey (which became",
"-24.091680678655393"
],
[
"buy shortly after the highest chart bar and then place a trailing stop order which lets profits run and cuts losses in response to market price changes (p. 917-918). Historically, on average the stock markets lowest weekday is Mondays which offers a potential sale on any given stock (Lynch, 2000). Along with that, since 1950 most of the stock market's gains have occurred from November to April. Investor’s can use these known trends and averages to their advantage when trading. \nDue to the risk of short-term trading, small investors are often advised to limit short term trading",
"-24.087186384946108"
],
[
"a monopoly price and monopoly profit, depend on the existence of barriers to entry: these stop other firms from entering into the industry and sapping away profits. Basic Classical and Neo-Classical Theory According to Classical and Neo Classical Economic thought, firms in a perfectly competitive market are price takers because no firm can charge a price that is different from the equilibrium price set within the entire industry's perfectly competitive market. Since a competitive market has many competing firms, a customer can just easily buy widgets from any of the competing firms. Competing firms in a market essentially (each) face",
"-24.083434270742146"
],
[
"in a stock and short/ long position in the market, or buying call and put options in the stock and the market. For example, if an investor believes that AAPL will outperform the market, he/ she will buy the stock and sell the market. But this position could result in unlimited downside with the investor losing money on both the stock and the market. To limit this downside, the investor could instead buy a call on the stock and a put on the market, but this would require unnecessary payment for the market volatility embedded in the stock option premium.",
"-24.06600937215262"
],
[
"theory applies when many investors make a questionable investment, with the assumption that they will be able to sell it later to \"a greater fool\". In other words, they buy something not because they believe that it is worth the price, but rather because they believe that they will be able to sell it to someone else at an even higher price. It is also called survivor investing. It is similar in concept to the Keynesian beauty contest principle of stock investing.\nArt is another commodity in which speculation and privileged access drive prices, not intrinsic value. In November 2013,",
"-24.04729220972513"
],
[
"trading strategy. In this specific case, if portfolio of Arrow-Debreu securities differs in price from the price of the risk-free bond, then the arbitrage strategy would be to buy the lower priced one and sell short the higher priced one. Since each has exactly the same payoff profile, this trade would leave us with zero net risk (the risk of one cancels the other's risk because we have bought and sold in equal quantities the same payoff profile). However, we would make a profit because we are buying at a low price and selling at a high price. Since arbitrage",
"-23.994109757067235"
],
[
"buyers and sellers are matched, one says that the \"market clears\".\nClassical economics and neoclassical economics posit that market clearing happens by the price adjusting—upwards if demand exceeds supply and downwards if supply exceeds demand. Therefore, it reaches equilibrium at a price that both buyers and sellers will accept, and, in the absence of outside interference (in a free market), this will happen.\nThis has not happened for many types of financial assets during the financial crisis that began in 2007, hence one speaks of \"the market breaking down\".\nOne can explain this alternately as the price not adjusting down—the price is too",
"-23.934610975237774"
],
[
"as ninety percent of a Company's fair market value, specifically with family-owned companies. Restricted stock studies Restricted stocks are equity securities of public companies that are similar in all respects to the freely traded stocks of those companies except that they carry a restriction that prevents them from being traded on the open market for a certain period of time, which is usually one year (two years prior to 1990). This restriction from active trading, which amounts to a lack of marketability, is the only distinction between the restricted stock and its freely traded counterpart. Restricted stock can be traded",
"-23.910642140865093"
],
[
"unregulated) that bought stocks while selling other stocks short, hence hedging some of the market risk, and the hedge fund was born.\nNegative news, such as litigation against a company, may also entice professional traders to sell the stock short in hope of the stock price going down.\nDuring the dot-com bubble, shorting a start-up company could backfire since it could be taken over at a price higher than the price at which speculators shorted. Short-sellers were forced to cover their positions at acquisition prices, while in many cases the firm often overpaid for the start-up. Naked short selling restrictions During",
"-23.8957168822526"
],
[
"the opposite strategy: by refusing to split the stock and keeping the price high, they reduce trading volume. Berkshire Hathaway is a notable example of this. \nOther effects could be psychological. If many investors believe that a stock split will result in an increased share price and purchase the stock the share price will tend to increase. Others contend that the management of a company, by initiating a stock split, is implicitly signaling its confidence in the future prospects of the company.\nIn a market where there is a high minimum number of shares, or a penalty for trading in",
"-23.890326997148804"
],
[
"bars compared to the S&P 500 may be low or negative carrying the information that gold does not track stocks and may provide a mechanism for reducing risk. The restriction to stocks as a benchmark is somewhat arbitrary. A model portfolio may be stocks plus bonds. Sometimes the market is defined as \"all investable assets\" (see Roll's critique); unfortunately, this includes lots of things for which returns may be hard to measure. Investing By definition, the market itself has a beta of 1, and individual stocks are ranked according to how much they deviate from the macro market (for",
"-23.877013194316532"
],
[
"depicted in James Clavell's novel Noble House.\nThey instituted one following the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Effectiveness of the rule Gordon J. Alexander and Mark A. Peterson, in an academic study of the uptick rule, found \"the execution quality of short-sell orders is adversely affected by the Uptick Rule, even when stocks are trading in advancing markets. This is inconsistent with one of the three stated objectives of the rule, i.e., to allow relatively unrestricted short selling when a firm's stock is advancing so that the rule does not affect price discovery during such times.\"\nKarl B. Diether, Kuan-Hui Lee, and Ingrid",
"-23.865831899893237"
],
[
"their proprietary trading desk would trade at the same price. The bank then states a single value, the net amount (in ounces) of gold they wish to buy or sell. After each bank provides this value, they determine if the overall net amount is 0. If so, all transactions succeed and the fix is complete. The chair then states, \"There are no flags, and we're fixed.\"\nOtherwise, the chair must change the proposed price. If the amount of gold the banks proposed to buy is higher than the amount proposed for sale, he must raise the price. That will decrease the",
"-23.85684100049548"
],
[
"in advance of large trades by other parties, in anticipation of profiting from the price movement that follows the large trade\". They find evidence consistent with front-running through short sales ahead of large stock sales by CEOs on the New York Stock Exchange.\nWhile front-running is illegal when a broker uses private information about a client's pending order, in principle it is not illegal if it is based on public information. In his book Trading & Exchanges, Larry Harris outlines several other related types of trading. Though all these types of trading may not be strictly illegal, he terms them \"parasitic\".\nA",
"-23.846183392872263"
],
[
"Complementary monopoly A complementary monopoly is an economic concept. It considers a situation where consent must be obtained from more than one agent to obtain a good. In turn leading to a reduction in surplus generated relative to an outright monopoly, if the two agents do not cooperate. The theory was originally proposed in the nineteenth century by Antoine Augustin Cournot.\nThis can be seen in private toll roads where more than one operator controls a different section of the road. The solution is for one agent to purchase all sections of the road.\nComplementary goods are a less extreme form of",
"-23.820508028555196"
],
[
"price competition will force some producers out of the market and cause product shortages and prices for consumers to rise. In the end price-fixing legislation forces producers out of a market because it can't compete with the biggest discounter and the market winds up a monopoly anyway.",
"-23.791803686792264"
],
[
"or thinly traded markets to artificially lower the price of a stock. Hence most markets either prevent short selling or place restrictions on when and how a short sale can occur. The practice of naked shorting is illegal in most (but not all) stock markets. Margin buying In margin buying, the trader borrows money (at interest) to buy a stock and hopes for it to rise. Most industrialized countries have regulations that require that if the borrowing is based on collateral from other stocks the trader owns outright, it can be a maximum of a certain percentage of those other",
"-23.753951792197768"
],
[
"Woods II. Open market trading Typically, a government wanting to maintain a fixed exchange rate does so by either buying or selling its own currency on the open market. This is one reason governments maintain reserves of foreign currencies.\nIf the exchange rate drifts too far above the fixed benchmark rate (it is stronger than required), the government sells its own currency (which increases Supply) and buys foreign currency. This causes the price of the currency to decrease in value (Read: Classical Demand-Supply diagrams). Also, if they buy the currency it is pegged to, then the price of that currency will",
"-23.737191183713776"
],
[
"Then, as the trend shifts to a higher priced market, use a scaled plan to sell. Using this strategy, one can profit from the relationship between the value of a currency and a commodity or stock. Stocks tend to follow a negative inversive path via rotation chambers. Return Assuming that the same amount of money is invested each time, the return from dollar cost averaging on the total money invested is\nwhere is the final price of the investment and is the harmonic mean of the purchase prices. If the time between purchases is small compared to the investment",
"-23.730544183403254"
],
[
"sales. In other words, we shall deal with the case of a perfect market.\nLet's assume that the short-term interest rate is constant (but not necessarily nonnegative) over the trading interval . The risk-free security is assumed to continuously compound in value at the rate ; that is, . We adopt the usual convention that , so that its price equals for every . When dealing with the Black-Scholes model, we may equally well replace the savings account by the risk-free bond. A unit zero-coupon bond maturing at time is a security paying to its holder ",
"-23.729329102803604"
],
[
"by increasing the prices on their level and expanding into other levels of the market since they are already getting the entire monopoly prices. To make it clearer, the total profits a monopolist can earn if it seeks to leverage its monopoly in one market by dominating a complementary market are theoretically no greater than the extra profits it could earn in an unregulated environment simple by charging more for the monopoly product itself. However,these measures which monopoly adopts to promote competition in complementary market might increase the total demands for the products through multi-level market.\nBaxter's Law is an exception",
"-23.724329340861004"
],
[
"on past the reversal point or to reverse again. The trader takes no action until the market has done one or the other.\nIt is considered to bring higher probability trade entries, once this point has passed and the market is either continuing or reversing again. The traders do not take the first opportunity but rather wait for a second entry to make their trade. For instance the second attempt by bears to force the market down to new lows represents, if it fails, a double bottom and the point at which many bears will abandon their bearish opinions and start",
"-23.694390689341162"
],
[
"exposing the order to the market, may cause traders to front-run as they seek to close out positions that may soon become unprofitable.\nLarge limit orders can be \"front-run\" by \"order matching\" or \"penny jumping\". For example, if a buy limit order for 100,000 shares for $1.00 is announced to the market, many traders may seek to buy for $1.01. If the market price increases after their purchases, they will get the full amount of the price increase. However, if the market price decreases, they will likely be able to sell to the limit order trader, for only",
"-23.667998949531466"
],
[
"the perfect competition assumption that there are an unlimited number of buyers and sellers in a market. In conditions in which there is not a natural monopoly caused by unlimited economies of scale, free entry prevents any existing firm from maintaining a monopoly, which would restrict output and charge a higher price than a multi-firm market would.\nFree entry is usually accompanied by free exit, under which condition firms that are incurring losses (such as would happen if there are too many firms producing the product so that each is producing too little to be at its minimum efficient scale) can",
"-23.65968489433726"
],
[
"stock price down is to spread negative rumors to reporters he described as \"the Pisanis of the world\" in reference to CNBC's Bob Pisani. \"You have to use these guys,\" said Cramer. He also discussed getting \"the bozo reporter from The Wall Street Journal\" to publish a negative article. Cramer said this practice, although illegal, is easy to do \"because the SEC doesn't understand it.\"",
"-23.657093910500407"
],
[
"was intended to assure that investors received the best price executions for their orders by encouraging competition in the marketplace, created attractive new opportunities for high-frequency-traders. Activities such as spoofing, layering and front-running were banned by 2015. This rule was designed to give investors the best possible price when dealing in stocks, even if that price was not on the exchange that received the order. SEC/CFTC report On September 30, 2010, after almost five months of investigations led by Gregg E. Berman, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) issued a joint report",
"-23.650387767964276"
],
[
"buyback\", requires an ordinary resolution. A listed company may also buy back its shares in on-market trading on the stock exchange, following the passing of an ordinary resolution if over the 10/12 limit. The stock exchange's rules apply to \"on-market buybacks\". A listed company may also buy unmarketable parcels of shares from shareholders (called a \"minimum holding buyback\"). This does not require a resolution but the purchased shares must still be canceled.",
"-23.629323787085013"
],
[
"trader to take a short position by selling contracts that they think are overvalued. Trading contracts Traders buy and sell contracts, which are typically quoted in 1/10 of a cent corresponding to 1/10 of a percentage point for the votes share or seats share of a political party. Traders make profits by buying undervalued contracts and selling overvalued contracts. If a trader expects the Blue Party to win 42.3% of the popular vote, the trader will find it profitable to buy a contract of the Blue Party if a seller offers it for less than 42.3 cents. The same trader",
"-23.621011461946182"
],
[
"a market closed by a monopoly which dominate an industry, and with a protected market in which entry is conditional on certain financial and legal requirements or which is subject to tariff barriers, taxes, levies or state subsidies which effectively prevent some economic actors from participating in them (see protectionism).\nThe concept of an open market in this general sense is sometimes criticized on the ground that participation in it is conditional on having sufficient money, income or assets. Lacking sufficient money, income or assets, people may be effectively excluded from participation. Thus, whereas people may have sufficient funds to participate",
"-23.620933106343728"
],
[
"appearing undervalued at one time, prices can still drop along with the market. Conversely, an issue with not buying shares in a bull market is that despite appearing overvalued at one time, prices can still rise along with the market. \nAlso, one of the biggest criticisms of price centric value investing is that an emphasis on low prices (and recently depressed prices) regularly misleads retail investors; because fundamentally low (and recently depressed) prices often represent a fundamentally sound difference (or change) in a company's relative financial health. To that end, Warren Buffett has regularly emphasized that \"it's far better to",
"-23.617060254589887"
],
[
"long. However, instead of going long on the stock, he will buy an out of the money call option, and simultaneously sell an out of the money put option. Presumably he will use the money from the sale of the put option to purchase the call option. Then as the stock goes up in price, the call option will be worth more, and the put option will be worth less.",
"-23.586278209382726"
],
[
"an increased price for Fairtrade which produces a small increase in supply means a large fall in market price. In addition, the Fairtrade minimum price means that when the world market price collapses, it is the non-Fairtrade farmers, and particularly the poorest, who have to cut down their coffee trees. This argument is often illustrated with the example of Vietnam paying its coffee farmers over the world price in the 1980s, planting lots of coffee, then flooding the world market in the 1990s. Smith (2010) questioned the relevance of the Vietnam example, and Griffiths later published a response. Corruption Low",
"-23.578877560445108"
],
[
"the stock's price was about to increase committed fraud by buying but not disclosing his inside information.\nSection 15 of the Securities Act of 1933 contained prohibitions of fraud in the sale of securities, later greatly strengthened by the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.\nSection 16(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 prohibits short-swing profits (from any purchases and sales within any six-month period) made by corporate directors, officers, or stockholders owning more than 10% of a firm's shares. Under Section 10(b) of the 1934 Act, SEC Rule 10b-5, prohibits fraud related to securities trading.\nThe Insider Trading Sanctions Act of 1984",
"-23.566290320828557"
],
[
"Monopoly profit In economics a monopoly is a firm that lacks any viable competition, and is the sole producer of the industry's product. In a normal competitive situation, no firm can charge a price that is significantly higher than the Marginal (Economic) cost of producing (the last unit of) the product. If any firm doing business within a competitive situation tries to raise prices significantly higher than the Marginal cost of producing the product, it will lose all of its customers to either other existing firms that charge lower prices, or to a new firm that will find it",
"-23.529069793381495"
],
[
"to stem the tide of the turbulence. Regulators limited short selling under threat of arrest. Large mutual funds and pension funds pledged to buy more stocks. The government stopped initial public offerings. The government also provided cash to brokers to buy shares, backed by central-bank cash. Because the Chinese markets mostly comprise individuals and not institutional funds (80 percent of investors in China are individuals), state-run media continued to persuade its citizens to purchase more stocks. In addition, China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC) imposed a six-month ban on stockholders owning more than 5 percent of a company's stock from selling",
"-23.526801328989677"
],
[
"to buying and then selling or selling short and then buying back the same security on the same day. Interpretation for more complex situations may be subject to interpretation by an individual brokerage firm. For example, if you buy the same stock in three trades on the same day, and sell them all in one trade, that can be considered one day trade or three day trades. If you buy stock in one trade and sell the position in three trades, that is generally considered as one day trade if all trades are done on the same day. Three",
"-23.5208953104011"
],
[
"Efficient-market hypothesis Theoretical background Suppose that a piece of information about the value of a stock (say, about a future merger) is widely available to investors. If the price of the stock does not already reflect that information, then investors can trade on it, thereby moving the price until the information is no longer useful for trading. \nNote that this thought experiment does not necessarily imply that stock prices are unpredictable. For example, suppose that the piece of information in question says that the a financial crisis is likely to come soon. Investors typically do not",
"-23.519283800036646"
],
[
"to being melted down for its bullion value, money that is considered to be \"good\" tends to leave an economy through international trade. International traders are not bound by legal tender laws as citizens of the issuing country are, so they will offer higher value for good coins than bad ones. The good coins may leave their country of origin to become part of international trade, escaping that country's legal tender laws and leaving the \"bad\" money behind. This occurred in Britain during the period of the gold standard. History of the concept Gresham was not the first to state",
"-23.512684275163338"
],
[
"Securities market Secondary market The secondary market, also known as the aftermarket, is the financial market where previously issued securities and financial instruments such as stock, bonds, options, and futures are bought and sold. The term \"secondary market\" is also used to refer to the market for any used goods or assets, or an alternative use for an existing product or asset where the customer base is the second market (for example, corn has been traditionally used primarily for food production and feedstock, but a \"second\" or \"third\" market has developed for use in ethanol production). Stock exchange and over",
"-23.50449632870732"
],
[
"buying or selling stock on behalf of clients.\nProponents of the official market making system claim market makers add to the liquidity and depth of the market by taking a short or long position for a time, thus assuming some risk in return for the chance of a small profit. On the LSE, one can always buy and sell stock: each stock always has at least two market makers and they are obliged to deal.\nIn contrast, on smaller, order-driven markets such as the JSE Securities Exchange it can be difficult to determine the buying and selling prices of even a small",
"-23.49331725112279"
],
[
"can be negative is short selling. Instead of investing by buying shares, shares are borrowed and then sold. A decline in the share price results in a profit instead of a loss. The position is a liability instead of an asset. If the profit is positive, and the average capital is negative, the Modified Dietz return is negative, indicating that although the number of shares is unchanged, the absolute value of the liability has shrunk.\nIn the case of a purchase, followed by a sale of more shares than had been bought, resulting in a short position (a negative number of",
"-23.489970878115855"
],
[
"Short put A trader who expects a stock's price to increase can buy the stock or instead sell, or \"write\", a put. The trader selling a put has an obligation to buy the stock from the put buyer at a fixed price (\"strike price\"). If the stock price at expiration is above the strike price, the seller of the put (put writer) will make a profit in the amount of the premium. If the stock price at expiration is below the strike price by more than the amount of the premium, the trader will lose money, with the potential loss",
"-23.458704387168837"
],
[
"time, there is unlimited profit potential. Example: Long Strangle P/L graph Let's look at an example of a 1-year Long Strangle options strategy:\n100 days after we purchase this Long Strangle, its P/L graph (blue line) would look as follows:\nWe can see that after 100 days, the strategy will be profitable only if the stock price is lower than approximately 80 dollars or higher than 110 dollars. These are the break-even points of the strategy.\nAs time goes by, the blue P/L graph will go down, closer and closer to the orange line, which is the P/L of this strategy at expiry.",
"-23.43966994627408"
],
[
"price of a security (left-hand side) and the offer price (right-hand side).\nOn major, heavily traded stocks the \"depth\" of the orders can quite often be in excess of 20/30 orders to both buy and sell at lower (left) and higher (right) prices.\nTraders can use this information to predict the short-term movement of a share or security in conjunction with volume traded, and attempt to profit from this information, which is usually legal as the information is in the public domain. The reason for this is that market makers sit “behind” such a screen by being obliged to both buy and",
"-23.421087382448604"
],
[
"one to have success in the short term. By the time news comes out the markets have already responded and most of the potential gains for investors are gone. Buying or selling a stock that does not have much volume can move it up or down. Small investors have little effect but large mutual funds and hedge funds can determine the minute-to-minute pricing of stocks through supply and demand (Cramer, 2005, p. 96). \nWatching whether a stock is trending up or down can be a sure sign as to sell or buy in the short run. ",
"-23.377804276067764"
],
[
"Price signal Perfect competition In mainstream (neoclassical) economics, under perfect competition relative prices signal to producers and consumers what production or consumption decisions will contribute to allocative efficiency. Pricing power Alternative theories include that prices reflect relative pricing power of producers and consumers. A monopoly may set prices so as to maximize monopoly profit, while a cartel may engage in price fixing. Conversely, on the consumer side, a monopsony may negotiate or demand prices that do not reflect the cost of production. Value A long thread in economics (from Aristotle to classical economics to the present) distinguishes between exchange value,",
"-23.37385019683279"
],
[
"Making-up price A making-up price, in the London and other British Stock Exchanges, is the price at which speculative bargains are carried over from one account to the next. The carrying over of a \"bull\" position in Eries, for example, implies a sale for cash and a simultaneous repurchase for the new account, both bargains being done at the making-up price. This is fixed at noon on carry-over day, in accordance with the market price then current. The term is also used in New York City, where the making-up prices are fixed at the end of a day's business, in",
"-23.34555783255928"
],
[
"much smaller amount of money than would be required by outright purchase or sales. Short selling In short selling, the trader borrows stock (usually from his brokerage which holds its clients' shares or its own shares on account to lend to short sellers) then sells it on the market, betting that the price will fall. The trader eventually buys back the stock, making money if the price fell in the meantime and losing money if it rose. Exiting a short position by buying back the stock is called \"covering\". This strategy may also be used by unscrupulous traders in illiquid",
"-23.34472193827969"
],
[
"bet is \"Brent Oil will end down on the day\" the Buy and Sell prices will change throughout the course of the bet, but the proposition itself will remain the same.\nA Fixed Binary is a bet where the binary price remains fixed but the strike price (the price the market needs to reach for the event to occur and therefore make up at 100) is moving.\nFor example, if the bet is that \"GBP/USD will end up 25 points by the end of the betting period\", and you can buy this at 95, the buy price would remain at 95 though",
"-23.337625697924523"
],
[
"price will go down) and buys the shares of the company being acquired (betting the price will go up). Conflicts of interest There are a number of ways in which proprietary trading can create conflicts of interest between a bank's interests and those of its customers.\nAs investment banks are key figures in mergers and acquisitions, it is possible (though prohibited) for traders to use inside information to engage in merger arbitrage. Investment banks are required to have a Chinese wall separating their trading and investment banking divisions; however, in recent years, especially since the Enron scandal, these have come under",
"-23.30670595227275"
],
[
"more than the premium. For example, if the exercise price is 100 and premium paid is 10, then if the spot price of 100 rises to only 110 the transaction is break-even; an increase in stock price above 110 produces a profit.\nIf the stock price at expiration is lower than the exercise price, the holder of the options at that time will let the call contract expire and only lose the premium (or the price paid on transfer). Long put A trader who expects a stock's price to decrease can buy a put option to sell the stock at a",
"-23.305285771552008"
],
[
"to require employers to count stock options as an expense. These have been criticized—for reasons that also apply to restricted stock units and phantom stock—as being the equivalent to an option with a strike price of $0 \"a freebie\" rewarding the executive even when their performance has driven the stock price down.\nRestricted stock is stock that cannot be sold by the owner until certain conditions are met (usually a certain length of time passing (vesting period) or a certain goal achieved, such as reaching financial targets). Restricted stock that is forfeited if the executive leaves before the vesting period is",
"-23.29472959486884"
],
[
"value investor Benjamin Graham sought when purchasing stocks—essentially, being able to buy shares at a discount to their intrinsic value. Arguably, that margin of safety is more likely to exist when a stock has fallen a great deal, and that type of drop is usually accompanied by negative news and general pessimism.\nAlong with this, although more dangerous, is shorting overvalued stocks. This requires 'deep pockets' in that an overvalued security may continue to rise, due to over-optimism, for quite some time. Eventually, the short-seller believes, the stock will 'crash and burn'. Examples of contrarian investing Commonly used contrarian indicators for",
"-23.285614842083305"
],
[
"is due to the economic law of one price which states \"that if trade were free, then identical goods should sell for about the same price throughout the world\". What this law means is that profit cannot be made simply through the purchase and sale of goods. Price changes on the open market will force other capitalists to adjust their prices in order to be more competitive, resulting in one price.\nThus, where does surplus value originate? Quite simply, the origin of surplus value arises from the worker. To better understand how this happens, consider the following example from Marx's Capital,",
"-23.28052380841109"
],
[
"exercise.\nWriting (i.e. selling) a call generates income in the form of the premium paid by the option buyer. And if the stock price remains stable or increases, then the writer will be able to keep this income as a profit, even though the profit may have been higher if no call were written. The risk of stock ownership is not eliminated. If the stock price declines, then the net position will likely lose money.\nSince in equilibrium the payoffs on the covered call position is the same as a short put position, the price (or premium) should be the same as",
"-23.272791077499278"
],
[
"free-trade economy. It links every nation's money rates and price levels with the money-rates and price levels of all the other nations that are 'on gold.' However, gold is extremely sensitive to government expenditure and even to attitudes or policies that do not involve expenditure directly, for example, to foreign policy, to certain policies of taxation, and, in general, to precisely all those policies that violate the principles of [classical] liberalism. This is the reason why gold is so unpopular now and also why it was so popular in a bourgeois era.\" Keynesianism In Schumpeter's theory, Walrasian equilibrium is not",
"-23.262365171671263"
],
[
"Natural monopoly A natural monopoly is a monopoly in an industry in which high infrastructural costs and other barriers to entry relative to the size of the market give the largest supplier in an industry, often the first supplier in a market, an overwhelming advantage over potential competitors. This frequently occurs in industries where capital costs predominate, creating economies of scale that are large in relation to the size of the market; examples include public utilities such as water services and electricity. Natural monopolies were recognized as potential sources of market failure early as the 19th century; John Stuart Mill",
"-23.251747474329022"
],
[
"be bid down relative to the price of the good in the other country. Once trade is allowed, profit-seeking firms move their products to the markets that have (temporary) higher prices.\nAs a result: the capital-abundant country will export the capital-intensive good,the labor-abundant country will export the labor-intensive good. Poor predictive power The original Heckscher–Ohlin model and extended model such as the Vanek model performs poorly, as it is shown in the section \"Econometric testing of H–O model theorems\". Daniel Trefler and Susan Chun Zhu summarizes their paper that \"It is hard to believe that factor endowments theory [editor's note: in",
"-23.24511556007201"
],
[
"sold. Stock market When trading in a stock market, a person who has shares to sell may not wish to sell them at the current market price (quote). Likewise, a person who wishes to buy shares may not wish to pay the current market price either. Some negotiation is necessary in order for a transaction to occur.\nThe negotiation often comes in the form of adjusting the bid prices and the ask prices as the value of the share goes up and down. For example, if the share is worth $10, a buyer may \"bid\" $9.97 (3 cents",
"-23.240255184689886"
],
[
"and that few, if any, met the normal criteria for impact studies. Further, most of the cases studied were atypical. Monopsony One reason for low prices is that Fairtrade farmers are forced to sell through a monopsonist cooperative, which may be inefficient or corrupt. They cannot choose the buyer who offers the best price, or switch when their cooperative is going bankrupt. There are also complaints that Fairtrade deviates from the free market ideal of some economists. Brink calls fair trade a \"misguided attempt to make up for market failures\" encouraging market inefficiencies and overproduction. Sometimes goods are overproduced, leading",
"-23.238869707332924"
],
[
"this effect. In this case, one good is still of value even if the other good is not obtained.\nIn a 1968 paper Hugo F. Sonnenschein claim complementary monopoly is equivalent to Cournot duopoly. Example Consider a road between two towns where half of the road is owned by two agents. A customer must pass two toll booth in order to pass from one town to the other. Each agent sets the price of his toll booth.\nGiven a demand function,\n,\nThe optimal price for a monopolist is \n \nleading to revenue of\nIf both agents are independently setting their prices,",
"-23.20897798336955"
],
[
"market value of a stock share at a certain point in time, depends on what someone is willing to pay for it, and the price of a stock share tends to change continually when the market for that share is open. If the price is relatively stable, the stock is said to have \"low volatility\". If the price often changes a great deal, the stock has \"high volatility\". Mutual fund and investment company returns Mutual funds, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), and other equitized investments (such as unit investment trusts or UITs, insurance separate accounts and related variable products such",
"-23.208201716421172"
],
[
"the stock at a significantly lower price. The difference between the value of the stock when it was sold and when it was repurchased is the profit that the investor makes. Examples of this can be seen when George Soros shorted Thailand stocks prior to the speculative attack that lead to the Asian Financial Crisis in 1997 and the shorting of Hong Kong stocks during the failed speculative attack in 1998. Risks for speculators A speculative attack has much in common with cornering the market, as it involves building up a large directional position in the hope of exiting",
"-23.20666401609924"
],
[
"then it is in his interest to effect that trade. Of course, as one thing is sold and another is bought, the respective marginal gains or losses from further trades will change. If the marginal utility of one thing is diminishing, and the other is not increasing, all else being equal, an individual will demand an increasing ratio of that which is acquired to that which is sacrificed. One important way in which all else might not be equal is when the use of the one good or service complements that of the other. In such cases, exchange ratios might",
"-23.189940427429974"
],
[
"Circular trading Market consequences In the most common form of circular trading, groups of investors fraudulently inflate the share price of a company, then sell the shares they own for a profit. While this is illegal, the market consequences are usually minimal. Less frequently, circular trading is used to directly impact a company's success or failure.\nIn some cases, shareholders set thresholds for the price of shares at which they will stay invested within a company or leave it or set a price threshold at which they will decide to purchase more shares. Shareholders tend to follow the decisions of those",
"-23.173337622109102"
],
[
"might sell too early.\nAlso, if there is a market panic, investors may sell a particular stock or segment of stocks en masse. Faced with a wave of sell orders and needing to raise money for redemptions, the manager of an open-ended fund may be forced to sell stocks he would rather keep, and keep stocks he would rather sell, because of liquidity concerns (selling too much of any one stock causes the price to drop disproportionately). Thus it may become overweight in the shares of lower perceived quality or underperforming companies for which there is little demand. But an investor",
"-23.12703828467056"
],
[
"p₂ represent the price of ‘corn’ and the price of ‘gold’ respectively. Pasinetti supposes that the wage rate and the rate of profit are identical in both sectors thanks to free market competition. Note also from (2.10) that only p₁ (the price of corn) enters wage determination, since it is assumed that workers in both sectors only receive only 'corn' as wages; in a terminology later developed by Sraffa, ‘corn’ is the only basic commodity produced in the system. The same consideration can be made, from the opposite view, looking at (2.11), since the only capital involved is represented",
"-23.125367498403648"
],
[
"providers under the market maker model, have been compared to the bets sold by bucket shops, which flourished in the United States at the turn of the 20th century. These allowed speculators to place highly leveraged bets on stocks generally not backed or hedged by actual trades on an exchange, so the speculator was in effect betting against the house. Bucket shops, colourfully described in Jesse Livermore's semi-autobiographical Reminiscences of a Stock Operator, are illegal in the United States according to criminal as well as securities law.",
"-23.124497728022106"
],
[
"firms with the largest amounts of money under management, Barclays Global Investors and State Street Corp.\nThe antithesis of buy-and-hold is the concept of day trading, in which money can be made in the short term if an individual tries to short on the peaks, and buy on the lows with greater money coming with greater volatility.\nOne argument for the strategy is the efficient-market hypothesis (EMH): If every security is fairly valued at all times, then there is really no point to trade. Some take the buy-and-hold strategy to an extreme, advocating that you should never sell a security unless you",
"-23.104370642104186"
],
[
"whether or not the monopoly should be able raise its price and if the government felt that the cost did not justify a higher price, it rejected the monopoly's application for a higher price. Though a regulated monopoly will not have a monopoly profit that is high as it would be in an unregulated situation, it still can have an economic profit that is still well above a competitive firm has in a truly competitive market.\nThe government examines the marginal cost associated with raising the production level up to its presently desirable quantity, and allows the regulated monopoly to charge",
"-23.10035119263921"
],
[
"terms of market trade, quite independently of production (as long as everybody can make gains, then even if the gains are not equal, it may attract no attention; but when incomes fall, the problem becomes manifest). Profit rates may not fall, because products are made cheaply in one part of the world, and resold somewhere else for a much higher price. The financial gain involved in the resales is not made explicit by value-added statistics, except indirectly. Unresolved issues The theory of unequal exchange nevertheless remains very much contested among Marxists, because they are unsure about how it could be",
"-23.08762327520526"
]
] |
1jsye0 | why do the touch screens of some mobile phones only work with the finger. They dont work with a pen or anything else. Why so? | [
"Most touch screens with a hard surface, like on phones etc, use an effect known as 'capacitive coupling' (hence the name capacitive touch screen) to sense a press. The surface of the panel forms a capacitor with your body and the circuitry senses this. It requires a slightly conductive pointer, hence why a hotdog will work but an insulating pen wont. A resistive touchscreen (they are *slightly* squishy to press) relies on physical pressure, so any pointer will work with them. Then there's infra red touchscreens too, which line up a row of sensors and IR transmitters (like a row of tiny versions of your TV remote) along the edges of the screen and sense your finger blocking the light from travelling from one side to another. They can use anything that isn't transparent to work.",
"Why does the DS touch screen work with a stylus but the same stylus doesn't work with my phone?",
"They also work with a sausage. No joke.",
"All the answers here are far over-complicated. Here it is, as far as I understand it: There are wires underneath your screen. These wires are not grounded. You have electrons moving through your body. When you touch the screen, the electrons can run from the battery of your phone, to the ground you are standing on, thus completing the circuit. Your phone registers where the circuit is formed, and voila! Touch screen magic",
"it works through conductivity of the skin, but some touch screens don't work for me, because my fingers tips are not very conductive, so i have a problem were i cannot use the majority of apple touch screen devices, which is a huge pain, especially when trying to find a new phone, but i am glad my new Samsung galaxy ace ii x works,",
"My real question, why doesn't my note 2 stylus work with the girlfriends note 2 and vice versa?",
"What enables a stylus to work on touch screens?",
"Broccoli can use the touch screen on iPhones/iPods"
] | [
[
"computers by touching through a stylus pen, yet they do not respond directly to a user's touch. Touchscreens Touchscreen allow users to directly interact with computers by touching the screen with a finger. It is natural for humans to point to objects in order to show a preference or a selection. Touchscreens allow users to take this natural action and use it to interact with computers. Problems may arise due to inaccuracy: people attempt to make a selection, but due to incorrect calibration, the computer does not accurately process the touch. Human signaling New developments in hands-on computing have led",
"-35.959423286491074"
],
[
"a computer screen, mobile device or graphics tablet.\nThe stylus is the primary input device for personal digital assistants and smartphones that require accurate input, although devices featuring multi-touch finger-input with capacitive touchscreens are becoming more popular than stylus-driven devices in the smartphone market. Touchpad A touchpad or trackpad is a flat surface that can detect finger contact. It is a stationary pointing device, commonly used on laptop computers. At least one physical button normally comes with the touchpad, but the user can also generate a mouse click by tapping on the pad. Advanced features include pressure sensitivity and special gestures",
"-35.40127749752719"
],
[
"It can be overcome with a special capacitive stylus, or a special-application glove with an embroidered patch of conductive thread allowing electrical contact with the user's fingertip.\nSome capacitive display manufacturers continue to develop thinner and more accurate touchscreens. Those for mobile devices are now being produced with 'in-cell' technology, such as in Samsung's Super AMOLED screens, that eliminates a layer by building the capacitors inside the display itself. This type of touchscreen reduces the visible distance between the user's finger and what the user is touching on the screen, reducing the thickness and weight of the display, which is",
"-35.10097145711188"
],
[
"input tool usually used with touchscreen-enabled devices, such as Tablet PCs, to accurately navigate interface elements, send messages, etc. This also prevents smearing the screen with oils from one's fingers. Styluses may also be used for handwriting; or for drawing using graphics tablets.\nMany new phones have a built-in stylus which tucks in behind the back cover. Some styluses may extend and contract into small, pen-like cylinders, which are easy to put away.\nStyluses come in both passive and active versions.\nA passive or capacitive stylus is a stylus that acts just like a finger when touching a device screen. There is no",
"-34.53622282460856"
],
[
"Finger Touching Cell Phone The Finger Touching Cell Phone was a concept cell-phone developed by Samsung and Sunman Kwon at Hong-ik University, South Korea. Concept The phone was designed to be worn as a wristband. The phone would project a 3 × 4 mobile-style keypad onto your fingers, with each joint making up a button. The product won an iF Concept Product Award in 2007.",
"-34.41274846729357"
],
[
"to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and \"edge-to-edge\" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.\nLiquid-crystal displays and OLED displays are the most common. Some displays are",
"-34.315970750758424"
],
[
"such as scrolling by moving one's finger along an edge.\nIt uses a two-layer grid of electrodes to measure finger movement: one layer has vertical electrode strips that handle vertical movement, and the other layer has horizontal electrode strips to handle horizontal movements. Touchscreen A touchscreen is a device embedded into the screen of the TV monitor, or system LCD monitor screens of laptop computers. Users interact with the device by physically pressing items shown on the screen, either with their fingers or some helping tool.\nSeveral technologies can be used to detect touch. Resistive and capacitive touchscreens have conductive materials embedded",
"-34.2511309788606"
],
[
"is displayed; for example, zooming to increase the text size.\nThe touchscreen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather than using a mouse, touchpad, or other such devices (other than a stylus, which is optional for most modern touchscreens).\nTouchscreens are common in devices such as game consoles, personal computers, electronic voting machines, and point-of-sale (POS) systems. They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals, to networks. They play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and some e-readers. Touchscreens are also important in educational settings such as",
"-34.12755840510363"
],
[
"cost of touchscreen technology in the early 1990s.\nThe first mobile phone with a capacitive touchscreen was LG Prada released in May 2007 (which was before the first iPhone).\nTouchscreens would not be popularly used for video games until the release of the Nintendo DS in 2004. Until recently, most consumer touchscreens could only sense one point of contact at a time, and few have had the capability to sense how hard one is touching. This has changed with the commercialization of multi-touch technology, and the Apple Watch being released with a force-sensitive display in April 2015.\nIn 2007 93% of touchscreens shipped",
"-34.039708753931336"
],
[
"electronic communication between a passive stylus and a device. The device cannot tell the difference between a finger and a passive stylus.\nAn active stylus includes electronic components that communicate with the touchscreen controller on a device. Active pens are typically used for note taking, on-screen drawing/painting, and electronic document annotation. They help prevent the problem of one's fingers or hands accidentally contacting the screen. \nAs before, the stylus is pointed or rounded at one end and is made to fit in the grip of a hand comfortably. These styluses can be found in many different styles.\nPalm Rejection: \nSince many",
"-33.663763330172515"
],
[
"The technology is also well suited to displays that are physically larger. Development The development of multipoint touchscreens facilitated the tracking of more than one finger on the screen; thus, operations that require more than one finger are possible. These devices also allow multiple users to interact with the touchscreen simultaneously.\nWith the growing use of touchscreens, the cost of touchscreen technology is routinely absorbed into the products that incorporate it and is nearly eliminated. Touchscreen technology has demonstrated reliability and is found in airplanes, automobiles, gaming consoles, machine control systems, appliances, and handheld display devices including cellphones; the touchscreen market",
"-33.09632093331311"
],
[
"have the home screen appear, however this can be changed in the iOS settings to where users can just rest their finger on the sensor to unlock the user's device and go directly to the home screen, similar to previous versions of iOS. Solely placing a finger on the sensor will only unlock the iPhone unless said setting is enabled, and no notifications are currently being displayed on the lock screen. Hardware Touch ID is built into the home button, which is built of laser-cut sapphire crystal, and does not scratch easily (scratching would prevent Touch ID from working). It",
"-33.075632341206074"
],
[
"Additionally, as only sufficient pressure is necessary for the touch to be sensed, they may be used with gloves on, or by using anything rigid as a finger substitute. Disadvantages include the need to press down, and a risk of damage by sharp objects. Resistive touchscreens also suffer from poorer contrast, due to having additional reflections (i.e.: glare) from the layers of material placed over the screen. This is the type of touchscreen used by Nintendo in the DS family, the 3DS family, and the Wii U GamePad. Surface acoustic wave Surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology uses ultrasonic waves that",
"-33.06382396200206"
],
[
"to the surface without contact with a screen. Fingers are triangulated by technologies like stereo camera, time-of-flight and laser. Good examples of finger tracking pointing devices are LM3LABS' Ubiq'window and AirStrike Graphics tablet A graphics tablet or digitizing tablet is a special tablet similar to a touchpad, but controlled with a pen or stylus that is held and used like a normal pen or pencil. The thumb usually controls the clicking via a two-way button on the top of the pen, or by tapping on the tablet's surface.\nA cursor (also called a puck) is similar to a mouse, except that",
"-33.0185540165985"
],
[
"Touchscreen A touchscreen, or touch screen, is a both input and output device and normally layered on the top of an electronic visual display of an information processing system. A user can give input or control the information processing system through simple or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with a special stylus or one or more fingers. Some touchscreens use ordinary or specially coated gloves to work while others may only work using a special stylus or pen. The user can use the touchscreen to react to what is displayed and, if the software allows, to control how it",
"-32.901626340142684"
],
[
"and fingers. The precision of the human finger alone is much, much higher than this, so when assistive technologies are provided—such as on-screen magnifiers—users can move their finger (once in contact with the screen) with precision as small as 0.1 mm (0.004 in). Combined with haptics Touchscreens are often used with haptic response systems. A common example of this technology is the vibratory feedback provided when a button on the touchscreen is tapped. Haptics are used to improve the user's experience with touchscreens by providing simulated tactile feedback, and can be designed to react immediately, partly countering on-screen response latency. Research from",
"-32.842714192403946"
],
[
"use a panel that carries an electrical charge. When a finger touches the screen, the touch disrupts the panel's electrical field. The disruption is registered as a computer event (gesture) and may be sent to the software, which may then initiates a response to the gesture event.\nIn the past few years, several companies have released products that use multi-touch. In an attempt to make the expensive technology more accessible, hobbyists have also published methods of constructing DIY touchscreens. Multi-touch gestures Multi-touch touchscreen gestures enable predefined motions to interact with the device and software. An increasing number of devices like smartphones,",
"-32.733985249709804"
],
[
"setting. Certain early pen-based interfaces required the operator to work in this position for much of the work day. Allowing the user to rest their hand or arm on the input device or a frame around it is a solution for this in many contexts. This phenomenon is often cited as a prima facie example of movements to be minimized by proper ergonomic design.\nUnsupported touchscreens are still fairly common in applications such as ATMs and data kiosks, but are not an issue as the typical user only engages for brief and widely spaced periods. Fingerprints Touchscreens can suffer from the",
"-32.71833732468076"
],
[
"angle.\nThe lid can be folded down while the screen is flipped outwards, enabling the touch screen feature of this phone. The screen itself users capacitive screen, hence it is not possible to use a stylus. Users in Japan can use the phone in this mode to browse the web, watch 1SEG terrestrial TV, and control the camera.\nThe directional key now contains a sensor integrating Sharp's exclusive \"Touch Cruiser\" technology. This allows users to navigate the menus akin to using a laptop touch pad. The settings allow for multiple sensitivity options as well as an option to turn it off altogether.\nThe",
"-32.677309558264824"
],
[
"screen as an input method. Items can be selected or moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used to convey commands. The screen will need frequent cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints. Tablet screens A combination of a monitor with a graphics tablet. Such devices are typically unresponsive to touch without the use of one or more special tools' pressure. Newer models however are now able to detect touch from any pressure and often have the ability to detect tilt and rotation as well.\nTouch and tablet screens are used on LCDs as a substitute for the light",
"-32.62442033493426"
],
[
"as detached accessories. Operation and function Touchpads operate in one of several ways, including capacitive sensing and resistive touchscreen. The most common technology used in the 2010s senses the change of capacitance where a finger touches the pad. Capacitance-based touchpads will not sense the tip of a pencil or other similar ungrounded or non-conducting implement. Fingers insulated by a glove may also be problematic.\nWhile touchpads, like touchscreens, are able to sense absolute position, resolution is limited by their size. For common use as a pointer device, the dragging motion of a finger is translated into a finer, relative motion of",
"-32.618182467645966"
],
[
"problem of fingerprints on the display. This can be mitigated by the use of materials with optical coatings designed to reduce the visible effects of fingerprint oils. Most modern smartphones have oleophobic coatings, which lessen the amount of oil residue. Another option is to install a matte-finish anti-glare screen protector, which creates a slightly roughened surface that does not easily retain smudges. Glove touch Touchscreens do not work most of the time when the user wears gloves. The thickness of the glove and the material they are made of play a significant role on that and the ability of a",
"-32.529116284131305"
],
[
"in versions with Grafitti instead of a keyboard.\nThe late 2000s and early 2010s saw a shift in smartphone interfaces away from devices with physical keyboards and keypads to ones with large finger-operated capacitive touchscreens.\nThe first phone of any kind with a large capacitive touchscreen was the LG Prada, announced by LG in December 2006. This was a fashionable feature phone created in collaboration with Italian luxury designer Prada with a 3\" 240x400 pixel screen.\nIn January 2007 Apple Computer introduced the iPhone. It had a 3.5\" capacitive touchscreen with twice the common resolution of most smartphone screens at the time, and",
"-32.29080859848182"
],
[
"method rather than expensive signal-processing hardware. As with the dispersive signal technology system, a motionless finger cannot be detected after the initial touch. However, for the same reason, the touch recognition is not disrupted by any resting objects. The technology was created by SoundTouch Ltd in the early 2000s, as described by the patent family EP1852772, and introduced to the market by Tyco International's Elo division in 2006 as Acoustic Pulse Recognition. The touchscreen used by Elo is made of ordinary glass, giving good durability and optical clarity. The technology usually retains accuracy with scratches and dust on the screen.",
"-31.947586048619996"
],
[
"proprietary transparent multi-touch screen, allowing direct, ten-finger manipulation on the display.\nIn January 2007, multi-touch technology became mainstream with the iPhone, and in its iPhone announcement Apple even stated it \"invented multi touch\", however both the function and the term predate the announcement or patent requests, except for the area of capacitive mobile screens, which did not exist before Fingerworks/Apple's technology (Fingerworks filed patents in 2001–2005, subsequent multi-touch refinements were patented by Apple).\nHowever, the U.S. Patent and Trademark office declared that the \"pinch-to-zoom\" functionality was predicted by U.S. Patent # 7,844,915 relating to gestures on touch screens, filed by Bran",
"-31.8507563850726"
],
[
"laptops produced during this period beyond include only touchpads, displacing the pointing stick. Use in devices Touchpads are primarily used in self-contained portable laptop computers and do not require a flat surface near the machine. The touchpad is close to the keyboard, and only very short finger movements are required to move the cursor across the display screen; while advantageous, this also makes it possible for a user's palm or wrist to move the mouse cursor accidentally while typing. Touchpads also exist for desktop computers as an external peripheral, albeit rarely seen. Touchpads are sometimes integrated in some desktop computer",
"-31.83457268041093"
],
[
"also noted that fingerprint technology still has some issues, such as the potential to be hacked, or of the device's not recognizing the fingerprint (for example, when the finger has been injured).\nAdrian Kingsley-Hughes, writing for ZDNet, said Touch ID could be useful in bring your own device situations. He said the biometric protection adds another layer of security, removing the ability of people to look over others' shoulders and read their passcode/password. He added that Touch ID would prevent children from racking up thousands of dollars in unwanted purchases when using iPhones owned by adults. He observed that Touch ID",
"-31.761352921315847"
],
[
"introduced multi-touch to phones, which allowed gestures such as \"pinching\" to zoom in or out on photos, maps, and web pages. The iPhone was notable as being the first device of its kind targeted at the mass market to abandon the use of a stylus, keyboard, or keypad typical of contemporary smartphones, instead using a large touchscreen for direct finger input as its main means of interaction.\nThe iPhone's operating system was also a shift away from previous ones that were adapted from PDAs and feature phones, to one powerful enough to avoid using a limited, stripped down web browser requiring",
"-31.712203339120606"
],
[
"classrooms or on college campuses.\nThe popularity of smartphones, tablets, and many types of information appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of common touchscreens for portable and functional electronics. Touchscreens are found in the medical field, heavy industry, automated teller machines (ATMs), and kiosks such as museum displays or room automation, where keyboard and mouse systems do not allow a suitably intuitive, rapid, or accurate interaction by the user with the display's content.\nHistorically, the touchscreen sensor and its accompanying controller-based firmware have been made available by a wide array of after-market system integrators, and not by display, chip, or motherboard",
"-31.614976092489087"
],
[
"\nTablets are also popular for technical drawings and CAD, as one can typically put a piece of paper on them without interfering with their function.\nFinally, tablets are gaining popularity as a replacement for the computer mouse as a pointing device. They can feel more intuitive to some users than a mouse, as the position of a pen on a tablet typically corresponds to the location of the pointer on the GUI shown on the computer screen. Those artists using a pen for graphic work will as a matter of convenience use a tablet and pen for standard computer operations rather",
"-31.610572716628667"
],
[
"by iPhone X, though the required changes did cause delayed app updates for some major apps.\nThe traditional home button, found on all previous devices in the iPhone lineup, has been removed entirely, replaced by touch-based gestures. To wake up the device, users can tap the display or use the side button; to access the home screen, users must swipe up from the bottom of the display; and to access the multitasking window, users must swipe up similarly to the method of accessing the home screen, but stop while the finger is in the middle of the screen, causing an app",
"-31.587092739646323"
],
[
"modern tablets make use of multi-touch recognition, some stylus and app manufactures have created palm rejection technologies into their products. This works to turn off the multi-touch feature allowing the palm to rest on the tablet while still recognizing the stylus.\nHaptic Stylus:\nOther than the types above, a haptic stylus is a stylus that simulates the realistic physical sensations on digital surfaces (e.g., tablet computer, smartphone etc.) which can be felt in handwriting tasks on paper. The sensation is sometimes enhanced by the combination of auditory and tactile illusions, such as RealPen. Scientific instruments A stylus is also an instrument",
"-31.574940993858036"
],
[
"providing room for dedicated touch points that are found on many smartphone designs. Due to how sensor-on-lens modules are manufactured, the sensors are very fragile in comparison to on-cell modules. Damage to the cover glass will also impair the functionality of the touchscreen.",
"-31.48745765478816"
],
[
"tablet computers, laptops or desktop computers have functions that are triggered by multi-touch gestures. Before 2007 Years before it was a viable consumer product, popular culture portrayed potential uses of multi-touch technology in the future, including in several installments of the Star Trek franchise.\nIn the 1982 Disney sci-fi film Tron a device similar to the Microsoft Surface was shown. It took up an executive's entire desk and was used to communicate with the Master Control computer.\nIn the 2002 film Minority Report, Tom Cruise uses a set of gloves that resemble a multi-touch interface to browse through information.\nIn the 2005 film",
"-31.477908791290247"
],
[
"of applications, similar to what one might find on a modern smartphone. A user study assessing pointing accuracy of the system (user and system inaccuracies combined) suggested buttons needed to be 2.3 cm (0.91 in) in diameter to achieve reliable operation on the hand, 1.6 cm (0.63 in) on walls. This is approaching the accuracy of capacitive touchscreens, like those found in smart phones, but on arbitrary surfaces. \nOmniTouch was developed by researchers Chris Harrison, Hrvoje Benko and Andy Wilson at Microsoft Research in 2011. The work was accepted to and presented at the 2011 ACM User Interface and Software Technology conference.",
"-31.42911862785695"
],
[
"been properly calibrated for variations in resistivity.\nResistive touchscreens typically have high resolution (4096 x 4096 DPI or higher), providing accurate touch control. Because the touchscreen responds to pressure on its surface, contact can be made with a finger or any other pointing device. Comparison with other touchscreen technology Resistive touchscreen technology works well with almost any stylus-like object, and can also be operated with gloved fingers and bare fingers alike. In some circumstances, this is more desirable than a capacitive touchscreen, which needs a capacitive pointer, such as a bare finger (though some capacitive sensors can detect gloves and some",
"-31.41859638779715"
],
[
"Samsung S8300 UltraTouch Interface The S8300 is one of the first touch screen mobile phones that also features a slide out keypad. This allows users to interface with the phone by using the touchscreen to navigate the Touchwiz interface, as well as the fallback of an 'old-tech' keypad for software that either does not support the touchscreen, or for users that are not comfortable with the touch interface for phone calling and text entry. Having a slideout keypad also means that the screen is not obstructed with an onscreen keyboard/pad when entering text or other information into the phone. Navigation",
"-31.380946655757725"
],
[
"objects, and a \"tap-click\" gesture to select while maintaining location with another finger.\nIn 1990, HCIL demonstrated a touchscreen slider, which was later cited as prior art in the lock screen patent litigation between Apple and other touchscreen mobile phone vendors (in relation to U.S. Patent 7,657,849).\nIn 1991–1992, the Sun Star7 prototype PDA implemented a touchscreen with inertial scrolling. In 1993, IBM released the IBM Simon the first touchscreen phone.\nAn early attempt at a handheld game console with touchscreen controls was Sega's intended successor to the Game Gear, though the device was ultimately shelved and never released due to the expensive",
"-31.372910113772377"
],
[
"finger is when pressing the button. This works well unless the user is wearing gloves or anything that the touch surface cannot \"read\". The user cannot adjust the sensitivity and scroll speed, but can choose to turn it off and use the button as a standard directional pad instead.",
"-31.33196620561648"
],
[
"transmit your finger taps to a mobile device, smart phone or tablet. The device could eliminate the need for a keyboard or keypad to text, tweet, or type.",
"-31.287242116755806"
],
[
"which the user is standing. \nIn 2007, NORTD labs Open Source system offered its CUBIT (multi-touch).\nSmall-scale touch devices rapidly became commonplace in 2008. The number of touch screen telephones was expected to increase from 200,000 shipped in 2006 to 21 million in 2012.\nIn May 2015, Apple was granted a patent for a \"fusion keyboard\", which turns individual physical keys into multi-touch buttons. Brands and manufacturers Apple has retailed and distributed numerous products using multi-touch technology, most prominently including its iPhone smartphone and iPad tablet. Additionally, Apple also holds several patents related to the implementation of multi-touch in user interfaces, however the",
"-31.219160492852097"
],
[
"was not a touch-tone phone. Instead, its electronics generated electrical pulses as its buttons were pressed, simulating the pulses produced by a rotary dial. Ericsson continued to produce rotary-dial Ericofons until about 1980. Recent production Wild and Wolf produces an Ericofon-lookalike called \"Scandiphone\". The modern touch-tone phone is available in several colors and can be bought from web stores.",
"-31.20881592520891"
],
[
"Touchpad A touchpad or trackpad is a pointing device featuring a tactile sensor, a specialized surface that can translate the motion and position of a user's fingers to a relative position on the operating system that is made output to the screen. Touchpads are a common feature of laptop computers as opposed to using a mouse on a desktop, and are also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk space is scarce. Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants (PDAs) and some portable media players. Wireless touchpads are also available",
"-31.17630390188424"
],
[
"(IPS) LCDs. The iPhone 5 model's screen results in an aspect ratio of approximately 16:9. The iPhone X is the first iPhone to use an OLED display. It has a near bezel-less screen with a ≈19.5:9 aspect ratio.\nThe touch and gesture features of the iPhone are based on technology originally developed by FingerWorks. Most gloves and styli prevent the necessary electrical conductivity; although capacitive styli can be used with iPhone's finger-touch screen. The iPhone 3GS and later also feature a fingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating.\nThe iPhone has a minimal hardware user interface, with most models featuring five buttons. The only physical menu",
"-31.172050805180334"
],
[
"This type of interaction is well supported for collaboration, and makes it possible for multiple users to interact simultaneously. Touch interfaces also support collaboration, and increasingly multi-touch interfaces are being overlaid on top of large displays. The physical size of the display, however, can leave users prone to fatigue. Mobile devices such as tablets can be used as interaction devices, but the secondary screen can distract users’ attention. It has been found that this issue can be addressed by adding physical widgets to the tablet’s screen. Finally, software techniques such as modifying the window management interface or providing",
"-31.169008929398842"
],
[
"enabling more advanced interaction using touch gestures with your fingers the same way a mouse is used. Despite such advances, problems may arise with tablet functions of the OS, when, for instance, touch screen drivers are recognized as PS/2 mouse input rather than a touch input device. In such instances tablet functions may be unavailable or severely restricted in functionality. Microsoft Tablet PCs vs. traditional notebooks The advantages and disadvantages of tablet PCs are highly subjective measures. What appeals to one user may be exactly what disappoints another. The following are commonly cited opinions of the tablet PC platform:",
"-31.150266894808738"
],
[
"due to the user not looking at the screen. There is also the disadvantage that because fewer fingers are used, those that are used are forced to move a much greater distance. Hybrid There are many idiosyncratic typing styles in between novice-style \"hunt and peck\" and touch typing. For example, many \"hunt and peck\" typists have the keyboard layout memorized and are able to type while focusing their gaze on the screen. Some use just two fingers, while others use 3–6 fingers. Some use their fingers very consistently, with the same finger being used to type the same character every",
"-31.09531031944789"
],
[
"iPhone which uses a close variant of the microwriter chording system developed by Cy Enfield. It is available via the Apple app store.\nThe system is let down by the lack of haptic feedback - you can't tell if your fingers are in the right place without looking, but you get better with practice. The finger pad positions are adjustable to fit your hand size. It also works for left handed users and has a live speech output facility that could be helpful for people with speech impairments.",
"-31.084380746702664"
],
[
"the device facing the screen, on the right side, there is a power on/off (long press) and lock/unlock (short press) button and volume keys. The Nokia N9 has fewer hardware buttons than most smartphones and makes extensive use of the touchscreen to navigate the user interface. For example, to minimize a running application, the user has to swipe their finger from one side of the bezel surrounding the screen to the opposite side. There is also no dedicated shutter key for the camera; the touch screen is instead used to focus and take the picture. The screen can be unlocked",
"-30.958581514190882"
],
[
"technologies allow the use of multi-touch without the aforementioned vectoring issues.\nWhere conditions allow bare finger operation, the resistive screen's poorer responsiveness to light touches has caused it to generally be considered for use with low resolution screens and to lose market share to capacitive screens in the 21st century. Projected capacitive touchscreen technology overtook resistive touchscreen technology in revenue in 2010 and in units in 2011.",
"-30.947254252503626"
],
[
"from contact with nearly any object (finger, stylus/pen, palm) resistive touchscreens are a type of \"passive\" technology. \nFor example, during operation of a four-wire touchscreen, a uniform, unidirectional voltage gradient is applied to the first sheet. When the two sheets are pressed together, the second sheet measures the voltage as distance along the first sheet, providing the X coordinate. When this contact coordinate has been acquired, the voltage gradient is applied to the second sheet to ascertain the Y coordinate. These operations occur within a few milliseconds, registering the exact touch location as contact is made, provided the screen has",
"-30.944375910112285"
],
[
"released in September 2008, with both a 3.2\" capacitive touchscreen and a hardware keyboard that was revealed when the user slid the screen open. By 2010 the majority of Android phones were touchscreen-only.\nThe iPhone and later touchscreen-only Android devices together popularized the smartphone form factor based on a large capacitive touchscreen as the sole means of interaction, and led to the decline of earlier, keyboard- and keypad-focused platforms. Other smartphone manufacturers soon started projects to replace their existing operating systems with new ones that could support touch interfaces on larger screens and web browsers that could render full web pages.",
"-30.935027109400835"
],
[
"being moved from the bottom to the top right of the display. The camera, processor performance, and battery life were also given positive thoughts.\nIn a heavily negative review, Dennis Green of Business Insider significantly criticized the impossible one-handed use of iPhone X, writing that the new gestures to use the phone, such as swiping from the top down to access notifications and the Control Center, did not work when using the phone with only one hand due to not being able to reach the top. His review sparked outrage among Twitter users, many of whom used condescending tones, which Green",
"-30.897636412628344"
],
[
"with a skin tap mechanism, termed Tap-in. The wristwatch would connect to a mobile phone via Bluetooth, and tapping-frequency patterns would enable the wearer to respond to callers with selected short messages. \nIn 2015, the Apple Watch was launched. It uses skin tap sensing to deliver notifications and alerts from the mobile phone of the watch wearer. Vibration The majority of electronics offering haptic feedback use vibrations, and most use a type of eccentric rotating mass (ERM) actuator, consisting of an unbalanced weight attached to a motor shaft. As the shaft rotates, the spinning of this irregular mass causes the",
"-30.841155301081017"
],
[
"to experiment, should Apple open up access to Touch ID later on (which they have done), but that those wary of surveillance agencies such as the US National Security Agency may still choose not to use Touch ID.\nRoose also noted that complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensors, such as those found on Touch ID, generally wear out and become unusable after some period of time, and while Apple may have found a way to manufacture the sensors better, if the sensors stop working, users may just switch back to using their passcode, making fingerprint recognition a non-starter once again. Roose",
"-30.701520561706275"
],
[
"image is typically not exposed to the application layer.\nPower supplies with a high level of electronic noise can reduce accuracy. Pen computing Many stylus designs for resistive touchscreens will not register on capacitive sensors because they are not conductive. Styluses that work on capacitive touchscreens primarily designed for fingers are required to simulate the difference in dielectric offered by a human digit.",
"-30.67653193406295"
],
[
"in marketing. 1960–2000 The use of touchscreen technology predates both multi-touch technology and the personal computer. Early synthesizer and electronic instrument builders like Hugh Le Caine and Robert Moog experimented with using touch-sensitive capacitance sensors to control the sounds made by their instruments. IBM began building the first touch screens in the late 1960s. In 1972, Control Data released the PLATO IV computer, a terminal used for educational purposes, which employed single-touch points in a 16×16 array user interface. These early touchscreens only registered one point of touch at a time. On-screen keyboards (a well-known feature today) were thus awkward",
"-30.67070149749634"
],
[
"Touch ID Touch ID is an electronic fingerprint recognition feature, designed and released by Apple inc, that allows users to unlock Apple devices, make purchases in the various Apple digital media stores (the iTunes Store, the App Store, and the Apple Books Store), and authenticate Apple Pay online or in apps. It can also be used to lock and unlock password-protected notes on iPhone and iPad. \nIt has been part of all iPhones since 2013's iPhone 5S up until 2017's iPhone 8 and 8 Plus; it has been on all iPads since the iPad Air 2. In 2015, Apple",
"-30.63789394313062"
],
[
"a benefit of multi-touch: several people can orient themselves on different sides of the surface to interact with an application simultaneously. Object recognition refers to the device's ability to recognize the presence and orientation of tagged objects placed on top of it.\nThe technology allows non-digital objects to be used as input devices. In one example, a normal paint brush was used to create a digital painting in the software. This is made possible by the fact that, in using cameras for input, the system does not rely on restrictive properties required of conventional touchscreen or touchpad devices such as the",
"-30.57396748001338"
],
[
"IPhone (1st generation) History In 2005, Apple CEO Steve Jobs conceived an idea of using a touchscreen to interact with a computer in a way in which he could directly type onto the display, instead of requiring a stylus which was common on existing technology of the time. He decided that the device would require a triple layered capacitive multi-touch touch screen, a very new and advanced technology at the time. This helped out with removing the physical keyboard and mouse, the same as a tablet computer. Jobs recruited a group of Apple engineers to investigate the idea as a",
"-30.51552667695796"
],
[
"All subsequent iPhones with the exception of the iPhone SE and iPhone XR had this feature until 2019. 3D Touch was omitted on all 2019 iPhones in favor of haptic touch, which was previously featured on the iPhone XR. Haptic touch retains some of 3D Touch's features but is based on a long press instead of a hard press. Proximity sensor A proximity sensor deactivates the display and touchscreen when the device is brought near the face during a call. This is done to save battery power and to prevent inadvertent inputs from the user's face and ears. Ambient light",
"-30.462086364161223"
],
[
"forces experienced by a fingertip, as a programmable function of the finger's motion. The TPaD Tablet Project uses an ultrasonic technology to modulate the apparent slipperiness of a glass touchscreen.\nIn 2013, Apple Inc. was awarded the patent for a haptic feedback system that is suitable for multitouch surfaces. Apple's U.S. Patent for a \"Method and apparatus for localization of haptic feedback\" describes a system where at least two actuators are positioned beneath a multitouch input device, providing vibratory feedback when a user makes contact with the unit. Specifically, the patent provides for one actuator to induce a feedback vibration, while",
"-30.455923086497933"
],
[
"Gesture-enhanced single-touch Gesture-enhanced single-touch, also known as \"dual control\", \"gesture touch\", and often \"dual-touch\", describes the ability of a touchscreen to register certain two-finger gestures, despite lacking hardware that would allow it to fully register all two-finger movements. A very common application of gesture-enhanced single-touch technology is the pinch-to-zoom gesture, which allows the user to zoom in or out by moving two fingers farther apart or closer together while touching the display. Technical background An important technical reason for the limitation to gesture-enhanced single-touch instead of allowing dual-touch or multi-touch is the type of sensor hardware in the display. Many",
"-30.437375153356697"
],
[
"layers, and operate even under screen protectors, or behind weather and vandal-proof glass. Because the top layer of a PCT is glass, PCT is a more robust solution versus resistive touch technology. Depending on the implementation, an active or passive stylus can be used instead of or in addition to a finger. This is common with point of sale devices that require signature capture. Gloved fingers may not be sensed, depending on the implementation and gain settings. Conductive smudges and similar interference on the panel surface can interfere with the performance. Such conductive smudges come mostly from sticky or sweaty",
"-30.38683236957877"
],
[
"interface. This interface has been used with multiple Samsung touch screen phones on different companies such as the Samsung eternity. This interface allows the users to personalize their phone in the way they choose by changing how their home screens look by adding widgets. The Samsung Behold II has three home screens, the main screen and then a screen if the user were to slide their finger across their screen to the right and also to the left. As stated on Samsung’s website: The 'drag and drop' user interface allows the users to have shortcuts",
"-30.378437538223807"
],
[
"for mobile devices was projected to produce US$5 billion by 2009.\nThe ability to accurately point on the screen itself is also advancing with the emerging graphics tablet-screen hybrids. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVFD) plays a major role in this innovation due its high piezoelectric properties.\nTapSense, announced in October 2011, allows touchscreens to distinguish what part of the hand was used for input, such as the fingertip, knuckle and fingernail. This could be used in a variety of ways, for example, to copy and paste, to capitalize letters, to activate different drawing modes, etc.\nA real practical integration between the television-images and the functions",
"-30.365344288991764"
],
[
"ergonomics of handheld devices concludes that bigger products, like large phones and tablets, often result in overextension of the thumb and wrist\", hinting to repetitive strain injury and that oversized iPhones and smartphones in general can be physically unusable for several users. The technology website Gizmodo shared the same concern, hoping that \"there will be a return to smaller phones\", and expressed a desire \"to hold one's phone in a single hand, and be able to use it fully.\"\nOn January 19, 2019 the iPhone SE was back on sale as a clearance item for $249. However, by January 20, 2019",
"-30.29048686819442"
],
[
"6s. The use of the Touch ID fingerprint scanner was optional and could be configured to unlock the screen or pay for mobile apps purchases. Since December 2015, cheaper smartphones with fingerprint recognition have been released, such as the $100 UMI Fair. Samsung also recently introduced fingerprint sensors to its mid-range A-series smartphones.\nBy 2017 Hewlett Packard, Asus, Huawei, Lenovo and Apple were using fingerprint readers in their laptops. Synaptics says the SecurePad sensor is now available for OEMs to start building into their laptops. In the newest smartphones, the fingerprint reader is being integrated into the whole touchscreen display instead",
"-30.231151757470798"
],
[
"David Kim Project Leader. Reception Features of Digits look promising, but some gesture tech researchers believe that people would prefer sensing technology embedded into the device, instead of wearing it on the wrist.\nDr Richard Picking, reader in human-computer interaction at Glyndwr University quoted to BBC that \"This portable, mobile solution is an interesting development with potential for novel applications.\" There have been attempts at gesture sensing technology like data gloves, which failed to make an impact and were only limited to gaming industry, and there is a chance that Digits might end up like that. Also, there is not enough",
"-30.160594204251538"
],
[
"which are touching objects such as phones, computer tablets, driftwood and notebooks. Our attention is drawn to the point at which the body and the object meet and to the gestures the hands perform.",
"-30.156141188926995"
],
[
"mouse cursor in a certain area, then a toolbar or function option will become visible. In general, because of the smaller screen of mobile devices, controls are often not placed right in the centre of the screen, because that is where the user views content or text.\nSome organizations try to increase the discoverability of a certain feature by adding animation, such as a moving \"click here\" icon. As of 2017, the addition of motion sensors and geotracking to mobile devices has made webpage design for discoverability more complex, because smartphones and tablets are typically capable of having many more inputs",
"-30.105609753198223"
],
[
"phone. As the user moves from one cell to another, the handset sets up radio links with multiple cell sites (or sectors of the same site) simultaneously. This is known as \"soft handoff\" because, unlike with traditional cellular technology, there is no one defined point where the phone switches to the new cell.\nIn IS-95 inter-frequency handovers and older analog systems such as NMT it will typically be impossible to test the target channel directly while communicating. In this case, other techniques have to be used such as pilot beacons in IS-95. This means that there is almost",
"-30.083060705670505"
],
[
"buttons with the left thumb, thus giving the fingers a rest. Mobile devices Some mobile devices have trackballs, including those in the BlackBerry range, the T-Mobile Sidekick 3, and many early HTC smartphones. These miniature trackballs are made to fit within the thickness of a mobile device, and are controlled by the tip of a finger or thumb. These have mostly been replaced on smartphones by touch screens. On mice In lieu of a scroll wheel, some mice include a tiny trackball sometimes called a scroll ball. A popular example is Apple's Mighty Mouse.",
"-30.077882529760245"
],
[
"with the subdomain prefix \"m\") optimized for iPhone and a desktop layout. The mobile versions were still usually \"scaled-down\" with lower quality images and sometimes content such as videos removed to decrease loading time. This was also the first time web developers had to design with a touch screen in mind, using larger clickable links and buttons to facilitate the use of fingers as pointers. As Google's Android OS rose to popularity and introduced more variation in the market share of smartphones, along with the widespread implementation of 4G LTE's ultra fast mobile broadband, it was no longer necessary to",
"-30.056978671462275"
],
[
"LED flash were added.\nThe iPod Touch has no cellular modem, and therefore cannot make phone calls. However, it can make FaceTime calls over an internet connection, and send iMessages to other iPhones, Macs, iPads, and iPod Touches with an Apple ID. The 5th generation iPod Touch and later can forward phone calls through a separate iPhone, with the Wi-Fi Calling feature. The two devices must be paired, and the iPhone's carrier must support this feature. Setup and synchronization For iPod Touch units bought before October 12, 2011 users must own a Mac or PC computer to be able to use",
"-30.050796088878997"
],
[
"button is situated directly below the display, and is called the \"Home button\" because its primary function is to close the active app and navigates to the home screen of the interface. Earlier models included a rounded square, reminiscent of the shape of icons on the home screen, however, new models which include Apple's fingerprint recognition feature Touch ID (which use the Home button as the fingerprint sensor) have no symbol. The iPhone X and later doesn't have a Home button but instead Face ID, a facial recognition authentication method.\nA multi-function sleep/wake button is located on the top of the",
"-30.003486541449092"
],
[
"manufacturers. Display manufacturers and chip manufacturers have acknowledged the trend toward acceptance of touchscreens as a user interface component and have begun to integrate touchscreens into the fundamental design of their products. History Eric Johnson, of the Royal Radar Establishment, located in Malvern, England, described his work on capacitive touchscreens in a short article published in 1965 and then more fully—with photographs and diagrams—in an article published in 1967. The application of touch technology for air traffic control was described in an article published in 1968. Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe, engineers from CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research),",
"-29.96867781223773"
],
[
"ppi. This screen is identical to the one used on the similar-looking Samsung Epic 4G.\nThe phone's touchscreen controller chip is an Atmel MaxTouch MXT224E. Micro-USB The phone includes a micro-USB port.\nDue to limitations in the phone's included firmware, the phone does not support USB On-The-Go. Still, as with other modern Android phones, there are other ways to connect peripherals. For example: Bluetooth keyboards and many Bluetooth mice work with the phone, and a compatible monitor or TV can be connected using a compatible Mobile High-Definition Link cable. Alternatively, it may be possible for the phone's owner to \"attach\" a personal",
"-29.93226550272084"
],
[
"glass surface and using that captured image as verification. The spokesman for the group stated: \"We hope that this finally puts to rest the illusions people have about fingerprint biometrics. It is plain stupid to use something that you can't change and that you leave everywhere every day as a security token.\" United States Most iPhones were and are still sold with a SIM lock, which restricts the use of the phone to one particular carrier, a common practice with subsidized GSM phones. Unlike most GSM phones, however, the phone cannot be officially unlocked by entering a code. The",
"-29.849619484470168"
],
[
"off because there was no antenna connected to the chip. Later iterations of the iPhone (starting with the iPhone 7), however, do not contain radio chips at all. A campaign called \"Free Radio On My Phone\" was started to encourage cellphone manufacturers such as Apple to enable the radio on the phones they manufacture, reasons cited were that radio drains less power and is useful in an emergency such as the 2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire. Fingerprint sensor Until 2017, iPhone models starting from iPhone 5S (excluding the iPhone 5C) featured Apple's fingerprint recognition sensor. It is used for unlocking the",
"-29.84326628503186"
],
[
"button now uses a touch-based scanning mechanism rather than swipe-based; double-tapping the Home button activates the camera app. Software The S6 and S6 Edge were initially released running Android 5.0.2 \"Lollipop\" while the S6 Edge+ was initially released running Android 5.1.1 \"Lollipop\" with Samsung's TouchWiz software suite. TouchWiz has been streamlined on the S6 with a refreshed, minimal design and fewer bundled applications. Several Microsoft apps are bundled, including OneDrive, OneNote and Skype. On the S6 Edge and S6 Edge+, users can designate up to five contacts for quick access by swiping from one of the edges of the screen.",
"-29.838090715231374"
],
[
"on the touchpad used for functionality beyond a mouse. For example, on certain touchpads, moving the finger along an edge of the touch pad will act as a scroll wheel, controlling the scrollbar and scrolling the window that has the focus, vertically or horizontally. Many touchpads use two-finger dragging for scrolling. Also, some touchpad drivers support tap zones, regions where a tap will execute a function, for example, pausing a media player or launching an application. All of these functions are implemented in the touchpad device driver software, and can be disabled. History By 1982, Apollo desktop computers",
"-29.78885296540102"
],
[
"a mobile device that users control from the back. LucidTouch displays an image of users' hands on screen, so that it gives the illusion that LucidTouch is transparent when in fact it is not. Users are able to interact with targets with greater precision because of the pseudo-transparency. Furthermore, like an ordinary mobile touch screen, LucidTouch reacts to multiple touch points at the same time so users can perform multi-touch actions\nInitial study results illustrate that because of factors such as improved accuracy, and unblocked view of the screen, many users prefer interactions with LucidTouch than interactions with conventional devices. Recent",
"-29.78688427095767"
],
[
"a mostly positive reception from reviewers and commentators. Walt Mossberg of All Things Digital gave the phone a favorable review, saying that Touch ID \"sounds like a gimmick, but it’s a real advance, the biggest step ever in biometric authentication for everyday devices,\" and labeled it \"the best smartphone on the market.\" David Pogue of The New York Times praised Touch ID, but said that the innovation of the smartphone market has been saturated, and \"maybe the age of annual mega-leaps is over.\" He focused much of his review on iOS 7, which he believed was the biggest change of",
"-29.75279141770443"
],
[
"accessing remote screen content on touch-and pen-operated systems and Lucid touch: a see-through mobile device. Precise selection techniques for multi-touch screens The paper Precise selection techniques for multi-touch screens was published on April 4, 2006 by Hrvoje Benko, Andrew D Wilson and Patrick Baudisch, totally cited 530 times.\nThe paper presents five techniques called Dual Finger Selections to leverage multi-touch sensitive displays to help users select very small targets on display. This is to resolve the issues, in the terms of touch screen interactions, introduced by factors such as large finger size and the lack of sensing precision. To make use",
"-29.74172706459649"
],
[
"complex gestures using multi-touch. Android's interaction techniques enable moving up or down by a touch-drag motion of the finger. However the buttons on the front of the device will also require frequent use throughout various applications in Android OS as the buttons play an important part in the user interface. 30 frames per second cap Some users have experienced noticeable graphics lag and/or slowness while using the phone. Various reports throughout the Internet indicated that the device may have a 30 frames per second cap. An HTC representative announced that it was a hardware cap, not subject to software updates.",
"-29.741027584299445"
],
[
"1990s, based on early research and actual use of older systems, typically using infrared grids—which were highly dependent on the size of the user's fingers. These guidelines are less relevant for the bulk of modern devices which use capacitive or resistive touch technology.\nFrom the mid-2000s, makers of operating systems for smartphones have promulgated standards, but these vary between manufacturers, and allow for significant variation in size based on technology changes, so are unsuitable from a human factors perspective.\nMuch more important is the accuracy humans have in selecting targets with their finger or a pen stylus. The accuracy of user selection",
"-29.686221857904457"
],
[
"be connected using a USB port or wirelessly, via Bluetooth or similar technology. With the advent of ultrabooks and support of touch input on screens by 2010-era operating systems, such as Windows 8.1, multitouch touchscreen displays are used in many models. Some models have webcams and microphones, which can be used to communicate with other people with both moving images and sound, via Skype, Google Chat and similar software.\nLaptops typically have USB ports and a microphone jack, for use with an external mic. Some laptops have a card reader for reading digital camera SD cards. Input/output (I/O) ports On a",
"-29.67872126785369"
],
[
"upon receiving a phone call or message.\nNokia introduced the Kinetic concept phone at Nokia World 2011 in London. The flexible OLED display allows users to interact with the phone by twisting, bending, squeezing and folding in different manners across both the vertical and horizontal planes. The technology journalist website Engadget described interactions such as \"[when] bend the screen towards yourself, [the device] acts as a selection function, or zooms in on any pictures you're viewing.\" Nokia envisioned this type of device to be available to consumers in \"as little as three years\", and claimed to already possess \"the technology to",
"-29.657878078811336"
],
[
"major setback for Samsung Mobile, as the preceding Samsung Galaxy SIII and Samsung Galaxy S4, in the first quarter of their releases, had outsold the iPhone 4S and iPhone 5 respectively. Impact of Touch ID A number of technology writers, including Adrian Kingsley-Hughes of ZDNet and Kevin Roose of New York believed that the fingerprint scanning functionality of the iPhone 5S could help spur the adoption of the technology as an alternative to passwords by mainstream users (especially in \"bring your own device\" scenarios), as fingerprint-based authentication systems have only enjoyed wider usage in enterprise environments. However, citing research by",
"-29.654729517409578"
],
[
"is limited. A simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.\nDue to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they are often more like mobile computers in their available uses. This has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the mobile phone is being used simply by looking at the driver.",
"-29.646548182485276"
],
[
"quicker than a Google Pixel, LG G6, or iPhone 7\". Fellow Verge reporter Vlad Savov felt that the placement of the fingerprint sensor was \"a perplexing decision if we consider it as a deliberate design choice\", but noted reports from Korea claiming that Samsung had originally intended for the fingerprint reader to be built directly into the screen, but was unable to reach a desirable implementation in time for release. The Verge wrote that \"Samsung’s six-month-old S8 has cutting edge features and design with fewer issues than other Android phones\" like the Google Pixel 2 and LG V30, and that",
"-29.637826606660383"
],
[
"smoother and more ergonomic than previous Samsung devices with curved screens, although the company was panned for using glass on the rear panel rather than metal. The S Pen was also criticized for feeling \"cheap\", describing it as a \"hollow plastic tube that would feel more at home in a 100-pack of disposable Bic pens than in an ultra-premium $850 smartphone\". The iris scanner's implementation was panned for adding additional steps to the process of unlocking the phone in comparison to the fingerprint reader, and that it does not integrate into Android's integrated authentication platforms (making it proprietary to Samsung",
"-29.619377606431954"
],
[
"that are accessed through virtual buttons on the touch-screen and other models have a combination of the touch-screen and physical buttons.\nSome models of the touch-screen remotes are programmed using a graphical interface program on a PC, which allows the user to customize the screens, backgrounds, buttons and even the \"actions\" the buttons perform. The \"project\" that is created is then downloaded into the remote through a USB cable or, in the most recent models, wirelessly by Bluetooth or Wi-Fi.\nThe newest touch-screen remotes, such as the Logitech 900 and 1100, include an RF transmitter to allow signals to reach locations much",
"-29.58483707207506"
],
[
"gloves can work with all capacitive screens). A resistive touchscreen operated with a stylus will generally offer greater pointing precision than a capacitive touchscreen operated with a finger. Costs are relatively low when compared with active touchscreen technologies, but are also more prone to damage. Resistive touchscreen technology can be made to support multi-touch input.\nFor people who must grip the active portion of the screen or must set their entire hand down on the screen, alternative touchscreen technologies are available, such as active touchscreen in which only the stylus creates input and skin touches are rejected. However, newer touchscreen",
"-29.57241845997487"
],
[
"vibration, and to give users the ability to feel virtual 3D objects. Tactile electronic displays A tactile electronic display is a display device that delivers text and graphical information using the sense of touch. Devices of this kind have been developed to assist blind or deaf users by providing an alternative to visual or auditory sensation. Personal computers In 2008, Apple Inc.'s MacBook and MacBook Pro started incorporating a \"Tactile Touchpad\" design with button functionality and haptic feedback incorporated into the tracking surface. Products such as the Synaptics ClickPad followed.\nIn 2015, Apple introduced \"Force Touch\" trackpads onto the 2015 MacBook",
"-29.564573787341942"
],
[
"for everything from the casual user to multinational organizations.\nIt is now common for laptop manufacturers to include multi-touch trackpads on their laptops, and tablet computers respond to touch input rather than traditional stylus input and it is supported by many recent operating systems.\nA few companies are focusing on large-scale surface computing rather than personal electronics, either large multi-touch tables or wall surfaces. These systems are generally used by government organizations, museums, and companies as a means of information or exhibit display. Large scale multi-touch surfaces are manufactured by Finnish company MultiTaction on their 55\" MT Cells (55\" screens) who also",
"-29.53606981196208"
],
[
"smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching television. People have often stopped wearing wristwatches in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of alarm clocks.\nAdditionally, in many lesser technologically developed regions smartphones are people's first and only means of Internet access due to their portability, with personal computers being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or messaging in place of using fax (facsimile) machines. Payment apps and services on smartphones",
"-29.50241213125264"
],
[
"the ability to adjust the shortcuts of each of the Pen's buttons performed. Accessories Microsoft offer several Surface accessories, most of which are Bluetooth connected devices. Among these are the Surface Pen, the keyboard covers, and the Surface Dial.\nThere are two main versions of the keyboard covers that connect via the Accessory Spine on the Surface tablets. The now discontinued Touch Cover, and the ever-evolving Type Cover. They feature a multi-touch trackpad, and a full QWERTY keyboard (with pre-defined action keys in place of the function row, though the function row is still accessible via the function button). The covers",
"-29.418105980963446"
],
[
"read X and Y coordinate. The basic system was similar to modern touch screen systems like the iPhone, but not sensitive enough to detect a finger and instead required a wired conductor to complete the circuit. The pencil replaced the light pens because it was much faster to decode; a light pen had to wait for a pulse of light when a vector was being redrawn and then work its way through the list of vectors to find out which one was selected.\nIn use it was quickly discovered that holding the pen to the vertical monitor screen was extremely tiring,",
"-29.35107137342493"
]
] |
3n04f0 | Why are most eastern religions more accepting? | [
"They aren't. Just ask the guy that was just killed for being suspected of eating beef. You just do not hear as much about it.",
"Perhaps we should start with your definition of accepting?",
"Joseph Campbell has a whole theory about the way climate effects religion. Quick and dirty version: 1. Religion A comes from a dangerous dry desert land with many warring tribes fighting over scarce resources - imagine mad max- and the religion that originates there is dangerous, apocalyptic, \"life is short there's a war going on\" and the afterlife is beautiful and wonderful and all the good things that your present life is not. And God is a vindictive asshole. 2. Religion B comes from a tropical wonderland where food is plentiful, life is beautiful, and everywhere you look there are papayas and mangoes and coconuts and flowers and the rivers are full of fish, and there are many groups of people all with their local nature spirits that they revere, and God is totally imminent and is the source of all these wonderful things that you see. Not too hard to imagine, right?",
"The religions you're talking about have different origins than Christianity Judaism or Islam, all three of which have the same origin. So when you view those 3 religions it's not so much that western religions by their nature are less excepting but rather you are viewing 3 branches of the same teachings and those core teachings were exclusionary. There is a long history of polytheism through Europe that has since been abandoned in favor of one of the 3 branches of these religions because the basis of the religion encourage (some times require) people to not only adhere to the religion but also to actively convert. Any group that actively and aggressively attempts to convince others their way is right will always spread faster and find more success than those who have more passive teachings.",
"Nobody knows for sure; though it is likely to be due to the cultures they arose in. One reason that has been proposed is that the Middle East and Europe tends to have geography that favors tribes: smaller groups of people that identify as different from other tribes. Meanwhile, China and large sections of India tend to favor less tribal behavior: while there are many different cultural groups in both China and India, they don't have the same \"Us vs everyone else\" mentality you see in both Europe and the Middle East through much of history. And the religions mirror that: most Western religions tend to be very much about \"This is The True Way; and you either follow The True Way, or you will go to Hell\"; while many Eastern Religions are more likely to say \"This is one path, and there are other paths\"",
"I actually know this answer! Western religions tended to develop as an *orthodoxy,* which means that you have to think what the church tells you to think. Buddhism specifically (other eastern religions may have as well) developed as an *orthopraxy,* which means you have to practice how the authority figures tell you to practice. This is a very important difference, as early Buddhists were allowed to think whatever they wanted, so long as the chanted the right words and sat in the right place. There are also ideological differences. As a Buddhist, I can account for the existence of other religions, since other ideologies do not threaten my beliefs or teaching. Western religions, however, tend to teach very polarized ideologies, which means that Buddhism cannot exist within Christianity. Lastly, I've had multiple professors and religious figures say that eastern religions aren't actually religions, since they fundamentally have little in common with the practices in the west. Since Buddhism and Shinto are more about ways to live your life, it's easier to accept other religions and ideas, whereas Christianity is specifically concerned with being right and making a single choice."
] | [
[
"of the individual' (ibid, 199).\nThere are also fundamentally different conceptions of religion in the East and West. In Eastern religion, there is a \"both/and\" mentality more so than the \"right/wrong\" one that is proliferate in the West. As a result, Eastern religion tends to be more tolerate and accommodating towards a plurality of religious beliefs and ideas, for example you can identify as Buddhist, Confucian and Christian in Japan and Korean (and pre-communist China), and as a result, religious wars have been historically rare. In Western religion, monotheism involves a requirement for a God to monopolize belief, which owes to",
"-38.36590371769853"
],
[
"Other major world religions also have texts or practices supporting the idea of religious toleration. Hindu religion The Rigveda says Ekam Sath Viprah Bahudha Vadanti which translates to \"The truth is One, but sages call it by different Names\". Consistent with this tradition, India chose to be a secular country even though it was divided partitioning on religious lines. Whatever intolerance, Hindu scholars displayed towards other religions was subtle and symbolic and most likely was done to present a superior argument in defence of their own faith. Traditionally, Hindus showed their intolerance by withdrawing and avoiding contact with those whom",
"-36.24766449251911"
],
[
"East and the West, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, are the foremost theistic religions and the dominant faiths of about one half of mankind. Common to all theistic religions is a pronounced religiocentrism, expressed most poignantly in the conviction that one's own religion is the one and only true one, and that all the other faiths are erroneous and hence depreciable. In this conviction were rooted the great religious wars which pitted, not only Muslims against Christians, but also various Muslim sects against one another, and likewise made various Christian denominations bitter enemies... The situation is more hopeful in the great",
"-35.7999890728388"
],
[
"of similarities between eastern and western religions. Western monotheism was projected onto eastern religiosity by western orientalists, trying to accommodate eastern religiosity to a western understanding, whereafter Asian intellectuals used these projections as a starting point to propose the superiority of those eastern religions. Early on, the figure of Meister Eckhart has played a role in these developments and exchanges.\nRenewed academic attention to Eckhart has attracted favorable attention to his work from contemporary non-Christian mystics. Eckhart's most famous single quote, \"The Eye with which I see God is the same Eye with which God sees me\", is commonly cited",
"-35.199998334632255"
],
[
"Orthodoxy's traditional frontiers have been profoundly modified. Millions of Orthodox are no longer geographically \"eastern\" since they live permanently in their newly adopted countries in the West. Nonetheless, they remain Eastern Orthodox in their faith and practice.",
"-35.144372350303456"
],
[
"derived from western occultism and the tradition of secret societies such as the Freemasons, but from the later 19th century, the influence of Eastern religions, notably Buddhism and Hinduism played an increasing role. From the mid 20th century, Eastern and Western spiritual traditions were increasingly syncretized in the various movements associated with the New Age and Neopagan countercultures. Religions in the Western world today The Western world, taken as consisting of Europe, the Americas, Australia-New Zealand and (in part) South Africa and Philippines, remains predominantly Western Christian: 77.4% in North America (2012), 90% in Latin America (2011), close to 76.2%",
"-35.118352404097095"
],
[
"of indigenous religions of India which is based on the shared geo-social-cultural-spiritual-civilizational philosophy of Hindutva with equal acceptance of all including atheists and abrahmic religions, is not comprable with the western scholar's understanding of doctrines of abrahamic religions (Christianity and Islam) because abrahamic religions differ from hindutva by negating other beliefs and by emphasising only their own version of one truth and one god.\nThe theory and the very existence of Pakistan has caused Indian far-right extremist groups to allege that Indian Muslims \"cannot be loyal citizens of India\" or any other non-Muslim nation, and are \"always capable and ready to",
"-34.86604687094223"
],
[
"its Abrahamic routes, and religious wars have been historically commonplace. Furthermore, the role of cycles and recurrences has had a large impact on Eastern religions, but less so in Western religions. This is evident in the fact that sin can be atoned for in Eastern religion, and to a degree in Christianity, but it is ineradicable in Protestantism (ibid, 199-200). Reception Cultural anthropologist Sherry Ortner wrote a critical review in The New York Times, pointing out its methodological flaws (most of the experimental subjects are college students, leading to sample bias) as well as interpretational ones (\"How much difference does",
"-34.774896823451854"
],
[
"East it is regarded as familiar and traditional. In countries such as Cambodia and Bhutan, it is recognised as the state religion and receives government support.\nIn certain regions such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, militants have targeted violence and destruction of historic Buddhist monuments. Neo-Buddhism movements A number of modern movements in Buddhism emerged during the second half of the 20th century. These new forms of Buddhism are diverse and significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices.\nIn India, B.R. Ambedkar launched the Navayana tradition – literally, \"new vehicle\". Ambedkar's Buddhism rejects the foundational doctrines and historic practices of traditional Theravada and",
"-34.65109050319006"
],
[
"Eastern cultures are thought of as less individualistic, focusing more on acceptance and maintaining family relationships while focusing less on the individual self.\nThe way people in different cultures perceive the emotions of the people around them also play a role in shaping the recall perspective of memories. Westerners are said to have a more \"inside-out view\" of the world, and unknowingly project their current emotions onto the world around them. This practice is called egocentric projection. For example, when a person is feeling guilty about something he did earlier, he will perceive the people around him as also feeling guilty.",
"-34.61110373202246"
],
[
"and in particular the Great Schism between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, enhanced the cultural and religious distinctiveness between Eastern and Western Europe.\nAfter the conquest of the Byzantine Empire, center of the Eastern Orthodox Church, by the Muslim Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, and the gradual fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire (which had replaced the Carolingian Empire), the division between Roman Catholic and Protestant became more important in Europe than that with Eastern Orthodoxy.\nIn East Asia, Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the \"Far West\". The term",
"-34.572597173042595"
],
[
"religions across South Asia. Terminology Despite a wide variety of terms, the traditions described as \"Far Eastern religions\", \"East Asian religions\" or \"Chinese religions\" are recognised by scholars as a distinct religious family.\nSyncretism is a common feature of East Asian religions, often making it difficult to recognise individual faiths. Further complications arise from the inconsistent use of many terms. \"Tao religion\" is often used for Taoism itself, as well as being used for many Tao-based new religious movements.\nThe terms \"Far Eastern religion\" or \"Taoic religion\" may be used to refer only to faiths incorporating the concept of Tao, may include",
"-34.49756820499897"
],
[
"world view India has a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious society living together. The subcontinent's long and diverse history has given it a unique eclectic culture. It is often associated with spirituality. Thanks to its history of both indigenous and foreign influences - like the ancient Indian religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism) and the ancient Middle East Asian schools of thought (Abrahamic - Islam, Christianity, Judaism etc.) - the current Indian civilizational psyche is evolving into a complex mix of them - sometimes a superposition of religious philosophies with acceptance of the conflicting cosmologies, sometimes striking a middle ground, and",
"-34.402040187618695"
],
[
"differences among religions is whether the Ultimate Reality is a personal God or an impersonal reality.\nIn Western religions, various forms of Theism are the most common conceptions of the ultimate Good, while in Eastern Religions, there are theistic and also various non-theistic conceptions of the Ultimate. Theistic vs non-theistic is a common way of sorting the different types of religions.\nThere are also several philosophical positions with regard to the existence of God that one might take including various forms of Theism (such as Monotheism and Polytheism), Agnosticism and different forms of Atheism. Non-theistic conceptions Eastern Religions have included both theistic",
"-34.279553678585216"
],
[
"Western religions Antiquity \"The West\" as a culture or civilization historically evolved out of Greco-Roman classical antiquity. These cultures had polytheistic religions, viz. Greek polytheism and Roman polytheism. \"Eastern\" influences on these religions are evident from the earliest times, the Orientalizing period at the very beginning of Greek antiquity.\nDuring Hellenism and the Roman Empire period, \"Eastern\" (Oriental) religions exerted a considerable influence on \"Western\" religion, giving rise to Persian influenced traditions like Gnosticism and Mithraism, as well as Egyptian and \"Chaldean\" influence on mystery religions (Orphism), astrology and magic. Early Christianity itself is a further example of Orientalizing influence on",
"-34.24958778686414"
],
[
"being of God) and Eastern philosophy as an attempt to be in the world (das in-der-Welt-sein). Imamichi sees in both stances two incomplete and complementary humanisms, and observes that since the publication of The Book of Tea, some Western philosophers have adopted a more Eastern stance while other Eastern philosophers have attempted to reach the Absolute or the Eternal.\nTomonobu Imamichi was the father of guitarist and songwriter Tomotaka Imamichi, pianist Nobuko Kawaguchi, biologist Yukiko Imamichi and psychologist Tomoaki Imamichi.",
"-34.22245671891142"
],
[
"sometimes taking the practical attitude - popular with the young - of \"filtering the common best, and leaving the rest\", thus leading to the creation of many syncretic mix of faiths (such as Sai Baba of Shirdi). Since Independence, India has regained its more progressive schools of thought, like - democracy, secularism, rule of law, esteem for human rights, rational deductive reasoning, development of Science and Technology, etc. - are making slow but steady inroads into the collective modern Indian psyche. India's diversity forces it to evolve strong foundations of tolerance and pluralism, or face breakup. The Indian public is",
"-34.200287119456334"
],
[
"ancient times on the Indian subcontinent. Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end of the Vedic period, while Hinduism emerged as a fusion of diverse traditions, starting after the end of the Vedic period.\nHindus generally classify these traditions as either orthodox or heterodox – āstika or nāstika – depending on whether they accept the authority of the Vedas and the theories of Brahman and Atman (soul, self) therein. The orthodox schools include the Hindu traditions of thought, while the heterodox schools include the Buddhist and the Jain traditions. Other schools include the Ajñana, Ajivika and Cārvāka which became extinct over",
"-34.01789207011461"
],
[
"Indo-European belief systems such as those of Balts, Thracians, Phrygians and Indo-Iranians. Slavic (and Baltic) religion and mythology is considered more conservative and closer to original Proto-Indo-European religion—and thus precious for the latter's understanding—than other Indo-European traditions, due to the fact that, throughout the history of the Slavs, it remained a popular religion rather than being reworked and sophisticated by intellectual elites as it happened to other Indo-European religious cultures.\nThe affinity with Proto-Indo-Iranian religion is evident in shared developments, including the elimination of the name of the supreme God of Heaven, *Dyeus, and its substitution by the term for \"cloud\"",
"-33.947940977610415"
],
[
"favored their own ethnicity over outsiders and other countries appeared to be considerably more welcoming. For example, the Russian Empire identified with Eastern Orthodoxy, and confined Jews, who were not Eastern Orthodox, to the Pale of Settlement and imposed restrictions. Violence was also a problem. The United States was promoted as a better location, a \"golden land\" where Jews could live more openly. Another effect of imperialism, colonialism, led to the migration of some colonizing parties from \"home countries\" to \"the colonies\", and eventually the migration of people from \"colonies\" to \"home countries\".\nTransnational labor migration reached a peak of three",
"-33.907706951898945"
],
[
"unity comes at the expense of ignoring critical doctrinal differences and past atrocities. From the perspective of many Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Catholicism is a ploy by Roman Catholicism to undermine and ultimately destroy their church by undermining its legitimacy and absorbing it into the Roman Catholic Church. It is feared that this ploy would diminish the power to the original eastern Patriarchs of the church and would require the acceptance of rejected doctrines and Scholasticism over faith.\nIn the 20th century, there have been conflicts which involved forced conversions both by the Roman Catholics and the Orthodox. In Croatia, the Ustaše",
"-33.89280029264046"
],
[
"Middle East, because Orientalism conflates the different societies of the Eastern world, into the homogeneous world of \"the Orient\". Geopolitics and cultural hierarchy The contemporary, historical impact of Orientalism (1978) was in explaining the How? and the Why? of imperial impotence; in the 1970s, to journalists, academics, and Orientalists, the Yom Kippur war (6–25 October 1973) and the OPEC petroleum embargo (October 1973 – March 1974) were recent modern history. The Western world had been surprised, by the pro-active and decisive actions of non-Western peoples, whom the ideology of Orientalism had defined as essentially weak societies and impotent countries. The",
"-33.830097408543224"
],
[
"of universality, while the Eastern Church came to emphasize the term Orthodox in its identity, an assertion of holding to the true teachings of Jesus. Both churches claim to be the unique continuation of the previously united Chalcedonian Church, whose core doctrinal formulations have been retained also by many of the churches that emerged from the Protestant Reformation, including Lutheranism and Anglicanism.",
"-33.824831702397205"
],
[
"our subject. (1954:234)\nComparing Middle Eastern, Far Eastern, and Western cultures, Patai finds,\nReligion in the Far East is characterized by the absence of religio-centrism: there is a marked toleration of other religions and a mutual borrowing and influencing; in the Middle East and in the West there is a high degree of religio-centrism, with intolerance and scorn of other religions: each religion is exclusive and regards itself as the \"one and only\" true faith. (1954:252)\nIn a later survey of the potentials for world peace, Patai differentiated the major modern religions between \"theistic\" and \"nontheistic\".\nThe three great monotheistic religions of the Middle",
"-33.75031929265242"
],
[
"reception in the East.\nWhile Eastern Catholics respect papal authority, and largely hold the same theological beliefs as Latin Catholics, Eastern theology differs on specific Marian beliefs. The traditional Eastern expression of the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary, for instance, is the Dormition of the Theotokos, which emphasizes her falling asleep to be later assumed into heaven.\nThe doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is a teaching of Eastern origin, but is expressed in the terminology of the Western Church. Eastern Catholics, though they do not observe the Western Feast of the Immaculate Conception, have no difficulty affirming it or even dedicating",
"-33.74810925021302"
],
[
"two religions are not native to India. Many other world religions also have a relationship with Indian spirituality, such as the Bahá'í Faith which recognises Buddha and Krishna as manifestations of the God Almighty. Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, atheism and agnostics also have visible influence along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other people. According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were convinced atheists, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.\nTraditionally, Indian society is grouped according to their caste. It's",
"-33.65597295301268"
],
[
"of Christians are Torah-observant and at the other extreme are antinomian and Christian anarchistic views. Eastern Christianity Praxis is a key to understanding the Byzantine tradition, which is observed by the Eastern Orthodox Church and some Eastern Catholic Churches. This is because praxis is the basis of the understanding of faith and works as conjoint, without separating the two. The importance of praxis, in the sense of action, is indicated in the dictum of Saint Maximus the Confessor: \"Theology without action is the theology of demons.\"\nUnion with God, to which Christians hold that Jesus invited man, requires not just faith,",
"-33.61880700525944"
],
[
"agriculture, and varying stability of governments lead to an ever widening gap between the two ways of life. The West and the Eastern civilizations are not only different because of where they are, but also because of their social class system, their ways of making money, and leadership styles.\nThe daily life of the common people in the West and the Eastern Civilizations differed greatly based on how their society was run, and what it was focused on. One of the major differences between the West and the Eastern Civilizations was feudalism and manorialism. They both shaped the social hierarchy and",
"-33.539719351916574"
],
[
"join other Christian denominations and 2% convert to non-Christian faiths. India Hinduism, which is the dominant way of life in India, has been described as a 'culture and civilisation of ancient origin' that is 'intrinsically secular'. India, post-independence, has seen the emergence of an assertive secular state. China One traditional view of Chinese culture sees the teachings of Confucianism - influential over many centuries - as basically secular.\nChang Pao-min summarises perceived historical consequences of very early secularization in China:\nThe early secularization of Chinese society, which must be recognized as a sign of modernity [...] has ironically left China for centuries",
"-33.5152105698362"
],
[
"for the presence of New Age centres.\nOn the other end of the scale are religions that do not accept any converts, or do so very rarely. Often these are relatively small, close-knit minority religions that are ethnically based such as the Yazidis, Druze, and Mandaeans. Zoroastrianism classically does not accept converts, but this issue has become controversial in the 20th century due to the rapid decline in membership. Chinese traditional religion lacks clear criteria for membership, and hence for conversion. The Shakers and some Indian eunuch brotherhoods do not allow procreation, so that every member is a convert. International law",
"-33.46085666993167"
],
[
"and \"the spiritual transformation of humanity\". It has developed partly due to \"re-enculturation\", or the Pizza effect, in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India. This globalization of Hindu culture brought \"to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin\". Legal Definitions The definition of Hinduism in Indian Law is: \"Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that",
"-33.43177374798688"
],
[
"3rd century BC. Freedom to practise, preach and propagate any religion is a constitutional right in Modern India. Most major religious festivals of the main communities are included in the list of national holidays.\nAlthough India is an 80% Hindu country, India is a secular state without any state religions.\nMany scholars and intellectuals believe that India's predominant religion, Hinduism, has long been a most tolerant religion. Rajni Kothari, founder of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies has written, \"[India] is a country built on the foundations of a civilisation that is fundamentally non-religious.\"\nThe Dalai Lama, the Tibetan leader in",
"-33.39505644724704"
],
[
"Relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism); Jainism, another ancient Indian religion, as well as Daoism have also always been inclusively flexible and have long favored religious pluralism for those who disagree with their religious viewpoints. The Age of Enlightenment in Europe triggered a sweeping transformation about religion after the French Revolution (liberalism, democracy, civil and political rights, freedom of thought, separation of Church and State, secularization), with rising acceptance of religious pluralism and decline of Christianity. According to Chad Meister, these pluralist trends in the Western thought, particularly since the 18th century, brought mainstream Christianity and Judaism closer to the Asian",
"-33.38983308679599"
],
[
"indianization of countries. The religions found in India and Southeast Asian countries was another piece of evidence that led anthropologists to understand where the cultures and customs were adopted from. Rise of Islam Islamic control took over as well in the midst of the thirteenth century to trump the Hinduist kingdoms. In the process of Islamism coming to the traditional Hinduism kingdoms, trade was heavily practiced and the now Islamic Indians started becoming merchants all over Southeast Asia. Moreover, as trade became more saturated in the Southeast Asian regions wherein Indianization once persisted, the regions had become more Muslim populated.",
"-33.32904950622469"
],
[
"Subcontinent and have the majority of their followers there. History There has been some debate on historical connections between Christianity and Indian religion, it has focused on both Buddhism (via Greco-Buddhism) as well as Hinduism. While it is evident that a number of Indian sages visited Constantinople in Classical Antiquity, claims of significant influence in either direction have failed to gain wide acceptance. Christianity revolves heavily around the life of Jesus Christ as detailed in the Bible, whereas Hinduism is not based on any one personality or one book, but rather on the philosophy that there is a god, or",
"-33.25015188311227"
],
[
"West. In the East, religion was \"a complete social order which affects all the activities in life\" and \"where the allegiance of people is divided on the basis of religion, the idea of territorial nationalism has never succeeded.\"\nIt asserted that \"a Muslim of one country has far more sympathies with a Muslim living in another country than with a non-Muslim living in the same country.\" Therefore, \"the conception of Indian Muslims as a nation may not be ethnically correct, but socially it is correct.\"\nMuhammad Iqbal had also championed the notion of pan-Islamic nationhood (see: Ummah) and strongly condemned the concept",
"-33.21790039597545"
],
[
"in Western Europe. 19th-century Orientalism contributed to a certain popularity of Buddhism, and the 20th century brought increasing syncretism, New Age and various new religious movements divorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. The latest history brought increased secularisation, and religious pluralism. Cultural influences Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and many of the population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described as cultural Christians. The notion of \"Europe\" and the \"Western World\" has been intimately connected with the concept of \"Christianity and Christendom\" many even attribute Christianity for",
"-33.17373065761058"
],
[
"Essence and Energies of God as a real distinction, and Orthodox theologian David Bentley Hart also indicated his hesitancy to accept the view that for Palamas it was, in the full scholastic sense, a real distinction, rather than a formal distinction in the Scotist sense.\nOn the other hand, Catholic theologian James Larson asserts that by aiming at the \"divinization of man\" palamism gets closer to Gnostic thinking. He argues that Eastern Churches, since their very beginning were to some extent influenced by Neo-Platonism and other Eastern philosophies, this is why most of the heresies combated by the early Church originated",
"-33.09831151532126"
],
[
"Western websites include ಠ and ಥ (both of Kannada origin), ง (Thai origin), 益 (Chinese origin), ㅅ (Korean origin) and ヮ and ツ (both of Japanese origin), for example, which are all used with other symbols to create emoticons. Religion As recently as the 1950s, Crane Brinton, the distinguished historian of ideas, could dismiss \"modern groups that appeal to Eastern wisdom\" as being in effect \"sectarian\", \"marginal\", and \"outside the main current of Western thought and feeling\". Yet some Westerners have converted to Eastern religions or at least have shown an interest in them. An example is Maharishi Mahesh Yogi,",
"-33.03906800795812"
],
[
"the liturgy in the East, for example, in promoting prayer to \"Christ Our God\", an expression which also came to find a place in the West, where, largely as a result of \"the Church's reaction to Teutonic Arianism\", \"'Christ our God' ... gradually assumes precedence over 'Christ our brother'\". In this case, a common adversary, namely Arianism, had profound, far-reaching effects, in the orthodox reaction in both East and West.\nChurch politics, authority conflicts, ethnic hostility, linguistic misunderstanding, personal rivalry, forced conversions, large scale wars, political intrigue, unfilled promises and secular motives all combined in various ways to divide East and",
"-32.97091250028461"
],
[
"have founded no Inquisition; they have combined the zeal which converted kingdoms with a toleration almost inexplicable to our Western experience.\"\nThe Edicts of Ashoka issued by King Ashoka the Great (269–231 BCE), a Buddhist, declared ethnic and religious tolerance. His Edict in the 12th main stone writing of Girnar on the third century B.C. which state that \"Kings accepted religious tolerance and that Emperor Ashoka maintained that no one would consider his / her is to be superior to other and rather would follow a path of unity by accuring the essence of other religions\".\nHowever, Buddhism has also had ",
"-32.94828009675257"
],
[
"were previously Eastern or Oriental Orthodox, although some consider this term derogatory. Official Catholic documents no longer use the term, due to its perceived negative overtones. In fact, according to John Erickson of Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, \"The term 'uniate' itself, once used with pride in the Roman communion, had long since come to be considered as pejorative. 'Eastern Rite Catholic' also was no longer in vogue because it might suggest that the Catholics in question differed from Latins only in the externals of worship. The Second Vatican Council affirmed rather that Eastern Catholics constituted churches, whose vocation was",
"-32.93186339503154"
],
[
"Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.\nThe rejection of Palamism by the West and by those in the East who favoured union with the West (the \"Latinophrones\"), actually contributed to its acceptance in the East, according to Martin Jugie, who adds: \"Very soon Latinism and Antipalamism, in the minds of many, would come to be seen as one and the same thing\". Purgatory Perhaps the most peculiar doctrine of Latin Christianity is purgatory, about which Latin Christianity holds that \"all who die in God's grace and friendship but still imperfectly purified\" undergo the process of purification which the Church calls purgatory, \"so",
"-32.868812642933335"
],
[
"from Zoroastrianism—including ethical dualism, a savior figure, the future resurrection of the body, and the idea of cosmic progress toward \"the final triumph of Good\".\nThe Indian religions of the East generally retain a cyclic view of time—for instance, the Hindu doctrine of kalpas. According to Eliade, most religions that accept the cyclic view of time also embrace it: they see it as a way to return to the sacred time. However, in Buddhism, Jainism, and some forms of Hinduism, the Sacred lies outside the flux of the material world (called maya, or \"illusion\"), and one can only reach it by",
"-32.854364591185"
],
[
"much the same terms, as a passing down of that same apostolic faith, but, in a critical difference from the Eastern Orthodox position, Catholicism holds that the faith once delivered, the understanding of it continues to deepen and mature over time through the action of the Holy Spirit in the history of the Church and in the understanding of that faith by Christians, all the while staying identical in essence and substance. Moreover, the understanding may continue to grow and be enriched in the future, not only through mystical experience, but through the practice of the sciences of philosophy and",
"-32.57330086285947"
],
[
"that religion is not a cultural universal. According to the author, Christianity had a profound influence on western culture. Balagangadhara argued that the analytical tools with which the West has understood other cultures like India, are therefore, intrinsically shaped by Semitic and Christian theology. The Semitic doctrine that God gave religion to humankind, Balagangadhara argued, lies at the heart of the ethnographic belief in the universality of religion:\nIn the name of science and ethnology, the Biblical themes have become our regular stock-in-trade: that God gave religion to humankind has become a cultural universal in the guise that all cultures",
"-32.52166144136936"
],
[
"the perceptions of the East presented in Orientalism, cannot be taken at face value, because they are cultural representations based upon fictional, Western images of the Orient. The history of European colonial rule and political domination of Eastern civilizations, distorts the intellectual objectivity of even the most knowledgeable, well-meaning, and culturally sympathetic Western Orientalist; thus did the term \"Orientalism\" become a pejorative word regarding non–Western peoples and cultures:\nI doubt if it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India, or Egypt, in the later nineteenth century, took an interest in those countries, which was never far from",
"-32.49435631232336"
],
[
"who experienced false illuminism (not from the Holy Spirit).\nChristian interest in eastern spirituality has grown throughout the 20th century. Notable Christians, such as Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle and AMA Samy, have participated in Buddhist training and even become Buddhist teachers themselves. In a few places Eastern contemplative techniques have been integrated in Christian practices, such as centering prayer. But this integration has also raised questions about the borders between these traditions. Western esotericism and mysticism Western and Mediterranean culture has a rich tradition of esotericism and mysticism. The Perennial philosophy, basic to the New Age understanding of the world, regards those traditions",
"-32.46494936019462"
],
[
"the state partially finances certain religious schools. These differences have led a number of scholars to declare that India is not a secular state, as the word secularism is widely understood in the West and elsewhere; rather it is a strategy for political goals in a nation with a complex history, and one that achieves the opposite of its stated intentions. Comparison with Western secularism In the West, the word secular implies three things: freedom of religion, equal citizenship to each citizen regardless of his or her religion, and the separation of religion and state. One of the core principles",
"-32.43282835948048"
],
[
"is one of the most diverse countries in the world when it comes to culture and religions. As a result, the celebration of religious festivals has always been an important part of Indian culture. Indians enjoy celebrating their differences and sharing their traditions with others and due to the variety of different groups in India, there is a festival celebrated most days out of the year in some part of the country. Traditional Day is observed as a celebration of India's diverse culture. It’s a day designated for people to come in traditional attire from their home state, or specific",
"-32.271537813940085"
],
[
"has become the fastest growing religion in Australia and some other Western nations.\nSome of the major reasons for this spread include globalization, immigration, improved literacy and education (most Westerners are first exposed to Buddhism through books), and the breakdown of the hegemony of Christianity on Western culture.\nThere is a general distinction between Buddhism brought to the West by Asian immigrants, which may be Mahayana, Theravada or a traditional East Asian mix (\"ethnic Buddhism\"), and Buddhism as practiced by converts (\"convert Buddhism\"), which is often Zen, Pure Land, Vipassana or Tibetan Buddhism. Some Western Buddhists are actually non-denominational and accept teachings",
"-32.20995510346256"
],
[
"for this is that both Hinduism and Buddhism have common roots, and over most of their history have not been seen as separate communions, but rather rival tendencies within a shared religious tradition. Because of such dual faith practices (or mutual respect), the differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been very subtle and academic in nature; Hindus and Buddhists have never engaged in any religious conflicts for past millennia. There are many temples where both Hindus and Buddhists can enter and worship.",
"-32.18672692612745"
],
[
"culture in the country.\nAlso, because partition divided Indian Muslims into three groups (of roughly 150 million people each in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) instead of forming a single community inside a united India that would have numbered about 450 million people in 2010 and potentially exercised great influence over the entire subcontinent, the two-nation theory is sometimes alleged to have ultimately weakened the position of Muslims on the subcontinent and resulted in large-scale territorial shrinkage or skewing for cultural aspects that became associated with Muslims (e.g., the decline of Urdu language in India).\nThis criticism has received a mixed response in Pakistan.",
"-32.12153334968025"
],
[
"go back to the native church, to our own true God.\"\nMcGuire may have been attracted to the Eastern Orthodox Church because it was not associated with racism, colonialism or religious imperialism. It was never involved in widespread missionary activity and had limited contacts with Afro-Americans and Africans. It was not perceived as racist. The adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy were primarily southern and eastern Europeans, people who were recent immigrants to the US and not associated with the establishment. Oriental Orthodoxy was based in what was then known as the Middle East, Egypt, Ethiopia and southern India. The name, African Orthodox",
"-32.099163813050836"
],
[
"Buddhism and Eastern religions Buddhism has interacted with several East Asian religions such as Confucianism and Shintoism since it spread from India during the 2nd century AD. Confucianism Confucianism in particular raised fierce opposition to Buddhism in early history, principally because it perceived Buddhism to be a nihilistic worldview, with a negative impact on society at large. \"The Neo-Confucianists\nhad therefore to attack Buddhist cosmological views by affirming, in the\nfirstplace, the reality and concreteness of the universe and of man.\" Shintoism Before Prince Shotoku made Buddhism the national religion of Japan, many opposed the integration of Buddhism into Japan. Once this",
"-32.08945884130662"
],
[
"Asian religiosity from 7th century CE to the beginning of the modern era\", and that there is a need for \"revisioning\" of scholarly views on the historic religious Hindu and Buddhist practice in South Asia. Larson critiques these theories, stating that South Asia has been a \"mind bogglingly\" diverse, ancient and culturally rich region of the world, and claims of Tantra or any specific ideology being \"mainstream\" is neither persuasively presented by White nor reasonable. Further, adds Larson, the stated goal and call in White's book about the need for \"revisionism\" fails to properly appreciate the \"rich diversity of South",
"-32.064502012042794"
],
[
"salvation, but superfluous; and that, without them, or without the desire thereof, men obtain of God, through faith alone, the grace of justification;-though all (the sacraments) are not indeed necessary for every individual; let him be anathema (excommunicated).\" Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Christianity, including both Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, tends to not have a strong emphasis on justification as compared to Catholicism or Protestantism, seeing it as part of the concept of \"theosis\"; justification is often viewed by Eastern theologians as too highly forensic and they reject it. The Greek term for justification (δικαίωσις, dikaiōsis) is not understood by most",
"-31.973177535428476"
],
[
"preferential inclinations. The religio-politics of the country is a transforming factor across the nation. In a multi-religious country such as India the spread of questionable actions under mono-religious political movement draws the country to the middle ages. Though the defining characteristic of Indian social structure is its ability to uncritically intake cultural derivatives of other countries and weave to its own idiosyncratic structure in an attempt to be a modern society. The lack of fitness of this derivatives and the deblitative social template that this evolves on causes adjustment problems that reflects on the overall social well-being of its citizens.",
"-31.966547956690192"
],
[
"these colonial territories has been influenced by the religion and culture of their respective rulers.\nContemporary Latin Christian culture in India draws greatly from the Anglican culture as a result of the influence of the erstwhile British Raj. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer is a widely used supplement for worship in the two major Protestant denominations: Church of South India and Church of North India. Today Christians are considered to be one of the most progressive communities in India. Urban Christians are to a greater extent influenced by European traditions which is considered an advantage in the business environment of",
"-31.93910711404169"
],
[
"mean, why do you translate some material, represent other portions, use Eastern similes in some and Western psychological terminology and insights in others?\"\nHe replied, “There are two criteria:\n(1) What materials have to be projected at the present time to have the maximum useful effect, and\n(2) Who can absorb them and in what format?\n\"Sufic materials are always presented in accordance with the possibilities. This is because Sufism is not archaeology or hagiography (however much it may resemble them to those who look no further) but effect. Eastern similes that are still viable both in the East and West are used because",
"-31.934824117997778"
],
[
"are also growing numbers of non-religious people and people of other religions, especially Muslims, due to immigration. In the United Kingdom, there are also significant numbers of Indian religions such as Hindus and Sikhs, due to the large South Asian diaspora. The quality of education in much of Northern Europe is rated highly in international rankings, with Estonia and Finland topping the list among the OECD countries in Europe. The Hansa group in the European Union comprises most of the Northern European states.",
"-31.92611089273123"
],
[
"and, most importantly, have undergone historical fluctuations, which makes a precise definition of the western geographic boundaries of Eastern Europe and the geographical midpoint of Europe somewhat difficult. Religious The East–West Schism (which began in the 11th century and lasts until the present) divided Christianity in Europe, and consequently, the world, into Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity.\nWestern Europe according to this point of view is formed by countries with dominant Roman Catholic and Protestant churches (including Central European countries like Slovenia, Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia).\nEastern Europe is formed by countries with dominant Eastern Orthodox churches,",
"-31.915650183451362"
],
[
"as rejecting avenues of salvation as \"pernicious views\". Later schools of Indian religious thought were influenced by this interpretation and novel ideas of the Buddhist tradition of beliefs. Royal support In later years, there is significant evidence that both Buddhism and Hinduism were supported by Indian rulers, regardless of the rulers' own religious identities. Buddhist kings continued to revere Hindu deities and teachers and many Buddhist temples were built under the patronage of Hindu rulers. This was because Buddhism has never been considered an alien religion to that of Hinduism in India but as only one of the many",
"-31.895784380612895"
],
[
"1st century. Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts. Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of Indianisation in the region. Shaivism was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the 1st century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal, Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of",
"-31.886183024267666"
],
[
"exile, said that religious tolerance of 'Aryabhoomi,' a reference to India found in the Mahabharata, has been in existence in this country from thousands of years. \"Not only Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism which are the native religions but also Christianity and Islam have flourished here. Religious tolerance is inherent in Indian tradition,\" the Dalai Lama said.\nFreedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi (304–232 BC) (Ashoka). One of King Ashoka's main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a just and humane society. Later he",
"-31.873537804931402"
],
[
"nations, and while it would become common rhetoric later on, historian S. M. Ikram says that it \"created quite a sensation in the twenties\":\nThe Hindus and Muslims are not two religious sects like the Protestants and Catholics of England, but form two distinct communities of peoples, and so they regard themselves. Their respective attitude towards life, distinctive culture, civilization and social habits, their traditions and history, no less than their religion, divide them so completely that the fact that they have lived in the same country for nearly 1,000 years has contributed hardly anything to their fusion into a nation...",
"-31.87211804803519"
],
[
"characterizations are \"imagined\" in the sense that they reflect the philosophical and religious realities of neither \"East' nor West.\"\nSince the 1990s, the colonial influences on the 'construction' and 'representation' of Hinduism have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism Western Indologists are trying to come to more neutral and better-informed representations of India and its culture, while Indian scholars are trying to establish forms of knowledge and understanding which are grounded in and informed by Indian traditions, instead of being dominated by western forms of knowledge and understanding.",
"-31.835747603094205"
],
[
"the ancient Church) is important for multiple doctrinal reasons that have more bearing internally in each church than in their relation to the others, now separated in faith. The meaning of holding to a faith that is true is the primary reason why anyone's statement of which church split off from which other has any significance at all; the issues go as deep as the schisms. The depth of this meaning in the Eastern Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word \"Orthodox\" itself, a union of Greek orthos (\"straight\", \"correct\", \"true\", \"right\") and doxa (\"common belief\",",
"-31.832907108881045"
],
[
"Although many of the beliefs are very distinct, the form of worship may be hard to distinguish for onlookers. Because in all of these religions there is spiritual possession, in the case of Pentecostals the Holy spirit, and sometimes lots of shouting and glossolalia (speaking in tongues), which is universal in the others as well. Islam and the Bahá’í Faith Muslim population in the nation was increased by Middle Eastern settlers, mostly Arabs of Lebanese, Syrian, Palestinian and by Pakistanis and other people from the Indian subcontinent. Brands of Tasawwuf are becoming more and more manifested in the country from",
"-31.83141740818246"
],
[
"the Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism. In the mythologies of India and the Far East, \"the world was not to be reformed, but only known, revered, and its laws obeyed\". In contrast, in Zoroastrianism, the current world is \"corrupt [...] and to be reformed by human action\". According to Campbell, this \"progressive view of cosmic history\" \"can be heard echoed and re-echoed, in Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Aramaean, Arabic, and every tongue of the West\".\nOther traditional cultures limited mythical events to the beginning of time, and saw important historical events as repetitions of those mythical events. According to Mircea Eliade, the",
"-31.82815047801705"
],
[
". it seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pāla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions,\" and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them.\nAccording to Damien Keown, the kings of the Pala dynasty (8th to 12th century, Gangetic plains region) were a major supporter of Buddhism, various Buddhist and Hindu arts, and the flow of ideas between India, Tibet and China:\nDuring this period [Pala dynasty] Mahayana Buddhism reached its zenith of sophistication, while tantric Buddhism",
"-31.81562866497552"
],
[
"modern Asia, the rational and intellectual aspects of Buddhism were mostly emphasized in the West, as Buddhism was often favourably compared with Christianity. The author and Buddhist teacher Stephen Batchelor has endeavoured to advocate a form of Buddhism which he believes to be original, ancient Buddhism, as it was before it became \"institutionalized as a religion\".\nIn contrast to these typical modernist trends, it has also been observed that some western Buddhist communities show great commitment to their practice and belief, and for that reason are more traditional religious than most forms of New Age spirituality. Furthermore, several Buddhist teachers have",
"-31.813335227350763"
],
[
"spread gradually into the region. The native religious identities, which in some respects were already being displaced by Persian influences before the Arabs arrived, were further displaced in the ensuing centuries. Nevertheless, the destiny of Central Asia as an Islamic region was firmly established by the Arab victory over the Chinese armies in 750 in a battle at the Talas River.\nDespite brief Arab rule, Central Asia successfully retained much of its Iranian characteristic, remaining an important center of culture and trade for centuries after the adoption of the new religion. Transoxiana continued to be an important political player in regional",
"-31.774871588801034"
],
[
"God's special providence that the immortal spirit was given to humankind.\nThis view falls into the spectrum of viewpoints that are grouped under the concept of theistic evolution (which is itself opposed by several other significant points-of-view; see Creation–evolution controversy for further discussion). Latin and Eastern Catholicism The Eastern Catholic Churches have as their theological, spiritual, and liturgical patrimony the traditions of Eastern Christianity. Thus, there are differences in emphasis, tone, and articulation of various aspects of Catholic theology between the Eastern and Latin churches, as in Mariology. Likewise, medieval Western scholasticism, that of Thomas Aquinas in particular, has had little",
"-31.745546552469023"
],
[
"universities in America, Canada, the Netherlands, Germany, Norway, Belgium and India. Views Phillip Lewis quotes Azmi in his 1994 book Islamic Britain: Religion, Politics and Identity among British Muslims, that Islam and secular society can co-exist and \"the widely shared perception that secular necessarily implies irreligion is simply wrong. In India, he contends, a secular state can offer security to Muslims since it is compatible with acknowledging that religion is important and, that in a religiously plural environment the state does not allow believers in one religious tradition to enjoy a privileged status. All are citizens with equal rights. Indeed,",
"-31.732331668317784"
],
[
"is a country of a deep Catholicism mixed with strong tendencies of popular religiosity, which was born out of Spanish traditions in the Middle Ages, the ancestral beliefs of Afro-Americans and the American aborigines. Their ancestral beliefs were hidden in devotion to the saints. Popular religiosity appears as an alternative manifestation to the official religion as a way for people to seek their own relationships with the divine, out of vertical structures of power. Even if the official religion tries to integrate popular religiosity, popular religiosity holds its own freedom, separated from norms and doctrines and assumed especially by a",
"-31.717730731965275"
],
[
"the north, the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, and the Pandyas and Pallavas of the south\" (the Pala Dynasty is one sole exception to these). One of the reasons of this conversion was that the brahmins were willing and able to aid in local administration, and they provided councillors, administrators and clerical staff. Moreover, brahmins had clear ideas about society, law and statecraft (and studied texts such as the Arthashastra and the Manusmriti) and could be more pragmatic than the Buddhists, whose religion was based on monastic renunciation and did not recognize that there was a special warrior class that was",
"-31.662487904308364"
],
[
"and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga, and mokṣa, were established. India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions. The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads, the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement, and by Buddhist philosophy. Art, architecture and literature Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles. Vernacular architecture",
"-31.66141829872504"
],
[
"comparing the United States and China. It is often concluded that people in Eastern cultures are less happy than those in Western cultures, but research indicates that there is more value placed on suffering and transcendence in Eastern cultures than in the United States. It is also commonly believed that there is less happiness experienced by people in Eastern cultures because there is less individuality, but Eastern cultures are socialized in a much more collectivist mindset and develop into adults that are more concerned with finding a place in one's community rather than standing out, as Americans are. These differences",
"-31.656980160274543"
],
[
"Hinduism in South India Hinduism in Ancient South India The Vedic culture in South India has been in some respects the best preserved of ancient Vedic culture and traditions. In North India during late ancient and medieval periods, Buddhism, Sikhism and Islam flourished alongside the Hindu majority. Every intermixing influenced North Indian culture, in particular Islam. The influence of Islam, specifically Sufism, and Sikhism are widespread in the modern-day North Indian society, clearly palpable in linguistics, music, attire, etc. Much of this influence can be attributed to close to a millennium of Muslim rule across North India. Unlike in the",
"-31.650878519983962"
],
[
"later felt a separate homeland must be obtained for India's Muslims in order to achieve prosperity. They espoused the Two-Nation Theory, that India was in fact home to the Muslim and Hindu nations, who were distinct in every way.\nAnother section of Muslim society, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari and Maulana Azad felt that participation in the Indian Independence Movement and the Indian National Congress was a patriotic duty of all Muslims.\nThe Deobandi strain of Islamic theology also advocated a notion of composite nationalism in which Hindus and Muslims were seen as one nation united in",
"-31.630001241224818"
],
[
"attracted by the world view presented in Asian religious systems including Hinduism have converted to Hinduism. Canada was no exception. Many native born Canadians of various ethnicities have converted during the last 50 years through the actions of ISKCON, Arya Samaj and other missionary organizations as well as due to the visits and guidance of Indian Gurus such as Guru Maharaj, Sai Baba, the controversial Rajneesh and others. Later Immigrant Hindus Due to the liberalization of Canadian immigration policies many Hindus from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, South Africa, and",
"-31.598437349544838"
],
[
"ethics, even influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though the non-Muslim population was left to their own laws and customs. They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture which was mixed in nature, different from ancient Indian culture. The overwhelming majority of Muslims in India were Indian natives converted to Islam. This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures.\nThe Hindustani language (Hindi-Urdu) began to emerge in the Delhi Sultanate period, developed",
"-31.57318256124563"
],
[
"Plateau. Other religions that had their origins in the Iranian world were Mithraism, Manichaeism, and Mazdakism, among others. The various religions of the Iranian peoples are believed by some scholars to have been significant early philosophical influences on Christianity and Judaism. Internal diversity and distant affinities Overall, Iranian-speaking populations are characterized by high internal diversity. For Afghanistan, \"It is possibly due to the strategic location of this region and its unique harsh geography of mountains, deserts and steppes, which could have facilitated the establishment of social organizations within expanding populations, and helped maintaining genetic boundaries among groups that have developed",
"-31.525255486350943"
],
[
"and possibly as many as 1.5 or 1.6 billion followers. Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture. Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established in the country by the law and by custom; the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a fundamental right.\nAtheism and agnosticism have a long history in India and flourished within Śramaṇa movement. The Cārvāka school originated in India around the 6th century BCE and is one of the earliest form of materialistic and atheistic movement in ancient India. Sramana, Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvika",
"-31.49739100295119"
],
[
"comeback in the educational system.\nThe following is an excerpt from his polemic article \"Who is afraid of Sanscrit?\": \nIndia alone excels in belittling its classical heritage as it has unfortunately codified it as its \"Hindu past\". This classification began in the colonial period when non-European cultures were primarily seen in religious denominations as non-Christian coloured races further divided into two broad categories, primitives or static cultures. Within the western world these approaches were countered first by Orientalists and later by Modernists, both opponents of Newtonian rationalism. But while the Orientalist contributed to the discovery of the East by the West,",
"-31.492388720056624"
],
[
"‘secular’ to the Preamble of Indian Constitution in 1975.\nThe overlap of religion and state, through Concurrent List structure, has given various religions in India, state support to religious schools and personal laws. This state intervention while resonant with the dictates of each religion, are unequal and conflicting. For example, a 1951 Religious and Charitable Endowment Indian law allows state governments to forcibly take over, own and operate Hindu temples, and collect revenue from offerings and redistribute that revenue to any non-temple purposes including maintenance of religious institutions opposed to the temple; Indian law also allows Islamic religious schools to receive",
"-31.486570695473347"
],
[
"what is derived from saints or mystics of the tradition, and Eastern Orthodoxy considers that \"no one who does not follow the path of union with God can be a theologian.\" In Eastern Orthodoxy, theology is not treated as an academic pursuit, but it is based on revelation (see gnosiology), meaning that Eastern Orthodox theology and its theologians are validated by ascetic pursuits, rather than academic degrees (i.e. scholasticism).\nAccording to the Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology, as quoted by Millet and Reynolds:\nDeification (Greek theosis) is for Orthodoxy the goal of every Christian. Man, according to the Bible, is 'made in",
"-31.476194945003954"
],
[
"religious sensibilities, familial social orders, and ageless traditions\" in contrast to Western \"rationality, material and technical dynamism, and individualism.\"\nMore recently, the divide has also been posited as an Islamic \"East\" and an American and European \"West.\" Critics note that an Islamic/non-Islamic East–West dichotomy is complicated by the global dissemination of Islamic fundamentalism and by cultural diversity within Islamic nations, moving the argument \"beyond that of an East-West dichotomy and into a tripartite situation.\" Applications The East–West dichotomy has been used in studying a range of topics, including management, economics and linguistics. Knowledge Creation and Management (2007) examines it as the",
"-31.470689362678968"
],
[
"is growing worldwide. Orthodox Christians throughout the world use various ethnic or national jurisdictional titles, or more inclusively, the title \"Eastern Orthodox\", \"Orthodox Catholic\", or simply \"Orthodox\".\nWhat unites Orthodox Christians is the catholic faith as carried through holy tradition. That faith is expressed most fundamentally in scripture and worship, and the latter most essentially through baptism and in the Divine Liturgy. Orthodox Christians proclaim the faith lives and breathes by God's energies in communion with the church. Inter-communion is the litmus test by which all can see that two churches share the same faith; lack of inter-communion (excommunication, literally \"out",
"-31.469892785069533"
],
[
"by schools of Hinduism as well as other major Indian religions, but key differences between their premises defined their further development. Hinduism, for example, developed its ideas with the premise that every human being has a soul (atman, self), while Buddhism developed with the premise that there is no soul or self.\nThe chronology of these religious concepts is unclear, and scholars contest which religion affected the other as well as the chronological sequence of the ancient texts. Pratt notes that Oldenberg (1854–1920), Neumann (1865–1915) and Radhakrishnan (1888–1975) believed that the Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads, while la Vallee",
"-31.451955369091593"
],
[
"comparing fifteen year old students from 31 countries, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures were apparent. It is important to note that the study is in the perspective of dividing these countries into two groups. The study argues that Asian (eastern) cultures are collectivist, while Western cultures are more individualistic. In Western cultures, peer influence is more predominant while in Eastern cultures, they are more heavily influenced by their families. In a classroom setting, children from Eastern cultures are more competitive, giving them less of a drive to belong among their peers. These children have a great sense of",
"-31.446916049870197"
],
[
"deserves study, Bat Ye'or has written a polemical tract, not responsible historical analysis.Meanwhile, the historical question remains to be answered: why is it that from the mid-7th century to the 20th century the number of Christians in the Islamic world has dwindled from a majority in many areas of the Middle East to virtual insignificance in terms of demography? Is it really due to the net effects of the disabilities prescribed by Islamic law for the dhimmil Or are there other factors?\"\nIn a review of The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude the American historian Robert",
"-31.435331299726386"
],
[
"American Buddhism .\nAmerican Buddhism was able to embed these new religious ideals into such a historically rich religious tradition and culture due to the high conversion rate in the late 20th century. Three important factors led to this conversion in America: the importance of religion, societal openness, and spirituality. American culture places a large emphasis on having a personal religious identity as a spiritual and ethical foundation. During the 1960s and onward, society also became more open to other religious practices outside of Protestantism, allowing more people to explore Buddhism. People also became more interested in spiritual and experiential religion",
"-31.422326501342468"
],
[
"among these groups it is Eastern Christianity to be valued as compatible with the indigenous religion, and to be considered closer to what Jesus intended, while Western Christianity (the forms which have historically been dominant in Hungary) is seen as its antithesis and as a deviant, evil teaching. In these groups, Jesus is reinterpreted as a powerful ancestor and shaman.\nWithin the Bolyanest, most of the members deem Christianity a superstition aimed at the control of people. Christian symbolic motifs such as the cross and the tree of life are considered, together with the sun and the moon, as symbols of",
"-31.404139152742573"
],
[
"and Ceylon are the prominent characters who formulated the center of Buddhism and this became more popularized over Hinduism. Rise of Islam Not only was the spark of Buddhism the driving force for Indianization coming to an end, but Islamic control took over as well in the midst of the thirteenth century to trump the Hinduist kingdoms. In the process of Islam coming to the traditional Hinduism kingdoms, trade was heavily practiced and the now Islamic Indians started becoming merchants all over Southeast Asia. Moreover, as trade became more saturated in the Southeast Asian regions wherein Indianization once persisted, the",
"-31.397984790892224"
],
[
"the growth in ritualistic Mahayana Buddhism, mutual influence between Hinduism and Buddhism, the differences between Buddhism and Hinduism blurred, and Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other Hindu traditions became increasingly popular, and Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state. As the system grew, Buddhist monasteries gradually lost control of land revenue. In parallel, the Gupta kings built Buddhist temples such as the one at Kushinagara, and monastic universities such as those at Nalanda, as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India.\nAccording to Hazra, Buddhism declined in part because of the rise of the Brahmins and their influence in",
"-31.365399294067174"
],
[
"they held in contempt, instead of using violence and aggression to strike fear in their hearts. Hinduism is perhaps the only religion in the world which showed remarkable tolerance towards other religions in difficult times and under testing conditions. Even Buddhism, which spread in India mostly through negative campaigns against Hinduism, cannot claim that credit. Criticizing other religions and showing them in poor light to attract converts to its own fold was never an approved practice in Hinduism.\nPluralism and tolerance of diversity are built into Hindu theology India's long history is a testimony to its tolerance of religious diversity. Christianity",
"-31.36188013764331"
],
[
"to political theology With the shift from pan-Arab nationalist movements into Islam-oriented politics, Christians have changed their approach. They have also lost influence because their numbers have declined due to birthrate, emigration, and sometimes overt persecution. Some Christians seek to emphasize the historic Christian presence as a sign of their commitment to the homeland. This ties the Christian minority to the national identity. These Christians often point to the presence of shrines and holy sites nearby to justify the importance of remaining in the Middle East. They emphasize their homeland as the birthplace of Christianity, even at the sacrifice of",
"-31.32355643095798"
],
[
"appreciation of Hinduism within and outside India, and was the principal reason for the enthusiastic reception of yoga, transcendental meditation and other forms of Indian spiritual self-improvement in the West. Agehananda Bharati explained, \"...modern Hindus derive their knowledge of Hinduism from Vivekananda, directly or indirectly\". Vivekananda espoused the idea that all sects within Hinduism (and all religions) are different paths to the same goal. However, this view has been criticised as an oversimplification of Hinduism.\nIn the background of emerging nationalism in British-ruled India, Vivekananda crystallised the nationalistic ideal. In the words of social reformer Charles Freer Andrews, \"The Swami's intrepid",
"-31.318274567776825"
]
] |
2c0zo4 | How was the first Computer/Chip programmed, without anything to program it with? | [
"The very first computers were large mechanical devices which were programmed by flipping a number of switches to various positions to indicate which commands to execute. Later computers were programmed via [punched cards]( URL_1 ). Literal holes were punched in stiff card using a special hole puncher; the pattern of holes represented program instructions, and these cards were then read by the machine and the corresponding instructions executed. The invention of the [Von Neumann architecture]( URL_0 ) is what first allowed programs to be stored in memory alongside data. At first, programs had to be carefully crafted in machine language using something like binary notation. From there, assembly language notation was invented, then higher level programming languages, and the rest is history.",
"Basic programming was, and still is, programming for the chip itself, without any language and compiler. A program is just a sequence of numbers, some of those numbers being data for the program to calculate from, or instructions telling the chip what calculations to do. You just have to set up some numbers in some memory and set the chip running. These numbers were either entered by flipping switches, or by punching holes in pieces of cardboard.",
"Manually flipping switches. It's all ones and zeroes deep down.",
"The first chip was a macro sized circuit board. Programming is fundamentally the control of AND OR and NOT logic associated with circuitry and electronics. Essentially, programming is the control of high and low voltages (0 and 1) and when those voltages are high and low dependent on the \"flow\" of the circuit. URL_0 "
] | [
[
"and binary representation of numbers. Programming was by means of re-plugging patch panels and setting switches.\nThe ENIAC computer, completed after the war, used vacuum tubes to implement switches and used decimal representation for numbers. Until 1948 programming was, as with Colossus, by patch leads and switches.\nThe Manchester Baby of 1948 along with the Manchester Mark 1 and EDSAC both of 1949 were the world's earliest working computers that stored program instructions and data in the same space. In this they implemented the stored-program concept which is frequently (but erroneously) attributed to a 1945 paper by John von Neumann and colleagues.",
"-32.95026123226853"
],
[
"CHIP-8 CHIP-8 is an interpreted programming language, developed by Joseph Weisbecker. It was initially used on the COSMAC VIP and Telmac 1800 8-bit microcomputers in the mid-1970s. CHIP-8 programs are run on a CHIP-8 virtual machine. It was made to allow video games to be more easily programmed for these computers.\nRoughly twenty years after CHIP-8 was introduced, derived interpreters appeared for some models of graphing calculators (from the late 1980s onward, these handheld devices in many ways have more computing power than most mid-1970s microcomputers for hobbyists).\nAn active community of users and developers existed in the late 1970s, beginning with",
"-31.35394769758568"
],
[
"components, to make two printed circuit boards and mount all components on them. It was mostly a single board computer, as the second board served only as the base to mount the keyboard keys. The main board only used a single large connector for power, keyboard, tape recorder and even video output. Hence it was easy to disconnect the board and work\non both sides of it outside the casing. \nNext, the firmware has to be written in two erasable ROM chips using chip programmer. Also a power supply unit, a keyboard and a computer case were to be made. Computer",
"-30.82567493779061"
],
[
"computers, though programmable, stored their programs on punched tape, which was physically fed into the machine as needed.\nIn 1936 Konrad Zuse anticipated in two patent applications that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data.\nThe University of Manchester's Baby is generally recognized as world's first electronic computer that ran a stored program—an event that occurred on 21 June 1948. However the Baby was not regarded as a full-fledged computer, but more a proof of concept predecessor to the Manchester Mark 1 computer, which was first put to research work in April 1949. On 6 May 1949",
"-30.35285496216966"
],
[
"MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE) in July 1958, where it became a centerpiece of research that would eventually evolve into the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab and the original computer \"hacker\" culture. Delivered from Lincoln Laboratory with only 4K of core, the machine no longer needed 16 bits to represent a storage address. After about a year and a half, the number of instruction bits was doubled to four, allowing a total of 16 instructions, and an index register was added. This dramatically improved programmability of the machine, but still left room for a later memory expansion to 8K (the",
"-30.232799319564947"
],
[
"it's very useful to be able to decode the instruction's bits directly into the sequencer, to select a set of microinstructions to perform a CPU's instructions.\nMost modern CISC processors use a combination of pipelined logic to process lower complexity opcodes which can be completed in one clock cycle, and microcode to implement ones that take multiple clock cycles to complete.\nOne of the first integrated microcoded processors was the IBM PALM Processor which emulated all of the processor's instruction in microcode and was used on the IBM 5100, one of the very first personal computers.\nRecent examples of similar microsequencer-based processors are",
"-30.161099727774854"
],
[
"of the simple memory interface that can be programmed by setting a default memory location and writing a few base registers, the chips are quite popular with hobbyists as well as with automotive and industrial developers.",
"-30.083833450524253"
],
[
"History of CAD software Designers have used computers for calculations since their invention. Digital computers were used in power system analysis or optimization as early as proto-\"Whirlwind\" in 1949. Circuit design theory or power network methodology was algebraic, symbolic, and often vector-based. 1940s-1950s Between the mid-1940s and 1950, various developments were made in computer software. Some of these developments include servo-motors controlled by generated pulse (1949), a digital computer with built-in operations to automatically coordinate transforms to compute radar related vectors (1951), and the graphic mathematical process of forming a shape with a digital machine tool (1952). \nIn 1953, MIT",
"-29.805211677914485"
],
[
"the time, there were two types of semiconductor memories. Random-access memory (RAM) chips were easy to program, but a chip would lose its charge (and the information encoded on the chip) when its power source was turned off. In industry parlance, RAM chips were volatile. Read-only memory (ROM) chips, by contrast, were nonvolatile—that is, the information encoded in the chip was fixed and unchangeable. But the process for programming ROM memories was time-consuming and cumbersome. Typically, the data had to be “burned in” at the factory: physically embedded on the chip through a process called “masking” that generally took weeks",
"-29.78032062726561"
],
[
"early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. Colossus, developed during the Second World War to decrypt German messages, was the first electronic digital computer. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring. The first recognisably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester",
"-29.653348235879093"
],
[
"numeric form the hardware can execute directly. For example, the instruction to add the value in two memory location might consist of 3 numbers: an \"opcode\" that selects the \"add\" operation, and two memory locations. The programs, in decimal or binary form, were read in from punched cards, paper tape, magnetic tape or toggled in on switches on the front panel of the computer. Machine languages were later termed first-generation programming languages (1GL).\nThe next step was development of so-called second-generation programming languages (2GL) or assembly languages, which were still closely tied to the instruction set architecture of the specific",
"-29.588871331294285"
],
[
"by Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn at the University of Manchester in 1946 and 1947, it was a cathode ray tube that used an effect called secondary emission to temporarily store electronic binary data, and was used successfully in several early computers.\nAlthough the computer was considered \"small and primitive\" by the standards of its time, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. As soon as the Baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable computer,",
"-29.54858016743674"
],
[
"1960s, computers were added to give even more flexibility to the process. Such machines became known as computerized numerical control (CNC) machines. NC and CNC machines could precisely repeat sequences over and over, and could produce much more complex pieces than even the most skilled tool operators.\nBefore long, the machines could automatically change the specific cutting and shaping tools that were being used. For example, a drill machine might contain a magazine with a variety of drill bits for producing holes of various sizes. Previously, either machine operators would usually have to manually change the bit or",
"-29.534508956472564"
],
[
"computers, freeing programmers from tedium such as remembering numeric codes and calculating addresses. They were once widely used for all sorts of programming. However, by the 1980s (1990s on microcomputers), their use had largely been supplanted by higher-level languages, in the search for improved programming productivity. Today assembly language is still used for direct hardware manipulation, access to specialized processor instructions, or to address critical performance issues. Typical uses are device drivers, low-level embedded systems, and real-time systems.\nHistorically, numerous programs have been written entirely in assembly language. The Burroughs MCP (1961) was the first computer for which an operating system",
"-29.526448853746842"
],
[
"\"might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent\". (She is often credited as the first programmer because of a set of notes she wrote that completely detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the Engine.)\nThe first modern computers were the massive code breaking machines of the Second World War (such as Z3, ENIAC and Colossus). The latter two of these machines were based on the theoretical foundation laid by Alan Turing and developed by John von Neumann. The birth of artificial intelligence 1952–1956 In the 1940s and 50s, a handful of scientists",
"-29.516184903382964"
],
[
"code, although on some calculators this is only possible through using exploits. The most common assembly and machine languages are for TMS9900, SH-3, Zilog Z80, and various Motorola chips (e.g. a modified 68000) which serve as the main processors of the machines although many (not all) are modified to some extent from their use elsewhere. Some manufacturers do not document and even mildly discourage the assembly language programming of their machines because they must be programmed in this way by putting together the program on the PC and then forcing it into the calculator by various improvised methods.\nOther on-board",
"-29.478110184165416"
],
[
"chip in 1971. It was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS technology, along with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima. It was followed by the 4-bit Intel 4040, the 8-bit Intel 8008, and the 8-bit Intel 8080. All of these processors required several external chips to implement a working system, including memory and peripheral interface chips. As a result, the total system cost was several hundred (1970s US) dollars, making it impossible to economically computerize small appliances. MOS Technology introduced sub-$100 microprocessors, the 6501 and 6502, with the chief aim",
"-29.466529331722995"
],
[
"Information technology History of computer technology Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick. The Antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is generally considered to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known geared mechanism. Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed.\nElectronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the",
"-29.437484300113283"
],
[
"was the bestselling semiconductor memory chip in the world by 1972, as it replaced core memory in many applications. Intel's business grew during the 1970s as it expanded and improved its manufacturing processes and produced a wider range of products, still dominated by various memory devices.\nIntel created the first commercially available microprocessor (Intel 4004) in 1971. The microprocessor represented a notable advance in the technology of integrated circuitry, as it miniaturized the central processing unit of a computer, which then made it possible for small machines to perform calculations that in the past only very large machines could do. Considerable",
"-29.419748615677236"
],
[
"games like tic-tac-toe, or solve arithmetic puzzles, but the output resulted directly from the input given.\nIn 1961, Scientific Development Corporation introduced the Minivac 601, a simple relay-based electromechanical computer with a primitive memory, all designed by the pioneer of information theory, Claude Shannon. The expensive device attracted few buyers, and was soon upgraded and retargeted for the corporate technical training market. In 1963, E.S.R., Inc. marketed the low-cost Digi-Comp I, which allowed children to construct a simple digital computer, composed entirely of mechanical parts operated by hand. They could then play with it, watching as mechanical versions of “flip-flop” electronic",
"-29.24068880022969"
],
[
"machines were programmable in the sense that they could follow the sequence of steps they had been set up to execute, but the \"program\", or steps that the machine was to execute, were set up usually by changing how the wires were plugged into a patch panel or plugboard. \"Reprogramming\", when it was possible at all, was a laborious process, starting with engineers working out flowcharts, designing the new set up, and then the often-exacting process of physically re-wiring patch panels. Stored-program computers, by contrast, were designed to store a set of instructions (a program), in memory –",
"-29.21571418043459"
],
[
"of Bernoulli numbers, intended to be carried out by Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine.\nIn the 1880s Herman Hollerith invented the concept of storing data in machine-readable form. Later a control panel (plugboard) added to his 1906 Type I Tabulator allowed it to be programmed for different jobs, and by the late 1940s, unit record equipment such as the IBM 602 and IBM 604, were programmed by control panels in a similar way; as were the first electronic computers. However, with the concept of the stored-program computers introduced in 1949, both programs and data were stored and manipulated in the same way",
"-29.13698159798514"
],
[
"Bare machine Early Computers The PDP-11 machine allowed programmers to load a program, supplied in machine code, to RAM. The resulting operation of the program could be monitored by lights, and output derived from mag tape, print devices, or storage. Embedded systems Bare machine programming remains in common practice in embedded systems, where microcontrollers or microprocessors often boot directly into monolithic, single-purpose software, without loading a separate operating system. Such embedded software can vary in structure, but the simplest form may consist of an infinite main loop, calling subroutines responsible for checking for inputs, performing actions, and writing outputs.",
"-29.111464488960337"
],
[
"available machines by coming up with new ways of using them. By the dawn of the computer age in the 1950s, software became the means to surmount the limitations inherent in the punched card machines of the past.\nLuhn spent greater and greater amounts of time on the problems of information retrieval and storage faced by libraries and documentation centers, and pioneered the use of data processing equipment in resolving these problems. \"Luhn was the first, or among the first, to work out many of the basic techniques now commonplace in information science.\" These techniques included full-text processing; hash codes; Key",
"-29.10359039369723"
],
[
"chip was never sold commercially. Like EEC-I and -II, all code was written in assembly language.\nWhile the processor chips were manufactured by Motorola, the modules were designed and assembled by either Motorola, Toshiba or Ford. The designs were functionally equivalent but slightly different components were used. Motorola optimized their design to use as many of their own components as possible. EEC-V Additional performance needs drove Ford Electronics to develop an enhanced microprocessor named the 8065 building on EEC-IV technology. Memory was expanded from 64K to 1 megabyte, speed tripled, and I/O more than doubled. Additional interrupts",
"-29.069674510978984"
],
[
"of germanium. Fairchild's planar process then allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of printed circuits.\nThird generation (integrated circuit) computers first appeared in the early 1960s in computers developed for government purposes, and then in commercial computers beginning in the middle 1960s. Microprocessor computers The \"fourth-generation\" of digital electronic computers used microprocessors as the basis of their logic. The microprocessor has origins in MOSFET (MOS transistor) technology, which was invented at Bell Labs in 1959. Due to rapid MOSFET scaling, MOS integrated circuit chips increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law,",
"-29.035764906118857"
],
[
"decoder became available. Later it published regular columns of brief Circuit Ideas. Computers In the August to December 1967 editions a series, Wireless World Digital Computer by Brian Crank, was published. It described how to build a \"very\" simple binary computer at home. It was constructed entirely from \"reject\" transistors (functional, but not meeting all specifications, consequently sold cheaply), and was intended for teaching the basic principles of computer operation.\nIn 1977 a series of articles was published based on the design of the NASCOM 1 computer.\nIn 1979 they published a design by John Adams for a dual-processor desktop",
"-29.00867635081704"
],
[
"cutting and welding system was also included.\nA more speculative, more complex microchip fabricator was specified to produce the computer and electronic systems, but the designers also said that it might prove practical to ship the chips from Earth as if they were \"vitamins.\"\nA 2004 study supported by NASA's Institute for Advanced Concepts took this idea further. Some experts are beginning to consider self-replicating machines for asteroid mining.\nMuch of the design study was concerned with a simple, flexible chemical system for processing the ores, and the differences between the ratio of elements needed by the replicator, and the ratios available in",
"-28.995025733762304"
],
[
"had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine. With the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation. The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper. In 1945, Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report \"Proposed Electronic Calculator\" was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the",
"-28.979890395188704"
],
[
"the disk. History The IBM SSEC, demonstrated in January 1948, had the ability to modify its instructions or otherwise treat them exactly like data. However, the capability was rarely used in practice. In the early days of computers, self-modifying code was often used to reduce use of limited memory, or improve performance, or both. It was also sometimes used to implement subroutine calls and returns when the instruction set only provided simple branching or skipping instructions to vary the control flow. This use is still relevant in certain ultra-RISC architectures, at least theoretically; see for example one instruction set computer.",
"-28.955716146941995"
],
[
"machine that was both electronic and general purpose. It was Turing complete, with conditional branching, and programmable to solve a wide range of problems, but its program was held in the state of switches in patchcords, not in memory, and it could take several days to reprogram. Researchers such as Turing and Zuse investigated the idea of using the computer's memory to hold the program as well as the data it was working on, and it was mathematician John von Neumann who wrote a widely distributed paper describing that computer architecture, still used in almost all computers.\nThe construction of a",
"-28.91716154081041"
],
[
"the system, using binary coded decimal, excess-3 number representation. To support this expansion memory, ENIAC was equipped with a new Function Table selector, a memory address selector, pulse-shaping circuits, and three new orders were added to the programming mechanism. Comparison with other early computers Mechanical computing machines have been around since Archimedes' time (see: Antikythera mechanism), but the 1930s and 1940s are considered the beginning of the modern computer era.\nENIAC was, like the IBM Harvard Mark I and the German Z3, able to run an arbitrary sequence of mathematical operations, but did not read them from a tape. Like the",
"-28.899707417243917"
],
[
"stored program machine which could read and write magnetic cards and displayed results on its built-in printer. Memory, implemented by an acoustic delay line, could be partitioned between program steps, constants, and data registers. Programming allowed conditional testing and programs could also be overlaid by reading from magnetic cards. It is regarded as the first personal computer produced by a company (that is, a desktop electronic calculating machine programmable by non-specialists for personal use). The Olivetti Programma 101 won many industrial design awards.\nAnother calculator introduced in 1965 was Bulgaria's ELKA 6521, developed by the Central Institute for Calculation Technologies and",
"-28.896074092714116"
],
[
"of one mainframe computer processor. This was common in business applications and in science and engineering.\nA different model of computer use was foreshadowed by the way in which early, pre-commercial, experimental computers were used, where one user had exclusive use of a processor. In places such as Carnegie Mellon University and MIT, students with access to some of the first computers experimented with applications that would today be typical of a personal computer; for example, computer aided drafting was foreshadowed by T-square, a program written in 1961, and an ancestor of today's computer games was found in Spacewar! in 1962.",
"-28.83319544317783"
],
[
"business data processing was done using unit record equipment and punched cards, most commonly the 80-column variety employed by IBM, which dominated the industry. Many tricks were used to squeeze needed data into fixed-field 80-character records. Saving two digits for every date field was significant in this effort.\nIn the 1960s, computer memory and mass storage were scarce and expensive. Early core memory cost one dollar per bit. Popular commercial computers, such as the IBM 1401, shipped with as little as 2 kilobytes of memory. Programs often mimicked card processing techniques. Commercial programming languages of the time, such as COBOL and RPG,",
"-28.809616110615025"
],
[
"features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom\" making it infinitely programmable. In 1937, Howard Aiken convinced IBM to design and build the ASCC/Mark I, the first machine of its kind, based on the architecture of the analytical engine; when the machine was finished some hailed it as \"Babbage's dream come true\". Ancient history The desire to economize time and mental effort in arithmetical computations, and to eliminate human liability to error, is probably as old as the science of arithmetic itself. This desire has led to",
"-28.793836577147886"
],
[
"all electronic computers were serial (single-bit) computers. The first electronic computer that was not a serial computer—the first bit-parallel computer—was the 16-bit Whirlwind from 1951.\nFrom the advent of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) computer chip fabrication technology in the 1970s until about 1986, advancements in computer architecture were done by increasing bit-level parallelism, as 4-bit microprocessors were replaced by 8-bit, then 16-bit, then 32-bit microprocessors. This trend generally came to an end with the introduction of 32-bit processors, which were a standard in general purpose computing for two decades. 64 bit architectures were introduced to the mainstream with the eponymous Nintendo 64",
"-28.786983799684094"
],
[
"The computer, which weighs 2.5 metric tons (2.8 short tons), was built and used at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment in Harwell, Oxfordshire. Construction started in 1949, and the machine became operational in April 1951. It was handed over to the computing group in May 1952 and remained in use until 1957.\nIt used dekatrons for volatile memory, similar to RAM in a modern computer, and paper tape for input and program storage. Relays were used for sequence control and valve-based (vacuum tube) electronics for calculations. Output was to either a Creed teleprinter or to a paper tape punch. The machine",
"-28.777845849632286"
],
[
"from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. The programmers of the ENIAC were women who had been trained as mathematicians.\nIt combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High-speed memory was limited to 20 words (equivalent to about 80 bytes). Built under",
"-28.7692511670939"
],
[
"twentieth century—dominated initially by the International Business Machine corporation (IBM), with its line of unit record equipment. The cards were used for data, however, with programming done by plugboards.\nSome early computers, such as the 1944 IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard Mark I) received program instructions from a paper tape punched with holes, similar to Jacquard's string of cards. Later computers executed programs from higher-speed memory, though cards were commonly used to load the programs into memory. Punched cards remained in use in computing up until the mid 1980s.",
"-28.763967462859"
],
[
"Sequential (company) 1974 —1980: Founding and first Prophets Engineer Dave Smith founded Sequential Circuits in San Francisco in 1974. The first Sequential Circuits product was an analog sequencer for use with Moog and ARP synthesizers, followed by a digital sequencer and the Model 700 Programmer, which allowed for programming on Minimoog and ARP 2600. The Model 800, launched in 1975 , was controlled and programmed with a microprocessor.\nAt the same time, Smith had a full-time job working with microprocessors, then a new technology, and conceived the idea of combining them with synthesizer chips to create a programmable synthesizer. In early",
"-28.759120986404014"
],
[
"circuit (chip) designers have included hidden graphics elements termed chip art, including images, phrases, developer initials, logos, and more. This artwork, like the rest of the chip, is reproduced in each copy by lithography and etching. These are visible only when the chip package is opened and examined under magnification. The 1984 CVAX microchip implementation of the MicroVAX CPU contained in its etchings the Russian phrase in the Cyrillic alphabet \"VAX: When you care enough to steal the very best\", placed there because, \"knowing that some CVAXs would end up in the USSR, the team wanted the Russians to know",
"-28.75358935946133"
],
[
"such as high-resolution analog to digital converters, or both.\nRunning 32-bit arithmetic on an 8-bit chip could end up using more power, as the chip must execute software with multiple instructions., Embedded applications Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors. These include large and small household appliances, cars (and their accessory equipment units), car keys, tools and test instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and electrical circuit breakers, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi audio/visual components (from DVD players to phonograph turntables). Such products as cellular telephones, DVD video system and HDTV broadcast systems fundamentally require consumer devices with powerful,",
"-28.721836131298915"
],
[
"Computer module History Modules were the basic building block of most early computer designs, until they started being replaced by integrated circuits in the 1960s, which were essentially an entire module packaged onto a single computer chip. Modules with discrete components continued to be used in specialist roles into the 1970s, notably high-speed designs like the CDC 8600, but advances in chip design led to the disappearance of the discrete-component module in the 1970s.",
"-28.701762020831666"
],
[
"With microprocessors now ubiquitous, the computers inside modern slot machines allow manufacturers to assign a different probability to every symbol on every reel. To the player it might appear that a winning symbol was \"so close\", whereas in fact the probability is much lower.\nIn modern slot machines, the reels and lever are for historical and entertainment reasons only.\nIn the 1980s in the UK machines embodying microprocessors became common. These used a number of features to ensure the payout was controlled within the limits of the gambling legislation. As the coin was inserted into the machine it could go one of",
"-28.690574610955082"
],
[
"bomb parameters, predicting weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery guns. \nThe Manchester Baby (June 1948) was a stored-program computer. Programming transitioned away from moving cables and setting dials; instead, a computer program was stored in memory as numbers. Only three bits of memory were available to store each instruction, so it was limited to eight instructions. 32 switches were available for programming. Later computers Computers manufactured until the 1970s had front-panel switches for programming. The computer program was written on paper for reference. An instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings. After setting the configuration,",
"-28.666656309040263"
],
[
"remained in use in specialty-purpose computers for some time, acting as a read only memory (ROM) but able to be manually reprogrammed in the field. One example is the Ferranti Argus computer, used on the Bristol Bloodhound missile, which feature a plugboard programmed by inserting small ferrite rods into slots, in effect creating a read-only core memory by hand.",
"-28.66532225778792"
],
[
"the EDSAC in Cambridge ran its first program, making it arguably \"the first complete and fully operational regular electronic digital stored-program computer\". It is sometimes claimed that the IBM SSEC, operational in January 1948, was the first stored-program computer; this claim is controversial, not least because of the hierarchical memory system of the SSEC, and because some aspects of its operations, like access to relays or tape drives, were determined by plugging. The first stored-program computer to be built in continental Europe was the MESM, completed in the Soviet Union in 1951.",
"-28.651162302005105"
],
[
"the machine's memory. This step was repeated until all the opcodes of a presumably complete and correct program were in place. The only output from the programs was the patterns of lights on the panel. Nevertheless, many were sold in this form. Development was already underway on additional cards, including a paper tape reader for storage, additional RAM cards, and an RS-232 interface to connect to a proper Teletype terminal. Altair BASIC Ed Roberts received a letter from Traf-O-Data asking if he would be interested in buying its BASIC programming language for the machine. He called the company and",
"-28.576893011879292"
],
[
"unit of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialised computer program in high-speed ROM. This concept greatly simplified CPU development. Microprogramming was first described at the University of Manchester Computer Inaugural Conference in 1951, then published in expanded form in IEEE Spectrum in 1955. This concept was implemented for the first time in EDSAC 2, which also used multiple identical \"bit slices\" to simplify design. Interchangeable, replaceable tube assemblies were used for each bit of the processor. The next computer for his laboratory was the Titan, a joint venture with Ferranti Ltd begun in 1963. It eventually",
"-28.575930331950076"
],
[
"that enabled use of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel processing. When personal computers became popular in the 1980s, operating systems were made for them similar in concept to those used on larger computers.\nIn the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were programmed on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special-purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine",
"-28.575595555419568"
],
[
"The code is typically fast but nonportable since the binary code is designed for a specific computer hardware platform. A different approach uses a virtual machine instruction set, which has no particular target hardware. An interpreter executes it on each new target hardware.\nEarly computers had relatively little memory. For example, most Data General Nova, IBM 1130, and many of the first microcomputers had only 4 kB of RAM installed. Consequently, a lot of time was spent trying to find ways to reduce the size of programs so they would fit in the memory available.\nOne way to do so is to use",
"-28.57372828494408"
],
[
"computer is an automatic abacus. The type of number system affects the way it works. In the early 1950s, most computers were built for specific numerical processing tasks, and many machines used decimal numbers as their basic number system; that is, the mathematical functions of the machines worked in base-10 instead of base-2 as is common today. These were not merely binary coded decimal (BCD). Most machines had ten vacuum tubes per digit in each processor register. Some early Soviet computer designers implemented systems based on ternary logic; that is, a bit could have three states: +1, 0, or -1,",
"-28.542535305721685"
],
[
"particularly among people who learned computing on the 8-bit microcomputers of the late 1970s and early 1980s. BASIC was often the only language available on those machines (on home computers, usually present in ROM), and therefore the obvious, and simplest, way to program in machine language was to use BASIC to POKE the opcode values into memory. Doing much low-level coding like this usually came from lack of access to an assembler.\nAn example of the generic usage of POKE and PEEK is in Visual Basic for Windows, where DDE can be achieved with the LinkPoke keyword.\nCheats for eight-bit video games",
"-28.54155963327503"
],
[
"they built an experimental electronic computer named SEC (Simple Electronic Computer, designed around 1948-1949) - and finally, the APE(X)C (All-Purpose Electronic Computer) series. \nThe computers were programmed by Kathleen. British Tabulating Machine Company machines In March 1951, the British Tabulating Machine Company (BTM) sent a team to Andrew Booth's workshop. They then used his design to create the Hollerith Electronic Computer 1 (HEC 1) before the end of 1951. The computer was a direct copy of Andrew Booth's circuits with extra Input/output interfaces. The HEC 2 was the HEC 1 with smarter metal casings and was built for the Business",
"-28.508813683642074"
],
[
"This design was semi-electronic (electro-mechanical control and electronic calculations), and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical. The machine's special-purpose nature and lack of changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers.\nComputers whose logic was primarily built using vacuum tubes are now known as first generation computers. The electronic programmable computer During World War II, British codebreakers at Bletchley Park (40 miles north of London) achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted enemy military communications.",
"-28.507124551106244"
],
[
"numbers.\nIn traditional computers the program would loop over all million numbers, adding five, thereby executing a million instructions saying a = add b, c. Internally the computer solves this instruction in several steps. First it reads the instruction from memory and decodes it, then it collects any additional information it needs, in this case the numbers b and c, and then finally runs the operation and stores the results. The end result is that the computer requires tens or hundreds of millions of cycles to carry out these operations. Vector machines In the STAR, new instructions essentially wrote the loops",
"-28.492144779324008"
],
[
"one's own software programs has almost vanished from home computer use. Background As early as 1965, some experimental projects, such as Jim Sutherland's ECHO IV, explored the possible utility of a computer in the home. In 1969, the Honeywell Kitchen Computer was marketed as a luxury gift item, and would have inaugurated the era of home computing, but none were sold.\nComputers became affordable for the general public in the 1970s due to the mass production of the microprocessor starting in 1971. Early microcomputers such as the Altair 8800 had front-mounted switches and diagnostic lights (nicknamed \"blinkenlights\") to control and indicate",
"-28.442769138142467"
],
[
"in computer memory.\nMachine code was the language of early programs, written in the instruction set of the particular machine, often in binary notation. Assembly languages were soon developed that let the programmer specify instruction in a text format, (e.g., ADD X, TOTAL), with abbreviations for each operation code and meaningful names for specifying addresses. However, because an assembly language is little more than a different notation for a machine language, any two machines with different instruction sets also have different assembly languages.\nHigh-level languages made the process of developing a program simpler and more understandable, and less bound to the underlying",
"-28.4259885220672"
],
[
"left Iowa State College for World War II assignments, work on the machine was discontinued. The ABC pioneered important elements of modern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, but its special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. The computer was designated an IEEE Milestone in 1990.\nAtanasoff and Berry's computer work was not widely known until it was rediscovered in the 1960s, amidst conflicting claims about the first instance of an electronic computer. At that time ENIAC, that had been created by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, was considered",
"-28.41284117453324"
],
[
"fund an experimental project - the first all-electronic digital computer and six of the women \"computers\" were selected to be its first programmers. Teitelbaum was among these six. Career Teitelbaum was selected as one of a group of seven women to be the first programmers of the ENIAC, which was the first all-electronic programmable computer. The computer was a huge machine with 40 black 8-foot panels. The programmers had to physically program it using 3000 switches, and telephone switching cords in a dozen trays, to route the data, and the program, through the machine. \nAlong with Marlyn Meltzer, Teitelbaum was",
"-28.412072767619975"
],
[
"chip used in the C-One as an enhanced Commodore 64 which could also emulate other home computers of the early 1980s, including the VIC-20 and Sinclair ZX81. She and her fellow developer displayed the C-One at a technology conference, which led to Ellsworth receiving a job offer from Mammoth Toys, which hired her to design the \"computer in a chip\" for the Commodore-emulating joystick. She began the project in June 2004 and had the project ready to ship by that Christmas. It sold over a half-million units, in the USA, Europe, and elsewhere, she didn't receive payment nor the commision",
"-28.38369495482766"
],
[
"Walter Reed Army Medical Center as he was dying of cancer.\nAt the time, IBM calculators were programmed by plugging and unplugging wires manually into large panels. The concept of storing the program as well as data in computer memory was generally called the Von Neumann architecture (although others developed the concept about the same time).\nIBM had built the experimental stored-program SSEC, but company president Thomas J. Watson favored basing commercial products on punched card technology with manual programming. Hurd hired a team who would be the first professional computer software writers, such as John Backus and Fred Brooks.\nThe first step",
"-28.366096472658683"
],
[
"on which the Manchester Mark 1 was based.\nThe practical construction of a von Neumann computer depended on the availability of a suitable memory device. The University of Manchester's Baby, the world's first electronic stored-program computer, had successfully demonstrated the practicality of the stored-program approach and of the Williams tube, an early form of computer memory based on a standard cathode ray tube (CRT), by running its first program on 21 June 1948. Early electronic computers were generally programmed by being rewired, or via plugs and patch panels; there was no separate program stored in memory, as in a modern computer.",
"-28.345577220607083"
],
[
"did illustrate that machines could be driven by binary systems . Creation of the computer Before the 1920s, computers (sometimes computors) were human clerks that performed computations. They were usually under the lead of a physicist. Many thousands of computers were employed in commerce, government, and research establishments. Most of these computers were women. Some performed astronomical calculations for calendars, others ballistic tables for the military.\nAfter the 1920s, the expression computing machine referred to any machine that performed the work of a human computer, especially those in accordance with effective methods of the Church-Turing thesis. The thesis states that a",
"-28.332126610388514"
],
[
"processed numbers in their character representations. Over time the punched cards were converted to magnetic tape and then disc files, but the structure of the data usually changed very little. Data was still input using punched cards until the mid-1970s. Machine architectures, programming languages and application designs were evolving rapidly. Neither managers nor programmers of that time expected their programs to remain in use for many decades. The realisation that databases were a new type of program with different characteristics had not yet come.\nThere were exceptions, of course. The first person known to publicly address this issue was Bob Bemer,",
"-28.325386735663415"
],
[
"2,400 relays to create the circuits. The circuits provided a binary, floating-point, nine-instruction computer. Programming the Z3 was through a specially designed keyboard and punched tape.\nThe Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (Fall 1945) was a Turing complete, general-purpose computer that used 17,468 vacuum tubes to create the circuits. At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together. Its 40 units weighed 30 tons, occupied 1,800 square feet (167 m²), and consumed $650 per hour (in 1940s currency) in electricity when idle. It had 20 base-10 accumulators. Programming the ENIAC took up to two months. Three function tables were on",
"-28.282039910147432"
],
[
"often.\nThe machine, like all machines of the era, had no operating system. A high-level interpreted programming language called INTERPROGRAM was developed in 1960 by Geoff Hill. It was similar to early forms of BASIC, which was designed in 1963 for the 20-bit transistorized GE-200 series.\nIn 1950 CSIRAC was used to play music, the first known use of a digital computer for the purpose. The music was never recorded, but it has been accurately reconstructed.\nIn 1955, with the CSIRO's decision that computing research was outside its purview, the machine was transferred from its home at the Radiophysics Laboratory at the",
"-28.278967026999453"
],
[
"Computer memory History In the early 1940s, memory technology often permitted a capacity of a few bytes. The first electronic programmable digital computer, the ENIAC, using thousands of octal-base radio vacuum tubes, could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits which were held in the vacuum tube accumulators.\nThe next significant advance in computer memory came with acoustic delay line memory, developed by J. Presper Eckert in the early 1940s. Through the construction of a glass tube filled with mercury and plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store bits of information",
"-28.27375057176687"
],
[
"supporting the machine's stored program ability.\nEach instruction could take input from any source (electronic or mechanical registers or tape readers) store the result in any destination (electronic or mechanical registers, tape or card punch or printer), and gave the address of the next instruction, which could also be any source. This made it powerful in theory.\nHowever, in practice instructions were stored usually on paper tape, resulting in an overall rate of only about 50 instructions per second. \nThe serial nature of the paper tape memory made programming the SSEC more like the World War II era calculators. For example, \"loops\"",
"-28.270533021597657"
],
[
"explore how a computer could best be organized. Some of the basic features introduced during this period included index registers (on the Ferranti Mark 1), a return address saving instruction (UNIVAC I), immediate operands (IBM 704), and detecting invalid operations (IBM 650).\nBy the end of the 1950s, commercial builders had developed factory-constructed, truck-deliverable computers. The most widely installed computer was the IBM 650, which used drum memory onto which programs were loaded using either paper punched tape or punched cards. Some very high-end machines also included core memory which provided higher speeds. Hard disks were also starting to grow popular.\nA",
"-28.26502822106704"
],
[
"is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of",
"-28.246281998755876"
],
[
"in computing, starting in 1953.\nIn October 1946, work began under Maurice Wilkes on EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), which subsequently became the world's first fully operational and practical stored program computer when it ran its first program on 6 May 1949. It inspired the world's first business computer, LEO. It was replaced by EDSAC 2, the first microcoded and bitsliced computer, in 1958.\nIn 1961, David Hartley developed Autocode, one of the first high-level programming languages, for EDSAC 2. Also in that year, proposals for Titan, based on the Ferranti Atlas machine, were developed. Titan became fully operational in 1964",
"-28.23254214588087"
],
[
"conventional microprocessors of the era, such as the National Semiconductor 32016, Motorola 68010 and Intel 80286. One problem was that the two-chip implementation of the GDP limited it to the speed of the motherboard's electrical wiring. A larger issue was the capability architecture needed large associative caches to run efficiently, but the chips had no room left for that. The instruction set also used bit-aligned variable-length instructions instead of the usual semi-fixed byte or word-aligned formats used in the majority of computer designs. Instruction decoding was therefore more complex than in other designs. Although this did not hamper performance in",
"-28.22461777544231"
],
[
"hardware, or a reflashing operation might be needed to fix a damaged BIOS Hardware The original IBM PC BIOS (and cassette BASIC) was stored on mask-programmed read-only memory (ROM) chips in sockets on the motherboard. ROMs could be replaced, but not altered, by users. To allow for updates, many compatible computers used re-programmable memory devices such as EPROM and later flash memory devices. According to Robert Braver, the president of the BIOS manufacturer Micro Firmware, Flash BIOS chips became common around 1995 because the electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) chips are cheaper and easier to program than standard ultraviolet erasable PROM",
"-28.209532512526494"
],
[
"information transfer, the key program in an area of performance and program capacity, the functional specification, decimal computer idea, software, desktop calculator logic, real-time I/O control, and data exchange instruction between the accumulator and general purpose register. The specifications of the four chips were developed over a period of a few months in 1969, between an Intel team led by Hoff and a Busicom team led by Shima.\nAfter Shima went back to Japan in late 1969 and then returned to Intel in early 1970, he found that no further work had been done on the 4004 since he left, and",
"-28.193612759409007"
],
[
"a mathematical problem, then a Turing machine can execute that algorithm.\nKonrad Zuse's Z3 was the world's first working programmable, fully automatic computer, with binary digital arithmetic logic, but it lacked the conditional branching of a Turing machine. On 12 May 1941, it was successfully presented to an audience of scientists of the Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt (\"German Laboratory for Aviation\") in Berlin. The Z3 stored its program on an external tape, but it was electromechanical rather than electronic. The Colossus of 1943 was the first electronic computing device, but it was not a general-purpose machine.\nThe ENIAC (1946) was the first",
"-28.15858479414601"
],
[
"instructions use register numbers for explicit operand specification. Notable accumulator-based computers The 1945 configuration of ENIAC had 20 accumulators, which could operate in parallel. Each one could store an eight decimal digit number and add to it (or subtract from it) a number it received. Most of IBM's early binary \"scientific\" computers, beginning with the vacuum tube IBM 701 in 1952, used a single 36-bit accumulator, along with a separate multiplier/quotient register to handle operations with longer results. The IBM 650, a decimal machine, had one 10 digit accumulator; the IBM 7070, a later, transistorized decimal machine had three",
"-28.132271290713106"
],
[
"Computing Machine Laboratory The Computing Machine Laboratory at the University of Manchester in the north of England was established by Max Newman shortly after the end of World War II, around 1946.\nThe Laboratory was funded through a grant from the Royal Society, which was approved in the summer of 1946. He recruited the engineers Frederic Calland Williams and Thomas Kilburn where they built the world's first electronic stored-program digital computer, which came to be known as the Manchester Baby, based on Alan Turing's ideas. Their prototype ran its first program on 21 June 1948.",
"-28.123427774015"
],
[
"Argentina (PAL-N), South Africa, India and Australia.\nThe mainframe computer TR 4 was developed at Telefunken in Backnang, and the TR 440 model was developed at Telefunken in Konstanz, including the first ball-based mouse named Rollkugel in 1968. The computers were in use at many German university computing centres from the 1970s to around 1985. The development and manufacture of large computers was separated in 1974 to the Konstanz Computer Company (CGK). The production of mini- and process computers was integrated into the automatic control engineering division of AEG. When AEG was bought by Daimler in 1985, \"Telefunken\" was dropped from",
"-28.116548256182796"
],
[
"set other milestones, being the first chip to use linear predictive coding to perform speech synthesis. The chip was made possible with a 7 µm PMOS fabrication process.\nIn 1978, American Microsystems (AMI) released the S2811. The AMI S2811 \"signal processing peripheral\", like many later DSPs, has a hardware multiplier that enables it to do multiply–accumulate operation in a single instruction. The S2281 was the first integrated circuit chip specifically designed as a DSP, and fabricated using VMOS (V-groove MOS), a technology that had previously not been mass-produced. It was designed as a microprocessor peripheral, for the Motorola 6800, and it had",
"-28.114111351402244"
],
[
"Electronic data processing Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. Machines such as the Z3, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, the Colossus computers, and the ENIAC were built by hand, using circuits containing relays or valves (vacuum tubes), and often used punched cards or punched paper tape for input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium.\nThe engineer Tommy Flowers joined the telecommunications branch of the General Post Office in 1926. While working at the research station in Dollis Hill in the 1930s, he began to explore the possible use",
"-28.11382866150234"
],
[
"They achieve this in various ways: as voltages on wires in high-speed circuits and capacitive storage devices, as orientations of a magnetic domain in ferromagnetic storage devices, as holes in punched cards or paper tape, and so on. (Some early computers used decimal circuits or mechanisms instead of two-valued logic circuits.)\nOf course, it is possible to code more than two symbols in any given medium. For example, one might use respectively 0, 1, 2, and 3 volts to code a four-symbol alphabet on a wire, or holes of different sizes in a punched card. In practice, the tight constraints of",
"-28.110636659141164"
],
[
"University of Pennsylvania also circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.\nThe Manchester Baby was the world's first stored-program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948. It was designed as a testbed for the Williams tube, the first random-access digital storage device. Although the computer was considered \"small and primitive\" by the standards of its time, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. As",
"-28.097293835424352"
],
[
"sequential state machine circuitry. While very efficient, the need for powerful instruction sets with multi-step addressing and complex operations (see below) made such hard-wired processors difficult to design and debug; highly encoded and varied-length instructions can contribute to this as well, especially when very irregular encodings are used.\nMicrocode simplified the job by allowing much of the processor's behaviour and programming model to be defined via microprogram routines rather than by dedicated circuitry. Even late in the design process, microcode could easily be changed, whereas hard-wired CPU designs were very cumbersome to change. Thus, this greatly facilitated CPU design.\nFrom the 1940s",
"-28.09057119494537"
],
[
"was to offer a calculator that could be programmed on punch cards in addition to a manual plugboard. This was the Card-Programmed Electronic Calculator, announced in May 1949. It was essentially a commercialized version of experiments done by Wallace John Eckert and customers at Northrop Corporation, but became a very popular product, shipping several thousand units in various models.\nBased on this demand, Hurd advised new company president Tom Watson, Jr. to build the first IBM commercial stored program computer, first called the Defense Calculator. It was marketed as the IBM 701 in 1952.\nThere were 18 model 701 machines built (in",
"-28.045534639735706"
],
[
"machinery it presently holds.\nThe ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was the first electronic general-purpose computer, announced to the public in 1946. It was Turing-complete, digital, and capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems. Women implemented the programming for machines like the ENIAC, and men created the hardware.\nThe Manchester Baby was the first electronic stored-program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.\nWilliam Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs invented the first",
"-28.037041581425"
],
[
"embedded systems with limited expansion abilities. History Prior to the invention of the microprocessor, the digital computer consisted of multiple printed circuit boards in a card-cage case with components connected by a backplane, a set of interconnected sockets. In very old designs, copper wires were the discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed circuit boards soon became the standard practice. The Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, and peripherals were housed on individual printed circuit boards, which were plugged into the backplane. The ubiquitous S-100 bus of the 1970s is an example of this type of backplane system.\nThe most",
"-28.0341618542152"
],
[
"be made to play different rhythms and drum patterns, via pegs and cams. In 1801, the Jacquard loom could produce entirely different weaves by changing the \"program\" - a series of pasteboard cards with holes punched in them.\nCode-breaking algorithms have also existed for centuries. In the 9th century, the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi described a cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code, in A Manuscript On Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. He gave the first description of cryptanalysis by frequency analysis, the earliest code-breaking algorithm.\nThe first computer program is generally dated to 1843, when mathematician Ada Lovelace published an algorithm to calculate a sequence",
"-28.033424537490646"
],
[
"Mainframes and minicomputers Computers were generally large, costly systems owned by large institutions before the introduction of the microprocessor in the early 1970s — corporations, universities, government agencies, and the like. Users were experienced specialists who did not usually interact with the machine itself, but instead prepared tasks for the computer on off-line equipment, such as card punches. A number of assignments for the computer would be gathered up and processed in batch mode. After the jobs had completed, users could collect the output printouts and punched cards. In some organizations, it could take hours or days between submitting",
"-28.020404301874805"
],
[
"instruction decoding, and let a simple state machine (without much, or any, microcode) do most of the sequencing. The MOS Technology 6502 is an example of a microprocessor using a PLA for instruction decode and sequencing. The PLA is visible in photomicrographs of the chip, and its operation can be seen in the transistor-level simulation.\nMicroprogramming is still used in modern CPU designs. In some cases, after the microcode is debugged in simulation, logic functions are substituted for the control store. Logic functions are often faster and less expensive than the equivalent microprogram memory. Benefits A processor's microprograms operate on",
"-28.019359933794476"
],
[
"of programs.\nMany early computers loaded the program instructions into memory from a punched paper tape. Each subroutine could then be provided by a separate piece of tape, loaded or spliced before or after the main program (or \"mainline\"); and the same subroutine tape could then be used by many different programs. A similar approach applied in computers which used punched cards for their main input. The name subroutine library originally meant a library, in the literal sense, which kept indexed collections of tapes or card-decks for collective use. Return by indirect jump To remove the need for self-modifying code, computer",
"-27.995247599232243"
],
[
"a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz. Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage's earlier design), using a binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was Turing complete. Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical",
"-27.9712578682811"
],
[
"were specified by writing an appropriate pattern of bits onto one of the tracks.\nIn contrast to the prior ENIAC and UNIVAC I computers, which used electrical pulses to represent bits, the MADDIDA was the first computer to represent bits using voltage levels. It was also the first computer whose entire logic was specified in Boolean algebra. These features were an advancement from earlier digital computers that still had analog circuitry components.\nThe original MADIDDA prototype is now part of the collection at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California. Distribution Ultimately, the MADIDDA was never used in weaponry. Northrop ended",
"-27.968171444707878"
],
[
"these circuits were used in a demonstration model microprocessor-based electronic game system which anticipated home video games. The commercial promise of this system gave RCA the motivation they required to produce the 1800 series processors.\nWeisbecker designed the 1861 PIXIE graphics processor in 1975 as a minimal-cost simple video output for microcomputer systems. In a single chip, it provided all the functions necessary for a bit-mapped graphic display. Small systems During this same time (1975), Weisbecker developed an educational \"development board\" or \"trainer\" style single board computer, the RCA Microtutor, to teach basic computer concepts and programming. He also designed the",
"-27.96232543262886"
],
[
"16-bit 16-bit architecture The MIT Whirlwind (c. 1951) was quite possibly the first-ever 16-bit computer. Other early 16-bit computers (c. 1965–70) include the IBM 1130, the HP 2100, the Data General Nova, and the DEC PDP-11. Early multi-chip 16-bit microprocessors (c. 1973–76) include the five-chip National Semiconductor IMP-16 (1973), the two-chip NEC μCOM-16 (1974), the three-chip Western Digital MCP-1600 (1975), and the five-chip Toshiba T-3412 (1976). Early single-chip 16-bit microprocessors (c. 1975–76) include the Panafacom MN1610 (1975), National Semiconductor PACE (1975), General Instrument CP1600 (1975), Texas Instruments TMS9900 (1976), and the HP BPC. Other notable 16-bit processors include the",
"-27.956070841813926"
],
[
"these two computer architectures. This chip was never commercially available.\nThis 12 bit processor was the only commercially available chip to feature all four mathematical functions (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) at the time. The choice of 12 bits was not accidental. For accuracy, it was determined that formulas needed to be able to resolve 1 part in 1000 or about 10 bits. Another bit was required for sign. This, logically, was rounded up to 12 bits which also resulted in an address space of 16 kilo-words. There was no \"stack\" for subroutine calls and",
"-27.92712959938217"
],
[
"Therefore, computing and programming could be incorporated into a range of applications, including automation. In 1959 researchers of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) demonstrated computer-assisted manufacturing. 1960s Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in Ewing Township, New Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and place them in cooling liquid. \"Without any fanfare, the world's first working robot joined the assembly line at the General Motors plant in Ewing Township in the spring of 1961.... It was an automated die-casting mold",
"-27.87813771207584"
],
[
"status and production levels. Origins Early minicomputers were used in the control of industrial processes since the beginning of the 1960s. The IBM 1800, for example, was an early computer that had input/output hardware to gather process signals in a plant for conversion from field contact levels (for digital points) and analog signals to the digital domain.\nThe first industrial control computer system was built 1959 at the Texaco Port Arthur, Texas, refinery with an RW-300 of the Ramo-Wooldridge Company.\nIn 1975, both Honeywell and Japanese electrical engineering firm Yokogawa introduced their own independently produced DCS's - TDC 2000 and CENTUM",
"-27.876622778712772"
],
[
"Atanasoff–Berry computer The Atanasoff–Berry computer (ABC) was the first automatic electronic digital computer, an early electronic digital computing device that has remained somewhat obscure. The ABC's priority is debated among historians of computer technology, because it was neither programmable, nor Turing-complete.\nConceived in 1937, the machine was built by Iowa State College mathematics and physics professor John Vincent Atanasoff with the help of graduate student Clifford Berry. It was designed only to solve systems of linear equations and was successfully tested in 1942. However, its intermediate result storage mechanism, a paper card writer/reader, was not perfected, and when John Vincent Atanasoff",
"-27.87280708257458"
]
] |
1k57bd | Why is healthcare linked to employment, as opposed to rent or a mortgage, etc...? | [
"During the Second World War, the U.S. government thought it was a good idea to limit what a company could pay a worker. So, let's pretend your job is making Ninja Turtle action figures in my Ninja Turtle factory. I pay you ten gummy bears an hour for making these Ninja Turtle dolls. Now, I think you're a good worker, so I want to pay you fifteen gummy bears instead of ten. The U.S. government steps in and says, \"No! That's not fair. You can only pay ecfunj1 ten gummy bears an hour. That's the law. It's for the greater good- we're in a war, doncha know.\" Now I, being the staunchly capitalist factory owner that I am, who thinks that you should be paid what you're worth, say, \"Well, you're not the boss of me, Federal Government! I think ecfunj1 should get more money.\" However, not wanting to go to jail, I devise a way around this ridiculous statute. Instead of giving you more money, I pay for your healthcare, which gets around the wage controls set by the government and compensates you more for your labor. Other ways I find to get around this law are paid sick and vacation days. Basically, the reason there is a strong tradition of employer-based healthcare in the United States stems from 1940s government-mandated price and wage controls. Employers who competed in hiring workers in a scarce labor market were unable to pay more money to attract more/better workers. Employers resorted to offering perks, such as health insurance and paid sick/vacation days, to compensate workers more without breaking the law by paying them more. Additionally, there are special tax-deductions in the Tax Code for employer-paid healthcare. Employers are able to reduce their tax burden by providing health insurance to employees, and employees do not report health insurance paid by their employer as income. These special tax privileges reinforced the employer-based health insurance structure that came into existence in the 1940s. Edit: Here's more reading for the economically-curious: URL_0 ",
"Because the government instituted wage controls, Henry Ford, to offer better wages without increasing the pay, offered health care. It was done as a way to encourage more workers to work at Ford, and to screw with his competitors. URL_0 ",
"In the United States, the development of health care access was tied very closely with the rise of labor movements, but never made the transition to government-run health care that occurred in other societies with a similar history. The health hazards of early twentieth-century industrial life were tremendous. A demand of organized labor was that companies be responsible for the health damage they inflicted upon the workers and these demands resulted in health insurance provided by employers to large numbers of employees. For a variety of socio-political reasons, from American individualism to strong anti-communist sentiment, attempts to replace the employer-sponsored health care system with a government system like what was developed in the United Kingdom failed. Rent is a benefit which was often provided by employers in the past and in some cases still is. Historical rent providing for lower-paid positions were riddled with abuse where employers would use their control over the living conditions of employees to control their lives in an effort to make them more productive or as methods of recapturing wages. 'Company towns' where employees had little access to housing or goods not provided by their employer gained such a bad reputation that many governments have a variety of rules to try to limit the abuses. It takes a lot of conjecture to explain why some historical trends endure while others are replaced or why others don't even arise. The best we can usually do is describe situations of various sorts and try to glean some understanding from them.",
"If you're interested in the history of the US health care system, This American Life has a great episode on it called \"[Someone Else's Money]( URL_0 )\". Act II answers this question specifically.",
"Healthcare insurance being linked to companies was started to give them a recruiting/retention advantage over their competitors. In the past, this was paid for mostly or in whole by companies. Now it's more like companies collectively bargain for this stuff for you...but most companies really don't seem to try hard to get the best deals for you, only a few tiers of coverage. It's an area where there really doesn't seem to have been much evolution aside from the insurance companies finding ways to make you pay more for less."
] | [
[
"job increases the financial risk associated with moving jobs, making change in jobs a very costly endeavor, so workers are more likely to stay locked into their current jobs instead of risking the job transfer.\nIf employees knew that all their illnesses would receive identical coverage regardless of whether they worked, where they worked, or how long they had been on the job, health insurance would not be a deterrent to worker mobility.\nWhile health insurance may be purchased on an individual basis in states that permit medical underwriting, individuals with health conditions may be declined coverage as well as face high",
"-27.245525998082485"
],
[
"a strong role of the government in healthcare. In terms of public opinion concerning how well the healthcare system actually works, there is a general consensus that the public believes healthcare institutions themselves are doing their jobs well and providing sufficient care. The most overwhelming problem reported by people who took a 2005 survey was that wait times to receive care are too long, though those surveyed reported that this problem could be fixed by the hiring of more physicians. Voluntary Health Insurance Although Spain does have universal health care, it is not the only source of protection available to",
"-25.767244996561203"
],
[
"any occupational healthcare paid for by employers renders private healthcare insurance unnecessary. Nonetheless, around 10% of Germans have some form of private healthcare insurance which enables them to experience a slightly higher level of comfort during hospital stays. The most notable development in this area has been the Netherlands, which in 2005 moved to a system whereby all citizens are forced to take out private healthcare insurance rather than social insurance. In south America, Argentine is the country with a large percentage of people who have a health insurance, in the year 2016 the estadístic of the municipal government determined",
"-25.57713999963744"
],
[
"that doctors treat poor populations differently, showing that disadvantaged patients are less likely to receive the recommended diabetic treatments and are more likely to undergo hospitalization due to the complications of diabetes (Agency for Health Care Research and Quality, 2003). According to the WHO, healthcare systems can most improve health equality when institutions are organized to provide universal coverage, where everyone receives the same quality healthcare regardless of ability to pay, as well as a Primary Healthcare system rather than emergency center assistance.\nThese structural problems result in worse healthcare and therefore worse health outcomes for impoverished populations. Health care costs",
"-25.296920494933147"
],
[
"term \"health insurance\" is most commonly used by the public to describe coverage for medical expenses, the insurance industry uses the term more broadly to include other related forms of coverage, such as disability income and long-term care insurance. Disability income insurance Disability income (DI) insurance pays benefits to individuals who become unable to work because of injury or illness. DI insurance replaces income lost while the policyholder is unable to work during a period of disability (in contrast to medical expense insurance, which pays for the cost of medical care). For most working age adults, the risk",
"-25.27234771910298"
],
[
"usage, coverage, and quality are also observed, not only between immigrants and citizens but also among immigrant groups as well. Healthcare providers The health care system in the United States is made up of both public and private insurers, with the private sphere generally dominating in providing coverage. Despite this, the federal government remains important given its role in determining public health benefits—for instance, Medicaid, the United States health program for families and individuals of low income. Following the enactment of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act (PRWORA) in 1996, existing gaps in health care coverage between immigrants and",
"-25.25954787261435"
],
[
"similar to the United States health system, medical care is provided by private physicians and by private and public hospitals and patients have free choice of physicians. In addition, most people receive health insurance coverage through their workplace and health insurance is provided by multiple third-party insurers (Chernichovsky, 1995). On the other hand, planned/public-based health systems such as in the United Kingdom expects that healthcare is a right (Chernichovsky, 1995). As such, health demands are provided directly through budgeting and management of providers. Low and middle income countries (LMICs) are placed in between these continuum. In most LMICs, various",
"-25.069399713916937"
],
[
"health issues in the workplace, with a call to employers to pay more attention and to take a proactive approach in recognizing issues that may be mental health related. However, many workers do not feel comfortable sharing information about their mental health with those at work. This can be attributed to the stigma with which mental illness is likely to be regarded, as well as the perception that mental illness will interfere with work duties. Research Studies show that one third of workers \"admit to faking an illness to get the day off work because they feel they are not",
"-24.891347301381757"
],
[
"insurance and is less likely to have access to a hospital or clinic. As a result, this lack of access to adequate health care is an example of economic status; the interaction of income with race and sex. Reproductive freedom Minority women are likely of not knowing how to access information, health care, and family planning techniques that educate them with reproductive freedom. Due to the disproportionate presence of minority women, among poorer groups, depend on Federally funded health care. The restrictions on Medicaid funding abortion, has led to an increase of deaths and injuries from illegal or self-induced abortions.",
"-24.77183451637393"
],
[
"increase the risk of adverse birth outcomes, which is reflective of a communities health. Housing conditions can create varying degrees of health risk that lead to complications of birth and long-term consequences in the aging population. In addition, occupational hazards can add to the detrimental effects of poor housing conditions. It has been reported that a greater number of minorities work in jobs that have higher rates of exposure to toxic chemical, dust and fumes.\nRacial segregation is another environmental factor that occurs through the discriminatory action of those organizations and working individuals within the real estate industry, whether",
"-24.34508819610346"
],
[
"two factors results in the spread of diseases amongst the poor whom cannot afford better healthcare. Also, one cannot deny that a healthy and well-fed citizen is better suited for increased productivity as part of the workforce. Thus, poverty matters because it affects the social welfare of citizens.",
"-24.30820228455559"
],
[
"past. This shift has dramatic implications on both care work itself and on society as a whole. As care work is increasingly marketized there is a possibility that those that need care—the sick, the elderly and children—will not be able to afford the care they need. Another concern is that the quality of care may decrease in response to the call for profit-making and efficiency.\nAs a consequence of these and other concerns, this marketization of care work is under much public and academic scrutiny. These discussions focus on an array of issues including explanations for the endemic low-pay of care",
"-24.287718089006376"
],
[
"Protecting Access to Medicare Act of 2014 Background In the United States, Medicare is a national social insurance program, administered by the U.S. federal government since 1966, that guarantees access to health insurance for Americans aged 65 and older who have worked and paid into the system, younger people with disabilities, and a few other groups. As a social insurance program, Medicare spreads the financial risk associated with illness across society to protect everyone, and thus has a somewhat different social role from for-profit private insurers, which manage their risk portfolio by adjusting their pricing according to perceived risk.\nIn 2010,",
"-24.14201922682696"
],
[
"Presenteeism Presenteeism or working while sick can cause productivity loss, poor health, exhaustion and workplace epidemics. While the contrasting subject of absenteeism has historically received extensive attention in the management sciences, presenteeism has only recently been studied. In Singapore, the term may also refer to the practice where employees stay in the office even after their work is done to wait until their bosses leave.\nCertain occupations such as welfare and teaching are more prone to presenteeism. Doctors may attend work while sick due to feelings of being irreplaceable. Jobs with large workloads are associated with presenteeism. People whose self-esteem is",
"-24.095912426666473"
],
[
"in them, has also been correlated with increased benefits. Decreased hospitalization and shorter durations of hospitalization indicate that self-help groups result in financial savings for the health care system, as hospitalization is one of the most expensive mental health services. Similarly, reduced utilization of other mental health services may translate into additional savings for the system.\nWhile self-help groups for mental health increase self-esteem, reduce stigma, accelerate rehabilitation, improve decision-making, decrease tendency to decompensate under stress, and improve social functioning, they are not always shown to reduce psychiatric symptomatology. The therapeutic effects are attributed to the increased social support, sense of",
"-24.007135579769965"
],
[
"Primary Care settings have an opportunity to directly impact health care disparities by designing \"…strategies to enhance cooperative or healthy behavior\". \"The premise is that mismatches in models (i.e., expectations about illness and health interactions) between the patient and the health provider may render medical care ‘psychologically’ inaccessible to ethnic minorities, resulting in poorer health outcomes for these populations (possibly via noncompliance).\" Strategies that help bridge mismatches improve treatment outcomes and make care more accessible for underserved populations.\nBy establishing a role in primary care, the front-line of health-care delivery, Behavioral Health providers gain direct access to patients and",
"-24.00035808220855"
],
[
"or rely on emergency rooms for care, since health care is provided for the entire population. However, inequality issues still remain. For example, not everyone has the same level of access to services. Inequalities in health are not, however, only related to access to health care. Even if everyone had the same level of access, inequalities may still remain. This is because health status is a product of more than just how much medical care people have available to them. While Medicare has equalized access to health care by removing the need for direct payments at the time of services,",
"-23.931603628691846"
],
[
"continuing to live at home for as long as possible. It is widely believed more would remain at home if health aides and visiting nurses were covered as an intermediate step towards full skilled nursing. Medicaid is often described as possessing an \"institutional bias\" in favor of nursing homes over in-home care. Recent public and private studies suggest substantial cost savings could accrue from a revision of Medicaid policy. [cite?] Costs drive change, so new options should be watched for.\nNursing home choices depend primarily on the medical needs. Some need intermediate care facilities and others need skilled nursing facilities",
"-23.895834054390434"
],
[
"or services not rendered. Quality of care There is significant debate regarding the quality of the U.S. healthcare system relative to those of other countries. Although there are advancements in the quality of care in America due to the acknowledgement of various health related topics such as how insurance plans are now mandated to include coverage for those with mental health and substance abuse disorders as well with the inability to deny a person who has preexisting conditions through the ACA, there is still much that needs to be improved. Within the U.S., those who are a racial/ethnic minority along",
"-23.84046596920234"
],
[
"rather than attend to the needs of low and middle-income households through paid leave and child care as well as increasing minimum wage.\nUnlike other areas of education, early childhood care and education (ECCE) places strong emphasis on developing the whole child – attending to his or her social, emotional, cognitive and physical needs – in order to establish a solid and broad foundation for lifelong learning and well-being. 'Care' includes health, nutrition and hygiene in a warm, secure and nurturing environment; and ‘education’ includes stimulation, socialization, guidance, participation, learning and developmental activities. ECCE begins at birth and can be organized",
"-23.8344949867751"
],
[
"chronic diseases; older adults who have worked in the construction industry have shown high rates of chronic diseases. Experts suggest that the number of geriatricians will have to triple to meet the demands of the rising elderly. There is expected to be a similarly increased demand in other healthcare professionals, such as nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists and dentists. In addition, there is expected to be an increasing demand over common geriatric care consumption needs, such as medications, joint replacements and cardiovascular operations. Society Population aging can potentially change American society as a whole. Many companies use an antiquated system,",
"-23.79653110241634"
],
[
"Since the design of healthcare environments is said to influence patient's outcomes, yet high costs prevent most hospitals from renovating or rebuilding, changes in lighting becomes a cost-effective way to improve existing environments. It is proven that people who are surrounded by natural light are more productive and live healthier lives. When patients are sick, and surrounded by medical equipment and white walls, the last thing they need is a dark, stuffy room. This is why it is important for every room to have a window for natural light to come into and help create a healing",
"-23.746458880224964"
],
[
"been a barrier to the implementation of the Primary Care Behavioral Health Consultant model. The cost of treatment and lack of affordable health care has been a barrier for many people with mental illness to receive treatment. In the private sector insurance market mental health treatment is often segregated from other medical care, isolated in separate systems of care and payment. Typically this makes it more difficult for patients to access services readily, if at all. For uninsured patients the United States federal government can provide (depending on eligibility criteria) Medicaid which provides insurance coverage for",
"-23.713260429678485"
],
[
"in a more expensive child care facility. A study done by Roberta Iversen and Annie Armstrong explains that due to long and irregular working hours of working parents, low- socioeconomic families are more likely to utilize informal childcare. Those low income families are also more apt to work longer hours on an irregular and inflexible schedule, which ultimately makes using a childcare facility, that has regular business hours, unlikely. Children caring for the parents Many types of childcare discuss the different ways in which children are cared for by parents or older children. One additional type of child care involves",
"-23.65207696268044"
],
[
"pediatricians. A study by Jane Park et al. found that mental health conditions increase in prevalence as children get older and age into adulthood, and ASHCN who have mental health conditions (with or without physical conditions) fare worse on their transition to adult healthcare. The MCHB recommends that children should have their transition to adult healthcare be mediated and provided for by their doctors. The Bureau requires that doctors need to have discussed with the adolescents with SHCN and their families three points: how to transition to adult primary care doctors as opposed to pediatricians, how health needs will change",
"-23.585770587495063"
],
[
"much of the direct health care costs can be attributed to diagnosed and undiagnosed depression, but what is clear that the presence of depression in elderly affects their quality of life, which can potentially be improved if depression is recognized and treated promptly. In addition, prompt treatment of depression may reduce direct health care costs in the elderly population. Multiple chronic conditions in elderly population Elderly patients with multiple chronic conditions are also associated with higher health care use and cost. Studies conducted showed that the illness level of the elderly is what directly affects health care use and costs;",
"-23.583676643233048"
],
[
"the European Health Insurance Card. Self-insured students have to pay an insurance fee of EUR 52.68 per month.\nEnrollment in the public health care system is generally automatic and is linked to employment, however insurance is also guaranteed to co-insured persons (i.e. spouses and dependents ), pensioners, students, the disabled, and those receiving unemployment benefits. Enrollment is compulsory, and it is not possible to cross-shop the various social security institutions. Employers register their employees with the correct institution and deduct the health insurance tax from employees' salaries. Some people, such as the self-employed, are not automatically enrolled but are eligible to",
"-23.560409015452024"
],
[
"Mental health consumer A mental health consumer (or mental health patient) is a person who is obtaining treatment or support for a mental disorder, also known as psychiatric or mental illness. The term was coined by people who use mental health services in an attempt to empower those with mental health issues, usually considered a marginalized segment of society. The term suggests that there is a reciprocal contract between those who provide a service and those who use a service and that individuals have a choice in their treatment and that without them there could not exist",
"-23.555925755470525"
],
[
"in 2018 such as with the creation of the Religious Liberty Task Force in July of that year. In addition, many providers and practitioners in the United States are only beginning to realize that the institution of mental healthcare lacks knowledge and competence of many non-Western cultures, leaving providers in the United States ill-equipped to treat patients from different cultures. Emotional improvement Unemployment has been shown to have a negative impact on an individual's emotional well-being, self-esteem and more broadly their mental health. Increasing unemployment has been shown to have a significant impact on mental health, predominantly depressive disorders. This",
"-23.50443108845502"
],
[
"is a key factor in an older person's well being, especially since this facility may be the last place an older person resides in. Therefore, being open minded about residents' sexual life would be very beneficial to older people. Legal and ethical issues One of the main reasons residential homes do not care to facilitate intimate relationships is because employees may have a hard time distinguishing a desired sexual partnership from an undesired one. The residential care faces possible issues if a resident is being taken advantage of especially if they are incapable physically or mentally to protect them self.",
"-23.48014519031858"
],
[
"leave or options for reduced hours. Workplaces are realizing that employees with well balanced family and work lives are actually valuable to firms: workplace childcare assistance can increase productivity and morale among employees, as well as lessen turnover, accidents, and absenteeism. Childcare options for working parents can be key in workplace satisfaction. Workplace supports such as personal time off, paid leave, on-site or nearby childcare, financial assistance for childcare, and other family-friendly policies are Western European workplace norms that could solve the work–family balance problem in the United States.\nThere are many other options of work–family policies that lead to happier",
"-23.473253219766775"
],
[
"psychosocial health, nutrition, wellness, access to healthcare services, and threat of violence. The exchange of these elements in a home mediates in the impacts of geographical, cultural, and household patterns that result in inequality in health status and outcomes. Health-related behaviors, access and use of healthcare, stress, and psychosocial resources like social ties, coping, and spirituality all serve as factors that mediate health inequality. Household discrimination causes missing girls at birth, and the persistence of discrimination and poor service delivery perpetuates high female mortality. Societal causes Socioeconomic status has long been related to health, those higher in the social",
"-23.472278042303515"
],
[
"poverty and accessing health care are lower socioeconomic status. Although the Canada Health Act provides everyone with access to health care without financial obligation, people of lower socioeconomic status typically had lower education level and were less likely to seek medical advice from a health care professional. Other health risks associated with low income and low education are an increase in high risk behaviors leading to poor health including smoking, obesity, and substance abuse specifically alcohol. People of higher income have means to pay for resources which could improve health, such as weight loss programs, gym memberships, smoking",
"-23.450311485071268"
],
[
"mental health providers to work in underserved (often rural) areas, integrating mental health into primary care, and increasing reimbursement to health care professionals.\nSocial workers also tend to experience competing for work and family demands, which negatively affects their job well-being and subsequently their job satisfaction, resulting in high turnover in the profession.",
"-23.44763709342078"
],
[
"United States is provided by many separate legal entities. Health care facilities are largely owned and operated by the private sector. Health insurance in the United States is now primarily provided by the government in the public sector, with 60–65% of healthcare provision and spending coming from programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, TRICARE, the Children's Health Insurance Program, and the Veterans Health Administration. Having some form of comprehensive health insurance is statutorily compulsory for most people lawfully residing within the US.\nMedicare is a social insurance program administered by the United States government, providing health insurance coverage to people who are",
"-23.422110461076954"
],
[
"human-rights dilemma of health care in the 21st century.\" Human right to health care An alternative way to conceptualize one facet of the right to health is a “human right to health care.” Notably, this encompasses both patient and provider rights in the delivery of healthcare services, the latter being similarly open to frequent abuse by the states. Patient rights in health care delivery include: the right to privacy, information, life, and quality care, as well as freedom from discrimination, torture, and cruel, inhumane, or degrading treatment. Marginalized groups, such as migrants and persons who have been displaced, racial",
"-23.415966091037262"
],
[
"health insurance increased utilization of services and improved health.\n A study at Johns Hopkins Hospital found that heart transplant complications occurred most often amongst the uninsured, and that patients who had private health plans fared better than those covered by Medicaid or Medicare. Reform The Affordable Care Act of 2010 was designed primarily to extend health coverage to those without it by expanding Medicaid, creating financial incentives for employers to offer coverage, and requiring those without employer or public coverage to purchase insurance in newly created health insurance exchanges. This requirement for almost all individuals to maintain health insurance",
"-23.400608148571337"
],
[
"primary caregivers for chronically ill children spent an average of around $8800 and 28.5 hours on medical appointments in the past three months, causing them to miss an average of 4 days of work. Mental health Childhood chronic pain often exists alongside mental health conditions like anxiety disorders, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with elevated rates of these disorders lasting into adulthood. There are a variety of theories that address this relationship. Chronic pain is emotionally stressful both to the child affected and to his or her family, which may increase their risks for mental illness. Chronic pain",
"-23.391976304119453"
],
[
"Occupational safety and health Definition As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) \"occupational health deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention of hazards.\" Health has been defined as \"a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.\" Occupational health is a multidisciplinary field of healthcare concerned with enabling an individual to undertake their occupation, in the way that causes least harm to their health. Health has been defined as It contrasts, for example, with the promotion of health",
"-23.33283054876665"
],
[
"Mental health day Background Major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and other mental illnesses can cause severe impairment on one's ability to function in the workplace or other roles. In addition, workplace and other stressors can exacerbate episodes of depression, mania, anxiety, or other illnesses. Left unchecked, mental health may continue to decline and can lead to serious morbidity. However, due to the lack of objective criteria and cultural perceptions that one can easily change mental health status, there may not be a perceived need for time off of work for mental health reasons.\nSince most places have no law requiring employees",
"-23.321987330622505"
],
[
"further limitation of the correlation is that it does not necessarily imply that the causality runs from income to health. It could actually be that better health, as proxied by life expectancy, contributes to higher incomes, rather than vice versa. Better health can increase incomes because healthier individuals tend to be more productive than sick ones; on average they work harder, longer and are more capable of focusing efficiently on production tasks. Furthermore, better health may affect not just the level of income but also its growth rate through its effect on education. Healthier children spend more time at school",
"-23.30725321933278"
],
[
"health equity (Kivimaki et al., 2003). This occurs because poor employment conditions exposes individuals to health hazards, which are more likely for low-status jobs. Evidence confirms that high job demand, low control, and low rewards for effort in these low status jobs are risk factors for mental and physical health problems, such as a 50% excess risk of heart disease (Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). The growing power of massive, conglomerate global corporations and institutions to set labor policy and standards agendas has disempowered workers, unions, and the job-seeking by subjecting these individuals to health-damaging working conditions. (EMCONET, 2007).",
"-23.27775505563477"
],
[
"daycare facilities tend to develop social skills more quickly than children of the same age group that are reared at home. They communicate better with children of the same age and often try harder to communicate with those that are younger than them, by using patience and taking different approaches at presenting the data. Surprisingly, a study done by Erik Dearing, has proven that negative social behavioral patterns are not directly connected to daycare. By studying a large selection of children from the Norwegian childcare system he concluded that the number of hours a child spends at a",
"-23.272669676298392"
],
[
"Personal health application Definition Personal Health Application is an electronic tool of storing, managing and sharing health information in illness and wellness by an individual in a secure and confidential environment. Benefits Most people do not carry medical records when they leave home. They do not realize that in an emergency these medical records can make a big difference; additionally, it is hard to predict when an emergency might occur. In fact, they could save a life. Previous medications, history of allergy to medications, and other significant medical or surgical history can help a health professional through PHA tools to",
"-23.257855994008423"
],
[
"lower spending, including on avoidable emergency department visits and hospital care. With that being said, primary care physicians are an important component in ensuring that the healthcare system as a whole is sustainable. However, despite their importance to the healthcare system, the primary care position has suffered in terms of its prestige in part due to the differences in salary when compared to doctors that decide to specialize. In a 2010 national study of physician wages conducted by the UC Davis Health System found that specialists are paid as much as 52 percent more than primary care physicians, even though",
"-23.244657175106113"
],
[
"on their families also (in a community in which most households have one wage earner). Many communities retain the idea that mental health is a product of ‘possession’ or have other mythological roots, and significant stigma is still attached to mental health issues. Because of these beliefs many sufferers (or their families) seek alternative forms of treatment and do not access conventional healthcare. The behaviour of those mentally ill often could trigger in others different emotions such as fear, anger, disgust, etc. which might then lead to a response of hostility or even aggression by neighbors or villagers who do",
"-23.23240633957903"
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[
"skills in applying practical information. A patient's literacy can also affect their rating of healthcare quality. A poor healthcare experience may cause a patient to avoid returning to that same provider. This creates a delay in acute symptom management. Providers must consider health literacy when designing treatment plans that require self-management skills.\nCo-morbid conditions: A patient with multiple chronic illnesses may experience compounding effects of their illnesses. This can include worsening of one condition by the symptoms or treatment of another. People tend to prioritize one of their conditions. This limits the self-care management of their other illnesses. One condition may",
"-23.218740333984897"
],
[
"believe that children and adults without health insurance have access to needed health care services at hospital emergency rooms, community health centers, or other safety net facilities offering charity care. Some observers note that there is a solid body of evidence showing that a substantial proportion of U.S. health care expenditures is directed toward care that is not effective and may sometimes even be harmful. At least for the insured population, spending more and using more health care services does not always yield better health outcomes or increase life expectancy.\nChildren in America are typically perceived as in good health relative",
"-23.164036910398863"
],
[
"Transitional care Transitional care refers to the coordination and continuity of health care during a movement from one healthcare setting to either another or to home, called care transition, between health care practitioners and settings as their condition and care needs change during the course of a chronic or acute illness. Older adults who suffer from a variety of health conditions often need health care services in different settings to meet their many needs. For young people the focus is on moving successfully from child to adult health services. \nA recent position statement from the American Geriatrics Society defines transitional",
"-23.158275052715908"
],
[
"schemes, who are dealing with people who are often prepared to spend 12 or more hours a day focusing on those issues and who can make amazing barrack-room lawyers – I do not want to be insulting – because they have so much time to concentrate on that. So it is a difficult as well as an important issue. Housing designed for older people whose needs change as they age faces an almost built-in conflict of interest. They need more services as they age, so the costs are going to rise as more care is provided. Their income tends to",
"-23.144644794185297"
],
[
"These traits of self-care and self-reliance have helped many people with disabilities develop communication skills to \"include P.E.C.S. and sign language that make them marketable to many companies.\"\nVocational and employment training helps prepare students by providing them the tools to learn skills such as gardening and landscaping, janitorial services, food packaging and distribution. This allows employees to work independently in the field in which they choose to study. Employment Programs People with disabilities are one of the largest groups of unemployed adults. These people face discrimination when it comes to training, accommodations and assistive technological services that make it possible",
"-23.09477936598705"
],
[
"access to health care remains a challenge, both in developing and developed countries. In the United States, before the Affordable Health Care Act came into effect, 25% of women of child-bearing age lacked health insurance. In the absence of adequate insurance, women are likely to avoid important steps to self care such as routine physical examination, screening and prevention testing, and prenatal care. The situation is aggravated by the fact that women living below the poverty line are at greater risk of unplanned pregnancy, unplanned delivery and elective abortion. Added to the financial burden in this group are poor educational",
"-23.08321182616055"
],
[
"illnesses versus chronic illnesses. In general, it was found that as socioeconomic status increased, the probability of seeking healthcare increased. Educational level did not correlate to probability of healthcare-seeking behavior for acute illnesses, however, there was a positive correlation between educational level and chronic illnesses. This 2016 study also considered the social aspect of gender as a determinant for health-seeking behavior, finding that male children and adult men were more likely to receive treatment for acute ailments compared to their female counterparts in the areas of rural Bihar and Uttar Pradesh represented in the study. These inequalities in healthcare based",
"-23.057473115070025"
],
[
"Moreover, they also have lower levels of satisfaction with conventional healthcare.",
"-23.055236562155187"
],
[
"These health care providers often deal with the same illnesses, disorders, conditions, and issues; however their scope of practice often differs. The most significant difference across categories of mental health practitioners is education and training. Maternal and newborn health practitioners A maternal and newborn health practitioner is a health worker who deals with the care of women and their children before, during and after pregnancy and childbirth. Such health practitioners include obstetricians, midwives, obstetrical nurses and many others. One of the main differences between these professions is in the training and authority to provide surgical services and other life-saving interventions.",
"-23.040077169353026"
],
[
"care materials. This mismatch between a clinician's level of communication and a patient's ability to understand can lead to medication errors and adverse outcomes.\nThe Institute of Medicine (2004) report found low health literacy levels negatively affects healthcare outcomes. In particular, these patients have a higher risk of hospitalization and longer hospital stays, are less likely to comply with treatment, are more likely to make errors with medication, and are more ill when they seek medical care. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service (NHS) began an ambitious pay for performance initiative in 2004, known as the Quality",
"-23.02391400655324"
],
[
"and more work shifting from agricultural and manufacturing industries to the service industry, young people were required to leave their homes and find housing closer to where they were working on studying. Indeed, the increase in post-secondary education, such as community colleges, which don't provide dormitories for students also contributed to this large increase in demand for affordable housing. However, the government did not appropriately anticipate this growing need, and cuts to housing subsidies combined with an increase in housing rates without a comparative increase in wages for young workers dried up the available affordable housing.\nTowards the end",
"-22.935942574957153"
],
[
"workers. For many employees, the option to work from home is available as an employee benefit but most participants only do so a fraction of the time. Top paid among work-from-home sectors are home-based physicians and radiologists in which it is suspected that they earn near the $1,975 median weekly income of physicians, as reported by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, making it a six-figure job. Studies show that at-home workers are willing to earn up to 30% less and experience heightened productivity.\nIn 2009, the United States Office of Personnel Management reported that approximately 103,000 federal employees were teleworking.",
"-22.891671738885634"
],
[
"levels of care—is the most visible part of any healthcare system, both to users and the general public. There are many ways of providing healthcare in the modern world. The place of delivery may be in the home, the community, the workplace, or in health facilities. The most common way is face-to-face delivery, where care provider and patient see each other in person. This is what occurs in general medicine in most countries. However, with modern telecommunications technology, in absentia health care or Tele-Health is becoming more common. This could be when practitioner and patient communicate over the phone,",
"-22.881145585430204"
],
[
"in the home. Many older adults suffer from chronic conditions such as diabetes, arthritis, and cardiopulmonary conditions. Occupational therapists can help manage these conditions by offering education on energy conservation strategies or coping strategies. Not only do occupational therapists work with older adults in their homes, they also work with older adults in hospitals, nursing homes and post-acute rehabilitation. In nursing homes, the role of the occupational therapist is to work with clients and caregivers on education for safe care, modifying the environment, positioning needs and enhancing IADL skills to name a few. In post-acute rehabilitation, occupational therapists work with",
"-22.87771450408036"
],
[
"to governmentally funded hospitals. The study showed that it was not so much the availability and access to health care for citizens, as it was the quality of the public health care people were receiving that drove them to opt for private clinics instead. The continued lack of health insurance, especially in the majority of rural provinces (where 90% of people in these rural provinces lack health insurance) demonstrates a continued gap in health equality. Challenges Many minority groups are still facing challenges in gaining equality in healthcare access. Due to the 1980s health reform, there has been a general",
"-22.83666490833275"
],
[
"school, or to engage in other activities. A well located dwelling might save significant household travel costs and therefore improve overall family economics, even if the rent is higher than a dwelling in a poorer location. \nA household's inhabitants must decide whether to pay more for housing to keep commuting time and expense low, or to accept a long or expensive commute to obtain \"better\" housing. The absolute availability of housing is not generally considered in the calculation of affordable housing. In a depressed or sparsely settled rural area, for example, the predicted price of the canonical median two-bedroom apartment",
"-22.815081657245173"
],
[
"cause psychological stress, physical strain, and health issues with little pay or compensation in the form of food, clothing, and shelter. Because domestic service occurs in the home, it is often not considered economic work. Therefore, there are minimal regulations for fair working conditions and wages.\nOther informal industries with large child labour activity (age below 18) include ship breaking and recycling operations, production of soap, matches, bricks, cigarettes, footwear, furniture, glass, jute, leather, textiles, restaurants, garbage picking and trash hunting, vending, begging, portering, and van pulling. Many working children earn less than 10 US dollars per month. Formal sector The",
"-22.803481540562643"
],
[
"to their attitudes toward work. Among older workers, longer work hours might be beneficial as work-based social networks offer a structured environment, social support, and companionship. Risk mitigation While a definitive conclusion could not be made, suggestions exist to minimize the potential risks of long working hours. Creation of the work schedule should be managed properly to avoid multiple consecutive shifts, long periods of working without rest, and balanced breaks during the day. For families with children, it is very important for that employees can manage their schedule for family or personal needs. This will help",
"-22.77773499934119"
],
[
"care is necessary for the development of human life and, on a larger scale, for functional societies. The target of teaching individuals to care for others may lead to forms of distributional struggle, particularly along gender lines.\nA popular belief in economics is that the household sector is a wealth spender rather than a wealth creator, although many argue that the household sector plays a very important role in wealth creation. Unlike the business sector, the wealth created by the household sector is not financial wealth, which is unsurprising in that much of the work done in the household sector is",
"-22.772903307253728"
],
[
"health benefits Individuals with mental illness can develop social connections over social media, that may foster a sense of social inclusion in online communities. Sufferers of mental illness may share personal stories in a perceived safer space, as well as gaining peer support for developing coping strategies. People with mental illness are likely to report avoiding stigma and gaining further insight into their mental health condition by using social media. This comes with the risk of unhealthy influences, misinformation, and delayed access to traditional mental health outlets.\nOther benefits include connections to supportive online communities, including illness or disability specific communities,",
"-22.767118174408097"
],
[
"self. The researchers argue that policy makers who provide information to consumers on retirement savings should also consider simultaneously enhancing psychological connectedness. People are most likely to save rather than spend when they are knowledgeable about the outcomes of their decisions and feel connected to their future selves.\nIn 2017, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau included a measure of psychological connectedness to the future self in its first Financial Wellbeing Survey. Health Applying the existing theory, researchers hypothesized that increasing feelings of connectedness with the future self should cause people to make healthier dieting and exercising decisions. Correlational evidence suggests that",
"-22.733663803534"
],
[
"of decentralization in government, limited government, and a tradition of classical liberalism are all possible explanations for the suspicion around the idea of compulsory government-run insurance. The American Medical Association (AMA) was also deeply and vocally opposed to the idea, which it labeled \"socialized medicine\". In addition, many urban US workers already had access to sickness insurance through employer-based sickness funds.\nEarly industrial sickness insurance purchased through employers was one influential economic origin of the current American health care system. These late-19th-century and early-20th-century sickness insurance schemes were generally inexpensive for workers: their small scale and local administration kept overhead low,",
"-22.724692937219515"
],
[
"Because of the difference in how patients, particularly those from underserved groups, may express their distress and respond to the stigma of mental illness providing Behavioral Health services through primary care will likely make services more psychologically and physically accessible.\nProviding culturally-competent, population based care can difficult to conceptualize, particularly in the context of the fast-paced environment of primary care. Hunter et al. propose \"a patient-centered, culturally competent approach for effective communication and care…that includes the Explanatory model of health and illness, Social and environmental factors affecting adherence, Fears and concerns about medication and side effects, Treatment understanding model of",
"-22.716684572573286"
],
[
"or refuse to seek help for psychiatric needs. As a general rule, patients who do choose to address their mental health concerns express a preference for services in primary care likely due to its familiarity and less stigmatizing environment. However, as many medical providers will admit, their training has left them ill-prepared to appropriately treat the psychiatric sequalae that presents in their clinic. The PCBH model has sought to address this dilemma by providing access to mental health services on site to more effectively target the biological, psychological, and social aspects of patient care. Resulting",
"-22.70733355995617"
],
[
"take a priority over healthcare. Thus, there is a compounding of issues that face communities of low socioeconomic status that lead to a lack of both preventative healthcare, and treatment once individuals do fall ill. Racial and ethnic disparities Studies suggest that racial and ethnic disparities are other key factors in healthcare disparities. One indicator of health in a population is percentage of respondents that, when prompted with the question \"Would you say that in general your health is— excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor?\", respond with fair or poor. In Massachusetts, 13.0% of respondents overall had fair or",
"-22.70551240750501"
],
[
"premiums or benefit exclusions.\nAn example of a job lock due to a defined benefit pension plan would be someone who has been working for a company for 20 years, thus accruing a higher retirement income benefit. If they leave to work for another company their benefits are reset and they eventually realize a lower level of retirement benefits. Prevalence A 1987 National Medical Expenditure Survey (NMES) that sampled married men in the United States aged 20–55 found job mobility rates were 30-31% lower among those with employment-provided health insurance coverage, compared with those without it. An NMES literature review in",
"-22.65288366904133"
],
[
"Theory of Self-Care of Chronic Illness, self-care is defined as the process of maintaining health through health promoting practices and managing illness and is performed in both healthy and ill states. Self-care is composed by three dimensions: self-care maintenance, self-care monitoring and self-care management. Factors affecting self-care are: experience and skill, motivation, cultural beliefs and values, confidence, habits, functional and cognitive abilities, support from others, and access to care. Self-care maintenance Self-care maintenance refers to those behaviors performed to improve well-being, preserve health, or to maintain physical and emotional stability.\nSelf-care maintenance behaviors include illness prevention, illness behaviors, and proper hygiene.",
"-22.56629732958754"
],
[
"is done primarily from home. Working from home is also known as Telecommuting.\nIn 2017, it was reported that 8 million people in the US are working from home, that is 5% of the entire US work force. This increase has been in response to the demand for more flexibility work environments. A 2017 report by a polling company named Gallup found that allowing their employees to work from home decreases employee turnover and increases employee productivity. Trend suggests the type of workers leading the work from home wave are professionals in industries such as finance, designers, computer scientists, and other",
"-22.522486664514872"
],
[
"policies making insurance more affordable for workers could potentially reduce coverage disparities, given that a large proportion of immigrants are less likely to be covered than native-born citizens.\nIn addition to proposed reform bills, alternative routes to improving health coverage rates have been sought, namely via the means of direct immigrant outreach initiatives. Studies indicate the overall effectiveness of state-funded coverage programs in reducing the immigrant-citizen health care disparities, but other efforts have been suggested for further results. For instance, states can encourage and promote greater use of health services by reducing enrollment barriers—e.g. dispersing more information about eligibility, reducing language",
"-22.505975635120194"
],
[
"whether or not they return to healthcare facilities. Black people are less likely to admit to hospitals however those that are admitted have longer stays than white people \nThe longer hospitalization of black patients does not improve care conditions, it makes it worse, especially when treated poorly by faculty. Not a lot of minorities are admitted into hospitals and those that are receive poor conditioned treatment and care. This discrimination results in misdiagnosis and medical mistakes that lead to high death rates.\nAlthough the Medicaid program was passed to ensure African Americans and other minorities received the healthcare treatment they deserved",
"-22.488450646138517"
],
[
"necessarily low quality of life when imagining having poorer health. Thus, patient forecasts and preferences about their own quality of life may conflict with public notions. Because a primary goal of healthcare is maximizing quality of life, knowledge about patients' forecasts can potentially inform policy on how resources are allocated.\nSome doctors suggest that research findings in affective forecasting errors merit medical paternalism. Others argue that although biases exist and should support changes in doctor-patient communication, they do not unilaterally diminish decision-making capacity and should not be used to endorse paternalistic policies. This debate captures the tension between medicine's emphasis on",
"-22.485840556721087"
],
[
"because of their recent entry to the work force or because they are still completing their education. Typically, once they enter the labour force or take a part-time job while in school, they start at entry level positions with low level wages. Furthermore, because of their lack of prior work experience, they can also often be forced to take marginal jobs, where they can be taken advantage of by their employers. As a result, many older people have to face obstacles in their lives. Inequalities in health Health inequalities can be defined as differences in health status or in the",
"-22.474533824264654"
],
[
"courses, it ensures that deaf individuals feel a part of the workplace and have the ability to communicate with their co-workers and employer in the manner as other hearing employees do. Health care Not only can communication barriers between deaf and hearing people affect family relationships, work, and school, but they can also have a very significant effect on a deaf individual’s physical and mental health care. As a result of poor communication between the health care professional and the deaf or hard of hearing patient, many patients report that they are not properly informed about their disease and prognosis.\nThis",
"-22.418747770767368"
],
[
"and relatively low cost mental health services, particularly for people with high-prevalence disorders such as depression and anxiety.\nA prominent concern of the Better Access initiative is its limited distribution of mental health care to rural, regional and remote areas. Better Access activity rates are typically greater in urban and more advantaged areas. However, this same criticism has also been leveled at other mental health services. Among psychiatrists, only one-third of the rural workforce live in rural Australia with most travelling from cities or using telepsychiatry. Activity rates for Better Access Medicare items across all practitioners decline with increasing remoteness. \nThe",
"-22.41642047080677"
],
[
"shortage of doctors in the United States, particularly those who offer primary care. The Affordable Care Act, if implemented, will produce an additional demand for services which the existing stable of primary care doctors will be unable to fill, particularly in economically depressed areas. Training additional physicians would require some years.\nLean manufacturing techniques such as value stream mapping can help identify and subsequently mitigate waste associated with costs of healthcare. Other product engineering tools such as FMEA and Fish Bone Diagrams have been used to improve efficiencies in healthcare delivery. Preventable deaths In 2010, coronary artery disease, lung cancer, stroke,",
"-22.4111787036818"
],
[
"Lifestyle medicine Lifestyle medicine is a branch of medicine dealing with research, prevention and treatment of disorders caused by lifestyle factors such as nutrition, physical inactivity, and chronic stress. In the clinic, major barriers to lifestyle counseling are that physicians feel ill-prepared and are skeptical about their patients' receptivity.\nPoor lifestyle choices like dietary patterns, physical inactivity, tobacco use, excessive alcohol consumption, as well as psychosocial factors, e.g. chronic stress and lack of social support and community, contribute to chronic disease. Coaching and supporting people how to cook healthy food at home can be part of a lifestyle-oriented medical practice.",
"-22.410671908059157"
],
[
"of new occupations can lead to a polarization of age cohorts by workforce. As a result, a quick shift of the occupational distribution increases occupational age discrimination. Health outcomes The unequal distribution of resources and social support between age strata can lead to health disparities in the population. In the U.S., evidence indicates older adults face higher risk of experiencing depression and other mental health issues.",
"-22.379164158541244"
],
[
"later on. Most of the bioethical literature however deals with tertiary medicine, and much less attention is paid to the daily concerns of primary care physicians and members of the primary care team (5).\nIn countries with well developed primary health care, patients often stay with the same practice for many years, allowing practices to gather a large amount of information and to develop personal relationships over time. Patients often see the same clinician for a variety of problems, at once or at different times. Whole families may see the same doctors and nurses, who may also be their friends and",
"-22.372029920021305"
],
[
"at their job, the more they will get paid. There is also a correlation between skill and education, suggesting that the more educated a worker is, the more skilled they will be. Therefore, there will be wage gaps between racial groups because of the differences in education and therefore, skill.\nAlso concerning the role of education in acquiring skills, people are now required to receive more education and earn higher degrees in order to get jobs than they have in the past. For example, many nurses are now required to have a bachelor's degree in nursing in order to work, which",
"-22.37202022776546"
],
[
"and for health planning.\nThe law is thought to be a consequence of induced demand i.e. physicians encouraging patients to consume services that the patients would not have chosen had they been fully informed. Health planning and certificate of need laws aim to prevent the waste that would otherwise occur due to Roemer's Law.\n\"One problem in this finding is that it could be the case that hospital stays are shorter in lower hospital bed per capita regions because of a deficit in supply (reverse causation). An increased number of beds may be due to patient preference for in-patient (rather than outpatient)",
"-22.368699554514023"
],
[
"daycare and their behavior have no dependent relations. Though in America, children who attend childcare systems have a higher risk of externalizing the symptoms of negative social behavior, exhibiting these traits can directly correlate with their time spent in the center.\nThere are links between the income, education, and importance of consistency and the well being of the child, to the parents, and the development of their child. Higher educated parents place more importance on the education of their children than the parents who do not have a college degree or have not graduated from high school. ",
"-22.365939850902578"
],
[
"entitlement to benefits in kind of health insurance and maternity his spouse or partner when it does not have a system of social protection, dependent children and any person taken in charge by the insured and who does not benefit from a system of social protection. Universal Health Coverage From 2000 a universal health coverage has been in place, providing two fundamental rights for access to care: a right to health insurance for anyone in stable and regular residence in the territory and a right for the most disadvantaged, submitted to resources, to a free coverage, with exemption from fee.\nThe",
"-22.35887497596559"
],
[
"Short-term health insurance In the United States, short-term health insurance or \"Short-term, limited-duration insurance\" (STLDI) refers to health insurance plans with a limited duration, typically several months to a year. These plans are geared toward people who need temporary medical insurance to bridge the gap between longer term plans. For instance, people who are switching employers, starting graduate school, or young adults who have become ineligible for coverage under their parents' plans and are searching for their own insurance might use a short-term insurance plan until obtaining a more permanent solution.\nShort-term health insurance plans are typically less expensive than traditional",
"-22.35208289072034"
],
[
"also an increase in mental illness compared to the general aging population, often associated with the same reasonings along with a lack of specified care. Therefore, it is very integral that HIV care is provided in terms of mental health and other services to the affected elderly population at large. Administering necessary medications and coverage for such medications and cocktails is a concern and a necessity for the elderly community living with HIV/AIDs, to which there is a disproportionate amount of LGBTQ+ persons. Modern history LGBTQ+ persons were not regarded in a distinctly positive light until the advent of the",
"-22.274943145384896"
],
[
"huge role in how people take care of themselves. Access to care is one major determinant of one's ability to carry out self-care maintenance behaviors.This includes having access to transportation to visit a health care service, availability of open hours of offices/clinics, and whether or not the care is affordable. These external factors can determine a person's ability to perform self-care maintenance because a person may not be able to perform a behavior based on its availability. Access to facilities that promote self-care within one's living environment is another factor that influences self-care maintenance. An individual's environment determines whether they",
"-22.25717405360774"
],
[
"public health’s focus has more so evolved around how people can be healthy. According to this surprisingly simple definition, public health’s mission is to promote positive health and prevention of health problems – disease, disability, premature death. That is, the traditional sense of individual health as understood and processed by health care services is “one essential condition for health,” but does is not the sole qualifier or an exchangeable term with “health.” In other words, health care services are not sufficient for health, as public health practitioners understand it – there are external factors that have both nuanced as well",
"-22.245235319962376"
],
[
"bound by law to give compulsory health insurance to all of its citizens. When a new employee is hired, the employers must register them with the institute. The combined contribution equates to 13.45%, 6.56% of which is paid for by the employer and 6.36% by the employee. The employer also pays another 0.53% fee for injuries at work and diseases.\nDependent family members are covered by the employed family members. Self-employed people must pay a fixed proportion of their after-tax income. The unemployed, elderly, long-term sickness patients, or people on maternity leave pay a fixed amount of healthcare contributions that depends",
"-22.22346733638551"
],
[
"and longer time are required for them to move from one place to another. Chronic pain Chronic pain causes stress and makes parents become less patient with their children in daily life. And more rest is needed, which limits the time allocated for parenting. The side effect caused by pain relief and other necessary medicines including possible addiction is another challenge faced by this kind of parents. Mentally disabled parents “Mental or behavioral disorder includes psychoses, neuroses, intellectual and developmental disorders, and other mental or behavioral disorders. ” Intellectual disabilities Parents with intellectual disabilities face great discrimination when they try to",
"-22.21402931670309"
],
[
"reduce the number of hours per week to 22 and spread across 52 weeks of the year. However, numerous childcare providers have argued that this policy is unworkable, as it means that they do not receive enough compensation from the government to make up for the lost childcare fees, and so their businesses are no longer financially viable. The government also introduced a policy to fund 15 hours a week of free education and childcare for 2-year olds in England if parents are receiving certain state benefits or the child has a SEN statement or diagnosis, worth £2,500 a year",
"-22.211210620444035"
],
[
"in the field \nSocial determinants of health do not exist in a vacuum. Their quality and availability to the population are usually a result of public policy decisions made by governing authorities. For example, early life is shaped by availability of sufficient material resources that assure adequate educational opportunities, food and housing among others. Much of this has to do with the employment security and the quality of working conditions and wages. The availability of quality, regulated childcare is an especially important policy option in support of early life. These are not issues that usually come under individual control",
"-22.153103643242503"
],
[
"children grow up in poverty. Studies have shown children growing up in poverty are 66% less likely to rise out of poverty. Single mothers, although working long strenuous hours at these low-paying jobs, are still unable to cope with the financial burden of childcare. With the burden of single-motherhood becoming more and more of a prevalent issue, one would think that it would begin to be taken into serious consideration by the public. However, progress toward gender integration has slowed, childcare expenses are on the rise, housing isn't getting any cheaper and health care is still expensive.\nHomosexuals have faced much",
"-22.150327960320283"
],
[
"suggests that health care is being rationed in Germany based on age, rationing being illegal and potentially responsible for the elderly not receiving the best treatment possible, ultimately, decreasing their potential for survival. Depression in elderly population One factor that largely contributes to the costs associated with old age is the presence of mental health issues, namely depression. A study was conducted on 451 primary care patients aged 75 and older. 63 out of the 451 patients were diagnosed with depression. Depressed and non-depressed individuals had similar education levels and did not have significant differences in age and gender. It",
"-22.131959621678106"
],
[
"increasing differentiation and specialization. These workers are unable to switch between occupations because they require different skills and investment in training and qualifications. For example, nurses and doctors form separate occupational labor markets even though they work side by side in the same organizations.\nGeographical labor markets emerge because of the costs and disruption workers incur in changing locations. As a result, wages for the same work can remain higher in some locations than others. Conversely, employers would incur costs and disruption if they attempted to relocate to an area of lower labor costs, and might experience increases in non-labor expenses.",
"-22.12536316284968"
],
[
"in higher socioeconomic levels will receive a better quality of healthcare.\nUninsured rate\nAnother concern is the rate of uninsured people in the US. In June 2014, Gallup–Healthways Well–Being conducted a survey and found that the uninsured rate is going down. 13.4 percent of U.S. adults are uninsured in 2014. This is a decrease from the percentage at 17.1 percent in January 2014 and translates to roughly 10 million to 11 million individuals who gained coverage. The survey also looked at the major demographic groups and found each is making progress towards getting health insurance. However, Hispanics, who have the highest uninsured",
"-22.114526438657776"
]
] |
1yimnd | How can thieves sell one-of-a-kind items like art and rare artifacts. | [
"They sell to very discreet buyers. Most of the buyers for these items have private collections and don't advertise what they have.",
"They also usually find a buyer before they steal the stuff.",
"Stealing something that is known is next to impossible to sell on any market (including the black market). The way it is done, is by first finding a client and then stealing it for them. This is why if these deals don't go through, it makes it a living hell for the thief (knowledge is out that he has it, so he has to be fast before he gets caught or people go after him for what he stole). It's a dangerous world to play with :)."
] | [
[
"Art theft Individual theft Many thieves are motivated by the fact that valuable art pieces are worth millions of dollars and weigh only a few kilograms at most. Transport for items such as paintings is also trivial, assuming the thief is willing to inflict some damage to the painting by cutting it off the frame and rolling it up into a tube carrier. Also, while most high-profile museums have extremely tight security, many places with multimillion-dollar art collections have disproportionately poor security measures. That makes them susceptible to thefts that are slightly more complicated than a typical smash-and-grab, but offer",
"-33.09382735932013"
],
[
"their business, maintaining longstanding contacts and even teaching thieves how to practice their craft, whether by identifying specific products or by teaching them tools of the trade.\nThe degree to which the purchasers of the stolen goods know or suspect that the items are stolen varies. If a purchaser buys a high-quality item for a low price, in cash, from a stranger at a bar or from the back of a van, there is a higher likelihood that the items may be stolen. On the other hand, if a purchaser buys the same high-quality item for the standard retail price from",
"-30.662749784401967"
],
[
"antiquities market are rarely concerned with exact dating and placement of the items. Antique dealers may also embellish a genuine item to make it more saleable. Sometimes traders may even sell items that are attributed to nonexistent cultures.\nAs is the case with art forgery, scholars and experts don't always agree on the authenticity of particular finds. Sometimes an entire research topic of a scholar may be based on finds that are later suspected as forgeries.",
"-29.340528086060658"
],
[
"kept vague it isn’t hard to find an artifact that looks similar to the one that was just sold. Material that was looted as recently as a week ago could illegally enter the legal market through an exchange of registry numbers. The tourist could, of course, be caught trying to take the antiquity out of the country without a permit. But even if they are, it’s hard to fault the dealer. After all they are under no obligation to let tourists know that they need an export permit.\nDealers claim that most of their antiquities come from private collections and are",
"-28.836674084188417"
],
[
"books and targeted volumes with higher prices. Thieves have been known to take whole stacks of books at once. According to a 1991 article in The Philadelphia Inquirer,\nstudies showed that the \"casual thief\", defined as \"not a professional but more than a one-timer\", accounted for 70 to 75 percent of shoplifting.\nIn 1992, the Los Angeles Times reported that thieves were so brazen in New York City that just outside St. Mark's Bookshop, \"sidewalk peddlers openly ply books – many of them still bearing St. Mark's telltale stamp – at half off the prices inside the store.\nIn the early 1990s, book",
"-28.749044177646283"
],
[
"or smelter for the value by weight of the component metals. Similarly, jewelry that contains genuine gemstones, even if broken or missing pieces, have value.\nThe pawnbroker assumes the risk that an item might have been stolen. However, laws in many jurisdictions protect both the community and broker from unknowingly handling stolen goods (also known as fencing). These laws often require that the pawnbroker establish positive identification of the seller through photo identification (such as a driver's license or government-issued identity document), as well as a holding period placed on an item purchased by a pawnbroker (to allow time for local",
"-28.56467589578824"
],
[
"sells an array of different merchandise including jewelry, watches, electronics, fine art, purses, and vehicles but also frequently has unusual auctions like a George W. Bush talking doll, coffins, kayaks, an X-ray machine, an eight-person bike, and a 7-foot fiberglass shark. Many of the items listed on PropertyRoom.com are seized or recovered stolen property provided by police agencies. The merchandise is only auctioned after the police have attempted to return the items to the rightful owner and the merchandise is no longer needed in any police investigation. All merchandise is first inspected by trained employees before being sold on",
"-28.04946352171828"
],
[
"career criminals generally steal items to resell them in the underground economy. Other forms of shoplifting include swapping price labels of different items, return fraud or eating a grocery store's food without paying for it. Commonly shoplifted items are those with a high price in proportion to their size, such as disposable razor blades, vitamins, alcoholic beverages and cigarettes. Retailers have reported that 0.6% of their inventory is lost to shoplifting.\nStores use a number of strategies to reduce shoplifting, including storing small, expensive items in locked glass cases; chaining or otherwise attaching items to shelves or clothes racks (particularly expensive",
"-27.44490861578379"
],
[
"stolen or looted art. Provenance helps assign the work to a known artist, and a documented history can be of use in helping to prove ownership. An example of a detailed provenance is given in the Arnolfini portrait.\nThe quality of provenance of an important work of art can make a considerable difference to its selling price in the market; this is affected by the degree of certainty of the provenance, the status of past owners as collectors, and in many cases by the strength of evidence that an object has not been illegally excavated or exported from another country. The",
"-27.049568543210626"
],
[
"Osdol, owner of Wellington Books in Portland, Oregon. \"It can be disastrous in a small store like this.\" Books frequently stolen According to several sources, in the United States certain books, or books by certain authors, are much more likely to be stolen than others, although there are no hard statistics on the subject.\nRon Rosenbaum, an author and New York Observer columnist, wrote in 1999 that Barnes & Noble had a list of these authors whose books are the most frequently stolen from that book-store chain (or perhaps the Union Square store in the chain, where his source, \"a helpful",
"-26.849776100178133"
],
[
"retailers, not wholesalers. It is not unheard of for online pawn shops like iPawn to also act as a reseller, and purchase rather than loan against valuables. Online auction and classifieds websites, such as those owned by eBay Inc. and Craigslist provide services for resellers to sell their goods and services. However although resellers are indeed retailers it does not follow that retailers are resellers.\nAnother common example of this is in the web hosting area, where a reseller will purchase bulk hosting from a supplier with the intention of reselling it to a number of consumers at",
"-26.825052910695376"
],
[
"be found for sale in thrift stores and pawnshops, auctions, garage sales, and in more recent times online auctions. Some stores sell both new and used goods (e.g. car dealerships), while others only sell new goods but may take used items in exchange for credit toward the purchase of newer goods. For example, some musical instrument stores and high-end audio stores only sell new gear, but they will accept good quality used items as trade ins towards the purchase of new items; after the store purchases the used items, they then sell them using online auctions or other services.\nWhen an",
"-26.41362330352422"
],
[
"used in libraries for privacy reasons.\nIn the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, the third conviction for library theft is a felony, regardless of the value of material.\nLibrary thieves, who may be staff or regular visitors of the library, risk being discovered if a book is found in the library catalog, but is missing from the shelves. To avoid this, some thieves also steal the corresponding catalog card. Trends In public libraries, librarians have noticed common themes in what subjects are most frequently stolen. Books on topics such as sex and witchcraft are popular with thieves, as are guides for General Educational",
"-26.40265576724778"
],
[
"quickly become obsolete and unsaleable. Pawnshop owners must learn about different makes and models of computers, software, and other electronic equipment, so they can value objects accurately.\nTo assess value of different items, pawnbrokers use guidebooks (\"blue books\"), catalogs, Internet search engines, and their own experience. Some pawnbrokers have trained in identification of gems, or employ a specialist to assess jewelry. One of the risks of accepting secondhand goods is that the item may be counterfeit. If the item is counterfeit, such as a fake Rolex watch, it may have only a fraction of the value of the genuine item. Once",
"-26.347777868038975"
],
[
"located, are (or soon to become) legitimate antiques .",
"-26.315637416235404"
],
[
"item is no longer of use to a person they may sell or pawn it, especially when they are in need of money. Items can also be sold (or taken away free of cost) as scrap (e.g. a broken-down old car will be towed away for free for its scrap metal value). Owners may sell the good themselves or to a dealer who then sells it on for a profit. They may also choose to give it away to another person this is often referred to as freecycling. However, because the process takes some effort on part of the owner",
"-26.265469026358915"
],
[
"Archaeological looting Archaeological looting is the illicit removal of artefacts from an archaeological site. Such looting is the major source of artefacts for the antiquities market. Looting has been linked to the economic and political stability of the possessing nation, with levels of looting increasing during times of crisis. However, looting is also endemic in so-called \"archaeological countries\" like Italy, Greece, Turkey, Sicily, Cyprus and other areas of the Mediterranean Basin, as well as many areas of Africa, South East Asia and Central and South America, which have a rich heritage of archaeological sites, a large proportion of which are",
"-26.21804656047607"
],
[
"pieces in a gallery or at auction. At even minimal prices this amounts to a $10-million-a-month business in stolen cultural property. Collecting Precolumbian art is often viewed as a justifiable means of preserving the past. It is, in fact, a destructive and sometimes violent business, as attested to by the recent assassination in Carmelita of Carlos Catalán, a local chiclero who had become a staunch opponent of looting in Petén.\"\nSince 2003, California-based non-profit organization Global Heritage Fund (GHF) has been working to preserve and protect Mirador. In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, GHF listed Mirador as",
"-26.159985467675142"
],
[
"of old art pieces without prior professional assessment of their value. This situation was first described by Kenneth J. Arrow in an article on health care in 1963.\nGeorge Akerlof in The Market for Lemons notices that, in such a market, the average value of the commodity tends to go down, even for those of perfectly good quality. Because of information asymmetry, unscrupulous sellers can \"spoof\" items (like replica goods such as watches) and defraud the buyer. As a result, many people not willing to risk getting ripped off will avoid certain types of purchases, or will not spend as much",
"-25.902951628580922"
],
[
"protect inventory from theft by hiring staff to supervise the different areas or install security cameras and alarms. Too much unsold inventory means that the store has not been able to realize value from these items to provide cash to lend.\nThe better option lies in the middle: a store with a moderate amount of good quality, brand-name items arranged neatly in the display windows attracts passersby, who are more likely to enter and shop. If items are attractively laid out in display cases and shelves, the pawnshop looks more professional and reputable. Once passersby start shopping in the store, they",
"-25.672950524254702"
],
[
"the allegedly stolen items. The museum released a statement that these artifacts were never owned by the Museum of the Bible and were never intended to be part of their collection. In 2018, the items were returned to Iraq, and the company paid a $3 million fine. \nScott Thumma, a dean and professor of sociology of religion at Hartford Seminary, defended Hobby Lobby during the smuggling controversy. Thuma stated: \"Many of the collections of our great national museums and universities are full of the very objects that Hobby Lobby is being fined for smuggling and are seldom required to",
"-25.646774044143967"
],
[
"illegally acquired objects in other museums.\" The Penn Museum also reserved the right to refuse to loan objects to museums or other institutions suspected of having knowingly violated the 1970 Convention.”",
"-25.562635886424687"
],
[
"Antiquities trade Legal trade The legal trade in antiquities abide by the laws of the countries in which the artifacts originate. These laws establish how the antiquities may be extracted from the ground and the legal process in which artifacts may leave the country. In many countries excavations and exports were prohibited without official licenses already in the 19th century, as for example in the Ottoman Empire. According to the laws of the countries of origin, there can't be a legal trade with archaeological artifact without official papers. However, most national laws still overturn these regulations. Response Recent trends reveal",
"-25.327804056054447"
],
[
"buyers did not ask many questions since they were buying contraband — taking antiquities out of Mexico is illegal. Some of the works were sold to the Morton D. May collection and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, dated AD 400–700 and attributed to the Remojadas culture in Veracruz. In 1971, the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History presented a large exhibition entitled \"Ancient Art of Veracruz\" – Lara later recognized many of the exhibits as his work.\nIn July 1974, Mexican police arrested a group of what appeared to be antique smugglers – with Brígido Lara among them. An antiquities expert declared",
"-25.146995267044986"
],
[
"stolen, and was indeed an authentic antique artifact 2,500 years old, not a replica. \"I don't think he knew it was worth $1.2 million dollars either,\" he said of the seller. He felt, again, that it was destiny that had brought the relief to him. \"[I]t sort of feels like it may have come to me to be protected so that it didn't get destroyed or lost.\"\nAt the time of the arrest, police suggested they had some leads on the identity of the thief. However, as of 2017 no arrests have been made. The whereabouts of the Roman head are",
"-25.110226813238114"
],
[
"too much is bad. A pawnshop might have too little inventory if, for example, it mostly buys jewels and gold that it resells or smelts—or perhaps the pawnshop owner quickly sells most items through specialty shops (e.g., musical instruments to music stores, stereos to used hi-fi audio stores, etc.). In this case, the pawnshop is less interesting to customers, because it is mostly empty.\nOn the other extreme, a pawnshop with a huge inventory has several disadvantages. If the store is crammed with used athletic gear, old stereos, and old tools, the store owner must spend time and money shelving and",
"-25.06204257986974"
],
[
"Looting of archaeological sites is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted during antiquity. Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts unfortunately contributes directly to the illicit antiquities trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural",
"-24.858784397190902"
],
[
"Thieves' Market Woeng Nakhon Khasem (Thai: เวิ้งนาครเขษม) is a market in the Samphanthawong District, Bangkok, Thailand. It is popularly known as the \"Thieves Market\" as formerly mostly stolen goods were sold there. The market is surrounded by Charoen Krung, Chakkrawat, Boriphat, and Yaowarat Roads in the area near foot of Damrong Sathit Bridge (Saphan Lek) with close to Wang Burapha and Khlong Thom. Its name literally translated as \"delightful townspeople alcove\".\nWoeng Nakhon Khasem regarded as the first shopping district in Bangkok that has it all. It occurred during the King Chulalongkorn (Rama V)'s reign. HM the King bestowed this",
"-24.724985264532734"
],
[
"Magic store A magic store (also magic shop or magician's supply shop) is an establishment which sells materials for performing magic tricks. Magic shops often also sell practical jokes and novelty items, and frequently serve as informal gathering places for amateur magicians, with some hosting organized magic clubs.",
"-24.65354344343359"
],
[
"Jewellery store A jewellery store (American English: jewelry store) is a retail business establishment, that specializes in selling (and also buying) jewellery and watches. Jewellery stores provide many services such as repairs, remodeling, restoring, designing and manufacturing pieces.",
"-24.632375593064353"
],
[
"expensive merchandise out of stores, using disguises.",
"-24.626290646148846"
],
[
"the most frequently stolen types of books at that institution. Theft by professionals According to Tom Cushman, a New York book-store manager interviewed in 2005, factors influencing book thefts included high resale value and whether or not the book was displayed in an area difficult for the store clerks to watch. When Harry Potter books were new and popular items in book stores, they were among the top targets of thieves, he said.\nBrian Zimmerman, associate general manager at the San Francisco State University book store, said thieves there were much more likely to be students, but professional thieves took more",
"-24.564856646136832"
],
[
"the Internet and other sources of information, most sellers are more aware of the prices their items can fetch. In the past, this antiques market was known as cheap, but that is not true anymore.\nThe types of antiques and collectibles sold is vast, but some of the most common include books, magazines, coins, toys, handcrafts and furniture. However, other finds include silverware, movie posters, jewelry, photographs, LP records, watches, cameras, 19th century brass beds, appliances and musical instruments. (mood163-164) While they can still be found today, one of the objects more often sold in the past in the market was",
"-24.55422642992926"
],
[
"it may be the most valuable stolen object in the world; as of 2015, it was valued at $250 million. In the same room, the thieves targeted works by Dutch painter Rembrandt (1606-69). These included A Lady and Gentleman in Black and The Storm on the Sea of Galilee. The latter was completed in 1633 and depicts Jesus calming the storm as described in the Gospel of Luke. It is the only seascape Rembrandt ever painted and the most valuable Rembrandt work stolen that night; estimates have placed its value at over $100 million since the robbery. A small Rembrandt",
"-24.533177166362293"
],
[
"Museum of Counterfeit Goods The Tilleke & Gibbins Museum of Counterfeit Goods is a museum focused on intellectual property infringement in Yan Nawa District, Bangkok, Thailand. It is operated by Tilleke & Gibbins, a law firm with offices in Thailand and Vietnam. In the firm's Bangkok office on the 26th floor of Supalai Grand Tower, the museum is home to a variety of counterfeit and infringed goods that the firm has accumulated in its work.\nThe museum receives over a thousand visitors each year. Local and international newspapers and magazines such as the Christian Science Monitor and Time magazine have",
"-24.432893247518223"
],
[
"both areas are guarded, many artifacts still find their way to the illicit antiquities market. Often these acts of theft also cause accidental damage to surrounding objects, and the thieved antiquities are no longer in situ and lose their context and cultural associations.\nIn 2003, two frescoes were hacked off a wall in the House of the Chaste Lovers in Pompeii. This act of theft also damaged several other frescoes in the house, and, though a camera system exists in Pompeii, it had been out of operation for several months when the event took place. These frescoes were recovered some months",
"-24.332586001808522"
],
[
"bay and get the key back.\nSome retailers sell \"tokens\" as an alternative to coins, often for charity. Merchandising companies also offer branded shopping tokens as a product. Theft prevention Shopping cart theft can be a costly problem with stores that use them. The carts, which typically cost between $75 and $150 each, with some models costing $300–400, are removed by people for various purposes. To prevent theft, estimated at $800 million worldwide per annum, stores use various security systems as discussed below. Cart retrieval service Most retailers in North America utilize a cart retrieval service, which collects carts found off",
"-24.30014840523654"
],
[
"the trade in undocumented antiquities and refrain from activities that enhance the commercial value of such objects. Undocumented antiquities are those that are not documented as belonging to a public or private collection before December 30, 1970 when the AIA Council endorsed the UNESCO Convention on Cultural Property, or that have not been excavated and exported from the country of origin in accordance with the laws of that country.\" (Source: AIA official webpage) It is widely believed by many academics that the trade and collectorship of antiquities fuel the looting and destruction of archaeological sites around the world. History and",
"-24.254115590738365"
],
[
"eccentric costume jewelry, until even valuable works of art. One need not be an expert in antiques to shop because the exhibitors clarify on the merits of each piece, and especially ensure the authenticity of the exhibits. More information about the Fair If you want to know more about the Fair, the Association of Antiquaries of the State of São Paulo, the objects displayed in the Fair, as well as the events that will take place in the Fair, you can look for them in the pages of the Facebook Feira de Antiguidades do Masp and Feira do Masp.",
"-24.220764405152295"
],
[
"minimum threshold for theft as determined by the owner. Desk stationery is often considered to be secured if placed in an unlocked drawer away from view, while expensive jewelry might be placed in a safe behind a picture in a home. Raising the awareness of theft Another common method is the alerting of other individuals to the act of theft. This is commonly seen in department stores, where security systems at exits alert store employees of the removal of unpaid items.\nOlder car alarms also fall into this category; newer systems also prevent the car from starting.\nThe revolution of mobile applications",
"-24.14800163669861"
],
[
"an item from the owner-player's store. Items cost varying levels of money, and when one buys them they disappear from the store and must be restocked by the owner. In addition, when an item is bought the buyer may receive \"cash back\" and/or a random number of points which can be used at the bank to buy various special events, such as \"Random Money Exchange\" or \"Win the Game.\" When neighboring spaces are purchased by the same player, a larger shop with greater stock capacity and more available expensive items is built. Stores themselves can only be bought from other",
"-24.052456625329796"
],
[
"Ministry of Antiquities (Egypt) History It was formed from the Supreme Council of Antiquities in 2011 during the reign of President Hosni Mubarak to deal with the security and theft of Egyptian antiquities. \nGrave robbers have been looting ancient Egyptian tombs for centuries. The Ministry of Antiquities works to get the items restored back to Egypt, whenever possible. Over the years, thousands of stolen antiquities have made their way back to Egypt. For instance, in late 2016, the ministry recovered and repatriated two of four Islamic era lamps which had been stolen in 2015. In 2018, a carving in the",
"-24.043843629508046"
],
[
"of ancient artifacts to tourists who went on his tours. Lund was caught before selling antiquities in a Jerusalem hotel to members of his tour group who wanted to buy ancient artifacts, but was released with only a warning. When Lund continued offering ancient antiquities for sale, however, authorities decided to arrest him and seize the coins and checks they claim he had obtained illegally. After paying a $7,500 bond, Lund was allowed to leave Israel. He claims he had no idea that permission was needed to take antiquities out of the country.",
"-24.03007677308051"
],
[
"Secret Dealers Format The shows are recorded with members of the public in their homes. Homeowners have to choose between sentimental attachment and money offers for their possessions. Three antiques dealers go into their homes to bid for items they want to buy. Independent valuers put an estimate on how much they think the items are worth. This figure is revealed to the seller and the audience at home. Items are found by the dealers, who make their own valuation and try to purchase them by placing a cash offer on items around the home and give some advice or",
"-23.885624786489643"
],
[
"than 4,000 goods that infringe trademarks, patents, and copyrights. One of the largest of its kind in the world, the museum is home to a collection of 14 broad categories of goods, including clothing, footwear, watches and eyewear, accessories, cosmetics and perfumes, food and household products, drugs, alcohol and cigarettes, copyright works, stationery and office supplies, automotive parts, tools, electrical devices, and miscellaneous products. According to CNN, the museum has \"an eye-opening display that shows just how much is counterfeited, how far crooks will go to manufacture fake products, and the very real dangers that the industry creates.\"\nOther unexpected counterfeited",
"-23.874859585193917"
],
[
"entering the antiques trade, initially as a dealer before working with several auction houses.",
"-23.867607607215177"
],
[
"Three ancestral treasures Three ancestral treasures (三樣寶; sān yàng bǎo, 三宗寶; sān zōng bǎo, or 三寶; sān bǎo) refers to three treasured items coming from a particular region within the culture of China. Each region has its own three treasures passed down from generations.",
"-23.85015507598291"
],
[
"lesser valuables, with the expectation that it will be burgled, but that the real safe or hiding place for the important valuables will be missed. Electrical outlet A fake electrical outlet, which can be pulled out from the wall and which contains a hidden compartment for storage. Painting Thin objects such as papers/money can be concealed in or behind the frame of a painting. Computers and consumer electronics Computer equipment and consumer electronics can easily be used for concealing goods and information. Usually the only tool required is a screwdriver, the device can be opened up, have the majority of",
"-23.83441340608988"
],
[
"It is the best known of a number of antiques markets including Mercardo Cuauhtemoc, Mercado de Alvaro Obregon and Plaza del Angel in Mexico City along with Callejón del Sapo in Puebla and El Baratillo in Guadalajara. The antiques market is one of the most traditional in Mexico City as interaction between seller and buyer is intense and personal. Good bargainers can get discounts of as much as thirty percent. As part of selling, many vendors will relate stories about the pieces, which may or may not be true. The market has attracted some foreign buyers and sellers and with",
"-23.726537916751113"
],
[
"objects that hold some type of cultural, historical or social interest for customers. They are the tangible reminders of the service experienced by consumers. Artefacts may be purpose-designed objects that serve as souvenirs or mementoes of a pleasant experience. Many services, such as museums, galleries, theatres and tourist attractions, manufacture artefacts that form the basis of a merchandise collection, available for sale to visitors and guests. These artefacts, more commonly known as souvenirs, can often be retailed at prices well above market value because of the memory consumers attach to the experiential encounter. The holistic environment When consumers enter a",
"-23.67491785204038"
],
[
"and collectable jewels.\nThey are based in historical premises in The Burlington Arcade in London.",
"-23.662288643827196"
],
[
"artifacts of dubious provenance, as well as a number of artifacts generally considered fakes, such as the Getty kouros. In 1984, Frel was demoted, and in 1986, he resigned.\nThe Getty is involved in a controversy regarding proper title to some of the artwork in its collection. The museum's previous curator of antiquities, Marion True (hired by Frel), was indicted in Italy in 2005 (along with famed dealer Robert E. Hecht) on criminal charges relating to trafficking in stolen antiquities. Similar charges have been addressed by the Greek authorities. The primary evidence in the case came from the 1995 raid of",
"-23.62035417224979"
],
[
"foreign exchange trading and it is possible to win money at the racecourse.\nWith the assets generated, a total of 40 paintings belonging to the uncle's former collection can be acquired at auction. If a player does not have sufficient knowledge of art, he can easily end up with a counterfeit. Numerous deceptively genuine reproductions of the art forger Vico Vermeer are in circulation. In order to generate a game score, only real works or art are counted. Images of the forger Vico Vermeer are accepted by the uncle, as long as none of the other players can present the corresponding",
"-23.585230939970643"
],
[
"to the stores to look for price tag stickers, books that don't seem to have been used, and anyone offering to sell multiple copies of a single title. When store employees approach customers to ask whether they need help, they also discourage theft, according to Zimmerman. Reactions of authors Jeffrey Eugenides and Paul Auster both laughed when journalists asked them about being some of the authors whose books are most shoplifted. \"It's one of those things authors argue about\" among themselves, Eugenides said, adding that he and Auster had discussed their status as authors of frequently stolen books.\nAbbie Hoffman wrote",
"-23.584059027489275"
],
[
"Crown. Under the terms of the 1996 Treasure Act the coins will be officially valued by the Treasure Valuation Committee, and they may then be purchased by a museum, in which case the purchase price will be shared jointly by the finders and landowner as a reward.\nWorcester City Art Gallery & Museum has indicated that it wants to purchase the hoard, and has started a public appeal to raise the required money. Some of the coins from the hoard have been put on temporary display at the museum from 22 October to 26 November 2011.",
"-23.539755990190315"
],
[
"books. However—in part because so many rare, illustrated books were \"broken\" in this manner—the price of the intact books has now risen the point where an old book is typically worth more intact. Book collectors have also become more sophisticated in understanding minor condition problems.\nThe term bookbreaking is not usually used to refer to outright theft, where the bookbreaker does not own the book in question. There have been many cases of theft of illustrations—again, especially maps—from rare books in libraries.",
"-23.478610707329608"
],
[
"a context they did not approve of which can be the creation of replicas of their pieces.\nWith replica artifacts the copies to be “museum-quality” have to reach a high standard and can cost a lot of money to be produced.\nReplica artifacts (copies) can provide an authentic view but represents more of the subjectivities of what people expect and desire from their museum experiences and the cultures they learn about.\nWith copies of retail and other counterfeit goods there is a legal issue related to copyright and trademark ownership.",
"-23.455092029791558"
],
[
"of a Geneva, Switzerland warehouse which had contained a fortune in stolen artifacts. Italian art dealer Giacomo Medici was eventually arrested in 1997; his operation was thought to be \"one of the largest and most sophisticated antiquities networks in the world, responsible for illegally digging up and spiriting away thousands of top-drawer pieces and passing them on to the most elite end of the international art market\".\nIn a letter to the J. Paul Getty Trust on December 18, 2006, True stated that she is being made to \"carry the burden\" for practices which were known, approved, and condoned by the",
"-23.408463831758127"
],
[
"The Art of the Steal (2009 film) Subject and making of the film The will of Dr. Barnes established the Foundation with strict rules against ever moving the collection or any of its paintings away from its location, and to serve primarily as a school for the teaching of art, art criticism, and art appreciation, and not primarily as a museum for the general public. The people who supported the move argued that the collection should instead become a major tourist-attraction for Philadelphia. The supporters of Merion claimed that the Philadelphians were less interested in Dr. Barnes's will than in",
"-23.381258893226914"
],
[
"have known at the time of acquisition that the object had been illegally exported\" (Art. 6.1).\nThese rules apply equally to cultural objects inherited or received as gifts. Either an heir or a beneficiary has the same responsibility as a buyer. Therefore, museums and other public institutions must carry out checks over the origin of donated objects. The 1970 UNESCO Convention and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention The UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1970 UNESCO Convention) and the UNIDROIT Convention are compatible and complementary. \nAs distinct from",
"-23.360941381077282"
],
[
"famous works have instead been held for ransom from the legitimate owner or even returned without ransom, due to the lack of black-market customers. Returning for ransom also risks a sting operation.\nFor those with substantial collections, such as the Marquess of Cholmondeley at Houghton Hall, the risk of theft is neither negligible nor negotiable. Jean-Baptiste Oudry's White Duck was stolen from the Cholmondeley collection at Houghton Hall in 1990. The canvas is still missing. Prevention in museums Museums can take numerous measures to prevent the theft of artworks include having enough guides or guards to watch displayed items, avoiding",
"-23.354347174266877"
],
[
"items in the Karun Treasure (Lydian Hoard) were discovered to be fakes, with the originals having been stolen. The pieces were a coin and a golden brooch in the form of a hippocamp (a winged sea-horse). Kazım Akbıyıkoğlu, the director of the museum, was accused of the theft, and he and 10 others were arrested. Akbıyıkoğlu admitted guilt, blaming gambling debts. He was sentenced to 13 years in prison.\nIn November 2012, it was announced that the golden brooch would be returned to Turkey. The returned piece was temporarily displayed in Ankara's Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, before being returned",
"-23.33976121530577"
],
[
"of designing the new addition with Piano.\nOn March 18, 1990, within 6 months of Hawley taking the director position, two thieves, dressed as Boston police officers, talked their way into the Museum and stole 13 masterpieces valued at $500 million, including works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, Manet, and Degas. It is the largest art theft in the world and still remains unsolved. In conjunction with the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the U.S. Attorney’s Office, the investigation is active and focused on recovering the art. In 1994 at Hawley’s urging, Senator Ted Kennedy helped pass legislation that made art theft",
"-23.288286405033432"
],
[
"while in the store). Price switching is now an almost extinct form of shoplifting for two reasons. Firstly, the labels will split apart upon attempted removal, and secondly, virtually all retail cashiers now scan items at the register, rather than relying on price stickers. Retailers report that shoplifting has a significant effect on their bottom line, stating that about 0.6% of all inventory disappears to shoplifters.\nGenerally, criminal theft involves taking possession of property illegally. In self-service shops, customers are allowed by the property owner to take physical possession of the property by holding or moving it. This leaves areas of",
"-23.285746088658925"
],
[
"able to determine how it was removed. Coincidentally, the theft occurred on the day before the 39th anniversary of the only other theft from the museum, the 1972 robbery of 18 paintings, all but one of which are still missing, the largest art theft in Canadian history.\nThe thief returned approximately eight weeks later, in late October, at the same time of day. This time he took a 1st-century Roman marble head, approximately the same size, from its pedestal. Like the earlier piece, it was secured there by an anchor, but otherwise unprotected, not even by a glass case. Sale of",
"-23.28442176739918"
],
[
"at garage sales, in bazaar-style fundraisers, in privately owned consignment shops, or through online auctions. Some things are typically sold in specialized shops, such as a car dealership that specializes in the sale of used vehicles or a used bookstore that sells used books. In other cases, such as a charity shop, a wide variety of used goods might be handled by the same establishment. High-value used luxury goods, such as antique furniture, jewelry, watches, and artwork, might be sold through a generic auction house such as Sotheby's or a more specialized niche like Bob's Watches.\nGovernments require some",
"-23.277512561966432"
],
[
"postcards, prints, miniature or full size copies they represent a resemblance of the original object.\n\"Not all incorrectly attributed items are intentional forgeries. In the same way that a museum shop might sell a print of a painting or a replica of a vase, copies of statues, paintings, and other precious artifacts have been popular through the ages.\nHowever, replicas have often been used illegally for forgery and counterfeits, especially of money and coins, but also commercial merchandise such as designer label clothing, luxury bags and accessories, and luxury watches. In arts or collectible automobiles, the term \"replica\" is used for discussing",
"-23.248627204680815"
],
[
"lenders). The auction sale is run by S. S. Chandran and Kovai Sarala, who cheat people by portraying unused and old items as ancient and priceless artifacts. Due to a misunderstanding during the auction, Murthy is forced to buy a violin from S. S. Chandran. Even though Gopinath and Sekar are angry with Murthy for spending money on an unnecessary item, they forgive him later on. Murthy, Sekar and Gopinath happen to meet Chitra (Kanaka) in separate incidents, and each of them develop a liking for her. Chitra is the daughter of S. S. Chandran. Murthy tries to use his",
"-23.243779233365785"
],
[
"Giacomo Medici (art dealer) Giacomo Medici is an Italian antiquities smuggler and art dealer who was convicted in 2004 of dealing in stolen ancient artifacts. His operation was thought to be \"one of the largest and most sophisticated antiquities networks in the world, responsible for illegally digging up and spiriting away thousands of top-drawer pieces and passing them on to the most elite end of the international art market\". Involvement in the illegal antiquities trade Thanks to a long-running major investigation by the Tutela Patrimonio Culturale (or TCP, the unit of the Italian Carabinieri (military police) specializing in protecting that",
"-23.128268093860243"
],
[
"commodities are paper (which comes from forest terrain), coin (from mountain terrain), and cloth (from pasture terrain).\nWhen combining Cities & Knights with Barbarian Attack, the written rules are ambiguous with regards to whether commodities are collected along with normal resources when collecting from a Gold River tile, as well as whether or not commodities can be collected directly from Gold River tiles. However, online rules state that \"Gold can only buy you resources, not commodities.\"\nA city on grain or brick gives two of each, as in the original Settlers. A city on wool, ore, or wood, produces one corresponding resource",
"-23.12315284302167"
],
[
"conjunction with his Russian wife, had for over twenty years stolen at least 10,000 different art objects from museums, galleries, archives and shops around the world. While not the largest art heist in total dollar value, Tillmann's case may be the largest ever in number of objects stolen. Notable unrecovered works Images of some artworks that have been stolen and have not yet been recovered. Fictional art theft Genres such as crime fiction often portray fictional art thefts as glamorous or exciting raising generations of admirers. Most of these sources add adventurous, even heroic element to the theft, portraying it",
"-23.11419234663481"
],
[
"into the United States. The expert warned Hobby Lobby that an improper declaration of country of origin for cultural property could lead to seizure and forfeiture of the artifacts by CBP.\"\nOn July 5, 2017, Hobby Lobby consented to a settlement requiring forfeiture of the artifacts and payment of a fine of $3 million. Israeli police have arrested five antiquities dealers, in connection with the illegal importation of ancient artifacts by Hobby Lobby. Collections management controversy From years before the museum opened, concerns were raised regarding the provenance of the artifacts in the collection. In response to this issue, the",
"-23.104384031321388"
],
[
"pieces have been acquired by notable museums around the world such as:\nThe British Museum\nThe Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh\nThe Boston Museum of Fine ArtsHarvard Art Museums /Fogg Museum, Busch-Reisinger, Arther M. Sackler Museum\nBeit Al Qur'an, Bahrain, among others.",
"-23.09654169587884"
],
[
"In May 2004, Norwegian painter Kjell Nupen noticed that the Kristianstad gallery was selling unauthorized, signed copies of his work.\nAmerican art forger Ken Perenyi published a memoir in 2012 in which he detailed decades of his activities creating thousands of authentic-looking replicas of masters such as James Buttersworth, Martin Johnson Heade, and Charles Bird King, and selling the forgeries to famous auction houses such as Christie's and Sotheby's and wealthy private collectors. Dealers Claims have surfaced recently, alleging that art dealers and auction houses have been overly eager, by accepting forgeries as genuine, and selling them quickly, to turn a",
"-23.04915107478155"
],
[
"nations, which are usually more interested in prestige or previously, \"scientific discovery\". An example of this might be the removal of the contents of Egyptian tombs which were transported to museums in Europe. Other examples include the obelisks of Pharaoh Amenhotep II, in the (Oriental Museum, University of Durham, United Kingdom), Pharaoh Ptolemy IX, (Philae Obelisk, in Wimborne, Dorset, United Kingdom). Whether this constitutes \"looting\" is a debated point, with other parties pointing out that the Europeans were usually given permission of some sort, and that many of the treasures wouldn't have been discovered at all if the Europeans",
"-23.032995971501805"
],
[
"contains a very effective Thieves Guild, as well as a powerful and honest Merchant's League. Additionally, the Knights of the Shield and the Knights of the Unicorn are both active in the city. Various thieves guilds have risen and fallen in Baldur's Gate including Xantam's Guild and the Hands of Glory. Amn's Shadow Thieves are also known to be active in the city.",
"-23.010042476380477"
],
[
"The Museum of Innocence (museum) History Pamuk first began to collect objects for the museum in the mid-1990s. “I wanted to collect and exhibit the 'real' objects of a fictional story in a museum and to write a novel based on these objects,” he said. Pamuk states that some of the objects displayed in the museum are from family and friends, while others were found elsewhere in Istanbul, or collected from around the world. However, he has not specified which of the objects are directly linked to his own life; he maintains that the narrative of the museum should reflect",
"-22.95651701744646"
],
[
"of theft or attempted theft. Legend has it that the statue was removed in 1745 and found in the Flemish town of Geraardsbergen. As a sign of their appreciation, the people of Brussels gave this city a replica of the statue. In reality, the first attempted theft was made in 1747 by a group of French grenadiers stationed in Brussels. The population rebelled against this deed and threatened a bloody revenge. To calm things down, the King of France, Louis XV, offered a gentleman's gown of brocade, embroidered with gold, to Manneken Pis. He also authorised him to carry the",
"-22.948996448132675"
],
[
"2006, customs officers were transferring all confiscated art objects to museums. Later they began to systematize the found antiques, which were tried to be exported abroad.\nThe collection of the branch of the Customs History Museum has a modern fine art department represented by painting, sculpture, art and crafts. The first millennium excavations, carpets, oriental sculptures, copper items, ancient coins, antique and ancient icons, jewelry, firearms, weapons of the 17th-19th centuries, Quran and Bible copies, that were confiscated while trying to be exported from Azerbaijan are kept in the department. This department was created by the joint efforts of the museum",
"-22.900884136208333"
],
[
"trade A retailer is normally the final seller of a product. It makes its purchases made from Wholesalers and sales are made to the customers directly. Retailers do not particularly have to be from one industry i.e. they can trade in a variety of products at the same time. It generally has purchases made by credit and sales made in cash. Sales as compared to wholesalers are made in small quantities.",
"-22.89198242709972"
],
[
"Archaeological forgery Motivations Most archaeological forgeries are made for reasons similar to art forgeries – for financial gain. The monetary value of an item that is thought to be thousands of years old is higher than if the item were sold as a souvenir.\nHowever, archaeological or paleontological forgers may have other motives; they may try to manufacture proof for their point of view or favorite theory (or against a point of view/theory they dislike), or to gain increased fame and prestige for themselves. If the intention is to create \"proof\" for religious history, it is pious fraud. Detection Investigators of archaeological",
"-22.87374406713934"
],
[
"collections archives, or in private collections. The antiquarian trade often involves purchasing materials from private collections at auctions. Antiquarian and rare materials require extra care in handling and preservation. The age of materials can reach back several hundred years and can have considerable value.\nDigital Collections\nSee Digital library\nDigitization is the process by which printed music or literature is converted to digital formats by a scanner. Digitization is also the process of transferring audio formats (for example, converting music on an LP record to mp3). Materials may also be born-digital; that is, created originally as a digital",
"-22.872638417582493"
],
[
"could obtain significant discounts. El Chacharitas states that the sale of antiques was a very good business in the past but less so now. Much of the reason is the degradation of the neighborhood and the invasion of those selling mass-produced, unlicensed and counterfeit merchandise. The antiques market also has been hurt by Mexico City mayor Marcelos Ebrard’s decision to close roads in and around the historic center as well as Paseo de la Reforma to vehicular traffic on Sundays, the day this market operates. For some vendors, business is down by as much as sixty percent, as many upper",
"-22.8712256460567"
],
[
"information on the Antiques. The bids are left in sealed envelopes next to the desired items and the offers are kept secret from fellow dealers until the homeowners opens them. From series three the Dealers were allowed to revise their offers up either by placing a new sealed bid next to the item or upping their bid when the homeowners sees their offer. The seller then decides whether to accept or decline the deal. If they think it is worth more it will often end in a bidding war to see what dealer will pay the best price and",
"-22.864990559450234"
],
[
"furniture in the markets. Household goods, decorative, ethnically-influenced items, and second-hand items or 20th-century antiques, many of them hand-crafted, are among the wares. There are also clothing and art pieces for alternative sub-cultures, such as goths and cybergoths. These shops include Black Rose, which caters for goths, with items such as coffin-shaped handbags, and Cyberdog, which houses much cyber-style \"neon\" PVC and rubber clothing.\nDuring the weeks before Christmas 2004, radio DJ and TV presenter Chris Evans sold many of his possessions, ranging from sofas to TVs and crockery, on a stall in the Stables Market.\nIn October 2006 a large indoor",
"-22.815195794100873"
],
[
"of the owner was not included in the hoard. Silver items The hoard contains about 100 silver and silver-gilt items; the number is imprecise because there are unmatched broken parts. They include a statuette of a leaping tigress, made as a handle for an object such as a jug or lamp; four pepper-pots (piperatoria); a beaker; a vase or juglet (a small jug); four bowls; a small dish; and 98 silver spoons and ladles. The beaker and juglet are decorated with similar leaf and stem patterns, and the juglet has three gilded bands. In contrast, the small bowls and dish",
"-22.809375614160672"
],
[
"the highest known price ever paid for a painting. The remaining four restituted paintings were later sold at Christie's New York for over $190 million.\nBecause antiquities are often regarded by the country of origin as national treasures, there are numerous cases where artworks (often displayed in the acquiring country for decades) have become the subject of highly charged and political controversy. One prominent example is the case of the Elgin Marbles, which were moved from Greece to the British Museum in 1816 by Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin. Many different Greek governments have maintained that removal was tantamount to",
"-22.80427116714418"
],
[
"stores have three counters; retail, buying and financial; but it is mostly focused on Retail and Buying.\nThe core businesses activity is the buying and selling of second-hand goods, mainly electrical and entertainment products such as televisions, DVDs, games consoles, mobile phones, games, laptops, tablets, gold and jewellery. In addition to second-hand items, the stores also sell new and refurbished domestic goods. Buying counter In each Cash Generator, the buying counter offers customers cash for their unwanted household goods and gold. The retailer also offers a \"buy-back\" service, where customers receive cash for an item, with the option to buy back",
"-22.796782314486336"
],
[
"profit. If a dealer finds the work is a forgery, he may quietly withdraw the piece and return it to its previous owner—giving the forger an opportunity to sell it elsewhere.\nSome forgers have created false paper trails relating to a piece, in order to make the work appear genuine. British art dealer John Drewe created false documents of provenance for works forged by his partner John Myatt, and even inserted pictures of forgeries into the archives of prominent art institutions. In 2016, Eric Spoutz plead guilty to one count of wire fraud related to the sale of hundreds of falsely",
"-22.790298399107996"
],
[
"nobody is the worse for them. When a thing is bought not for its use but for its costliness, cheapness is no recommendation.",
"-22.785172670934116"
],
[
"relatively common while rare pieces can fetch hundreds or even thousands of dollars. Because Roseville's designs were so influential, replicas and counterfeits are common, and the wide variety of kiln markings—or the lack thereof—on genuine pieces can be confusing for collectors.",
"-22.748923447332345"
],
[
"in the Iraqi Central Bank. The artifacts included necklaces, plates, gold earrings, finger and toe rings, bowls and flasks. But, around 15,000 and the tiny items including some of the most valuable artifacts on the antiquities markets remain missing.\nThe museum has been protected since its looting, but archaeological sites in Iraq were left almost entirely unprotected by coalition forces, and there has been massive looting, starting from the early days of the warfare and between summer 2003 and the end of 2007. Estimates are that 400–600,000 artifacts have been plundered. Iraqi sculptor Mohammed Ghani Hikmat spearheaded efforts by the Iraqi",
"-22.74268921116891"
],
[
"many treasures and coins, including a golden statue of Princess Peach, stolen from the Mushroom Kingdom. Wario intends to retrieve this statue and sell it back to Mario for the price of a castle. After exploring the island, stealing the pirates' treasures, and infiltrating their Syrup Castle, Wario confronts the leader of the pirates, a female buccaneer named Captain Syrup. She summons a genie to destroy Wario, but he defeats the genie and Syrup destroys the castle with a large bomb as she escapes. In doing so, the pirates' biggest treasure is revealed: the giant gold statue of Princess Peach.",
"-22.737855234918243"
],
[
"America The looting of Central and South America by the conquistadors is one of the best-known plunders in the world.\nRoger Atwood writes in Stealing History: Tomb Raiders, Smugglers, and the Looting of the Ancient World: \"Mayan stonework became one of those things that good art museums in America just had to have, and looters in the jungles of southern Mexico and Guatemala worked overtime to meet the demand.\" (See: Maya stelae#Looting)\nLooting in Mesoamerica has a long tradition and history. Graves are often looted before the archaeologists can reach them, and the artifacts are then sold to wealthy collectors in the",
"-22.736508578731446"
],
[
"the antiquities at \nwww.ummeljimal.org .\nIn 2014, extensive damage was done to the site by tomb raiders. Sparked by rumors of gold, looters have destroyed many tombs. \"The looters are looking not only for gold but for ceramics, glassware, \nlamps, masonry and bits of jewelry, all of which quickly find their way \ninto the global antiquities trade.\"",
"-22.711155768862227"
],
[
"so that the database made available to worldwide law enforcement agencies and others. Criticism of methods The approach adopted by the ALR has been criticised. The Register has contacted owners of stolen art saying it had information, but not revealing it until a fee was paid. In another instance the ALR lied to Sotheby’s saying that paintings were not stolen. The paintings were then shipped to London, where they were seized. The ALR has likened this approach to the police misleading a suspect during an investigation.",
"-22.660780967533356"
],
[
"of many of the devices is unknown and the workmanship indicates they are likely of recent manufacture, and the accounts of its use are not contemporary with the Middle Ages, making the accounts suspect. Museum pieces Though there is little or no evidence of its being used by bandits, there are a number of extant examples of ornate and elaborate, pear-shaped devices with three or four leaves or lobes, driven by turning a key that rotates the central screw thread, which spreads the leaves. These are generally held in museums devoted to the subject of torture, and are described as",
"-22.651575728639727"
],
[
"for selling commercially manufactured items, selling crafts that they were never screened to sell, and for selling handmade items not of their creation but made by another craftsperson – possibly by another street artist.\nViolations can be reported not only by the police, but by the staff of the Art Commission, a storeowner, a member of the public, or even another street artist. At various times, the Street Artists Program has hired individuals to work as Art Inspectors, patrolling the sidewalks looking for street artists whose items violate craft criteria, or who are in violation of other regulations. A subcommittee of",
"-22.596201553824358"
],
[
"commonly pawned item at the Gold & Silver Pawn Shop, most of the customers featured in episodes bring in a variety of vintage or antique items to the store, which has 12,000 items in its inventory as of July 2011 (5,000 of which are typically held on pawn). Each episode consists of segments devoted to approximately five or six of these items, in which one of the staff members, usually Rick Harrison, his son Corey, or Harrison's father Richard (known as the \"Old Man\"), explains the history behind the object. When the buyer is unable to evaluate an object, they",
"-22.576766048900026"
],
[
"Pinkus was the first antiquities dealer in Israel to be licensed by the Antiquities Authority (license No. 0001), and is recommended by the Ministry of Tourism.\nObjects on sale at an authorized dealer should have a registration number, and customers should be able to get certificates of authenticity. There are numerous dealers in Israel, who are required to register with the Israel Antiquities Authority and keep an inventory of the artifacts they have for sale.\nWhile dealers have to keep an inventory of everything they sell, those inventories are often kept vague. A listing that says that a dealer owns a pot",
"-22.561168213142082"
]
] |
1f5p49 | What is the true difference between Crackers/hackers and Script Kiddies? | [
"Hackers, in the classical sense, are a lot like a good baker. They can work from scratch without directions, know what they're doing and why, and can adapt to different things if they don't get the result they expected. Script kiddies are like someone following a cookie recipe off a bag of chocolate chips. They have to follow the directions exactly and won't know how to fix it if things don't come out right.",
"There are multiple definitions for hackers: * A hacker is someone who will find a shortcut to do something hard. It's the smart lazy guy in your class. * A hacker knows something inside out to find and exploit its weaknesses There are 4 main types of hackers * White hat: Someone who finds security flaws and fixes them, usually employed. *The ethical hacker* * Black hat: Someone who exploits security flaws for personal gains or 'for fun'. *The criminal hacker* * Grey hat: A combination between the black and white hat hacker. He exploits flaws to send a message to the admin that his system just got hacked. He could ask for some money to fix it. *The unethical-ethical hacker* * Blue hat: Someone who tests and patches flaws in a system before it's official launch. *the other ethical hacker* A cracker is generally the same thing. ^According ^to ^wikipedia A scriptkiddie is someone (usually inexperienced) who uses his own limited knowledge in combination with 'hacker programs' and advanced information to do stuff that's generally not accepted by other programmers. If you need examples of scriptkiddies, visit youtube and enter *'how to make a virus'* or *'how to hack x'*. Sources: [Wikipedia]( URL_0 ) [My own knowledge](#Azeirah)",
"Crackers study software and systems to determine faults that allow access that was not intended. Hackers use that info to commit crimes, often by hand or with tools. They understand the workings of those tools to some extent. Script kitties are people following cookie cutter instructions to perform a hack, they don't necessarily know how what they are doing works. This is at least one interpretation of the terms. Some would say Crackers and hackers are the same, some would say a person following instructions is a hacker too. Some say that hackers are not inherently malicious, as the term hacker can even mean someone who enjoys creating their own things versus controlling others, but in the most commonly used sense of the words the above is true.",
"Put simply, a Script Kiddie doesn't understand what they're doing - they just get a tool from someone else and hope it works. Someone worthy of respect will take the time to learn why the tool works, and perhaps improve upon it."
] | [
[
"kiddie (also known as a skid or skiddie) is an unskilled hacker who breaks into computer systems by using automated tools written by others (usually by other black hat hackers), hence the term script (i.e. a computer script that automates the hacking) kiddie (i.e. kid, child—an individual lacking knowledge and experience, immature), usually with little understanding of the underlying concept. Neophyte A neophyte (\"newbie\", or \"noob\") is someone who is new to hacking or phreaking and has almost no knowledge or experience of the workings of technology and hacking. Blue hat A blue hat hacker is someone outside computer security",
"-27.63841272652644"
],
[
"due to the variety of industries software designers may find themselves in, many prefer not to be referred to as hackers because the word holds a negative denotation in many of those industries.\nA possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that \"hacking\" describes a collection of skills and tools which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons. The analogy is made to locksmithing, specifically picking locks, which is a skill which can be used for good or evil. The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of script kiddies in the popular",
"-26.527556765489862"
],
[
"the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them \"crackers\" instead. This includes both \"good\" crackers (\"white hat hackers\") who use their computer security related skills and knowledge to learn more about how systems and networks work and to help to discover and fix security holes, as well as those more \"evil\" crackers (\"black hat hackers\") who use the same skills to author harmful software (like viruses, trojans, etc.) and illegally infiltrate secure systems with the intention of doing harm to the system. The programmer subculture of hackers, in contrast to the cracker community, generally sees computer security related",
"-26.16157337857294"
],
[
"of its non-criminal connotations. Members of the media sometimes seem unaware of the distinction, grouping legitimate \"hackers\" such as Linus Torvalds and Steve Wozniak along with criminal \"crackers\".\nAs a result, the definition is still the subject of heated controversy. The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural jargon and used negatively, including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers. Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware.",
"-25.860845437917305"
],
[
"least trying) to preserve the distinction between a hacker (a consummate programmer) and a cracker (a computer criminal); even though not reviewing the book in detail, both the London Review of Books and MIT Technology Review remarked on it in this regard. In a substantial entry on the work, the Encyclopedia of New Media by Steve Jones (2002) observed that this defense of the term hacker was a motivating factor for both Steele's and Raymond's print editions:\nThe Hacker's Dictionary and The New Hacker's Dictionary sought to celebrate hacker culture, provide a repository of hacking history for younger and future",
"-25.32823024031677"
],
[
"bad self-advice; 3) an entropy booster; 4) to produce, or attempt to produce, a hack(3)\", and \"hacker\" was defined as \"one who hacks, or makes them\". Much of TMRC's jargon was later imported into early computing culture, because the club started using a DEC PDP-1 and applied its local model railroad slang in this computing context. Initially incomprehensible to outsiders, the slang also became popular in MIT's computing environments beyond the club. Other examples of jargon imported from the club are 'losing' (\"when a piece of equipment is not working\") and 'munged' (\"when a piece of equipment is ruined\").\nOthers did",
"-25.284646701264137"
],
[
"hence calls him \"a true hacker who blundered\". Nevertheless, members of the programmer subculture have a tendency to look down on and disassociate from these overlaps. They commonly refer disparagingly to people in the computer security subculture as crackers and refuse to accept any definition of hacker that encompasses such activities. The computer security hacking subculture, on the other hand, tends not to distinguish between the two subcultures as harshly, acknowledging that they have much in common including many members, political and social goals, and a love of learning about technology. They restrict the use of the term cracker to",
"-25.10850671152366"
],
[
"hacker to make it free by breaking into private computer systems. This hacker ethic was publicized and perhaps originated in Steven Levy's Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (1984). It contains a codification of its principles.\nThe programmer subculture of hackers disassociates from the mass media's pejorative use of the word 'hacker' referring to computer security, and usually prefer the term 'cracker' for that meaning. Complaints about supposed mainstream misuse started as early as 1983, when media used \"hacker\" to refer to the computer criminals involved in The 414s case.\nIn the programmer subculture of hackers, a computer hacker is a person",
"-24.779894952182076"
],
[
"Hacker Representation in mainstream media The mainstream media's current usage of the term may be traced back to the early 1980s. When the term was introduced to wider society by the mainstream media in 1983, even those in the computer community referred to computer intrusion as \"hacking\", although not as the exclusive definition of the word. In reaction to the increasing media use of the term exclusively with the criminal connotation, the computer community began to differentiate their terminology. Alternative terms such as \"cracker\" were coined in an effort to maintain the distinction between \"hackers\" within the legitimate programmer community",
"-24.727016818185803"
],
[
"text The Cathedral and the Bazaar and many other essays, maintainer of the Jargon File (which was previously maintained by Guy L. Steele, Jr.).\nWithin the computer programmer subculture of hackers, the term hacker is also used for a programmer who reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to extend existing code or resources. In this sense, it can have a negative connotation of using inelegant kludges to accomplish programming tasks that are quick, but ugly, inelegant, difficult to extend, hard to maintain and inefficient. This derogatory form of the noun \"hack\" derives from the everyday English sense \"to",
"-24.71218948618116"
],
[
"original non-computer-cracker sense), collegiate practical jokes, and even culture jamming. The origin of this usage is unknown, but it seems to have been widespread at MIT by the 1960s, and the hacker ethic has since spread into cyberculture and beyond. Over time, the term has been generalized to describe anybody who possesses great technical proficiency in any particular skill, usually combined with an offbeat sense of humor. The manifestation of hacker culture in the form of spectacular pranks is the most visible aspect of this culture to the world at large, but many hacker subcultures exist at",
"-24.308717031435663"
],
[
"other hackers. At any time, a fellow hacker might reach into the drawer, pick out the program, and begin adding to it or \"bumming\" it to make it better. Bumming referred to the process of making the code more concise so that more can be done in fewer instructions, saving precious memory for further enhancements.\nIn the second generation of hackers, sharing was about sharing with the general public in addition to sharing with other hackers. A particular organization of hackers that was concerned with sharing computers with the general public was a group called Community Memory. This group of hackers",
"-24.13347795628215"
],
[
"Hacker culture Definition The Jargon File, an influential but not universally accepted compendium of hacker slang, defines hacker as \"A person who enjoys exploring the details of programmable systems and stretching their capabilities, as opposed to most users, who prefer to learn only the minimum necessary.\" The Request for Comments (RFC) 1392, the Internet Users' Glossary, amplifies this meaning as \"A person who delights in having an intimate understanding of the internal workings of a system, computers and computer networks in particular.\"\nAs documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general public's usage of",
"-24.070564701687545"
],
[
"usage of \"hacker,\" despite their lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base.\nSometimes, \"hacker\" is simply used synonymously with \"geek\": \"A true hacker is not a group person. He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship... They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals[...] It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment.\"\nFred Shapiro thinks that \"the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue.\" He found that the",
"-23.670765700167976"
],
[
"providing access to hacking information and resources and a place to learn from other members. Computer bulletin board systems (BBSs), such as the Utopias, provided platforms for information-sharing via dial-up modem. Hackers could also gain credibility by being affiliated with elite groups. Hacker magazines The most notable hacker-oriented print publications are Phrack, Hakin9 and 2600: The Hacker Quarterly. While the information contained in hacker magazines and ezines was often outdated by the time they were published, they enhanced their contributors' reputations by documenting their successes. Hackers in fiction Hackers often show an interest in fictional cyberpunk and cyberculture literature and",
"-23.636522543643878"
],
[
"Hack (comedy) Hack is a term used primarily in stand-up comedy, but also sketch comedy, improv comedy, and comedy writing to refer to a joke or premise for a joke that is considered obvious, has been frequently used by comedians in the past, and/or is blatantly copied from its original author. Alternatively, it may refer to a comedian or performance group that uses hack material or similarly unoriginal devices in their act. Since comedians and people who work with comedians are typically exposed to many more jokes than the general public, they may recognize a topic, joke or",
"-23.512271308642084"
],
[
"of professionalism of the designers. The adjective associated with hacker is \"hackish\" (see the Jargon file).\nIn a very universal sense, hacker also means someone who makes things work beyond perceived limits in a clever way in general, without necessarily referring to computers, especially at MIT. That is, people who apply the creative attitude of software hackers in fields other than computing. This includes even activities that predate computer hacking, for example reality hackers or urban spelunkers (exploring undocumented or unauthorized areas in buildings). One specific example is clever pranks traditionally perpetrated by MIT students, with the perpetrator being called hacker.",
"-23.457166235624754"
],
[
"hackers are much like technical people in the independent software industry in that \"they are valuable in giving us feedback to make our products better\".\nThe phrase grey hat was used by the hacker group L0pht in a 1999 interview with The New York Times to describe their hacking activities.\nThe phrase was used to describe hackers who support the ethical reporting of vulnerabilities directly to the software vendor in contrast to the full disclosure practices that were prevalent in the white hat community that vulnerabilities not be disclosed outside of their group.\nIn 2002, however, the Anti-Sec community published use of the",
"-23.178815298908376"
],
[
"activities as contrary to the ideals of the original and true meaning of the hacker term that instead related to playful cleverness. Uses While using hacker to refer to someone who enjoys playful cleverness is most often applied to computer programmers, it is sometimes used for people who apply the same attitude to other fields. For example, Richard Stallman describes the silent composition 4′33″ by John Cage and the 14th-century palindromic three-part piece \"Ma Fin Est Mon Commencement\" by Guillaume de Machaut as hacks. According to the Jargon File, the word hacker was used in a similar sense among radio",
"-23.16497899186288"
],
[
"Hack writer A hack writer is a pejorative term for a writer who is paid to write low-quality, rushed articles or books \"to order\", often with a short deadline. In fiction writing, a hack writer is paid to quickly write sensational, \"pulp\" fiction such as \"true crime\" novels or \"bodice ripping\" paperbacks. In journalism, a hack writer is deemed to operate as a \"mercenary\" or \"pen for hire\", expressing their client's political opinions in pamphlets or newspaper articles. Hack writers are usually paid by the number of words in their book or article; as a result, hack writing has a",
"-23.15839998843694"
],
[
"Security hacker History In computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on security mechanisms of computer and network systems. While including those who endeavor to strengthen such mechanisms, it is more often used by the mass media and popular culture to refer to those who seek access despite these security measures. That is, the media portrays the 'hacker' as a villain. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. White hat is the name given to ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. White",
"-22.913385012216168"
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[
"hackers, and perhaps most importantly, to represent hacker culture in a positive light to the general public. In the early 1990s in particular, many news stories emerged portraying hackers as law-breakers with no respect for the personal privacy or property of others. Raymond wanted to show some of the positive values of hacker culture, particularly the hacker sense of humor. Because love of humorous wordplay is a strong element of hacker culture, a slang dictionary works quite well for such purposes.",
"-22.734468125036983"
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[
"for hackers as they do not need to be in the proximity of the infected systems to retrieve consumer information. Furthermore, hackers may try hide the virus from detection by programming BlackPOS to only send stolen information during certain time frames. By doing so, they can mask the traffic the information creates during normal work hours, making it seem as if nothing suspicious is going on. Incidents BlackPOS has been used to steal customer information from businesses worldwide. The most well-known attack occurred back in 2013 to the mega-store chain, Target. Target During Thanksgiving break of November 2013, Target's POS",
"-22.689553213247564"
],
[
"comedians. It is especially used for journalists that are perceived to take partisan sides. For example, if a writer criticized a Republican for a position or action but then excused a Democrat who took the same position or made the same action, that writer might be accused of being a hack for the Democrats.\nThe term \"hack\" has been used by some UK journalists as a form of humorous, self-deprecating self-description. The term was popularized in the UK by Private Eye magazine, which refers to male journalists as \"hacks\" and female journalists as \"hackettes.\"",
"-22.676792093800486"
],
[
"there, the cracks are eventually leaked onto public Internet sites by people/crackers who use well-protected/secure FTP release archives, which are made into full copies and sometimes sold illegally by other parties.\nThe Scene today is formed of small groups of skilled people, who informally compete to have the best crackers, methods of cracking, and reverse engineering. +HCU The High Cracking University (+HCU), was founded by Old Red Cracker (+ORC), considered a genius of reverse engineering and a legendary figure in RCE, to advance research into Reverse Code Engineering (RCE). He had also taught and authored many papers on the subject, and",
"-22.513182712733396"
],
[
"Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public. A minority still use the term in both senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended.\nHowever, because the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized, \"hacker\" can therefore be seen as a shibboleth, identifying those who use the technically-oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community. On the other hand,",
"-22.49710884358501"
],
[
"own purposes. Hacking is an intrusion combined with direct alteration of the security or data structures of the breached system. The word hacking is often confused with cracking in popular media discourse, and obfuscates the fact that hacking is less about eavesdropping and more related to interference and alteration. However, because of the consistent abuse by the news media, in 2007 the term hacker was commonly used for someone who accesses a network or a computer without authorization of the owner.\nIn 2011, Collins Dictionary stated that the word hacker can mean a computer fanatic, in particular one who by means",
"-22.47543453952676"
],
[
"of a personal computer breaks into the computer system of a company, government, or the like. It also denoted that in that sense the word hacker is slang. Slang words are not appropriate in formal writing or speech.\nComputer experts reserve the word hacker for a very clever programmer. They call someone who breaks into computers an intruder, attacker, or cracker.",
"-22.43220688119618"
],
[
"amateurs in the 1950s, predating the software hacking community. Programming The Boston Globe in 1984 defined \"hackers\" as \"computer nuts\". In their programmer subculture, a hacker is a person who follows a spirit of playful cleverness and loves programming. It is found in an originally academic movement unrelated to computer security and most visibly associated with free software, open source and demoscene. It also has a hacker ethic, based on the idea that writing software and sharing the result on a voluntary basis is a good idea, and that information should be free, but that it's not up to the",
"-22.3256871363119"
],
[
"book The Cuckoo's Egg, published one year later, further entrenched the term in the public's consciousness. Classifications Subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes and motives use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. These classifications are also used to exclude specific groups with whom they do not agree. Cracker Eric S. Raymond, author of The New Hacker's Dictionary, advocates that members of the computer underground should be called crackers. Yet, those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as a wider hacker culture, a view that",
"-22.200816331023816"
],
[
"Hacker group Overview Prior to that time, the term hacker was simply a referral to any computer hobbyist. The hacker groups were out to make names for themselves, and were often spurred on by their own press. This was a heyday of hacking, at a time before there was much law against computer crime. Hacker groups provided access to information and resources, and a place to learn from other members. Hackers could also gain credibility by being affiliated with an elite group. The names of hacker groups parody large corporations, governments, police and criminals; and often used specialized orthography.",
"-22.18797806954899"
],
[
"done with the system owner's consent.\nBlack hats or crackers are hackers with malicious intentions. They often steal, exploit, and sell data, and are usually motivated by personal gain. Their work is usually illegal. A cracker is like a black hat hacker, but is specifically someone who is very skilled and tries via hacking to make profits or to benefit, not just to vandalize. Crackers find exploits for system vulnerabilities and often use them to their advantage by either selling the fix to the system owner or selling the exploit to other black hat hackers, who in turn use it to",
"-22.187446246178297"
],
[
"historical origin and development. However, the Jargon File reports that considerable overlap existed for the early phreaking at the beginning of the 1970s. An article from MIT's student paper The Tech used the term hacker in this context already in 1963 in its pejorative meaning for someone messing with the phone system. The overlap quickly started to break when people joined in the activity who did it in a less responsible way. This was the case after the publication of an article exposing the activities of Draper and Engressia.\nAccording to Raymond, hackers from the programmer subculture usually work openly and",
"-22.021581094813882"
],
[
"group of hackers (clacks-crackers) called \"The Smoking Gnu\" which they succeed in doing temporarily. The Clacks' chief engineer, Mr Pony, finds a way of preventing the jamming process, but Pony begins to see that working for Gilt is wrong and presents Adora with evidence to prove that Gilt had the past four postmasters, as well as Adora's brother, killed.\nWhen an attempt to jam the Clacks fails Moist challenges Gilt to a race to the city of Uberwald, Clacks versus post office. The message to be sent is a biography of Havelock Vetinari. Moist and Adora employ a disused Clack tower",
"-21.955605039904185"
],
[
"Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are practical jokes and pranks meant to prominently demonstrate technical aptitude and cleverness, or to commemorate popular culture and historical topics. The pranks are anonymously installed at night by hackers, usually, but not exclusively, undergraduate students. The actions of hackers are governed by an informal, yet extensive, body of precedent, tradition, and ethics. Hacks can occur anywhere across campus, or occasionally off campus; many make use of the iconic Great Dome, Little Dome, Green Building tower, or other prominent architectural features of the",
"-21.872739386104513"
],
[
"scholarly and journalistic approaches to digital media, protest politics, and cyber-security. Instead of merely depicting hackers as virtual pamphleteers for free speech or as digital outlaws, we need to start asking more specific questions about why and when hackers embrace particular attitudes toward different kinds of laws, explore in greater detail what they are hoping to achieve, and take greater care in examining the consequences.\nOur Weirdness Is Free: The logic of Anonymous — online army, agent of chaos, and seeker of justice, Triple Canopy 2012 January, is Coleman's first major piece of length on the group and draws from a",
"-21.772713104950526"
],
[
"spyware authors against the authors of web sites and programs which described their products as \"spyware\". However, recent versions of these major firms home and business anti-virus products do include anti-spyware functions, albeit treated differently from viruses. Symantec Anti-Virus, for instance, categorizes spyware programs as \"extended threats\" and now offers real-time protection against these threats. Security practices To detect spyware, computer users have found several practices useful in addition to installing anti-spyware programs. Many users have installed a web browser other than Internet Explorer, such as Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome. Though no browser is completely safe, Internet Explorer",
"-21.772023748140782"
],
[
"with 2600: The Hacker Quarterly and the alt.2600 newsgroup.\nIn 1980, an article in the August issue of Psychology Today (with commentary by Philip Zimbardo) used the term \"hacker\" in its title: \"The Hacker Papers\". It was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film Tron, Kevin Flynn (Jeff Bridges) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying \"I've been doing a little hacking here\". CLU is the software he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use",
"-21.719474044311937"
],
[
"tools that he needs to help him when exploiting. An exploit script is a tool in which uses already written exploit code to find holes in the system or program. Using exploit scripts is easy for even a non-hacker to use because the code is already written in it. A couple exams of some exploit tools are shown in the book and how to use them.\nLog Files\n\nAs stated earlier log files are a way to check events that have been happening on a computer or network. For a hacker, having the ability to change what the log",
"-21.707218284645933"
],
[
"For example, when MIT students surreptitiously put a fake police car atop the dome on MIT's Building 10, that was a hack in this sense, and the students involved were therefore hackers. Other types of hacking are reality hackers, wetware hackers (\"hack your brain\"), and media hackers (\"hack your reputation\"). In a similar vein, a \"hack\" may refer to a math hack, that is, a clever solution to a mathematical problem. All of these uses have spread beyond MIT. Home computing enthusiasts In yet another context, a hacker is a computer hobbyist who pushes the limits of software or hardware.",
"-21.69538593537436"
],
[
"sensitive information about themselves or their organization. Hackers will target individuals within specific organizations by sending emails that appear to come from trusted sources including senior officials within the organization who hold positions of authority. To appear convincing, a social hacker's email message has to establish a tone of familiarity that belies any suspicion from its recipient. The email is designed to put forth a request for information that ties logically to the person sending it. Often, company employees will fall prey to these emails and share personal information such as phone numbers or passwords, thinking that the information transfer",
"-21.684698291930545"
],
[
"their employment and their operation. Before the attack, cyberweapons usually identify the target using different methods. Likewise, malware employed by fraudsters for the theft of personal or financial information demonstrates lower selectivity and wider distribution. Distinctions from viruses and other malware Note that self-replication is not a requirement; as such, not all cyberweapons are viruses and not all viruses are necessarily cyberweapons. Without this capability, however, an alternate vector is required to get the agent onto the target system(s). Likewise, compromised access alone, such as that provided by a rootkit, is not diagnostic of the employment of a",
"-21.677551965171006"
],
[
"Hackers (video game) Story Hackers takes place in an alternate reality, where a piece of software (codenamed Ergo) was designed to make hacking into systems easier. The software has been made available to the public, so that anyone and everyone can get into hacking. But unlike real-world hacking which consists of command line usage and programming, this alternate reality puts systems and the hacking process into a GUI (Graphical User Interface) to make things easier to try and hack other people.\nThe game starts you out performing simple hacks with a recently met acquaintance called \"Marty\". As the game progresses you",
"-21.57623110229906"
],
[
"their categories of script kiddies and black hat hackers instead.\nAll three subcultures have relations to hardware modifications. In the early days of network hacking, phreaks were building blue boxes and various variants. The programmer subculture of hackers has stories about several hardware hacks in its folklore, such as a mysterious 'magic' switch attached to a PDP-10 computer in MIT's AI lab, that when turned off, crashed the computer. The early hobbyist hackers built their home computers themselves, from construction kits. However, all these activities have died out during the 1980s, when the phone network switched to digitally controlled switchboards, causing",
"-21.5619569276314"
],
[
"be tolerated and seen as a necessary compromise in many situations. Some argue that it should not be, due to this negative meaning; others argue that some kludges can, for all their ugliness and imperfection, still have \"hack value\".\nIn non-software engineering, the culture is less tolerant of unmaintainable solutions, even when intended to be temporary, and describing someone as a \"hacker\" might imply that they lack professionalism. In this sense, the term has no real positive connotations, except for the idea that the hacker is capable of doing modifications that allow a system to work in the short term, and",
"-21.528067115781596"
],
[
"\"hack\" refers to a program that (sometimes illegally) modifies another program, often a video game, giving the user access to features otherwise inaccessible to them. As an example of this use, for Palm OS users (until the 4th iteration of this operating system), a \"hack\" refers to an extension of the operating system which provides additional functionality. Term also refers to those people who cheat on video games using special software. This can also refer to the jailbreaking of iPhones. Hacker artists Hacker artists create art by hacking on technology as an artistic medium. This has extended the definition of",
"-21.47822389176872"
],
[
"Homebrew Computer Club) and on software (video games, software cracking, the demoscene) in the 1980s/1990s. Later, this would go on to encompass many new definitions such as art, and life hacking. Security related hacking Security hackers are people involved with circumvention of computer security. Among security hackers, there are several types, including:\nWhite hats are hackers who work to keep data safe from other hackers by finding system vulnerabilities that can be mitigated. White hats are usually employed by the target system's owner and are typically paid (sometimes quite well) for their work. Their work is not illegal because it is",
"-21.458089583618857"
],
[
"who enjoys designing software and building programs with a sense for aesthetics and playful cleverness. The term hack in this sense can be traced back to \"describe the elaborate college pranks that...students would regularly devise\" (Levy, 1984 p. 10). To be considered a 'hack' was an honor among like-minded peers as \"to qualify as a hack, the feat must be imbued with innovation, style and technical virtuosity\" (Levy, 1984 p. 10) The MIT Tech Model Railroad Club Dictionary defined hack in 1959 (not yet in a computer context) as \"1) an article or project without constructive end; 2) a project undertaken on",
"-21.441315730222414"
],
[
"Hassel as one of its Security Researchers, of whom he is the youngest. Of the people listed on the page as security researchers, he has been called \"the most unusual but perhaps the most significant\".\nDavies has stated that Hassel had also learned \"three or four other hacks\" by the age of five, including how to bypass smartphone screen locks. Title Hassel has been identified as the world's youngest hacker, beating out others who have also been quite young. The Huffington Post has reported on \"teenage tech geniuses\" and The New York Times has stated \"in some hacking circles, 15 would",
"-21.436365122239295"
],
[
"malicious connotations were already present at MIT in 1963 (quoting The Tech, an MIT student newspaper), and at that time referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network, that is, the phreaker movement that developed into the computer security hacker subculture of today. Hacker culture Hacker culture is an idea derived from a community of enthusiast computer programmers and systems designers in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's (MIT's) Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) and the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. The concept expanded to the hobbyist home computing community, focusing on hardware in the late 1970s (e.g. the",
"-21.40360631464864"
],
[
"they may be exploited to allow hackers to upload their own files (such as a PHP Shell script) that collect sensitive information.\nDevelopers can also use tools to analyze potential vulnerabilities, including WPScan, WordPress Auditor and WordPress Sploit Framework developed by 0pc0deFR. These types of tools research known vulnerabilities, such as a CSRF, LFI, RFI, XSS, SQL injection and user enumeration. However, not all vulnerabilities can be detected by tools, so it is advisable to check the code of plugins, themes and other add-ins from other developers.\nIn March 2015, it was reported by many security experts and SEOs, including Search Engine",
"-21.392015360630467"
],
[
"script is run automatically by the browser and steals a copy of Bob's real name and email directly from his own machine.\nPersistent XSS vulnerabilities can be more significant than other types because an attacker's malicious script is rendered automatically, without the need to individually target victims or lure them to a third-party website. Particularly in the case of social networking sites, the code would be further designed to self-propagate across accounts, creating a type of client-side worm.\nThe methods of injection can vary a great deal; in some cases, the attacker may not even need to directly interact with the web",
"-21.352249696443323"
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[
"lines of code using a toolkit like QT, but is one line in Hackety Hack. This is achieved by choosing simple defaults and dropping support for lesser-used options. Comparison with similar projects The university affiliation that Scratch and Alice enjoy gives them more resources to bring to bear. Both projects have teams of people, the brand credibility of their institutions, and graduate students to write papers about them and use them in research. Hackety Hack is a more nimble project, since the team is much smaller. It's also truly an open-source project, whereas the Alice project, for example, only releases",
"-21.35045400531817"
],
[
"like the concept of ‘ethical hacking’ has helped organizations to see that hackers are not all that bad, it is time to accept that ‘ethical malcoding’ is required to research, identify and mitigate newer malwares in a ‘proactive’ way\".\nRajshekhar Murthy coined new security term “ethical malcoding” to differentiate between malcoders who work in the background independently or with various security firms for research and those who do it for financial gain; and another term \"GuuWare\" to describe software’s that may have similar attributes of a malware but are used for defensive purposes. Controversies MalCon approach of openly inviting \"ethical",
"-21.284848023387895"
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[
"widespread viruses and worms have been designed to take control of users' computers for illicit purposes. Infected \"zombie computers\" can be used to send email spam, to host contraband data such as child pornography, or to engage in distributed denial-of-service attacks as a form of extortion.\nPrograms designed to monitor users' web browsing, display unsolicited advertisements, or redirect affiliate marketing revenues are called spyware. Spyware programs do not spread like viruses; instead they are generally installed by exploiting security holes. They can also be hidden and packaged together with unrelated user-installed software. The Sony BMG rootkit was intended to preventing illicit",
"-21.242446917043708"
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[
"hackers is discarded hardware, especially hard drives that have not properly been scrubbed clean and still contain private and accurate information about corporations or individuals. Since surfing through people's curbside garbage is not a criminal offence and does not require a warrant, it is a rich resource for social hackers, as well as a legally accessible one. Dumpster diving can yield fruitful, albeit smelly results for information seekers such as private investigators, stalkers, nosy neighbours, and the police. Roleplaying Establishing trust by fooling people into believing in the legitimacy of a false character is one of the main tenets of",
"-21.222168884320126"
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[
"Ethical hackers often also use the information to remove the glitches and strengthen their network.\nMalicious (or \"black-hat\") hackers can, on entry of the network, get to security-sensitive information or corrupt the network making it useless. If this network belonged to a company which used this network on a regular basis, the company would lose the function to send information internally to other departments.\nNetwork enumerators are often used by script kiddies for ease of use, as well as by more experienced hackers in cooperation with other programs/manual lookups. Also, whois queries, zone transfers, ping sweeps, and traceroute can be performed.",
"-21.206197656887525"
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[
"full-time professionals behind a commercial product can in some cases be superior to FOSS.\nFurthermore, publicized source code might make it easier for hackers to find vulnerabilities in it and write exploits. This however assumes that such malicious hackers are more effective than white hat hackers which responsibly disclose or help fix the vulnerabilities, that no code leaks or exfiltrations occur and that reverse engineering of proprietary code is a hindrance of significance for malicious hackers. Hardware and software compatibility Sometimes, FOSS is not compatible with proprietary hardware or specific software. This is often due to manufacturers obstructing FOSS such as",
"-21.205176198884146"
],
[
"Hacktivismo. It works by using \"trusted peers\" to relay network connections over SSL encrypted links. Hacktivismo and the cDc further gained notoriety in 2003 when the Six/Four System became the first product of a hacker group to receive approval from the United States Department of Commerce for export of strong encryption. SMBRelay and SMBRelay2 SMBRelay and SMBRelay2 are computer programs that can be used to carry out SMB man-in-the-middle attacks on Windows machines. They were written by Sir Dystic and released March 21, 2001 at the @lantacon convention in Atlanta, Georgia. Torpark XeroBank Browser (formerly known as Torpark) is a",
"-21.200197219506663"
],
[
"A Hacker Manifesto Structure, style and influence A Hacker Manifesto is divided into 17 chapters, with each chapter including a series of short numbered paragraphs (a total of 389) that mimics the epigrammic style of Guy Debord’s The Society of the Spectacle. The opening sentence in the book, “A double spooking the world, the double of abstraction” is a clear homage to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ The Communist Manifesto which opens with the line “A specter is haunting Europe - the specter of Communism”. Wark builds on Marx and Engels’ ideas, alongside Deleuze and Guattari, by adding two",
"-21.195997633571096"
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[
"They may then offer to correct the defect for a fee. Grey hat hackers sometimes find the defect of a system and publish the facts to the world instead of a group of people. Even though grey hat hackers may not necessarily perform hacking for their personal gain, unauthorized access to a system can be considered illegal and unethical. Elite hacker A social status among hackers, elite is used to describe the most skilled. Newly discovered exploits circulate among these hackers. Elite groups such as Masters of Deception conferred a kind of credibility on their members. Script kiddie A script",
"-21.193635570958577"
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[
"some larger items semi-permanently in the Stata Center.\nAlthough many traditional college pranks have involved maximizing embarrassment or inconvenience for a victim or target, such antics are usually disparaged by MIT hackers as \"unimaginative\" or \"boring\". Often the target of a hack is an abstract concept (e.g. bureaucracy or \"political correctness\", or entropy), and the prank may or may not be aimed at any specific individual. Even when an individual is targeted (e.g. the \"disappearing office\" of newly arrived MIT President Charles Vest), the jest is good-natured, often eliciting admiration rather than anger from the \"victim\".\nWriters for the",
"-21.13606924173746"
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[
"internally classified top-secret, burn-before-reading. Hackers blanch at the very name of EBCDIC and consider it a manifestation of purest evil.\n— The Jargon file 4.4.7\nEBCDIC design was also the source of many jokes. One such joke went: \nProfessor: \"So the American government went to IBM to come up with an encryption standard, and they came up with—\"\nStudent: \"EBCDIC!\"\nReferences to the EBCDIC character set are made in the classic Infocom adventure game series Zork. In the \"Machine Room\" in Zork II, EBCDIC is used to imply an incomprehensible language:\nThis is a large room full of assorted heavy machinery, whirring noisily. The room smells",
"-21.12924607527202"
],
[
"Hack and slash Role-playing games The term \"hack and slash\" has its roots in \"pen and paper\" RPGs such as Dungeons & Dragons, denoting campaigns of violence with no other plot elements or significant goal. The term itself dates at least as far back as 1980, as shown in a Dragon article by Jean Wells and Kim Mohan which includes the following statement: \"There is great potential for more than hacking and slashing in D&D or AD&D; there is the possibility of intrigue, mystery and romance involving both sexes, to the benefit of all characters in a campaign.\" Role-playing video",
"-20.98330787535815"
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[
"hoaxes, such as legally changing your name or opening a rift in time and space.\nAnother parody of virus hoaxes is the honor system virus which has been circulated under the name Amish Computer Virus, manual virus, the Blond Computer Virus, the Irish Computer Virus, the Syrian Computer Virus, the Norwegian Computer Virus, Albanian Virus, Newfie Virus, the Unix Computer Virus, the Mac OS 9 virus, Discount virus and many others. This joke email claims to be authored by the Amish or other similar low-technology populations who have no computers, programming skills or electricity to create viruses and thus ask you",
"-20.89362028823598"
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[
"is awash with Communist Manifesto-like lingo, and Wark proceeds to link Marx's ideas to concepts in the current digital information age we live in, such as \"intellectual property\". Abstraction/hacker For Wark, hacking begins with what they define as an \"abstraction\", the construction of different and unrelated matters into previously unrealized relations. Hackers produce new conceptions, perceptions and sensations hacked out of raw data. Everything and anything is a code for the hacker to hack, be it \"programming, language, poetic language, math, or music, curves or colourings\" and once hacked, they create the possibility for new things to enter the",
"-20.878608680894104"
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[
"MIT, and elsewhere. This article focuses mostly on prankish aspects; for a fuller description of hacker culture, see \"Hacker (term)\".\nRoof and tunnel hacking, a form of urban exploration, is also related to but not identical to \"hacking\" as described in this article. Some hacks do involve overcoming barriers to physical access (e.g. placing a half-scale Apollo Lunar Module atop the Great Dome), but many other stunts do not require such specialized skills. Cultural aspects Viewed from an anthropological perspective, hacking is a cultural tradition affirming group solidarity, but some hacks can also be viewed as individualistic creative",
"-20.84743742225146"
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[
"areas such as math, reading, etc. However, there doesn’t seem to be courses that can address the curiosity that a young hacker may have.\nHacking courses can create a moral compass for young hackers. They require a constructive environment that allows them to satiate their desire to understand computers. Students in these classes have the ability to learn what they are passionate about while also understanding the ethical boundaries that should not be violated. However, the integral part of the curriculum would be to prevent the development of black hat hackers. Encourage White Hat Hacking There seems to be a lack",
"-20.834196277421142"
],
[
"Hacker's Delight Hacker's Delight is a software algorithm book by Henry S. Warren, Jr. and published by Addison-Wesley Professional. The first edition was released in 2002, and the second in 2013. It discusses a variety of programming algorithms for common tasks involving integer types, often with the aim of performing the minimum number of operations or replacing slow operations by faster ones (e.g., converting a divide by a constant into a multiply by another constant that gives the same result).\nThe second edition has new chapters on cyclic redundancy code and other error correcting codes. It also has a new",
"-20.788504068717884"
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[
"many cases, the companies whose advertisements appear in spyware pop-ups do not directly do business with the spyware firm. Rather, they have contracted with an advertising agency, which in turn contracts with an online subcontractor who gets paid by the number of \"impressions\" or appearances of the advertisement. Some major firms such as Dell Computer and Mercedes-Benz have sacked advertising agencies that have run their ads in spyware. Libel suits by spyware developers Litigation has gone both ways. Since \"spyware\" has become a common pejorative, some makers have filed libel and defamation actions when their products have been so described.",
"-20.785706281516468"
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[
"dump for significant amounts of money.\" The report noted that it was difficult to determine who the ultimate mastermind of a hack might be, as criminal hackers sometimes provide information to government intelligence agencies or offer their services for hire. Komarov said the hackers may be related to Group E, who have had a track record of selling stolen personal data on the dark web, primarily to underground spammers, and were previously linked to breaches at LinkedIn, Tumblr, and MySpace. InfoArmor had linked Group E as the source of the data that were offered by Peace, and believed that Group",
"-20.759178301170323"
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[
"usually harder to ″hide″ a backdoor in there. Combined with reproducible builds one can also be sure that a provided binary corresponds to the publicly available source code. Worms Many computer worms, such as Sobig and Mydoom, install a backdoor on the affected computer (generally a PC on broadband running Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Outlook). Such backdoors appear to be installed so that spammers can send junk e-mail from the infected machines. Others, such as the Sony/BMG rootkit, placed secretly on millions of music CDs through late 2005, are intended as DRM measures—and, in that case, as data-gathering agents, since",
"-20.753304183625005"
],
[
"virus to spread, whereas a worm spreads itself. Concealment These categories are not mutually exclusive, so malware may use multiple techniques. This section only applies to malware designed to operate undetected, not sabotage and ransomware. Viruses A computer virus is software usually hidden within another seemingly innocuous program that can produce copies of itself and insert them into other programs or files, and that usually performs a harmful action (such as destroying data). An example of this is a PE infection, a technique, usually used to spread malware, that inserts extra data or executable code into PE files. Screen-locking",
"-20.74165120305497"
],
[
"against computer criminality, white hat, grey hat and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in The Mentor's \"The Hacker Manifesto\", published 1986 in Phrack.\nUse of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title \"Stalking the Wily Hacker\", an article by Clifford Stoll in the May 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM. Later that year, the release by Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. of the so-called Morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage. The popularity of Stoll's",
"-20.70256289907229"
],
[
"Hacker Manifesto In popular culture The article is quoted several times in the 1995 movie Hackers, although in the movie it is being read from an issue of the hacker magazine 2600, not the historically accurate Phrack.\nThe Mentor gave a reading of The Hacker Manifesto and offered additional insight at H2K2. It is also an item in the game Culpa Innata.",
"-20.665052618092886"
],
[
"Hacker II: The Doomsday Papers Plot Hacker II is more difficult and involved than the first game. In Hacker II, the player is actually recruited based upon his (assumed) success with the activities in the original game. Once again, they are tasked with controlling a robot, this time to infiltrate a secure facility in order to retrieve documents known only as \"The Doomsday Papers\" from a well guarded vault to ensure the security of the United States.\nEventually, as they escape with the papers, the player is confronted by agents of the United States who reveal that he or she",
"-20.662952753751597"
],
[
"software vendors, both of which appeared to be vulnerable to bugs of a similar nature. These bugs allowed a malicious hacker to glean information on employees relating to the affected companies, such as the name, email, and employee ID of the chat agent, alongside other information such as the backend systems in use, allowing a malicious hacker to potentially gain a foothold within these networks. Some of the affected companies included Google, PayPal, Bank of America, Verizon, Sony, Tesla, Orange, Kaspersky, BitDefender, AT&T, and many other large corporations\n. One of the founders of this exploit was Kane Gamble, who was",
"-20.653860103338957"
],
[
"charged and often contentious terms white hat hacking (which some consider hacking motivated exclusively by good, benevolent intentions--such as hardware modding or penetration testing), and black hat hacking – which some consider to be hacking motivated exclusively by malicious or selfish intentions, such as electronic theft, vandalism, hijacking of websites, and other types of cybercrime.) Other hackers believe that hat-color labels are an oversimplification and unnecessary designation, best suited for use by the media, and suggest that people who use hacking to commit crimes already have a label, that of criminal. Conferences and meetings 2600 established the H.O.P.E. (Hackers on",
"-20.595981712363027"
],
[
"of the OSI model and basic networking concepts, including packet sniffing, connection hijacking, denial of service and port scanning. Cryptology The cryptology section of Hacking covers basic information theory, in addition to symmetric and asymmetric encryption. It winds out in cracking WEP utilizing the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir attack. Besides the basics, including man-in-the-middle attacks, dictionary attacks, and the use of John the Ripper; Hacking discusses quantum key distribution, Lov Grover's Quantum Search Algorithm, and Peter Shor's Quantum Factoring Algorithm for breaking RSA encryption using a very large quantum computer. Introduction The introduction of the book states that hacking should",
"-20.569435662931937"
],
[
"is a proficient and troublemaking computer virtuoso, essentially a \"hacker\", though this term is not used in the story. He hangs out with friends who cause trouble online, encounters interference from his parents, and uses his skills to circumvent their will. In the novelized version, which incorporates a number of sequel short stories, this goes through a number of different phases. Novel Cyberpunk was originally written as a series of short stories in the 1980s. Bethke says \"After I sold the original story in '82, I continued to work on the story cycle, publishing bits and pieces here and there",
"-20.506109356843808"
],
[
"separation between acceptable and unacceptable software behaviour is established. The reason for this is the subjective nature of many spyware programs included, which result in inconsistencies between different users beliefs, i.e. what one user regards as legitimate software could be regarded as a spyware by others. As the spyware concept came to include increasingly more types of programs, the term got hollowed out, resulting in several synonyms, such as trackware, evilware and badware, all negatively emotive. We therefore choose to introduce the term privacy-invasive software to encapsulate all such software. We believe this term to be more descriptive than other",
"-20.499472176510608"
],
[
"and those performing computer break-ins. Further terms such as \"black hat\", \"white hat\" and \"gray hat\" developed when laws against breaking into computers came into effect, to distinguish criminal activities from those activities which were legal. Representation in network news However, network news use of the term consistently pertained primarily to the criminal activities, despite the attempt by the technical community to preserve and distinguish the original meaning, so today the mainstream media and general public continue to describe computer criminals, with all levels of technical sophistication, as \"hackers\" and do not generally make use of the word in any",
"-20.473379385788576"
],
[
"can use the same hack. Alternative solutions This problem does not arise (and hence needs no \"hack\" in order to solve) when using lexerless parsing techniques, as these are intrinsically contextual. These are generally seen as less elegant designs, however, because they lack the modularity of having a concurrent lexer and parser in a pipeline.\nSome parser generators, such as the yacc-derived BtYacc (\"Backtracking Yacc\"), give the generated parser the ability to try multiple attempts to parse the tokens. In the problem described here, if an attempt fails because of semantic information about the identifier, it can backtrack and attempt other",
"-20.471113296371186"
],
[
"either low, medium or high, while the degree of direct negative consequences span between tolerable, moderate, and severe. This classification allows us to first make a distinction between legitimate software and spyware, and secondly between spyware and malicious software. All software that has a low user consent, or which impairs severe direct negative consequences should be regarded as malware. While, on the other hand, any software that has high user consent, and which results in tolerable direct negative consequences should be regarded as legitimate software. By this follows that spyware constitutes the remaining group of software, i.e. those that have",
"-20.421220611708122"
],
[
"should be free\" by acknowledging that the internal force or entelechy of information and knowledge makes it essentially incompatible with notions of proprietary software, copyrights, patents, subscription services, etc. They believe that information is dynamic, ever-growing and evolving and cannot be contained within (any) ideological structure.\nAccording to this philosophy, hackers, crackers, and phreakers are liberators of information which is being held hostage by agents demanding money for its release. Other participants in this network include cypherpunks who educate people to use public-key cryptography to protect the privacy of their messages from corporate or governmental snooping and programmers who write free",
"-20.409305063687498"
],
[
"Luser Internet slang prior to the popularization of the Internet in the late 1990s, defined a luser (sometimes expanded to local user; also luzer or luzzer) as a painfully annoying, stupid, or irritating computer user.\nThe word is a blend of \"loser\" and \"user\". Among hackers, the word luser takes on a broad meaning, referring to any normal user (in other words, not a \"guru\"), with the implication the person is also a loser. The term is partially interchangeable with the hacker term lamer. \nIt can also signify a layman with only user account privileges, as opposed to a power user",
"-20.40695316753363"
],
[
"the term and what it means to be a hacker. Such artists may work with graphics, computer hardware, sculpture, music and other audio, animation, video, software, simulations, mathematics, reactive sensory systems, text, poetry, literature, or any combination thereof.\nDartmouth College musician Larry Polansky states:\nTechnology and art are inextricably related. Many musicians, video artists, graphic artists, and even poets who work with technology—whether designing it or using it—consider themselves to be part of the 'hacker community.' Computer artists, like non-art hackers, often find themselves on society's fringes, developing strange, innovative uses of existing technology. There is an empathetic relationship between those, for",
"-20.38804583453748"
],
[
"way.\nInfected warez directly from the warez scene on the other hand, is a very unusual occurrence. The malicious content is usually added at a later stage by third parties. Demographics Warez traders share many similarities to both hackers and crackers. Primary warez distribution groups include a single cracker that renders all copy protected technologies in a warez inoperable. Unlike the typical age of a hacker and cracker, the general age and demographics of a warez trader are older and married IT professionals. The need for attention is another similarity between the groups as well as believe that digital property should",
"-20.360984964689123"
],
[
"a system by deceiving the user or by exploiting software vulnerabilities.\nMost spyware is installed without knowledge, or by using deceptive tactics. Spyware may try to deceive users by bundling itself with desirable software. Other common tactics are using a Trojan horse, spy gadgets that look like normal devices but turn out to be something else, such as a USB Keylogger. These devices actually are connected to the device as memory units but are capable of recording each stroke made on the keyboard. Some spyware authors infect a system through security holes in the Web browser or in other software.",
"-20.348566855318495"
],
[
"and prosecution.\nAccording to Jean-Loup Richet (Associate Professor at the Sorbonne Business School), technical expertise and accessibility no longer act as barriers to entry into cybercrime. Indeed, hacking is much less complex than it was a few years ago, as hacking communities have greatly diffused their knowledge through the Internet. Blogs and communities have hugely contributed to information sharing: beginners could benefit from older hackers' knowledge and advice. Furthermore, hacking is cheaper than ever: before the cloud computing era, in order to spam or scam one needed a dedicated server, skills in server management, network configuration, and maintenance, knowledge of Internet",
"-20.31146006277845"
],
[
"ROM hacking Communities Most hacking groups offer web space for hosting hacks and screenshots (sometimes only hosting hacks by the group's members, sometimes hosting almost any hack), a message board, and often have an IRC channel. Methods Having been created by many different programmers or programming teams, ROM data can be very diverse. Hex editing A hex editor is one of the most fundamental tools in any ROM hacker's repertoire. Hex editors are usually used for editing text, and for editing other data for which the structure is known (for example, item properties), and Assembly hacking.\nEditing text is one of",
"-20.294543726020493"
],
[
"Hacks, TomFoolery, and Pranks\" and \"Institute Has The Finest Professors\". MIT leadership has even adapted the acronym, using it to encourage vaccination during the 2009–2010 flu season with a banner in the MIT medical building that read \"I Hate This Flu Pandemic\". The precise time of origin is unknown, though the term IHTFP was already widely used at MIT by 1960.\nThe letters \"IHTFP\" have been featured prominently on some hacks, but are more usually subtly embedded within other hacks as an inside joke. A very common motif in the MIT Brass Rat (class ring) prior to 2013 was the inclusion",
"-20.252556688785262"
],
[
"Spyware Basics \"Spyware\" is mostly classified into four types: adware, system monitors, tracking cookies, and trojans; examples of other notorious types include digital rights management capabilities that \"phone home\", keyloggers, rootkits, and web beacons.\nSpyware is mostly used for the stealing information and storing Internet users' movements on the Web and serving up pop-up ads to Internet users. Whenever spyware is used for malicious purposes, its presence is typically hidden from the user and can be difficult to detect. Some spyware, such as keyloggers, may be installed by the owner of a shared, corporate, or public computer intentionally in order to",
"-20.230799728655256"
],
[
"hacking, which references (and gives credit to) an earlier work on the same subject by Andy Kindler called, The Hacks Handbook: A Starter Kit. Transcreation In 2014, an academic paper called transcreation a literary technique used by Italian comedian Daniele Luttazzi, one of the most corrosive and influential Italian stand-up comedians (in 2002 he was among the targets of Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi's Editto Bulgaro): Luttazzi adds references to famous comedians' jokes to his work as a defense against the million-euro lawsuits he has to face because of his satire. For example, in March 2012 Luttazzi won a legal",
"-20.194193314753647"
],
[
"trying to live a double life in a world that makes secrets all too easy to access\", it relies on the feeling of shame. The episode asks: \"How far would you go to keep your shame safely hidden?\"\nJosh Dzieza of The Verge commented that the anonymous hackers mark \"a bit of a departure\" for the programme, which usually does not feature \"overt villains\". Mullane analysed that the hackers' identities do not need to be revealed as they are \"effectively a stand-in for The Internet: all-seeing, all-knowing, and extremely dangerous\". The supposed malware remover that Kenny downloads is called \"shrive\", a",
"-20.155069824828388"
],
[
"Press, BBC, Reuters and populated their profiles with fictitious personal content. They then tried to befriend target victims and sent them \"friendly messages\" with Spear-phishing to steal email passwords and attacks and infecting them to a \"not particularly sophisticated\" malware for data exfiltration.\nThe report says NewsOnAir.org was registered in Tehran and likely hosted by an Iranian provider. The Persian word \"Parastoo\" (پرستو; meaning swallow) was used as a password for malware associated with the group, which appeared to work during business hours in Tehran as they took Thursday and Friday off. iSIGHT Partners could not confirm whether the hackers had",
"-20.13082265018238"
],
[
"hats are becoming a necessary part of the information security field. They operate under a code, which acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad, but that discovering and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking into computers is still an interesting activity that can be done ethically and legally. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context.\nThe subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene, or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of phreaking during the 1960s and the microcomputer BBS scene of the 1980s. It is implicated",
"-20.101095797748712"
],
[
"banking systems. Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack. Third, corporate espionage allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace. And fourth, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through cyberspace. Overlaps and differences The main basic difference between programmer subculture and computer security hacker is their mostly separate",
"-20.085477778382483"
],
[
"software.\nAlthough the signature-based approach can effectively contain malware outbreaks, malware authors have tried to stay a step ahead of such software by writing \"oligomorphic\", \"polymorphic\" and, more recently, \"metamorphic\" viruses, which encrypt parts of themselves or otherwise modify themselves as a method of disguise, so as to not match virus signatures in the dictionary. Heuristics Many viruses start as a single infection and through either mutation or refinements by other attackers, can grow into dozens of slightly different strains, called variants. Generic detection refers to the detection and removal of multiple threats using a single virus definition.\nFor example, the Vundo",
"-20.071117748724646"
],
[
"Rogue, particularly mirroring Rogue's character- or sprite-based graphics. Some of the factors used in this definition include: These games were popularized among college students and computer programmers of the 1980s and 1990s, leading to a large number of variants but adhering to these common gameplay elements. Some of the more well-known variants include Hack, NetHack, Ancient Domains of Mystery, Moria, Angband, and Tales of Maj'Eyal. The Japanese series of Mystery Dungeon games by Chunsoft, inspired by Rogue, also fall within the concept of roguelike games.\nMore recently, with more powerful home computers and gaming systems, new variations of roguelikes incorporating other",
"-20.04668708742247"
]
] |
513u1h | How do hundreds of animators work together on the same project file when making a big budget animated movie? | [
"You don't usually work on the same files because everything is split up between the departments. I haven't used USD yet but I have encountered the following workflow in different studios (using Maya). For example: a character that has been rigged by one (or more, but not at the same time) rigger goes to the animators. Every animator works with the same character rig BUT each animator works on his/her own shot. He/She references (or \"links\") the rig into their scene so that any change that is later made to the rig can be updated in the animators' scenes as well. The environment of that scene is usually a rough blockout, done in the modeling department. It contains all the objects the animator needs to set up and let the character act in his/her shot. Then the scene gets switched out with the final scene (with textures, shading, lights and details) and the character rig is often updated as well, to get any dynamic stuff like hair, cloth and the hires render meshes in there. This is often done in separate departments as well, depending on the size of the studio. This is my simple depiction of the process and it varies from studio to studio. I would love to read some more experiences, also about USD, if anyone has worked with it or with a different pipeline.",
"You're right - it's not practical to have hundreds of people working on a single file. That's where a tool like [Pixar's USD]( URL_0 ) comes in. It lets you take all your different models, textures, etc. and then combine them into a single scene.",
"It depends a bit in the studio workflow and the software used, but cg animation can generally be broken down into several steps, some of which can be worked on simultaneously by several people. Multiple artists aren't often working on the same file, they're just working on different elements of the same shot. Artists often *reference* files from other artists into their scene, so changes that one artist makes will automatically be reflected in their scene. Also, a single movie is made of of hundreds of different shots. And each shot usually has a different set of files, and each shot can usually be worked on simultaneously. # Modeling This is where someone creates a 3D model of the character/building/vehicle/etc. # Lookdev/Texturing This is where colors and fine detail are \"painted\" onto the outside of the model. It's also where they control how different portions of the model respond to light (ie. Shinier, matte, translucent, etc) # Rigging This creates a bone structure and control rig for animators to use to make animationeasier and possible. # Layout This is where the \"scene\" is built and the camera placement and movements are set up. # Animation An animator animates the rig. # Simulation/Effects Some things like hair, fur, water, and smoke are animated using a simulation. # Lighting Controls light placements in the scene. Often makes a number of renderer adjustments and small changes to the material properties that were setup in lookdev to achieve the desired look of the scene # Compositing Even when multiple elements *could* all exist in the same scene, it's often easier to render them separately and then comp the images together. # How it all works together Obviously, modeling and rigging have to be done before the other steps, but almost everything else can happen simultaneously. Modeling and rigging adjustments are often still made at the same time, too.",
"Ok lemme preface this by saying I'm a CG artist and I'm in the field. So there's the pipeline that they tell everyone, first models are made and then \"rigged\" (creating a skeleton and muscle system to provide for movement). Then animators come in and move those characters, pose them, tween them, the whole 9 yards. Then a texture artist will create textures, a lighter will set the mood via lighting and rendering, and a compositor will adjust the final image. Maybe a colorist will go in and grade the footage. But in reality a lot of artists are usually working on the same scene/shot at the same time because everything is always in a rush. There are pipeline tools and software made specifically to help with scenes being updated, different iterations and versions for others to use as they need to. For example, a texture artist or lighter doesn't necessarily need to wait for an animator to finish a shot, they can do shader and material dev while waiting for the shot to be locked. Within different versions of scenes there can be different versions of models or textures or cameras or etc. It's not that a team has a single scene file to haphazardly hot potato back and forth to each other, rather that a pipeline tool can manage these different versions and update scenes as any artist sees fit. Does that make sense? I know I ramble so I know I'm not always the clearest.",
"Most studios break projects down by shot also, so you have lots of smaller files to work with. Referencing tools like the ones other posters mentioned in Maya, OTL's in Houdini, and USD can help keep those shot files from containing copies of shared assets.",
"Yeah basically you have the work delegated. There's a group in charge of designing the characters then modelling and rigging. Then the storyboards. When it comes to the animating, it's usually done by scene. So Animator A gets scenes 1, 5 and 9. Animator B gets 2, 3 and 4. Animator C gets scenes 6, 7, 8 and so on and so on. IDK how it works in 3D but I assume everyone gets a copy of the necessary assets (character models, bgs, timing charts, etc) and they compile the completed scenes in post afterward."
] | [
[
"in many areas of technology and video, such as cinema, television, video games or the internet. Generally, these works require the collaboration of several animators. The methods to create these images depend on the animator and style that one wants to achieve (with images generated by computer, manually ...).\nAnimators can be divided into animators of characters (artists who are specialized in the movements, dialogue and acting of the characters) and animators of special effects (for example vehicles, machinery or natural phenomena such as water, snow, rain). Production The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has",
"-31.096837826014962"
],
[
"depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation).\nAnother problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film. Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens",
"-31.0402800430129"
],
[
"animators,\" and 15 to 20 storyboard artists.\nDel Vecho explained how the film's animation team was organized: \"On this movie we do have character leads, supervising animators on specific characters. The animators themselves may work on multiple characters but it's always under one lead. I think it was different on Tangled, for example, but we chose to do it this way as we wanted one person to fully understand and develop their own character and then be able to impart that to the crew. Hyrum Osmond, the supervising animator on Olaf, is quiet but he has a funny, wacky personality so",
"-30.75556096783839"
],
[
"circumstances include Production I.G and Studio Deen. Animator's contracts Although there are permanent/full-time positions in studios, most animators work on a contract basis. There are some animators that are considered to be in the core group of the studio, which can either be as a result of being there since the inception of the company or being talented recruits from other animation studios. These are the more secure positions in an animation studio, though the studio might have policies with regard to the possible tenure of animators. Since studios can hire animators on a work for hire basis nowadays, many",
"-30.334670740412548"
],
[
"by the director, producer, and other key creative team members. Similar to the storyboarding stage, an animator may be required to redo a scene many times before the director will approve it.\nIn high-budget animated productions, often each major character will have an animator or group of animators solely dedicated to drawing that character. The group will be made up of one supervising animator, a small group of key animators, and a larger group of assistant animators. For scenes where two characters interact, the key animators for both characters will decide which character is \"leading\" the scene, and that character will",
"-30.010697601363063"
],
[
"adapt 70-year-old comic art techniques for the film's visual language. It took around a year for two animators to create 10 seconds of footage that reflected the producers's vision; the animation work developed from there. During initial development, the directors worked with a single animator to establish the film's look. This number eventually grew to 60 animators during production. It became clear that this would not be enough to complete the film on time, so the crew was expanded further. The number had reached 142 animators by August 2018 and at one point to 177 animators, the largest animation crew",
"-29.850244397995993"
],
[
"packages. Within the software package, the creator places drawings into different key frames which fundamentally create an outline of the most important movements. The computer then fills in the \"in-between frames\", a process commonly known as Tweening. Computer-assisted animation employs new technologies to produce content faster than is possible with traditional animation, while still retaining the stylistic elements of traditionally drawn characters or objects.\nExamples of films produced using computer-assisted animation are The Little Mermaid, The Rescuers Down Under, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, The Lion King, Pocahontas, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Hercules, Mulan, The Road to El Dorado and",
"-29.823104428476654"
],
[
"after it failed to attract business. Digital Eyecandy hired approximately twenty animators that had previously been employed by ImagineAsia\nand at one point, the studio reached fifty employees.\nThe film's animators had little experience with computer-animation and feature-length films, and had to be trained by the producers over the course of the film's production. Since none of the animators were specialists, they were not divided into specific teams, but instead each worked on all areas of the animating process. The filmmakers found this to be a poor method though, because it kept the individual skills of the animators from being optimized. Due",
"-29.728755086864112"
],
[
"major character. The supervising animator oversees a group of animators who complete the entire scenes in which a particular character appears.\nThe day-to-day responsibilities of an animation director may include checking and updating lists for each scene.",
"-29.38471128360834"
],
[
"into full blown musical fantasies such as The Rabbit of Seville and A Corny Concerto.\nStalling's working process involved meeting each animated short film's director or directors before the animation process begun. Together they set the time signatures to which the short was to be drawn. The animators of the film were measuring animation frames per beat. After the animation process was completed, Stalling would receive the animators' exposure sheets or bar sheets. The sheets broke the animation, dialogue, and sound effects into musical bars, which Stalling would then use to create his score for the film.\nWhen working on a film",
"-29.373144670564216"
],
[
"shots. Animation Animation film crews have many of the same roles and departments as live-action films (including directing, production, editing, camera, sound, and so on), but nearly all on-set departments (lighting, electrical, grip, sets, props, costume, hair, makeup, special effects, and stunts) were traditionally replaced with a single animation department made up of various types of animators (character, effects, in-betweeners, cleanup, and so on). In traditional animation, the nature of the medium meant that everything was literally flattened into the drawn lines and solid colors that became the characters, making nearly all live-action positions irrelevant. Because animation has traditionally been",
"-29.109841965138912"
],
[
"that contained special gearing to allow the animators to manipulate individual parts of the puppets' faces. The animators' work was spread over 25 to 35 individual setups/stages, each having its own Canon digital camera. A total of 32 cameras were used on the film. Each camera was outfitted with a \"grabber\" system that enabled the animators to capture frames and download them into a computer to assemble a short \"reel\" of the shot being produced to check their work.\nThe film's images were stored on a 1GB image card that was capable of holding approximately 100 frames of animation. Eight roving",
"-29.041030270032934"
],
[
"may need to rush from one project to another). Animated films have different workflow at the production phase, in that voice talent can record their takes in the recording studio at different times and may not see one another until the film's premiere, while most physical live-action tasks are either unnecessary or are simulated by various types of animators. Post-production Here the video/film is assembled by the film editor. The shot film material is edited. The production sound (dialogue) is also edited; music tracks and songs are composed and recorded, \nif a film is sought to have a score; sound",
"-28.997815049719065"
],
[
"modern computer animation). It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists develop every single scene through storyboards, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to",
"-28.977391374181025"
],
[
"Animation director An animation director is the director in charge of all aspects of the animation process during the production of an animated film or an animated segment for a live action film or television. Responsibilities This may include directing the storyboard, character design, background animation, and other aspects of animation. Some animated film productions may split the duties between an animation director, who focuses on the creation of the animation, and a director who oversees all other aspects of the film. A supervising animator is commonly in charge of all aspects of the design and artwork for a single",
"-28.9361914054316"
],
[
"Gill, head of Warner Independent Pictures, asked for a status report. There were no finished sequences, as the majority of animators were still learning to implement the film's highly detailed style. Under pressure, some animators worked 18-hour days for two weeks in order to produce a trailer, which seemed to appease Gill and Linklater. Sabiston and his team were falling behind on the studio's 6-month animation schedule and asked that the schedule be extended to a year and that the 2 million dollar animation budget be enlarged accordingly. This created tension, and in January 2005, while Sabiston and his four-person",
"-28.78914930499741"
],
[
"are created by either moving the cels or backgrounds 1 step at a time over a succession of frames (the camera does not pan; it only zooms in and out).\nAs the scenes come out of final photography, they are spliced into the Leica reel, taking the place of the pencil animation. Once every sequence in the production has been photographed, the final film is sent for development and processing, while the final music and sound effects are added to the soundtrack. Again, editing in the traditional live-action sense is generally not done in animation, but if it is required it",
"-28.548515252245124"
],
[
"for JAniCA to select more young training projects under the same budgets.\nIn April 2014, JAniCA announced that they are no longer running the initiative. Later it was announced that The Association of Japanese Animations (AJA) will run the project. Animations The following animations were created out of the funding provided by the Young Animator Training Project. Animation studios bid for funding, and each year, four studios are selected to produce short films. All short films air in theaters each year in March.",
"-28.519989530963358"
],
[
"involved tracing over film frame-by-frame. This is similar in some respects to the rotoscope style of filmmaker Ralph Bakshi. Rotoshop animation makes use of vector keyframes and interpolates the in-between frames automatically.\nThe animation phase was a trying process for Linklater who said, \"I know how to make a movie, but I don't really know how to handle the animation.\" He had gone the animation route because he felt that there was very little animation targeted for adults. Post-production problems Originally, the film was supposed to be released in September 2005. Most of the animators were hired locally with only a",
"-28.446250172768487"
],
[
"so labor-intensive and thus expensive, animation films normally have a separate story department in which storyboard artists painstakingly develop scenes to make sure they make sense before they are actually animated.\nHowever, since the turn of the 21st century, modern 3D computer graphics and computer animation have made possible a level of rich detail never seen before. Many animated films now have specialized artists and animators who act as the virtual equivalent of lighting technicians, grips, costume designers, props masters, set decorators, set dressers, and cinematographers. They make artistic decisions strongly similar to those of their live-action counterparts, but implement them",
"-28.409365655155852"
],
[
"full-length animated feature using the 3-D animated motion capture process\". The film used different actors for the motion caption of the main characters based on their particular size and body shape, as well as another set of actors for the facial movements. A couple of hundred animators in Madras, India, worked on the animation, as well as a smaller group in Los Angeles.\nProduced by Pentamedia Graphics and Improvision Corporation with assistance of Pentafour Software and Madras. It was purchased by Trimark Pictures for television distribution and had a limited theatrical release in Los Angeles, New York and Chicago. The motion",
"-28.312344398000278"
],
[
"Like the original film, this film includes a sequence combining live-action and traditional hand-drawn animation. According to Marshall, he asked for an animated/live-action sequence rather than employing modern CGI animation, feeling that it was vital to hold on the classic hand-drawn animation to protect the spirit of the original film.\nThe animation sequence was developed and overall supervision was handled by ex-Pixar veteran Jim Capobianco. Ex-Disney animator, Ken Duncan, supervised physical animation production at his studio in Pasadena. Over 70 animation artists specializing in hand-drawn 2D animation from Walt Disney Animation Studios, Pixar Animation Studios, and other animation studios were recruited",
"-28.308985678246245"
],
[
"for feature animated films.\nWith the scarcity of Los Angeles-based animators willing to move their families so far north to give up traditional animation and try computer animation, Pixar's new hires at this time either came directly from college or had worked outside feature animation. For those who had traditional animation skills, the Pixar animation software Marionette was designed so that traditional animators would require a minimum amount of training before becoming productive.\nIn an interview with PBS talk show host Tavis Smiley, Lasseter said that Pixar's films follow the same theme of self-improvement as the company itself has: with the help",
"-28.22959585278295"
],
[
"Pixar's Co-op Program, which allows their animators to use Pixar resources to produce independent films. The directors worked on the film in their spare time, while remaining full-time at Pixar and contributing to projects such as Inside Out, Brave, The Good Dinosaur, and WALL-E, along with shorts such as Toy Story That Time Forgot, Day & Night, Toy Story of Terror!, and Partly Cloudy.",
"-28.19325089477934"
],
[
"of artists is more difficult.\nThis problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. On traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.\nUnlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists",
"-27.984109648336016"
],
[
"to their independent backgrounds, the animators were accustomed to working at fast paces, and despite their small numbers, each phase of production was able to be completed within a short period of time. Still, schedule and budget restraints led the filmmakers to enlist Prana Studios in Mumbai, India to perform lighting and compositing.\nThe filmmakers found that the most difficult aspect of producing the film independently was their inability to fix all of the mistakes made in the film's animation. Todd Edwards explained that \"it becomes an equation: 'I have 10 things that I would like to change in this shot.",
"-27.894792341743596"
],
[
"animation for movies.\nOne major drawback that seems to have been the project's main flaw was the length of time required for creating and rendering the animation. It took twenty animators almost a full year to complete the footage based on Wilson's original intent. Wilson, who has been described as liking to maintain great control over his projects and to change details at the last minute, gradually grew frustrated upon seeing how much time was required to change the animations, and ended up distancing himself from the animators. This led to a final product that, from his standpoint, was unpolished. In",
"-27.880515291471966"
],
[
"Cartoon Studio lot. Animation and post-production Post-production lasted for 14 months. Because the film was made before computer animation and digital compositing were widely used, all the animation was done using cels and optical compositing. First, the animators and layout artists were given black-and-white printouts of the live-action scenes (known as \"photo stats\"), and they placed their animation paper on top of them. The artists then drew the animated characters in relationship to the live-action footage. Due to Zemeckis' dynamic camera moves, the animators had to confront the challenge of ensuring the characters were not \"slipping and slipping all over",
"-27.865765826383722"
],
[
"been paid off. As a result, animators received nothing for their past works. In 1993 they elected a new director, a shady businessman Sergei Skulyabin who promised to turn the studio into a joint-stock company. Instead he signed a new contract with Vidov, extending it from nine to twenty years and returning a number of non-profitable films. His plan was to sell exclusive rights for all past and future films to his dummy corporation and bankcrupt the studio.\nWhen animators realised it, they managed to overthrow him with the help from the Union of Cinematographers and Goskino, although the Ministry of",
"-27.854355782008497"
],
[
"was used to check the plot, timing, and movement of the characters before animating it. The footage was then edited frame-by-frame onto large Photostat sheets to duplicate, in which the animators found too restrictive as they were not allowed to imagine anything that the live actors did not present since that kind of experimentation might necessitate changes and cost more money. Additionally, the animators were instructed to draw from a certain directorial perspective to avoid difficult shots and angles. Frank Thomas explained, \"Anytime you'd think of another way of staging the scene, they'd say: 'We can't get the camera up",
"-27.7878446651157"
],
[
"Musker, Ron Clements, Glen Keane, Tim Burton, Brad Bird, Henry Selick, Chris Buck, and Mark Dindal, all of whom would finalize the animation and complete the film's production. These animators had moved through the in-house animation training program, and would play an important role in the Disney Renaissance of the 1980s and 1990s.\nHowever, the transition between the old guard and the new resulted in arguments over how to handle the film. Reitherman had his own ideas on the designs and layouts that should be used, but the newer team backed Stevens. Animator Don Bluth animated several scenes including of Widow",
"-27.705546172335744"
],
[
"agreement to do so. Production The animation was done by the French company BUF Compagnie, which hired approximately 100 animators, most of them from French animation schools and without any previous experience. Besson wanted a photorealistic environment, and BUF initially used microlenses to film physical environments, but eventually instead used photogrammetry, where a digitized photograph of a real object is manipulated with a computer. Sets were built to 1:3 scale, which allowed the animators to use natural elements, such as plants and grass. While the film did not use motion capture, real actors were used as reference, and recorded",
"-27.698173492215574"
],
[
"animator on Jurassic Park III, Men in Black II, and Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones. Eventually, Baena left ILM for Pixar in 2002 where he worked on the films Finding Nemo, The Incredibles, Cars, Ratatouille, WALL-E, and Toy Story 3 as well as the short film Boundin'. Animation mentor Baena works with fellow cofounders, Bobby Beck, AnimationMentor.com’s CEO and President, and Shawn Kelly to define and shape the school’s overall direction. Baena balances his cofounder responsibilities with his full-time animator job at Pixar in Emeryville, California. Awards In Cars, Baena animated several scenes with the",
"-27.693683687131852"
],
[
"animation and rendering to take place simultaneously in a process called \"hardware shading\", making it much easier for the animators to see what a completed scene would look like when finished.\nFee said that the film's animation is \"art directed realism\" and stated that it causes the film's characters and sets to \"feel more real and alive than ever before\", while Bill Cone, the film's production designer, said that \"The term [they] use is believability, which is \nthe basis for everything [Pixar does]\". Global technology \nsupervisor Sudeep Rangaswamy said that his team used an authomatic process for the film's shots, which,",
"-27.66514519538032"
],
[
"Starting with storyboards, the artists first sketched on paper to visualize the scene which are later edited into an animatic. For the character animation, the rough character sketches are passed through the ToonShooter software, which digitized the sketches. From that point, the animators can easily integrate the animation into existing scenes. Production software lead Derek Chan explained, \"ToonShooter is an internal tool we wrote for Linux. It captures low resolution 640 x 480 line art that the artists use to time the film.\" The animated characters were then digitally colored using the Linux software application, InkAndPaint.\nFor the visual effects, DreamWorks",
"-27.594426022613334"
],
[
"these animations, which alternate with George's ongoing story. Production Filming began in April 2010 and continued until December 2016. Production trips were conducted in an episodic way and generally lasted from a few days to several weeks, with a small crew, usually from one to three people.\nAnimations were created simultaneously and during post-production. Nebraska-based artist Michael Burton worked with Guy, creating the painted stop-motion animations in his Lincoln, NE studio.\nThe film is a coproduction of ITVS, Vision Maker Media, and Normal Life Pictures, Inc. It received additional funding from Tribeca Film Institute, Humanities Nebraska, and the South Dakota Humanities Council.",
"-27.56730591133237"
],
[
"new software called Spaces to aid artists in deconstructing Olaf and rebuilding him as part of the animation process. \"It was kind of an animator's dream,\" Osmond enthused. \"You have a character that can come apart. We said to the animation crew, 'Just have fun with it.'\" \"The fun part of Olaf, we learned early on that his body parts can fall apart and we knew that we would want to take full advantage of that. You will see quite a bit more of that in the movie in a surprising way.\" (Chris Buck). \"Olaf has become his own sort",
"-27.470473325942294"
],
[
"of traditionally animated feature films include Pinocchio (United States, 1940), Animal Farm (United Kingdom, 1954), Lucky and Zorba (Italy, 1998), and The Illusionist (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include The Lion King (US, 1994), The Prince of Egypt (US, 1998), Akira (Japan, 1988), Spirited Away (Japan, 2001), The Triplets of Belleville (France, 2003), and The Secret of Kells (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009). Full animation Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement, having a smooth animation. Fully animated films can be made in",
"-27.2683266637614"
],
[
"project and they began shooting various tests, placing computer-generated characters in miniature model backdrops with the earlier proof of concept animation test completed in March 1996. Ultimately, the filmmakers decided to take the unprecedented route of combining live-action scenery with computer-generated character animation. \nGeorge Scribner served as the director, and he was later teamed up with Ralph Zondag as co-director. Storyboard artist Floyd Norman stated Scribner envisioned the film to be \"to be more than just a struggle for survival. He wanted this dinosaur movie to have elements of fun and humor...Our director wanted to explore the fun elements of",
"-27.206625816063024"
],
[
"these young animators are still students. Creation of animated films is supported by some Czech universities such as Film and TV School of the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design in Prague or University of West Bohemia. 1920–1945 Czech animation started in 1920s. Czech animated production from 1920s to 1945 focused mainly to advertisement for products but there were some experimental film such as Myšlenka hledající světlo (Thought looking for light). There were also some Child films. Most of the films were shorter than 10 minutes. Some animators who started their career during this",
"-27.193286880647065"
],
[
"with the largest palette the animators ever had available to them. A lot of the animation was produced using Wacom Cintiq tablets, which allowed images to be drawn directly onto a computer monitor to facilitate production. Animation production work was divided among four studios around the world: Film Roman in Burbank, California, Rough Draft Studios in Glendale, California, and AKOM and Rough Draft's division in Seoul, South Korea. As with the television series, the storyboarding, characters, background layout, and animatic parts of production, were done in America. The overseas studios completed the inbetweening, digital ink and paint, and rendered the",
"-27.18741909734672"
],
[
"individually manipulated and for the face to match with the computer-generated texture. The following supervising animators included Anthony DeRosa for Nakoma, Michael Cedeno for Kocoum, Ken Duncan for Thomas, T. Daniel Hofstedt for the settlers Lon and Ben, and Dave Pruiksma for Flit. While Mulan (1998) was within its pre-production stages, 18 minutes were animated by 170 animators and artists at the Disney-MGM Studios.\nInitially, Gabriel asked Michael Giaimo to create conceptual paintings for the film as they both shared in a style of shape-based and secondary art details. Giaimo, himself a former assistant animator and then a CalArts teacher, accepted",
"-27.165674601274077"
],
[
"core team were strategizing at a local cafe, Pallotta changed the locks and seized their workstations, replacing them with two local artists, Jason Archer and Paul Beck. Sabiston's four team leaders Patrick Thornton, Randy Cole, Katy O'Connor, and Jennifer Drummond subsequently received the credit \"additional animation\" in the film, despite having worked six months designing the general look of the animation and the scramble suit, hiring and training animators, and 3D compositing.\nThe studio increased the budget from $6.7 to $8.7 million and gave Linklater six months to finish the film. Pallotta took charge and instituted a more traditional Disney-esque production",
"-27.11344882172125"
],
[
"also include video.\nAnimators typically use demo reels, also known as \"demo tapes\", in place of or in addition to portfolios to demonstrate their skills to potential employers. Demo tapes have historically been short VHS tapes, but most are now DVDs. Demo reels are normally less than two minutes in length and showcase some of the animator's best works.\nIn industries that do not commonly use portfolios, a portfolio can be a way to stand out from the competition during job interviews. For example, programmers can use portfolios in addition to a resume in order to showcase their best work and highlight",
"-27.06481933966279"
],
[
"animator on films such as The Secret of NIMH and Beauty and the Beast).",
"-27.049895144766197"
],
[
"making independent short films after college, starting with a drawn-on-film animation titled Metal Dogs of India (1985). In 1991, White completed Choreography for Copy Machine (Photocopy Cha Cha), an animated film created solely by using the unique photographic capabilities of a photocopier to generate sequential pictures of hands, faces, and other body parts. The film is widely considered the first noteworthy animated film using this technique. The Washington Post describes it as “(a) musical frolic which wittily builds on ghostly, distorted images crossing the plate glass of a copier.” \nThe films that followed include Dirt (1998), Soulmate",
"-27.03137876058463"
],
[
"he couldn't take it to the place it had to be.\" After Sanders left and the original title was removed, the animation team was told to complete the filming in 18 months instead of the usual four years that is normally required to produce a computer-animated feature. On June 8, 2007, Disney announced that the film, now under its current name, would be released on November 21, 2008 in Disney Digital 3-D. Animation The look of the film was inspired by the paintings of Edward Hopper and the cinematography of Vilmos Zsigmond. New technology in non-photorealistic rendering (NPR) was used",
"-26.9729560558917"
],
[
"history where the animation is built around the actor. Grover explains that this is the first time for him to work in a studio where, instead of one camera, there were 30 cameras. The producer and director were able to approve of each scene that was shot before moving on.",
"-26.945065317035187"
],
[
"Autodesk Animator Functionality Animator gave the ability to do frame-by-frame animation (creating each frame as an individual picture, much like traditional cel animation). Animator Studio also had tweening features (transforming one shape into another by letting the computer draw each in-between shape onto a separate frame). Animator and Animator Pro supported FLI and FLC animation file formats, while Animator Studio also supported the AVI format. Animator was particular strong in Palette based editing, effects (like Color cycling) and animations a favored technology in the time of indexed CGA and VGA graphics modes.\nUnlike other DOS software from that time, Animator was",
"-26.934273117920384"
],
[
"to how they should work\". With this in mind, the animators commented on the immense hardships they faced when creating each image of \"1,200 shots\" through Satrapi's perspective because even though \"Marjane's drawings looked very simple and graphic...they're very difficult to work on because there are so few identifying marks. Realistic drawings require outstanding accuracy\". Despite the difficulties in working with animation film, however, Satrapi's drive and determination to make the film motivated the animators to finish each graphic image with full accuracy. Following alongside a more traditional style of graphic imagery was not only difficult in terms of drawing,",
"-26.90661613852717"
],
[
"and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media with digital video. The \"look\" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term \"tradigital\" (a play on the words \"traditional\" and \"digital\") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology.\nExamples",
"-26.89583214535378"
],
[
"David Silverman, the director of The Simpsons Movie and co-director of Monsters, Inc., would direct the feature and Prana Studios will be handling the animation.",
"-26.869188424490858"
],
[
"do freelance animation work for Walt Disney, only to come back.\nFor the 1934 MGM musical film Hollywood Party, Walt Disney Productions created an animated sequence in Technicolor called The Hot Choc-Late Soldiers, and is one of a few examples where Disney produced animation for other studios. The movie also contained a sequence with Jimmy Durante interacting with an animated Mickey Mouse. In 1936, Disney's animators were overworked with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and the Harman-Ising studio provided artists to work on the feature and the Silly Symphonies short Merbabies in exchange to artist training. Early years (1937–1939)",
"-26.86239890739671"
],
[
"to appear in a film. Brian Michael Bendis, co-creator of Miles Morales, consulted on the film adaptation. The first full cut of animatics and storyboards for the film was over two-hours long, which is uncommon for animated films, and the directors attributed this mostly to Lord and Miller and their approach of adding as many elements to the film as they could at the outset with the intention of seeing what it could \"handle\" and then shaping the film from there. They said that the final runtime would be between that and 90 minutes, the standard length of an animated",
"-26.850148124998668"
],
[
"work continued on the film, with Tippett's unit adjusting to new technology with Dinosaur Input Devices: models which fed information into computers to allow them to animate the characters like stop motion puppets. In addition, they acted out scenes with the raptors and Gallimimus. As well as the computer-generated dinosaurs, ILM also created elements such as water splashing and digital face replacement for Ariana Richards' stunt double. Compositing the dinosaurs onto the live action scenes took around an hour. Rendering the dinosaurs often took two to four hours per frame, and rendering the T. rex in the rain took six",
"-26.837989045627182"
],
[
"we hired David Israel to write the script for us,\" Rodríguez said. \"At the beginning[,] it was a lot of anguish when creating these feature films, now I have a lot of fun.\"\nIn order to meet the fans' expectations, the past installments' characters, such as Don Andrés, were brought back for the film, and features references and cameos from the previous films. Animation The film is animated in flash animation. Director Alberto Rodríguez stated that the process was \"difficult\", calling it a \"complex process\". \"Animation is a very complex process that requires too much knowledge, not only at the level",
"-26.827761898050085"
],
[
"a dinner that he can bring a dinosaur to life with his animation skills. The animation process and its \"10,000 drawings, each a little different from the one preceding it\" is put on display, with humorous scenes of mountains of paper, some of which an assistant drops. When the film is finished, the friends gather to view it in a restaurant. 2018 reconstruction of McCay's vaudeville act Using extant original drawings by McCay, David L. Nathan reconstructed the lost \"Encore\" sequence from McCay's original vaudeville version. He initiated a restoration of the entire film and, with animation historian",
"-26.788232299553783"
],
[
"they hired a team of animators which included Korey. \"When they hired us to do effects animation for the movie I wasn’t allowed anywhere near the project. One day, though, the team was so behind they pulled me on to do one shadow of Tweety Bird, who in that particular scene is hooked up to an iron lung. I guessed they figured ‘it’s simple enough that even he can’t screw that up’. It probably took ten minutes to do, but I still received a place in the closing credits, right up there with people who had spent weeks working on",
"-26.760390198905952"
],
[
"for his studio and started hiring people who used to work for other animation studios. Among them was King, who \"was probably the first Disney animator Schlesinger hired\".\nBy June 1933, Schlesinger had rounded out his staff and started work on producing animated short films. Tom Palmer had been appointed production manager and director, with King as the head animator. Among the staff were two of King's former associates from Disney, animators Paul Fennell and Bill Mason. According to animation historian Michael Barrier, Schlesinger placed former Disney animators in charge of the studio in hopes of effectively competing with the Disney",
"-26.744359634583816"
],
[
"possible business opportunities among animators, producers, and supporters of the industry; and to hold forums that will discuss and set the direction for the development of the industry. Composition The major parts of the Animahenasyon is the granting of the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Outstanding Emerging Artist in Animation Award. The screening of animated works for both amateur and professional divisions included different running time categories, namely the 1 to 5 minutes run, the 6 to 20 minutes run, the 21 to 60 minutes run, and finally the 60 minutes run – also known as full-animated feature. ",
"-26.729641389742028"
],
[
"Studios, started life as small, independent studios, being run by a very small core group. After being bought out or sold to other companies, they eventually consolidated with other studios and became larger. The drawback of this setup was that there was now a major thrust towards profitability with the management acting as a damper towards creativity of these studios, continuing even in today's scenario.\nCurrently, the independent animation studios are looking to ensure artistic integrity by signing up with big animation studios on contracts that allow them to license out movies, without being directed by the bigger studios. Examples of",
"-26.726931586147657"
],
[
"being a tool for introducing novice digital artists to the world of animation was fulfilled with the first releases. Development is focused on reaching a professional level that will allow advanced users to make professional-quality animations. \nSome of the areas of future development include: particles, sound support, key frames, and morphing. Plans have also been made to have skeleton animation with bones, inverse kinematics, and pivots.",
"-26.723931663378607"
],
[
"the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 2015.\nOsborne had previously worked as an animator on films such as Wreck-It Ralph (2012) and Bolt (2008).\nOsborne's wife, also worked on the movie \"Frozen\"\nOsborne directed Pearl for Google's Spotlight Stories, a short film about the relationship between a father and his daughter. The film is set entirely in a car and shows the decay of the car and the structure of the film reflects the song which plays throughout it. It uses cuts, which were previously unexplored, and over forty sets, which is more than any other of the Google Spotlight",
"-26.72249114816077"
],
[
"fresh college graduates. A large number of animators that make up the animation department at Pixar were hired around the time the studio released A Bug's Life (1998), Monsters, Inc. (2001) and Finding Nemo (2003). Although Toy Story was a successful film, it was Pixar's first feature film at the time, becoming the first major computer-animation studio to successfully produce theatrical feature films. The majority of the animation industry was (and still is) located in Los Angeles while Pixar is located 350 miles (560 km) north in the San Francisco Bay Area. Also, traditional hand-drawn animation was still the dominant medium",
"-26.711403714725748"
],
[
"once\". Richard returns home a braver boy, sleeping in his new treehouse with his books. Production The animation in the film was produced by Turner Feature Animation, headed by David Kirschner and recently spun off from Hanna-Barbera. The crew included animators who were veterans of productions such as An American Tail (1986) (also produced by David Kirschner and composed by James Horner), The Land Before Time (1988) and Aladdin (1992). This was one of the first films to feature live-action, traditional animation, and CGI animation all together. One scene involving a computer-generated dragon made from paint was used, a challenge",
"-26.71006073843455"
],
[
"are completed; instead of being transferred to cels, the animators' drawings are either scanned into a computer or drawn directly onto a computer monitor via graphics tablets (such as a Wacom Cintiq tablet), where they are colored and processed using one or more of a variety of software packages. The resulting drawings are composited in the computer over their respective backgrounds, which have also been scanned into the computer (if not digitally painted), and the computer outputs the final film by either exporting a digital video file, using a video cassette recorder, or printing to film using a high-resolution output",
"-26.707945874892175"
],
[
"Animation Studios, was involved with everything from visual conceptualisation, character design to animation and final output. Production commenced in January 2007, continuing for two and a half years and involved 150 crew members; twenty-one months were spent on the animation. It also benefited from the use of Tata Elxsi's EKA, one of the world's fastest supercomputers. Though the company did not publicly release the film's budget, Britain's Guardian reported it to be about US$7 million. The first trailer, shown on 12 October 2007 with the release of the film Laaga Chunari Mein Daag, shows the film's crew holding an audition",
"-26.67365908942884"
],
[
"about 20 percent of the film was done. Meanwhile, while Walt Disney Feature Animation Florida was prepping their first in-house production then titled The Legend of Mulan, at least seven animators penned about four minutes of screentime, mostly involving Frollo and Quasimodo. Layout, cleanup, and special-effects artists provided additional support.\nTo achieve large-scale crowd scenes, particularly for the Feast of Fools sequence and the film's climax, computer animation was used to create six types of characters – males and females either average in weight, fat, or thin – which were programmed and assigned 72 specific movements ranging from jumping and clapping.",
"-26.6211254238151"
],
[
"the circus, and a Female Bear that is the object of the bear's affections. Characters also include a hare, squirrels and hedgehogs, a pig called Rosie, a goat, and a dog who all live in Masha's front yard. 3D animation The 3D animation process begins right after dubbing has been finished. Animators manipulate all the movements that happen during the scenes, such as opening doors, taking books from bookshelves, and creating all the bodily movements required to bring the characters to life. Rendering Rendering brings all the processes together. Renderers colorize grey 3D models and add such details as the",
"-26.59838739861152"
],
[
"the resigning animators off the studio lot by noon of that same day and would later push the release of The Fox and the Hound from Christmas 1980 to summer 1981. New animators were hired and promoted to fill the ranks. To compensate for the lack of experience of the new animators, much of the quality control would rely upon a corp of veteran assistant animators. Four years after production started, the film was finished with approximately 360,000 drawings, 110,000 painted cels and 1,100 painted backgrounds making up the finished product. A total of 180 people, including 24 animators, worked",
"-26.5707230293483"
],
[
"film was produced almost entirely without pencil tests. According to Bakshi, \"We pencil tested I'd say a thousand feet [of footage], tops. ... We do a major feature without pencil tests—that's tough. The timing falls off. I can always tell an animator to draw it better, and I know if the attitude of the characters is right, but the timing you really can't see.\" Bakshi had to judge the timing of the animation simply by flipping an animator's drawings in his hand, until he could see the completed animation on the screen. Veteran Warner Bros. animator Ted Bonnicksen was incredibly",
"-26.564764174312586"
],
[
"such clips, to create characters that move, act, and react realistically. These pre-recorded animation clips can come from motion-capture sessions, or can be hand-animated in other 3D animation software packages.\nIn addition to the artificial intelligence abilities of Massive, there are numerous other features, including cloth simulation, rigid body dynamics and graphics processing unit (GPU) based hardware rendering. Massive Software has also created several pre-built agents ready to perform certain tasks, such as stadium crowd agents, rioting 'mayhem' agents and simple agents who walk around and talk to each other. History Massive was originally developed in Wellington, New Zealand. Peter Jackson,",
"-26.550367917574476"
],
[
"Animation Animation is a method in which pictures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery (CGI). Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets or clay figures.\nCommonly the effect of animation is achieved by a rapid succession",
"-26.509514908408164"
],
[
"was animated to get angles needed for different shots in the film by importing these stills into the computer. Multiple cameras were used to capture the different wire-work and animation that was used to create the creatures and many fight scenes within the film. In creating these creatures, the team referenced nature. In order for them to be believable, they looked for examples of the same size and weight as the animated character and then developed hybrids from different animals to make each species unique. This was done by observing actual animals to get a take on how they would",
"-26.50795713806292"
],
[
"a day's work could lead to seconds' worth of material. A factory was needed with 8 to 10 teams, with some of the animators having previously worked on the Tim Burton film Corpse Bride. The characters were made out of plastic and foam. Additionally, some animation was done through computers. Each character's figure had a number of add-on lips to express various sounds, and their eyes and eyebrows were also adjusted frequently during production. The figures could also be fastened into a surface, moved and fastened in again to portray movement. Peyton remarked that",
"-26.500875972677022"
],
[
"Animation Unlike the previous film, the sequel was co-produced with Rovio Animation and Sony Pictures Animation. While it was possible to reuse assets from the first film instead of starting from scratch, significant work was needed to make them compatible with new technological systems that were adopted in the past few years. The animators faced great challenges attempting to create more realistic feather systems for the Birds' plumage, even with the help of Sony Pictures Imageworks' existing feather system that was first used in Stuart Little, especially when it came to designing the villain Zeta, the hardest character",
"-26.500508071971126"
],
[
"anticipated of them. \"Literally in a day...we went from zero to exceeding output for a week...expectations for what our production could be just exploded\", Kondo said. The animators learned certain techniques even faster than Kondo and Tsutsumi had. When given a task, they often returned work of a higher quality than their directors had initially asked for.\nAbout 8,000 frames were created for the film. Even though 3D animation is not used in the finished version of the film, Maya and other 3D software programs were used for previsualization. The directors felt that this \"allowed [for] the greatest exploration of scene",
"-26.474013430721243"
],
[
"an animation supervisor on the first film and a story artist on the second, joined Nelson following her request to strengthen \"the director's bench\" to ensure that the film is completed in a timely manner.\nOn April 9, 2013, DreamWorks Animation announced that Rebel Wilson, Bryan Cranston, and Mads Mikkelsen had joined the cast of the film. By April 2015, J.K. Simmons had replaced Mikkelsen, whose character had been rewritten. Five months later, Wilson was replaced by Kate Hudson due to an extended production schedule. The studio had to reanimate previously completed scenes to reflect Hudson's interpretation of the character.\nThe film's",
"-26.456819054903463"
],
[
"terms.\nCurrently, there are about 201 animation studios dedicated to the production and distribution of animated films that are active. Few are actual production houses whereas others are corporate entities. Many of these animation studios help with the fulfillment of animation works for big brand names and have carried out outsourced projects including Nemo. American studios Winsor McCay was widely renowned as the father of the animated cartoon, having converted his cartoon strip Little Nemo into a 10-minute feature film, co-directing it along with J. Stuart Blackton, released on April 8, 1911. However, the idea of a studio dedicated to animating",
"-26.441564961103722"
],
[
"look like movie optics.\"\nAnimation took place at 3 Mills Studios in East London. A dozen animators/puppeteers were put to work when production began, but that number had tripled by the end of production. The initial group spent time developing each puppet's unique characteristics. The puppets themselves, built by Mackinnon and Saunders, were typically about 17 inches tall and animated on sets built three to four feet off the ground with trap doors that allowed animators access to the sets' surfaces to manipulate the puppets. The three primary characters—Victor, Victoria and Corpse Bride—were fitted with heads the size of golf balls",
"-26.42539475261583"
],
[
"after the original; it features a dinosaur performing most of Gertie's tricks, but with less skillful animation, using cels on a static background. It is not known for certain who produced the film, though its style is believed to be that of Bray Productions. Filmmaker Buster Keaton rode the back of a clay-animated dinosaur in homage to Gertie in Three Ages (1923).\nMcCay's first three films were the earliest animated works to have a commercial impact; their success motivated film studios to join in the infant animation industry. Other studios used McCay's combination of live action with animation, such",
"-26.41334371396806"
],
[
"Light & Magic stop-motion animators Randy Dutra (who made the dinosaur molds and skins) and Tom St. Amand (who made the inner articulated metallic skeletons of the dinosaurs), the sequence was titled Prehistoric Beast and tried to improve go motion animation special effects techniques. The story of the short was simple: the chase and predation of a Monoclonius by a Tyrannosaurus. This short animated film was only released in specialized animation festivals, but it convinced Robert Guenette and Steven Paul Mark to request Tippett's skills in order to transform it into a full-length documentary. They then asked Tippett to realise",
"-26.41075265861582"
],
[
"cel. Both the live-action and animated sequences were storyboarded. Of the production, Bakshi is quoted as saying,\nMaking two pictures [the live action reference and the actual animated feature] in two years is crazy. Most directors when they finish editing, they are finished; we were just starting. I got more than I expected. The crew is young. The crew loves it. If the crew loves it, it's usually a great sign. They aren't older animators trying to snow me for jobs next year.\nAlthough he continued to use rotoscoping in American Pop, Hey Good Lookin', and Fire and Ice, Bakshi later regretted",
"-26.406995606434066"
],
[
"to complete the film right and insisted that Disney was liable for the cost overruns. Katzenberg was not willing, and Ed Catmull was able to reach a compromise. Animation Recruiting animators for Toy Story was brisk; the magnet for talent was not the pay, generally mediocre, but rather the allure of taking part in the first computer-animated feature. Lasseter said that on the challenges of the computer animation in the film \"We had to make things look more organic. Every leaf and blade of grass had to be created. We had to give the world a sense of history. So",
"-26.401772969809826"
],
[
"as \"a piece of guerrilla film-making\" in comparison to the other CGI animated films created by major studios. At least 5 computer animators worked together for every scene of the 76-minute film, working on effects such as color, movement and shading. As a result of the low number of animators, some critics called the film's animation \"amateurish-looking\". However, other reviewers stated that the film was \"nicely animated\".\nTom Jacomb, line producer for Vanguard Animation, stated that the biggest difficulties whilst making the film was the detail required for the birds' feathers. He stated that \"most — no, all — our problems",
"-26.399764913716353"
],
[
"inspired other animation series, such as ReBoot in 1994. While other films like Avatar used CGI for a majority of the movie, it still incorporated human actors into the mix. Web animations The popularity of websites that allow members to upload their own movies for others to view has created a growing community of amateur computer animators. With utilities and programs often included free with modern operating systems, many users can make their own animated movies and shorts. Several free and open-source animation software applications exist as well. The ease at which these animations can be distributed has attracted professional",
"-26.388781240559183"
],
[
"the free GIMP editor, and the commercial products Photoshop and Paint Shop Pro. This class too includes many specialized editors — for medicine, remote sensing, digital photography, etc. Developmental animation With the resurgence of 2D animation, free and proprietary software packages have become widely available for amateurs and professional animators. The principal issue with 2D animation is labor requirements. With software like RETAS UbiArt Framework and Adobe After Effects, coloring and compositing can be done in less time.\nVarious approaches have been developed to aid and speed up the process of digital 2D animation. For example, by generating vector",
"-26.379928408190608"
],
[
"that for the producing studio, only the animation director, primary producer and administration staff remain.",
"-26.369196543906583"
],
[
"box office revenue. In addition, the studio won its first Academy Award for a short film in forty-four years with Paperman, which was released in theaters with Wreck-It Ralph. Directed by John Kahrs, Paperman utilized new software developed in-house at the studio called Meander, which merges hand-drawn and computer animation techniques within the same character to create a unique \"hybrid.\" According to Producer Kristina Reed, the studio is continuing to develop the technique for future projects, including an animated feature.\nIn 2013, the studio laid off nine of its hand-drawn animators, including Nik Ranieri and Ruben A. Aquino, leading to speculation",
"-26.366435338626616"
],
[
"a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the Walt Disney studio (The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, The Lion King) to the more 'cartoon' styles of the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, The Secret of NIMH (US, 1982), The Iron Giant (US, 1999), and Nocturna (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are animated at 24 frames per second, with a combination of animation on ones and twos, meaning that drawings can be held for one frame out of 24",
"-26.352882039209362"
],
[
"to take the original footage out of storage and begin editing another film that would include his own experience making Carving. By this time, editing a film had become much more cost effective because of the introduction of the user friendly and affordable non-linear editing system Final Cut Pro. Still, starting the film over from the 200+ hours was a massive undertaking. Whereas Carving focused on the success of the actors and their personal relationships, the new film, My Big Break, focuses on the ups and downs of the film business and how fame – or the lack thereof –",
"-26.340302147786133"
],
[
"were created entirely in Cinema 4D. In addition, After Effects software was used for compositing. The film took two and half years to complete. There is a companion book A_Book which highlights the making of the film with a lot of how to tips for DIY animators/filmmakers. Release The film was released digitally online on June 15, 2012. The Original Cut of the film was screened at the Cinequest Film Festival on March 7, 2015.",
"-26.332376510254107"
],
[
"Warner Bros. Like most computer-animated films, The Incredibles had a year-long period of building the film from the inside out: modeling the exterior and understanding controls that would work the face and the body—the articulation of the character—before animation could even begin. Bird and Fucile tried to emphasize the graphic quality of good 2-D animation to the Pixar team, who had only worked primarily in CG. Bird attempted to incorporate teaching from Disney's Nine Old Men that the crew at Pixar had \"never really emphasized.\"\nFor the technical crew members, the film's human characters posed a difficult set of challenges. Bird's",
"-26.31215785560198"
],
[
"was completed in October 2016. Feature films Walt Disney Animation Studios has produced animated features in a series of animation techniques, including traditional animation, computer animation, combination of both and animation combined with live-action scenes. The studio's first film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, was released on December 21, 1937, and their most recent film, Ralph Breaks the Internet, was released on November 21, 2018. Short films Since Alice Comedies in the 1920s, Walt Disney Animation Studios has produced a series of prominent short films, including the Mickey Mouse cartoons and the Silly Symphonies series. Many of these shorts",
"-26.301122304983437"
],
[
"Bobby Beck Past Work Beck attended the Art College of San Francisco until his girlfriend found him his first job as an animator working at a game company based on character tests he did in his spare time for fun. In 1997, he joined Tippet Studios in Berkeley, CA, where he animated on the films My Favorite Martian and Virus. The following year, he moved to Los Angeles, where he animated on Dinosaur at Walt Disney Feature Animation. In 1999, Beck was offered a position as an animator at Pixar in Emeryville, CA. At Pixar, he animated on Toy Story",
"-26.245803798781708"
],
[
"collection.\nWhile at film school, Hertzfeldt was drawn to animation as it was a less expensive form to work in. He could not afford to buy the numerous rolls of 16 mm film required to shoot live action. He has stated, \"I think I've always approached animation from a strange angle, a bit like a regular filmmaker who just happens to animate. Editing, writing, sound—those are the things that usually come first in my head. Animation is often just the busy work I need to get through to connect the dots and tell the story.\" \nHertzfeldt has never held a job other",
"-26.2355311937863"
],
[
"methods. Their work covers the whole span between narrative and totally abstract animation. Other filmmakers in the 1960s expanded the idea and subjected the film stock to increasingly radical methods, up to the point where the film was destroyed in the process projection. Some artists made this destruction a statement, others went back one step and copied the original work film strip to get a projection copy.\nDirect animation can be an inexpensive way to produce a film; it can even be done on outtakes, or discarded film strips from other projects. It is a form of animation that is inviting",
"-26.2317889771075"
],
[
"2・0・5 Year In Review, although Mamoru Oshii stated his own work was a \"serious comedy\".\nThe Superlivemation consists of digitally processing then animating, paper puppet theater-style characters and locations based on real photographs. In Tachiguishi-Retsuden more than 30,000 photographs were processed 20 times, to produce the final composite to be animated.\nThe director describes his new animation film as set between \"a simple animation with extremely intense information\" and \"a live-action movie with extremely limited information\".\nThe theatrical release poster, which was later used on the OST and the videos, features several symbols of the Japanese popular culture and modern history. Clockwise, a",
"-26.227737857028842"
],
[
"Barry Purves Barry J.C. Purves is an English animator, director and screenwriter of puppet animation television and cinema and theatre designer and director, primarily for the Altrincham Garrick Playhouse in Manchester.\nKnown as one of Britain's most celebrated animators on account of his six short films (see filmography below), each of which has been nominated for numerous international awards (including Academy Award and British Academy Film Awards nominations), he has also directed and animated for several television programs and over seventy advertisements, title sequences and animated insert sequences. His film credits include being head animator for Tim Burton's Mars Attacks! (before",
"-26.220182373712305"
],
[
"animators and was described as a \"passion project\" by its creators, not something intended to turn a giant profit. A sister series of Animation Show DVD volumes are also available, but the producers stress that the theatrical and DVD lineups are intentionally a little bit different, to encourage audiences to not just wait for the DVD but to visit the cinema and view these films properly. As stated on the Animation Show programs and flyers, once the current edition of the Show is out of theaters, it's \"gone forever\". \nMike Judge and Don Hertzfeldt programmed the first three",
"-26.207141606893856"
]
] |
50xvlp | How did early highway builders know if they were building their roads in the right direction/angle? | [
"You ever see those guys along the side of the road with a tripod and a bunch of flags and stakes? They're surveyors. It's their job to make sure things like roads are *exactly* where they are supposed to be. They take sightings, and then do the math. A little trigonometry and a good [theodolite]( URL_0 ) can get you an incredibly exact measurement.",
"You don't need to be complicated. If you drive a stick down in the ground and attach a string on it, that string will run in a straight line if you pull it hard and attach it to another stick. Primitive but damn efficient. Ever seen one of those instruments on a tripod that are manned all the time that are accompanied by someone else with a long stick that walks around a lot. The optical instrument is, among other things, a very exact scope with a crosshair. The stick is a ruler with easy-to-see markings. In the scope is also an optical reading that gives the distance to the stick (remember how I said that the stick has reading that are easy to see? They only are if you focus properly with the scope) so now you also know the distance between the scope and the points. Compare two points and write down the markings on the stick and you know the height of three points (including the one you are standing on with the scope) and while you are at it the tripod also tells you the direction you point it, which gives that you know the angle between the points. You have effectively given yourself enough knowledge to calculate distance and establish if the height difference between the points is the preferred one. You can do the exact thing with more precise laser equipment and you can use positioning satellites and a very exact receiver. The entire road will be built with a lot of reference points. Someone walks around a lot with an instrument and writes things like +5, -2, 0 (which translates to add five, remove two or keep) on the ground at regular intervals so that he machine operators can see where to add some dirt and where to shave some off. If you want to make it more advanced you set up a reference radio beacon that all the machinery listen to and combine with gps positioning, and run all of the reference points as data lists where the machine helps you and gives you a constant reading on a display in front of you. Costs a lot, but the machine operator can do his job better if he had less guesswork. EDIT: ...if you attach it to another STICK.",
"Surveyors and cartographers. Cartographers are the people who draw maps. These maps usually have measurements on them allowing the reader to know what direction they need to be travelling. Surveyors are the people you see on the side of the road with the two tripods set up several hundred feet apart. When they begin building the road they survey and create a straight line according the maps available through cartographers. These lines are not always straight which is why some roads seem to have random curves. But for the most part they only needed to go in a general direction to meet up with another road. Fun fact - They set up the 49th parallel as the border between the USA and Canada. In an attempt to mark the border quickly, they sent teams of surveyors out with minimal equipment resulting in the border being a zigzag instead of a straight line. This line sometimes goes off course several hundred meters before returning to course."
] | [
[
"Highway 641 before the 1940s would have been traveling on the square following the township road allowances, barbed wire fencing and the Canadian Northern rail line. As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel, the first highway was designed on 90-degree, right-angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads.\nThere is a historical monument erected along the highway which states that the early railway was established along the east side of the Last Mountain Lake (Long Lake) in 1907, and constructed on the west side in 1911. The monument documents",
"-35.45572196302237"
],
[
"tended to travel in straight lines, using \"mark points\" along the landscape to guide them.\nHe put forward his idea of ley lines in the 1922 book Early British Trackways and then again, in greater depth, in the 1925 book The Old Straight Track. He proposed the existence of a network of completely straight roads that cut through a range of prehistoric, Roman, and medieval structures. In his view, these straight tracks were ancient trade routes. Watkins had drawn upon earlier research; he cited the work of the English astronomer Norman Lockyer, who had argued that ancient alignments might be oriented",
"-34.489050829579355"
],
[
"township roads were the easiest to travel, the first highway was designed on 90 degree right angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads. Two horse then eight horse scrapers maintained these early dirt roads.\nOne of the problems that came about was when the Manitoba survey met the Saskatchewan survey. The Manitoba survey allowed for 100 feet (30 m) road allowances placed east and west every 1 mile (1.6 km). This system was followed west of Manitoba until just north of Indian Head. Whereas, the Saskatchewan survey conducted in 1887, allowed for 66",
"-34.40963061340153"
],
[
"Interstate Highway System, and its completion was regarded as a milestone for the Milwaukee highway system. Due to the complexity of its design, it was seen as a wonder by the people of Milwaukee. Engineers had debated between a right-hand only design and a directional design, but ultimately chose the directional. This design featured entrance and exit ramps on both sides, such that drivers going to a roadway on the left exited to the left and drivers going to a roadway on the right exited to the right. The maximum capacity was 115,000 vehicles per day. Interchange rebuild proposal, 2003–2008",
"-34.3852154576889"
],
[
"Port Kent and Hopkinton Turnpike History The idea of constructing a highway leading southward from St. Lawrence County was first conceived as early as the beginning of the 19th century. Several different roadways were built; however, all ultimately fell into disuse after several years. On April 16, 1827, a team of three surveyors were commissioned to determine a routing for a new highway leading from Hopkinton, a town in northeastern St. Lawrence County, to Lake Champlain. The surveying and leveling took 26 days and was completed by late October of that year. Contemporary newspapers claimed that the chosen route avoided all",
"-34.368690403178334"
],
[
"The unusual curves of the road are the result of an 1897 plan to make the land between Claremont Avenue and Riverside Drive into a public park in order to give veterans parades a large park adjacent to Grant's Tomb as a terminus. The street was redesigned so that a vehicle or a parade coming up Riverside Drive would swing onto 116th Street in a gracious curve, then immediately swing north onto Claremont Avenue following a second curve. The city never appropriated funds to buy the land, but the curves remain. The top of The Paterno is capped with",
"-34.198096395411994"
],
[
"was constructed in the early 1930s, to remove curves and widen the lanes. The result was a two-lane road that still had many switchbacks, with one popularly known as \"Dead Man's Curve\". Planning for this new alignment was underway in 1932, and much of the work was to be located at the Viejas Grade, and at the segment just west of Alpine. Paving continued on US 80 into 1934, just west of the sand dunes.\nMeanwhile, Imperial County businessmen hoped to promote the use of this road over the route from Phoenix to Los Angeles, to increase tourism. Eventually, US 80 did become",
"-34.178884616703726"
],
[
"Chamberlain. Highway construction surveyors had to curve the right-of-way to avoid this area. Another interesting diversion that the highway surveyors had to make, at the insistence of local residents, was to go around a large stone that had a metal marker spike in it, likely set up and recorded by early explorers. This site is now marked on the LRT with a large silhouette buffalo statue made by Don Wilkins.\"\nA large white house erected in 1904 by Wells family north of Davidson and can be seen from the LRT. The Wells family came north from Chicago and started The Wells",
"-34.133812084415695"
],
[
"on the route. And when the road is built, I'm sure you will all agree that it has been put in the right place.\" He made no explanation, and didn't even tell them which route he had chosen. Route description The Middle Road is now known by various names and designations. From Crown Hill to 11th Line South, the route is now part of Highway 11. At 11th Line, the road turned north to East Oro. There, it turned east along Sideroad 15&16 to 14th Line North, where it turned north to the Barrie Road, which it followed east into Orillia. Up until",
"-34.043008828535676"
],
[
"the turns first require a 90° turn where the road remains paved with concrete. The road becomes cobblestone after the second turn, a 180° turn. The third turn, also a 180° turn, is housed completely by the original stone wall. Finally, the last turn is out onto Hackensack Plank Road which if going southbound, requires another 180° turn and ends the cobblestone portion of the street. The one-way hairpin road is about 440 ft. when traveled along the centerline path.\nAt the north side is a staircase connecting the upper and lower ends of the hairpins, which allows pedestrians to avoid the",
"-33.87311239200062"
],
[
"was heavy for the era, and along the curves, drivers would follow the innermost side instead of keeping to their own lane. Sawyer added arrows to indicate travel direction and found that motorists used the appropriate travel lanes.\nAt this time, the road carried an unsigned designation of \"Trunk Line 15\" (T.L. 15) as designated by the Michigan State Highway Department (MSHD). This designation was changed to M-15 by the time the state highway system was signed by MSHD in 1919. With the creation of the United States Highway System on November 11, 1926, M-15 in Michigan was redesignated as a",
"-33.86828591250378"
],
[
"Yellowhead route.\nTravel along the Provincial Highway 5 before the 1940s would have been traveling on the square following the township road allowances, barbed wire fencing and rail lines. As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel, the first highway was designed on 90-degree, right-angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads. 1926 Saskatchewan map\nHighway 5 was constructed through Englefeld in 1961. John Koenig was one of the first residents of Englefeld to own a car, a Ford touring car purchased in the 1920s. Upgrades Canadian Pacific Railway crossing lights were",
"-33.522956345528655"
],
[
"direction would be constructed, finally followed by abandoning the other old set of lanes or converting them into a frontage road.\nThe same scenario was used in western Oklahoma when US 66 was initially upgraded to a four-lane highway such as from Sayre through Erick to the Texas border at Texola in 1957 and 1958 where the old paving was retained for westbound traffic and a new parallel lane built for eastbound traffic (much of this section was entirely bypassed by I-40 in 1975), and on two other sections; from Canute to Elk City in 1959 and Hydro to Weatherford in 1960,",
"-33.47243922592497"
],
[
"highway progressed southeastward, crossing over the northern branch of the Saranac River and passing through the largely undeveloped community of Merrillsville before ending at an intersection with NY 3. History On April 18, 1829, the New York State Legislature passed an act that allowed construction to begin on the Port Kent and Hopkinton Turnpike, a toll road that was to begin in the town of Hopkinton and end at the hamlet of Port Kent on the western shore of Lake Champlain. Construction began later that year and was completed in 1832. The 75-mile (121 km) highway opened in 1833. The turnpike operated for",
"-33.41275698963"
],
[
"in the Statutory Instrument to the \"classification of roads as a 'Trunk' or 'Link' Road\" indicates that a system of route classification and numbering was envisaged in the 1920s. However, at present, there is no information about when the Trunk and Link road-numbering system was actually introduced on signposts. Even though legal authority for the erection of directional signposts was given to local councils, the Automobile Association of Ireland began an extensive road signposting scheme in 1938 which included comprehensive signposting of routes from Belfast, Cork and Dublin.\nEvidence that the Trunk Road and Link Road classification and numbering system had",
"-33.378776113386266"
],
[
"was a road established in 1839-1840 on the north side of the Canadian River that was also named the Fort Smith to Santa Fe Trail. This road had been laid out by Josiah Gregg, a Santa Fe merchant who had connections with merchants in Fort Smith, Arkansas.\nDuring the summer of 1853 the first railroad survey was conducted from Fort Smith to Los Angeles by Lt. Amiel Weeks Whipple. Whipple's survey followed Marcy's route from Fort Smith until they reached the Caddo County Buttes. At that point the expedition moved westward, whereas Marcy had turned north to join the Fort Smith",
"-33.37475680609896"
],
[
"early roads through these were made of wooden planks. This history is occasionally still readily evident in street names, for example the spoke road Poplar Level, whose name describes its original construction on planks of poplar. 3rd Street was formerly called Central Plank Road for the same reason. As industry, namely Standiford Field airport, moved into the area in the 1950s most creeks through the area were rerouted into ditches to alleviate the area's poor drainage and constant flooding.\nAreas east of I-65 were generally not in the flood plain and thus are mostly gentle rollings hills composed of soft loess",
"-33.314137651614146"
],
[
"year. By 1957, the road saw an application of gravel to the surface, and was graded. A formal surveying crew came through in 1963 to clear brush and mark the path of the highway which was constructed in 1964.",
"-33.293885763618164"
],
[
"on a weekly basis.\nIn 1789 a new survey was taken and the old maps revised. These match today's known milestone locations along the entire former length of the road. A decade later, New York's Act to Regulate the Highways directed every county highway superintendent to place stone mile markers along the road. By the next year all the remaining mileposts had been placed.\nA private company built the Highlands Turnpike to the west, in more level country, and opened it in 1806. This diverted traffic away from the section north of Peekskill through Continental Village and past the lakes. Iron mining",
"-33.29174408863764"
],
[
"point from which the street network would spread. The architect, who was responsible for executing the plans for the city, next laid a longitudinal axis across the triangle 36˚ west of north to form the main street of the settlement. Other longitudinal streets were laid out parallel to the main street at intervals of 55 meters. The main street was then divided into sections of 66 meters (255 Roman feet), which formed the corners of 10 crossing streets. This created a series of rectangular blocks of around 50 by 60 meters. The streets were laid on",
"-33.147049163875636"
],
[
"first roadway along the route of the modern CR 492 was a plank road built by the Cleveland and Sharon Iron Companies in the 1850s. The roadway was originally named the Marquette–Negaunee Road, due to its endpoints. The road was included as a section of \"Division 8\" in the State Trunkline Highway System when that was created on May 13, 1913. In 1917, the first highway centerline in the nation was painted along a section of the road known as \"Dead Man's Curve\". The centerline was painted by Kenneth Ingalls Sawyer, long-time superintendent of the county road commission. Traffic along the road",
"-33.08570951054571"
],
[
"and opportunities for rest and maintenance along the route. Each route was listed twice – once in each direction. This emphasis on providing separate routes for each city connection led to volumes often containing more than 800 pages to describe the hundreds of routes contained within. These routes relied primarily on landmarks and right or left turn descriptions, while avoiding compass directions like north or east, which made the directions difficult to use if travelers left the designated route or a landmark was destroyed. These turn-by-turn directions may have been a necessity however, as roads at the time were designed",
"-33.071017210062564"
],
[
"the left-hand ramps. This contrasts with the current method of using the left lane for passing and putting ramps on the right side, and to the method popular around the 1950s of putting ramps on whichever side was easier. The highway would \"carry buses that will make both its conveniences and its beauties available to the general public\", according to Miller. He suggested Hudson River Boulevard for the name of the highway.\nOn April 24, 1925, Governor Al Smith signed a bill authorizing the construction of the highway. Funds for the $11 million highway were to be procured by property assessments",
"-33.02370370505378"
],
[
"The old road used either South Avenue or Volusia Avenue to get to Beach Street, along the Halifax River. At Fairview Avenue it jogged west a block to stay on Beach Street. That road continues north through Ormond Beach, and eventually becomes Old Dixie Highway, rejoining the current road at Korona. Even earlier, at the sharp curve to the west, the road instead went east, and then north on a road still named John Anderson Highway, from which it went west on current SR 100 to Bunnell. Even earlier than that, the road crossed one of the bridges at Daytona",
"-32.9788249161611"
],
[
"highways appeared in the mid-1930s to plow highways on a more frequent basis. To combat this a new concept of a single machine able to switch from truck to tractor with the push of a lever appeared in 1938, known as the C5 or later trademarked term \"CATRUK\", but management and war priorities limited its development and it was abandoned after World War II. This machine was built in a cab-over configuration, front wheel drive, and a hydraulically lowered dual-wheeled tag-axle that would push the tracks up off the ground. \"HAFTRAK\" is another Linn trademark.",
"-32.965075599651755"
],
[
"began construction in 1967, a system of ten \"horizontal\" (roughly east–west) and eleven \"vertical\" (roughly north–south) roads was used, with roundabouts at each intersection. The horizontal roads were all given names ending in 'way' and H numbers (for 'horizontal', e.g. H3 Monks Way). The vertical roads were given names ending in 'street' and V numbers (for 'vertical', e.g. V6 Grafton Street). Each grid road was spaced roughly one kilometre along from the next, forming squares of approximately one square kilometre. Each square and each roundabout was given its own name. The system provided very easy transport within the city, although",
"-32.961858959984966"
],
[
"Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices History At the start of the 20th century—the early days of the rural highway—each road was promoted and maintained by automobile clubs of private individuals, who generated revenue through club membership and increased business along cross-country routes. However, each highway had its own set of signage, usually designed to promote the highway rather than to assist in the direction and safety of travelers. In fact, conflicts between these automobile clubs frequently led to multiple sets of signs—sometimes as many as eleven—being erected on the same highway. \nGovernment action to begin resolving the wide",
"-32.857193337229546"
],
[
"local diversions, from the crossing with the main Birmingham-Lichfield road (A 38(T), to Littleover on the outskirts of Derby and here the highway is very straight and well raised, by two to three feet in places, a fine example of a Roman road still in use. William Stukeley wrote that \"part of Rigning Way north from Wall was very fair with a high straight bank\" and that \"upon the hill south of Littleover, Rigning is under the eye as far as Etocetum, and the hills beyond it.\" At Littleover the road turns to the east as the modern A5250, but",
"-32.80029029084835"
],
[
"the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and they intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked off by four roads was called an insula, the",
"-32.79117161384784"
],
[
"Ohio, the highway is known as Telegraph Road, named before the highway system existed after the telegraph wires to which it once ran parallel. Mark Knopfler of the rock band Dire Straits wrote the song \"Telegraph Road\", about the development and decay of the road, which he spotted en route to a concert. It is a major surface route through western areas of Metro Detroit. \nUS 24 (Telegraph Road) along the west edge of Detroit, Michigan, was one of the first roads where Michigan left turns were implemented. This pattern was introduced at the time of, or soon after, its",
"-32.78040638088714"
],
[
"and Highway 674. Automobile and road evolution The car appeared in the early 20th century to be pulled by horse again in the dirty thirties. In 1906, cars could be registered, and plates were issued as early as 1912. In the late 1920s the roads were gravelled near the larger centers such as Yorkton, Saskatoon, the Battlefords, and Lloydminster. All-weather roads were developed in the 1930s, which began to depart from the surveyed township roads connecting centres directly. Roads also were constructed to allow for rain run-off, with a rounded top surface.\nLack of roads and excessive difficulties in building them",
"-32.758026942654396"
],
[
"passenger cars off the street, eliminating the major conflicts that led to injury, death, property damage, traffic jams, and delays in service. The Miller Highway, named after its chief proponent, Borough President Julius Miller, was constructed in sections, primarily from 1929 through 1937, and became the world's first elevated, controlled access highway. After an interruption for World War II, several extensions were built from 1947 to 1951, under the leadership of urban planner Robert Moses, primarily connecting it to his other projects, such as the Henry Hudson Parkway and Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel.\nThe Miller Highway influenced many other subsequent projects, such as",
"-32.734820455210865"
],
[
"curve radius from 70 to 1,000 feet (21 to 305 m). This was done over concerns regarding the safety of the road, which had a high number of traffic accidents, as well as the highway's increased use. The old highway was to be relinquished to Los Angeles County, and incorporated into the county road system. Construction began in 1930, and the road south of Tejon Pass was officially opened on October 29, 1933; replacement of the Grapevine grade was completed by 1936. The road, which included a center \"suicide\" passing lane, cost $3.5 million (about $50.7 million in 2018), paid for by the",
"-32.709739397629164"
],
[
"east–west canal was created using explosives; the fill dirt was used to construct the roadway.\nIn 1926, both the north–south section and the east–west stretch were designated U.S. highways. Although the Trail was intended to be one road, the two sections received two different numbers: as each section was completed, the north–south portion received US 41 signs, and the east–west stretch was designated US 94 upon completion (to comply with the route-numbering guidelines of AASHTO). In addition, both sections south of Fort Myers received the State Road 27 designation. North of Fort Myers, it was designated State Road 5.\nWhile a 1927 Rand",
"-32.699877094259136"
],
[
"as commerce naturally continued in that direction, was also adopted.\nAfter the highways were routed, the group decided not to name the highways (as had been done by many non-profit groups which were currently connecting various state routes into longer multi-state and transcontinental routes), but instead to follow the pattern of numbering the highways, as established in Wisconsin and Missouri. The current east-west routes would be even numbers, and the north-south would be odd. Major routes would be one- or two-digit numbers ending in either \"1\" or \"0\" depending on the route. To avoid a \"U.S. 0\", U.S.",
"-32.696284213481704"
],
[
"flew low.\"\nGeorge Hamilton, a settler and local politician, established a town site in the northern portion of Barton Township in 1815. He kept several east–west roads which were originally Indian trails, but the north–south streets were on a regular grid pattern. Streets were designated \"East\" or \"West\" if they crossed James Street or Highway 6. Streets were designated \"North\" or \"South\" if they crossed King Street or Highway 8. The overall design of the townsite, likely conceived in 1816, was commonplace. George Hamilton employed a grid street pattern used in most towns in Upper Canada and throughout the American frontier.",
"-32.6793054229347"
],
[
"to US 24 when the United States Numbered Highway System was inaugurated on November 11, 1926.\nHighway traffic coming north from Toledo was forced to pass through Detroit to get to points north at the time. To ease the congestion downtown, a westerly bypass was constructed in the 1920s. Between Flat Rock and Dearborn, the upgraded highway was opened in 1922, with an extension to Stoney Creek the following year. The new road was built north from Michigan Avenue to Grand River Avenue in 1924. The extension to the state line was finished in 1925, and the remainder to Dixie Highway north",
"-32.6750153498142"
],
[
"present in directional signs, distance signs or trailblazers. The general rule was that odd-numbered highways travel in north-south directions and even-numbered highways in east-west directions, with only a few exceptions. National Route 1 was assigned to a network of highways and roads, which together linked all capital cities and coastal towns circumnavigating the mainland. The National Route system initially linked the centres of towns and cities and terminated at the junction of other national routes, however many bypasses have been constructed since then. National Routes often terminated at the metropolitan city limits rather than the individual city centres.\nIn 1974, the",
"-32.651557370787486"
],
[
"1938.\nAfter five years of work the first section of the road from Fort Bay to The Bottom was completed. It was not until 1947 that the first motor vehicle arrived. In 1951 the road to Windwardside and St. Johns was opened and in 1958, the road was completed. Driving \"The Road\" is considered to be a daunting task, and the curves in Windwardside are extremely difficult to negotiate. Driving is on the right hand side.\nIn 1963 Saba residents built the Juancho E. Yrausquin Airport. This 400-metre (1,300 ft) landing strip is reputed to be the shortest commercial runway in the world,",
"-32.583021359634586"
],
[
"Numbered highways in Kentucky History Kentucky began a numbered route system in the 1920s. Originally numbered so that odd numbers ran from north to south, increasing to the west and even numbers ran east to west, increasing to the south, this pattern was only followed for KY 1 through KY 100. Routes numbered KY 101 and higher are in sequential order as designated by the Department of Highways.\nAn exception to the pattern for highways numbered 1 through 100 is New Circle Road, a circular bypass around Lexington that is also numbered as KY 4.",
"-32.52420959167648"
],
[
"north–south streets were on a regular grid pattern. Streets were designated \"East\" or \"West\" if they crossed James Street or Highway 6. Streets were designated \"North\" or \"South\" if they crossed King Street or Highway 8. The townsite's design, likely conceived in 1816, was commonplace. George Hamilton employed a grid street pattern used in most towns in Upper Canada and throughout the American frontier. The eighty original lots had frontages of fifty feet; each lot faced a broad street and backed onto a twelve-foot lane. It took at least a decade to sell all the original lots, but the construction",
"-32.516239451833826"
],
[
"that the Middle Road be converted into this new form of highway.\nA 132 ft (40 m) right-of-way was purchased along the Middle Road and construction began to convert the existing sections to a divided highway, as well as on Canada's first interchange at Highway 10.\nBeginning in 1935, McQuesten applied the concept of a dual-highway to several projects along Highway 2, including a section between Birchmount Road and east of Morningside Avenue in what was then known as Scarborough Township.\nWhen widening in Scarborough reached the Highland Creek ravine in 1936, east of Morningside, the Department of Highways began construction on a new bridge over",
"-32.48951791389845"
],
[
"across Bedford Narrows along with US 30, the Raystown Branch of the Juniata River, and a Pennsylvania Railroad branch line. In New Baltimore, the turnpike commission had to purchase land from St. John's Church (which contained a cemetery); as part of the agreement, stairways were built on either side of the turnpike to provide access to the church.\nPaving began on August 31, 1939. The roadway would have a concrete surface, and concrete was poured directly onto the earth with no gravel roadbed. Concrete batch plants were set up along the road to aid in paving. Interchange ramps were paved with asphalt.",
"-32.48050857047201"
],
[
"example is the extension of Quebec Autoroute 30 on Montreal's south shore, which will serve as a bypass.\nToday's existing highways have been planned in the 1960s as part of a grid like transport system. Street naming Most streets in Montreal do not change name throughout their course, respecting their grid axis. Streets such as Saint Laurent Boulevard, Papineau Ave., De Lorimier Ave. and Pie-IX Blvd. have a foot in both rivers, and some streets re-commence despite gaps or interruptions.\nThere are a few notable exceptions which continue for historical reasons. A few north-south streets which begin in Old Montreal change name",
"-32.480099391919794"
],
[
"minister William Arthur Goodfellow on July 20, 1962. It cost C$2.5 million (1962) to construct the route. S-Curve Until 2010, the intersection of Highway 637 and Highway 69 was located along a sharp S-curve in Highway 69's alignment around Rock Bay, which rendered the approaching intersection virtually invisible to northbound traffic. An especially serious problem was encountered with trucking traffic; in unsafe weather conditions, large transport trucks often had difficulty navigating the curve correctly, and sometimes veered into oncoming traffic right in front of the Highway 637 intersection. An ongoing series of fatal car accidents, which continued to occur even after",
"-32.47977643090417"
],
[
"by 1945.\nThe first modern relocations along what is now K-383 occurred in Norton. US-36 and US-83 originally entered the city along Washington Street, turned north onto First Avenue, and turned east onto Main Street. The highway followed Main Street out of town and along a road paralleling the railroad to the present highway. The first realignment was authorized in 1936 to eliminate several right-angle turns and several at-grade railroad crossings. East of the intersection of First and Main, US-36 and US-83 turned north onto State Street and followed the highway to Holme Street, where the highways joined the present course.",
"-32.47510419400351"
],
[
"of the highways of the country as a safety measure.\nMcCarroll soon communicated her idea to the local chamber of commerce and the Riverside County Board of Supervisors, with no success. Finally, she took it upon herself to hand-paint a white stripe down the middle of the road, thus establishing the actual width of the lane to prevent similar accidents. Through the Indio Women's Club and many similar women's organizations, McCarroll launched a vigorous statewide letter writing campaign on behalf of her proposal. In November 1924, the idea was adopted by the California Highway Commission and 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of lines",
"-32.464805784286"
],
[
"depressed grass centre crossing short distances between major cities - modified the design for Ontario roads, and McQuesten ordered that the Middle Road be changed into this new form of highway.\nA right-of-way of 132 ft (40 m) was purchased along the Middle Road and construction began to convert the existing sections to a divided highway, as well as on Canada's first cloverleaf interchange at Highway 10.\nBy the end of 1937, the Middle Road was open between Toronto and Burlington, where it connected with what was first known as the Hamilton – Niagara Falls Highway. It soon came time to name the new",
"-32.462791643003584"
],
[
"to 1927, and the transition of freight shipping from ships and railroads to trucks, the truck traffic generated by the market and other businesses caused considerable congestion in the area, which provoked the building between 1929 and 1951 of the Miller Highway, an elevated roadway which came to be called the West Side Highway, the purpose of which was to handle through automobile traffic, which thus did not have to deal with the truck congestion at street level. Because of a policy of \"deferred maintenance\", the elevated structure began to fall apart in the late 1960s and early 1970s,",
"-32.459832288033795"
],
[
"Corners is the Seventy-six Road. This highway, part of County Route 115, heads from Speedsville and the Tioga County line all the way to Guide Board Corners. This section was built in 1804-1808 as \"76 Road\", often corrupted in popular speech to \"Old 76 Road\".",
"-32.42944070324302"
],
[
"keys where there were thousands of acres of undeveloped land. The completion of the railroad further proved a highway through the keys was feasible.\nConstruction on the original Overseas Highway, designated State Road 4A (an extension of a route running from Miami to Homestead), lasted through most of the mid 1920s. Officially opening for traffic on January 25, 1928, the original highway existed in two segments at its greatest extent. One segment ran from the mainland via Card Sound Road to Key Largo and extended as far as Lower Matecumbe Key, while a segment in the lower keys",
"-32.42187795450445"
],
[
"the destination. Alden envisioned guideways being built in place of the existing interstate roads, but the automatic guidance allowed for much shorter headways and thereby increased route capacity, reducing the need for multiple lanes.\nThe initial design evolved into small four-person cars that were tested on a guideway set up in a parking lot in Bedford, Massachusetts. The staRRcar testbeds, models 19 and 20, were built on top of a rectangular steel chassis with very small rubber wheels that resulted in a ride close to the ground. The wedge-shaped lightweight body shell was placed on top, and the rear of the",
"-32.41114678955637"
],
[
"shaped fields before meeting US 85, where it curves slightly southeastward. As the road continues eastward, the fields become circular, and the road turns slightly northeastward. The surrounding land then becomes barren grassland as the road abruptly turns eastward then sharply northward. The road then meets its terminus several miles later at SH 14 in Briggsdale. History The route was established in 1949, where it began at SH 257 in Windsor and continued east to Barnesville. The road was then paved entirely by 1958, then extended to today's I-25 in 1960. The route was then extended east to Cornish; this",
"-32.38537590397755"
],
[
"the face of increasing interest in automobiles. In 1913 the Lincoln Highway Association was formed to plan and promote and sign a highway suitable for automobiles using existing roads from Times Square in New York City to San Francisco, California. This was a success and was followed by the development of named auto trails throughout North America. Most of these were subsequently been converted to numbered Interstate highways.",
"-32.3832511639921"
],
[
"of developing the bends due to long exposure of working in pressurised conditions. Construction was completed on 18 July 1901. The original road/rail bridge was opened on 10 October 1902. Construction took three years at the cost of £22,500.\nState Highway 1 crosses the Awatere River at its current point just north of Seddon. The initial bridge remained the crossing until 2007 when most recently traffic signals were added to either direction to control vehicles on the platform, which was only wide enough for one lane of traffic. A new $15 million two-lane road bridge was constructed with the railway being",
"-32.38319812624468"
],
[
"on the highway. The route passed through numerous small towns and, with the growing traffic on the highway, helped create the rise of mom-and-pop businesses, such as service stations, restaurants, and motor courts, all readily accessible to passing motorists.\nMuch of the early highway, like all the other early highways, was gravel or graded dirt. Due to the efforts of the U.S. Highway 66 Association, US 66 became the first highway to be completely paved in 1938. Several places were dangerous: more than one part of the highway was nicknamed \"Bloody 66\" and gradually work was done to realign these segments to",
"-32.37722552078776"
],
[
"The Middle Road Route description The Middle Road or Commissioners' Road, named so because of its location between what were then the highways (or historic streets) between Toronto and Hamilton, Dundas Street and Lakeshore Road, followed the same path taken by today's Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW), with little exception, beginning at the Humber River and travelling to Bronte Line (where today, the QEW veers south). Since the highway followed a concession road, it was straight for almost its entire length, veering only at Browns Line (Highway 27), the Credit River, and at the Oakville border. At the time of construction,",
"-32.36347258707974"
],
[
"2002 when the highway was shortened to its present course in East Baltimore.",
"-32.36084642924834"
],
[
"incorporated in the 1800s to help build highways in the area. The highways that were proposed were to be built with stone and other materials. Construction began in 1911 on a highway between the Skaneateles–Elbridge town line and the hamlet of Martisco within the town of Camillus. It was accepted into the New York state highway system on September 17, 1912. An extension of the road south into the town of Skaneateles to the village of the same name was constructed in late 1912 and early 1913 and added to the state highway system in September 1913.\nWhen the first set of",
"-32.35304227541201"
],
[
"to be moved so the railroad could take its place. The highway's new two-lane alignment, completed in 1937, crossed the old road several times between the community of Bonneville (just east of Tanner Creek) and Cascade Locks. The realignment had the effect of closing the old road to all but the most local of traffic, since the construction of the east portal of the new Toothrock Tunnel, just west of a new bridge over Eagle Creek, had destroyed a section of road on the hillside.\nBy the end of the 1940s, the original cross section of 18 feet (5.5 m) of",
"-32.34102740092203"
],
[
"ago, some of the old signs identifying Guess Road as SR 1008 remain. History The original highway numbering system for North Carolina was established in the 1920s. Major routes were multiples of 10, with 10, 20, and 90 running east/west, 30, 40, 50, 70, and 80 running north/south, and 60 running as a diagonal route. These cross-state routes were used as a basis for numbering the two-digit roads that served as the major city-city connectors. For example, NC 90 used to run along modern US 64, which explains the multiple \"90s\" that branch off US 64 today (NC 9, NC 97 and NC 98).\nThree-digit numbered roads",
"-32.321927463810425"
],
[
"New Zealand State Highway 94 History The road alignment was first surveyed in 1890 by London-born engineer Robert Holmes, who later became the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department. Holmes initially preferred a route starting at Lake Wakatipu and running northwest, but the decision was instead made to start from Te Anau.\nHowever, the project then languished in planning for 40 years, possibly because in 1889 road building had been removed from the brief of the Public Works Department, and only reinstated with much more limited authority in 1909. It took until 1935 to construct a rough road to the entrance",
"-32.32089183579956"
],
[
"Central Artery History The highway itself was planned as early as the 1920s. The above-ground Artery was built in two sections. First was the part north of High Street and Broad Street to the Tobin Bridge, built between 1951 and 1954. Immediately, residents began to hate the new highway and the way it towered over and separated neighborhoods. Due to this opposition, the southern end of the Central Artery through the South Station area was built underground, through what became known as the Dewey Square Tunnel. Eventually, the entire highway was moved underground as part of the Big Dig Project.",
"-32.29957475478295"
],
[
"a curved outline to meet the first at the north-eastern end (towards the river), where a gateway was provided. This road was an anomaly in the grid-pattern of straight roads. There were many lanes connected to specific housing complexes. Roads and lanes had widths in accurately determined proportions, like in other Harappan cities, ranging from 7.2 meters for main roads to 1.8 meters for narrow lanes. Fender posts were installed at street corners to prevent accidents. In second structural level, roads were laid with mud tiles. Drains from houses emptied into pits (soakage jars) beneath the roads. Some central authority",
"-32.29126692190766"
],
[
"be wider, to carry four directions of traffic and two sidewalks over the highway. Usage This highway configuration originated (and is particularly common) in the U.S. state of Texas, especially in the Austin, Dallas–Fort Worth, El Paso, Houston, and San Antonio metropolitan areas, but can also be found in Huntsville, Alabama; Peoria, Arizona; Little Rock and North Little Rock, Arkansas; Clearwater and Jacksonville, Florida; Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago, Illinois; Wichita, Kansas; Jackson, Mississippi; Kansas City and St. Louis, Missouri; Las Cruces, New Mexico; New York City, New York; Cleveland, Ohio; Oklahoma City and Tulsa, Oklahoma; Lancaster, Pennsylvania; and Lehi and",
"-32.28732239760575"
],
[
"operated a station in Rome, before relocating to Hays City.\nPresent day Noose Road passes through the townsite east and west, crossing Big Creek just north of Hangman's Bridge. This was the original U.S. Route 40 alignment (locally \"Highway 40\"). The United States Highway system vacated this alignment in 1947 when the highway and railroad tracks were realigned at Yocemento, moving the highway to the south of the tracks between Yocemento and Hays. This newer alignment lost the U.S. Route 40 designation when Interstate 70 was completed and the road was renamed Old Hwy 40.\nRome Road makes a short connection across",
"-32.27990007202607"
],
[
"wagon road. In the 1920s, it was improved further and made navigable by automobiles, but it was not paved until 1957.\nFairbanks' road connections were improved in 1927, when the 161-mile (259 km) Steese Highway connected the city to the Yukon River at the gold-mining community of Circle. In 1942, the Alaska Highway connected the Richardson Highway to the Canadian road system, allowing road travel from the rest of the United States to Fairbanks, which is considered the unofficial end of the highway. Because of World War II, civilian traffic was not permitted on the highway until 1948.\nIn the late 1960s and",
"-32.27941286878195"
],
[
"system, which ended at the National Old Trails Road just south of Las Vegas, New Mexico. Again, a shorter route was taken, here following the Postal Highway between Oklahoma City and Amarillo. Finally, the National Old Trails Road became the rest of the route to Los Angeles.\nWhile legislation for public highways first appeared in 1916, with revisions in 1921, until Congress enacted an even more comprehensive version of the act in 1925, the government had not executed its plan for national highway construction. The original inspiration for a roadway between Chicago and Los Angeles was planned by entrepreneurs Cyrus Avery",
"-32.27269698132295"
],
[
"route for the new road. The Department of Mines and Resources agreed to fund the project, and citizens proceeded to lay a new road as far as the river, beginning in 1913. This road was initially known as the \"Scott Highway\" after lumberman William Scott. On the opposite shore, Cook County and the State of Minnesota constructed a new road north from Grand Marais. The roads were completed by late 1916, but no bridge existed to connect them.\nIn response, the Rotary Clubs of Port Arthur and Duluth met to discuss a solution. As an international crossing, any bridge over the",
"-32.25748724886216"
],
[
"along the route; this was considered reasonable due to advantages gained from the highway by those living along the route. The road was to be 65 feet (20 m), five feet wider than Fifth Avenue, with a speed limit of at least 30 miles per hour (48 km/h), and would be 20 feet (6.1 m) off the ground. It would be built of steel, with a cement face. A three-foot (1 m) sidewalk would be built for pedestrians, although the highway was intended mainly for motor vehicles. Two-block-long ramps would be provided with easy grades for entering and exiting the highway. Trucks would",
"-32.19613975161337"
],
[
"Keighley and Kendal Turnpike Old roads Ancient highways were rights of way where the only road repair was removing obstructions. In some places on soft ground a raised causeway of stones one metre wide was built for pack horses. The only wide roads were drovers' roads along hilltops. All roads crossed rivers at right angles wherever the valley was narrowest. The hilly road from Knaresborough brought more trade to Settle than the valley track from Keighley.\nTravellers went on horseback or on foot: the principal exports were cattle and the imports came on packhorses. Bulk materials like hay, peat or rushes",
"-32.19408531486988"
],
[
"Goshen Road Goshen Road was an early road that ran from Old Shawneetown, Illinois, on the Ohio River, northwest to the Goshen Settlement, near Glen Carbon, Illinois, near the Mississippi River. In the early 19th century, this was the main east/west road in Illinois. Route Beginning around 1800, the Illinois Territory was surveyed pursuant to the Land Ordinance of 1785. Because this survey was aimed at establishing the Township and Section boundaries, the surveyors were not paid for mapping roads. However, many did show the locations of roads. Because the Goshen Road was often the only noteworthy feature at the",
"-32.1853170527902"
],
[
"traffic in 1958.\nDrake and Lancashire County Council had long recognised that a new type of highway was necessary for the mass movement of people and goods on a swift and safe basis. However\nDrake believed that the projected traffic figures for the by-pass justified the construction of three lanes in each direction. However, despite his requests for additional funding, the Ministry of Transport insisted that this could not be justified. Drake's response to this was to indeed create a motorway with two lanes in each direction, but with an extra wide central reservation. Bridges over the by-pass were built with sufficient",
"-32.16690267287777"
],
[
"of that year, completing the envisioned highway 25 years after work had begun. 1950s: Control of access Despite some modern infrastructure, including traffic circles, interchanges, and some grade-separations, the majority of the new superhighway was not controlled-access. This meant existing farmers and homeowners along several segments that were once concession roads were permitted to build driveways and entrances onto the road. In addition, the majority of the crossroads encountered along the route were at-grade intersections. This, combined with the ever-increasing number of automobiles, traffic jams, accidents, and deteriorating pavement, led the Department of Highways to state it had begun \"salvaging\" the",
"-32.16530761611648"
],
[
"road. Also on the east end, and perhaps even earlier, a north-south road from Litchfield's Chestnut Hill ran down through the section that became known as The Pitch (so-called because the settlers \"pitched\", or drew lots, for land there). In 1724, the Connecticut Colony required settlers to build a fort, a log bulwark, on a hillside near the intersection of the old Woodbury (now Higbie) Road and present-day Benton Road. The work took them away from planting, diminished the year's harvest, and was consequently unpopular. The structure fell fairly rapidly into disrepair.\nColonial government policies and military action reduced the likelihood",
"-32.15119580947794"
],
[
"Road junction History Roads began as a means of linking locations of interest: towns, forts and geographic features such as river fords. Where roads met outside of an existing settlement, these junctions often led to a new settlement. Scotch Corner is an example of such a location.\nIn the United Kingdom and other countries, the practice of giving names to junctions emerged, to help travellers find their way. Junctions took the name of a prominent nearby business or a point of interest.\nAs of the road networks increased in density and traffic flows followed suit, managing the flow of traffic across the",
"-32.13200992101338"
],
[
"(on the right) when facing in the direction of increasing numbers (the European system) reflecting already common practice. It first came into force in 2003 under AS/NZS 4819:2003 – Geographic Information – Rural & Urban Addressing. Exceptions are where the road forms part of the boundary between different council areas or cities. For example, Underwood Road in Rochedale South, divided between Logan City and the City of Brisbane.\nIn New South Wales, the vast majority of streets were numbered before 2003, some with odd numbers assigned to houses on the right of the street when facing the direction along which numbers",
"-32.12458274333039"
],
[
"engineered to run from mountainside to mountainside, following the contours of the mountains, and along the natural definitions of the course of rivers, to reach its destination. Driving was rather hazardous, especially for trucks. New road One of the reasons to build a new road was the expected use by large trucks which the old road could not accommodate. Also, as traffic on the old road increased in the 1950s and 1960s, that road started to show its limits. To ameliorate the situation, in 1974 the Puerto Rico Department of Transportation and Public Works started planning for the construction this",
"-32.11915347492322"
],
[
"roads laid out by the Maryland State Roads Commission (MDSRC) in 1909. The first portion of the highway was built as a 16-foot-wide (4.9 m) concrete road from Solomons Island Road (now MD 393) east to the city limits of Annapolis at Spa Road in 1914. The portion of the highway from Wagner Street at the city limits of Annapolis to the Severn River was proposed as the southernmost section of the Baltimore–Annapolis Boulevard (now MD 648), which was completed from the north side of the Severn River to Glen Burnie between 1910 and 1912. After litigation between the roads commission",
"-32.10131628070667"
],
[
"the date), but the lanes were not as wide as federal standards required, and the road had a sharp curve north of the bridge. Both of these characteristics saved money.\nThe Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 provided for 90 percent federal funding of highways that would become part of the Interstate Highway System, and the N.C. Highway Commission used the funds to build the rest of the highway, which opened as I-85 in 1958. The bridge, finished a year earlier, was \"grandfathered\" despite not meeting standards.\nAs of 1984, I-85 was relocated and widened to six lanes starting several miles north of",
"-32.09293074184097"
],
[
"The rule is: When traveling away from the grid center (Temple Square) or its axes (Main Street, South Temple Street), odd numbers will be on the left side of the street.\nThe streets are relatively wide due to the direction of Brigham Young, who wanted them wide enough to permit an ox-pulled wagon team to turn around without \"resorting to profanity\". These wide streets and grid pattern are typical of other Mormon towns of the pioneer era throughout the West.\nThough the nomenclature may initially confuse new arrivals and visitors, most consider the grid system an aid to navigation. Some streets have",
"-32.09071162901819"
],
[
"lane were incorporated into the median, and new ones were planted in the gaps, as equal focus was given to functionality as aesthetics. Over most of the bridges, the two roadways converged, undivided. These were, however, a great improvement from the bridges along the old lane, as seen in the picture at left. At Highway 10 (Hurontario Street) was Canada's first cloverleaf interchange, opened in 1937.\nOne of the elements of the Middle Road, to which engineers paid particular attention in future highway design, was controlled access. While the section between the Humber River and Highway 27 was built without allowance",
"-32.08923608229088"
],
[
"(Watson Road in St. Louis, Missouri) paid off, the road was fully paved and completed in 1938, including a cut-off across New Mexico, bypassing a loop through Santa Fe.\nThe U.S. Highway 66 Association curtailed activities when World War II rationing of rubber and fuel disrupted leisure travel. In 1947, Jack and Gladys Cutberth revived the organization in Clinton, Oklahoma to promote \"the shortest, fastest year-round best across the scenic West\" with \"800 miles of 4-lane highway\".\nIn 1955, construction began on the new Interstate Highway System. As these new interstates began to replace longer and longer sections of the old highway,",
"-32.073987280367874"
],
[
"classification and numbering system. Roads fell into three categories: T (Trunk Roads), L (Link Roads) and unclassified roads. The origins of this system lie in pre-independence legislation: the preliminary section of Statutory Instrument S.I. No. 55/1926 — Road Signs and Traffic Signals Regulations, 1926 states that the Ministry of Transport Act, 1919 gave the Minister for Local Government and Public Health the power to assign a \"route letter and number\" to a road, while Section 6.4 of Part I of the Regulations specified the positioning of the \"route letter and the number of the road\" on directional signs. A reference",
"-32.06604952854104"
],
[
"60 feet (18 m) wide, wide enough for six lanes of traffic; the existing surface road would carry local traffic beneath the highway. Ramps would be provided at Canal Street, Christopher Street, 14th Street, 23rd Street, 34th Street, 42nd Street, and 57th Street. Slow-moving traffic would use the left lanes, due to the left-hand ramps. This contrasts with the current method of using the left lane for passing and putting ramps on the right side, and to the method popular around the 1950s of putting ramps on whichever side was easier. The highway would \"carry buses that will make both",
"-32.06439227872761"
],
[
"the time of the Romans. With the advancement of technology from carriages pulled by two horses to vehicles with power equivalent to 100 horses, road development had to follow suit. The construction of modern highways did not begin until the late 19th to early 20th century.\nThe first research dedicated to highway engineering was initiated in the United Kingdom with the introduction of the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), in 1930. In the USA, highway engineering became an important discipline with the passing of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944, which aimed to connect 90% of cities with a population of 50,000",
"-32.05829674936831"
],
[
"at the east building line of the existing surface roads. The elevated highway was to connect to a planned parkway (now the Henry Hudson Parkway) at 72nd Street, forming a highway free from cross traffic stretching from Canal Street to 129th Street. The elevated road was to be 60 feet (18 m) wide, wide enough for six lanes of traffic; the existing surface road would carry local traffic beneath the highway. Ramps would be provided at Canal Street, Christopher Street, 14th Street, 23rd Street, 34th Street, 42nd Street, and 57th Street. Slow-moving traffic would use the left lanes, due to",
"-32.05679303134093"
],
[
"for private driveways, and was thus controlled-access, many at-grade intersections existed along the Middle Road west of Highway 27, and many adjoining landowners built driveways to the highway for access, an issue that led to the creation of legislation to allow the designation of a road as 'controlled-access'.\nToday, a small remnant of the pre-1930s Middle Road can be found spanning the Etobicoke Creek off of Sherway Drive at the Mississauga and Etobicoke border. The bridge, constructed in 1909, was part of Middle Road until 1932 and served as a farm lane until the section of the Queen Elizabeth Way into",
"-32.05560121148301"
],
[
"a section of Highway 33 nearly 150 years later.\nOn June 5, 1799, Asa Danforth Jr. began construction eastward from Toronto on a road which was to extend the Governor's Road through Port Hope and to the Trent River. That road, completed in 1801, would be described by acting surveyor general William Chewett to be \"good\" for use in the dead of winter but \"impassible\" during the wet summers, when the path turned to a bottomless mud pit. It would be extended in 1802 to reach the Bay of Quinte at Stone Mills (now Glenora) and a ferry crossing established to Adolphustown. The",
"-32.04757273022551"
],
[
"was from Walton, Liverpool, to the junction with the A6 at Irlams o' th' Height in Salford. The 29.5-mile (47.5 km) road was constructed in an almost straight alignment with few curves.\nTo be a high-speed trunk route, its 1930s planners designed some parts to be three roads in one. The central section was exclusively for through traffic while adjacent side roads – either side of the main carriageway – provided local access. Although the sections within Liverpool were dual carriageway from the beginning, a few short stretches through Salford continue to use the original three-lane layout. The rest of the road",
"-32.033847273371066"
],
[
"permit this the width of some early roads was set at a 'mill-wand breadth'.\nGeneral Roy's Military Survey map of Scotland (1745–1755) marks the Lambroughton brae road as being part of the 'Post' road from Irvine to Glasgow, therefore giving it some importance as the mails were carried along it. This same road running up from Cunninghamhead was made into a turnpike by the 'Ayr Roads Act of 1767' and the opportunity was taken to move the route away from Townhead of Lambroughton through which it used to run. The date of construction is unclear as the 1775 map doesn't show",
"-32.032523469941225"
],
[
"of Highways released a report called The Windsor Area Transportation Study (WATS). One of the primary issues identified by the study was \"a limited and inadequate street network in the east-west direction generally resulting from\nseveral railway barriers\".\nProperties were purchased along E.C. Row Avenue (named in 1956 after the retiring president of Chrysler Canada \n(1951-1956), Ohio-born E.C. Row) and the Third Concession within Sandwich Township beginning in 1958 for what was then intended as a two lane road linking Highway 18 with Highway 39 (which became Highway 2 in 1970). However, with the release of WATS and the subsequent amalgamation in 1966",
"-32.02880246692803"
],
[
"Highways U.S. Highway 50 passes through the northern edge of the city and follows roughly parallel to the BNSF Railway.\nIn the early years of the highway before U.S. Route 50 was finalized in the 1930s, the highway was known as the New Santa Fe Trail, which entered the north side of the city on Newell Rd (later on Old Mill Rd), and exited on the south-west side on 60th Street (known as the Old Trail). In fall 1933, an underpass on 9th street (50S) was constructed to go under the Rock Island Railroad as part of the New Deal",
"-32.013040345773334"
],
[
"since disappeared from maps, its main roads, Johnnycake and Rolling Road, still exist today. Rolling Road was used to transport tobacco south from plantations to the Patapsco River on horse-drawn wagons.\nIn 1787, the Ellicott family built a road, called the Frederick Turnpike, to transport goods from their flour mill, Ellicott Mills, to the Baltimore harbor. The turnpike was built just south of where Johnnycake Town was. Charles Carroll, who was the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, owned land next to the newly built road. He instructed his son-in-law, Richard Caton, to develop the area along the road.",
"-32.01225908967899"
],
[
"the road turned eastward again, with Guyles Road continuing south and Smokey Hills Road traveling to the west. Two miles afterward, the road turned south yet again at an intersection with Straight Lake Road heading north, and Eagle Bay Avenue heading east to Straight Lake. Another mile south, the highway turned east for the final time and then a mile subsequently reached the junction where it made its final turn south, connecting with Park Trail going north and Washington Drive continuing east. It traveled for one more mile before reaching its terminus at State Highway 34.\nThe route was legally defined",
"-32.00285845436156"
],
[
"two dozen roads throughout the state. Roadbuilding was often the responsibility of the counties, which were empowered to call out a local labor force for construction and provide road viewers, or supervisors. History Indiana's first \"super highway\" was the Michigan Road, which was built in the 1830s and 1840s and ran from Madison, Indiana to Michigan City, Indiana via Indianapolis. Like the National Road, it did much to spur settlement and economic growth. One-half of the pioneers to settle northwestern Indiana did so by using the Michigan Road to travel from the Ohio River to their destination. It was the",
"-31.967290593573125"
],
[
"in many of the turnpike incorporation acts that the road be laid out “in as straight a line as the ground will permit”. The lawmakers authorized the Fifth Corporation to make these alterations “as shall facilitate the travel by going round instead of over hills, without much increase of length of way.” This requirement that the turnpikes be laid out as straight as absolutely possible was a considerable irritant to both the road builders and users. For the builders it required additional construction costs. For the users, particularly those carrying heavy loads, it might have meant reducing the size of",
"-31.966398502874654"
],
[
"Capt. Albert Head, an early promoter of the highway who made significant monetary contributions to its development. Head also contributed toward the construction of a nearby bridge, no longer extant. While the bridge's construction in 1914 straightened part of the roadway, motorists still had to negotiate a tight curve immediately south of the bridge. The realignment removed this curve, but kept the roadway close to the farmsteads.\nThe abandoned section lays perpendicular to the west from County Road E53. It is located on a grass incline, and the old grade and cut banks are clearly visible. The old roadway is no",
"-31.95453706732951"
],
[
"rolling resistance and mitigated the problem of getting mired in mud. Another improvement, better grading to lessen the steepness of the worst stretches, allowed draft animals to haul heavier loads. Metcalf By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of two British engineers, Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam, and by the French road engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet.\nThe first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf, who constructed about 180 miles (290 km) of turnpike road, mainly in the north of England, from 1765, when Parliament",
"-31.940332177269738"
],
[
"lanes of traffic in either direction.\nConstruction on what was then known as the Queen Street Extension west of Toronto began in early 1931 as a Great Depression relief project.\nBefore the highway could be completed, Thomas McQuesten was appointed the new minister of the Department of Highways, with Robert Melville Smith as deputy minister, following the 1934 provincial elections.\nSmith, inspired by the German autobahns—new \"dual-lane divided highways\"—modified the design for Ontario roads,\nand McQuesten ordered that the Middle Road be converted into this new form of highway.\nA 40 m (130 ft) right-of-way was purchased along the Middle Road and construction began to convert the",
"-31.93750102404738"
]
] |
5jpxmd | How come the human body can protect you from chickenpox and other diseases after you have it only the once! But i get the flu maybe 4 times a year and i just feel its getting worse every time | [
"Getting the flu four times a year is abnormal. If you're really getting the flu four times a year, and not exaggerating, then that could be the symptom of something more serious. If you haven't already then you should go see your doctor and discuss this with them.",
"long story short it is a different type of flu every time. the flu mutates very quickly sometimes in as little as 3 transmissions until it reaches a new strain. Chickenpox doesn't mutate nearly as fast and once you get it once your body can fend it off the next time.",
"Both flu and chickenpox are viruses. However, the chickenpox virus is fairly stable, and once your body has 'learned' how to fight it (by making antibodies that kill it effectively) it then 'knows' how to kill it quickly the next time it enters the body. However, the flu virus mutates rapidly, so you rarely get the same strain twice. This means the body is starting afresh each time you get the flu.",
"Chicken pox doesn't really change much. Flu however, there are many different strains and they're constantly changing. Imagine it like this. A guy walks up to you and sucker punches you. You recognize him when he walks up to you in the future, so you can just punch him first. Now imagine he has a brother who wears disguises. You never really know it is the brother until you get sucker punched.",
"Alright four times a year was an exaggeration, Its Manflu so i just power through anyways! But i appreciate everyone's concern for my health",
"Flu is a generic name for many diseases with similar symptoms/makeup. Every time you get it, you become immune to that flu, but a different one comes along. A flu shot is their best guess at the flus that will be in this season.",
"I used to be the same way. I gave up smoking, drank less (a LOT less), started exercising, and eat a bowl of fruit I prepare every morning along with yogurt. In one year I noticed I hardly got sick. Still the same to this day. Amazing what treating your body well does for you in comparison to treating it like shit. Not saying this id your case, but positive changes appear to have their rewards.",
"You get the flu 4 times a year???",
"The virus that causes chickenpox does not change its outer structure, so your body recognizes it when it attacks again, and kills it with soldier cells that are prepared for it. But the flu virus keeps changing its structure. Your body's soldier cells cannot recognize it because it is different each time. Flu viruses are many in number, and they are named according to their structure. If a virus of the same structure as another virus that has attacked you before comes along, your soldier cells will kill it.",
"4 times a year would make me thing a suppressed immune system from over exposure to at risk people, stress, or an infection like HIV. Now if its colds its possible but highly unlucky still makes me think high stress.. It took me being around my sickly newborn niece for me to get a cold that many times and it was miserable. Hated my sister for having her start daycare so early.",
"Chickenpox is one very closely related family, once you gain immunity to it, you're unlikely to get it again as the other members of the chickenpox family are too similar to their brothers to survive your immune system. Flu however are all distant cousins and each different strain is unrecognised by your immune system and is therefore not easily destroyed by your immune system."
] | [
[
"secondary infection.\nParacetamol (acetaminophen) but not aspirin may be used to reduce fever. Aspirin use by someone with chickenpox may cause the serious, sometimes fatal disease of the liver and brain, Reye syndrome. People at risk of developing severe complications who have had significant exposure to the virus may be given intra-muscular varicella zoster immune globulin (VZIG), a preparation containing high titres of antibodies to varicella zoster virus, to ward off the disease.\nAntivirals are sometimes used. Children If aciclovir by mouth is started within 24 hours of rash onset, it decreases symptoms by one day but has no effect on complication",
"-30.82155822752975"
],
[
"pox. About 10,600 people were hospitalized and 100 to 150 died each year. Transmission Varicella spreads person to person through the air from coughing or sneezing, touching or breathing in the virus that comes from the chickenpox blisters, and can be spread from people with Shingles. It takes 10 to 21 days after exposure to develop symptoms and it lasts about 5–10 days. For the most part, getting the chickenpox provides immunity for life. Although uncommon, it is possible for some people to get chickenpox more than once. Hepatitis A Hepatitis A, like Hepatitis B is inflammation of the liver.",
"-30.714998695388203"
],
[
"childhood, or after a latency period of many years. Shingles After a chickenpox infection, the virus remains dormant in the body's nerve tissues. The immune system keeps the virus at bay, but later in life, usually in an adult, it can be reactivated and cause a different form of the viral infection called shingles (also known as herpes zoster).\nThe United States Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) suggests that every adult over the age of 50 years get the herpes zoster vaccine.\nShingles affects one in five adults infected with chickenpox as children, especially those who are immune-suppressed, particularly from cancer,",
"-29.885930107033346"
],
[
"is recommended five years after the initial immunization. A vaccinated person is likely to have a milder case of chickenpox if they become infected. Immunization within three days following household contact reduces infection rates and severity in children.\nIt is part of the routine immunization schedule in the US. Some European countries include it as part of universal vaccinations in children, but not all countries provide the vaccine due to its cost. In the UK as of 2014, the vaccine is only recommended in people who are particularly vulnerable to chickenpox. This is to keep the virus in circulation thereby",
"-29.68540681421291"
],
[
"strep.\nThese serious complications (i.e. they can cause brain damage or death) are vastly more likely than adverse vaccine events. Before the chickenpox vaccine became available 100 to 150 children in the U.S. died from chickenpox annually. The chickenpox vaccine is recommended by health officials as safer than infection by any means.\nSome parents have attempted to collect infected material, such as saliva, licked lollipops, or other infected items from people who claim to have children infected with chickenpox. The parents use social networking services to make contact with these strangers. The unknown person then mails the potentially infectious matter to the",
"-29.452266709064133"
],
[
"Childhood immunizations in the United States Risks As with all medications, vaccines are continually monitored for safety, and like any medication, vaccines can cause side effects. The side effects of vaccination are minor and go away within a few days. There is a risk that the child could have a severe allergic reaction, but these reactions are rare. However, a decision not to immunize a child also involves risk and could put the child and others who come into contact with him or her at risk of contracting a potentially deadly disease. Hepatitis B Hepatitis B is a contagious virus",
"-29.25926717132097"
],
[
"\"chickenpox parties\". Doctors counter that children are safer getting the vaccine, which is a weakened form of the virus, rather than getting the disease, which can be fatal. Repeated exposure to chickenpox may protect against zoster. Other animals Humans are the only known species that the disease affects naturally. However, chickenpox has been caused in other primates, including chimpanzees and gorillas. Research Sorivudine, a nucleoside analog, has been reported to be effective in the treatment of primary varicella in healthy adults (case reports only), but large-scale clinical trials are still needed to demonstrate its efficacy. There has also been speculation",
"-28.992450616147835"
],
[
"than 16 years, as it has been related to Reye syndrome. Adults Infection in otherwise healthy adults tends to be more severe. Treatment with antiviral drugs (e.g. aciclovir or valaciclovir) is generally advised, as long as it is started within 24–48 hours from rash onset. Remedies to ease the symptoms of chickenpox in adults are basically the same as those used for children. Adults are more often prescribed antiviral medication, as it is effective in reducing the severity of the condition and the likelihood of developing complications. Antiviral medicines do not kill the virus but stop it from multiplying. Adults",
"-28.963332889135927"
],
[
"in children usually from 4 to 7 days, and the appearance of new blisters begins to subside after the fifth day. Chickenpox infection is milder in young children, and symptomatic treatment, with sodium bicarbonate baths or antihistamine medication may ease itching. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is widely used to reduce fever. Aspirin, or products containing aspirin, should not be given to children with chickenpox, as it can cause Reye syndrome.\nIn adults, the disease is more severe, though the incidence is much less common. Infection in adults is associated with greater morbidity and mortality due to pneumonia (either direct viral pneumonia or",
"-28.896972013870254"
],
[
"skin-to-skin contact. Less commonly, scabies infestation can happen through the sharing of clothes, towels, and bedding, but this is not a major mode of transmission; individual mites can survive for only two to three days, at most, away from human skin at room temperature. As with lice, a latex condom is ineffective against scabies transmission during intercourse, because mites typically migrate from one individual to the next at sites other than the sex organs.\nHealthcare workers are at risk of contracting scabies from patients, because they may be in extended contact with them. Pathophysiology The symptoms are caused by an",
"-28.613152874750085"
],
[
"is a contagious disease that spreads around the United States every winter, usually between October and May. Anyone can get the flu, but the risk is highest among children and each year thousands of people die from the flu and many more are hospitalized. Transmission Influenza is spread through coughing, sneezing and close contact with infected persons. Varicella (Chickenpox) Varicella, commonly known as chickenpox, is a highly contagious disease that is very uncomfortable and sometimes serious. It is caused by the Varicella-zoster virus (VZV). Before the vaccine, about 4 million people each year in the United States would get chicken",
"-28.578687225235626"
],
[
"fetal varicella syndrome. Hygiene measures The spread of chickenpox can be prevented by isolating affected individuals. Contagion is by exposure to respiratory droplets, or direct contact with lesions, within a period lasting from three days before the onset of the rash, to four days after the onset of the rash. The chickenpox virus is susceptible to disinfectants, notably chlorine bleach (i.e., sodium hypochlorite). Like all enveloped viruses, it is sensitive to desiccation, heat and detergents. Vaccine The varicella vaccine is recommended in many countries. Some countries require the varicella vaccination or an exemption before entering elementary school. A second dose",
"-28.562502828310244"
],
[
"the virus after vaccine tend to experience milder cases of chickenpox.\nCatching \"wild\" chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity. Indeed, parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with \"pox parties\". Historically, exposure of adults to contagious children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles. The CDC and corresponding national organizations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccines—large outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated. Chickenpox Prior to the introduction of the vaccine in 1995 in the",
"-28.447474068118026"
],
[
"similar to humans with similar consequences. They may have diarrhea, fever, and then die if they are not treated. After their death, the other animals raised with them can become infected through contact with their feces. Therefore, if this infected manure is used as a fertilizer for crops, then the crops will contain trace amounts of infectious Salmonella bacteria that can spread to humans after the crops are harvested.\nPoultry can become infected by living close together in hatcheries, where multiple animals are defecating. Some poultry are hatched to be sold domestically, while others are hatched for production to be",
"-28.39339920366183"
],
[
"becomes prominent during that time. It is also possible to get infected just before vaccination and get sick with the strain that the vaccine is supposed to prevent, as the vaccine takes about two weeks to become effective.\nVaccines can cause the immune system to react as if the body were actually being infected, and general infection symptoms (many cold and flu symptoms are just general infection symptoms) can appear, though these symptoms are usually not as severe or long-lasting as influenza. The most dangerous adverse effect is a severe allergic reaction to either the virus material itself or residues from",
"-28.352129167149542"
],
[
"to occur in young children. Only 16 cases have been reported of D. caninum infections in humans within the last 20 years, and almost all of the cases were found in children. Young children and toddlers are at a greater risk of infection because of how they interact with their pets. A human may attain an infection by accidentally ingesting an infected flea through food contamination or through the saliva of pets. Most infections are asymptomatic, but sometimes these symptoms may be identified in an infected individual: mild diarrhea, abdominal colic, anorexia, restlessness, constipation, rectal itching, and pain due to",
"-28.24143721771543"
],
[
"to one month.\nChickenpox is rarely fatal, although it is generally more severe in adult men than in women or children. Non-immune pregnant women and those with a suppressed immune system are at highest risk of serious complications. Arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) associated with chickenpox in the previous year accounts for nearly one third of childhood AIS. The most common late complication of chickenpox is shingles (herpes zoster), caused by reactivation of the varicella zoster virus decades after the initial, often childhood, chickenpox infection. Pathophysiology Exposure to VZV in a healthy child initiates the production of host immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin",
"-28.197529871220468"
],
[
"requester, who gives it or feeds it to their child in the hope that the child will become ill.\nExperts say it is unlikely that these methods will transmit the chickenpox virus effectively or reliably, because the varicella virus cannot survive for very long on the surface of such items. However, it may be able to transmit other diseases, including hepatitis B, group A streptococcal infection, and staphylococcal infections — dangerous diseases to which the parents never intended to expose their children. Additionally, in the United States, deliberately sending infectious matter through the U.S. Postal Service is illegal. History In the",
"-28.03260947490344"
],
[
"exposing the population to the virus at an early age, when it is less harmful, and to reduce the occurrence of shingles in those who have already had chickenpox by repeated exposure to the virus later in life. In populations that have not been immunized or if immunity is questionable, a clinician may order an enzyme immunoassay. An immunoassay measures the levels of antibodies against the virus that give immunity to a person. If the levels of antibodies are low (low titer) or questionable, reimmunization may be done. Treatment Treatment mainly consists of easing the symptoms. As a protective measure,",
"-27.988070815743413"
],
[
"bodies, and virions are shed from the cells and carried down the axons to the area of skin innervated by that ganglion. In the skin, the virus causes local inflammation and blistering. The short- and long-term pain caused by shingles outbreaks originates from inflammation of affected nerves due to the widespread growth of the virus in those areas.\nAs with chickenpox and other forms of alpha-herpesvirus infection, direct contact with an active rash can spread the virus to a person who lacks immunity to it. This newly infected individual may then develop chickenpox, but will not immediately develop shingles.\nThe complete sequence",
"-27.960576020297594"
],
[
"increased as adults are less exposed to infected children (which would otherwise help protect against shingles). Ten years after the vaccine was recommended in the US, the CDC reported as much as a 90% drop in chickenpox cases, a varicella-related hospital admission decline of 71% and a 97% drop in chickenpox deaths among those under 20.\nVaccines are less effective among high-risk patients, as well as being more dangerous because they contain attenuated live virus. In a study performed on children with an impaired immune system, 30% had lost the antibody after five years, and 8% had already caught wild chickenpox",
"-27.917407344153617"
],
[
"in the body of the mite. Some of these cross-react to allergens from house dust mites. Immediate antibody-mediated allergic reactions (wheals) have been elicited in infected persons, but not in healthy persons; immediate hypersensitivity of this type is thought to explain the observed far more rapid allergic skin response to reinfection seen in persons having been previously infected (especially having been infected within the previous year or two). Transmission Scabies is contagious and can be contracted through prolonged physical contact with an infested person. This includes sexual intercourse, although a majority of cases are acquired through other forms of",
"-27.88561801239848"
],
[
"the vaccine is only recommended in people who are particularly vulnerable to chickenpox. The National Health Service cites concerns about unvaccinated children catching chickenpox as adults when it is more dangerous, an increased risk of shingles in adults due to the lack of contact with chickenpox-infected children providing a natural boosting to immunity, and the fact that chickenpox is usually a mild illness. Contraindications The varicella vaccine is not recommended for seriously ill people, pregnant women, people who have tuberculosis, people who have experienced a serious allergic reaction to the varicella vaccine in the past, people who are allergic to",
"-27.8769231204642"
],
[
"induces a strong immune reaction but can cause inflammation and abscesses. \"Chicken vaccinators who have accidentally jabbed themselves have developed painful swollen fingers or even lost thumbs, doctors said. Effectiveness may also be limited. Chicken vaccines are often only vaguely similar to circulating flu strains — some contain an H5N2 strain isolated in Mexico years ago. 'With a chicken, if you use a vaccine that's only 85 percent related, you'll get protection,' Dr. Cardona said. 'In humans, you can get a single point mutation, and a vaccine that's 99.99 percent related won't protect you.' And they are weaker [than human vaccines]. 'Chickens",
"-27.853301925119013"
],
[
"at the injection site, as well as fever. A few people may develop a mild rash, which usually appears around the injection site.\nThere is a short-term risk of developing herpes zoster (shingles) following vaccination. However, this risk is less than the risk due to a natural infection resulting in chickenpox. Most of the cases reported have been mild and have not been associated with serious complications.\nApproximately 5% of children who receive the vaccine develop a fever or rash. Adverse reaction reports for the period 1995 to 2005 found no deaths attributed to the vaccine despite approximately 55.7 million doses being",
"-27.79965166609327"
],
[
"in contact with live poultry are at the greatest risk of becoming infected with the virus and this is of particular concern in areas such as Southeast Asia, where the disease is endemic in the wild bird population and domestic poultry can become infected. The virus possibly could mutate to become highly virulent and infectious in humans and cause an influenza pandemic.\nBacteria can be grown in the laboratory on nutrient culture media, but viruses need living cells in which to replicate. Many vaccines to infectious diseases can be grown in fertilised chicken eggs. Millions of eggs are used each year",
"-27.530553696095012"
],
[
"usually on the back of the animal. Symptoms in humans include multiple red, itchy bumps on the arms, trunk, and buttocks. Because humans are not a host for the mite, the symptoms usually go away in about three weeks. Though the medical community does not consider a human mite infestation a legitimate diagnosis, it will treat the symptoms if necessary. Diagnosis Diagnosis is by finding the mites or eggs microscopically in a skin scraping, combing, or on duct or packing tape applied to the skin. Treatment The most common treatment in animals is weekly use of some form",
"-27.404079559724778"
],
[
"life-threatening with rapidly developing symptoms. Bacterial meningitis is the deadliest form of this disease but throughout the years, having become more aware of the disease and its causes, we have been able to significantly lower the number of deaths due to meningitis each year. As a child, you are more at risk of contracting meningitis which is why recommended vaccines have been put in place across the UK for the three main bacteria types: Neisseria meningitides, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib). Swine flu Swine flu is one of many diseases that are contracted by person to person",
"-27.23484661054681"
],
[
"is spread by coughing and sneezing via close personal contact or direct contact with secretions. It can live for up to two hours in that airspace or nearby surfaces. Measles is so contagious that if one person has it, 90% of nearby non-immune people will also become infected. Humans are the only natural hosts of the virus, and no other animal reservoirs are known to exist.\nRisk factors for measles virus infection include immunodeficiency caused by HIV or AIDS, immunosuppression following receipt of an organ or a stem cell transplant, alkylating agents, or corticosteroid therapy, regardless of immunization status; travel to",
"-27.22398904781585"
],
[
"and can destroy a flock within 28 hours; the less pathogenic strains may affect egg production but are much less deadly.\nAlthough it is possible for humans to contract the avian influenza virus from birds, human-to-human contact is much more difficult without prolonged contact. However, public health officials are concerned that strains of avian flu may mutate to become easily transmissible between humans. Some strains of avian influenza are present in the intestinal tract of large numbers of shore birds and water birds, but these strains rarely cause human infection.\nFive manmade ecosystems have contributed to modern avian influenza virus ecology: integrated",
"-27.19961110240547"
],
[
"secondary bacterial pneumonia), bronchitis (either viral bronchitis or secondary bacterial bronchitis), hepatitis, and encephalitis. In particular, up to 10% of pregnant women with chickenpox develop pneumonia, the severity of which increases with onset later in gestation. In England and Wales, 75% of deaths due to chickenpox are in adults. Inflammation of the brain, or encephalitis, can occur in immunocompromised individuals, although the risk is higher with herpes zoster. Necrotizing fasciitis is also a rare complication.\nVaricella can be lethal to individuals with impaired immunity. The number of people in this high-risk group has increased, due to the HIV epidemic and the",
"-27.173869063146412"
],
[
"meningitis cases, but it does not guarantee protection from the disease. Contact with other individuals with the disease also vastly increases the risk of infection. A child in the presence of family members sick with Haemophilus meningitis or carrying the bacteria is 585 times more likely to catch Haemophilus meningitis. Additionally, siblings of individuals with the Haemophilus influenzae meningitis receive reduced benefits from certain types of immunization. Similarly, children under two years of age have a greater risk of contracting the disease when attending day care, especially in their first month of attendance, due to the maintained contact with other",
"-27.09598802268738"
],
[
"lead to human influenza, often resulting only in the production of antibodies in the blood. If transmission does cause human influenza, it is called zoonotic swine flu or a variant virus. People with regular exposure to pigs are at increased risk of swine flu infection. The meat of an infected animal poses no risk of infection when properly cooked.\nPigs experimentally infected with the strain of swine flu that caused the human pandemic of 2009–10 showed clinical signs of flu within four days, and the virus spread to other uninfected pigs housed with the infected ones.\nDuring the mid-20th century, identification of",
"-26.92163236316992"
],
[
"preparations available from veterinary surgeons as well as over the counter at many pet stores and online. If the chosen solution does not destroy mite eggs, treatment should be repeated after one month, to catch the next generation of mites that will have hatched by then. Relief, in terms of the cat or dog no longer scratching at his or her ears, will be noticeable within a few hours. However, since mite irritation is partly allergic (see scabies), symptoms may also outlive mites by weeks. Moreover, it may take topical antibiotics and several weeks to clear infected external wounds caused",
"-26.900813786953222"
],
[
"their doctor immediately if they suspect they may have flu. HIV/AIDS Individuals who acquire the human immune deficiency virus (HIV) are very prone to a variety of infections. HIV has a tremendous capacity to destroy the body's immune system and this makes one prone to not only viral infections but also bacterial, fungal, and protozoa disorders. People with HIV are at an increased risk of serious flu-related complications. Many reports have shown that individuals with HIV can develop serious pneumonias which need hospitalization and aggressive antibiotic therapy. Moreover, people with HIV have a longer flu season and are at a",
"-26.897061776864575"
],
[
"skin diseases, including dermatitis, syphilis, erythema multiforme, various urticaria-related syndromes, allergic reactions, ringworm-related diseases, and other ectoparasites such as lice and fleas. Prevention Mass-treatment programs that use topical permethrin or oral ivermectin have been effective in reducing the prevalence of scabies in a number of populations. No vaccine is available for scabies. The simultaneous treatment of all close contacts is recommended, even if they show no symptoms of infection (asymptomatic), to reduce rates of recurrence. Since mites can survive for only two to three days without a host, other objects in the environment pose little risk of transmission except in",
"-26.875623263127636"
],
[
"along with debilitating joint and muscle pain, rash, headache, nausea, and fatigue. Symptoms can last a few days or be prolonged to weeks and months. Although patients can recover completely, there have been cases in which joint pain has persisted for several months and can extend beyond that for years. Other people can develop heart complications, eye problems, and even neurological complications. Mechanism Mosquitoes carrying such arboviruses stay healthy because their immune systems recognizes the virions as foreign particles and \"chop off\" the virus's genetic coding, rendering it inert. Human infection with a mosquito-borne virus occurs when a female mosquito",
"-26.812246976827737"
],
[
"humans are not capable of transmitting the disease and are not contagious. The incubation period is 3 to 14 days, while the period of the illness is 3–7 days. Signs and symptoms may include severe headache; retro-orbital pain; muscle, joint, and bone pain; macular or maculopapular rash; and minor hemorrhagic manifestations, including petechiae, ecchymosis, purpura, epistaxis, bleeding gums, hematuria, or a positive tourniquet test result. Severe disease Some people suffer from more severe forms of dengue, such as dengue hemorrhagic fever. Different strains of viruses interacting with people with different immune backgrounds lead to a complex interaction. Among the possible",
"-26.806966362375533"
],
[
"an organism. An example would include the ability of the herpes simplex virus, which causes cold sores, to remain in a dormant state within the human body. This is called latency and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses, including Epstein–Barr virus, which causes glandular fever, and varicella zoster virus, which causes chickenpox and shingles. Most people have been infected with at least one of these types of herpes virus. These latent viruses might sometimes be beneficial, as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial pathogens, such as Yersinia pestis.\nSome viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections,",
"-26.78279428827227"
],
[
"found to be naturally vectored by this mite. Lab demonstrations have proved that the mite is at least capable of vectoring murine typhus, rickettsialpox, tularemia, plague, coxsackievirus, and Q fever, although it has not been known to do so outside the lab. The mite was reported as capable of vectoring human typhus, but these reports are not generally accepted. Diagnosis The bites tend to be grouped together due to the piecemeal feeding behavior of these mites. They can occur anywhere on the body though commonly on the neck, head, extremities, abdomen and chest. The papules are generally 1 to 4 mm",
"-26.75844760122709"
],
[
"adult human. However, young children, the elderly, or infirm (such as those with a heart condition and those who are allergic) are at much greater risk. Any envenomation runs the risk of anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening allergic reaction to the venom. A study from Israel shows a high rate of pancreatitis following envenomation. If a sting from Leiurus quinquestriatus does prove deadly, the cause of death is usually pulmonary edema.\nAntivenom for the treatment of deathstalker envenomations is produced by pharmaceutical companies Twyford (German) and Sanofi Pasteur (French), and by the Antivenom and Vaccine Production Center in Riyadh. Envenomation",
"-26.68069474317599"
],
[
"chickenpox from occurring in nonimmune children and adults, or at least lessen the risk of the varicella zoster virus lying dormant in the body and reactivating later as shingles. If shingles could be prevented, postherpetic neuralgia could be completely avoided.\nIn May 2006 the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices approved a new vaccine by Merck (Zostavax) against shingles. This vaccine is a more potent version of the chickenpox vaccine, and evidence shows that it reduces the incidence of postherpetic neuralgia. The CDC recommends use of this vaccine in all persons over 60 years old.\nThe most effective means of preventing PHN from",
"-26.658185564971063"
],
[
"gleefully willing to needlessly murder their own newborn babies.\nThe rate at which a person becomes infected ranges from several hours to a matter of minutes, and once infected there is no turning back. In most situations, the rate of infection is incredibly fast, in the range of one to three minutes. No cure exists for the Crossed, and there is almost no hint that scientists were able to study the infection long enough to do any sort of thorough research on the dilemma. While cover art has shown infected lab monkeys, animals generally seem immune, with predators such as",
"-26.63157109869644"
],
[
"sick.\nPrevention involves decreasing mosquito bites in areas where the disease occurs, and proper use of condoms. Efforts to prevent bites include the use of insect repellent, covering much of the body with clothing, mosquito nets, and getting rid of standing water where mosquitoes reproduce. There is no vaccine. Health officials recommended that women in areas affected by the 2015–16 Zika outbreak consider putting off pregnancy and that pregnant women not travel to these areas. While no specific treatment exists, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and rest may help with the symptoms. Admission to a hospital is rarely necessary. Vaccine development The World Health",
"-26.627538143549828"
],
[
"not be as effective. It may be usable in people with HIV infections who have a good blood count and are receiving appropriate treatment. Specific antiviral medication, such as acyclovir, famciclovir, or valacyclovir, are not recommended 24 hours before and 14 days after vaccination. Side effects Serious side effects are very rare. From 1998 to 2013, only one vaccine-related death was reported: an English child with pre-existent leukemia. On some occasions, severe reactions such as meningitis and pneumonia have been reported (mainly in inadvertently vaccinated immunocompromised children) as well as anaphylaxis.\nThe possible mild side effects include redness, stiffness, and soreness",
"-26.624390548437077"
],
[
"sneezing or coughing on someone, but cannot be spread by only breathing the air where a person with meningitis has been. Viral meningitis is typically caused by enteroviruses, and is most commonly spread through fecal contamination. The risk of infection can be decreased by changing the behavior that led to transmission. Vaccination Since the 1980s, many countries have included immunization against Haemophilus influenzae type B in their routine childhood vaccination schemes. This has practically eliminated this pathogen as a cause of meningitis in young children in those countries. In the countries in which the disease burden is highest, however, the",
"-26.619946326511126"
],
[
"placebo (0.5 percent). A study including children with leukaemia found that the risk of getting shingles after vaccination is much lower than the risk of getting shingles for children with natural chicken pox in their history. Data from healthy children and adults point in the same direction. Shingrix Temporary side effects from the Shingrix shots are likely, and can be severe enough in one out of six people to affect normal daily activities for up to three days. Mild to moderate pain at the injection site is common, and some may have redness or swelling. Side effects include fatigue, muscle pain,",
"-26.530960615491495"
],
[
"to 68% of infants infected with pertussis are infected by a close contact, most commonly the mother. Cocooning prevents about 20% of infant pertussis cases; vaccination during pregnancy prevents more (33%). Rationale Some people cannot be fully protected from vaccine-preventable diseases by direct vaccination. These are often people with weak immune systems, who are more likely to get seriously ill. Their risk of infection can be significantly reduced if those who are most likely to infect them get the appropriate vaccines.\nVaccination works by training the immune system to react promptly to an infection, warding off illness (acquired immunity). People with",
"-26.518456955382135"
],
[
"its effectiveness. Measles vaccination programs are often used to deliver other child health interventions as well, such as bed nets to protect against malaria, antiparasite medicine and vitamin A supplements, and so contribute to the reduction of child deaths from other causes.\nThe Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends that all adult international travelers who do not have positive evidence of previous measles immunity receive two doses of MMR vaccine before traveling. Those born in the United States before 1957 are presumed to be immune because they would have had the disease in their childhood before any vaccination was available.\nThere",
"-26.503401863272302"
],
[
"10–12 hours to small bumps, blisters and pustules; followed by umbilication and the formation of scabs.\nAt the blister stage, intense itching is usually present. Blisters may also occur on the palms, soles, and genital area. Commonly, visible evidence of the disease develops in the oral cavity and tonsil areas in the form of small ulcers which can be painful or itchy or both; this enanthem (internal rash) can precede the exanthem (external rash) by 1 to 3 days or can be concurrent. These symptoms of chickenpox appear 10 to 21 days after exposure to a contagious person. Adults may have",
"-26.448760648374446"
],
[
"Haemophilus meningitis Risk factors While the Haemophilus influenzae bacteria are unable to survive in any environment outside of the human body, humans can carry the bacteria within their bodies without developing any symptoms of the disease. It spreads through the air when an individual carrying the bacteria coughs or sneezes. The risk of developing Haemophilus meningitis is most directly related to an individual's vaccination history, as well as the vaccination history of the general public. Herd immunity, or the protection that unvaccinated individuals experience when the majority of others in their proximity are vaccinated, does help in the reduction of",
"-26.37375193904154"
],
[
"some studies may not be related to vaccination programs, as the incidence increases prior to the varicella vaccine program being initiated.\nRegarding herpes zoster, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated in 2014: \"Chickenpox vaccines contain weakened live VZV, which may cause latent (dormant) infection. The vaccine-strain VZV can reactivate later in life and cause shingles. However, the risk of getting shingles from vaccine-strain VZV after chickenpox vaccination is much lower than getting shingles after natural infection with wild-type VZV.\" Schedule The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends one or two doses with the initial dose given at 12",
"-26.372733000200242"
],
[
"cases associated with exposure to poultry. In children, bacteria are the cause in about 15% of cases, with the most common types being Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species. If food becomes contaminated with bacteria and remains at room temperature for a period of several hours, the bacteria multiply and increase the risk of infection in those who consume the food. Some foods commonly associated with illness include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs; raw sprouts; unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses; and fruit and vegetable juices. In the developing world, especially sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, cholera is",
"-26.35855279956013"
],
[
"inhalation of dust with virus particles, or eating food containing remnants of the virus can result in human infection. Transmission can also occur via human-to-human contact, as evidenced by the 5 cases from 2008, but it is still not completely clear how the first case was contracted. Both bats and rodents should be considered possible contact points, just to be safe. Though it is not known for sure, it is speculated that the human-to-human transmission occurs from contact with bodily fluids. The incubation period is expected to be 7–13 days. Symptoms VHF symptoms appear similar to other viruses of the",
"-26.33697008015406"
],
[
"childhood illnesses\". Independent data shows that measles causes the most vaccine-preventable deaths of any disease. It resulted in about 96,000 deaths in 2013. Before immunization in the United States between three and four million cases occurred each year, and the fatality rate is approximately 0.2% of those infected. Most of those who are infected and who die are less than five years old.\nInfectious disease specialist Peter McIntyre has accused the group of manipulating research and statistics in order to make its case. \"It's been a real characteristic of the anti-vaccine movement ... [to claim] to be looking very extensively at",
"-26.305791347229388"
],
[
"that averted an estimated 1.4 million measles deaths worldwide. The vaccine for measles has led to the near-complete elimination of the disease in the United States and other developed countries. While the vaccine is made with a live virus which can cause side effects, these are far fewer and less serious than the sickness and death caused by measles itself, side effects ranging from rashes to, rarely, convulsions, occur in a small percentage of recipients.\nMeasles is common worldwide. Although it was declared eliminated from the U.S. in 2000, high rates of vaccination and excellent communication with those who refuse vaccination",
"-26.30399064384983"
],
[
"anorexia, listlessness, weakness, and increased respiration, can often go undetected because they are not specific to any disease. Pregnant ewes generally suffer from abortions, but rams and non-pregnant ewes usually only develop a fever. There is no specific treatment for the virus, but sheep can be immunized with an attenuated vaccine that lasts a lifetime. Human Cases Most documented human infections have been acquired by field workers bitten by mosquitoes or in the laboratory. Person-to-Person transmission of the virus has yet to be reported, so it is not considered to be contagious in humans. The WSL virus has an incubation",
"-26.292183542536804"
],
[
"live viruses include measles, mumps, rubella, polio and chickenpox.\nThe vaccinia virus, when administered, is not dead like other vaccines. It is not administered via a typical shot that is typically given with other vaccines. Rather, a medical professional uses a two-pronged (bifurcated) stainless steel needle. The needle is dipped into the vaccine solution and used to prick the skin several times in the upper arm. The vaccinia virus will begin to grow at the injection site. It will cause a localized infection, with a red itchy sore produced at the vaccination site within three to four days. If the infection",
"-26.222981717204675"
],
[
"way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza.\" The CDC also says that a person may become infected if he or she touches something with flu viruses on it \"and then touches his or her eyes, nose, or mouth.\" Preventive Measures of Influenza Reasonably effective ways to reduce the transmission of influenza include good personal health and hygiene habits such as: not touching your eyes, nose or mouth; frequent hand washing (with soap and water, or with alcohol-based hand rubs); ",
"-26.20843801042065"
],
[
"a number of allergens causing responses such as, watery eyes,skin rashes, congestion of nasal passages and asthma. Biting insects There are many insects that bite including Mosquitoes, Biting Midges, Sandflies, Black flies, Horse Flies, Stable flies. Through feeding, insects or other arthropod vectors can transmit diseases to humans. Medical Entomologists and other medical professionals have helped to develop vaccines that can prevent humans from contracting some of those diseases. They have also developed ways to prevent the arthropods from biting humans. According to a study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published in May 2018, illnesses caused by",
"-26.175593791296706"
],
[
"vaccination. Flu parties are also sometimes done. \nThere exist variations of pox parties that involve shipping infectious material. In many parts of the world shipping infectious items is illegal\nor tightly regulated. Effectiveness and risk Parents who expose their children to Varicella zoster virus in this manner may believe that a case of chickenpox is safer and more effective than receiving a vaccination. Similar ideas have been applied to other diseases such as measles. However, pediatricians have warned against holding pox parties, citing dangers arising from possible complications associated with chicken pox, such as encephalitis, chickenpox-associated pneumonia, and invasive group A",
"-26.160993977217004"
],
[
"by those most in-the-know. Dr. David Nabarro, chief avian flu coordinator for the United Nations, describes himself as \"quite scared\"; says avian flu has too many unanswered questions; and if the disease starts spreading to humans, borders will close, airports will shut down, and travelers everywhere will be stranded. With evaluations of the threat ranging from those who say it is a hoax to those who warn of billions of humans dying, uncertainty and fear motivate personal behaviors around the world affecting many people even before the threat becomes reality. Pop culture The 1998 chart-topping hit song \"One Week\" by",
"-26.15925383049762"
],
[
"children against measles. Actress Patricia Neal, Olivia's mother, interviewed in 1997 recounts the horribleness of a death of a child and says: \"Less than a week after coming down with the virus, she [Olivia] developed measles eoncephalitis, an inflammation of the brain\". Olivia's sister, Lucy, interviewed in 2015 by CBS, states that her father did not understand why people choose not to vaccinate their children against measles, \"because he didn't have the choice\". In Dahl's public letter he stated it is \"'almost a crime' for some parents not to immunize their children\". \"I do agree with that\", Lucy states; \"I",
"-26.14984370721504"
],
[
"un-natural, as \"It is a fact that [humans] will only ever contract one disease at a time.\" According to the British Medical Journal combined vaccines have actually shown reduced side effects, and it is quite common for humans to suffer simultaneously from several infections.\nIn support of AVN's activism, social scientist Brian Martin wrote Debating vaccination in 2011. In a media release the University of Wollongong stated vaccination \"should be freely debated\" and that the 20,000-word paper was \"intended to assist readers - especially members of the AVN itself\", in ways to respond to criticism and better understand scientific controversy. Martin",
"-26.139503470425552"
],
[
"the course of the first nine months of life. Infants under one year of age whose maternal anti-measles antibodies have disappeared become susceptible to infection with the measles virus.\nIn developed countries, it is recommended that children be immunized against measles at 12 months, generally as part of a three-part MMR vaccine (measles, mumps, and rubella). The vaccine is generally not given before this age because such infants respond inadequately to the vaccine due to an immature immune system. A second dose of the vaccine is usually given to children between the ages of four and five, to increase rates",
"-26.136320165715006"
],
[
"from human to human. Infection from animal to human can occur via an animal bite or by direct contact with an infected animal’s bodily fluids. The virus can spread from human to human by both droplet respiration and contact with fomites from an infected person's bodily fluids. Incubation period is 10–14 days. Prodromal symptoms include swelling of lymph nodes, muscle pain, headache, fever, prior to the emergence of the rash. Epidemiology The virus is mainly found in the tropical forests of Central Africa and West Africa. It was first discovered in monkeys in 1958, and in humans in 1970. Between",
"-26.09847653808538"
],
[
"of children who get the vaccine in their early childhood and later have contact with children with chickenpox. Some of these children may develop a mild chickenpox also known as breakthrough disease.\nAnother vaccine, known as zoster vaccine, is simply a larger-than-normal dose of the same vaccine used against chickenpox, and is used in older adults to reduce the risk of shingles (also called herpes zoster) and postherpetic neuralgia, which are caused by the same virus. The live zoster (shingles) vaccine is recommended for adults aged 60 years and older. A recombinant zoster (shingles) vaccine is recommended for adults aged 50",
"-26.095450858585536"
],
[
"all pathways including: skin contact by mechanical means, through the respiratory tract, or orally. Oral or respiratory contraction may be more likely to cause systemic symptoms such as lesions across the whole body\nA person who has not previously been infected with paravaccinia virus should avoid contact with infected livestock to prevent contraction of disease. There is no commercially available vaccination for cattle or humans against paravaccinia. However, following infection, immunization has been noted in humans, making re-infection difficult. Unlike other pox viruses, there is no record of contracting paravaccinia virus from another human. Further, cattle only show a short immunization",
"-26.095028249081224"
],
[
"Varicella vaccine Medical uses Varicella vaccine is 70% to 90% effective for preventing varicella and more than 95% effective for preventing severe varicella. Follow-up evaluations have taken place in the United States of children immunized that revealed protection for at least 11 years. Also, studies were conducted in Japan which indicated protection for at least 20 years.\nPeople who do not develop enough protection when they get the vaccine may develop a mild case of the disease when in close contact with a person with chickenpox. In these cases, people show very little sign of illness. This has been the case",
"-26.066718428453896"
],
[
"banned for life if they tested positive for herpes and the DNA strain matched the infant's, but only after a child has been infected, and not when a mohel tests positive but his DNA strain does not match the infant's. It was revealed that the city did not disclose new infections. Since the change was made, several children have been infected with the disease after undergoing the ritual. Israel On February 14, 2019, while addressing a rally in New York City about combatting antisemitism, De Blasio said: \"Maybe some people don’t realize it, but when they support the BDS movement,",
"-26.06207425572211"
],
[
"\"two or more people get the same illness from the same pet or other animal\". In 2012, the various strains or serotypes of the Salmonella bacteria, related to the outbreaks in the United States, infected over 1800 people and killed seven. In Europe, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) reported 91,034 cases of Salmonella infection with 65,317 cases related to the 2012 outbreaks. Of those 65,317 cases, there were 61 deaths.\nSalmonella bacteria can be found in almost any product or animal that has been exposed to fecal matter. These exposures can occur from crops grown from",
"-26.049257948092418"
],
[
"lungs. In pregnant women in can cause miscarriages or pre-mature births. While measles is almost gone from the United States, it still kills about 164,000 people each year around the world. In developing countries that suffer from malnutrition and vitamin A deficiency, measles has been known to kill as many as 1 out of 4 people and it is the leading cause of blindness among African children. Transmission Measles spreads from person to person and is extremely contagious, 90% of people close to the infected individual that are not immune will become infected as well. The virus is spread through",
"-26.036722434102558"
],
[
"men who had been bitten by an infected and explains to the others in his party that if they are bitten or scratched by an infected, or if an infected's blood makes contact with their mouths or eyes, that they too will become infected and, within twenty-four hours, would no longer be considered \"human\". More are lost when attempting to investigate the surrounding neighborhood, and Abe encounters an old flame turned prostitute Mary Owens (Baby Norman) who is sheltering her help, including a young Theodore Roosevelt (Canon Kuipers), daughter Sophia (Hannah Bryan) and prostitute Annika (Anna Fricks) to protect them",
"-26.027582408394665"
],
[
"other victims. Though this observation seemed to suggest that a familial genetic susceptibility might have played a role in human infection, a study by researchers at the Harvard School of public health noted no significant familial pattern of infection. Clearly, those whose immune systems are best able to fight off the virus are the most likely to survive a pandemic. Those with impairment of the needed immune function, whether from familial genetics or from AIDS, have poorer chances. Moreover, the health care system is generally expected to be overwhelmed throughout a pandemic. Persons needing access",
"-26.001337726134807"
],
[
"encephalitis, respectively), making the condition potentially lethal. Pathophysiology The causative agent for shingles is the varicella zoster virus (VZV) – a double-stranded DNA virus related to the herpes simplex virus. Most individuals are infected with this virus as children which causes an episode of chickenpox. The immune system eventually eliminates the virus from most locations, but it remains dormant (or latent) in the ganglia adjacent to the spinal cord (called the dorsal root ganglion) or the trigeminal ganglion in the base of the skull.\nShingles occurs only in people who have been previously infected with VZV; although it can occur at",
"-26.001265866070753"
],
[
"attend one of the clinics to quarantine themselves at home for two weeks. In a statement on the church website, Pearsons said she was not against immunizations, but also raised concerns about them.\n\"Some people think I am against immunizations, but that is not true\", the statement said. \"Vaccinations help cut the mortality rate enormously. I believe it is wrong to be against vaccinations. The concerns we have had are primarily with very young children who have family history of autism and with bundling too many immunizations at one time. There is no indication of the autism connection with vaccinations in",
"-25.969986308482476"
],
[
"mild disease. It has been said to be derived from chickpeas, based on resemblance of the vesicles to chickpeas, or to come from the rash resembling chicken pecks. Other suggestions include the designation chicken for a child (i.e., literally 'child pox'), a corruption of itching-pox, or the idea that the disease may have originated in chickens. Samuel Johnson explained the designation as \"from its being of no very great danger\". Intentional exposure Because chickenpox is usually more severe in adults than it is in children, some parents deliberately expose their children to the virus, for example by taking them to",
"-25.964525720803067"
],
[
"or increase viral load in HIV-infected individuals, and there has been no evidence that the vaccines adversely affect survival. Close contacts Protective levels of anticapsular antibodies are not achieved until 7–14 days following administration of a meningococcal vaccine, vaccination cannot prevent early onset disease in these contacts and usually is not recommended following sporadic cases of invasive meningococcal disease. Unlike developed countries, in sub-Saharan Africa and other under developed countries, entire families live in a single room of a house.\nMeningococcal infection is usually introduced into a household by an asymptomatic person. Carriage then spreads through the household, reaching infants usually",
"-25.924265820387518"
],
[
"easily become infected with T. gondii and develop toxoplasmosis without knowing it. Although mild, flu-like symptoms occasionally occur during the first few weeks following exposure, infection with T. gondii produces no readily observable symptoms in healthy human adults. In most immunocompetent people, the infection enters a latent phase, during which only bradyzoites (in tissue cysts) are present; these tissue cysts and even lesions can occur in the retinas, alveolar lining of the lungs (where an acute infection may mimic a Pneumocystis jirovecii infection), heart, skeletal muscle, and the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain. Cysts form in the CNS",
"-25.919533046195284"
],
[
"is primarily a disease of children, with most cases occurring during the winter and spring, most likely due to school contact. It is one of the classic diseases of childhood, with the highest prevalence in the 4–10-year-old age group. Like rubella, it is uncommon in preschool children. Varicella is highly communicable, with an infection rate of 90% in close contacts. In temperate countries, most people become infected before adulthood, and 10% of young adults remain susceptible.\nIn the tropics, chickenpox often occurs in older people and may cause more serious disease. In adults, the pock marks are darker and the scars",
"-25.91299094838905"
],
[
"is possible as long as the virus remains in the saliva or feces.\nFactors that increase the risk of polio infection or affect the severity of the disease include immune deficiency, malnutrition, physical activity immediately following the onset of paralysis, skeletal muscle injury due to injection of vaccines or therapeutic agents, and pregnancy. Although the virus can cross the maternal-fetal barrier during pregnancy, the fetus does not appear to be affected by either maternal infection or polio vaccination. Maternal antibodies also cross the placenta, providing passive immunity that protects the infant from polio infection during the first few months of life.\nAs",
"-25.905977924820036"
],
[
"immunity to these viruses. The reasons people are unvaccinated range from lack of access to vaccines in areas of insecurity, to poor performing health systems, to vaccine refusals. We need to address each of these challenges if we’re going to meet global measles and rubella elimination goals,\" said Dr. Myrna Charles of the American Red Cross, as reported in a post in the Measles and Rubella Initiative's blog. A look at the WHO's epidemiological graph of measles over time from 2008-2013 show that, with little more of two years to go to 2015, measles cases in 2013 are moving in",
"-25.896971082605887"
],
[
"by human viruses. When pigs become simultaneously infected with more than one virus, the viruses can swap genes, producing new variants which can pass to humans and sometimes spread amongst them. \"Unlike the situation with birds and humans, we have a situation with pigs and humans where there's a two-way street of exchange of viruses. With pigs it's very much a two-way street\". Transmission Spread of the H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza. Sometimes people",
"-25.878908637430868"
],
[
"HIV, or other conditions. Stress can bring on shingles as well, although scientists are still researching the connection. Shingles is most commonly found in adults over the age of 60 who were diagnosed with chickenpox when they were under the age of 1. Diagnosis The diagnosis of chickenpox is primarily based on the signs and symptoms, with typical early symptoms followed by a characteristic rash. Confirmation of the diagnosis is by examination of the fluid within the vesicles of the rash, or by testing blood for evidence of an acute immunologic response.\nVesicular fluid can be examined with a Tzanck smear,",
"-25.875484496704303"
],
[
"disease. 'And for 1 out of every 1,000 children who contract it, the disease is fatal.'\" \"The World Health Organization says measles is 'one of the leading causes of death among young children even though a safe and cost-effective vaccine is available'. There are about 140,000 deaths a year, mostly in poor countries. In Australia measles deaths are now rare because the disease has been controlled though widespread vaccination. When it does occur, the danger comes from complications such as pneumonia and encephalitis. Dr. Hambleton said while \"there were occasional adverse reactions to the vaccination, it was far more dangerous",
"-25.85855305258883"
],
[
"the body. A virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. The flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as Influenza. Parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. People that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. When a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately.",
"-25.844766937982058"
],
[
"in general, are considered safe, there are concerns about their use in certain cases. Some people, such as those with compromised immune systems, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, heart valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events. Rarely, consumption of probiotics may cause bacteremia, and sepsis, potentially fatal infections in children with lowered immune systems or who are already critically ill.",
"-25.838890033075586"
],
[
"as two intramuscular doses, two to six months apart.\nA herpes-zoster subunit (HZ-su) vaccine has shown to be immunogenic and safe in adults with human immunodeficiency virus. History Chickenpox-like rashes were recognised and described by ancient civilizations; the relationship between zoster and chickenpox was not realized until 1888.\nIt was in 1943 that Ruska noticed the similarity between virus particles isolated from the lesions of zoster and those from chickenpox.\nIn 1974 the first vaccine was introduced for chickenpox.",
"-25.82835724360484"
],
[
"The recommended measles vaccination protocol is to receive two doses, at least one month apart. One dose of the vaccination is 93 percent effective at preventing measles, while two doses is 97 percent effective.\nMeasles is one of the most contagious of infectious diseases. If not immunized, a person exposed to someone with measles has a 95% chance of becoming infected, and each infected person spreads the disease to an average of 12 to 18 other people. History Before the vaccine was available in the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that about 3 to 4 million",
"-25.812369618797675"
],
[
"is transmitted from infected mammals through the air by coughs or sneezes, creating aerosols containing the virus, and from infected birds through their droppings. Influenza can also be transmitted by saliva, nasal secretions, feces and blood. Infections occur through contact with these bodily fluids or with contaminated surfaces. Out of a host, flu viruses can remain infectious for about one week at human body temperature, over 30 days at 0 °C (32 °F), and indefinitely at very low temperatures (such as lakes in northeast Siberia). They can be inactivated easily by disinfectants and detergents.\nThe viruses bind to a cell through interactions between",
"-25.80834544953541"
],
[
"with non-infectious fluid or tissue (urine, blood, feces) does not constitute an exposure and does not require post-exposure prophylaxis. Additionally, as the virus is present in sperm or vaginal secretions, spread through sex may be possible.\nAfter a typical human infection by bite, the virus enters the peripheral nervous system. It then travels along the afferent nerves toward the central nervous system. During this phase, the virus cannot be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell-mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. When the virus reaches the brain, it rapidly causes encephalitis, the prodromal phase, which is the",
"-25.799014317337424"
],
[
"and by acetaminophen for pain relief. Warm saltwater gargles, soft foods, and extra fluids may also help relieve symptoms. Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) is not used to treat children due to the risk of Reye syndrome.\nNo effective postexposure recommendation is made to prevent secondary transmission, nor is the postexposure use of vaccine or immunoglobulin effective.\nMumps is considered most contagious in the 5 days after the onset of symptoms, and isolation is recommended during this period. In someone who has been admitted to the hospital, standard and droplet precautions are needed. People who work in healthcare cannot work for 5 days.",
"-25.790866799419746"
],
[
"the United States on September 15, 2009. Studies by the National Institutes of Health show a single dose creates enough antibodies to protect against the virus within about 10 days.\nIn the aftermath of the 2009 pandemic, several studies were conducted to see who received influenza vaccines. These studies show that whites are much more likely to be vaccinated for seasonal influenza and for the H1N1 strain than African Americans This could be due to several factors. Historically, there has been mistrust of vaccines and of the medical community from African Americans. Many African Americans do not",
"-25.786968883126974"
],
[
"allergic reaction of the host's body to mite proteins, though exactly which proteins remains a topic of study. The mite proteins are also present from the gut, in mite feces, which are deposited under the skin. The allergic reaction is both of the delayed (cell-mediated) and immediate (antibody-mediated) type, and involves IgE (antibodies are presumed to mediate the very rapid symptoms on reinfection). The allergy-type symptoms (itching) continue for some days, and even several weeks, after all mites are killed. New lesions may appear for a few days after mites are eradicated. Nodular lesions from scabies may continue to be",
"-25.776233709591907"
],
[
"of immunity. Vaccination rates have been high enough to make measles relatively uncommon. Adverse reactions to vaccination are rare, with fever and pain at the injection site being the most common. Life-threatening adverse reactions occur in less than one per million vaccinations (<0.0001%).\nIn developing countries where measles is common, the World Health Organization recommend two doses of vaccine be given, at six and nine months of age. The vaccine should be given whether the child is HIV-infected or not. The vaccine is less effective in HIV-infected infants than in the general population, but early treatment with antiretroviral drugs can increase",
"-25.773375157499686"
],
[
"Implications Humans in close contact with buffaloes are susceptible to buffalopox, and with the cessation of the smallpox vaccine in 1980; humans do not develop an antibody titer against the Poxviridae, and have become even more susceptible to viruses like buffalopox. In humans the virus causes lesions that are mainly confined to the hands, forehead, face, buttocks, and legs, and occasionally lymphadenopathy. Human to human transmission has not been reported. Milking of infected animals is one of the major modes of spread. This being the case the main people in danger of contracting the disease are veterinarians, milk attendants, and",
"-25.770759196020663"
],
[
"periodic boost to the immune system helps to prevent shingles in older adults. When routine chickenpox vaccination was introduced in the United States, there was concern that, because older adults would no longer receive this natural periodic boost, there would be an increase in the incidence of shingles.\nMultiple studies and surveillance data, at least when viewed superficially, demonstrate no consistent trends in incidence in the U.S. since the chickenpox vaccination program began in 1995. However, upon closer inspection, the two studies that showed no increase in shingles incidence were conducted among populations where varicella vaccination was not as yet widespread",
"-25.74962737626629"
],
[
"such as fever, head ache or rash, which usually resolve within days to weeks – or in rare cases anaphylaxis). Rather, non-specific effects represent a form of general immunomodulation, with important consequences for the immune system's ability to handle subsequent challenges.\nIt is estimated that millions of child deaths in low income countries could be prevented every year if the non-specific effects of vaccines were taken into consideration in immunization programs. History The hypothesis that vaccines have non-specific effects was formulated in the early 1990s by Peter Aaby at the Bandim Health Project in West Africa.\nThe first indication of the importance",
"-25.695275668113027"
],
[
"specialized treatment. Resulting infections from cat bites can be prevented by immediately washing wounds with soap and warm water.\nSeek medical attention if the cat has not been vaccinated against rabies. If a cat has bitten someone, and there is no evidence that the cat has been vaccinated against rabies, the person will be treated for rabies infection.",
"-25.688017728505656"
],
[
"the relationship between chickenpox and shingles). This recurrence often occurs in times of relative immunosuppression, which is often in the context of malnutrition and other illnesses. In combination with poor sanitation and hygiene which leads to a greater density of lice, this reactivation is why typhus forms epidemics in times of social chaos and upheaval. Diagnosis IFA, ELISA or PCR positive after 10 days Treatment The infection is treated with antibiotics. Intravenous fluids and oxygen may be needed to stabilize the patient. There is a significant disparity between the untreated mortality and treated mortality rates: 10-60% untreated versus close to",
"-25.68744997142585"
]
] |
4hc346 | What about touching grass with your bare skin makes it so itchy? | [
"Since the tiny edges of the grass are rubbing up against you, they usually make small, unnoticeable cuts on your skin, which can cause slight itching. This is usually the case unless you're allergic and are having a reaction. You can read more here: URL_0 After all, they're called *blades* of grass for a reason. Hope this helped!",
"As someone who moved from Long Island to Florida as a kid, I went from nice soft feet approved grass, to red ant infested burning blades of green.",
"There's lots of different kinds of grass. It really depends on which type of grass you're touching. Bentgrass is a soft grass that's fairly common. Fescue is fairly common as well. Coarser grasses like Poa Annua when looked at under a microscope will reveal a saw-like edge; the main culprit of itchiness in the grass world.",
"When I was younger I used to get really itchy from grass. After looking in the grass, I saw little white bugs jumping from blades of grass and I always thought it was that.",
"I always wondered the same thing. Turns out I'm highly allergic to all types of grass. You may want to get allergy tested because apparently grass isn't that itchy to most people."
] | [
[
"The hair of this grass though short is very sharp and easily prick the skin as barbs and is very difficult to remove. Once the barbs stick to the skin it can cause an extreme skin irritation. For this reason, Datu Pulpulan enacted a law that whoever among the Atis will use the nipay grass to endanger others will face death as punishment.\nWhen the Malay settlers arrived, they call the island Madia-as or Madja-as after the highest mountain in Panay, thought to be the sacred dwellings of the deities Bulalakaw and Kaptan and the divine lovers Sidapa and Bulan, as",
"-31.94649946357822"
],
[
"South Wales.\nThe giant stinging tree and the shining-leaved stinging tree are other large trees in the nettle family occurring in Australia. Toxicity Contact with the leaves or twigs causes the hollow, silica-tipped hairs to penetrate the skin. The hairs cause an extremely painful stinging sensation that could last from several hours to 1–2 days, recurring to a lessening degree for several months or more whenever the area is touched, exposed to water, or subjected to temperature change. The injured area becomes covered with small, red spots joining together to form a red, swollen welt. The hairs are also believed to",
"-31.170461956586223"
],
[
"of cetirizine-based antihistamine tablets.\nTransmission of the hairs can be airborne, by ground contact via plants or grass or even by water contact in stillwater e.g. garden ponds. The toxicity of the hairs remains active beyond the normal life cycle of the moth and in some cases can remain a problem for several seasons.\nMowing a lawn can bring a person into contact with these hairs. One alternative is to adopt a grass mulching technique to reduce possible contact, and to speed up the biological breakdown of the irritant hairs. Damage to trees Large populations can strip trees bare, leaving them weakened",
"-30.585569231538102"
],
[
"Laportea canadensis Description Laportea canadensis grows from tuberous roots to a height of 30 to 150 centimeters, and can be rhizomatous, growing into small clumps. Plants have both stinging and non stinging hairs on the foliage and the stems. It has whitish green flowers, produced from spring to early fall. Sting When the stinging nettles come in contact with the skin, the unlucky individual is dealt a painful burning stinging sensation, sometimes with barbs left in the skin. The skin can turn red and blister, and blisters can last for several days.",
"-30.36551424258505"
],
[
"prickly hairs that are used as the active ingredient, whereas the body (rather than the wing) of the bigleaf maple samara is covered with spiny hairs that cause skin irritation, and are used to make itching powder.\nItching powder was created in the early 19th century as a cure for lost feeling in the epidermis. When a person would lose feeling on their skin where a rash has formed which should be itchy the powder would force the irritated area to create the itchy sensation.",
"-30.281286759702198"
],
[
"include grasses such as Urochloa humidicola and U. dictyoneura, and legumes such as Arachis species, Stylosanthes species, Desmodium heterocarpon, D. intortum, Centrosema molle, Alysicarpus vaginalis, Leucaena leucocephala, and Pueraria phaseoloides.\nIt is used as an ornamental plant and for erosion control.\nThe grain is edible for humans. Toxicology The grass can cause a photosensitization syndrome in animals marked by skin lesions, facial edema, and ruminal stasis. The plant contains saponins which accumulate in the animal liver as sapogenin glucuronide crystals, resulting in liver damage. Neurological symptoms such as ataxia can also occur. This is sometimes a fatal condition. The poisoning is more",
"-30.12661008705618"
],
[
"has a well ability to adapt dry sand. Leaves rolled and tight when the moisture levels are low. Predators, parasites, and diseases Marram grass do not record serious main disease in New Zealand, because only 3 pathogenic fungi (Claviceps purpurea, Uredo sp. and colletotrichum graminicola) are present on the island. These three fungi result in ergot, rust and leaf spot and are found both on flower-heads and leaves. However, in European countries, there are a lot of pests known to feed on marram grass. Those pests killed 30%-40% of the tillers, and also damaged other species. Those fungi, always found",
"-30.04929923706368"
],
[
"dermatitis; contact with the plant's sap may cause skin irritation or rash. Likewise, if consumed by animals it can cause vomiting, diarrhea, drooling, skin irritation or lethargy.",
"-29.831937265451415"
],
[
"Other areas of skin appear normal. The skin is fragile and is prone to blistering (caused by mild trauma or sweating). After a few months hyperkeratosis develops with a dark grey or brown, ridged appearance on the ankles, knees and elbows. Palms and soles are generally unaffected. A slightly unpleasant, sweet odour may be present.\nA distinctive characteristic of ichthyosis bullosa of Siemens that is not present in other forms of ichthyosis is called the \"Mauserung phenomenon\" (Mauserung is German for \"moulting\" and was first described by H.W.Siemens). These are small patches of bare, apparently normal skin in the middle of",
"-29.75428679405013"
],
[
"unwary. Exposure of the affected skin to ultraviolet light, such as contained in sunlight, triggers the effects of the plant's toxins, leading to severe itching and blistering. The welts and resulting blisters can be as small as the size of a coin to covering as much exposed skin as came into contact with the plant. Where more than 5% of the body is afflicted, the scarring can be a serious matter. Washing the affected area immediately after exposure may help but preventing any further exposure to ultraviolet light such as the sun or many artificial light",
"-29.594340840005316"
],
[
"the plant may cause skin irritation or an allergic reaction.",
"-29.513408238512056"
],
[
"Trombiculosis Prevention Chiggers are commonly found on the tip of blades of grasses to catch a host, so keeping grass short, and removing brush and wood debris where potential mite hosts may live, can limit their impact on an area. Sunlight that penetrates the grass will make the lawn drier and make it less favorable for chigger survival.\nChiggers seem to affect warm covered areas of the body more than drier areas. Thus, the bites are often clustered behind the knees, or beneath tight undergarments such as socks, underwear, or brassieres. Areas higher in the body (chest, back, waist-band, and under-arms)",
"-29.292194993700832"
],
[
"no effects during previous exposures, to immediate itchiness and rash developing into red welts after several hours where the skin had been in contact with the plant (contact allergy), and in some cases into swollen eyelids and breathing difficulties (dyspnoea). A skin prick test using bamboo extract was positive for the immunoglobulin E (IgE) in an available case study. Cultivation Although a few species of bamboo are always in flower at any given time, growing a specific bamboo typically requires obtaining plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced. Commercial timber Timber is",
"-29.274137766187778"
],
[
"common dermatitis problems for flower pickers, packers, florists and gardeners, \"daffodil itch\", involves dryness, fissures, scaling, and erythema in the hands, often accompanied by subungual hyperkeratosis (thickening of the skin beneath the nails). It is blamed on exposure to calcium oxalate, chelidonic acid or alkaloids such as lycorine in the sap, either due to a direct irritant effect or an allergic reaction. It has long been recognised that some cultivars provoke dermatitis more readily than others. N. pseudonarcissus and the cultivars \"Actaea\", \"Camparelle\", \"Gloriosa\", \"Grande Monarque\", \"Ornatus\", \"Princeps\" and \"Scilly White\" are known to do so.\nIf bulb extracts come into",
"-29.12264439385035"
],
[
"of demodectic mange usually do not cause much itching but might cause pustules, redness, scaling, leathery skin, hair loss, skin that is warm to the touch, or any combination of these. It most commonly appears first on the face, around the eyes, or at the corners of the mouth, and on the forelimbs and paws. It may be misdiagnosed as a \"hot spot\" or other skin ailment.\nIn the more severe form, hair loss can occur in patches all over the body and might be accompanied by crusting, pain, enlarged lymph nodes, and deep skin infections.\nTypically, animals become infected through nursing",
"-29.114811530336738"
],
[
"question. Some, such as those of the Chilean rose tarantula (Grammastola rosea) and the Pinktoe tarantula (Avicularia avicularia), are fairly mild and innocuous to humans. Others, such as those of the Brazilian giant white knee tarantula (Acanthoscurria geniculata), are moderately irritating. Still others, such as the Goliath Birdeater (Theraphosa blondi), are far more severe. These hairs can result in painful rashes, and have been likened to sharp shards of fiberglass.\nAfter kicking urticating hairs, the Tarantula will have a bald spot on its abdominal region. As territorial markings Urticating hairs are not just thrown at an enemy",
"-28.890384258935228"
],
[
"weed growth. Thatch can stifle the growth and health of grass or turf. Removing the thatch helps the grass by encouraging it to thicken up and also makes it stronger and less susceptible to disease. Reducing thatch levels increases the levels of water, air and nutrients that can get through to the root zone of the grass plants. Significant thatch problems in lawns can cause diseases and can encourage moss to grow in the areas where grass has died. A by-product of scarifying or de-thatching is that moss is also removed, and depending on how deep the scarifying blades are",
"-28.878084811381996"
],
[
"and irritating. The sap may cause skin irritation. Chewing and/or ingesting parts of the plant may result in severe swelling and compromised respiratory functions.",
"-28.765444369171746"
],
[
"Mucuna Uses and ecology The pods of some species are covered in coarse hairs that contain the proteolytic enzyme mucunain and cause itchy blisters when they come in contact with skin; specific epithets such as pruriens (Latin: \"itching\") or urens (Latinized Ancient Greek: \"stinging like a nettle\") refer to this. Other parts of the plant have medicinal properties. The plants are used in herbalism against a range of conditions, such as urinary tract, neurological and menstruation disorders, constipation, edema, fevers, tuberculosis, ulcers, Parkinson's disease, and helminthiases like elephantiasis. Velvet bean (M. pruriens) is one of the most important sources of",
"-28.761699555558152"
],
[
"not be related to \"true nettles\" (the genus Urtica).\nThough several unrelated families of plants have stinging hairs, their structure is generally similar. A solid base supports a single elongated cell with a brittle tip. When the tip is broken, the exposed sharp point penetrates the skin and pressure injects toxins. The precise chemicals involved in causing pain and irritation are not yet fully understood. Urtica Many plants with stinging hairs belong to the genus Urtica. Between twenty-four and thirty-nine species of flowering plants of the genus Urtica in the family Urticaceae fall into this category, with a cosmopolitan though mainly",
"-28.68367059121374"
],
[
"relative to the condition, a common view suggests that the initial cause of the itch may have passed, and that the illness is in fact prolonged by what is known as an itch-scratch-itch cycle. It states that scratching the itch encourages the release of inflammatory chemicals, which worsen redness, intensifies itchiness and increases the area covered by dry skin, thereby causing a snowball effect.\nSome authorities describe “psychogenic pruritus” or \"functional itch disorder\", where psychological factors may contribute to awareness of itching.\nIngestion of pinworm eggs leads to enterobiasis, indicative of severe itching around the anus from migration of gravid females from",
"-28.58683633684268"
],
[
"themselves in the other animal's skin or eyes, causing physical irritation, usually to great discomfort. In plants The most common form of urticating hairs in plants are typified by nettles, which possess sharp-pointed hollow hairs seated on a gland that secretes an acrid fluid. The points of these hairs usually break off in the wound, and the acrid fluid is pressed into it. Various plants unrelated to true nettles (Urtica species) possess similar defensive hairs, and the common names often reflect this (e.g. \"bull nettle\"). In tarantulas Urticating hairs (setae) are found in about 90% of the species of tarantula",
"-28.554770012415247"
],
[
"the roots of creeping bentgrass. While there are no macroscopic signs, there are a few above and belowground symptoms that plants infected with this disease will exhibit. Aboveground, there will be dieback on the tip of the grass blade and the grass will turn from the lush green to a yellow/brown color typically in circular patches. Symptoms aboveground are secondary, and a result of the necrosis of the roots. Belowground, the roots will die back, turn a pale tan color, and lose their root hairs. These symptoms are systemic, as they involve the whole plant, and the mass of root",
"-28.517799176159315"
],
[
"marram grass has developed particular adaptations to help it deal with this. Sandy conditions drain water quickly, and very windy conditions will further increase rates of transpiration.\nMarram grass has a rolled leaf that creates a localized environment of water vapour concentration within the leaf, and helps to prevent water loss. The stomata sit in small pits within the curls of the structure, which make them less likely to open and to lose water. The folded leaves have hairs on the inside to slow or stop air movement, much like many other xerophytes (though these are typically found on the outside",
"-28.490234550605237"
],
[
"stinging hairs.\nLamina parts of the leaves are 9.5–34 centimetres (3.7–13.4 in) x 2–11.5 centimetres (0.79–4.53 in), narrow oblanceolate to elliptic, apex acuminate, base attenuate-cuneate to obtuse, margin subentire or crenulate, coriaceous, with glandular stinging hairs; midrib raised above; secondary_nerves 8-11 pairs; tertiary nerves distantly obliquely percurrent.\nFlowers with inflorescence axillary panicles, drooping, to 20 centimetres (7.9 in) long.\nFlowers are unisexual, subsessile.\nFruit and seed are achenes. Medical Upon contact with skin the nettle causes a painful itch, hives, fever and chills, skin depressions and clamminess which can recur over 10 days to six months. About 1820, Jean Baptiste Louis Claude Theodore Leschenault de la Tour,",
"-28.400683514148113"
],
[
"presence of black pycnidia exposed on the surface of the lesions give the leaf a rough, sandpapery feeling, hence the name “rough leaf spot.” Rough leaf spot can eventually lead to leaf senescence. Management Ascochyta sorghi is controlled through host plant resistance, cultural practices, and chemical application when necessary. Varieties of sorghum are not generally susceptible to rough leaf spot, although exceptions do exist. Cultural practices include crop rotation, deep plowing, and avoiding field operations when leaf surfaces are wet. As Ascochyta sorghi survives in plant debris and pycnidia in the soil, crop rotation and deep plowing allow for the",
"-28.362692543771118"
],
[
"of little bluestem grass (Schizachyrium scoparium) where their colouration makes them difficult to spot. They can best be caught by brushing a small-mesh net through the grass. As is the case with other mantis species, the eggs are laid in a clutch covered with foam which hardens into an egg case.",
"-28.342336796438758"
],
[
"but older, senescing leaves contained \"substantial amounts\". Some of these furanocoumarins found in cow parsnip are known to have antimicrobial properties and are responsible for a rash producing erythematous vesicles (burn-like blisters) and hyperpigmentation that occurs after getting the clear sap onto one's skin. They are photosensitive, with the rash occurring only after exposure to ultraviolet light. Because of this, phytophotodermatitis causing skin blistering may occur after coming into contact with the sap on a sunny day. The scars and pigmentation from these blisters caused by some Heracleum species can last for months or years.",
"-28.32883606030373"
],
[
"a closer look at the grass leaf blades (usually on Tall Fescue) you maybe able to see tan to brown small, irregular shaped lesions. Disease cycle The Rhizoctonia species thrives in temperatures ranging from 70 °F to 90 °F but can survive in freezing temperatures. Brown patch is most common when night temperatures fail to drop below 68 °F and during extended periods of high humidity or prolonged leaf wetness. The Rhizoctonia species has two specific fungi that affects the turf plant at different times of the year. In most cases Rhizoctonia solani will cause Brown patch in June throughout early July.",
"-28.324073010939173"
],
[
"plant can cause skin blistering. Etymology Ranunculus is a diminutive of 'rana', meaning 'little frog'. This name is in reference to the amphibious habitat of many Ranunculus species.\nRepens means 'creeping' or 'stoloniferous'.",
"-28.320527679636143"
],
[
"Trichophyton Effect on humans The anthropophilic varieties cause forms of dermatophytosis, that is, fungal infection of the skin. They are keratinophilic: they feed on the keratin in nails, hair, and dead skin.\nTrichophyton concentricum causes \"Malabar itch\", a skin infection consisting of an eruption of a number of concentric rings of overlapping scales forming papulosquamous patches.\nTrichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton interdigitale cause athlete's foot (tinea pedis), toenail fungal infections (a.k.a. tinea unguium, a.k.a. onychomycosis), crotch itch (a.k.a. tinea cruris), and ringworm (a misnomer, as there is no worm involved; it is also known as tinea corporis). Trichophyton schoenleinii cause favus (tinea",
"-28.285310372913955"
],
[
"trunk region of the body, it may affect any other area. There has been rare occurrences where the nails, skin and palms are affected but it has not been known to invade hair. Most lesions begin on the face and subsequently spread to larger areas of the body. Pruritis has been the most common symptom of infection and it is most severe in warm and humid climates. Tinea imbricata has been known to cause hypopigmentation and hyperpigmentation. Susceptibility to this infection has been reported to be hereditary with both dominant and recessive inheritance patterns. Environmental and immunological factors have also",
"-28.22347143664956"
],
[
"thus used is known as a rubefacient (something that causes redness). This is done as a folk remedy for treatment of rheumatism. In Ecuador there are indigenous healers that use stinging nettles with the belief that they improve fatigue and circulation, by rubbing raw leaves or flogging the plant directly on the body. Textiles and fibre Nettle stems contain a bast fibre that has been traditionally used for the same purposes as linen and is produced by a similar retting process. Unlike cotton, nettles grow easily without pesticides. The fibres are coarser, however.\nHistorically, nettles have been used to make clothing",
"-28.15959697123617"
],
[
"years, so handling dead leaves or vines can cause a reaction. In addition, oil transferred from the plant to other objects (such as pet fur) can cause the rash if it comes into contact with the skin. Clothing, tools, and other objects that have been exposed to oil should be washed to prevent further reactions.\nPeople who are sensitive to urushiol can also experience a similar rash from mangoes. Mangoes are in the same family (Anacardiaceae) as poison ivy; the sap of the mango tree and skin of mangoes has a chemical compound similar to urushiol. A related allergenic compound is",
"-28.107499046018347"
],
[
"Keratosis pilaris Signs and symptoms Keratosis pilaris results in small, rough bumps on the surface of the skin. They are skin-colored bumps the size of a grain of sand, many of which are surrounded by a slight pink color in light skinned people and dark spots in dark skinned people. Most people with keratosis pilaris do not have symptoms but the bumps in the skin can occasionally be itchy. Irritation due to scratching KP bumps can result in redness and inflammation.\nThough people with keratosis pilaris experience the condition year-round, the problem can become exacerbated and the bumps are likely to",
"-28.105729998555034"
],
[
"the soil.\nThe plant is often mistaken for stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), but can be distinguished by the lack of trichomes, or stinging hairs, and the lower amount of branching of the inflorescences.",
"-28.064230103162117"
],
[
"inconsistent with their biology, and no such phenomenon has ever been scientifically confirmed, though it has been documented that the scales or hairs from collembolans can cause irritation when rubbed onto the skin. They may sometimes be abundant indoors in damp places such as bathrooms and basements, and incidentally found on one's person. More often, claims of persistent human skin infection by springtails may indicate a neurological problem, such as delusory parasitosis, a psychological rather than entomological problem. Researchers themselves may be subject to psychological phenomena. For example, a publication in 2004 claiming that springtails had been found in skin",
"-28.060941915260628"
],
[
"A. aethiopicus can cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain, and contact with the skin may cause dermatitis. The plant is non-toxic to domestic cats and dogs.",
"-27.973308238000754"
],
[
"sand that is contaminated with feces. Although they are able to infect the deeper tissues of animals (through to the lungs and then the intestinal tract), humans are incidental hosts and the larvae are only able to penetrate the epidermis of the skin and thus create the typical wormlike burrows visible underneath the skin. These parasites apparently lack the collagenase enzymes required to penetrate through the basement membrane deeper into the dermal layers of the skin.",
"-27.961393172852695"
],
[
"contracted by people walking barefoot over\ncontaminated soil. In penetrating the skin, the larvae may cause an allergic\nreaction. It is due to the itchy patch at the site of entry that the early\ninfection gets its nickname \"ground itch\". Once larvae have broken through the skin,\nthey enter the bloodstream and are carried to the lungs (however, unlike ascarids, hookworms do not usually cause pneumonia). The larvae migrate from\nthe lungs up the windpipe to be swallowed and carried back down to the\nintestine. If humans come into contact with larvae of the dog hookworm or the\ncat hookworm, or of certain other hookworms that do",
"-27.95160469552502"
],
[
"is sometimes used for human consumption.\nThis grass can be used to prevent erosion on river banks prone to flooding and on earth dams. It can be used in a similar way to reeds for sewage control. Where it has become invasive, as for example in Mexico and Guyana, it reduces biodiversity and grows so vigorously that it displaces native plants.",
"-27.938005407107994"
],
[
"Dermatographic urticaria Signs and symptoms The condition manifests as an allergic-like reaction, causing a warm red wheal to appear on the skin. As it is often the result of scratches, involving contact with other materials, it can be confused with an allergic reaction, when in fact it is the act of being scratched that causes a wheal to appear. These wheals are a subset of urticaria (hives), and appear within minutes, in some cases accompanied by itching. The first outbreak of urticaria can lead to other reactions on body parts not directly stimulated, scraped, or scratched. In a normal case,",
"-27.886974142922554"
],
[
"Appendages Apart from electric rays, which have a thick and flabby body, with soft, loose skin, chondrichthyans have tough skin covered with dermal teeth (again, Holocephali is an exception, as the teeth are lost in adults, only kept on the clasping organ seen on the caudal ventral surface of the male), also called placoid scales (or dermal denticles), making it feel like sandpaper. In most species, all dermal denticles are oriented in one direction, making the skin feel very smooth if rubbed in one direction and very rough if rubbed in the other.\nOriginally, the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do",
"-27.85059402376646"
],
[
"Pemphigus vulgaris Signs and symptoms Pemphigus vulgaris most commonly presents with oral blisters (buccal and palatine mucosa, especially), but also includes cutaneous blisters. Other mucosal surfaces, the conjunctiva, nose, esophagus, penis, vulva, vagina, cervix, and anus, may also be affected. Flaccid blisters over the skin are frequently seen with sparing of the skin covering the palms and soles.\nBlisters commonly erode and leave ulcerated lesions and erosions. A positive Nikolsky sign (induction of blistering in normal skin or at the edge of a blister) is indicative of the disease.\nSevere pain with chewing can lead to weight loss and malnutrition. Pathophysiology Pemphigus",
"-27.740298710938077"
],
[
"Pythium in turfgrass Pythium disease, also known as \"Pythium blight,\" \"cottony blight,\" or \"grease spot,\" is a highly destructive turfgrass disease caused by several different Pythium species. All naturally cultivated cool-season turfgrasses are susceptible to Pythium and if conditions are favorable to Pythium it can destroy a whole turfgrass stand in a few days or less. Pythium favors hot and very humid weather and will usually develop in low areas or swales in the turfgrass. Symptoms Pythium symptoms will first appear as small, irregularly shaped spots that are 1/2\" to 4\" inches in diameter and will join together to form",
"-27.73537821182981"
],
[
"tree is said to have healing power.\nIn countries like India, the bark is rubbed on a stone with water to make a paste, which can be applied over afflicted by boils or mosquito bites. Allow the paste to dry on the skin and reapply after a few hours. For people whose skin is especially sensitive to insect bites, this is a very simple home remedy.",
"-27.645425112510566"
],
[
"Stipa avenacea Description Stipa avenacea, Black oat grass, consists of fine leaf texture that appear to be bristle-like. Its leaves are long and elongate, reaching up to 3 feet (0.91 m) in height.\nThe plant is easily recognizable when flowering or fruiting. It can be identified by its open inflorescences, which are thin and usually cannot be seen from a distance. The branches within these inflorescences are very thin and thus can create effects of spikelets that appear to be floating in mid air.\nIt also consists of awns, which are hairlike projections containing multicellular organisms that obtain nutrients through photosynthesis. The",
"-27.600660799536854"
],
[
"is considered to be native there in most literature. It is considered a noxious weed in many places. Effects on the body For some people, skin contact with Galium aparine causes an unpleasant localized rash known as contact dermatitis. Chemistry Chemical constituents of Galium aparine include: iridoid glycosides such as asperulosidic acid and 10-deacetylasperulosidic acid, asperuloside, monotropein and aucubin, alkaloids such as caffeine, phenolics such as phenolic acids, anthraquinone derivatives such as the aldehyde nordamnacanthal (1,3-dihydroxy-anthraquinone-2-al), flavonoids and coumarins, organic acids such as citric acid and a red dye. Edibility Galium aparine is edible. The leaves and stems",
"-27.56117499130778"
],
[
"Bacterial wilt of turfgrass Hosts and symptoms Creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera) and annual bluegrasses (Poa annua) are the makeup of most putting greens, as well as the preferred hosts of this pathogen. Specifically, Toronto (C-15), Seaside, and Nemisilla are the cultivars of creeping bentgrass most commonly affected. The bacteria enter the plant host and interfere with water and nutrient flow, causing the plant to look drought stressed and to take on a blueish-purple color. Additionally, symptoms of bacterial wilt of turf grass include yellow leaf spots, tan or brown spots, water soaked lesions, elongated yellow leaves and shriveling of aforementioned",
"-27.545499737607315"
],
[
"Prurigo simplex Presentation The most common prurigo simplex symptoms are skin nodules resembling insect bites that are intensely itchy. These nodules are frequently scratched open, becoming lesions that continue to itch. Sometimes the skin thickens and becomes discolored around the nodules. The scalp, arms, legs and trunk of the body are the most frequent sites of the bumps and lesions. Itching can become severe and habitual, worsening the condition and possibly causing infections in the open sores. Treatment Treatment is challenging, with narrow band UVB or pimozide sometimes helpful. Prognosis Sometimes the nodules become less itchy and eventually disappear leaving",
"-27.530898626719136"
],
[
"Dendrocnide excelsa Sting The hairs of the tree exist on all aerial parts, and can cause a severe reaction when in contact with human skin, so it is a hazard to livestock, travelers and campers. Even so, the tree is an important member of the ecosystems of eastern Australian forests. The sting is considered more severe than Dendrocnide photinophylla (shining-leaved stinging tree), but not as severe as Dendrocnide moroides (gympie stinger).\nMinor stings can last for an hour or two. However, severe stinging can last for months. First aid for the sting is to apply wax hair-removal strips and then yank",
"-27.530053609691095"
],
[
"temperate distribution. They are mostly herbaceous perennial plants, but some are annual and a few are shrubby. The most prominent member of the genus Urtica is the stinging nettle, Urtica dioica, native to Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America. Toxicity Though plants with stinging hairs can cause pain and acute urticaria, only a few are seriously harmful. The genus Dendrocnide (stinging trees) has been said to cause the most pain, particularly the Australian Dendrocnide moroides (gympie-gympie). There are reports of dogs and horses being killed, and once of a human death. The researcher Marina Hurley reports being hospitalized after being",
"-27.52683528640773"
],
[
"Acarodomatia Acarodomatia (singular Acarodomatium) (Latin: Acari - mites, domus - dwelling), are tussocks of hairs or nonglandular trichomes located in pits situated in major leaf vein axes of many plant species, occupied and caused by predatory and mycophagous mites.",
"-27.524799385661026"
],
[
"degrees of success. This eremophile has been seen as a highly desirable garden plant because of its density of flowers. \"It resembles a bridal veil blowing in the wind when in flower\". Propagation from cuttings is very difficult for this species and Grafting onto Myoporum rootstock is preferred for this species in domestic gardens to avoid the problems of suckering. Its frost tolerance, and hardiness in drought, makes it a species that is noted for inclusion in difficult gardens, however it can cause skin irritation in some people. Other uses Eremophila sturtii has insect-repellant properties and the branches were sometimes",
"-27.503899471310433"
],
[
"Hebrew character, and small angle shades. The roots are sometimes eaten by the larva of the ghost moth Hepialus humuli.\nStinging nettle is particularly found as an understory plant in wetter environments, but it is also found in meadows. Although nutritious, it is not widely eaten by either wildlife or livestock, presumably because of the sting. It spreads by abundant seeds and also by rhizomes, and is often able to survive and re-establish quickly after fire. Nettle sting mechanism and treatment Urtica dioica produces its inflammatory effect on skin (stinging, burning sensation often called \"contact urticaria\") both by impaling the skin",
"-27.4924515808234"
],
[
"toe webs and feet, and skin, forming hyphomycete, and also sometimes infecting the palms of hands but this is a rare occurrence. To cause these infections in humans, infections occurs through contact with contaminated soil or plant materials, or nail or skin tissue from an infected person, causing superficial skin infections similar to dermatophytosis called Scytalidiosis. Although established to cause dermatomycosis and onychomycosis, invasive infection by N. dimidiatum is rare, resulting in limited case reports and limited information available for clinical progression and treatment. as well as there is no currently know oral or topical treatment for infection with",
"-27.445201548398472"
],
[
"but the grass began to appear as a weed beside highways and in cleared fields or over-grazed land. It spreads very quickly and will often kill local native plants such as palo verdes by taking away nearby water. This plant has a very low ignition threshold and can burn even during the peak growing season. Its flammability (injurious to neighbors) and quick regrowth allow it to compete successfully against almost all vegetation in the Sonoran Desert region.\nIn Queensland, Australia, the grass has also been attributed to causing a decline in the native grass species fed on by the critically endangered",
"-27.420395149616525"
],
[
"large patches that will often be long streaks. Pythium often develops into these streaks because it is the direction of water movement (drainage) most often ruts from golf carts and mowing equipment. The turfgrass leaves will at first look and feel water-soaked, greasy, or slimy. Once dew or moisture dries up the blade will shrivel up and collapse, often causing a matted brown turf. The turfgrass will begin to develop patches that fade to a light brown or gray color. With high humidity in early morning or throughout the day, diseased leaves may be covered with the",
"-27.42037222313229"
],
[
"(lactation). Skin changes The uppermost layer of skin, the stratum corneum, becomes thinner and more translucent. Spider veins may appear or be more noticeable as a result. Collagen decreases, and tactile sensation increases. The skin becomes softer, more susceptible to tearing and irritation from scratching or shaving, and slightly lighter in color because of a slight decrease in melanin.\nSebaceous gland activity (which is triggered by androgens) lessens, reducing oil production on the skin and scalp. Consequently, the skin becomes less prone to acne. It also becomes drier, and lotions or oils may be necessary. The pores become smaller because of",
"-27.403138698544353"
],
[
"Stinging plant A stinging plant or a plant with stinging hairs is a plant with hairs (trichomes) on its leaves or stems that are capable of injecting substances that cause pain or irritation.\nOther plants, such as opuntias, have hairs or spines that cause mechanical irritation, but do not inject chemicals. Stinging hairs occur particularly in the families Urticaceae, Loasaceae, Boraginaceae (subfamily Hydrophylloideae) and Euphorbiaceae. Such hairs have been shown to deter grazing mammals, but are no more effective against insect attack than non-stinging hairs. Many plants with stinging hairs have the word \"nettle\" in their English name, but may",
"-27.321321220175378"
],
[
"Pustulosis Pustulosis is highly inflammatory skin condition resulting in large fluid-filled blister-like areas - pustules. Pustulosis typically occurs on the palms of the hands and/or the soles of the feet. The skin of these areas peels and flakes (exfoliates). This condition—also referred to as \"palmo-plantar pustulosis\"—is a feature of pustular psoriasis.",
"-27.30764846497914"
],
[
"A deciduous cataphyll curls away from the leaf once it has formed, eventually turning brown and drying out, and finally falling off the plant, leaving a scar on the stem where it was attached. Deciduous cataphylls are typically found on vining philodendrons, whereas persistent cataphylls are typical of epiphytic philodendrons or appressed climbers. In the latter, the cataphylls are prevented from falling off in a timely manner due to the short internodes of the plant. The cataphylls will remain attached, drying out and becoming nothing more than fibers attached at the nodes. In some philodendrons, the cataphylls build up over",
"-27.285121794964653"
],
[
"prevalent in wet, acid conditions. Erysiphe heraclei causes a powdery mildew that can cause significant crop loss. Infestation by this causes results in yellowing of the leaf and loss of foliage. Moderate temperatures and high humidity favor the development of the disease.\nSeveral viruses are known to infect the plant, including seed-borne strawberry latent ringspot virus, parsnip yellow fleck virus, parsnip leafcurl virus, parsnip mosaic potyvirus, and potyvirus celery mosaic virus. The latter causes clearing or yellowing of the areas of the leaf immediately beside the veins, the appearance of ochre mosaic spots, and crinkling of the leaves in infected plants.",
"-27.24485946795903"
],
[
"and Syringodium filiforme. Many epiphytes grow on the grasses, and algae, diatoms and bacterial films cover the surface of the leaf blades. The grass is eaten by turtles, herbivorous parrotfish, surgeonfish, and sea urchins, while the leaf surface films are a food source for many small invertebrates. Decaying turtle grass leaves are responsible for the majority of detritus in meadow areas. This grass is subject to periodic dieback episodes in the Florida Bay area. One such episode in 1987 killed off a large proportion of the plants and the resulting increased sedimentation and greater growth of epiphytes on the remaining",
"-27.237541586102452"
],
[
"Gray leaf spot Gray leaf spot (GLS) is a foliar fungal disease that affects grasses. In grasses other than maize it is caused by Pyricularia grisea, which only infects perennial ryegrass, tall fescue, and St. Augustinegrass in places with warm and rainy climates such as Florida. Symptoms Early symptoms of gray leaf spot can be seen on leaves as small, spherical lesions with a yellow halo around them. These first lesions may be tan or brown before fungal sporulation begins. The initial disease can be hard to identify as gray leaf spot at this stage because it",
"-27.176619556246806"
],
[
"halos. These lesions also often “coalesce and progress to severe leaf blight under favorable conditions for the bacterium.” When the infected leaves become dry, the spots often look brittle and crack. Environment Pseudomonas cichorii grows in warm, wet and humid areas. It spreads by wind driven rain and survives and infects on wet leaf surfaces. The pathogen is often spread during sprinkler watering and overhead irrigation systems. Plants growing outside exposed to rain exhibit dark brown to black spots on their leaf surface. When the plants are exposed to a limited amount of water and moisture, they exhibit sunken in",
"-27.16254800662864"
],
[
"skin. Mild astringents relieve such minor skin irritations as those resulting from superficial cuts; allergies; insect bites; anal hemorrhoids; and fungal infections such as athlete's foot.\nSome common astringents are alum, acacia, sage, yarrow, witch hazel, bayberry, distilled vinegar, very cold water, and rubbing alcohol. Astringent preparations include silver nitrate, potassium permanganate, zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, Burow's solution, tincture of benzoin, and such vegetable substances as tannic and gallic acids. Balaustines are the red rose-like flowers of the pomegranate, which are very bitter to the taste. In medicine, their dried form has been used as an astringent. Some metal salts",
"-27.13828261720846"
],
[
"inflorescences. The leaves and stems are very hairy with non-stinging hairs, and in most subspecies, also bear many stinging hairs (trichomes or spicules), whose tips come off when touched, transforming the hair into a needle that can inject several chemicals causing a painful sting or paresthesia, giving the species its common names: stinging nettle, burn nettle, burn weed, or burn hazel. Distribution Urtica dioica is considered to be native to Europe, much of temperate Asia and western North Africa. It is abundant in northern Europe and much of Asia, usually found in the countryside. It is less widespread in southern",
"-27.120006657554768"
],
[
"by the upper leaf.\nThe inflorescence and upper leaves are sometimes coated in black smut fungus of the genus Bipolaris, the reason for the common name smut grass.\nThe 1889 book 'The Useful Native Plants of Australia’ records that common names included \"Rat-tail Grass\" \"Chilian Grass\" and that Indigenous People of the Cloncurry River area of Northern Australia called it \"Jil-crow-a-berry\". It also states that Sporobolus indicus is \"A fine, open, pasture grass, found throughout the colonies. Its numerous penetrating roots enable it to resist severe drought. It yields a fair amount of fodder, much relished by stock, but is too coarse",
"-27.096598743926734"
],
[
"and itching.\nLater stages of tinea pedis might include hyperkeratosis (thickened skin) of the soles, as well as bacterial infection (by streptococcus and staphylococcus) or cellulites due to fissures developing between the toes,\nAnother implication of tinea pedis, especially for older adults or those with vascular disease, diabetes mellitus, or nail trauma, is onychomycosis of the toenails. Nails become thick, discolored, and brittle, and often onycholysis (painless separation of nail from nail bed) occurs. Tinea cruris or jock itch More commonly occurs in men than women. Tinea cruris may be exacerbated by sweat and tight clothing (hence the term \"jock itch\").",
"-27.091790331993252"
],
[
"which can further result in tearing of the skin and complications such as secondary bacterial infections, including bacterial skin inflammation, and hair follicle inflammation. General symptoms are trouble sleeping, and restlessness. A considerable proportion of children suffer from loss of appetite, weight loss, irritability, emotional instability, and bed wetting.\nPinworms cannot damage the skin, and they do not normally migrate through tissues. However, they may move onto the vulva and into the vagina, from there moving to the external orifice of the uterus, and onwards to the uterine cavity, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and peritoneal cavity. This can cause inflammation of the",
"-27.06506793911103"
],
[
"stung by a dead leaf. Deaths are probably due to heart failure caused by pain and shock. Urtica ferox (tree nettle or ongaonga) is endemic to New Zealand. One recorded human death is known: a lightly clad young man died five hours after walking through a dense patch.\nAfter cooking, some plants with stinging hairs, such as Urtica dioica (stinging nettle), are eaten as vegetables.",
"-27.033594495645957"
],
[
"from ingesting any of the medicine being applied on the skin, or to prevent it from harming itself in the infected area. Viruses and fungus In addition to preventing the animal from harming themselves or ingesting medicine being applied on their skins, Elizabethan collars also prevent the animal from further spreading the infection due to it licking, biting, or scratching itself elsewhere after touching the infection area. Hot spots, an infection that could be attributed to multiple reasons, are the most common infections that could be spread due to an animal licking or scratching the area. Dangers of Elizabethan collars",
"-27.017854720761534"
],
[
"such as mowing a lawn or raking leaves in the fall can cause exposure. \nA related species, mistletoe browntail moth (Euproctis edwardsi), has been reported as causing a similar rash in Australia, in people working at or visiting a community center, attributed to caterpillars feeding on a tree outside the building. In addition to brown-tail and mistletoe browntail, several other Euproctis species are identified as causing rashes in humans, including Euproctis baliolalis, Euproctis limbalis and Euproctis lutea (all three native to Australia). Urticating hairs, i.e., itch and rash-producing, are also reported for caterpillars of other moth and butterfly species. Host",
"-27.00699725537561"
],
[
"on leaves and fruits and are probably the most familiar necrotic symptom. Sometimes the necrotic tissue within a leaf spot may crack and fall off from the surrounding green tissue leaving an empty space. Such a symptom is known as a shot hole.\nMinute or very small spots are sometimes referred to as flecks or specks.\nWhen dark mycelia of a fungal pathogen appear on the surface of necrotic spot, blotting the leaves, shoots, an stems as large and irregular spots, the symptom is referred to as a blotch.\nBoth streaks and stripes occur in grasses and are elongated areas having dead cells.",
"-26.965035441331565"
],
[
"cuticle of the hair remains intact and clinically this type does not have florescence. Associated with Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton violaceum, which are anthropophilic.\nFavus: Causes crusting on the surface of the skin, combined with hair loss. Associated with Trichophyton schoenleini. Diagnosis Tinea capitis may be difficult to distinguish from other skin diseases that cause scaling, such as psoriasis and seborrhoeic dermatitis; the basis for the diagnosis is positive microscopic examination and microbial culture of epilated hairs. Wood's lamp (blacklight) examination will reveal bright green to yellow-green fluorescence of hairs infected by M. canis, M. audouinii, M. rivalieri, and M. ferrugineum",
"-26.9411508041012"
],
[
"Netherton syndrome Signs and symptoms Netherton syndrome is characterized by chronic skin inflammation, universal pruritus (itch), severe dehydration, and stunted growth. Patients with this disorder tend to have a hair shaft defect (trichorrhexis invaginata), also known as \"bamboo hair\". The disrupted skin barrier function in affected individuals also presents a high susceptibility to infection and allergy, leading to the development of scaly, reddish skin similar to atopic dermatitis. In severe cases, these atopic manifestations persist throughout the individual's life, and consequently post-natal mortality rates are high. In less severe cases, this develops into the milder ichthyosis linearis circumflexa.\nNetherton syndrome has",
"-26.893622909788974"
],
[
"tolerant of the winds and salt and sand loaded ocean spray. Many species are succulent, storing salty water in their leaves. The leaves are often light colored or grey-green to reflect sunlight and reduce desiccation. Hairy leaves may reduce evapotranspiration, may help gather moisture from the air, and may reflect a small portion of incoming solar radiation thereby reducing the plants internal temperature. They are often very low in height with prostrate stems and spread by rooting at the nodes and may have deep tap roots, both rooting systems helping to anchor the shifting sands",
"-26.883453003305476"
],
[
"Peyronellaea curtisii Symptoms Peyronellaea curtisii causes red-brown spots on leaf tips of Narcissus and other members of the family Amaryllidaceae; this gives them a scorched appearance that is easily mistaken for frost damage. A yellowish discolouration then spreads down the leaf; more spots may develop as the leaf withers, turns brown and die away. Minute black fungal fruiting bodies may be visible on the foliage. The flowers and flower stalks may also display brown spots and marks.\nOn hippeastrum bulbs the fungus causes red spots that may develop into soft, sunken patches. Leaf scorch fungus can also affect other members of",
"-26.85090146411676"
],
[
"Epidermis (botany) The epidermis (from the Greek ἐπιδερμίς, meaning \"over-skin\") is a single layer of cells that covers the leaves, flowers, roots and stems of plants. It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves several functions: it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds, and (especially in roots) absorbs water and mineral nutrients. The epidermis of most leaves shows dorsoventral anatomy: the upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve different functions. Woody stems and some other stem structures such as potato tubers produce a secondary",
"-26.843410627632693"
],
[
"engorged with roots. Lawn thatch is a layer of dead organic tissue that can protect the lawn by moderating temperature and reducing evapotranspiration when it is a reasonable thickness, but too much thatch can limit soil oxygenation and reduce watering effectiveness. Soil compaction makes it difficult for grass to develop long roots and disturbs both natural rainwater and artificial irrigation.",
"-26.83335555368103"
],
[
"may be a problem and when it is damp, mildew may occur on the leaves. Use W. saharae is said to have healing properties due to the essential oils it contains. An infusion of the dried leaves is used against arthritis and epilepsy. Plant extracts have demonstrated antibacterial activity and destroy certain cancer cells. Local healers use it to cure uterus infections. Local women use the plant as a perfume and \"believe that the supernatural powers attributed to the plant make them more seductive\".",
"-26.795032345726213"
],
[
"a superficial white presence on the surface of the leaf in which it is easily recognized. Tiny, light yellow spots begin on the lower surfaces of the leaf as the disease starts to make its way. The spots enlarge and white powdery growth appears on the leaves. The infection usually appears at the upper leaf surface as white fungal growth. Powdery mildew is not as severe as other diseases.\nThe fungus phytophthora blight causes damping-off, root rot, stem rot, stem girdling, and fruit rot. Damping-off happens in young plants by wilting and death. The spots on established plants start out as",
"-26.745732178445905"
],
[
"caused by reflection of light from the leaf surface. This can happen when an air layer is located just under the epidermis resulting in a white or silvery reflection. It is sometimes called blister variegation.\nPilea (aluminum plant) is an example of a house plant that shows this effect. Leaves of most Cyclamen species show such patterned variegation, varying between plants, but consistent within each plant.\nAnother type of reflective variegation is caused by hairs on parts of the leaf, which may be coloured differently from the leaf. This is found in various Begonia species and garden hybrids.\nSometimes venal variegation occurs –",
"-26.724946829039254"
],
[
"There have been some genotypes that have demonstrated some resistance to this disease.\nDigit grass is attacked by white-backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera) or S. kolophon. Symptoms of an infected grass are: \"stunting, yellowing, reddening, twisting of leaves, swelling of small veins, and excessive tillering\". Other insects and pests affecting D. eriantha are as follows: spittlebugs (Tomaspis spp.), Rhodes grass mealy bug (Antonina graminis), chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus), sugar-cane aphid (Sipha flava), armyworms, root-knot nematodes and smut fungi. Typically, it is the digit grass seed’s head that will be infected by smut and only under humid conditions. Genetic stocks There have been",
"-26.720418530225288"
],
[
"from the surrounding soil. Plinthite commonly occurs within and above reticulately mottled horizons. The part of the iron-rich body that is not plinthite normally stains the fingers when rubbed while wet, but the plinthite center does not. It has a harsh, dry feel when rubbed, even if wet.\nPlinthite does not harden irreversibly as a result of a single cycle of drying and rewetting. After a single drying, it will remoisten and then can be dispersed in large part if one shakes it in water with a dispersing agent. In a moist soil, plinthite is soft enough to be cut with",
"-26.70263832010096"
],
[
"Echinochloa colona Distribution and habitat The grass occurs throughout tropical Asia and Africa in fields, and along roadsides and waterways. It is considered an invasive weed in the Americas and Australia. In Australia, it has spread to wetlands, and is threatening the habitat of swamp tea trees. In culinary use In India seeds of this grass are used to prepare a food dish called khichadi and are consumed during festival fasting days. In Gujarati is called \"Samo\" (સામો) or \"Moriyo\" (મોરિયો) in Marathi it is called 'bhagar' (भगर) or \"Vari cha Tandul\" (वरी चा तांदुळ), in Hindi it is",
"-26.699319564722828"
],
[
"long. They have white coloured and succulent tepals which are swollen as well. The twigs are leafless. Habitat It is found on elevation of 0–1,200 metres (0–3,937 ft) in coastal or subalpine climates. It can be found growing near rivers, on beaches, sand spits, and alluvial fans.",
"-26.672344885068014"
],
[
"appearance of circular patches giving hillsides a 'crop circle' appearance, it is presumed, from this phenomenon. Animals typically seek shade and have reduced appetite. Hypersensitivity to water has been noted, and convulsions may occur following a knock to the head. Although general aversion to water is noted, some may seek water for relief.\nSevere skin irritation is physically apparent, with reddening of non-pigmented and unprotected areas. This subsequently leads to itch and rubbing, followed by further inflammation, exudation, and scab formation. Lesions and inflammation that occur are said to resemble the conditions seen in foot and mouth disease. Sheep have been",
"-26.655568078684155"
],
[
"Polish plait As a medical condition Plica Polonica (synonym, plica neuropathica; common name, \"Polish plait\") is an uncommon condition in which the hair shaft becomes entangled irreversibly, forming a mass which is matted and sometimes can be sticky and moist.\nIn this condition, the protective layer of the hair (cuticle) is damaged, and the cortex of the hair is exposed. The cortex is a more moist and sticky part of the hair than the outer layer, and the affected hairs adhere to each other and other unaffected hairs. Several factors may contribute to this condition: chemical exposure, hair with natural kinks,",
"-26.649013952352107"
],
[
"Grass goby Characteristic Grass gobies can grow up to 25 cm (9.8 in) long. The head crown, nape, throat, belly, and bases of the pectoral fins are covered by cycloid scales and the gill covers are naked. The abdominal sucker has no blades and does not reach the anus. The mandibulae are protrusive, and the skin soft, with mucus. Their coloration is green-brown, patterned with merging brown spots. The cheeks have round light spots. The dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins have longitudinal brown stripes on a light background; the anal and abdominal suckers are dark. Range Widespread in coastal waters of all",
"-26.641301340889186"
],
[
"to one's environment. Scratching also causes infected skin scales to fall off into one's environment, leading to further possible spread.\nWhen athlete's foot fungus or infested skin particles spread to one's environment (such as to clothes, shoes, bathroom, etc.) whether through scratching, falling, or rubbing off, not only can they infect other people, they can also reinfect (or further infect) the host they came from. For example, infected feet infest one's socks and shoes which further expose the feet to the fungus and its spores when worn again.\nThe ease with which the fungus spreads to other areas of the body",
"-26.620079613043345"
],
[
"grass is harvested and brought to a ruminant animal in an enclosed system. Shade tolerance makes it suited to coexisting with trees in agroforestry. Some varieties have been used successfully for making silage and hay. The leaves contain good levels of protein, 6-25% depending on age and nitrogen supply. Invasive species In some places, such as South Texas, Sri Lanka and Hawai'i, it is an invasive weed that suppresses or displaces local native plants and is a fire hazard.\nIn the Australian state of Queensland, the Queensland Acclimatisation Society introduced Guinea grass to 22 locations between 1865 and 1869.",
"-26.6156238457188"
],
[
"hairs of some species of moth, such as the oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea), can cause skin irritation, but there is no evidence that the oak eggar is one of these, despite the similar name. Pupa The caterpillar pupates on the ground inside a silken cocoon, the exterior of which is hard and yellowish, and resembles an acorn, hence the moth's name. \"Eggar\" is an obsolete word again relating to the shape of the cocoon.",
"-26.600756903877482"
],
[
"disturbance of taller plants - e.g. clearing lantana, can produce a shower of tick larvae. When large numbers of larvae attach to a sensitized person, severe allergic dermatitis may result. The maddening rash that results is commonly referred to as 'scrub-itch'. Such outbreaks are seasonal in southeast Queensland and occur most commonly during January, February and March when larval populations are at their peak. Dermatitis is most commonly encountered in rural workers. Allergic reactions to nymphs and adults Attachment of the nymphal and adult stages produce variable responses, many of which are clearly allergic in nature. Often, attachment may provoke",
"-26.59392651185044"
],
[
"burns.\nThe Ojibwe people historically sprinkled a decoction of yarrow leaves on hot stones and inhaled it to treat headaches, as well as applied decoctions of the root onto skin for its stimulant effect. They also smoked its florets for ceremonial purposes, as well as placed them on coals and inhaled their smoke to break fevers. Dangers In rare cases, yarrow can cause severe allergic skin rashes; prolonged use can increase the skin's photosensitivity. This can be triggered initially when wet skin comes into contact with cut grass and yarrow together.\nAccording to the ASPCA, yarrow is toxic to dogs, cats,",
"-26.58181638957467"
],
[
"rarely seen between the hairs. Excessive scratching of the infested areas can cause sores, which may become infected. Treatment The number of diagnosed cases of human louse infestations (or pediculosis) has increased worldwide since the mid-1960s, reaching hundreds of millions annually. There is no product or method which assures 100% destruction of the eggs and hatched lice after a single treatment. However, there are a number of treatment methods that can be employed with varying degrees of success. These methods include chemical treatments, natural products, combs, shaving, hot air, silicone-based lotions, and ethanol (ethyl alcohol).\nPediculosis is commonly treated",
"-26.55569285195088"
],
[
"pesticide for land snails. Skin from the root is used in decoctions for skin problems. It was a sacred plant in Vedic times, as the leaves were used in sun-worshipping ceremonies.\nLofty mountains in the district are also the abode of the indigenous but endangered species of wild goat called the Suleiman markhor (Capra falconeri jerdoni) and the wild sheep called the Urial (Ovis orientalis cycloceros). Due to over-hunting many species have migrated to other safe meadows. Wolves, jackals, rabbits, wild cats and deer can be found in Sherani.\nOf game birds, chikor and sissy are found at high altitudes, while sand",
"-26.552185241132975"
],
[
"lesions with a reddish-brown border on the leaf blades of live plants near the edge of the affected area. On fine bladed grasses, the lesions usually girdle the leaf blade. Early in the day or in periods of extended dew, cobweb-like mycelium of the fungus can be seen growing on affected areas. During early stages of the disease, affected plants may appear water-soaked and wilted, but spots quickly fade to a characteristic straw color. The mycelium found on foliage is often confused with that of Pythium, Nigrospora, and Rhizoctonia. Disease cycle The pathogen overwinters and survives unfavorable periods as dormant",
"-26.5503682503695"
],
[
"shoes. Pythium also causes \"Damping off\", \"seed decay\", or \"seedling blight\" of turfgrasses. This is most common in Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and happens in areas that are high above the recommended seeding rates. Not only does Pythium devastate the Turf canopy but the oomycete can also attack the roots and crowns, which will reduce growth, become off-colored, and cause thinning of turf. Cultural Control Kentucky bluegrass and Fescue are less susceptible to Pythium blight than Perennial ryegrass and Bentgrass. Creating an environment that includes adequate drainage, good air movement, and balanced fertility will help prevent the disease. Removing dew",
"-26.547221792163327"
]
] |
1n7zm5 | What happens to your account on sites like Facebook, reddit, twitter, youtube, linkedIn when you die? | [
"I believe Facebook has a reporting option to report deaths. If a family member provides the proper documents they can turn it into a memorial type page. (Or maybe I just dreamed that.)",
"nothing, i know a few people who have died, and i could still send them facebook messages",
" URL_0 Here is a collection of dead people's social media profiles. I don't know why they're being collected.",
"I have a friend that died a few years ago that I'm still friends with on Facebook. His page was originally full of kind words of people that knew him, but now it's a mashup of random spam and the occasional \"I miss you\" post.",
"Google has already created a solution for this If you go the settings-account manager , you can actually choose a will. What it does is , after a specific amount of inactivity on your account - say 6 months it will mail all your passwords and account details to a email address specified in the will.u can google it :)",
"If you want to say goodbye using social media and possibly creep people out, check out [DeadSocial]( URL_0 )",
"at least with twitter, if you leave it unattended for long enough it gets hacked and turned in to a spam account."
] | [
[
"Twitter offered for the accounts of dead people was account deactivation. Previously published content is not removed. To deactivate an account Twitter requires an immediate family member to present a copy of their ID and a death certificate of the deceased. Twitter specified that it does not provide account access to anyone,, but does allow people having account login information to continue posting. A prominent example is Roger Ebert’s account maintained by his wife Chaz. Controversies In 2012, The Next Web columnist Martin Bryant noticed that since Twitter, unlike Facebook, did not have a \"one account per real person\" emphasis,",
"-29.880238900368568"
],
[
"2009, the company introduced “memorial pages” in response to multiple user requests related to the 2007 Virginia Tech shooting. After receiving a proof of death via a special form, the profile would be converted into a tribute page with minimal personal details, where friends and family members could share their grief.\nIn February 2015, Facebook allowed users to appoint a friend or family member as a \"legacy contact\" with the rights to manage their page after death. It also gave Facebook users an option to have their account permanently deleted when they die.\nAs of January 2019, all 3 options were",
"-29.73576808074722"
],
[
"people known to be deceased would be removed after 30 days due to privacy concerns. Due to user response, Facebook changed its policy to place deceased members' profiles in a \"memorialization state\". Facebook's Privacy Policy regarding memorialization says, \"If we are notified that a user is deceased, we may memorialize the user's account. In such cases we restrict profile access to confirmed friends and allow friends and family to write on the user's Wall in remembrance. We may close an account if we receive a formal request from the user's next of kin or other proper legal request to do",
"-29.505984289949993"
],
[
"profiles became problematic due to the inability of social media algorithms to recognize a user is deceased. In 2009, Facebook addressed this issue updating its policy to include an outline for handling user deaths through switching dead users’ profiles to memorial statuses.",
"-29.3193662451813"
],
[
"Death and the Internet A recent extension to the cultural relationship with death is the increasing number of people who die having created a large amount of digital content, such as social media profiles, that will remain after death. This may result in concern and confusion, because of automated features of dormant accounts (e.g. birthday reminders), uncertainty of the deceased's preferences that profiles be deleted or left as a memorial, and whether information that may violate the deceased's privacy (such as email or browser history) should be made accessible to family.\nIssues with how this information is sensitively dealt with are",
"-28.85487739276141"
],
[
"2010, Twitter (launched in July 2006) did not have a policy on handling deceased user accounts, and simply deleted timelines of deceased users. In August 2010, Twitter allowed memorialization of accounts upon request from family members, and also provided them with an option of either deleting the account or obtaining a permanent backup of the deceased user's public tweets.\nIn 2014, Twitter updated its policy to include an option to delete deceased user photographs. This policy was implemented after multiple Twitter trolls sent Zelda Williams, daughter of Robin Williams, photoshopped images of her father.\nAs of January 2019, the only option that",
"-28.159217472244563"
],
[
"start the suicide process, the user has to provide their login credential for the social network from which they want to be deleted, and then \"watch your life passing by and reflect upon your real & virtual friends\", while private content and friend relationships are removed. In the end the user is included in a memorial album of all the suicides, with their profile picture, their name and their \"last words\". Controversy On January 2010, Facebook managed to block the service for a short time and sent a cease and desist letter from its lawyers. The service remained up and",
"-27.978345286246622"
],
[
"Deceased users An article in The New York Sun entitled \"Morbid Web Site Makes Amusement of Online Profiles Left Behind by the Dead\" discusses a site that highlights the user profiles on various social networking websites. Adam4Adam is mentioned several times and it is noted that Willi Ninja's profile remained posted on Adam4Adam months after his September 2006 death received widespread press attention. In this article, an Adam4Adam spokesperson is quoted as saying \"We deactivate them as soon as we get notified.\"",
"-26.73261579190148"
],
[
"individual who has died but \"lives\" again through a digital self on a digital medium. After the 2007 Virginia Tech shootings, relatives asked for the Facebook profile pages of the victims of the shootings to remain online so that they can post messages in the process of handling their grief. This phenomenon uses digital technology to help people grieve for love ones. Researchers at the University of Warwick have called for more research into the area of human-computer interaction. Mobile Gaming Writer for EHS Today, Stefanie Valentic, has made observations with the mobile phone video game Pokemon Go, which offers",
"-25.876638340647332"
],
[
"the deceased, and the content reaching a wider geographic audience. The occurrence of online mourning presents a new paradigm in the memorialization process by providing interactive, sometimes competitive documents for mourners. Studies of Facebook and Myspace indicate that while the majority of living users visit memorialized profile accounts immediately after learning of an individual’s death, visitation often continues long after, albeit less frequently.\nThere have been so many cases of online memorialization that it has resulted in the creation of websites such as MyDeathSpace.com, which attempt to create a catalogue of memorializations available on social media websites. Dead users with active",
"-25.839393434900558"
],
[
"When the account is memorialized, Facebook removes sensitive information such as contact information and status updates, but still enables friends and family to leave posts on the profile wall in remembrance. However, only confirmed friends can see the memorialized profile or locate it in search. Fundraising in memory Online memorials are sometimes used to collect In Memoriam donations to charitable or non-profit organizations, to fund medical research, hospices, or community activities and hobbies in which the deceased participated.",
"-25.79370417293103"
],
[
"reference to her cancers or charitable donations were also selectively deleted. Soon after, all posts were deleted from Gibson's and The Whole Pantry's Instagram accounts. Around the same time, individual postings about Gibson's cancer, and claims of having died briefly while under heart surgery, were also being selectively deleted by the administrator of her blog \"at the request of a user\". Accounts across a number of social media platforms were soon either abandoned, made private, or deleted in their entirety.\nGibson subsequently established another Facebook account under the alias Harry Gibson, which was made private and used to hit back at",
"-25.740802227606764"
],
[
"program and the Mashable Publisher Platform. Ostrow's TED talk \"After the Final Status Update\" on the subject of how social media profiles live on after individual users die has been viewed more than 1,100,000 times as of July 2017.",
"-25.644603122666012"
],
[
"disappeared. Instagram stated that it did not remove the account.",
"-25.589361733887927"
],
[
"grieving family the leaked pictures of her mutilated corpse.\nThere have been cases where Facebook \"trolls\" were jailed for their communications on Facebook, particularly memorial pages. In Autumn 2010, Colm Coss of Ardwick, Britain, was sentenced to 26 weeks in jail under s127 of the Communications Act 2003 of Great Britain, for \"malicious communications\" for leaving messages deemed obscene and hurtful on Facebook memorial pages.\nIn April 2011, Bradley Paul Hampson was sentenced to three years in jail after pleading guilty to two counts of using a carriage service, the Internet, to cause offense, for posts on Facebook memorial pages, and one",
"-25.474430285554263"
],
[
"had died two and a half weeks prior. The moment was widely shared on social media platforms Twitter and Instagram.",
"-25.38753171611461"
],
[
"June. She had left two notes written on a stairwell wall with red marker, and uploaded photos of her note to Instagram. A third suicide occurred the next day when a 29-year-old woman, Zhita Wu, jumped from the International Financial Centre. On 4 July, a 28-year-old woman only identified by the surname Mak died after jumping off a building in Cheung Sha Wan. A fifth suicide occurred on 22 July, when a 26-year-old man identified by the surname Fan died after jumping from Kwong Yuen Estate after an argument with his parents about his political stance and being driven from",
"-25.33604163461132"
],
[
"of Facebook users are aged over 45, contrasting with the demographics of the social media subset. Given the ages of cases identified in this review, further research is needed to conclude the age of users. It is very important that more studies are done to find the age range that is most affected by social media and suicide to best address different intervention methods.\nOne risk that has been more prevalent over the years has been suicide challenges from different \"games\" such as Momo, The Blue Whale Challenge, and others that trick the individuals into committing suicide after performing various acts.",
"-24.96211594844499"
],
[
"that \"it was a low percentage of Instagram accounts\", though TechCrunch stated in its report that six million accounts were affected by the hack, and that \"Instagram services more than 700 million accounts; six million is not a small number\". Update December 2018 Instagram caused the userbase to fall into outrage, with the December 2018 update. An attempt to alter the flow of the feed from the traditional vertical scroll to emulate and piggy-back the popularity of their Instagram Stories with a horizontal scroll, swiping left. Various backtracking statements were released explaining it as a bug, or as a",
"-24.937183880232624"
],
[
"researchers looked at documentation from coroner's inquests for all deaths involving an element of self-harm between 2011 and 2013. This review's emerging evidence suggests the age group most affected by the association between social media use and suicide is older than has previously been assumed: in one small study of coroner's investigations, it was found social media evidence was more likely to be cited at inquest in cases where the deceased was aged over 45 years than under. However, the findings are unclear and may solely reflect greater use of social media. The findings also show that fewer than 20%",
"-24.82688127126312"
],
[
"at least 200m Facebook users were found to be exposed on an open online database in September 2019. They included 133m US users, 18m from the UK, and 50m from users in Vietnam. After removing duplicates, the 419 million records reduced to 219 million. The database went offline after TechCrunch contacted the web host. It is thought the records were amassed using a tool that Facebook disabled in April 2018 after the Cambridge Analytica controversy. A Facebook spokeswoman said in a statement: \"The dataset is old and appears to have information obtained before we made changes last year...There is no",
"-24.813164082414005"
],
[
"and more than 56,000 followers on Twitter. Her death was widely reported in the media and she received tributes from several notable media personalities. For Social Trends Analyzing frequency, content and other metrics of how users interact with Twitter can uncover social trends and social networks. \"As users interact via social media spaces, like Twitter, they form connections that emerge into complex social network structures. These connections are indicators of content sharing, and network structures reflect patterns of information flow.\"",
"-24.791143601454678"
],
[
"discussions. Unlike some other types of memorials, they have little environmental impact. Facebook can give people the opportunity to keep the deceased apart of their lives by posting on their walls during the holidays, birthdays, and other important dates in their lives or the bereaved life. Online memorials also give the bereaved the ability to pull up the deceased page and go through the comments or pictures when they are having a particularly difficult time and want to remember good memories they once shared with the deceased. Continuing bonds and expressing feelings toward the deceased can be considered therapeutic",
"-24.779933934621454"
],
[
"Oli Frost Lifefaker.com In 2018, Frost “founded” Lifefaker.com, a startup which appeared to sell photos that could help users fake a perfect life on Instagram. In an interview he explained how the idea came to him.\n“Last year I fractured both my knees falling off a chair I’d stood on to take an aerial photo of my rainbow bowl… After the accident I thought about quitting social media for a while. And then I had a better idea: Lifefaker.com.”\n— Oli Frost, i-d\nHowever, when visitors tried to buy the photos they instead found the site was part of a campaign by mental",
"-24.68352242925903"
],
[
"to the bereaved. Memorial pages on social media Many online memorial platforms, as well as individual memorials created on general social media sites and blogs, allow memorials to be built in a collaborative fashion by mourners, who share their expressions of grief in the form of comments or posts. \nSocial media pages created by people who have later died are sometimes converted into memorial sites. Facebook, for example, provides a process for transforming the profile of a deceased user into a memorial. Family members or friends can report an account to be memorialized upon presentation of proof of death.",
"-24.589057692881852"
],
[
"memorabilia are being introduced into the digital world, complete with public details of a person's life and death. E-mail Gmail and Hotmail allow the email accounts of the deceased to be accessed provided certain requirements are met. Yahoo! Mail will not provide access, citing the No Right of Survivorship and Non-Transferability clause in the Yahoo! terms of service. In 2005 Yahoo! was ordered by the Probate Court of Oakland County, Michigan, to release emails of deceased US Marine Justin Ellsworth to his father, John Ellsworth. Policies In the early days Facebook used to delete profiles of dead people. In October",
"-24.517075266354368"
],
[
"the help center or to pages that are outdated and cannot be accessed, leaving users at a dead end with no further support available. Further a person which lost access to Facebook has no easy way to find an EMAIL to contact the company regarding an account deletion. Downtime and outages Facebook has had a number of outages and downtime large enough to draw some media attention. A 2007 outage resulted in a security hole that enabled some users to read other users' personal mail. In 2008, the site was inaccessible for about a day, from many locations in many",
"-24.459763299877523"
],
[
"damage caused by the disease. Visible lesions on follow-up CT scans have continued to shrink for two years, and are presumed dead. Discovering the e-Patient movement Before and during his illness he had been writing journals and blog posts about his experiences. On the hospital's blog he signed himself \"Patient Dave\"; upon recovery from near-death he started a blog \"The New Life of Patient Dave.\" In January 2008 he learned of the so-called \"e-Patient White Paper\" by Dr Thomas William Ferguson, which described how patients are using the Internet to participate actively in their care. He recognized it as a",
"-24.413242602779064"
],
[
"was Amofah, and that he was dead at the point of recovery. The Office of Chief Medical Examiner confirmed the cause of death was suicide by drowning the following day. Reactions Amofah's death highlighted social media platforms' handling of posts by users who appear at risk with mental illness or who are contemplating suicide. YouTube, in removing Amofah's final video, stated that removal of such videos is standard practice to \"reduce the potential for copycat acts of self-harm, videos that express suicidal ideation\", and as part of this, sent the uploader information related to national suicide hotlines to provide",
"-24.412350029568188"
],
[
"website Facebook along with his home address, and others made threats of violence against him. The man's lawyer said that, as a consequence of that information being published, threats were made against the man's family. The man's ex-girlfriend and her family were also harassed after the Herald Sun newspaper published a photograph and a story about her. On 17 February, after requests from Victoria Police, the man's MySpace profile was removed; Facebook commenced deleting postings containing threats, and deleted a photo from one group. Looting By the morning of 11 February 2009, reports of looting had been posted. Witnesses",
"-24.40254245599499"
],
[
"affected—including Instagram's own account, which lost 18,880,211 followers.",
"-24.299558874459763"
],
[
"you again/Dying, inside, these walls/ Dying, inside, these walls), and the books the man flips through throughout the video represent his memories of her. After her death, he dwells on her absence (I strain my eyes, hoping to see you again) and tries to find a way to be with her again (There is love burning to find you / Will you wait for me? / Will you be there?). Ultimately, his memories consume him; however, as his memories finally kill him, he is finally able to reunite with his love (And I see your face). The man's \"curse\" is",
"-24.29340187883645"
],
[
"Instagram.",
"-24.24943674086535"
],
[
"his sister on Twitter on June 9. The cause of death was not announced.",
"-24.199933618307114"
],
[
"Instagram",
"-24.185569589259103"
],
[
"to investigating cases of members of online communities dying—sometimes while online. Writer Howard Swains referred to the online deaths as \"pseuicides\" in Wired.com. New Zealand PC World Magazine called Munchausen by Internet \"cybermunch\", and those who posed online \"cybermunchers\". In 2007 The LiveJournal forum reported that, of the deaths reported to them, about 10% were real.",
"-24.10696571045264"
],
[
"Facebook page announced his death.",
"-24.09581196227373"
],
[
"removed by Twitter after several hours.",
"-24.09287864828366"
],
[
"have never gotten Denise involved in the case. Terry figures out that people who visit the website die within 48 hours, apparently from what they feared most in their lives. Despite such dangerous knowledge, both she and Mike visit the site in order to figure out what is happening.\nAs they begin to experience paranoia and hallucinations (like the deceased), including that of a young girl and her inflatable ball, they race against time to figure out if any of it has any connection to an extremely vicious serial killer, Alistair Pratt, who's been eluding Mike and the FBI for years.\nIt",
"-24.04638385288854"
],
[
"age group or demographic is to die by suicide. The increase generally happens only in areas where the suicide story was highly publicized. Upon learning of someone else's suicide, some people decide that action may be appropriate for them as well, especially if the publicized suicide was of someone in a situation similar to their own.\nPublishing the means of suicides, romanticized and sensationalized reporting—particularly about celebrities, suggestions that there is an epidemic, glorifying the deceased and simplifying the reasons all lead to increases in the suicide rate. People may see suicide as a glamorous ending, with the victim getting attention,",
"-23.922057986841537"
],
[
"death is a message sent by the Zaccharas, a new crime family in town. He begins receiving text messages, explaining that the killing will not stop at Leticia: \"Nanny got the phone cord. Who comes next?\"\nCarly finds out that her cousin, Lulu Spencer, is texting Johnny Zacchara. Worried, Carly begins texting him, pretending to be Lulu. Then Carly receives a text message from an unknown number including photos of her and Jax that had been taken through her phone without her knowledge. After receiving an invitation to the Black and White Ball thrown by Nikolas Cassadine and Emily Quartermaine, Carly",
"-23.82665055306643"
],
[
"the Facebook user that released the first photos is unknown, as his account was created and then deleted in just 18 hours, and Facebook only reveals private information in cases of illegal drug trade or human trafficking.",
"-23.826642395171802"
],
[
"suicide by putting her head in the gas oven, but failed. She lives for another month, before she ends her life by taking an overdose of sleeping pills. The adults in the community go on as if nothing happened. Local newspaper writer Linda Perl notes that the suicides come exactly one year after Cecilia's first attempt and describes the girls as tragic creatures so cut off from life, that death was not much of a change.\nAfter the funerals, Mr. and Mrs. Lisbon leave the suburb never to return. The Lisbon house is sold to a young couple from the Boston",
"-23.730436135694617"
],
[
"Facebook users coming from the United States would delete their accounts.\nHowever, only 33,000 (roughly 0.0066% of its roughly 500 million members at the time) users quit the site. The number one reason for users to quit Facebook was privacy concerns (48%), being followed by a general dissatisfaction with Facebook (14%), negative aspects regarding Facebook friends (13%), and the feeling of getting addicted to Facebook (6%). Facebook quitters were found to be more concerned about privacy, more addicted to the Internet, and more conscientious. Photo recognition and face tagging Facebook enabled an automatic facial recognition feature in June 2011, called \"Tag",
"-23.700883778219577"
],
[
"a YouTube video in December 2012. It went viral, surpassing 3 million views at the time of his death. It currently has more than 13 million views and counting. Death Sobiech died on May 20, 2013 of complications from osteosarcoma, at his home in Lakeland, an eastern suburb of Saint Paul, Minnesota, seventeen days after his 18th birthday. His funeral was held at the Catholic Church of St. Michael and he was later buried in St. Michael's Cemetery. Tributes Rainn Wilson's YouTube channel SoulPancake released a documentary about Sobiech, directed by director-actor Justin Baldoni, a part of its online",
"-23.675976805679966"
],
[
"suicide by hanging himself with an Internet cable.\nMattie and her friends begin to receive online messages from Josh asking for help, but assume that Josh's computer is still on and that a virus is creating the messages. Mattie learns that Josh's computer has been sold to Dex McCarthy (Ian Somerhalder), who finds a number of strange videos on the computer. Mattie receives a package that Josh mailed two days prior to his death. Inside are rolls of red tape and a message telling her that the tape keeps \"them\" out, although he does not know why. Later, Dex visits Mattie",
"-23.631443814272643"
],
[
"forget him, he fakes his death in Italy with the help of his elder sister and arranges a funeral, so that Xiao You can finally move on in her life. But things only get worse for Xiao You, as she gets more emotionally attached to him after his death.\nHer neighbour, Tian Bo, tries to save her from an accident, creating a friendship. However, Xiao You's memories of Jun Ho grow only stronger day by day. His unfinished work at a bar keeps her going. Every night, strangely though, her work seems to be completed by some goodwill stranger. She starts",
"-23.630522860912606"
],
[
"Before I Die (Eamon song) Release \"Before I Die was officially released across all platforms on June 16, 2017. The New York City based magazine Mass Appeal previewed the single along with a positive review of the song on June 15, 2017.",
"-23.62808658205904"
],
[
"couple of hours talking to a lady there\". Death Prior to her death on December 28, 2014, Alcorn scheduled for her suicide note to be automatically posted on her Tumblr account at 5:30 pm. In the note, she stated her intention to end her life, commenting:\nI have decided I've had enough. I'm never going to transition successfully, even when I move out. I'm never going to be happy with the way I look or sound. I'm never going to have enough friends to satisfy me. I'm never going to have enough love to satisfy me. I'm never going to find a",
"-23.602449552097823"
],
[
"covered the grave with leaves. Perpetrator Alyssa Dailene Bustamante's grandparents took legal custody of her and her three younger siblings in 2002, since her mother Michelle had addiction issues and father Caesar was serving time in prison. Friends started noticing changes in Alyssa starting around 2007 when she was hospitalized after a suicide attempt. On her YouTube profile, she listed \"cutting\" as her hobbies.\nAfter the murder, Bustamante wrote in her journal:\nI just fucking killed someone. I strangled them and slit their throat and stabbed them now they’re dead. I don’t know how to feel atm. It was ahmazing. As soon",
"-23.57741408239235"
],
[
"already had a takedown procedure in place.\" Trolling On March 31, 2010, The Today Show ran a segment detailing the deaths of three separate adolescent girls and trolls' subsequent reactions to their deaths. Shortly after the suicide of high school student Alexis Pilkington, anonymous posters began trolling for reactions across various message boards, referring to Pilkington as a \"suicidal CUSS\", and posting graphic images on her Facebook memorial page. The segment also included an exposé of a 2006 accident, in which an eighteen-year-old student out for a drive fatally crashed her father's car into a highway pylon; trolls e-mailed her",
"-23.552992112148786"
],
[
"that Lam's death was accidental.\nSince her death, her Tumblr blog was updated, presumably through Tumblr's Queue option which allows posts to automatically publish themselves when the user is away. Her phone was not found either with her body or in her hotel room; it has been assumed to have been stolen at some time around her death. Whether the continued updates to her blog were facilitated by the theft of her phone, the work of a hacker, or through the Queue, is not known; nor is it known whether the updates are related to her death. Litigation In September, Lam's",
"-23.54126896692196"
],
[
"forum where people can vent about the inappropriate and cringe-worthy things they have inevitably seen on Facebook. Glamour magazine described Facebook as, \"a personal confession booth where we air our dirty laundry\". While sitting behind a computer screen, people often forget that \"everyone else is in the room,\" and that on Facebook, anything posted outside of a private message will be seen by many more people than just the one being communicated with. This leads to the kinds of content people submit to Lamebook: couple fights, inappropriate pictures, embarrassing statuses, etc. Facebook legal action In March 2010, Facebook contacted Lamebook",
"-23.4879199848001"
],
[
"dies, a young man (Sam Rockwell) who is ultimately convicted of vehicular homicide after crashing into a young woman's (played by Jorja Fox) car while drunk, a boy (Joey DiPaolo) who contracts HIV and has to live with the disease, homelessness in Philadelphia and the major impact it has on a teenager (Trevor Ferrell) and the depression and suicide of one popular athletic teenager and its lasting effect on his best friend.",
"-23.475524904730264"
],
[
"Impact of pro-suicidal sites, message boards, chat rooms and forums Social media platforms, such as chat rooms, blogging Web sites (e.g., Tumblr, Reddit), video sites (e.g., YouTube), social networking sites (e.g., Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, Google+), as well as e-mail, text messaging, and video chat, have transformed traditional methods of communication by allowing the instantaneous and interactive sharing of information created and controlled by individuals, groups, organizations, and governments. As of the third quarter of 2015, Facebook had 1.55 billion monthly active users. An immense quantity of information on the topic of suicide is available on the Internet and via social",
"-23.451161973436683"
],
[
"and friends. The cause of death was a condition resulting from a sudden tear in a blood vessel in her heart.",
"-23.437718887624214"
],
[
"you have acne and then you die’ makes you wonder what it’s all for.” Death Wood was diagnosed with terminal cancer in late 2015, but kept her illness private. She died on 20 April 2016 at her Highgate home, in the presence of her children and former husband. Her family celebrated her life with a humanist funeral.",
"-23.42252933891723"
],
[
"Fake My Own Death Music video The song's music video was released through the Hopeless Records official YouTube channel, on June 28, 2016. It was directed by longtime collaborator Marc Klasfeld, who also directed the band's music videos for \"Fat Lip\", \"In Too Deep\", \"We're All to Blame\" and more.\nThe video features the band playing on a rooftop in Downtown Los Angeles, intercut with shots of the band escaping from popular internet memes, as well as internet public figures, that are attacking them, and then ultimately fighting them. Among the memes and public figures in the videos are the Nyan",
"-23.380443635454867"
],
[
"The Dead (Higson novel) Plot The Dead begins a year before the events in The Enemy, where an unnamed user posts a video on Youtube titled \"The Scared Kid\". In it, a boy frantically talks to the camera about how his friends Danny and Eve have been killed by \"Mothers and fathers\" (Zombies), and shows them standing outside his window. He then suffers a nervous breakdown and ends the video. The video goes viral, with people not knowing if it is real or not. Eventually, the video is taken down from Youtube, followed by the site itself, followed by the",
"-23.32909439012292"
],
[
"August 2018, at the age of 32. The case was classified as suicide by police after checking CCTV footage of the building. No suicide note was found.",
"-23.300242421682924"
],
[
"Instagram account.",
"-23.26591800631286"
],
[
"a suicide, the paper famously misreported the cause of death in the obituary, giving the cause of death as viral pneumonia.",
"-23.25235281547066"
],
[
"the main cause of death is cardiovascular disease or cancer.\nAffected individuals can exhibit growth retardation, short stature, premature graying of hair, hair loss, wrinkling, prematurely aged faces, beaked noses, skin atrophy (wasting away) with scleroderma-like lesions, loss of fat tissues, abnormal fat deposition leading to thin legs and arms, and severe ulcerations around the Achilles tendon and malleoli. Other signs include change in voice, making it weak, hoarse, or high-pitched; atrophy of gonads, leading to reduced fertility; bilateral cataracts (clouding of lens); premature arteriosclerosis (thickening and loss of elasticity of arteries); calcinosis (calcium deposits in blood vessels); atherosclerosis (blockage of",
"-23.228464246029034"
],
[
"factor in some suicides.\nRecent notable examples of young adults that commit suicide include Cpt (Dr) Allan Ooi Seng Teik, who ended his life on 3 March 2009 presumably due to disenchantment working with the Singapore Armed Forces. Treatment of the body after death When a person dies, a doctor will certify the cause of death if it is known and due to natural causes. He or she will then fill up a certificate of cause of death (CCOD) which will be given to the family of the deceased. If the doctor is unable to determine the cause of death, or",
"-23.224189966833364"
],
[
"him in a trash can and set him on fire). Mother soon readies to die, and Guy readies to catch her dying breath in a glass bottle. However, the ghost of Wendy/Chance distracts him and Mother dies furious with him for his inattention. Guy is left alone on the island, torn between the past and the future, contemplating suicide. Release Brand Upon the Brain! premiered at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival, where it was accompanied by a live orchestra, singer, an interlocutor (in the style of Japanese benshi), and Foley artists, Andy Malcolm, Goro Koyama and Caoimhe Doyle. The",
"-23.2171060955734"
],
[
"What Doesn't Kill You (Jake Bugg song) Music video A music video to accompany the release of \"What Doesn't Kill You\" was first released onto YouTube on 23 September 2013 at a total length of three minutes.",
"-23.138802632602165"
],
[
"that person, I’ll die.' And once in a while, those things you think will kill you happen. You know, someone breaks up with you, or one of your parents gets really sick or something. But you make it through anything, really. And the image that was in my mind was that if you were out at sea, and you were freezing and thought you were going to drown – somehow we have the capacity to get over anything and the image that I had in mind was that your legs would just grow down to the bottom and you’d walk",
"-23.11520996702984"
],
[
"to Nico and they hug. Nico tells Sienna that she stabbed her in the back like Patrick did and stabs Sienna with a broken piece of glass leaving Sienna bleeding heavily. Nico leaves Sienna to die but she is found by Grace Black (Tamara Wall) and Trevor and is taken to hospital and makes a full recovery. Sienna forgives Nico for stabbing her and they agree to forget all about it.\nNico is delighted when Sienna and Ben get married, however, her happiness is short lived when she discovers that Sienna was having an affair with Trevor. Angry that Trevor almost",
"-23.11504196793976"
],
[
"In it were words such as \"I am broken inside\", \"I hate myself\", and references to a doctor who blamed his depression on his personality.\nOn October 14 2019, Sulli, an actress and former member of F(x), died by suicide. She was found dead in her home by her manager. Media According to a study, South Korea experiences a surge of suicides after deaths of celebrities. The study has found three out of eleven cases of celebrity suicide resulted in a higher suicide rate of the population. The study controlled for the potential effects of confounding factors, such as seasonality and",
"-23.09891851397697"
],
[
"the Daily Telegraph, she would refuse to answer her phone. She was also a sufferer of the lung condition chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Death She died some time in 2017. Her body had been lying undiscovered for about a month. The last time she was seen alive was on 30 January. Police found her body on 27 February after neighbors sounded an alarm. Her friend Garvan Dormer who she had known for 40 years had last seen her in December 2016. He said she was feeling a bit down. Dormer wasn't even aware that she had died and",
"-23.097453430498717"
],
[
"brain injury it can be associated with memory impairment, Alzheimer's disease; however, as far as aging is concerned it poses other threats as well. There is evidence that supports a high incidence of falls among the elderly population and this is a leading cause of TBI-associated death among the population of people 75 years of age and older. When looking at the chart to the right on the page, it states that falls are only 28% of the total causes of TBI, so that would suggest that the elderly make up a good portion of that 28% overall. ",
"-23.079993942083092"
],
[
"They each receive a link of an Instagram post showing a photo of Val and Laura's messages from before Laura's death, with Val telling Laura to kill herself, this causes her Facebook friends to turn against her. Val is suddenly brought back into the chat, sitting still next to a bottle of bleach before collapsing. From the police presence on the audio link, they deduce that Val died from a presumed suicide. Ken uses a program to remove \"billie227\" from the chat, and Adam attempts to call the police. However, the 911 operator on the other end turns out to",
"-23.071672246413073"
],
[
"years including seven deaths.\nIn 2009, a 15-year-old, Senshan Deng, was found dead eight hours after being sent to an Internet-addiction center in Nanning, Guangxi Province. It is reported that the teenager was beaten by his trainers during his stay in the center.\nIn 2009, another 14-year-old teenager, Liang Pu, was taken to hospital with water in the lungs and kidney failure after a similar attack in Sichuan Province.\nIn 2014, a 19-year-old, Lingling Guo, died in an Internet-addiction center with multiple injuries on head and neck in Zhengzhou, Henan Province.\nIn 2016, after escaping from an Internet addiction rehab center, a 16-year-old girl",
"-23.052823654870735"
],
[
"(Ashwanth Ashokkumar) continue making fake ghost videos on YouTube, which eventually catches the public's attention and goes viral. The movie then shows Amudhan, who is on a lookout for a few people whom he met in the local bar. After enquiring in a few places, he finds where the people live and goes to their houses. Suddenly, the same two people whom he had been looking for fall from the top of their apartment building to their deaths, which is actually the same way the other people have also died.\nAmudhan then climbs to the rooftop of the building, only to",
"-23.050943320340593"
],
[
"5 September 2019 it was declared she died from a suicide because lithium tablets and a bottle of wine were found near her body. She died the same day of the disappearance at the age of 56.",
"-23.049077167870564"
],
[
"on Instagram.",
"-23.02379602062865"
],
[
"a Google Doodle created by Google artist Sophie Diao. Illness and death Jones was diagnosed with lung cancer in the early summer of 2009. She underwent surgery in July and reported to friends that the procedure had been successful. However, in June 2010 she announced that she would be discontinuing chemotherapy because it only made her feel ill. In mid-2010 she was halfway through a new book with plans for another to follow. She died on 26 March 2011 from the disease. She was surrounded by her husband, three sons, and five grandchildren as she was cremated at Canford Cemetery.\nShe",
"-22.992020750505617"
],
[
"died was the girl he almost ran over the night before. Upon returning home the ghost of Siu-Yu appears to Chi-Ming and tells him that her death was an accident, and to pay the insurance money to her goddaughter Mimi.\nAt work Chi-Ming is about to write up his report but his boss intervenes telling him to say that the girl committed suicide. Later, Chi-Ming tells her that he can't help as it is his boss's decision. After hearing this Siu-Yu begins playing pranks on Chi-Ming's boss causing him to fire Chi-Ming. Chi-Ming takes losing his job hard, ending with him",
"-22.912303849007003"
],
[
"of herself.\nBrosh in October 2011 revealed she had depression to her readers on Reddit and kept her online presence inactive for more than a year. In May 2013, she made a long post chronicling her struggle and thoughts of suicide. In this second post, she describes the moment she realized that she wished that nothing loved her, \"so I wouldn't feel obligated to keep existing.\" In the same year, she had over 380,000 Facebook likes and around 72 million website views. It got 1.5 million visits in a day while the amount of positive and supportive comments that they were",
"-22.8689878350051"
],
[
"the official cause of death, the former secretary insists she saw blood when she discovered the body. Sunny follows up by interviewing the police officer at the scene who reluctantly confirms that it was in fact a suicide. The college president had insisted on reporting it as a heart attack to prevent a scandal the school couldn't afford.\nLater Sunny breaks into Bob's apartment and while searching his address book, finds the name Chico Zarilla. This name leads them to an apartment and the first thing they see in the apartment is a life-size picture of Robert Johnson Sr. and a",
"-22.84669532661792"
],
[
"once stabbed Euronymous with a knife.\nOn 8 April 1991, Dead committed suicide in the house owned by the band. He was found by Euronymous with slit wrists and a shotgun wound to the head. Dead's suicide note started with the sentence \"Excuse all the blood\" and included a brief explanation \"nobody will never understand this, but as a sort of explanation, I am not human, this is only a dream and soon I will get awake\".The full text has become public and it ended by saying \"I didn't decided this now but 17 years ago\". Attached to the note, Dead",
"-22.822048767236993"
],
[
"fiancée, whom he eventually loses. Then he discovers that dead bodies do not trigger his illness. He withdraws from life around him to work as a pathologist, dealing only with dead bodies. Life is calm until he encounters a woman’s dead body covered from neck to toe with writing.\nIntrigued, he starts to read.\nShe was a poet. Imprisoned as a wife and mother, she suffered postnatal depression. Writing was her solace, but she sought escape so much it became a dangerous obsessive compulsive disorder. They locked her in a psychiatric hospital to recover. When released, she was told not to touch",
"-22.78696040745126"
],
[
"that too was quickly removed by Instagram. Twitter had identified and banned accounts guilty of circulating the clips, but left Wheeler Walker's account active. Days later, Wheeler Walker Jr deleted both his Twitter and Instagram accounts, after the backlash he received for inciting violence against the teenagers.",
"-22.77208762129885"
],
[
"be alive. On 9 May 2019, Ede revealed that internet trolls had begun to wish her dead on social media. On 11 May 2019, Ede died in the front garden of her home in Cottingham, East Riding of Yorkshire. Ede's partner Rachel Nason found her slumped behind the wheel of her car and tried to resuscitate her. An ambulance crew were called to the scene and Ede was pronounced dead on their arrival. A post-mortem examination revealed that Ede had died from a heart-attack as a result of ischemic heart disease. Her funeral took place on 30 May 2019. Personal",
"-22.751565752376337"
],
[
"I'm Dying\". The tour was filmed for a comedy special of the same name that is scheduled to air on OutTV in Canada in October 2019. Personal life In January 2018, McCook announced a hiatus from drag for mental health reasons, and his comedy tour as Katya, \"Help Me, I'm Dying\", was postponed until spring 2019. Returning to Twitter in March 2018, McCook announced that the tour would likely be renamed due to his recovery.\nOn the March 20 episode of his podcast, Whimsically Volatile, McCook described his drag hiatus in detail, saying he had suffered a psychotic break after relapsing",
"-22.721633256223868"
],
[
"does not have a happy ending. It ends in Thangam's suicide because her father and his relatives beat up and hang Murugesan as they are trying to kill him due to their dislike of him. At that moment, Thangam shows up with a knife and threatens to kill herself if they do not release Murugesan; as they do not release him, she cuts her throat and dies. Murugesan is heartbroken and is released at that moment after Thangam’s death, and he begins to drink a lot. Sometime later, the theatre is demolished, the owner citing loss of business.\nMurugesan decides to",
"-22.713677629522863"
],
[
"diegetic dialogue between members of the band's ghosts interrupts the music (\"So what do you think about being dead?\" \"...I don't know, my neck hurts.\" \"At least I died doing what I love. Lip-syncing. I love that shit\"). The boy is then shown going around showing people the egg. One of the characters shown the egg is played by regional actress, Jovana Batkovic. Jovana Batkovic would later become the frontwoman for the Cleveland-based band HotChaCha. When the people he meets see the egg, they throw up a chicken egg and die. The boy consults a welder to destroy the egg,",
"-22.687926012818934"
],
[
"there is a fall-out shelter and she knows the code to enter, they stop to eat in a country hotel where all the guests are dead. Iris dies too, it is unclear if because of the virus or due to overdose.\nRobinson reaches the castle and enters with the code, he finds a decadent party going on where all the guests are enjoying their last moments on earth before going into the shelter. They are watching porn and having sex, while drinking blue martinis. Robinson breaks the news of Iris' death to the Marquise, who lays down in bed with a",
"-22.663859438311192"
],
[
"app that allowed users to identify and threaten Facebook friends for assassination. Methods of identifying female friends included \"her hairy legs\", \"her muffin top\" and \"her small tits\". Methods of identifying male friends included \"his ginger hair\", \"his shit hair\" and \"his tiny penis\". Users could choose a reason to kill their friend, such as the fact that they \"smell bad\" or were cheating on their partner. Friends received a personalised video on their Facebook wall identifying them as a target. Signing up to watch the video presented recipients with a mixture of their own photos and Facebook details merged",
"-22.65073429053882"
],
[
"I Will Die for You Music video A music video to accompany the release of \"I Will Die for You\" was first released onto YouTube on 1 October 2013 at a total length of three minutes and twenty-nine seconds.",
"-22.64428928538109"
],
[
"suicide notes and commit suicide. After they each write their suicide notes, he tells her that the suicide note was just a test. He says that only cowards commit suicide and destroys his note, while keeping Seema's. They decide to marry secretly the next day. When they arrive, the registrar is closed, so they go up to the roof of the building for sightseeing. He makes her sit on the parapet and tells her the truth about himself, after which he throws her to her death from the rooftop of the building. He then posts the suicide note and leaves,",
"-22.621673360015848"
],
[
"died on November 5, 2009, from an apparent suicide due to his suffering from depression.",
"-22.62044952690485"
],
[
"My Life Without Me Plot Ann (Sarah Polley) is a hard-working 23-year-old mother with two small daughters, an unemployed husband (Scott Speedman), a mother (Deborah Harry) who sees her life as a failure, and a jailed father whom she has not seen for ten years. Her life changes dramatically when, during a medical checkup following a collapse, she is diagnosed with metastatic ovarian cancer and told that she has only two months to live.\nDeciding not to tell anyone of her condition and using the cover of anemia, Ann makes a list of things to do before she dies. She decides",
"-22.619769981247373"
],
[
"and apologizing to his colleagues for the trouble he was causing them. His suicide note read:\nUntil yesterday I had no definite intention of killing myself. But more than a few must have noticed that lately I have been tired both physically and mentally. As to the cause of my suicide, I don't quite understand it myself, but it is not the result of a particular incident, nor of a specific matter. Merely may I say, I am in the frame of mind that I lost confidence in my future. There may be someone to whom my suicide will be troubling",
"-22.609261380683165"
],
[
"claims that \"NO I do not Google people. NO I do not research people. NO I do not go onto people’s obituaries. I do not go onto Ancestry.com.\" Gerbic's article includes screenshots of John's monitor captured during the live steam. These pictures contain saved reading lists from past Google searches, including searches for specific individuals as well as for intelius.com, a website which states that it is \"a confidential way to find people so you can reconnect or just get more info on a person. People Search reports can include phone numbers, address history, age & date of birth, relatives,",
"-22.602308524947148"
],
[
"Die On Your Feet Die on Your Feet is an Australian television comedy series premiering on One on 7 August 2014. The eight-part series follows the story of five stand-up comedians trying to make a go of it in the Melbourne Comedy Festival. The main characters are played by five real life stand-up comedians. The series was directed by Ted Robinson and is based on a 2005 play.",
"-22.59604988434876"
],
[
"them are eventually found dead at a nearby river.\nWhen Michi attempts to kiss the photo, Aya stops her and reveals that she is not responsible for the curse, as the photo is not hers. They search help in Kazumi \"Mary\" Kusanagi, an eccentric photographer, who keeps photos inside her studio of lesbian girls who made suicide pact by drowning themselves at a lake, which is now closed down, due to the then society's intolerance towards same-sex couples. She also tells a story about a couple who was doomed when one of them refused to commit suicide, causing her to be",
"-22.59374940043199"
],
[
"Global Panel Foundation, an NGO that works behind the scenes in crisis areas around the world. Death Mock died on 1 June 2017 from complications of Parkinson's disease at the age of 82.",
"-22.585122834163485"
],
[
"on the store, the lack of consequences for men exposing their bodies on Instagram, and for inconsistent treatment of what constitutes inappropriate exposure of the female body. Timeline algorithm In April 2016, Instagram began rolling out a change to the order of photos visible in a user's timeline, shifting from a strictly chronological order to one determined by an algorithm. Instagram said the algorithm was designed so that users would see more of the photos by users that they liked, but there was significant negative feedback, with many users asking their followers to turn on post notifications in order to",
"-22.56418022599246"
],
[
"Each week a video was launched on the shows Facebook page showing memories of the past, parts of the ad, and the character's solemn face. 2017 In the 2017 Finale, A shooter hired by Mason Coutts attempts to shoot Finn after Finn receives numerous death threats. Frank jumps in front of the bullet and is shot, but after extensive care, he recovers. The shooter then enters the hospital and then attempts shooting Finn again, but is killed by Chris.\nEsther is then kidnapped and is threatened to have her throat slit by one of the prisoners who killed his own",
"-22.563438146578846"
]
] |
4wg3st | What are those 'inside itches' we can't scratch? | [
"It's because the nerves responsible for sensation **on your skin (called \"dermatomes\") look like [this]( URL_0 ). Each one of those lines correspond with a region of the brain that causes sensation. Notice how there are 3 sections in the hands alone, but 3 sections in the entire leg. Your hands need to be much more sensitive, which is why there are more nerves dedicated to those areas than the legs or arms (for example). So when you can't get that itch, it's not that it's *under* the skin, it's that it's in a different area completely. You just can't tell very well, because the nerves aren't as accurate in some areas, and you're just feeling that there is an itch in that general direction instead.",
"Basically your sensory nerves are confusing your brain. The nerves are telling your brain the itch is in one place when it's really in another. A common related example, though not an itch, is when someone has an injury near the groin - their entire leg may feel pain, or just a particular part of their leg or foot may feel pain. The injured nerve near the groin is responsible for carrying the messages from the legs as well, and so it can send a confusing message to the brain when it's injured, signalling pain the leg, when there really is none.",
"Your skin is many layers thick, and there are different nerves present in each of these layers. Some nerves are deeper, others are closer to the surface. If the itch is being caused by a neuron that's in a deeper layer of your skin sending signals to your brain, scratching the surface of the skin might not stimulate that neuron enough to make the itch go away. [Here's]( URL_0 ) a figure showing all the different kinds of neurons you have in your dermis and epidermis as well as their relative depth in the skin. They all respond to different kinds of sensation, such as pressure, vibration, pull, stretch, light brush, etc. If you find scratching an itch doesn't make it go away, try stimulating the skin in a different way! Rubbing it, pushing down, etc."
] | [
[
"relative to the condition, a common view suggests that the initial cause of the itch may have passed, and that the illness is in fact prolonged by what is known as an itch-scratch-itch cycle. It states that scratching the itch encourages the release of inflammatory chemicals, which worsen redness, intensifies itchiness and increases the area covered by dry skin, thereby causing a snowball effect.\nSome authorities describe “psychogenic pruritus” or \"functional itch disorder\", where psychological factors may contribute to awareness of itching.\nIngestion of pinworm eggs leads to enterobiasis, indicative of severe itching around the anus from migration of gravid females from",
"-33.778357985720504"
],
[
"microscopically, if a skin biopsy is silver stained (the Warthin–Starry method). Cat-scratch disease Cat-scratch disease is due to an infection by B. henselae and manifests as gradual regional lymph nodes enlargement (axilla, groin, neck) which may last 2–3 months or longer and a distal scratch and/or red-brown skin papule (not always seen at the time of the disease). The enlarged lymph node is painful and tender. The lymph nodes may suppurate, some patients may remain afebrile or asymptomatic. Other presentations include fever (particularly in children), Parinaud's oculoglandular syndrome, encephalopathy, and neuroretinitis.\nB. henselae can be associated with bacteremia, bacillary angiomatosis, and",
"-33.18481751077343"
],
[
"tightly enclosed shoe, or in dead skin particles on the wet floor of a communal (shared) shower. Their spores are extremely difficult to eliminate, and spread everywhere.\nWhen the hyphae of the fungi burrow into the skin and release enzymes to digest keratin, they may irritate nerve endings and cause the host to itch, which may elicit the scratch reflex, which directs the host to scratch. Scratching directly transfers fungi and dead skin particles that are infested with the fungi to the fingers and under the finger nails. From there they can be transmitted to other parts of the",
"-32.47648099018261"
],
[
"who are scratched. In most cases, the cause is unknown, although it may be preceded by a viral infection, antibiotic therapy, or emotional upset. Dermographism is diagnosed by taking a tongue blade and drawing it over the skin of the arm or back. The hives should develop within a few minutes. Unless the skin is highly sensitive and reacts continually, treatment is not needed. Taking antihistamines can reduce the response in cases that are annoying to the person. Pressure or delayed pressure This type of hives can occur right away, precisely after a pressure stimulus or as a deferred response",
"-32.431108670309186"
],
[
"It is easily recognized (see signs and symptoms, and gallery). Biopsies are sometimes necessary to confirm the diagnosis and differentiate it from other similar appearing lesions. Treatment Treatment is aimed at reducing itching and minimizing existing lesions because rubbing and scratching exacerbate LSC. The itching and inflammation may be treated with a lotions or steroid cream (such as triamcinolone or Betamethasone) applied to the affected area of the skin. Night-time scratching can be reduced with sedatives and antihistamines. Doxepin is often prescribed, as it offers both antihistamine properties and is also effective at reducing the (itch scratch cycle) associated with",
"-32.2528367350169"
],
[
"Prurigo simplex Presentation The most common prurigo simplex symptoms are skin nodules resembling insect bites that are intensely itchy. These nodules are frequently scratched open, becoming lesions that continue to itch. Sometimes the skin thickens and becomes discolored around the nodules. The scalp, arms, legs and trunk of the body are the most frequent sites of the bumps and lesions. Itching can become severe and habitual, worsening the condition and possibly causing infections in the open sores. Treatment Treatment is challenging, with narrow band UVB or pimozide sometimes helpful. Prognosis Sometimes the nodules become less itchy and eventually disappear leaving",
"-32.07402389892377"
],
[
"to one's environment. Scratching also causes infected skin scales to fall off into one's environment, leading to further possible spread.\nWhen athlete's foot fungus or infested skin particles spread to one's environment (such as to clothes, shoes, bathroom, etc.) whether through scratching, falling, or rubbing off, not only can they infect other people, they can also reinfect (or further infect) the host they came from. For example, infected feet infest one's socks and shoes which further expose the feet to the fungus and its spores when worn again.\nThe ease with which the fungus spreads to other areas of the body",
"-31.828852932783775"
],
[
"arms, thighs, knees, and back. It is directly related to celiac disease, can often be put into remission with an appropriate diet, and tends to get worse at night. (ICD-10 L13.0) Neurodermatitis Neurodermatitis (lichen simplex chronicus, localized scratch dermatitis) is an itchy area of thickened, pigmented eczema patch that results from habitual rubbing and scratching. Usually, there is only one spot. Often curable through behaviour modification and anti-inflammatory medication. Prurigo nodularis is a related disorder showing multiple lumps. (ICD-10 L28.0; L28.1) Autoeczematization Autoeczematization (id reaction, auto sensitization) is an eczematous reaction to an infection with parasites, fungi, bacteria, or viruses.",
"-31.806850497720006"
],
[
"from ingesting any of the medicine being applied on the skin, or to prevent it from harming itself in the infected area. Viruses and fungus In addition to preventing the animal from harming themselves or ingesting medicine being applied on their skins, Elizabethan collars also prevent the animal from further spreading the infection due to it licking, biting, or scratching itself elsewhere after touching the infection area. Hot spots, an infection that could be attributed to multiple reasons, are the most common infections that could be spread due to an animal licking or scratching the area. Dangers of Elizabethan collars",
"-31.734853630594444"
],
[
"itch. The bite site has a single puncture point in the center. Bites often appear in clusters or small rows and can remain inflamed for up to several weeks.\nThis species bites many species of mammals and birds, including domesticated ones. It has been found on dogs and wild canids, monkeys in captivity, opossums, domestic cats, wild felids in captivity, chickens, black rats and Norwegian rats, wild rodents, pigs, free-tailed bats, and other species. It can also be an intermediate host for the flea tapeworm cestode Dipylidium caninum.\nFleas can spread rapidly and move between areas to include eyebrows, eyelashes, and pubic",
"-31.605233660520753"
],
[
"easily spread and thrive. The itching sensation associated with athlete's foot can be so severe that it may cause hosts to scratch vigorously enough to inflict excoriations (open wounds), which are susceptible to bacterial infection. Further scratching may remove scabs, inhibiting the healing process.\nScratching infected areas may also spread the fungus to the fingers and under the fingernails. If not washed away soon enough, it can infect the fingers and fingernails, growing in the skin and in the nails (not just underneath). After scratching, it can be spread to wherever the person touches, including other parts of the body and",
"-31.282707803300582"
],
[
"many victims believe they have simply scratched themselves on a sharp stone or shell, although this barely hurts; significant pain begins about 2–3 minutes after being stung. Weever stings cause severe pain; common descriptions from victims are \"extremely painful\" and \"much worse than a wasp (or bee) sting\".\nCommon and minor symptoms include severe pain, itching, swelling, heat, redness, numbness, tingling, nausea, vomiting, joint aches, headaches, abdominal cramps, lightheadedness, increased urination, and tremors.\nRare and severe symptoms include abnormal heart rhythms, weakness, shortness of breath, seizures, decreased blood pressure, gangrene, tissue degeneration, and unconsciousness. Treatment Although extremely unpleasant, weever stings are",
"-31.076733653910196"
],
[
"the bite can arise. Treatment of bites is usually supportive, administering opiates for pain and benzodiazepines for spasms. An antidote is available in South Africa for the bites of both L. indistinctus and L. geometricus, however it is only used for severe cases of envenomation due to its potentially severe side effects. Individuals who are allergic to the venom may also require epinephrine (adrenaline) or diphenhydramine to treat subsequent anaphylaxis.",
"-31.004367220128188"
],
[
"Latrodectism Signs and symptoms A bite of Latrodectus may not inject any venom (known as a dry bite) and so no illness occurs. About 75% of \"wet\" bites will have localized pain and nothing more. If, however, there is a substantial dose, a bite can cause latrodectism. The main symptoms are generalized muscle pain, stomach cramps, nausea and vomiting.\nInitially a pinprick or burning sensation can be felt when bitten by widow spiders. If there was enough venom injected, pain worsens over the next hour. The area will develop localized sweating and gooseflesh piloerection. The pain may spread and become generalized.\nThe",
"-30.929874674184248"
],
[
"is marked by the appearance of weals or welts on the skin as a result of scratching or firm stroking of the skin. Seen in 4–5% of the population, it is one of the most common types of urticaria, in which the skin becomes raised and inflamed when stroked, scratched, rubbed, and sometimes even slapped.\nThe skin reaction usually becomes evident soon after the scratching, and disappears within 30 minutes. Dermatographism is the most common form of a subset of chronic hives, acknowledged as \"physical hives\".\nIt stands in contrast to the linear reddening that does not itch seen in healthy people",
"-30.87398355291225"
],
[
"Dermatographic urticaria Signs and symptoms The condition manifests as an allergic-like reaction, causing a warm red wheal to appear on the skin. As it is often the result of scratches, involving contact with other materials, it can be confused with an allergic reaction, when in fact it is the act of being scratched that causes a wheal to appear. These wheals are a subset of urticaria (hives), and appear within minutes, in some cases accompanied by itching. The first outbreak of urticaria can lead to other reactions on body parts not directly stimulated, scraped, or scratched. In a normal case,",
"-30.797289061243646"
],
[
"Lichen simplex chronicus Signs and symptoms People burdened with LSC report pruritus, followed by uncontrollable scratching of the same body region, excessively. Most common sites of LSC are the sides of the neck, the scalp, ankles, vulva, pubis, scrotum, and extensor sides of the forearms. However, due to the stigma associated with chronic scratching, some patients will not admit to chronic rubbing or abrasion. The skin may become thickened and hyperpigmented (lichenified) as a direct result of chronic excoriation. Typically this period of increased scratching is associated with stressors. Diagnosis LSC is typically diagnosed by careful observation and history taking.",
"-30.743403490053424"
],
[
"urticaria (a rash), dizziness, weakness, wheezing, and angioedema (a temporary itchy, pink or red swelling occurring around the eyes or lips); a few people experience an allergic reaction. The site of the bite should be washed and a cold compress applied. Scratching the wound should be avoided and an antihistamine preparation can be applied. In most cases, the symptoms subside within a few hours, but if the wound becomes infected, medical advice should be sought. In literature In Prometheus Bound, which is attributed to the Athenian tragic playwright Aeschylus, a gadfly sent by Zeus's wife Hera pursues and torments his",
"-30.725013469404075"
],
[
"severe itching, evolves into inflammation, non-colored bumps, and then blistering when scratched.",
"-30.6555960662663"
],
[
"Impetigo Contagious impetigo This most common form of impetigo, also called nonbullous impetigo, most often begins as a red sore near the nose or mouth which soon breaks, leaking pus or fluid, and forms a honey-colored scab, followed by a red mark which heals without leaving a scar. Sores are not painful, but they may be itchy. Lymph nodes in the affected area may be swollen, but fever is rare. Touching or scratching the sores may easily spread the infection to other parts of the body.\nSkin ulcers with redness and scarring also may result from scratching or abrading the skin.",
"-30.636346117360517"
],
[
"host's body when the host touches or scratches those. Scratching also damages skin layers, making it easier for the fungi to spread at the site of the infection. If the fungi and infested debris are not washed from the fingers and fingernails soon enough, the fungi can also infect the skin of the fingers (tinea manuum), and burrow underneath and into the material of the fingernails (tinea unguium). If left untreated, the fungi continue to grow and spread.",
"-30.567552798027464"
],
[
"Transmission The infection is spread by direct contact with lesions or with nasal carriers. The incubation period is 1–3 days after exposure to Streptococcus and 4–10 days for Staphylococcus. Dried streptococci in the air are not infectious to intact skin. Scratching may spread the lesions. Diagnosis Impetigo is usually diagnosed based on its appearance. It generally appears as honey-colored scabs formed from dried serum, and is often found on the arms, legs, or face. If a visual diagnosis is unclear a culture may be done to test for resistant bacteria. Differential diagnosis Other conditions that can result in symptoms similar",
"-30.498359418474138"
],
[
"pathogens from the body. For example, scratching is induced by pruritogens that stimulate nociceptors on epidermal tissues. These pruritogens, like histamine, also cause other immune cells to secrete further pruritogens in an effort to cause more itching to physically remove parasitic invaders. In terms of intestinal and bronchial parasites, vomiting, coughing, and diarrhea can also be caused by nociceptor stimulation in infected tissues, and nerve impulses originating from the brain stem that innervate respective smooth muscles.\nEosinophils in response to capsaicin, can trigger further sensory sensitization to the molecule. Patients with chronic cough also have an enhanced cough reflex to pathogens",
"-30.31496182660885"
],
[
"the bites. The bites are usually shaped like a semi-circle, but may also be irregular. Blister cell Blister cells are the precursor of bite cells. In patients with G6PD deficiency, blister cells appear as red blood cells containing a peripherally located vacuole. Causes Bite cells are primarily caused by G6PD deficiency and unstable hemoglobins probably from red-cell enzymopathies involving the pentose phosphate shunt. People receiving large quantities of aromatic drugs or metabolites are more prone to have degmacytes. Etymology From Ancient Greek δῆγμα (dêgma): “to bite” + -cyte.",
"-30.30665963969659"
],
[
"linear from brushing up against the plant. Causes of the Koebner phenomenon that are secondary to scratching rather than an infective or chemical cause include vitiligo, psoriasis, lichen planus, lichen nitidus, pityriasis rubra pilaris, and keratosis follicularis (Darier disease). History The Koebner phenomenon was named after the rather eccentric but renowned German dermatologist Heinrich Koebner (1838–1904). Koebner is best known for his work in mycology. His intense nature is illustrated by the following: in a medical meeting, he proudly exhibited on his arms and chest three different fungus infections, which he had self-inoculated, in order to prove the",
"-30.302722586784512"
],
[
"preparations available from veterinary surgeons as well as over the counter at many pet stores and online. If the chosen solution does not destroy mite eggs, treatment should be repeated after one month, to catch the next generation of mites that will have hatched by then. Relief, in terms of the cat or dog no longer scratching at his or her ears, will be noticeable within a few hours. However, since mite irritation is partly allergic (see scabies), symptoms may also outlive mites by weeks. Moreover, it may take topical antibiotics and several weeks to clear infected external wounds caused",
"-30.19037507288158"
],
[
"Importance Lutzomyia anthophora bites are painful and can cause an allergic reaction. This also allows for the possibility of a secondary infection. Some studies have suggested they may be a vector of the bacteria Bartonella baciliformis. They are a known vector of Leishmania mexicana, which causes both cutaneous and diffuse cutansous leishmaniasis",
"-30.119223415618762"
],
[
"Scratching post A scratching post is a wooden post covered in rough material that cat owners provide so their pets have an acceptable place to scratch. Cats have a natural urge to scratch: the action helps them remove old material from their claws, and they mark territory with scent glands in their paws. Indoor cats may be prevented from exercising this urge on furniture if they are provided with an acceptable scratching post.\n \nThe most common type of post consists of a wooden post, roughly 60–90 cm (24–36 inches) tall, covered in rough fabric or sisal. The post",
"-30.105386981042102"
],
[
"to feel for a place to bite. To feed, they pierce the skin and inject saliva containing an anticoagulant and an anesthetic. The anesthetic reduces pain so the host does not detect the bite, and the anticoagulant prevents blood from clotting so they can continue to feed. Pathological organisms contained in the saliva injection by the female mosquitoes can quickly spread diseases.",
"-29.98900795506779"
],
[
"Antipruritic Antipruritics, also known as anti-itch drugs, are medications that inhibit the itching (Latin: pruritus) often associated with sunburns, allergic reactions, eczema, psoriasis, chickenpox, fungal infections, insect bites and stings like those from mosquitoes, fleas, and mites, and contact dermatitis and urticaria caused by plants such as poison ivy (urushiol-induced contact dermatitis) or stinging nettle.",
"-29.962581025694817"
],
[
"or scraped off and even a delay of a few seconds leads to more venom being injected. Once the stinger is removed, pain and swelling should be reduced with a cold compress. A topical anesthetic containing benzocaine will kill pain quickly and menthol is an effective anti-itch treatment. Itching can also be relieved by antihistamine or by a steroid cream.\nMany traditional remedies have been suggested for bee stings including damp pastes of tobacco, salt, baking soda, papain, toothpaste, clay, garlic, urine, onions, aspirin or even application of copper coins. As with jellyfish stings, ammonia and ammonia-containing liquids, such as window",
"-29.555466933292337"
],
[
"burning sensation, followed by urticaria. The sting site typically swells into a bump within hours, which can cause further pain and irritation, especially following several stings at the same place. The bump may develop into a white pustule within 24–36 hours which can become infected if scratched, but will spontaneously flatten within a few days if left alone. The pustules are obtrusive and uncomfortable while active and, if they become infected, may cause scarring. Some people may become allergic to the venom, and if untreated, may become increasingly sensitive to the point of experiencing anaphylaxis following fire ant stings, which",
"-29.51380644246092"
],
[
"Rickettsialpox Signs and symptoms The first symptom is a bump formed by the bite, eventually resulting in a black, crusty scab. Many of the symptoms are flu-like including fever, chills, weakness and achy muscles but the most distinctive symptom is the rash that breaks out, spanning the infected person's entire body. Transmission The bacteria are originally found in mice and cause mites feeding on the mice (usually the house mouse) to become infected. Humans will get rickettsialpox when receiving a bite from an infected mite, not from the mice themselves.\nThe mite is Liponyssoides sanguineus, which was previously known as Allodermanyssus",
"-29.494783701898996"
],
[
"penetrate to lower layers of skin. Transmission of disease Normally, the bite mark causes local swelling or welts, but in more serious cases it causes dermatitis. The mite can be infected with a disease called scrub typhus in Asia and the Pacific by carrying saliva directly to the blood stream, but mites in North America have not been known to transmit Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tularemia or any other disease.",
"-29.41168037126772"
],
[
"listed by its name by mandatory labeling conventions.\nIt can cause allergic reactions, with numerous large surveys identifying it as being in the \"top five\" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions. It may cause inflammation, redness, swelling, soreness, itching, and blisters, including allergic contact dermatitis, stomatitis (inflammation and soreness of the mouth or tongue), cheilitis (inflammation, rash, or painful erosion of the lips, oropharyngeal mucosa, or angles of their mouth), pruritus, hand eczema, generalized or resistant plantar dermatitis, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis. Collection Balsam of Peru is an aromatic viscous resin obtained by scorching or inflicting V-shaped wounds on",
"-29.30255177017534"
],
[
"painful, but they are irritating. It is common for the sleeping victim to scratch or rub their face near the bite, which may cause any feces deposited by the insect to enter the site of the bite. If the insect is infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, this can infect the human and cause Chagas disease.\nHowever, Triatoma sanguisuga does not defecate while feeding as does the South American Triatoma infestans, making it much less likely to transmit the pathogen Trypanosoma cruzi to its human hosts. Even so, at one location in Louisiana, 40% of Triatoma sanguisuga were found to contain the pathogen",
"-29.286399640433956"
],
[
"common dermatitis problems for flower pickers, packers, florists and gardeners, \"daffodil itch\", involves dryness, fissures, scaling, and erythema in the hands, often accompanied by subungual hyperkeratosis (thickening of the skin beneath the nails). It is blamed on exposure to calcium oxalate, chelidonic acid or alkaloids such as lycorine in the sap, either due to a direct irritant effect or an allergic reaction. It has long been recognised that some cultivars provoke dermatitis more readily than others. N. pseudonarcissus and the cultivars \"Actaea\", \"Camparelle\", \"Gloriosa\", \"Grande Monarque\", \"Ornatus\", \"Princeps\" and \"Scilly White\" are known to do so.\nIf bulb extracts come into",
"-29.247028028126806"
],
[
"an infected person or animal. During the day, triatomines hide in crevices in the walls and roofs.\nThe bugs emerge at night, when the inhabitants are sleeping. Because they tend to feed on people's faces, triatomine bugs are also known as \"kissing bugs\". After they bite and ingest blood, they defecate on the person. Triatomines pass T. cruzi parasites (called trypomastigotes) in feces left near the site of the bite wound.\nScratching the site of the bite causes the trypomastigotes to enter the host through the wound, or through intact mucous membranes, such as the conjunctiva. Once inside the host, the trypomastigotes",
"-29.17648570080928"
],
[
"of demodectic mange usually do not cause much itching but might cause pustules, redness, scaling, leathery skin, hair loss, skin that is warm to the touch, or any combination of these. It most commonly appears first on the face, around the eyes, or at the corners of the mouth, and on the forelimbs and paws. It may be misdiagnosed as a \"hot spot\" or other skin ailment.\nIn the more severe form, hair loss can occur in patches all over the body and might be accompanied by crusting, pain, enlarged lymph nodes, and deep skin infections.\nTypically, animals become infected through nursing",
"-29.160755766322836"
],
[
"containing no water—and therefore not subject to dehydration and subsequent crazing as seen in opal—ammolite is often damaged due to environmental exposure. The thin, delicate sheets in which ammolite occurs are also problematic; for these reasons, most material is impregnated with a clear epoxy or other synthetic resin to stabilize the flake-prone ammolite prior to cutting. Although the tessellated cracking cannot be repaired, the epoxy prevents further flaking and helps protect the relatively soft surface from scratching. The impregnation process was developed over a number of years by Korite in partnership with the Alberta Research Council. Impregnated and epoxy-coated ammolite",
"-29.152803388104076"
],
[
"parasites from previous blood sources can survive within a leech for months. Nevertheless, only a few cases of leeches transmitting pathogens to humans have been reported.\nLeech saliva is commonly believed to contain anesthetic compounds to numb the bite area, but this has never been proven. Although morphine-like substances have been found in leeches, they have been found in the neural tissues, not the salivary tissues. They are used by the leeches in modulating their own immunocytes and not for anesthetizing bite areas on their hosts. Depending on the species and size, leech bites can be barely noticeable or they can",
"-29.141414600191638"
],
[
"not specifically used for only back scratching, young Chiricahua men in training and women going through a puberty ritual traditionally had to use a ceremonial wooden scratcher made from a fruit bearing tree instead of scratching with their fingernails or hands. Young men who did not use the scratcher for scratching were reported to develop skin that was too soft.",
"-29.085760336194653"
],
[
"be hit for not digging his own trench, but he is in too much discomfort to dig one himself. \nHe finds a \"kraut hole\" with a bloody blanket still there. He settles into the hole and tries to get comfortable in the confined space. When he is bitten by a red ant he tries to slap the offending insect and is painfully reminded of a fingernail he lost earlier in the day. He then plays a childish mindgame, imagining his finger healed, his body clean and well-clothed, safe and at home \"with a nice, quiet girl\". \nAfter reading",
"-29.041371586397872"
],
[
"saliva and anti-coagulants. For any given individual, with the initial bite there is no reaction but with subsequent bites the body's immune system develops antibodies and a bite becomes inflamed and itchy within 24 hours. This is the usual reaction in young children. With more bites, the sensitivity of the human immune system increases, and an itchy red hive appears in minutes where the immune response has broken capillary blood vessels and fluid has collected under the skin. This type of reaction is common in older children and adults. Some adults can become desensitized to mosquitoes and have little or",
"-29.038395013310947"
],
[
"rarely seen between the hairs. Excessive scratching of the infested areas can cause sores, which may become infected. Treatment The number of diagnosed cases of human louse infestations (or pediculosis) has increased worldwide since the mid-1960s, reaching hundreds of millions annually. There is no product or method which assures 100% destruction of the eggs and hatched lice after a single treatment. However, there are a number of treatment methods that can be employed with varying degrees of success. These methods include chemical treatments, natural products, combs, shaving, hot air, silicone-based lotions, and ethanol (ethyl alcohol).\nPediculosis is commonly treated",
"-28.970195066649467"
],
[
"scattered on the ground surface on Ring Mountain in Marin County, California. Distinguishing from other minerals Chlorite is so soft that it can be scratched by a finger nail. The powder generated by scratching is green. It feels oily when rubbed between the fingers. The plates are flexible, but not elastic like mica.\nTalc is much softer and feels soapy between fingers. The powder generated by scratching is white.\nMica plates are elastic whereas chlorite plates are flexible without bending back. Uses Various types of chlorite stone have been used as raw material for carving into sculptures and vessels since prehistoric times.",
"-28.95418417127803"
],
[
"is the affliction caused by this parasite, which is simply protracted discomfort or sensation of movement in the buccal, oral or gingival areas associated with a sensation of foreign body. Subjects commonly pull worms from their gums, tongue, lips, and inner cheeks after days and even weeks of reported discomfort. In animals, this parasite quickly spreads down the esophagus, and into the upper digestive and respiratory tracts, making it more often than not, fatal. For humans, this parasite never makes it further than the oral cavity, and is often surgically or manually extracted. Diagnosis There is a danger of misdiagnosing",
"-28.943333239061758"
],
[
"but the secretions of some tropical species may cause pain, itching, local erythema, edema, blisters, eczema, and occasionally cracked skin. Eye exposures to these secretions causes general irritation and potentially more severe effects such as conjunctivitis and keratitis. This is called millipede burn. First aid consists of flushing the area thoroughly with water; further treatment is aimed at relieving the local effects.\nSome millipedes are considered household pests, including Xenobolus carnifex which can infest thatched roofs in India, and Ommatoiulus moreleti, which periodically invades homes in Australia. Other species exhibit periodical swarming behaviour, which can result in home invasions, crop damage,",
"-28.868506284081377"
],
[
"brush it away. The resulting inflammation will also be linear. Because Paederus species are widely dispersed around the world, this syndrome has many different local nicknames including \"whiplash dermatitis\", \"spider lick\", and \"Nairobi fly dermatitis\". In East Africa, conjunctivitis from getting pederin in the eye is called \"Nairobi eye\".\nOnce pederin is on the skin from the initial beetle contact, it may also be spread elsewhere on the skin. \"Kissing\" or \"mirror-image\" lesions where two skin areas come in contact (for example, the elbow flexure) are often seen. Washing the hands and skin with soap and water is strongly recommended",
"-28.816393607805367"
],
[
"Periodontal abscess Signs and symptoms The main symptom is pain, which often suddenly appears, and is made worse by biting on the involved tooth, which may feel raised and prominent in the bite. The tooth may be mobile, and the lesion may contribute to destruction of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. The pain is deep and throbbing. The oral mucosa covering an early periodontal abscess appears erythematous (red), swollen and painful to touch. The surface may be shiny due to stretching of the mucosa over the abscess. Before pus has formed, the lesion will not be fluctuant, and there",
"-28.800948295975104"
],
[
"contracted by people walking barefoot over\ncontaminated soil. In penetrating the skin, the larvae may cause an allergic\nreaction. It is due to the itchy patch at the site of entry that the early\ninfection gets its nickname \"ground itch\". Once larvae have broken through the skin,\nthey enter the bloodstream and are carried to the lungs (however, unlike ascarids, hookworms do not usually cause pneumonia). The larvae migrate from\nthe lungs up the windpipe to be swallowed and carried back down to the\nintestine. If humans come into contact with larvae of the dog hookworm or the\ncat hookworm, or of certain other hookworms that do",
"-28.766241705976427"
],
[
"Gamasoidosis Clinical signs The most common symptoms are \"itching and punctiform, erythematous papules\" with a size of \"1–3 mm\" and a \"central punctum\", the itching and irritation are reactions to the saliva the mites secrete when feeding.\nBites are normally located in groups around the neck and body areas covered by clothes (waist, trunk, upper extremities and abdomen), but can also be found on the legs, finger webs, axillae, the groin, and buttocks. If feeding occurs while a patient is sleeping, bedclothes and pillows may show red spots caused by droppings or crushed mites.\nD. gallinae is capable of infesting the ear",
"-28.750641280203126"
],
[
"stinger (aculeus).\nThey possess a stridulatory organ, composed of a rough area on the first segment (coxa) of the pedipalps and a 'scraper' made of bristles on the first segment of their first pair of walking legs. Scraping these bristles on the rough zone produces a scratching sound.\nGenera of the subfamily Scorpioninae are extremely similar to each other and Pandinus is especially close to the Southeast Asian genus Heterometrus. They differ mainly in details of the stridulatory organ and sensory bristles (trichobothria). Toxicity As in other Scorpionidae, the venom of Pandinus species is rather mild, human fatalities are unknown. Symptoms are",
"-28.687391810351983"
],
[
"Itching powder Itching powder is a powder or powder-like substance that induces itching when applied onto human skin. This is usually done as a practical joke or prank to an unsuspecting victim.\nThe cause of the irritation can be mechanical, such as products containing ground rose hips. Another common ingredient is Mucuna pruriens, a type of legume that produces seedpods coated with thousands of detachable spicules (needle-like hairs), the spicules contain an enzyme (mucunain) that causes severe itching, and they have been sold commercially as itching powder. Mucuna pruriens has been used to test the efficacy of anti-itch drugs.\nThe term \"itching",
"-28.68409240996698"
],
[
"Arthropod assault Arthropod assault is a medical term describing a skin reaction to an insect bite characterized by inflammation and eosinophilic response.",
"-28.675244142767042"
],
[
"The Itchy & Scratchy Game Gameplay The Itchy & Scratchy Game is a side-scrolling platformer based on The Itchy & Scratchy Show, a show within a show in the animated television series The Simpsons. There are seven levels in the game. The player controls Itchy, a mouse whose goal is to torture and kill the cat Scratchy. The game is played by running around the level and attacking Scratchy and various other enemies. Both Itchy and Scratchy carry mallets as their standard weapons, although various other weapons—coordinating with the theme of the level—can also be used. Every few moments, Scratchy",
"-28.62134593760129"
],
[
"saliva, which irritates the skin and causes itching. Lice cannot burrow into the skin. Diagnosis To diagnose infestation, the entire scalp should be combed thoroughly with a louse comb and the teeth of the comb should be examined for the presence of living lice after each time the comb passes through the hair. The use of a louse comb is the most effective way to detect living lice.\nThe most characteristic symptom of infestation is pruritus (itching) on the head which normally intensifies 3 to 4 weeks after the initial infestation. The bite reaction is very mild and it can be",
"-28.616292629623786"
],
[
"ten minutes long. Schmidt categorized the majority of Hymenopteran stings as having a pain level of 2.\nThe sting of a termite-raiding ant, categorized as a pain level of 2, has a similar feeling as \"the debilitating pain of a migraine contained in the tip of your finger,\" according to Schmidt. On the contrary, the yellowjacket's sting was described as being \"hot and smoky, almost irreverent. Imagine W. C. Fields extinguishing a cigar on your tongue.\" Though the sting was a different feeling, the yellowjacket was also rated at a pain level of 2. Pain Level 3 Most insects that are",
"-28.543364608369302"
],
[
"and abrasions, nosebleeds, and hemorrhoids, and to relieve pain from stings and bites. Potassium alum blocks were rubbed over the wet skin after shaving.\nPotassium alum was also used topically to remove pimples and acne, and to cauterize aphthous ulcers in the mouth and canker sores, as it has a significant drying effect to the area and reduces the irritation felt at the site. It has been used to stop bleeding in cases of hemorrhagic cystitis. and is used in some countries as a cure for hyperhidrosis. \nIt is used in dentistry (especially in gingival retraction cords) because of its",
"-28.523990735178813"
],
[
"encounter is discoloration of the skin and, occasionally, itching. Itching may be improved by applying a cortisone cream. Rarely, in very severe or concerning cases, Colchicine treatment has been used to prevent recurrence. Some recommend that patients take a vitamin C supplement to promote collagen production, but this is not proven to be helpful. In cases where there is a known trigger, people should avoid re-exposure to that trigger, e.g., people suspected to be sensitive to food with artificial colors or preservatives should avoid foods containing those items. This is because some people have been observed to be sensitive to",
"-28.523696859861957"
],
[
"are sometimes smoked. Itch-inducing properties The hairs lining the seed pods contain serotonin and the protein mucunain which cause severe itching when the pods are touched. The calyx below the flowers is also a source of itchy spicules and the stinging hairs on the outside of the seed pods are used in some brands of itching powder. Scratching the exposed area can spread the itching to other areas touched. Once this happens, the subject tends to scratch vigorously and uncontrollably and for this reason the local populace in northern Mozambique refer to the beans as \"mad beans\" (feijões malucos). The",
"-28.496301590668736"
],
[
"will come onto the screen and then run away after attacking Itchy or Itchy has inflicted damage on Scratchy. Once Scratchy's health has been depleted, a boss battle will ensue. Development The game was developed by Bits Studios and published by Acclaim. The game was rated \"Kids to Adults\" (suitable for children aged six and older) by the Entertainment Software Rating Board, \"despite a plethora of chainsaws, axes, and flamethrowers,\" as a reviewer for Entertainment Weekly wrote. The SNES version has several censored dying animations compared to the unreleased but dumped Mega Drive/Genesis version. Reception Reviews of The Itchy &",
"-28.402351824133802"
],
[
"allergy attacks or skin or eye irritation, you may still have some mold.\"",
"-28.39502849012206"
],
[
"Knismesis and gargalesis Knismesis The knismesis phenomenon requires low levels of stimulation to sensitive parts of the body, and can be triggered by a light touch or by a light electric current. Knismesis can also be triggered by crawling insects or parasites, prompting scratching or rubbing at the ticklish spot, thereby removing the pest. It is possible that this function explains why knismesis produces a similar response in many different kinds of animals. In a famous example, described in Peter Benchley's Shark!, it is possible to tickle the area just under the snout of a great white shark, putting it",
"-28.37746814780985"
],
[
"to behavioral problems such as scratching, other than declawing.\nA non-surgical alternative to declawing is the application of vinyl nail caps that are affixed to the claws with nontoxic glue, requiring periodic replacement when the cat sheds its claw sheaths (usually every four to six weeks, depending on the cat's scratching habits).\nOther alternatives include regular nail trimming; directing scratching behavior to inexpensive cardboard scratchers or scratching posts, or emery scratching pads that dull the claws; rotary sanding devices; covering furniture or using double-sided sticky tape or sheets such as Sticky Paws; remote aversive devices such as Scat Mats; or acceptance of",
"-28.37552695919294"
],
[
"to the common form include contact dermatitis, herpes simplex virus, discoid lupus, and scabies.\nOther conditions that can result in symptoms similar to the blistering form include other bullous skin diseases, burns, and necrotizing fasciitis. Prevention To prevent the spread of impetigo the skin and any open wounds should be kept clean and covered. Care should be taken to keep fluids from an infected person away from the skin of a non-infected person. Washing hands, linens, and affected areas will lower the likelihood of contact with infected fluids. Scratching can spread the sores; keeping nails short will reduce the chances of",
"-28.35133347912415"
],
[
"primarily based on history as specific IgE and skin prick tests are typically negative and the exclusion of other disorders that present similar clinical features, such as infectious gastroenteritis, celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, and eosinophilic gastroenteritis, among others. Treatment Avoid feeding infants and young children the foods known to trigger FPIES. Cow's milk, soy, and cereal grains are the most common trigger foods, but other foods have been reported including eggs, meats (poultry, beef, pork), seafood (fish, shrimp, mollusks), peanut, potatoes, nuts, and fruits (apple, pear, banana, peach, watermelon). There are also cases of FPIES being transmitted through",
"-28.35032693357789"
],
[
"and store them in the extremities of its finger-like cerata. Picking up the animal can result in a painful sting, with symptoms similar to those caused by the Portuguese man o' war.",
"-28.296385849476792"
],
[
"Sarcoptes scabiei Clinical significance The action of the mites moving within the skin and on the skin itself produces an intense itch that may resemble an allergic reaction in appearance. A delayed Type IV hypersensitivity reaction to the mites, their eggs, or scybala (packets of feces) occurs approximately 30 days after infestation. The presence of the eggs produces a massive allergic response that, in turn, produces more itching. Individuals who already are sensitized from a prior infestation can develop symptoms within hours.\nSarcoptes is a genus of skin parasites, and part of the larger family of mites collectively known as \"scab",
"-28.287028989871033"
],
[
"Ingenol mebutate Adverse effects Irritation of the application site is very common. The various types of irritation include redness, scaling, crusting, pain, severe itching, and sometimes infection. Additional possible side effects include eye irritation, such as periorbital edema (3% of patients in studies), headaches (2%) and nasopharyngitis (running nose, 2%).\nAllergic reactions, shingles, changes in pigmentation at application site, chemical conjunctivitis, and corneal burns may also occur. Interactions As ingenol mebutate is not effectively absorbed through the skin and into the bloodstream, interactions with oral drugs are unlikely. Chemistry The substance is an ester of the diterpene ingenol and angelic acid.",
"-28.268311338411877"
],
[
"the detachment of the tentacle.\nStings usually cause severe pain to humans, leaving whip-like, red welts on the skin that normally last two or three days after the initial sting, though the pain should subside after about 1 to 3 hours (depending on the biology of the person stung). However, the venom can travel to the lymph nodes and may cause symptoms that mimic an allergic reaction including swelling of the larynx, airway blockage, cardiac distress, and an inability to breathe (though this is not due to a true allergy, which is defined by serum IgE). Other symptoms can include fever",
"-28.263526330200875"
],
[
"to require medical intervention.\nLeeches can be removed using a fingernail or other flat, blunt object to break the seal of the oral sucker (at the front end), repeating at the other end, then flicking the leech away.\nCommon, but medically inadvisable, removal techniques are to apply a lit cigarette, salt, soap, or vinegar to the leech. These cause the leech to detach quickly, but also to regurgitate its stomach contents into the wound, with a risk of infection. Leeches normally carry parasites in their digestive tracts, which cannot survive in humans and do not pose a threat; however, bacteria, viruses, and",
"-28.181566660874523"
],
[
"not dangerous to humans, hurting about as much as a bee sting. Because of its large fangs, however, a bite can still be very damaging. It is far more likely to shed urticating hairs from its abdomen to defend itself, which are itchy when they land on skin. The Chaco golden knee has relatively mild hairs, but they can still cause blindness if lodged in the eyes, so caution is recommended. Natural habitat The Chaco golden knee tarantulas are known to inhabit the grasslands of Argentina and Paraguay. As such, they are adapted to generally warm climate, with alternating dry",
"-28.168771775031928"
],
[
"Glochid Reaction to the glochidia Most cacti possess spines, some large enough to cause serious wounds. Glochids however, though smaller, commonly induce more troublesome, more persistent, dermatological manifestations in humans. Though minute, glochids commonly are barbed and once they have penetrated the skin barbed glochids are practically impossible to dislodge without leaving scraps of foreign material in the wound.\nImplantation of glochidia in the skin does sometimes cause immediate irritation, but not always, as one may deduce from the presentation of patients with granulomatous lesions around glochidia, patients who have no recollection of the penetration that caused the acute injury, even",
"-28.128552034453605"
],
[
"Keratosis pilaris Signs and symptoms Keratosis pilaris results in small, rough bumps on the surface of the skin. They are skin-colored bumps the size of a grain of sand, many of which are surrounded by a slight pink color in light skinned people and dark spots in dark skinned people. Most people with keratosis pilaris do not have symptoms but the bumps in the skin can occasionally be itchy. Irritation due to scratching KP bumps can result in redness and inflammation.\nThough people with keratosis pilaris experience the condition year-round, the problem can become exacerbated and the bumps are likely to",
"-28.12517170541105"
],
[
"trichomes induce a painful sensation lasting for hours upon human contact. This sensation has been attributed as a defense mechanism against large animals and small invertebrates, and plays a role in defense supplementation via secretion of metabolites. Studies suggest that this sensation involves a rapid release of toxin (such as histamine) upon contact and penetration via the globular tips of said trichomes.",
"-28.08450811554212"
],
[
"mites\". They are also related to the scab mite Psoroptes, also a mite that infests the skin of domestic animals. Sarcoptic mange affects domestic animals and similar infestations in domestic fowls causes the disease known as \"scaly leg\". The effects of S. scabiei are the most well-known, causing \"scabies\", or \"the itch\". The adult female mite, having been fertilized, burrows into the skin (usually at the hands or wrists, but other parts of the body may also be affected), and lays its eggs.\nThe burrowing is carried out using the mouth parts and special cutting surfaces on the front legs. While",
"-28.041030564010725"
],
[
"before shrinking. Allergic reactions and secondary infection are also concerns involving bites. Unlike some close relatives, L. torrens are not known to transmit any diseases. Population Control L. torrens is a main pest, especially in California, and has been the source of several gnat infestations. The tendency for larvae to enter diapause causes large swarms to emerge in certain years. Construction projects and farming efforts have had to be temporarily suspended because of L. torrens bites. Various forms of DDT have been used to control populations. Since adult flies rest on grass before taking flight, using pesticides before emergence can",
"-28.029764006263576"
],
[
"chemicals from the body tissues near to the sting site. The swelling, if allergic, can be helped by the provision of an anti-histamine ointment as well as an ice pack. This is the typical response for all biting insects and many people have this common reaction.\nMosquito allergy may result in a collection of symptoms called skeeter syndrome that occur after a bite. This syndrome may be mistaken for an infection such as cellulitis.\nIn anaphylactic patients the response is more aggressive leading to a systemic reaction where the response progresses from the sting site around the whole body. This is potentially",
"-28.025943865184672"
],
[
"by the olive oil phenolic compound oleocanthal appears to be responsible for the pungent or \"peppery\" sensation in the back of the throat caused by olive oil.\nAlthough several nonelectrophilic agents such as thymol and menthol have been reported as TRPA1 agonists, most of the known activators are electrophilic chemicals that have been shown to activate the TRPA1 receptor via the formation of a reversible covalent bond with cysteine residues present in the ion channel. For a broad range of electrophilic agents, chemical reactivity in combination with a lipophilicity enabling membrane permeation is crucial to TRPA1 agonistic effect. A dibenz[b,f][1,4]oxazepine derivative",
"-27.991006812721025"
],
[
"Buruli ulcer Signs and symptoms The infection, in most instances, presents as a painless lump or swelling and is often unaccompanied by fever. In southern Australia, the presentation is more often as a pimple in the skin (dermis) rather than under it and may be confused with an insect bite. The infection is mostly in the limbs, most often in exposed areas, but not on the hands or feet. In children, all areas may be involved, including the face or abdomen. The oedematous form of infection produces diffuse swelling of a limb, which, unlike the papule or nodule, can be",
"-27.98116129398113"
],
[
"with the components of their saliva. Their saliva contains a local anesthetic, thrombin inhibitor, antibiotic properties and a histamine-like vasodilator. These capabilities help in surgeries such as transplants, skin grafts, and even reconstructive surgeries. The leeches help localize the wound and help produce blood flow. This is helpful in operations where blood clots occur and they help dilate the blood vessels.\nMedical maggots were first utilized by military medical aids during World War 2. They worked as biomedical debriding agents by ingesting bacteria and breaking them down within their intestines. Maggots give off an enzyme that disinfects wounds and promotes healing",
"-27.949682830367237"
],
[
"antileukotriene drugs or topical steroids have beneficial effects in reducing the symptoms of these bites. Presentation The Skeeter syndrome is by definition a mosquito bite allergy that consists of a large mosquito bite reaction that may be accompanied by a brief or longer-term (i.e. days to weeks) low-grade fever. and, on rare occasions, vomiting. The bite site shows an intense, large reaction often resembling a cellulitis infection that persists for days to weeks. The syndrome usually afflicts healthy children, immune-deficient persons, and individuals who are new to an area inhabited by mosquito species to which they have not been exposed.",
"-27.924347623600625"
],
[
"an adult. The whole lifeycle takes 7 to 16 days to complete. A minimum of 13 days is needed to go from egg to egg. The larva is the only stage that has three pairs of legs as opposed to four pairs. Disease When the tropical rat mite bites its host, it causes an inflammatory reaction to its saliva and then pruritic nonspecific dermatitis, known as rat mite dermatitis. In children especially, vesicular or eczematous reactions sometimes occur. Secondary excoriations due to scratching are common. Papular urticaria has been suggested as developing in some people.\nNo human disease has been definitively",
"-27.91628116404172"
],
[
"a slight stinging or burning sensation. There may also be mild itching at the site of injection afterwards. Normal values People who don't have clinical leprosy (Hansen's disease, or HD) may have little or no skin reaction to the antigen, or may have a strong reaction to it. This is because lepromin only tests for infection, not for ongoing disease. It is believed that most people exposed to Mycobacterium leprae are not infected and thus would not respond, or are infected but self-resolve or never manifest overt symptoms and therefore would respond to the lepromin skin test. Paradoxically however, patients",
"-27.883693008625414"
],
[
"because the mouth is coated in saliva, which washes away antigens and acts as a barrier. The oral mucosa is also more vascular (has a better blood supply) than skin, meaning that any antigens are more quickly removed from the area by the circulation. Finally, there is substantially less keratin in oral mucosa, meaning that there is less likelihood that haptens will form.\nAllergic contact stomatitis appears as non-specific inflammation, so it may be mistaken for chronic physical irritation. There may be burning or soreness of the mouth and ulceration. Chronic exposure to the allergen may result in a lichenoid lesion.",
"-27.880483933724463"
],
[
"which is a desmosomal cell-cell adhesion molecule found in the upper levels of the epidermis. This correlates with the subcorneal localization of the bullae. Prevention Since the common pathogens involved with impetigo are bacteria naturally found on the skin, most prevention (especially in children), is targeted towards appropriate hygiene, wound cleaning, and minimizing scratching (i.e. by keeping nails trimmed and short). Avoiding close contact and sharing of items such as towels with potentially infected individuals is also recommended. Management Antibiotic creams are the preferred treatment for mild cases of impetigo, despite their limited systemic absorption. Such prescribed ointments include neosporin,",
"-27.87538591021439"
],
[
"itchy skin. More rarely, it may appear on the genital area, such as the vulva or scrotum. Symptoms of this type of dermatitis may be very intense and may come and go. Irritant contact dermatitis is usually more painful than itchy.\nAlthough the symptoms of atopic dermatitis vary from person to person, the most common symptoms are dry, itchy, red skin. Typical affected skin areas include the folds of the arms, the back of the knees, wrists, face and hands. Perioral dermatitis refers to a red bumpy rash around the mouth.\nDermatitis herpetiformis symptoms include itching, stinging and a burning sensation. Papules",
"-27.82392923842417"
],
[
"and added to the other ingredients 15 minutes before it is served. Pests The sting nematode Belonolaimus gracilis and the awl nematode, Dolichodorus spp. are both ectoparasites that can injure collard. Root symptoms include, stubby or coarse roots that are dark at the tips. Shoot symptoms include, stunted growth, premature wilting and chlorosis (Nguyen and Smart, 1975). Another species of the sting worm,Belonolaimus longicaudatus is a pest of collards in Georgia and North Carolina (Robbins and Barker, 1973). B. longicaudatus is devastating to seedlings and transplants. As few as three nematodes per 100g of soil when transplanting can cause significant",
"-27.805976665898925"
],
[
"Aquagenic pruritus Presentation Presentation varies from person to person. Some people have discrete attacks, which can last between 10 and 120 minutes while others are symptomatic almost constantly due to atmospheric humidity levels and/or sweating. Itching most frequently occurs on the legs, arms, chest, back, and abdomen, though it can also occur elsewhere. \nItching on contact with water that also includes hives is known as Aquagenic Urticaria. Pathogenesis The exact mechanism of the condition is unknown. Some studies have suggested the itching occurs in response to increased fibrinolytic activity in the skin, inappropriate activation of the sympathetic nervous system,",
"-27.784857915132307"
],
[
"dermatitis\", even though Paederus beetles do not bite or sting. This skin irritation results from contact with pederin, a vesicant toxin in the hemolymph of many but not all females in the genus Paederus. The toxin is manufactured, not by the beetles themselves, but by endosymbiont bacteria, probably some species of Pseudomonas. Impact on human beings Paederus dermatitis is caused when a pederin-containing beetle is crushed, even partially, against the skin. This skin irritation is also called \"dermatitis linearis\" or \"linear dermatitis\" because one can inadvertently drag a beetle across the skin in a more-or-less straight line when trying to",
"-27.781115695426706"
],
[
"It has also been observed to eject venom over a distance of at least 6 ft (1.8 m) in fine jets from the tips of its fangs (Mole, 1924).\nBite symptoms include pain, oozing from the puncture wounds, local swelling that may increase for up to 36 hours, bruising that spreads from the bite site, blisters, numbness, mild fever, headache, bleeding from the nose and gums, hemoptysis, gastrointestinal bleeding, hematuria, hypotension, nausea, vomiting, impaired consciousness and tenderness of the spleen. In untreated cases, local necrosis frequently occurs and may cause gangrene which often requires amputation. In 12 fatal cases, the cause of death",
"-27.779793966095895"
],
[
"Pramocaine Use Topical anesthetics are used to relieve pain and itching caused by conditions such as sunburn or other minor burns, insect bites or stings, poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, and minor cuts and scratches. The popular itch creams Gold Bond and some forms of calamine lotion use pramocaine hydrochloride to numb sensitive skin, as does the pain relief variant of Neosporin and some formulations of Sarna. The hydrochloride salt form of pramocaine is water-soluble.\nPramocaine is a common component of over the counter hemorrhoid preparations.",
"-27.754776611807756"
],
[
"Heliopsis longipes Use and healing properties The root is chewed to numb the tongue and relieve pain in the teeth and throat. It has antibiotic properties (so it is traditionally used against throat infection, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, laryngitis, esophagitis, gingivitis and other infections even on the skin), it is also recognized as a powerful antifungal (traditionally used against athlete's foot, onychomycosis , dandruff and candidiasis or milkweed), is analgesic, antiseptic, anesthetic (It is traditionally used in the painful dentition presented by babies helping to immediately eliminate the discomfort caused by the appearance of the first teeth), and has excellent results when",
"-27.75058132247068"
],
[
"As with humans, the symptoms are predominantly autonomic in nature alongside pain at the bite site. Dogs may also suffer vomiting and diarrhoea, muscle tremors or clonic contractions, and abdominal wall rigidity, while cats may salivate excessively, protrude their tongue or be overexcitable. Historical treatment of bites Most traditional or historical first-aid treatments for redback spider bites are either useless or dangerous. These include making incisions and promoting bleeding, using ligatures, applying alkaline solutions, providing warmth, and sucking the venom out. In modern first aid, incising, sucking, applying bandages and tourniqueting are strongly discouraged. In 1893, the Camperdown Chronicle reported",
"-27.73071041679941"
],
[
"ground side is then dipped into acid, or the acid poured onto it. The acid bites into the surface of the plate where it was exposed. Biting is a printmaking term to describe the acid's etching, or incising, of the image; its duration depends on the acid strength, metal's reactivity, temperature, air pressure and the depth desired. After the plate is sufficiently bitten it is removed from the acid bath, the ground is removed gently and the plate is usually dried or cleaned.\nTo print an intaglio plate, ink or inks are painted, wiped and/or dabbed into the recessed lines (such",
"-27.721601326658856"
],
[
"such situation. Irritant contact dermatitis Natural rubber latex can also cause irritant contact dermatitis, a less severe form of reaction that does not involve the immune system. Contact dermatitis causes dry, itchy, irritated areas on the skin, most often on the hands. Latex-glove induced dermatitis increases the chance of hospital-acquired infections, including blood-borne infections, being transmitted. Latex-fruit syndrome People who have latex allergy also may have or develop an allergic response to some plants and/or products of these plants such as fruits. This is known as the latex-fruit syndrome. Fruits (and seeds) involved in this syndrome include banana, pineapple,",
"-27.719661980489036"
],
[
"report mild irritation or scratchiness, but never extreme pain, which is an indicator of more serious disease such as keratitis, corneal ulceration, iridocyclitis, or acute glaucoma.",
"-27.715500822290778"
],
[
"skin. Mild astringents relieve such minor skin irritations as those resulting from superficial cuts; allergies; insect bites; anal hemorrhoids; and fungal infections such as athlete's foot.\nSome common astringents are alum, acacia, sage, yarrow, witch hazel, bayberry, distilled vinegar, very cold water, and rubbing alcohol. Astringent preparations include silver nitrate, potassium permanganate, zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, Burow's solution, tincture of benzoin, and such vegetable substances as tannic and gallic acids. Balaustines are the red rose-like flowers of the pomegranate, which are very bitter to the taste. In medicine, their dried form has been used as an astringent. Some metal salts",
"-27.714492782426532"
],
[
"brushing the teeth, where it is said to quickly relieve dental pains and stop bleeding. An extract, termed 'betaphroline' (not a systematic name) is claimed to promote release of endorphins, and finds use in certain cosmetic preparations. African sheperds use crushed plants to make an antidotal beverage for animals bitten by snakes. Feed and manure Tephrosia purpurea has been reported to provide fodder to animals such as goats. It makes also a good green manure in fields.",
"-27.64476862142328"
]
] |
6zcxii | How did America get so insanely WEALTHY? I looked up GDPs by country and the U.S. is no. 1 at 18 and a half TRILLION dollars | [
"America is the third largest country in the world by population, and the third largest by size. Europe's population is slightly larger, but the United States has a single dominant language and internal free markets and free movement. It has enormous coal deposits as well as significant petroleum and other natural resources. And it is the only major Western power that was not decimated in WWI and WWII. And, it happened to be the wealthiest and most prosperous nation at a time when economic development began to compound on itself via the information revolution.",
"Just to add something, the US has the most developed financial infrastructure in the world, particularly on the east and west coast. This just means there's a lot of rich people looking to get richer by taking risks, such as putting their money to work by funding new businesses and financial ventures. For example, Silicon Valley is one of the richest areas in the world and generates wealth for the rest of the country largely because of startup culture and the access to venture capital (rich people spending money on new business ideas). Other nations have started to copy those ideas, but the US started back in the 1950s in the semiconductor industry and has a huge head start. We also have some of the best universities in the world, and due to the wealth attract the best students and minds of the world. It's called brain drain, where the top individuals from a nation all leave for the US. Some nations are affected significantly by this, others not so much. Within the US itself it's a problem, as individual states lose talent to the coasts.",
"* Bordello and a pioneer to Capitalist free-market economy during the Cold War which gave the US. industries industrial rights and partnerships with foreign companies. * Mass economic shift by women, black and immigrant employment. * Technological and economic innovations. The US. expanded the notion of giving people the power to exercise their profit with minimal consequences. Eg. McDonalds is stolen. * Cold War paved the US for international trade, importing and exporting goods to allied, puppet, protectorate states. * Military expenditure includes arm sales sold to certain states. The proxy wars during the Cold War brought millions of government profit. * Government profits from lease and debts by allied states during the World Wars. What did I miss?",
"We basically won WWII. Sure Britain, France, and the USSR \"won\" but it is difficult to say that having so many casualties and cities bombed means \"winning.\" They were world powers whose economies got destroyed, which left the US as the last remaining world power who was still well off. We had the headstart since then and that is why we are where we are at now. That being said, the US is the third largest country by population, so it isn't like there aren't many of us.",
"compared to other countries, america is like 50 countries. look at state size vs countries in europe",
"1. It's big, in terms of both population and geography. That means lots of resources, both human and physical. 2. It's been more than 150 years since military conflict of any real consequence occurred on the US mainland. Pretty much every other country in the world has seen at least one major military conflict on its soil (whether a foreign war or civil war) no *longer* ago than WWII. 3. It hasn't experienced any nation-scale natural disasters basically ever. Sure, almost the entire American South has been affected by a major hurricane at some point over the last century, but *never all of it at once*. Same goes for things like earthquakes, fires, whatever. The AD 1755 Lisbon earthquake pretty much leveled that city. It was rebuilt, and the Kingdom of Portugal survived. But Lisbon was the *only* city of any real size in the country, so the economic effects on that country were far more drastic than, say, the Great Chicago Fire (AD 1871) or AD 1906 San Francisco earthquake were on the US economy. Both of those evens pretty much leveled their respective cities, just like the Lisbon earthquake did there. But the US economy basically churned right along without much of a blip, whereas Portugal was never really the same. 4. It's politically and economically stable. It's had the same political system since the end of the 1700s. So in addition to there being no huge *physical* dislocations (e.g., wars, catastrophic natural disasters), the same legal and economic system has existed without interruption for most of that time, and definitely since the end of the American Civil War. Longer time for things like compound interest to work.",
"Corporations. The United States of America has tons of super wealthy and powerful corporations some of which have higher GDP's than entire countries, such as Apple, Google, and Microsoft. All of these are american companies paying american taxes and, at least in the USA, hiring US workers. There are certainly other factors, such as getting rich off selling supplies in WW1 and WW2 without getting devastated. Another is that we have the dollar, one of the most trusted currencies in the world, which we can print a shit ton of, but corporations are probably the biggest factor. Corporations basically rule the world. For example, Walmart's revenues are on par with Norway's GDP, and Norway is pretty rich with one of the highest GDP's per capita in the world. And the USA is the capitalist corporation hub of the world with rich powerful corporations on top of corporations on corporations.",
"Basically what I'm getting so far is that it all started with 1.) The U.S. wasn't in as bad of shape at the end of WWII as practically every other major participant, least of all not economically, and 2.) That economic standing allowed us to say to the rest of the world \"Hey, enter into trade agreements with us and allow us to invest in you re-building your economy\" in the ensuing Cold War years when everyone basically had a choice of either us or the U.S.S.R. Is that summation more or less correct?"
] | [
[
"was $960,000 with a minimum income of $343,927. In 2007 the top 1% had a larger share of total income than at any time since 1928. This is in stark contrast with surveys of US populations that indicate an \"ideal\" distribution that is much more equal, and a widespread ignorance of the true income inequality and wealth inequality. In 2007, the richest 1% of the American population owned 34.6% of the country's total wealth, and the next 19% owned 50.5%. Thus, the top 20% of Americans owned 85% of the country's wealth and the bottom 80% of the population owned",
"-33.81881401366991"
],
[
"with a minimum income of $343,927.\nIn 2007, the richest 1% of the American population owned 34.6% of the country's total wealth, and the next 19% owned 50.5%. Thus, the top 20% of Americans owned 85% of the country's wealth and the bottom 80% of the population owned 15% —an example of the Pareto principle. Financial inequality (total net worth minus the value of one's home) was greater than inequality in total wealth, with the top 1% of the population owning 42.7%, the next 19% of Americans owning 50.3%, and the bottom 80% owning 7%.\nHowever, after the Great Recession which started",
"-33.17109733665711"
],
[
"American population owned 35% of the country's total wealth, and the next 19% owned 51%. Thus, the top 20% of Americans owned 86% of the country's wealth and the bottom 80% of the population owned 14%. In 2011, financial inequality was greater than inequality in total wealth, with the top 1% of the population owning 43%, the next 19% of Americans owning 50%, and the bottom 80% owning 7%. However, after the Great Recession which started in 2007, the share of total wealth owned by the top 1% of the population grew from 35% to 37%, and",
"-32.97286970553978"
],
[
"that owned by the top 20% of Americans grew from 86% to 88%. The Great Recession also caused a drop of 36% in median household wealth, but a drop of only 11% for the top 1%, further widening the gap between the top 1% and the bottom 99%.\nAccording to PolitiFact and others, in 2011 the 400 wealthiest Americans have more wealth than half of all Americans combined. Inherited wealth may help explain why many Americans who have become rich may have had a substantial head start. In September 2012, according to the Institute for Policy Studies, over 60 percent",
"-32.828561873873696"
],
[
"wealth creation and poverty reduction never before seen in the history of mankind.’ The global free market ‘experienced an unprecedented doubling of its labor force from 2.7 billion to 6 billion’; the U.S. had 40 million new jobs created; ‘the Dow Jones Industrial Average climbed from 800 to over 12,000’ (it is back under 9000 now); and, according to the Federal Reserve, U.S. households saw their net worth increase from $11 trillion in 1982 to more than $56 trillion today.\"",
"-32.75282549989788"
],
[
"worth of American households and non-profits constitutes three-quarters of total United States net worth – in 2008, 355% of GDP. Since 1960, US households have consistently held this position, followed by nonfinancial business (137% of GDP in 2008) and state and local governments (50% of GDP in 2008). The financial sector has hovered around zero net worth since 1960, reflecting its leverage, while the federal government has fluctuated from a net worth of -7% of GDP in 1946, a high of 6% of GDP in 1974, to -32% of GDP in 2008. Financial sector In 1946, the US financial sector",
"-32.34225916012656"
],
[
"which he delineated as being the \"most advanced\" in the world. Jeffrey A. Winters wrote that \"oligarchy and democracy operate within a single system, and American politics is a daily display of their interplay.\" The top 1% of the U.S. population by wealth in 2007 had a larger share of total income than at any time since 1928. In 2011, according to PolitiFact and others, the top 400 wealthiest Americans \"have more wealth than half of all Americans combined.\"\nIn 1998, Bob Herbert of The New York Times referred to modern American plutocrats as \"The Donor Class\" (list of top donors)",
"-32.25603298153146"
],
[
"security, the richest 1% of the American population in 1992 owned 16% of the country's total wealth, as opposed to 32% when excluding pensions and social security.\nAfter the Great Recession which started in 2007, the share of total wealth owned by the top 1% of the population grew from 34.6% to 37.1%, and that owned by the top 20% of Americans grew from 85% to 87.7%. The Great Recession also caused a drop of 36.1% in median household wealth but a drop of only 11.1% for the top 1%. 1989–2001 When observing the changes in the wealth among American",
"-32.24355566097074"
],
[
"to be $118 trillion in the United States alone.\nAccording to the Kuznet's Hypothesis, inequality of wealth and income increases during the early phases of economic development, stabilizes and then becomes more equitable.\nAbout 90% of global wealth is distributed in North America, Europe, and \"rich Asia-Pacific\" countries, and in 2008, 1% of adults were estimated to hold 40% of world wealth, a number which falls to 32% when adjusted for purchasing power parity.\nIn 2013, 1% of adults were estimated to hold 46% of world wealth and around $18.5 trillion was estimated to be stored in tax havens worldwide. The interpersonal concept",
"-32.14173959491745"
],
[
"in 2009 at 0.38. For example, in 2012 the bottom 60% of the world population held same wealth in 2012 as the people on Forbes' Richest list consisting of 1,226 richest billionaires of the world. 21st century At the end of the 20th century, wealth was concentrated among the G8 and Western industrialized nations, along with several Asian and OPEC nations. Wealth inequality A study by the World Institute for Development Economics Research at United Nations University reports that the richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global assets in the year 2000, and that the richest 10% of",
"-32.0816259799758"
],
[
"of 40, while the list of American-only billionaires, as of 2010, had an average age of 66.\nIn 2019 there are now a record 607 billionaires in the U.S. That includes 14 of the world’s 20 richest. Jeff Bezos is again number 1 in the world, followed by Bill Gates at number 2. Billionaires who own the same wealth as half the world According to a 2016 Oxfam report, the wealth of the poorest 95% dropped by 38% between 2010 and 2015, despite an increase in the global population of 400 million. In the same period, the wealth of the richest",
"-31.947085527357558"
],
[
"perspective, financial sector profits from the 1930s until 1980 grew at the same rate as the rest of the American economy.\nBy way of illustration of the increased power of the financial sector over the economy, in 1978 commercial banks held $1.2 trillion (million million) in assets, which is equivalent to 53% of the GDP of the United States. By year's end 2007, commercial banks held $11.8 trillion in assets, which is equivalent to 84% of U.S. GDP. Investment banks (securities broker-dealers) held $33 billion (thousand million) in assets in 1978 (equivalent to 1.3% of U.S. GDP), but held $3.1 trillion",
"-31.860381105765555"
],
[
"of the global top 1% increased approximately 60%, while the middle classes of the emerging economies (those around the 50th percentile of the global income distribution in 1988) rose 70–80%. For example, in 2000, 5 million Chinese households earned between $11,500 and $43,000 in 2016 dollars. By 2015, 225 million did. On the other hand, those in the middle class of the developed world (those in the 75th to 90th percentile in 1988, such as the American middle class) experienced little real income gains. The richest 1% contains 60 million persons globally, including 30 million Americans (i.e., the top 12%",
"-31.4656665860457"
],
[
"grew by $166 billion in the preceding year, shielding 40% of their earnings. In 2012, a Bloomberg study found $1 trillion held overseas for 70 U.S.-based multi-national companies, using public annual reports for years ending in 2010 and 2011, and it estimated an overall total of $1.6 trillion. In 2013, a private research firm study asserted there were more than $2.1 trillion of U.S. corporate profits untaxed in 2013. In 2016, the Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy, estimates $2.6 trillion held offshore and two-thirds of that is held by 30 U.S. companies, with Apple, Pfizer, and Microsoft being",
"-31.26906155710458"
],
[
"the Boston Consulting Group, around 70% of the nation's wealth will be in the hands of millionaires and billionaires by 2021. Early 20th century Pioneering work by Simon Kuznets using income tax records and his own well-researched estimates of national income showed a reduction of about 10% in the portion of national income going to the top 10%, a reduction from about 45–50% in 1913 to about 30–35% in 1948. This period spans both The Great Depression and World War II, events with significant economic consequences. This is called the Great Compression. Wealth inequality and child poverty In 2013 UNICEF",
"-31.241474295777152"
],
[
"global list of known U.S. dollar billionaires every year and updates an Internet version of this list in real time. The American oil magnate John D. Rockefeller became the world's first confirmed U.S. dollar billionaire in 1916, and still holds the title of history's wealthiest individual.\nAs of 2018, there are over 2,200 U.S. dollar billionaires worldwide, with a combined wealth of over US$9.1 trillion, up from US$7.67 trillion in 2017. According to a 2017 Oxfam report, the top eight richest billionaires own as much combined wealth as \"half the human race\". Current U.S. dollar billionaires According to the Forbes report released in",
"-31.231419894495048"
],
[
"in 2007, the share of total wealth owned by the top 1% of the population grew from 34.6% to 37.1%, and that owned by the top 20% of Americans grew from 85% to 87.7%. The Great Recession also caused a drop of 36.1% in median household wealth but a drop of only 11.1% for the top 1%, further widening the gap between the 1% and the 99%. During the economic expansion between 2002 and 2007, the income of the top 1% grew 10 times faster than the income of the bottom 90%. In this period 66% of total income gains",
"-31.17508696038567"
],
[
"with a minimum income of $343,927.\nDuring the economic expansion between 2002 and 2007, the income of the top 1% grew 10 times faster than the income of the bottom 90%. In this period 66% of total income gains went to the 1%, who in 2007 had a larger share of total income than at any time since 1928. According to PolitiFact and others, the top 400 wealthiest Americans \"have more wealth than half of all Americans combined.\" Inherited wealth may help explain why many Americans who have become rich may have had a \"substantial head start\". In September 2012,",
"-31.15305740875192"
],
[
"15% in 2007. Financial inequality measured as the total net worth minus the value of one's home was greater than inequality in total wealth, with the top 1% of the population owning 42.7%, the next 19% of Americans owning 50.3%, and the bottom 80% owning 7% per Forbes in 2011. After the Great Recession started in 2007, the share of total wealth owned by the top 1% of the population grew from 34.6% to 37.1%, and that owned by the top 20% of Americans grew from 85% to 87.7%. Median household wealth dropped by 36.1% compared to a drop of",
"-31.12870340097288"
],
[
"the average for the world's 20 largest economies (in terms of GDP) was $16,110 per person. Norway and Sweden expended the most at $40,908 and $26,760 per capita respectively. The federal government of the United States spent $11,041 per person. Other large economy country spending figures include South Korea ($4,557), Brazil ($2,813), Russia ($2,458), China ($1,010), and India ($226). The figures below of 42% of GDP spending and a GDP per capita of $54,629 for the U.S. indicate a total per person spending including national, state, and local governments was $22,726 in the U.S.",
"-31.048964024979796"
],
[
"income inequality reducing demand, lack of major innovations, and reduced labor power. The U.S. ranked 20th out of 220 countries in GDP per capita in 2017. Among the modern U.S. Presidents, Bill Clinton had the highest cumulative percent real GDP increase during his two terms, Reagan second and Obama third.\nThe development of the nation's GDP according to World Bank:\nUS real GDP grew by an average of 1.7% from 2000 to the first half of 2014, a rate around half the historical average up to 2000. Employment There were approximately 160.4 million in the U.S. labor force in 2017, the",
"-30.793356361646147"
],
[
"a distant second, with receipts of $31.6 billion in 2013. The United States' payments for use of intellectual property amounted to $39.0 billion in 2013, exceeded only by Ireland ($46.4 billion). Notable companies and markets In 2011, the 20 largest U.S.-based companies by revenue were Walmart, ExxonMobil, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, Fannie Mae, General Electric, Berkshire Hathaway, General Motors, Ford Motor Company, Hewlett-Packard, AT&T, Cargill, McKesson Corporation, Bank of America, Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, Apple Inc., Verizon, JPMorgan Chase, and Cardinal Health.\nIn 2013, eight of the world's ten largest companies by market capitalization were American: Apple Inc., ExxonMobil, Berkshire Hathaway, Walmart,",
"-30.736099973815726"
],
[
"nominal GDP was $19.5 trillion in 2017. Annualized, nominal GDP reached $20.1 trillion in Q1 2018, the first time it exceeded the $20 trillion level. About 70% of U.S. GDP is personal consumption, with business investment 18%, government 17% (federal, state and local but excluding transfer payments such as Social Security, which is in consumption) and net exports a negative 3% due to the U.S. trade deficit. Real gross domestic product, a measure of both production and income, grew by 2.3% in 2017, vs. 1.5% in 2016 and 2.9% in 2015. Real GDP grew at a quarterly annualized rate of",
"-30.60077042480043"
],
[
"twenty years from 1850 to 1870.\nIn terms of products of industry, total U.S. wealth increased by 17.3% from 1860 to 1870, to reach an assessed wealth of $14,178,986,732. The four largest state contributors to this wealth were New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in that order. Most of the wealth was concentrated in the developed Northeast region, as newer states like Wyoming were beginning to develop their young economies.\nThe 1870 Census was the first of its kind to record the nativity of the American population. This social statistic helped determine which areas were more highly composed of immigrants than native-born",
"-30.564522587086685"
],
[
"March 2017, there are currently 2,043 U.S. dollar billionaires worldwide, from 66 countries, with a combined net worth of $7.67 trillion, which is more than the combined GDP of 152 countries. The majority of billionaires are male, as fewer than 11% (197 of 1,826) on the 2015 list were female billionaires. In 2015, there were ten openly LGBT billionaires. The United States has the largest number of billionaires of any country, with 536 as of 2015, while China, India and Russia are home to 213, 90 and 88 billionaires respectively. As of 2015, only 46 billionaires were under the age",
"-30.55595297722175"
],
[
"life harder for everyone else – particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.\" It has been reported that only 1% of the world population controls 50% of the wealth today, and the other 99% is having access to the remaining 50% only, and the gap has sharply increased in the recent past. In 2018, Oxfam reported that the gains of the world's billionaires in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, was enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.\nJosé Antonio Ocampo, professor at Columbia University and former finance minister of Colombia, and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona, former UN",
"-30.53898624239082"
],
[
"due to an increase in the net worth of US households in the midst of the United States housing bubble. The net worth of the United States sharply declined to 5.2 times GDP by the end of 2008 due to declines in the values of US corporate equities and real estate in the wake of the subprime mortgage crisis and the global financial crisis. Between 2008 and 2009, the net worth of US households had recovered from a low of 3.55 times GDP to 3.75 times GDP, while nonfinancial business fell from 1.37 times GDP to 1.22 times GDP.\nThe net",
"-30.50378609399195"
],
[
"in the United States was $377 in 1914 compared to Britain in second place at $244, Germany at $184, France at $153, and Italy at $108, while Russia and Japan trailed far behind at $41 and $36. \nEurope, especially Britain, remained the financial center of the world until 1914, yet the United States' growth caused foreigners to ask, as British author W. T. Stead wrote in 1901, \"What is the secret of American success?\" The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories, and hired an ethnically diverse industrial working class,",
"-30.462249709031312"
],
[
"1,826 billionaires were named with an aggregated net worth of $7.05 trillion, up from $6.4 trillion in 2014. 46 of the billionaires on the list are under the age of 40. A record number of 290 people joined the list for the first time, of whom 25% hail from China, which produced a world-leading 71 newcomers. The United States came in second, with 57, followed by India, with 28, and Germany, with 23. Mark Zuckerberg, the social media magnate and founder of Facebook, was placed at number 16 with $33.4 billion. Self-made billionaires made up the largest number of people",
"-30.46121292661701"
],
[
"middle quartile of the population, has an average household wealth level of $65,000.\nAccording to the Congressional Budget Office, the real, or inflation-adjusted, after-tax earnings of the wealthiest one percent of Americans grew by 275% from 1979 to 2007. Simultaneously, the real, after-tax earnings of the bottom twenty percent of wage earnings in the United States grew 18%. The difference in the growth of real income of the top 1% and the bottom 20% of Americans was 257%. The average increase in real, after-tax income for all U.S. households during this time period was 62% which is slightly below the real,",
"-30.40064295423508"
],
[
"record of 1,125. The United States accounted for 403 billionaires, followed by China with 89 and Russia with 62. It was the first time China, which includes Hong Kong, placed second. A total of 55 countries were represented on the 2010 list, including Finland and Pakistan which claimed their first billionaires. China, India, South Korea, and Turkey were among 11 countries that saw a doubling of the numbers billionaires. Eighty-nine women made the list, but only 14 of them were self-made. Of the 89, 12 were newcomers in 2010. Half of those 14 self-made women came from China.\nSteve Forbes said",
"-30.378011074019014"
],
[
"Economy of the United States Colonial era and 18th century The economic history of the United States began with American settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. The American colonies went from marginally successful colonial economies to a small, independent farming economy that used slave labor, which in 1776 became the United States of America. 19th century In 180 years, the U.S. grew to a huge, integrated, industrialized economy that made up around one-fifth of the world economy. As a result, the U.S. GDP per capita converged on and eventually surpassed that of the UK, as well as other nations",
"-30.366433015889925"
],
[
"19th century 19th century Britain was the world's richest and most advanced economy. Real GDP per person almost doubled in the 90 years between 1780 and 1870, when it reached $3263 per capita. This was one third greater than GDP per person in the United States, and 70% more than both France and Germany. The economy was the most industrialized in the world, with one-third of the population employed in manufacturing by 1870 (concurrently one-sixth of the workforce in the United States was employed in manufacturing). The level of quantifiable steam power (in both industry and railroad travel), was gauged",
"-30.35436566336284"
],
[
"to $127.3 million in 1815. Out of the GDP (gross domestic product) of about $925 million (in 1815), this was not a large burden for a national population of 8 million people; it was paid off in 1835. A new Second Bank of the United States was set up in 1816, and after that the financial system performed very well, even though there was still a shortage of gold and silver.\nThe economy grew every year 1812–1815, despite a large loss of business by East Coast shipping interests. Wartime inflation averaged 4.8% a year. The national economy grew",
"-30.346438480184588"
],
[
"from 24% in 1979 to 36% by 2007. While U.S. household net worth rose nearly 30% from its pre-crisis peak in 2007 to 2016, much of this gain went to the wealthiest Americans, as it had prior to his tenure. By 2015, the share of wealth owned by the top 1% reached 42%. However, the share of wealth owned by the bottom 50% fell from 2.9% in 1979 to 2.6% in 2007 and 1.1% in 2015, as the crisis did additional damage to highly leveraged households that had purchased homes with low down-payments. Trade President Obama has urged Congress to",
"-30.345997726923088"
],
[
"decades. In 1978, the financial sector comprised 3.5% of the American economy (that is, it made up 3.5% of U.S. GDP), but by 2007 it had reached 5.9%. Profits in the American financial sector in 2009 were six times higher on average than in 1980, compared with non-financial sector profits, which on average were just over twice what they were in 1980. Financial sector profits grew by 800%, adjusted for inflation, from 1980 to 2005. By way of comparison with the rest of the economy, U.S. nonfinancial sector profits grew by 250% during the same period. By way of historical",
"-30.29024262321809"
],
[
"distribution of income and wealth and what the implications for investment are. In the report, they state that rising global imbalances have transformed advanced Anglo-American economies into plutonomies, in which economic growth is both powered by and consumed by the wealthy. The authors cite data showing that the top 1% households in the US economy account for about 20% of the total income in 2000, which is roughly equal to the share of the bottom 60% of households put together. Moreover, in terms of wealth they demonstrate even more inequality such that \"[T]he top 1% of households also account for",
"-30.288235009429627"
],
[
"our prosperity and the building up of our country.\nTo give you one simple example: It is a matter of history that a large part of the capital which in the middle of the past century went into the building of railways and spread like a network into the new undeveloped areas across the Mississippi River, across the Plains and up into the Northwest, was money which had been made by American traders whose ships had sailed the seas to the Baltic, to the Mediterranean, to Africa and South America, and to Singapore and China itself.\nThrough all the years after the",
"-30.22113049769905"
],
[
"shift in income from labor (persons who derive income from hourly wages and salaries) to capital (persons who derive income via ownership of businesses, land and assets).\nSome five percent of U.S. GDP was approximately $850 billion in 2013. This represents an additional $7,000 in compensation for each of the 120 million U.S. households. Larry Summers estimated in 2007 that the lower 80% of families were receiving $664 billion less income than they would be with a 1979 income distribution (a period of much greater equality), or approximately $7,000 per family.\nNot receiving this income may have led many families to increase",
"-30.19797246203234"
],
[
"In the United States of America The 200,000 plus US-based mid-market companies are essential to America’s economic success. They account for $10 trillion annually of the $30 trillion U.S. private sector gross receipts and 30 million jobs. If the U.S. middle market were a country, its GDP would rank it as the fourth-largest economy in the world. While there are good sources of information about CEOs of large companies and small businesses; there is relatively little information about mid-size companies and their CEOs. As a consequence their issues and needs are underrepresented in policy and economic discussions. In Europe Mid-market",
"-30.164548560234834"
],
[
"determining the direction and scale of what the U.S. economy produces. This is enhanced by relatively low levels of regulation and government involvement, as well as a court system that generally protects property rights and enforces contracts. Today, the United States is home to 29.6 million small businesses, 30% of the world's millionaires, 40% of the world's billionaires, as well as 139 of the world's 500 largest companies.\nFrom its emergence as an independent nation, the United States has encouraged science and innovation. In the early 20th century, the research developed through informal cooperation between U.S. industry and academia grew rapidly and",
"-30.100151841092156"
],
[
"said that \"We can no longer pretend that the creation of wealth for a few will inevitably benefit the many – too often the reverse is true.\" The 2018 Oxfam report said that the income of the world's billionaires in 2017, $762 billion, was enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.\nJared Bernstein and Elise Gould of the Economic Policy Institute suggest that poverty in the United States could have been significantly mitigated if inequality had not increased over the last few decades. Housing In many poor and developing countries, much land and housing is held outside the formal",
"-30.05865054264723"
],
[
"Dimensions Programme estimated the total wealth of the United States in 2008 to be $118 trillion. Income distribution over time According to the Congressional Budget Office, between 1979 and 2007 incomes of the top 1% of Americans grew by an average of 275%. During the same time period, the 60% of Americans in the middle of the income scale saw their income rise by 40%. From 1992 to 2007 the top 400 income earners in the U.S. saw their income increase 392% and their average tax rate reduced by 37%. In 2009, the average income of the top 1% was $960,000",
"-29.971689075136965"
],
[
"four-wheel motor vehicle. Compared to 2001, these income and consumption trends represent moderate to significant improvements. One report in 2010 claimed that high-income households outnumber low-income households.\nNew World Wealth publishes reports tracking the total wealth of countries, which is measured as the private wealth held by all residents of a country. According to New World Wealth, India's total wealth increased from $3,165 billion in 2007 to $8,230 billion in 2017, a growth rate of 160%. India's total wealth decreased by 1% from $8.23 trillion in 2017 to $8.148 trillion in 2018, making it the sixth wealthiest nation in the world. There are 20,730 multimillionaires",
"-29.918507204027264"
],
[
"1%, by the 1%, for the 1%\" in Vanity Fair, in which he was criticizing the economic inequality present in the United States. In the article Stiglitz spoke of the damaging impact of economic inequality involving 1% of the U.S. population owning a large portion of economic wealth in the country, while 99% of the population hold much less economic wealth than the richest 1%:\n[I]n our democracy, 1% of the people take nearly a quarter of the nation's income … In terms of wealth rather than income, the top 1% control 40% … [as a result] the top 1% have",
"-29.88340019568568"
],
[
"on the list with 1,191 positions while just 230 came into their wealth through inheritance. The number of billionaires who inherited a portion but are still working to increase their fortunes is 405.\nThe United States has the largest number of billionaires. The number of Russian billionaires declined the most; being down to 76 billionaires from 111 of 2014. Russia is now placed behind China, Germany and India. Iceland again has a billionaire in the list after a gap of five years with the entry of Thor Bjorgolfsson. Guatemala has a billionaire, Mario Lopez Estrada, for the first time in history.\nMonarchs",
"-29.865688506892184"
],
[
"had kept the U.S. in either a recession, depression or war, 50% of the time in the 20th century. So the rich are surely doing their part in terrorising the poor. We have also been in war, all 19 years in the 21st century.",
"-29.84580517376162"
],
[
"wages in the world.\nThe United States has been the world's largest national economy in terms of GDP since at least the 1920s. For many years following the Great Depression of the 1930s, when danger of recession appeared most serious, the government strengthened the economy by spending heavily itself or cutting taxes so that consumers would spend more, and by fostering rapid growth in the money supply, which also encouraged more spending. Ideas about the best tools for stabilizing the economy changed substantially between the 1930s and the 1980s. From the New Deal era that began in 1933, to the Great",
"-29.805728859566443"
],
[
"population. In money terms, the world's 1,100 richest people have almost twice the assets of the poorest 2.5 billion people representing 40% of the world population. In his famous book Capital in the Twenty-First Century, Thomas Piketty suggests that if present trends continue, there will be an even more gigantic concentration of wealth in the future.\nIn that case, there is no real physical scarcity with regard to the goods satisfying basic human needs anymore. It's more a question of political will and social organisation to improve the lot of the poor, or, alternatively, for the poor to organise themselves to",
"-29.80064059884171"
],
[
"worth. From an international perspective, the difference in US median and mean wealth per adult is over 600%.\nJust prior to President Obama's 2014 State of the Union Address, media reported that the top wealthiest 1% possess 40% of the nation's wealth; the bottom 80% own 7%; similarly, but later, the media reported, the \"richest 1 percent in the United States now own more additional income than the bottom 90 percent\". The gap between the top 10% and the middle class is over 1,000%; that increases another 1,000% for the top 1%. The average employee \"needs to work more than a",
"-29.7793536985846"
],
[
"of the country's wealth and the bottom 80% of the population owned 15%. Financial inequality was greater than inequality in total wealth, with the top 1% of the population owning 42.7%, the next 19% of Americans owning 50.3%, and the bottom 80% owning 7%. However, according to the federal reserve, \"For most households, pensions and Social Security are the most important sources of income during retirement, and the promised benefit stream constitutes a sizable fraction of household wealth\" and \"including pensions and Social Security in net worth makes the distribution more even\". When including household wealth from pensions and social",
"-29.743821417272557"
],
[
"1000 and 1820, the world economy grew sixfold, a faster rate than the population growth, so individuals enjoyed, on average, a 50% increase in income. Between 1820 and 1998, world economy grew 50-fold, a much faster rate than the population growth, so individuals enjoyed on average a 9-fold increase in income. Over this period, in Europe, North America and Australasia the economy grew 19-fold per person, even though these regions already had a higher starting level; and in Japan, which was poor in 1820, the increase per person was 31-fold. In the Third World, there was an increase, but only",
"-29.688698671183374"
],
[
"62 people between the World's Billionaires increased by $500bn (£350bn) to $1.76tn. This number has fallen dramatically from 388 as recently as 2010. More recently, in 2017 an Oxfam report noted that just eight billionaires have as much net worth as \"half the human race\".",
"-29.676412808868918"
],
[
"U.S. family income (adjusted to 2001 price levels) went up from $14,832 in 1950 to $27,338 in 1970. The rising prosperity was, however, halted by the inflation of the Seventies, which carried prices aloft more rapidly than wages and thus caused real income levels to stagnate for more than a decade. The median in 2000 was only $27,735, barely an improvement from 1970.\nAs noted by the British historian and journalist Godfrey Hodgson,\n\"On the basis of such evidence I myself have written that “by all statistical measures . . . the United States, in terms of income and wealth, is the",
"-29.639613289757108"
],
[
"according to the Institute for Policy Studies, \"over 60 percent\" of the Forbes richest 400 Americans \"grew up in substantial privilege\".\nIf a family has a positive net worth then it has more wealth than the combined net worth of over 30.6 million American families. This is because the bottom 25% of American families have a negative combined net worth. Wealth distribution According to an analysis that excludes pensions and social security, the richest 1% of the American population in 2007 owned 34.6% of the country's total wealth, and the next 19% owned 50.5%. Thus, the top 20% of Americans owned 85%",
"-29.60772118982277"
],
[
"profit from this . His net worth was estimated at one million dollars, when fewer than a thousand Americans could claim to possess such a figure.",
"-29.55636634268012"
],
[
"from $3 trillion to $11 trillion U.S. dollars from 2002 to 2007, primarily in the form of short-term money market instruments. The United States experienced growth in the size and complexity of firms engaged in a broad range of financial services across borders in the wake of the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 which repealed the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933, ending limitations on commercial banks' investment banking activity. Industrialized nations began relying more on foreign capital to finance domestic investment opportunities, resulting in unprecedented capital flows to advanced economies from developing countries, as reflected by global imbalances which grew to 6%",
"-29.524019388625675"
],
[
"Challenges and problems In the contemporary era, several issues are faced in the world.\nFirst of all, wealth is concentrated among the G8 and Western industrialized nations, along with several Asian nations and OPEC countries. The richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global assets in the year 2000 and that the richest 10% of adults accounted for 85% of the world total. The bottom half of the world adult population owned barely 1% of global wealth. Another study found that the richest 2% own more than half of global household assets. Despite this, the distribution has been changing quite",
"-29.51547784797731"
],
[
"and capital formation all increasing rapidly. For example, between 1865 and 1898, the output of wheat increased by 256%, corn by 222%, coal by 800% and miles of railway track by 567%. Thick national networks for transportation and communication were created. The corporation became the dominant form of business organization, and a scientific management revolution transformed business operations.\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, gross domestic product and industrial production in the United States led the world. Kennedy reports that \"U.S. national income, in absolute figures in per capita, was so far above everybody else's by 1914.\" Per capita income",
"-29.5032889103677"
],
[
"was small. (Temin, P. 1989. Lessons from the Great Depression, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass)\nWilliam J. Bernstein wrote: \nBetween 1929 and 1932, real GDP fell 17 percent worldwide, and by 26 percent in the United States, but most economic historians now believe that only a miniscule part of that huge loss of both world GDP and the United States’ GDP can be ascribed to the tariff wars. .. At the time of Smoot-Hawley's passage, trade volume accounted for only about 9 percent of world economic output. Had all international trade been eliminated, and had no domestic use for the previously exported",
"-29.49014405791968"
],
[
"1700 in the case of the U.S., U.K., Germany, and France, and find that wealth–income ratios have risen from about 200–300% in 1970 to 400–600% in 2010, levels unknown since the 18th and 19th centuries. Most of the change can be explained by the long-run recovery of asset prices, the slowdown of productivity, and population growth. Zucman has co-written several papers with Thomas Piketty.\nMuch of Zucman's research is on issues of economic inequality and, most importantly, tax havens. In 2015 in his book,The Hidden Wealth of Nations, Zucman uses the systematic anomalies in international investment positions to show that the",
"-29.467401987953053"
],
[
"analysis shows that over half of European billionaires are inheritors, while only a third of American billionaires are, and that the median age of European billionaires' companies are almost 20 years older than American billionaires'. Their analysis also demonstrates that Europe's increase in wealth can be attributed to growth in traditional sectors, while the US's wealth increase is the result of growth in the finance and technology sectors. Lastly, they find evidence that the number of billionaires is increasing at a higher rate in the US than in Europe, and that American billionaires are becoming more wealthy over time than",
"-29.46297465339012"
],
[
"in 2015 according to Goldman Sachs, an 18% increase over 2014. For scale, annual non-residential fixed investment (a proxy for business investment and a major GDP component) was estimated to be about $2.1 trillion for 2014.\nJournalist Timothy Noah wrote in 2012 that: \"My own preferred hypothesis is that stockholders appropriated what once belonged to middle-class wage earners.\" Since the vast majority of stocks are owned by higher income households, this contributes to income inequality. Journalist Harold Meyerson wrote in 2014 that: \"The purpose of the modern U.S. corporation is to reward large investors and top executives with income that once",
"-29.3479260479362"
],
[
"have a market value approximating $137,000,000, whose profits have exceeded $56,000,000, and whose bank balance tops $30,000,000, surely must be regarded as a very practical authority on what makes for success.\n— Automotive Giants of America: Men Who Are Making Our Motor Industry\nHe is described as the \"greatest rags to riches story in American automobile history.\"",
"-29.33898590861645"
],
[
"by the IBGE, has a GDP of US$187 billion, constituting the second largest hub of national wealth. Per capita GDP is US$11,786. It concentrates 68% of the state's economic strength and 7.9% of all goods and services produced in the country. The services sector comprises the largest portion of GDP (65.5%), followed by commerce (23.4%), industrial activities (11.1%) and agriculture (0.1%).\nBenefiting from the federal capital position it had for a long period (1763–1960), the city became a dynamic administrative, financial, commercial and cultural center. Rio de Janeiro became an attractive place for companies to locate when it was the capital of",
"-29.30488676468667"
],
[
"strong ties with capitalist Western Europe, Latin America, British Commonwealth, and several East Asian countries (Korea, Taiwan, Japan). It allied itself with both right-wing dictatorships and capitalist democracies.\nThe American Century includes the political influence of the United States but also its economic influence. Many states around the world would, over the course of the 20th century, adopt the economic policies of the Washington Consensus, sometimes against the wishes of their populations. The economic force of the US was powerful at the end of the century due to it being by far the largest economy in the world. The US had",
"-29.284017724059595"
],
[
"has been increasing, with the top 1% experiencing significantly larger gains in income than the rest of society. Alan Greenspan, former chair of the Federal Reserve, sees it as a problem for society, calling it a \"very disturbing trend\".\nAccording to the book Who Rules America? by William Domhoff, the distribution of wealth in America is the primary highlight of the influence of the upper class. The top 1% of Americans own around 34% of the wealth in the U.S. while the bottom 80% own only approximately 16% of the wealth. This large disparity displays the unequal distribution of wealth in",
"-29.18922147185367"
],
[
"15,000 households globally belong in this group of the super-rich. They control 5.5% of global financial wealth. 5000 of them live in the US, followed by China, Britain and Germany. BCG expects the trend toward more concentrated wealth to continue unabated. While financial wealth of the sub-millionaires is expected to increase by 3.7% annually until 2019, the expected growth rate for the super-rich is 9.1%. The share of this group in global financial wealth would thus increase % to 6.5% by 2019. Billionaire Census The Billionaire Census 2013 was co-published by Wealth-X and UBS.\nThe average net worth of the world's",
"-29.08608013171761"
],
[
"seems even more remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declines in growth from a high of 4.7 percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-globalizing developing countries seem to fare worse than the globalizers, with the former's annual growth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s to only 1.4 percent during the 1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is not simply due to the strong performances of China and India in the 1980s and 1990s—18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases in growth, many of them quite substantial.\nThe",
"-29.06757806644964"
],
[
"on inequality in society. Of 400 wealthiest Americans in 1982, only one in ten remained on the list in 2012, and an increasing share of wealthiest people have not increased their fortunes. Moreover, top 1% incomes are now mostly salaries, not capital incomes. Most other economists explain the rise of top 1% incomes by globalization and technological change.\nJames K. Galbraith criticizes Piketty for using \"an empirical measure that is unrelated to productive physical capital and whose dollar value depends, in part, on the return on capital. Where does the rate of return come from? Piketty never says\". Galbraith also says:",
"-29.064171801379416"
],
[
"General Electric, Microsoft, IBM, and Chevron Corporation.\nAccording to Fortune Global 500 2011, the ten largest U.S. employers were Walmart, U.S. Postal Service, IBM, UPS, McDonald's, Target Corporation, Kroger, The Home Depot, General Electric, and Sears Holdings.\nApple, Google, IBM, McDonald's, and Microsoft are the world's five most valuable brands in an index published by Millward Brown.\nA 2012 Deloitte report published in STORES magazine indicated that of the world's top 250 largest retailers by retail sales revenue in fiscal year 2010, 32% of those retailers were based in the United States, and those 32% accounted for 41% of the total retail sales",
"-29.05938705110748"
],
[
"and plateaued among the richest thirty or so countries in the world. Americans live no longer on average (about 77 years in 2004) than Greeks (78 years) or New Zealanders (78), though the USA has a higher GDP per capita. Life expectancy in Sweden (80 years) and Japan (82) – where income was more equally distributed – was longer.\nIn recent years the characteristic that has strongly correlated with health in developed countries is income inequality. Creating an index of \"Health and Social Problems\" from nine factors, authors Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett found health and social problems \"more common in",
"-29.000775866239564"
],
[
"in Gulf Oil and Alcoa. Her maternal grandparents were merchant Alexander King and Sarah Cordelia (née Smith) King.\nIn 1957, when Fortune prepared its first list of the wealthiest Americans, it estimated that Sarah Mellon, her brother Richard King Mellon, and her cousins Ailsa Mellon-Bruce and Paul Mellon were all amongst the richest eight people in the United States, with fortunes of between $400 and $700 million each.",
"-28.967507952824235"
],
[
"the growing number of billionaires was clear sign that the world's economy was recovering from 2009's global financial crisis. His magazine declared that Asia was leading the recovery, with the US lagging behind, based on the billionaire list. The 2010 list featured 164 re-entries and 97 true newcomers. Asia accounted for more than 100 of the new entrants. Overall, just 12% of the list lost wealth since 2009, and 30 people fell off the list. Thirteen others died. The combined net worth of the list was $3.6 trillion, up 50% from 2009's $2.4 trillion, while the average net worth was",
"-28.954803033790085"
],
[
"United States was the world's greatest creditor, however it went from this stage to being the greatest debtor in the world in just 4 years. In 1982, the U.S. owned $147 billion of assets that were excess over and above the value of U.S. assets owned by foreigners. In 1986, this value inverted to negative $250 billion. Negative Investors and entrepreneurs have to take some risks while doing their jobs. The risk they are willing to take while investing capital or selling assets can be influenced by taxes. Taxes on capital drive away the entrepreneurs from the trade because the",
"-28.93322095212352"
],
[
"great fortune, estimated at over $100 million, and became one of the wealthiest men in the United States. He was also a generous philanthropist, providing many public works for his hometown of Fairhaven and financially assisting such notables as Mark Twain, Helen Keller, and Booker T. Washington. Pennsylvania oil heritage Near McClintocksville and Oil City, in western Pennsylvania, Oil Creek State Park and many heritage sites to tell the story and memorialize the people of the oil boom of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.",
"-28.917992712627893"
],
[
"world combined. From 1989 to 2002, four times more money was invested in private biotechnology companies in America than in Europe.\nOf 17 high-income countries studied by the National Institutes of Health in 2013, the United States ranked at or near the top in obesity rate, frequency of automobile use and accidents, homicides, infant mortality rate, incidence of heart and lung disease, sexually transmitted infections, adolescent pregnancies, recreational drug or alcohol deaths, injuries, and rates of disability. Together, such lifestyle and societal factors place the U.S. at the bottom of that list for life expectancy. On average, a U.S. male can",
"-28.872784945804597"
],
[
"of the Forbes richest 400 Americans grew up in substantial privilege.\nIn 2013 wealth inequality in the U.S. was greater than in most developed countries other than Switzerland and Denmark. In the United States, the use of offshore holdings is exceptionally small compared to Europe, where much of the wealth of the top percentiles is kept in offshore holdings. While the statistical problem is European wide, in Southern Europe statistics become even more unreliable. Fewer than a thousand people in Italy have declared incomes of more than 1 million euros. Former Prime Minister of Italy described tax evasion as a",
"-28.872167534704204"
],
[
"course of the 20th century, the world's per-capita gross domestic product grew by a factor of five, much more than all earlier centuries combined (including the 19th with its Industrial Revolution). Many economists make the case that this understates the magnitude of growth, as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the 20th century, such as improved medicine (causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades) and communications technologies, were not available at any price at its beginning. However, the gulf between the world's rich and poor grew wider, and the majority",
"-28.833140091555833"
],
[
"in 2009.\nU.S. household and non-profit organization net worth rose from $44.2 trillion in Q1 2000 to a pre-recession peak of $67.7 trillion in Q3 2007. It then fell $13.1 trillion to $54.6 trillion in Q1 2009 due to the subprime mortgage crisis. It then recovered, rising consistently to $86.8 trillion by Q4 2015. This is nearly double the 2000 level. Mechanisms to gain wealth Assets are known as the raw materials of wealth, and they consist primarily of stocks and other financial and non-financial property, particularly homeownership. While these assets are unequally distributed, financial assets are much more unequal. In 2004, the top 1% controlled",
"-28.806880896314397"
],
[
"\"national pastime\". According to a 2014 Credit Suisse study, the ratio of wealth to household income is the highest it has been since the Great Depression.\nHowever, according to the Federal Reserve, \"For most households, pensions and Social Security are the most important sources of income during retirement, and the promised benefit stream constitutes a sizable fraction of household wealth\" and \"including pensions and Social Security in net worth makes the distribution more even\". A September 2017 study by the Federal Reserve reported that the top 1% owned 38.5% of the country's wealth in 2016.\nAccording to a June 2017 report by",
"-28.802918684945325"
],
[
"Gilded Age capitalists, by imposing order and stability on competitive business, made the United States the foremost economy by the 20th century.\nIn 1958 Bridges reported that, \"The most vehement and persistent controversy in business history has been that waged by the critics and defenders of the \"robber baron\" concept of the American businessman.\" Richard White, historian of the transcontinental railroads, stated in 2011 he has no use for the concept, which has been killed off by historians Robert Wiebe and Alfred Chandler. He notes that \"Much of the modern history of corporations is a reaction against the Robber Barons",
"-28.794854471008875"
],
[
"of the century, and much greater implications for global capitalism in terms of the role the U.S. played as 'consumer of last resort'.\"\nPanitch and Gindin note that the U.S., as manager-in-chief of the global capitalist system, once again came to the rescue with billions of dollars in bail-out money for domestic and foreign banks. Transcending pessimism With the apparent victory of global capitalism and the neoliberal state in the 21st century, Panitch notes the persistence of what he calls a \"debilitating pessimism\" about the possibility of realizing a better world. He writes that while some on the left, such as",
"-28.776390723345685"
],
[
"the country hosts many of the world's largest hubs. Financial position U.S. household and non-profit net worth exceeded $100 trillion for the first time in Q1 2018; it has been setting records since Q4 2012. The U.S. federal government or \"national debt\" was $21.1 trillion in May 2018, just over 100% GDP. Using a subset of the national debt called \"debt held by the public\", U.S. debt was approximately 77% GDP in 2017. By this measure, the U.S. ranked 43rd highest among 2017 nations. Debt held by the public rose considerably as a result of the Great Recession and its",
"-28.769052298136558"
],
[
"and industrial sectors. Nonetheless, it still accounts for 21.8% of the nation's GDP. The states with the highest GDP growth rates are Quintana Roo (9.0%), Baja California (8.9%), and San Luis Potosí (8.2%). In 2000, the federal entities with the highest GDP per capita in Mexico were the Federal District (US $26,320), Campeche (US $18,900) and Nuevo León (US $30,250); the states with the lowest GDP per capita were Chiapas (US $3,302), Oaxaca (US $4,100) and Guerrero (US $6,800). Components Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2006 was estimated at US $1.134 trillion, and GDP per capita",
"-28.75403591030772"
],
[
"countries, [and] the further cheapening of cereals and meat\" meant that economically and politically the old landed class were no longer lords of the earth. The new wealthy elite were no longer British aristocrats but American businessmen, such as Henry Ford, John D. Rockefeller and Andrew W. Mellon, who made their wealth from industry rather than land. By the late nineteenth century, British manufacturers eclipsed the aristocracy as the richest class in the nation. As Arthur Balfour stated in 1909: \"The bulk of the great fortunes are now in a highly liquid state...They do not consist of huge landed estates,",
"-28.74075175011967"
],
[
"a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913, the admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas.\nAccording to Paul Bairoch, the United States was \"the mother country and bastion of modern protectionism\"",
"-28.719402201088087"
],
[
"data shows that connection between the prosperity of the colonizing and the wealth of the colony was weaker than many thought. The future United States and Canada surpassed several British established colonies in the Caribbean, such as Barbados, Jamaica, Belize, and Guyana. In fact, the United States converged on the world economic leader, measured in GDP/capita, the UK. In 1910, the United States overtook the UK and began to diverge from it until about the 1950s. This shows that there must have been another explanation as to why the future United States and Canada developed at a faster rate than",
"-28.713785775138604"
],
[
"now take in more than 20% of all income—three times what they did in 1970. Inequality is even more extreme at the very top. The 400 richest Americans now own more wealth than the bottom 150 million combined. While this level of inequality poses a serious risk to all Americans, regardless of income level, much of the rhetoric on this subject has been fueled by anger and resentment from a frustrated middle class who feel their birthright—the American Dream—has been taken away from them.\nRobert Reich, author, professor at the University of California, Berkeley, official in three administrations, including United States",
"-28.59922354805167"
],
[
"year of the tax cut, and economic growth averaged a rate of 4.5% from 1961 to 1968.\nGNP increased by 7% in 1964, 8% in 1965, and 9% in 1966. The unemployment rate fell below 5%, and by 1966 the number of families with incomes of $7,000 a year or more had reached 55%, compared with 22% in 1950. In 1968, when John Kenneth Galbraith published a new edition of The Affluent Society, the average income of the American family stood at $8,000, double what it had been a decade earlier. Johnson's speeches in Ohio and Michigan Johnson's first public reference",
"-28.578136421994714"
],
[
"(GDP) of the United States, the largest of any country in the world. It is expected that the health share of the Gross domestic product (GDP) will continue its upward trend, reaching 19.9 percent of GDP by 2025. In 2001, for the OECD countries the average was 8.4 percent with the United States (13.9%), Switzerland (10.9%), and Germany (10.7%) being the top three. US health care expenditures totaled US$2.2 trillion in 2006. According to Health Affairs, US$7,498 be spent on every woman, man and child in the United States in 2007, 20 percent of all spending. Costs are projected to",
"-28.564000914160715"
],
[
"order to boost productivity, which is the reason that US and Canada surpassed the others. Greater access to education allowed for greater investment in human capital, which increases productivity and contributed to the United States and Canada's economic growth. According to Sokoloff and Engerman's article \"History Lessons: Institutions, Factors Endowments, and Paths of Development in the New World,\" not only the United States had relatively equal distribution of wealth, it had relatively homogeneous population, political power and human capital. United States and Canada's relatively equal distribution of wealth, amount of human capital and political power ultimately affected development of institution,",
"-28.556711224719038"
],
[
"unsecured creditors, or taxpayers. Paul Krugman argues that for the US the surge in inequality to date is mainly due to supersalaries but capital has nonetheless been significant too. And when the current generation of the 1% turn over their wealth to their heirs these become rentiers, people who live off accumulated capital. Two decades from now America could turn into a rentier-dominated society even more unequal than Belle Époque Europe.\nOne study extended the superstar hypothesis to corporations, with firms that are more dominant in their industry (in some cases due to oligopoly or monopoly) paying their workers far more",
"-28.53997173368407"
],
[
"and US$47 billion respectively. He was the first Mexican to top the list. It was the first time in 16 years that the person on top of the list was not from the United States. It was also the first time the person at the top of the list was from an \"emerging economy\". Between 2008 and 2010, Slim more than doubled his net worth from $35 to $75 billion.\nIn March 2011 Forbes stated that Slim had maintained his position as the wealthiest person in the world, with his fortune estimated at US$74 billion.\nIn December 2012, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, Carlos",
"-28.533897102519404"
],
[
"America's Gilded Age. (Although his daughters and Cornelius received bequests much smaller than those of their brothers, these made them very wealthy by the standards of 1877 and were not subject to inheritance tax.)\nAccording to The Wealthy 100 by Michael Klepper and Robert Gunther, Vanderbilt would be worth $143 billion in 2007 United States dollars if his total wealth as a share of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) in 1877 (the year of his death) were taken and applied in that same proportion in 2007. This would make him the second-wealthiest person in United States history, after Standard Oil",
"-28.459340810775757"
],
[
"of the individuals on the Forbes 400 list was $400 million. Today, the average net worth is $2.8 billion. Wal-Mart Walton family now has 771,287 times more than the median U.S household (Collins and Yeskel 322).\nUpper-class families... dominate corporate America and have a disproportionate influence over the nation's political, educational, religious, and other institutions. Of all social classes, members of the upper class also have a strong sense of solidarity and 'consciousness of kind' that stretches across the nation and even the globe.\n— William Thompson & Joseph Hickey, Society in Focus, 2005\nSince the 1970s income inequality in the United States",
"-28.446573003428057"
],
[
"respective governments to take action.\nAccording to the World Bank, China surpassed the United States and the European Union to become the world's largest economy by early 2015, followed by India. Both countries are expected to rank in the same positions between 2020 and 2040. Moreover, based on Hurun Report, for the first time in 2012 Asia surpassed North America in amount of billionaires. More than 40 percent or 608 billionaires came from Asia, where as North America had 440 billionaires and Europe with 324 billionaires. Recent reforms in China Following a Third Plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist",
"-28.432140075609823"
],
[
"a long time a powerful sector of the economy in many economically developed countries. Those activities have also played a key role in facilitating economic globalization. Early 20th Century History in the United States As early as the beginning of the 20th Century, a small number of financial sector firms have controlled the lion's share of wealth and power of the financial sector. The notion of an American \"financial oligarchy\" was discussed as early as 1913. In an article entitled \"Our Financial Oligarchy,\" Louis Brandeis, who in 1913 was appointed to the United States Supreme Court, wrote that \"We believe",
"-28.428209652382066"
],
[
"constitutes 13.6% of US GDP. According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, the United States received $237 billion in FDI in 2007.\nIn 2006, US affiliates of majority-owned foreign companies employed over 5 million workers – 4.6% of US private sector industry employment [3]. Between 2003 and 2007, over 3300 projects have yielded $184 billion in investment or about 447,000 new jobs. The activities of these companies comprise approximately 19 percent of all US exports ($169.2 billion). Approximately 60% of all inward FDI goes to the service sector while 39% goes to manufacturing and the remaining 1%",
"-28.408793635928305"
],
[
"of the population. Sociologist and University of California-Santa Cruz professor G. William Domhoff writes that \"numerous studies show that the wealth distribution has been extremely concentrated throughout American history\" and that \"most Americans (high income or low income, female or male, young or old, Republican or Democrat) have no idea just how concentrated the wealth distribution actually is.\" In 2007, the top 1% of households owned 34.6% of all privately held wealth and the next 19% possessed 50.5% of all privately held wealth. Taken together, 20% of Americans controlled 85.1% of all privately held wealth in the country. In the",
"-28.385008542973083"
]
] |
33zatd | How are speed limits enforced by aircraft? | [
"In areas where speeds are enforced by aircraft, there will be timing marks painted on the roadway. An officer in an aircraft overhead will time cars as they pass between these marks, and if a car crosses the gap in less than the benchmark time, they will radio down to a car waiting on the ground, which will make the stop and issue the ticket. But this is expensive, as it requires at least three officers (two overhead and one on the ground), so it may not be used very often even when the road is set up for it.",
"Officer here. We have timing marks painted on the shoulder of the roadway at .5 mile intervals. The pilot flys a pattern overhead and times vehicles as they pass through the intervals. He compares the times against a chart and gets a speed. Once a speeder is found he radios a description and let's you know when you are behind the correct vehicle. The intervals are placed at .5 mile to minimize any error on starting and stopping the stopwatch. A few milliseconds won't make much of a difference compared to say an interval of .1 or .2 mile. Also, the speed given is an average speed through the half mile. One could speed the first half of the interval and slow to below the speed limit the second half and be \"clocked\" at the speed limit. Radar and LIDAR on the other hand give a speed at that instant in time.",
"My dad got pulled going 70 in a 55 on SR-44 in Central Florida, but he didn't get \"pulled over\". Down a straighter stretch, all of a sudden, about a half mile down the road there was an officer standing in the middle of a lane directing him to the side, where three other cars already met the same fate. The officer said the same things about the road markings being used to measure speed that everyone else is, but I'll tell you what, there is nothing more surprising than getting clocked by a helicopter.",
"IANAL, but as I recall, speeding tickets issued via this method are VERY easy to fight because of all the people involved who will have to show up to court against you and all the equipment involved that has to be proven tested and working properly at the time of the incident.",
"Virginia used to do this but recently discontinued the program since they only flew a plane like once a year and would get 20 tickets a session. The highway signs are still up though to deter speeders.",
"This happened the other week in my city, the PolAIR chopper got him, tracked him home, and then radioed?? a squad car to 'collect' him. URL_0 ",
"Wow thanks for all the feedback I wasn't expecting this much! Thanks guys!",
"Two years ago heading to the parents house for 4th of July. Driving down I-4 from Lee rd to Maitland (For those familiar with the Orlando area) I decide, against my wife's direction, to gun it to 95 for whatever fucking reason. I go to get off at the exit and a trooper directs me to the side of the road, and gives me a $450 ticket. I was pissed because my wife was right and I didn't hear the end of it."
] | [
[
"limiters as a manufacturer option, with a mind towards reducing fuel bills, maintenance costs and insurance premiums, as well as discouraging employees from abusing company vehicles, in addition to curbing speeding fines and bad publicity. These limiters are often set considerably lower than for passenger cars, typically at 56, 62, 68 or 70 mph (90, 100, 109 or 113 km/h) in the UK, with options for 75 and 81 km/h (47 and 50 mph) listed in countries where these speeds are legal. Often the fitting of a limiter is combined with a small warning sticker on the rear of the vehicle, stating its maximum speed, to discourage drivers",
"-30.14302649965066"
],
[
"can be set by the driver to any desired speed; the limiter can be overridden if required by pressing hard on the accelerator.\nThe limiter may be considered as setting the maximum speed (with throttle kickdown to override it) easing the throttle to reduce speed, whereas cruise control sets the minimum speed (with the brake pedal to override it) pressing on the throttle to increase speed. The limiter may shift down through automatic gears to hold the maximum speed. Fixed In European markets, General Motors Europe sometimes allow certain high-powered Opel or Vauxhall cars to exceed the 250 km/h (155 mph) mark, whereas",
"-29.85277299088193"
],
[
"Minimum control speeds The minimum control speed (VMC) of an aircraft (specifically an airplane) is a V-speed that specifies the calibrated airspeed below which directional or lateral control of the aircraft can no longer be maintained, after the failure of one or more engines. The VMC only applies if at least one engine is still operative, and will depend on the stage of flight. Indeed, multiple VMCs have to be calculated for landing, air travel, and ground travel, and there are more still for aircraft with four or more engines. These are all included in the aircraft flight manual of",
"-28.792327998322435"
],
[
"motorways. Justification Speed limits are set primarily to balance road traffic safety concerns with the effect on travel time and mobility. Speed limits are also sometimes used to reduce consumption of fuel or in response to environmental concerns (e.g. to reduce vehicle emissions or fuel use). Some speed limits have also been initiated to reduce gas-oil imports during the 1973 oil crisis. Fuel efficiency Fuel efficiency sometimes affects speed limit selection. The United States instituted a National Maximum Speed Law of 55 mph (89 km/h), as part of the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act, in response to the 1973 oil crisis to",
"-28.47863261535531"
],
[
"have minimum speed limits, usually where slow speeds can impede traffic flow or be dangerous. The use of minimum speed limits is not as common as maximum speed limits, since the risks of speed are less common at lower speeds. In some jurisdictions, laws requiring a minimum speed are primarily centered around red-light districts or similar areas, where they may colloquially be referred to as kerb crawling laws. Variable speed limits In Germany, the first known experiments with variable speed limit signs took place in 1965 on a 30 kilometer stretch of German motorway, the A8 between Munich and the border",
"-28.115983813724597"
],
[
"or roadworks), while the United States and the United Kingdom only give advisory speed limits for hazards such as bends. Use Use of advisory speed limits varies by locale, but they are generally used to reduce speed along short stretches of dangerous road, such as on the tight curves of an off-ramp or on a busy shopping street. The advisory speed limit when not posted is generally the same as the mandatory speed limit in ideal conditions. Australia In Australia, if a person is involved in a single vehicle accident and the resulting investigation reveals that the driver was exceeding",
"-27.60815314584761"
],
[
"Advisory speed limit An advisory speed limit is a speed recommendation by a governing body, used when it may be non-obvious to the driver that the safe speed is below the legal speed. It is a posting which either approximates the Basic Speed Law or rule (and is subject to enforcement as such) or is based on a maximum g-force exerted at a specific speed. Advisory speed limits are often set in areas with many pedestrians, such as in city centers and outside schools, and on difficult stretches of roads, such as on tight corners or through",
"-27.572490687132813"
],
[
"now increasingly use speed guns, automated in-vehicle systems and automated roadside traffic cameras. Some vehicle categories have various lower maximum limits enforced by speed limiters.\nEver since they have been introduced, speed limits have been controversial. They are both opposed or supported from various sources; including motoring advocacy groups, anti-motoring groups and others who either consider them to be irrelevant, set too low or set too high. Fixed speed limits Speed limit road signs are used to inform road users where speed limits other than the applicable national speed limit apply. Variable speed limits Variable speed limits are used on",
"-27.554546914441744"
],
[
"limits. Some aircraft, such as the Lockheed U-2, routinely operate in the \"coffin corner\". In the case of the U-2, the aircraft was equipped with an autopilot, though it was unreliable. The U-2's speed margin, at high altitude, between 1-G stall and Mach buffet can be as small as 5 knots.\nAircraft capable of flying close to their critical Mach number usually carry a machmeter, an instrument which indicates speed in Mach number terms. As part of certifying aircraft in the United States of America, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certifies a maximum Mach number for operation, or MMO.\nFollowing",
"-27.551246617746074"
],
[
"variable, or in some places unlimited, such as on most of the Autobahn in Germany.\nThe first numeric speed limit for automobiles was the 10 mph (16 km/h) limit introduced in the United Kingdom in 1861. The highest posted speed limit in the world is 160 km/h (99 mph), which applies to two motorways in the UAE.\nThere are several reasons to regulate speed on roads. It is often done to attempt to improve road traffic safety and reduce the number of casualties from traffic collisions. In the \"World report on road traffic injury prevention\", the World Health Organization (WHO) identified speed control as one of",
"-27.19079631032946"
],
[
"Stalling speed All fixed-wing aircraft have a minimum speed at which they can maintain level flight, the stall speed (left limit line in the diagram). As the aircraft gains altitude the stall speed increases; since the wing is not growing any larger the only way to support the aircraft's weight with less air is to increase speed. While the exact numbers will vary widely from aircraft to aircraft, the nature of this relationship is typically the same; plotted on a graph of speed (x-axis) vs. altitude (y-axis) it forms a diagonal line. Service ceiling Inefficiencies in the wings also make",
"-27.07174721674528"
],
[
"be used.\nThe national speed limit is 70 mph (112 km/h) on motorways, 70 mph (112 km/h) on dual carriageways, 60 mph (96 km/h) on single carriageways and generally 30 mph (48 km/h) in areas with street lighting (restricted roads). These limits may be changed by road signs and apply to cars, motorcycles, car-derived vans up to 2 tonnes maximum laden weight (MLW), and to motorhomes or motor caravans not more than 3.05 tonnes maximum unladen weight. Other classes of vehicles are subject to lower limits on some roads.\nEnforcement of UK road speed limits was traditionally done using police 'speed traps' set up and operated by the police who",
"-27.03995787014719"
],
[
"aircraft, such as a Cessna 150, take off at around 55 knots (63 mph, 100 km/h). Ultralights have even lower takeoff speeds. For a given aircraft, the takeoff speed is usually dependent on the aircraft weight; the heavier the weight, the greater the speed needed. Some aircraft are specifically designed for short takeoff and landing (STOL), which they achieve by becoming airborne at very low speeds. Speed required The takeoff speed required varies with air density, aircraft gross weight, and aircraft configuration (flap or slat position, as applicable). Air density is affected by factors such as field elevation and air temperature. This",
"-26.973306509411486"
],
[
"Handbooks also present safe speeds for weights less than the maximum.\nThe formula used to calculate a safe speed for a lower weight is , where VA is maneuvering speed (at maximum weight), W₂ is actual weight, W₁ is maximum weight. Maximum operating maneuvering speed VO Some aircraft have a maximum operating maneuvering speed VO. Note that this is a different concept than design maneuvering speed. The concept of maximum operating maneuvering speed was introduced to the US type-certification standards for light aircraft in 1993. The maximum operating maneuvering speed is selected by the aircraft designer and cannot be",
"-26.9395096363005"
],
[
"the stall speed of an aircraft. Stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a wing as angle of attack increases. Therefore, the minimum approach speed is much higher in case of heavier aircraft. The kinetic energy ( mV²) that has to be overcome to stop an airplane, is a function of the mass of the airplane and the square of the speed at touchdown. The kinetic energy in case of heavier aircraft is higher and the brakes have to absorb this greater energy, increasing the landing run of an aircraft. Density altitude A decrease in density",
"-26.841478564951103"
],
[
"Driving in the United Kingdom Speed limits British roads are limited for most vehicles by the National Speed Limit. Road signs in the UK use imperial units, so speed limits are posted in miles per hour. Speed limits are the maximum speed at which certain drivers may legally drive on a road rather than a defined appropriate speed, and in some cases the nature of a road may dictate that one should drive significantly more slowly than the speed limit may allow. This restricts some vehicles by default to a speed of 30 mph in built up areas, and some",
"-26.680781129340176"
],
[
"so measures are taken to limit the amount of holding necessary. Air traffic flow management is used to delay aircraft while grounded at their departure points when delays are expected at their destinations. Flying a holding pattern Many aircraft have a specific holding speed published by the manufacturer; this is a lower speed at which the aircraft uses less fuel per hour than normal cruise speeds. Typical holding speeds for transport category aircraft are from 210 to 265 knots (491 km/h). Holding speeds are a function of aircraft weight at the point of holding. If possible, a holding pattern is flown",
"-26.6743810554035"
],
[
"sign. Compliance To be effective and applied by drivers, the speed limits need to be perceived as credible; they should be reasonable regarding factors such as the view ahead and the view to the right. Speed limits also need to conform to road infrastructure, education, and enforcement activity.\nIn the UK, in 2017 the average free flow speed for each vehicle type is correlated with the applicable speed limit for that \nroad type and for motorways and national speed limit single carriageway roads, the average free flow speed is below \nthe designated speed limit for each vehicle type, except motorcycles on",
"-26.603887284290977"
],
[
"speed limit signs in combination with variable message signs in the late 1960s. Officials can adjust the speed limit according to weather, traffic conditions, and construction. More typically, variable speed limits are used on remote stretches of highway in the United States in areas with extreme changes in driving conditions. For example, variable limits were introduced in October 2010 on a 52-mile (84 km) stretch of Interstate 80 in Wyoming, replacing the winter season speed reduction from 75 to 65 mph (121 to 105 km/h) that had been in place since 2008. This Variable Speed Limit system has been proven effective in terms",
"-26.495638472086284"
],
[
"few centimeters when a speeding vehicle approaches. Any vehicle approaching at or under the speed limit will pass on a level road. The system measures the speed of an oncoming vehicle by using radar.\nIn another design, a rubber housing is fitted with a pressure relief valve that determines the speed of a vehicle. If the vehicle is traveling below the set speed, the valve opens allowing the bump to deflate as the vehicle drives over it, but it remains closed if the vehicle is traveling too fast. The valve can also be set to allow heavy vehicles, such as fire",
"-26.491134099960618"
],
[
"For this reason airliners normally climb during long flights (see Step climb).\nThe speed for maximum endurance (i.e., time in the air) is the speed for minimum fuel flow rate, and is less than the speed for greatest range. The fuel flow rate is calculated as the product of the power required and the engine specific fuel consumption (fuel flow rate per unit of power). The power required is equal to the drag times the speed.",
"-26.359452171134762"
],
[
"amounts of lift. At a high enough speed, the lift force will exceed the weight of the aircraft, and the aircraft will become capable of sustained flight. Since the aircraft must reach flight speed using only its own engines for power, a long runway is required so that the aircraft can build up speed. On an aircraft carrier, the flight deck is so short that most aircraft cannot reach flight speed before reaching the end of the deck. Since lift is less than gravity, the aircraft will lose altitude after the wheels leave the flight deck and possibly fall into",
"-26.263151360073607"
],
[
"a vehicle upon a highway at speed greater than is reasonable ... and in no event at a speed which endangers the safety of persons or property\". The reasonable speed may be different than the posted speed limit. Basic rule speed laws are statutory reinforcements of the centuries-old common law negligence doctrine as specifically applied to vehicular speed. Citations for violations of the basic speed law without a crash have sometimes been ruled unfairly vague or arbitrary, hence a violation of the due process of law, at least in the State of Montana. Even within states, differing jurisdictions (counties and cities)",
"-26.206960744806565"
],
[
"maintaining full power right up to the limited speed.\nEarly restriction methods could be defeated by simple physical modifications (e.g. cutting out the restriction plate). Modern electronic limiters at the very least require replacing the friction rollers in a scooter's CVT transmission, or even changing wheel size and/or reprogramming the engine management system, all in an effort to fool the sensors into detecting a lower than actual road speed. Public services vehicles Public service vehicles often have a legislated top speed. Scheduled coach services in the United kingdom (and also bus services) are limited to either 65 mph or 100 km/h (62 mph) depending",
"-26.094904018740635"
],
[
" cause or allow a motor vehicle to be driven in any public place at a speed exceeding the maximum speed or below the minimum speed fixed for the vehicle under this Act or by or under any other law for the time being in force. Limits of weight and limitations on",
"-25.888234892487162"
],
[
"cubic inches (9.8 cm³) and Jet - have in the past exceeded 220 mph (350 km/h). Current US rules limit the speeds to <200 mph (320 km/h) by requiring the use of larger lines if 200 mph (320 km/h) is exceeded. Speed models are usually launched from a \"dolly\" - a cart that permits a lengthy ground roll for takeoff, but drops away in the air to reduce drag. The airplane lands on a skid or belly pan. Precision aerobatics Precision aerobatics consists of flying a fixed sequence of maneuvers which are judged by a panel of judges for accuracy and precision. The event was originally dubbed",
"-25.869566605135333"
],
[
"Flight airspeed record An air speed record is the highest airspeed attained by an aircraft of a particular class. The rules for all official aviation records are defined by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), which also ratifies any claims. Speed records are divided into multiple classes with sub-divisions. There are three classes of aircraft: landplanes, seaplanes, and amphibians; then within these classes, there are records for aircraft in a number of weight categories. There are still further subdivisions for piston-engined, turbojet, turboprop, and rocket-engined aircraft. Within each of these groups, records are defined for speed over a straight course and for",
"-25.851197417010553"
],
[
"ordinary speed limit of 25 mph (40 km/h) for light motor vehicles or heavy motor vehicles fitted with pneumatic tyres. Lower speed limits were applied for heavy motor vehicles without some pneumatic tyres, or used for pulling another vehicle. Road signage was established by the Traffic Signs Regulations, 1956.\nHowever, the main piece of legislation responsible for the introduction of speed limits in Ireland was Part IV of the Road Traffic Act, 1961. This repealed the 1933 Act and allowed the Minister for the Environment to prescribe a general speed limit through regulations made under this Act. It also allowed local",
"-25.82473472741549"
],
[
"established by the unarmed and unarmored XP-39 prototype. The British production contract stated that a maximum speed of 394 mph (634 km/h) +/- 4% was required at rated altitude. In acceptance testing, actual production aircraft were found to be capable of only 371 mph at 14,090 ft. To enable the aircraft to make the guarantee speed, a variety of drag-reduction modifications were developed by Bell. The areas of the elevator and rudder were reduced by 14.2% and 25.2% respectively. Modified fillets were installed in the tail area. The canopy glass was faired to its frame with putty. The gun access doors on the wing",
"-25.7762750713664"
],
[
"for a light motor vehicle. Heavy vehicle drivers are advised to keep 10 km/h below the advisory speed to avoid exceeding the static rollover threshold. Minimum speed Although there is no minimum posted speed limit, it is illegal to drive at an \"unreasonably slow speed\" which means slow drivers are required by law to pull over to the side of the road to allow queues of cars behind them to pass. The police can and do enforce this law in which the offending driver is given anything from an NZ$150 infringement notice for \"Inconsiderate Driving\" to possibly an indictment for careless",
"-25.773111677495763"
],
[
"government announced that the national speed limits for single-carriageway roads was to be increased to 60 mph (97 km/h) and that the 70 mph (113 km/h) speed limit was to be restored on dual-carriageways on 1 June 1977. 1977–present A speed limiter requirement for mopeds was introduced in 1977, with the speed cap being progressively redefined from 35 mph (56 km/h), to 30 mph (48 km/h), back up to 50 km/h (31 mph) and finally to 45 km/h (28 mph) in the late 2000s.\nThe 70 mph (113 km/h) speed limit was made permanent in 1978.\nThe Road Traffic Regulation Act, which was passed in 1984, includes legislation relating to speed limits. Part VI of the",
"-25.75745920229383"
],
[
"object within 600 m of the aircraft.\nMember states are allowed to modify the low flying rule to suit their jurisdiction, for instance in the UK, the \"500 ft Rule\" allows pilots to fly below 500 ft as long as they are no closer than 500 ft to any person, vessel, vehicle, building or structure. \nThe rules for flying near congested areas are the same in the UK as the rest of the EU Controlled visual flight rules CVFR flight is used in locations where aviation authorities have determined that VFR flight should be allowed, but that ATC separation and minimal guidance are necessary.",
"-25.752180195820983"
],
[
"are two parameters that an A/T can maintain, or try to attain: speed and thrust.\nIn speed mode the throttle is positioned to attain a set target speed. This mode controls aircraft speed within safe operating margins. For example, if the pilot selects a target speed which is slower than stall speed, or a speed faster than maximum speed, the autothrottle system will maintain a speed closest to the target speed that is within the range of safe speeds.\nIn the thrust mode the engine is maintained at a fixed power setting according to the different flight phases. For example, during",
"-25.70940070776851"
],
[
"about 5% greater speed for only 1% less range.\nOf course, flying higher where the air is thinner will raise the speed at which minimum drag occurs, and so permits a faster voyage for the same amount of fuel. If the plane is flying at the maximum permissible speed, then there is an altitude at which the air density will be what is needed to keep it aloft while flying at the optimal angle of attack. The optimum altitude at maximum speed, and the optimum speed at maximum altitude, change during the flight as the plane consumes fuel and becomes lighter.",
"-25.693656456132885"
],
[
"Maneuvering speed In aviation, the maneuvering speed of an aircraft is an airspeed limitation selected by the designer of the aircraft. At speeds close to, and faster than, the maneuvering speed, full deflection of any flight control surface should not be attempted because of the risk of damage to the aircraft structure.\nThe maneuvering speed of an aircraft is shown on a cockpit placard and in the aircraft's flight manual but is not commonly shown on the aircraft's airspeed indicator.\nIn the context of air combat maneuvering (ACM), the maneuvering speed is also known as corner speed or cornering speed. Implications",
"-25.595467295359413"
],
[
"take further action if the same vehicle is identified as speeding three times. Community Speed Watch is only permitted for speed limits of 40 mph or below. Junior Speed Watch works in a similar way but involves schoolchildren. Speed limiters Some classes of vehicles are required to have speed limiters which enforce a maximum speed by physical means. New vehicles should be fitted with limiters as follows. Buses and coaches: 70 mph (113 km/h) HGVs: 60 mph (97 km/h) Mopeds: 30 mph (48 km/h) Older vehicles still in use do not have limiters fitted or have them set at a higher speeds. These devices do not",
"-25.510702684696298"
],
[
"weight over 3.5 t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons). The speed limit for towing with a rope or tow bar is 60 km/h (37 mph). Speed limit when a car has chains on is 50 km/h (31 mph). Minimum speed limits No minimum speed limits are currently in place.\nVehicles incapable of reaching the speed of 80 km/h (50 mph) are nor allowed to enter motorways (dálnice) and roads for motorcars (silnice pro motorová vozidla) .",
"-25.497332075145096"
],
[
"available to modern fighter aircraft result in huge flight envelopes with many times the area. As a tradeoff however, military aircraft often have a higher stalling speed. As a result of this the landing speed is also higher. \"Pushing the envelope\" This phrase is used to refer to an aircraft being taken to, and perhaps beyond, its designated altitude and speed limits. By extension, this phrase may be used to mean testing other limits, either within aerospace or in other fields e.g. Plus ultra (motto).",
"-25.49183604537393"
],
[
"\nwhich in turn changes with altitude.\nTherefore, indicated airspeed is not entirely adequate to\nwarn the pilot of the impending problems. Mach number is\nmore useful, and most high-speed aircraft are limited to a maximum operating Mach number, also known as MMO.\nFor example, if the MMO is Mach 0.83, then at 30,000 feet (9,144 m) where the speed of sound under standard conditions is 590 knots (1,093 km/h; 679 mph), the true airspeed at MMO is 489 knots (906 km/h; 563 mph). The speed of sound increases with air temperature, so at Mach 0.83 at 10,000 feet (3,048 m) where the air is much warmer than at 30,000 feet (9,144 m), the",
"-25.44606718272553"
],
[
"limit for motor cars was raised to 20 mph (32 km/h) by the Motor Car Act 1903 which stood until 1 January 1931 when all speed limits for cars and motorcycles were abolished under the Road Traffic Act 1930. Lord Buckmaster's opinion at the time was that the speed limit was removed because \"the existing speed limit was so universally disobeyed that its maintenance brought the law into contempt\". Between 1930 and 1935 the number of annual road fatalities dropped from 7,305 to 6,502. The same act also introduced a 30 mph (48 km/h) speed limits for UK coach services, UK bus",
"-25.401035437709652"
],
[
"consumption and carbon emissions. Some cities have reduced limits to as little as 30 km/h (19 mph) for both safety and efficiency reasons. However, some research indicates that changes in the speed limit may not always alter average vehicle speed. Regulations Most jurisdictions use the metric speed unit of kilometers per hour, while others, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, use speed limits given in miles per hour. Although there have been discussions about a switch to using metric units in countries' other systems (see Metrication in the United Kingdom and Metrication in the United States), there are currently",
"-25.397996649007837"
],
[
"and landing, as limited by the time it can remain airborne.\nFor a powered aircraft the time limit is determined by the fuel load and rate of consumption.\nFor an unpowered aircraft, the maximum flight time is limited by factors such as weather conditions and pilot endurance. Many aircraft types are restricted to daylight hours, while balloons are limited by their supply of lifting gas. The range can be seen as the average ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air.\nThe Airbus A350 is now the longest range airliner. Stability An aircraft that is unstable tends to diverge from its",
"-25.311375611345284"
],
[
"speed limits for all-purpose roads, but the R.A.C. would have preferred more flexibility for motorways. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents suggested that a lower speed limit would be more appropriate for all-purpose roads and the Pedestrian's Association for Road Safety condemned the new limits as being too high, preferring 60 mph (97 km/h) limits for all roads. Castle's decision and acceptance of the RRL research at face value was controversial. Peter Walker's motion in Parliament to annul the speed limit on motorways was not adopted. 1973 oil crisis Due to the 1973 oil crisis, a temporary maximum national",
"-25.287349731399445"
],
[
"which aircraft can still operate safely. Use of instrument flight rules is also required when flying in \"Class A\" airspace regardless of weather conditions. Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet above mean sea level to flight level 600 (60,000 feet pressure altitude) above the contiguous 48 United States and overlying the waters within 12 miles thereof. Flight in Class A airspace requires pilots and aircraft to be instrument equipped and rated and to be operating under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). In many countries commercial airliners and their pilots must operate under IFR as the majority of flights enter Class",
"-25.286135317961453"
],
[
"of the airspeed (at a given lift) whereas parasitic drag is proportional to the square of the airspeed, the combined overall drag curve shows a minimum at some airspeed - the minimum drag speed (VMD). An aircraft flying at this speed is operating at its optimal aerodynamic efficiency. According to the above equations, the speed for minimum drag occurs at the speed where the induced drag is equal to the parasitic drag. This is the speed at which for unpowered aircraft, optimum glide angle is achieved. This would also be the speed for greatest range if the efficiency of the",
"-25.276018637676316"
],
[
"authority has not yet taken the necessary rulemaking action to allow this. \nCruising speed is in the region of 60–100 knots (110–190 km/h) on the 95 horsepower (71 kW) engine, which can give the aircraft a top speed of 130 knots (240 km/h). The engine (based on a Porsche air-cooled car unit) can be shut down in flight with its propeller blades feathered. The aircraft then becomes a pure glider, with a best glide ratio of around 1:28. The Porsche-derived horizontally opposed air-cooled engine had the cylinder bore increase by Grob to make the engine 2.5-litre capacity and has had its Time Before Overhaul",
"-25.202249045367353"
],
[
"A chart of velocity versus load factor (or V-n diagram) is another way of showing limits of aircraft performance. It shows how much load factor can be safely achieved at different airspeeds.\nAt higher temperatures, air is less dense and planes must fly faster to generate the same amount of lift. High heat may reduce the amount of cargo a plane can carry, increase the length of runway a plane needs to take off,\nand make it more difficult to avoid obstacles such as mountains. In unusual weather conditions this may make it unsafe or uneconomical to fly, occasionally resulting in the",
"-25.064964692428475"
],
[
"any speed between 18 mph and 90 mph. By default, it sets the limit at the current speed limit plus/minus any driver-specified offset, then adjusting speed according to changes in speed limits. Alerts Autopilot alerts the driver under various circumstances, such as a surprising situation on the road or excessive inattention by the driver. If the driver dismisses three audio warnings within an hour, Autopilot is disabled until the car is parked. This is to prevent experienced drivers from excessive reliance on built-in safety features. At speeds under 8 mph on divided highways, Autopilot functions indefinitely without the driver's hands on the wheel.",
"-25.039888094674097"
],
[
"2 percent to the CAS for every 1000 feet of altitude gained. Jet aircraft Jet aircraft do not have VNO and VNE like piston-engined aircraft, but instead have a maximum operating speed expressed in knots, VMO and Mach number, MMO. Thus, a pilot of a jet airplane needs both an airspeed indicator and a Machmeter, with appropriate red lines. An ASI will include a red-and-white striped pointer, or \"barber's pole\", that automatically moves to indicate the applicable speed limit at any given time. Angle of attack and Lift Reserve Indicators An airplane can stall at any speed, so",
"-25.002845993019605"
],
[
"Autosteer Autosteer steers the car to remain in whatever lane it is in (known as lane-keeping). With HW1, it is also able to safely change lanes as directed by a tap of the turn signal. As of May 2017, HW2 is limited to 90 mph (145 km/h) on highway roads and the former 35 mph (56 km/h) speed limit on non-highway roads was removed, instead limiting to five over the speed limit or 45 mph (72 km/h) if no speed limit is detected. Safety features The Autopilot can detect a potential front or side collision with another vehicle, bicycle or pedestrian within a distance of 525",
"-24.99228322657291"
],
[
"attack and only replaced by a makeshift bridge. Following the implementation of the most urgent repairs on the Rheinbrücke Leverkusen, there has been a ban since May 2013 for vehicles over 44 t total weight, which has since been downgraded to 3.5 t. The maximum speed limit for all vehicles is limited to 60 km / h. To monitor the maximum speed and weight, stationary speed monitoring systems were installed on the bridge in both directions at the beginning and in the middle of the bridge. The measurement takes place via induction loops in the road surface. The taking of fines",
"-24.899391917642788"
],
[
"Operating speed The operating speed of a road is the speed at which motor vehicles generally operate on that road.\nThe precise definition of \"operating speed\", however, is open to debate. Some sources, such as the AASHTO, have changed their definitions recently to match the common use of the word. In 1994, the AASHTO Green Book defined the operating speed as \"the highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given highway\nunder favorable weather conditions and under prevailing traffic conditions without at any time exceeding the safe speed as determined by the design speed on a section-by-section",
"-24.889565095767466"
],
[
"Speed to fly Speed to fly is a principle used by soaring pilots when flying between sources of lift, usually thermals, ridge lift and wave. The aim is to maximize the average cross-country speed by optimizing the airspeed in both rising and sinking air. The optimal airspeed is independent of the wind speed, because the fastest average speed achievable through the airmass corresponds to the fastest achievable average groundspeed. The idea is usually attributed to Paul MacCready, although an early version of the theory was first described by Wolfgang Späte in 1938.\nHowever Späte may not have considered",
"-24.870522427838296"
],
[
"light vehicles to 60 mph on single carriageways and 70 mph on dual carriageways and motorways, with some large vehicles or some of those towing trailers subject to reduced limits on some roads depending on the class of both road and vehicle. Sections of road subject to the national or in-town speed limit only require limit marker signs at the start of a section, without repeaters, provided street lights are or are not present as appropriate. Speed limits of 5 mph, 20 mph, 30 mph, 40 mph, 50 mph and 60 mph are also used on roads in the UK where it is deemed that the national or",
"-24.858704996178858"
],
[
"large-scale experiment with a 100 km/h (62 mph) speed limit in order to measure the impact of reduced speeds on emissions and compliance. Afterward, again, the Federal Government declined to impose a mandatory limit, deciding the modest measured emission reduction would have no meaningful effect on forest loss. By 1987 all restrictions on test sections had been removed, even in Hesse where the state government was controlled by a \"red-green\" coalition. German reunification Prior to German reunification in 1990, eastern German states focused on restrictive traffic regulation such as a 100 km/h (62 mph) autobahn speed limit and of 80 km/h (50 mph) on other rural",
"-24.83526178461034"
],
[
"aircraft. This is typically sloped in the same manner as the stall line due to air resistance getting lower at higher altitudes, up to the point where an increase in altitude no longer increases the maximum speed due to lack of oxygen to feed the engines.\nThe power needed varies almost linearly with altitude, but the nature of drag means that it varies with the square of speed—in other words it is typically easier to go higher than faster, up to the altitude where lack of oxygen for the engines starts to play a significant role. Velocity vs. load factor chart",
"-24.778786885501177"
],
[
"limit was imposed, and there was no change in the crash rate on the M6 in Cheshire or on the M1 in Northamptonshire.\nAlthough these 70mph speed limit road signs are normally not used on motorways (the National Speed Limit road sign is normally used, as it makes it more understandable for motorists their maximum speed on the type of vehicle they're using), they have been used on non-motorway special roads within the UK, and across the motorways within Scotland. Compliance In the UK, in 2017 the average free flow speed for each vehicle type is correlated with the applicable speed",
"-24.77280023918138"
],
[
"Medium-speed vehicle Medium-speed vehicle (MSV) is a vehicle registration category in some states of the United States where applicable vehicles are allowed to travel on roads at speeds up to 35–45 mph (56–72 km/h). The safety regulations for MSVs are more stringent than those for Low-speed vehicles.\nMontana's SB0185 was the first law to define this class of vehicle. Minnesota has laws that allow for vehicles that travel up to 35 mph (56 km/h), Tennessee's laws allow for vehicles that travel up to 40 mph (64 km/h), and Colorado, Kentucky, Montana, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas and Washington all have laws allowing MSVs that travel up to 45 mph (72 km/h).",
"-24.72951918403851"
],
[
"noise and achieved high speeds. Speed At constant propulsive efficiency, the maximum range speed is when the ratio between velocity and drag is minimal, while maximum endurance is attained at the best lift-to-drag ratio. Altitude Air density decreases with altitude, thus lowering drag, assuming the aircraft maintains a constant equivalent airspeed. This means an aircraft may be more efficient at higher altitude. With increasing altitude, air pressure and temperature both decrease, causing the maximum power or thrust of aircraft engines to reduce. In a piston engine, this trend towards a decline in maximum power can be mitigated by the installation",
"-24.706321818754077"
],
[
"in the vicinity of airports to monitor this wind shear. Based on FAA rules, every pilot must inquire about the wind speed and direction before landing.\n\nCompared to airliners, sailplanes fly at low airspeeds. The usual approach speed of a sailplane is around 50 knots, but let's assume that the pilot is extra \"careful\" and flies his approach at 65 knots. William Cotton claims that the wind shear can be as high as 50 knots. In such a case, if the shear direction is such that the airspeed is reduced by the shear amount, this pilot's airspeed will drop to 15 knots, which is well",
"-24.64247823029291"
],
[
"speed increases to = 177 mph.\nSome flyers rely on their muscle power to gain speed for takeoff over land or water. Ground nesting and water birds have to be able to run or paddle at their takeoff speed before they can take off. The same is true for a hang glider pilot, though they may get assistance from a downhill run. For all these, a low WS is critical, whereas passerines and cliff dwelling birds can get airborne with higher wing loadings. Effect on turning performance To turn, an aircraft must roll in the direction of the turn, increasing",
"-24.581131195969647"
],
[
"the ground or light propeller driven aircraft and helicopters below 500 feet from the ground.\nLow flying is permitted across the majority of the UK except for large urban areas, civil airports and some industrial and medical sites. Fixed-wing aircraft can fly down to 250 ft above ground level at a speed of up to 450 kt. Lower height limits apply for helicopters and in certain parts of mid Wales, Northern England and Northern Scotland, designated Tactical Training Areas. See, for example, the Mach Loop in Wales.\nFor safety and to minimise disturbance to the public, military aircrew training at low level",
"-24.560348116618115"
],
[
"the Australian Design Rules.\n The state and territory governments may set policies for the tolerance of speed over the posted speed limits that may be lower than the 10% in the earlier versions of the Australian Design Rules permitted, such as in Victoria. This has caused some controversy since it would be possible for a driver to be unaware that he is speeding should his vehicle be fitted with an under-reading speedometer. United Kingdom The amended Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations 1986 permits the use of speedometers that meet either the requirements of EC Council Directive 75/443 (as amended",
"-24.549365730432328"
],
[
"varies, but is typically between 3 and 5 g's. At the corner speed, the fighter can attain its maximum turn-rate, flying the craft just at the edge of buffeting (the turbulence preceding a stall). Below this speed, the aircraft will be limited to flying at lower g's, resulting in a decrease in turn rate. If the pilot attempts to \"pull\" more g's, the aircraft will buffet and aerodynamically stall. On the other hand, if the fighter is flown above its corner speed it will be able to pull higher g's, but doing so will cause it to lose airspeed from",
"-24.540274899918586"
],
[
"can be operable. (Other types of aircraft, like autogyros and airships, are not a significant portion of air transport.)\nAir transport is the fastest method of transport, Commercial jets reach speeds of up to 955 kilometres per hour (593 mph) and a considerably higher ground speed if there is a jet stream tailwind, while piston-powered general aviation aircraft may reach up to 555 kilometres per hour (345 mph) or more. This celerity comes with higher cost and energy use, and aviation's impacts to the environment and particularly the global climate require consideration when comparing modes of transportation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change",
"-24.537708823918365"
],
[
"capabilities in terms of airspeed, load factor and altitude. The term can also refer to other assessments of aircraft performance such as maneuverability. When an aircraft is abused, for instance by diving it at too-high a speed, it is said to be flown outside the envelope, something considered foolhardy since it has been taken beyond the design limits which have been established by the manufacturer. Going beyond the envelope may have a known outcome such as flutter or entry to a non-recoverable spin (possible reasons for the boundary). Range The range is the distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff",
"-24.529520443291403"
],
[
"V speeds In aviation, V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of all aircraft. These speeds are derived from data obtained by aircraft designers and manufacturers during flight testing for aircraft type-certification testing. Using them is considered a best practice to maximize aviation safety, aircraft performance or both.\nThe actual speeds represented by these designators are specific to a particular model of aircraft. They are expressed by the aircraft's indicated airspeed (and not by, for example, the ground speed), so that pilots may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors, as aircraft",
"-24.512385697569698"
],
[
"even at 2,800 kg (6,170 lb), the aircraft was still among the fastest aircraft in the air with a maximum airspeed of 790 km/h (427 kn; 491 mph) at sea level and 839 km/h (453 kn; 521 mph) at 6,000 m (20,000 ft), but could reach 890 km/h (481 kn; 553 mph) at sea level and 905 km/h (489 kn; 562 mph) at 6,000 m (20,000 ft) using short burst extra thrust. The short flight duration of barely 30 minutes was due to only having a single 695-litre (183 US gallon) capacity flexible-bladder fuel tank in the fuselage directly under the engine's intake. The original Baubeschreibung document submittal for the He 162 dated mid-October 1944 showed a",
"-24.507752343226457"
],
[
"per minute: therefore 10–15 minutes' flying time separation using procedural control equates to around 80 to 120 NM (150 to 220 km; 92 to 138 mi) distance between aircraft at the same altitude. Standard separation on radar while en route is only 5NM. Likewise, a typical procedural approach might allow one aircraft to land every 5–10 minutes, whereas with radar can allow one landing every 90 seconds. The provision of radar-based air traffic control gives a large increase in airspace capacity.",
"-24.47446265228791"
],
[
"License.\nThe speed restriction is higher than heavy goods vehicles: 60 MPH on dual carriageways and up to 70 MPH on motorways.",
"-24.422434095933568"
],
[
"speed-limited to 25 mph (40 km/h) like the ZX40 (except in certain states where electric vehicles which meet federal safety standards are allowed to operate up to 35 mph (56 km/h) as Medium Speed Electric Vehicles).\nThe ZX40 and ZX40S are classified as \"low-speed vehicles\", meaning they have fewer regulations to comply with. Such vehicles must include standard lighting and seatbelts, but do not require passive restraints, typically airbags in higher-speed vehicles. The vehicles should not exceed 25 mph (40 km/h) on streets with posted speed limits of 35 mph (56 km/h) or less. These vehicles also fall under the Washington State speed exemption cited above and may",
"-24.409199582063593"
],
[
"of experience criteria may operate an airworthy aircraft under VFR. Low flying rules in the EU In all EU Member states, the Standardised European Rules of the Air apply; these set out a minimum altitude of 500 ft above any obstacle within a radius of 500ft, except with permission, or when taking off or landing. If an aircraft is flying over a congested area (town, settlement, etc.) it must fly high enough so that in the case of an engine failure, it is able to land clear safely AND it must not fly less than 1000 ft above the highest fixed",
"-24.406044713483425"
],
[
"per hour (155 mph), since such high speeds are more likely on the Autobahn. This was done to reduce the political desire to introduce a legal speed limit.\nIn European markets, General Motors Europe sometimes choose to discount the agreement, meaning that certain high-powered Opel or Vauxhall cars can exceed the 250 kilometres per hour (155 mph) mark, whereas their Cadillacs do not. Ferrari, Lamborghini, Maserati, Porsche, Aston Martin and Bentley also do not limit their cars, at least not to 250 kilometres per hour (155 mph). The Chrysler 300C SRT8 is limited to 270 km/h. Most Japanese domestic market vehicles are",
"-24.404030837366008"
],
[
"caused by banking and pitching maneuvers. Similarly, the specific altitudes at which the stall speed meets the critical Mach number will differ depending on the actual atmospheric temperature. Consequences When an aircraft slows to below its stall speed, it is unable to generate enough lift in order to cancel out the forces that act on the aircraft (such as weight and centripetal force). This will cause the aircraft to drop in altitude. The drop in altitude may cause the pilot to increase the angle of attack by pulling up on the stick, because normally increasing the angle of attack puts",
"-24.402879269444384"
],
[
"so an alternate track or altitude will be assigned. Aircraft cannot change assigned course or altitude without permission.\nContingency plans exist within the North Atlantic Track system to account for any operational issues that occur. For example, if an aircraft can no longer maintain the speed or altitude it was assigned, the aircraft can move off the track route and fly parallel to its track, but well away from other aircraft. Also, pilots on North Atlantic Tracks are required to inform air traffic control of any deviations in altitude or speed necessitated by avoiding weather, such as thunderstorms or turbulence.\nDespite advances",
"-24.389409539522603"
],
[
"aircraft test runs at speeds up 55 knots (102 km/h; 63 mph) and is the world’s first and only EMAS that has safely stopped aircraft in real emergency overrun situations at commercial airports. Zodiac stopped production of EMAS systems as the U.S market slowed down and competition got too hard in the international market.\nThe Swedish company Runway Safe AB developed an EMAS system, a foamed silica bed made from recycled glass and is contained within a high-strength plastic mesh system anchored to the pavement at the end of the runway. The foamed silica is poured into lanes bounded by the mesh",
"-24.38898364920169"
],
[
"traffic control to climb from one flight level to a higher one, in a maneuver known as step climb. Cruise speed Commercial or passenger aircraft are usually designed for optimum performance at their cruise speed (VC). Combustion engines have an optimum efficiency level for fuel consumption and power output. Generally, piston engines are most efficient between idle speed and 25% short of full throttle.\nWith aircraft, other factors affecting optimum cruise altitude include payload, center of gravity, air temperature, humidity, and speed. This altitude is usually where the higher ground speeds, the increase in aerodynamic drag power, and the decrease in",
"-24.331330776039977"
],
[
"against them.\nDriving is on the left. The usual maximum speed limit is 70 miles per hour (112 km/h) on motorways and dual carriageways.\nOn 29 April 2015, the UK Supreme Court ruled that the government must take immediate action to cut air pollution, following a case brought by environmental lawyers at ClientEarth. Segregated Bicycle Paths These are being installed in some cities in the UK such as London, Glasgow, Manchester, Bristol, Cardiff for example. In London Transport for London has the Cycle Superhighways. Cycle lanes The National Cycle Network, created by the charity Sustrans, is the UK's major network of signed routes",
"-24.27882126206532"
],
[
"limited to only 180 kilometres per hour (112 mph) or 190 kilometres per hour (118 mph). The top speed is a strong sales argument, though speeds above about 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph) are not likely reachable on public roads.\nMany performance cars are limited to a speed of 250 kilometres per hour (155 mph) to limit insurance costs of the vehicle, and reduce the risk of tires failing. Mopeds Mopeds in the United Kingdom have had to have a 30 mph (48 km/h) speed limiter since 1977. Most other European countries have similar rules (see the main article). Public services vehicles Public service vehicles",
"-24.276920389507723"
],
[
"is low enough to keep airspeed up. However, airframe speed limits such as VA and VFE must be observed.\nA forward-slip is useful when a pilot has set up for a landing approach with excessive height or must descend steeply beyond a tree line to touchdown near the runway threshold. Assuming that the plane is properly lined up for the runway, the forward slip will allow the aircraft track to be maintained while steepening the descent without adding excessive airspeed. Since the heading is not aligned with the runway, forward-slip must be removed before touchdown to avoid excessive side loading on",
"-24.261742492337362"
],
[
"was controlled through the use of the vertical-speed wheel of the autopilot, combined with an altitude preselect (which illuminated a light when reaching preselected altitudes) in manual mode. While retaining use of the autopilot, the pilots reduced their speed to 160 knots (300 km/h; 180 mph) at the request of air-traffic control at 19:07. At this point the pilots were working through the approach checklist. The captain halted the checklist at the point regarding the radio altimeter, as the aircraft was above its operational limit, and he wanted to control the plane's operation during further descent. At 19:11, the aircraft received permission",
"-24.250489879690576"
],
[
"speed begins to exceed the goal, e.g. when going down a hill, the engine is throttled back so as to act as a brake, so again the speed is kept from departing more than a barely detectable amount from the goal speed (brakes being needed only if the hill is too steep). The result is that the cruise control system maintains a speed close to the goal as the car goes up and down hills, and as other disturbances such as wind affect the car's speed. This is all done without any planning of specific actions, and without any blind",
"-24.243572822175338"
],
[
"in interstate commerce (40 CFR 202)and for motorcycles (40 CFR 205). Most states and many cities have maximum limits and they generally agree with federal standards where they apply. The most common speed division is 35 mph. Motor vehicle racing events This provision is an objective emission control. It can define the method of vehicle operation that is used to define the maximum permitted sound level. It can have a curfew. Some states exempt motor vehicle racing events from noise disturbance litigation or prosecution. Arizona (Section 28-955.03) exempts racing motorcycles from maximum sound levels and muffler",
"-24.227098201517947"
],
[
"The one that is capable of a maximum speed of over 20 km/h (12.4 mph) is required miniature version of motorcycle on performance of brakes, tires, silencer, headlight, license plate lamp, rear reflector, side mirror, horn, tail lamp, break lamp, direction indicators and speedometer. So regular utility bicycle with simply added regular output engines or motors is illegal.\nDriving without suitable license or without the insurance shall strictly punished by law. Any other violations including parking violation in urban areas are severely enforced. Russia Under Russian law, no person under 16 years of age may operate a gas-powered motorized bicycle (defined as a",
"-24.205565355921863"
],
[
"Low-speed vehicle In the United States and Canada, low-speed vehicle (LSV) regulations allow relaxed design and registration laws for four-wheel vehicles that have a maximum capable speed of about 25 mph (40 km/h). Several other countries have similar regulations. Canadian regulations Under Motor Vehicle Safety Regulations, a low-speed vehicle is defined as a vehicle, other than an all-terrain vehicle, a truck or a vehicle imported temporarily for special purposes, that is powered by an electric motor, produces no emissions, is designed to travel on 4 wheels and has an attainable speed in 1.6 km of more than 32 km/h (20 mph) but not more",
"-24.188542379357386"
],
[
"on a footway only, while a Class III scooter must be limited to 8 mph (13 km/h) for road/highway use and have an additional 4 mph limiter for footway use. As of March 2010 a government consultation is under way to determine how the law should adapt to increasing scooter use, whether higher road speeds should be allowed and on a replacement for the archaic term \"invalid carriage\". Due to concerns over safety issues and problems with bringing prosecutions against irresponsible users under existing laws, the consultation will also consider whether to make third party insurance mandatory, consider the introduction of compulsory training",
"-24.167278483815608"
],
[
"S-12, achieving a speed of 107 mph (172.6 km/h). The aircraft achieved a maximum speed of 138 mph (222 km/h) on 7 January 1921.",
"-24.16044370986492"
],
[
"as in response to environmental concerns.\nEuropean studies have stated that, whereas the effects of specific speed reduction schemes on particulate emissions from trucks are ambiguous, lower maximums speed for trucks consistently result in lower emissions of CO₂ and better fuel efficiency. Advocacy Speed limits, and especially some of the methods used to attempt to enforce them, have always been controversial. A variety of organisations and individuals either oppose or support the use of speed limits and their enforcement. Support Various other advocacy groups press for stricter limits and better enforcement. The Pedestrians Association was formed in the United Kingdom",
"-24.142316866084002"
],
[
"into a headwind reduces the Ground Speed (GS) for the same TAS. This is beneficial to pilots as well as Air traffic controllers (ATC). An aircraft landing into a headwind will require less runway and will be able to vacate the runway sooner. If the headwind decreases near the ground, there's a decrease in the performance of the aircraft and it will tend to sink and possibly under shoot the aiming point.\nTailwind increases the Ground Speed of an aircraft for the same TAS and thus a longer runway distance will be required for an aircraft to land. Landing",
"-24.126404981827363"
],
[
"maximum speeds between 25 mph and 50 mph. In addition, MOHUVs have foot controls for throttle and braking, occupant restraints, and rollover protective structures.\" MOHUVs with maximum speeds in excess of 30 mph meet the Consumer Product Safety Commission definition of an ROV. Recreational off-highway vehicles are subject to additional safety standards including \"visual seat belt usage reminders; leg/foot barriers; shoulder/hip barriers; and arm/hand barriers to restrict occupant egress and excursion from the vehicle during a rollover event\". These are voluntary standards under American National Standard for recreational off-highway vehicles, ANSI/ROHVA 1-2010, though the CPSC has proposed making them",
"-24.102408995095175"
],
[
"from low power setting to high power setting at low speed. Stall speed is increased when the wing surfaces are contaminated with ice or frost creating a rougher surface, and heavier airframe due to ice accumulation.\nStalls occur not only at slow airspeed, but at any speed when the wings exceed their critical angle of attack. Attempting to increase the angle of attack at 1g by moving the control column back normally causes the aircraft to climb. However, aircraft often experience higher g-forces, such as when turning steeply or pulling out of a dive. In these cases, the wings are already",
"-24.100382165275505"
],
[
" Low-speed vehicles are defined as a four-wheeled motor vehicle that has a gross vehicle weight rating of less than 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) and a top speed of between 20 to 25 mph (32 to 40 km/h).\nStates which have specific regulations for LSVs include Alaska, California, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine Maryland, Missouri, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Utah\nNearly all 50 states allow LSVs, also called NEVs, to drive on their roads where the speed limit is 35 mph or less. Either they follow FMVSS500 (25 mph top speed on 35 mph limit roads), or make",
"-24.079081052535912"
],
[
"A note from the pilot's handbook reads: \"If the engine quits in instrument conditions or at night, the pilot should pull the control column full aft and keep the wings level. The leading-edge slats will snap out at about 64 km/h (40 mph) and when the airplane slows to a forward speed of about 40 km/h (25 mph), the airplane will sink at about a parachute descent rate until the aircraft hits the ground.\" As such, pilots of the An-2 have stated that they are capable of flying the aircraft in full control at 48 km/h (30 mph) (as a contrast, a modern Cessna four-seater light",
"-24.072807223841664"
],
[
"a vehicle's speed from helicopters and other aerial platforms, making it easier to secure a conviction.\nA 1991 study by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found that VASCAR-plus units produced errors of less than 2 mph if used correctly. Users VASCAR is known to be used where radar or LIDAR is illegal, such as some jurisdictions in Pennsylvania.\nMany police vehicles in the United Kingdom are fitted with a device, especially those used for traffic enforcement.\nThe system is also used by airborne units - in some remote locations of the United States airborne speed enforcement is employed regularly. History VASCAR was invented",
"-24.067425493281917"
],
[
"drag changes in proportion to the others based on speed. The combined overall drag curve therefore shows a minimum at some airspeed - an aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal efficiency. Pilots will use this speed to maximize endurance (minimum fuel consumption), or maximize gliding range in the event of an engine failure. Power curve in aviation The interaction of parasitic and induced drag vs. airspeed can be plotted as a characteristic curve, illustrated here. In aviation, this is often referred to as the power curve, and is important to pilots because it",
"-24.062886302242987"
],
[
"It has been widely misunderstood that flight below maneuvering speed will provide total protection from structural failure. In response to the destruction of American Airlines Flight 587, a CFR Final Rule was issued clarifying that \"flying at or below the design maneuvering speed does not allow a pilot to make multiple large control inputs in one airplane axis or single full control inputs in more than one airplane axis at a time\". Such actions \"may result in structural failures at any speed, including below the maneuvering speed.\" Design maneuvering speed VA VA is the design maneuvering speed and is a",
"-24.056912623651442"
],
[
"fly at altitudes up to about 52,000 feet, at which point the thinner air means it can no longer climb. The aircraft can also fly at up to Mach 1.1 at sea level, but no faster. This outer surface of the curve represents the zero-extra-power condition. All of the area under the curve represents conditions that the plane can fly at with power to spare, for instance, this aircraft can fly at Mach 0.5 at 30,000 feet while using less than full power.\nIn the case of high-performance aircraft, including fighters, this \"1-g\" line showing straight-and-level flight is augmented with additional",
"-24.04500739753712"
],
[
"Area rule The Whitcomb area rule, also called the transonic area rule, is a design technique used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds, particularly between Mach 0.75 and 1.2. \nThis is one of the most important operating speed ranges for commercial and military fixed-wing aircraft today, with transonic acceleration being considered an important performance metric for combat aircraft and necessarily dependent upon transonic drag. Sears–Haack body A superficially related concept is the Sears–Haack body, the shape of which allows minimum wave drag for a given length and a given volume. However, the Sears–Haack body",
"-24.032638258941006"
],
[
"flight path; leading to a common aphorism among pilots: \"You don't fly an F-16; it flies you.\"\nThe FLCC further incorporates limiters governing movement in the three main axes based on attitude, airspeed and angle of attack (AOA); these prevent control surfaces from inducing instability such as slips or skids, or a high AOA inducing a stall. The limiters also prevent maneuvers that would exert more than a 9 g load. Flight testing has revealed that \"assaulting\" multiple limiters at high AOA and low speed can result in an AOA far exceeding the 25° limit, colloquially referred to as \"departing\"; this",
"-24.007198149774922"
],
[
"a quarter or more. Regulations dictate, however, that an aircraft must be able to land on a runway without the use of thrust reversal in order to be certified to land there as part of scheduled airline service.\nOnce the aircraft's speed has slowed, reverse thrust is shut down to prevent the reversed airflow from throwing debris in front of the engine intakes where it can be ingested, causing foreign object damage. If circumstances require it, reverse thrust can be used all the way to a stop, or even to provide thrust to push the aircraft backward, though aircraft tugs or",
"-24.005167156399693"
]
] |
67pgrv | Can a sufficiently rich person park in "no parking" spaces and just keep paying the fines? | [
"I actually knew a guy who did this. A business owner in NYC. Whenever we'd go out (he was my client) he'd just park his BWM anywhere. Street corners, handicap spaces, fire hydrants, whatever. He came out to a ticket every time. He just tossed it in the back and handed it to his assistant when he got to the office. He figures he spent 4 to 5 thousand a year on fines. But he made 2 million. So his parking costs were just 0.25% of his income. One quarter of one percent. Which is basically what you probably pay as a percentage of your yearly income parking legitimately at meters or in garages.",
"Most states can't take your license away unless it's a moving violation (or if you don't pay your fines). So yes they could. Ever wonder why people with super expensive cars often quadruple-park, besides to show off their obviously massive manhood?",
"Actually yes, and it happens. Steve Jobs was notorious for constantly parking in handicapped spaces even before his cancer made that justifiable, and he ducked California's mandatory license plates law by *trading in his car for the exact same model every six months.*",
"Short answer: yes, in most places However, usually, parking enforcement can order the car towed at their discretion, so if they find you constantly violaating the ordinance, they might decide to do that.",
"Depends on where you live. In BC, Canada, where I live, parking violations are civil bylaw infractions. They have nothing to do with your driver's license. If you pay, they go away. If you don't pay, you get sent to collections. You can never go to prison for parking tickets in BC.",
"It depends on the type of no parking. If it is a no parking zone that is for emergency services no. After a few violations you will be arrested for public endangerment. But the level that the city sees as the point that it becomes public endangerment is different for every city and it is possible they have other connections that keep them from getting into trouble. Other kinds of illegal parking just about anyone can get away with so long as you pay your fines.",
"In the UK there is the criminal offence *Leaving a Vehicle in a Dangerous Position* , for example on a blind corner. This can be punished by 3 'penalty points' as well as a fine. That wouldn't apply to things like parking in disabled spaces though. Accumulate 12 penalty points in 3 years and you normally get banned from driving. Drive while banned and you can be put in prison. For some context, other common offences that earn 3 points are mild speeding and running red lights.",
"In Ohio, only moving violations can cost you your license. If you want to keep paying the fine, and getting your car out of the pound, sure, have at it.",
"It depends on the legislation. It is possible that the vehicle may be towed. And then without paying the impound fee and the parking tickets to get the car it may be auctioned off. But it would take months for this to happen. There are instances where rich people park wherever they like if they are in a hurry and just pay the parking tickets. Even the impound fee is not scaring them away. Some places it is a bit of a problem and they have to weekly tow cars left by rich people in a hurry.",
"Yes, and it happens frequently. I live in Chicago and people double park, park in no parking, park on the sidewalks, or in a permit parking area (sans permit) all the time. It's a thing that just happens. Sometimes you will get a ticket, most times you will not. If you do get a ticket you just pay it and move on. You do need to pay it because if you get too many unpaid tickets they will tow your car. Also if you are parking in certain areas that require absolute no parking (no parking for game days) they will tow your car. They will not tow if you just happen to get a lot of tickets (and pay them). They don't care because each ticket is more revenue for the city.",
"This is one of the reasons why people want tickets and fines to be based on your income and not a flat rate. Rich people can afford the fine and thus it isn't a punishment. If a person's income is $25k and a ticket is $250 that's 1% of their income. If a person's income is $1m and a ticket is $250 who cares? That's .025%. They make more than that in interest rates.",
"There's a guy in Scotland that does it. It was in a newspaper a few years ago. I think he was a boxing promoter. He drove some kind of sports car that was really low to the ground so couldn't be towed and he'd just take a ticket as the money meant nothing to him and it meant he didn't waste time finding a proper space. Sounds like a proper tool, but then if he's got ten money, I guess why not? As long as it's not endangering g anyone by clicking somewhere important, there's nothing that could be done and the council makes a decent amount off him every year.",
"I'm not rich but I essentially do this everyday (well similar). I'm a college student and we have a bunch of different lots but also pay per hour parking. I normally just park and ignore it and get a ticket. It's normally about 8 dollars a ticket. However, I've found that the price of getting a ticket (almost) everyday still isn't enough to justify buying an overpriced parking pass. Also most towns have a limit on the number of unpaid parking tickets you can have. So you can get towed after a while. I've gotten towed from this before. I'm not sure whether it goes on your record but yeah.",
"I know handicap parking tickets are a non-moving violation with no points. So I believe you could park there and just keep paying the fine. they could not revoke your license.",
"I think Steve Jobs was famous for breaking \"non-moving violation\" type driving laws, and would just pay the fines. Since he was a billionaire the fines were to him what being fined half a cent might be to an average person, and that was only when he was caught. It was rumoured that he would drive without license plates, park in handicap spots, I guess stuff like that.",
"My old boss lives this life daily. He gets hassled more by angry residents than parking enforcement. That said, the first day I worked for him he paid off $3000 worth of $25 no parking fees.",
"This is actually common in big cities where parking is expensive. Many people roll the dice and park illegally rather than pay big bucks for a legit parking space.",
"There's that one guy in Beverly Hills, his bugatti is parked outside his business 24/7. But then again, he's been dead a while now.",
"And this is the reason that fines should be a percentage of income rather than a fixed amount."
] | [
[
"not have legal power to issue fines or penalties as a result of people parking on private land, as this is classed as misrepresentation of authority. They are able to issue a Parking Charge Notice (PCN) as specified in Schedule 4 of the Protection of Freedoms Act.\nIn parking at the site, a driver may have accepted those terms and conditions, provided they are clearly displayed, and the driver has read and understood them as set out in the case of Vine v London Borough of Waltham Forest [2000] EWCA Civ 106.\nIn his judgment, Lord Justice Roche stated:\nThe act of",
"-29.297511073818896"
],
[
"The High Cost of Free Parking Contents The High Cost of Free Parking begins with discussing the history of automobiles and parking and how vehicle ownership rates have steadily increased over time. Shoup argues the parking is a classic tragedy of the commons problem where drivers compete over scarce public parking spaces and consume time and resources searching for them. Shoup then criticizes how the Institute of Transportation Engineers determines parking generation rates, the amount of parking needed for certain land uses, for extrapolating based on limited data and for not accounting for other factors such as public",
"-28.504989899985958"
],
[
"fairly among the population, and in proportion to the amount of waste each user generates. Free riders are no longer able to have their behavior subsidized, and PAYT is said to promote community sustainability. Lower-income families tend to produce less waste and thus pay lower waste collection fees. Diversion effects and risks Charging for waste can also sometimes result in illegal dumping (fly-tipping) or the waste being passed to unlicensed or illegal disposal methods. In practice, increased litter, open burning, and illegal dumping have not been observed by most pay-as-you-throw communities, especially when combined with easier recycling and",
"-27.26969632676628"
],
[
"of the clause will be advanced if there is an equivalent bonus for finishing early.\nDifficulties can arise with fines for wrongful parking (parking in the wrong area, or overstaying). There are three scenarios: (i) parking on public streets; & parking in a private car park either (ii) with permission, or (iii) without permission. If a parking fine is imposed for type (i), since the powers exercised by the local authority have been delegated by Parliament, there is little that one can do, except to seek judicial review and allege disproportionality. If it is type (ii), such as",
"-27.067704617813433"
],
[
"of owning over renting, and in favor of self-service over hiring. For the economy, not taxing imputed income directs economic activity away from activities associated with extreme and severe division of labor. Example: Durable property Home ownership is an example of an instance involving imputed income from durable property. If someone lives in their own property, they forgo the rental income on this property in exchange for not owing an equivalent amount of rent to someone else. In effect they are paying rent to their mortgage lender. They also avoid paying income taxes on a portion of that rental income.",
"-24.934069792099763"
],
[
"further notice “Failure to comply … will result in a Parking Charge of £85”. Underneath, it also stated: “By parking within the car park, motorists agree to comply with the car park regulations”. Mr Beavis left his car parked for 56 minutes over the permitted two-hour period. He argued that the £85 charge demanded of him by ParkingEye (reducible to £50 if he had paid within 14 days) was an unenforceable penalty. Further or alternatively, he maintained that it is unfair and invalid within the meaning of the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999. Significance Commentators on the",
"-24.856116515904432"
],
[
"car the owner purchased and, at least in the United States, even the poor own cars. People earning lower incomes would then pay more as a percentage of their income than higher-income earners. A tax on the unimproved aspects of land tends to be a progressive tax, since the wealthier one is, the more land one tends to own and the poor typically do not own any land at all.\nLump-sum taxes are not politically expedient because they sometimes require a complete overhaul of the tax system. Lump-sum taxes are also unpopular when they are assessed per capita because they are",
"-24.831988424179144"
],
[
"offenses. Beginning in 1993, those accused of parking violations cannot generally contest them in a court of law until exhausting administrative procedures. See, e.g., Misdemeanors A misdemeanor is a crime punishable by imprisonment in a county or city jail or detention facility not to exceed one year. Except where the law specifies a different punishment, a misdemeanor is punishable by imprisonment in a county jail not exceeding six months and/or a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars. However, many misdemeanor offenses specifically list a punishment that exceeds the punishment listed in Penal Code section 19. For example, a misdemeanor violation",
"-24.80052033863103"
],
[
"Parking violation United States In 1926, American merchants listed downtown traffic congestion as their most serious difficulty. Unenforced curbside parking and lack of off-street parking facilities were listed as the primary problems. Customers went where they could park.\nDuring the Great Depression, city revenues dwindled. With parking meters, however, a new source of municipal revenue was found. Not only did the nickels paid in by parkers accumulate, but so did the fines imposed for over parking. By 1944, American cities were generating some $10 million annually from parking meters alone. Soon after came meter maids, who, because they were paid less",
"-24.7426307106507"
],
[
"by private sector providers. They argue that because providers were not paid until an unemployed person had been in work for two years it made little economic sense to concentrate on the most \"difficult cases\". The study also found that the largest private sector providers known as \"primes\" were guilty of passing more difficult cases onto sub-contractors. Furthermore, \"parking\" meant that charities were not getting referrals under the Work Programme as such customers were not considered likely to result in a payment for the provider.\nOne interviewee told the study:\n\"It's not being PC but I'll just say it as it is",
"-24.47444626565266"
],
[
"good reason to evict them, particularly so that landlords cannot evict old tenants and raise rent on new tenants. Third various proposals have been made to prohibit estate agents charging fees to tenants, in the same way that employment agencies are banned from charging fees to people seeking work by the Employment Agencies Act 1973.",
"-24.250180967334018"
],
[
"renter, being now on the driver, the renter or owner of that figure is clear, and the driver has nothing to do but to be absent and laugh at the complainant\". For this reason, the law needs to be amended so that both the driver and the renter (for Moreton equally guilty) might be accountable for extortion, insolence, or offences. In addition, the renter should be obliged to register and respond for the behaviour of the driver he rented his coach to. Beggars and vagrants The group that most characterized London streets were beggars and vagrants. The broad eighteenth-century definition",
"-24.24993607698707"
],
[
"road is converted to a toll road, or if a free public museum turns into a private, admission fee-charging museum). This problem is sometimes compounded by the fact that common-property goods are characterized by rival consumption. Not only can consumers of common-property goods benefit without payment, but consumption by one imposes an opportunity cost on others. This will lead to overconsumption and even possibly exhaustion or destruction of the common-property good. If too many people start to free ride, a system or service will eventually not have enough resources to operate. Free-riding is experienced when the production of goods does",
"-24.121249960619025"
],
[
"is proven, it leads to sanctions being temporarily applied and could ultimately result in the member being suspended or expelled from the scheme.\nThere are principles in contract law when applied to private parking, that the driver of a vehicle is invited by the parking operator (and/or the landowner) to park in a car parking site, and that the terms and conditions of the parking contract should be set out clearly and concisely through the placement of signs as you enter and around the site. These are clearly specified in the BPA's Code of Practice for Parking on Private Land.\nOperators do",
"-24.021364791697124"
],
[
"deadweight losses the way other taxes do.\nWhen real estate is held by a higher government unit or some other entity not subject to taxation by the local government, the taxing authority may receive a payment in lieu of taxes to compensate it for some or all of the foregone tax revenues.\nIn many jurisdictions (including many American states), there is a general tax levied periodically on residents who own personal property (personalty) within the jurisdiction. Vehicle and boat registration fees are subsets of this kind of tax. The tax is often designed with blanket coverage and large exceptions for things like",
"-23.995742337756383"
],
[
"helps to provide alternative punishments for misdemeanors and parking violations, in an attempt to divert petty offenders from overcrowded courtrooms.\nIn December 2016, John Stewart, chief judge at the court, discarded 66,000 arrest warrants for criminal infractions, like sleeping on the sidewalk, public urination and public drunkenness, stating \"You're putting somebody in jail because they're poor and can't pay a fine. We got a lot of criticism, but we thought it was the right thing to do.\"",
"-23.95321642656927"
],
[
"for down payment can rent a flat, and then buy their own house later under MHPP. (ii) Rental flats for a maximum five years will be provided so they can have enough time to ponder over their plan of buying houses and do not have to make careless decisions on purchase of flat. Therefore, they will bear lower risks. (B) Helps accumulate savings As the rent will remain unchanged within the rental period, the tenants can take time to save up their money for down payment, which is the most difficult to be saved up. (C) Greater upward mobility in",
"-23.94339328938804"
],
[
"critics of the changes who argue that they amount to a tax because of the lack of social housing (or in some areas, any rented accommodation) for affected tenants to downsize to (and the refusal to accept the risk of taking in lodgers). The penalties are also criticised as having a disproportionate impact on disabled people.\nIn 2016 it was announced that the penalty would be extended to pensioners. Caroline Abrahams of Age UK, said: \"Imposing the cap on older tenants will not only cause them anxiety and distress, it is also pointless given the lack of affordable housing options",
"-23.884451078904476"
],
[
"tires or filters. Repairs and Improvements Repairs costs are completely unpredictable because they depend on the number and severity of car collisions, like dents repairing for example. These costs also refer to spare parts substitution due to malfunctioning. On this cost item it might be included also the parts bought to improve the performance or the aesthetic of the vehicle. Parking The costs of parking include all the money the user needs to pay to park their car. This applies normally to car parking lots, like in offices, public buildings, shopping centres or in the downtown; but also on the",
"-23.876731510004902"
],
[
"defamation of character, leaving a parking lot without paying) is false imprisonment per Section 220 of the Criminal Code. Malaysia Section 27(1) of the Criminal Procedure Code allows for a private person to arrest a person who, in his view, has committed a seizable offence or a non-bailable offence:\nAny private person may arrest any person who, in his view, commits a non-bailable and seizable offence or who has been proclaimed under section 44 and shall without unnecessary delay hand over the person so arrested to the nearest police officer or, in the absence of a police officer, take that person",
"-23.7663477682363"
],
[
"this contract, from charges and fines. 80 staff who have been fined are challenging the fines in court. A three-day trial in the small claims court ruled that staff had to pay £128 for each parking ticket, and the costs of the hearing, which amounted to £29,000. There were three lead cases and the result was binding on 72 others. The company cancelled parking charge notices issued up to the end of March 2016. There are more than 100,000 unpaid tickets outstanding. In popular culture University Hospital of Wales was the subject of the television series Hospital",
"-23.73994830448646"
],
[
"to $499 might have been applied if caught violating this ordinance. This ordinance was only suspended indefinitely, however if it is reviewed and passed, it may result in the banning of solicitation on private property unless prior permission has been granted from the property owner (begging would not be affected and would remain legal). Topeka currently does hold laws against soliciting on public property, which have not been found to target the homeless, rather targeting many backpackers instead. According to Topeka law, it is illegal to solicit funds, rides, or contributions along roadways, meaning that persons whom present cardboard signs",
"-23.72702979910173"
],
[
"most. Some even argue that they should be free at the point of use.\nThe alternative to funding facilities and services with user fees is to fund them with income taxes. Unlike user fees, income taxes are paid by everyone, including those who don't necessarily use or benefit from a specific facility or service.",
"-23.72060102721389"
],
[
"exemption limit (currently €18,000), may claim a refund of DIRT or may submit an appropriate form to their banks or financial institutions to have interest paid free of DIRT. History It was controversial because taxpayers cannot withhold it in protest because it is taken at source. Some argued that it discourages saving among low-income families, who would not otherwise be liable for taxation, but who might also not understand the need to claim exemption. Evasion In the late 1990s a parliamentary inquiry under Jim Mitchell, TD, established the existence of a culture of encouraging tax evasion within Irish banks, which",
"-23.6629799096263"
],
[
"tenants would pay according to the rent set by the court, which meant landlords could not raise the rent more than the actual market price. Hence, rents are actually kept \"artificially low\" and the market fails to respond according to the rental price set by the market. Due to this, many landlords refused to rent out their land for such steeply discount prices, but rather left the land deserted in order to reap huge capital gains should land prices increase sharply. Changes in bank behaviour Traditionally, Japanese are well known to be great deposit savers. However, the trend seemed to",
"-23.636139681271743"
],
[
"City Council appealed that decision and went further by declaring the money to be a 'grant' rather than a 'reimbursement'. Mayor David Miller argued that anyone running for office should not be forced into paying large legal fees. He said, \"Nobody in this city, unless you're really rich, can afford to run for public office and be subjected to $70,000 in legal fees.\" In December 2010, the court refused the city's request for an appeal. However, the court did not force Heaps to return the money.\nDuring his time in office, he served as chair of the city's Cycling Advisory Committee.",
"-23.508420560858212"
],
[
"fee to the homeowners’ association. The Court agreed that “a covenant to pay a sum of money is a personal affirmative covenant which usually does not touch or concern the land.” Nonetheless, the court reasoned that property owners gained access to public roads, beaches, and public parks, and public places. Therefore, “the burden of paying the cost should be inseparably attached to the land which enjoys the benefit.” \nOpponents first argued that developer transfer fees do not “touch and concern” the land. The benefit (infrastructure used by homeowners on an ongoing basis) appears directly and reasonably related to the",
"-23.463744110631524"
],
[
"laws, and visitors may be subject to heavy fines for not abiding.",
"-23.40319319086848"
],
[
"payments when claimants have no money to buy food or to pay rent can force claimants to crime or prostitution, Emma Mullins said, \"We had just been made homeless and we had nothing, no food, nothing. I still feel angry when I think about it now that I had to degrade myself – but it was either that or see my children starve. I would do it again if I had to, but I hope I’m never in that situation again.\"\nIn 2010, the Conservative-Lib Dem coalition government led by David Cameron argued for a reduction of welfare spending in the",
"-23.38380875923758"
],
[
"Diminution in value Car accidents After car accidents, the right to claim diminution in value depends on the country or state and who is at fault. \nMajor car rental companies do charge their renters for diminished value after accidents, unless the renter pays for a Damage waiver (Avis, Budget, National, Thrifty). Some companies even say they alone will decide the diminution (Dollar, Hertz\"). Charging for diminution in value may not be allowed in California, Indiana, Nevada, New York, Wisconsin, Australia or New Zealand, since Hertz does not charge it in those locations. Hertz does charge in Europe, the Middle",
"-23.18858512814768"
],
[
"illegal for landlords to require off-the-books key money. The terms of the written lease can be enforced in court. However, a cash bribe, styled as \"key money,\" may be demanded in cities with strict rent controls. Because it is paid in cash, it can be very difficult to prove in court.\nWhen renting commercial properties in which the premises already contains various trade-fixtures, equipment, electric, and plumbing (items typically left when a former tenant vacates), such items have a value above the typical rent for an empty \"vanilla shell\" premises. The landlord would charge the tenant key money in order",
"-23.145644731645007"
],
[
"of the police force. If fines were unpaid, the courts could decide on a penalty, and if then unpaid, a warrant would be made out and a person could spend time in jail to cover the amount of the fine. Now the system is different with the State Debt Recovery Office handling the fines. Ancient Assyria Possibly the first parking restrictions were put in place in Nineveh, the capital of ancient Assyria in c.700 BC. The restrictions are due to their king Sennacherib (704 to 681 BC) and pertained to the sacred main processional way through Nineveh. The oldest parking",
"-23.06990931351902"
],
[
"to place without any lawful purpose or object, habitual loafers, disorderly persons, persons neglecting all lawful business and habitually spending their time by frequenting houses of ill fame, gaming houses, or places where alcoholic beverages are sold or served, persons able to work but habitually living upon the earnings of their wives or minor children shall be deemed vagrants and, upon conviction in the Municipal Court shall be punished as provided for Class D offenses. \nClass D offenses at the time of these arrests and convictions were punishable by 90 days' imprisonment, a $500 fine, or both. Defendants' Conduct Four",
"-23.035043185016548"
],
[
"addition, it is the customer's responsibility to be careful in a premises with lots of fragile valuable goods; so careless behavior such as an untied shoelace or horsing around can be regarded as negligent. However the rule is rarely enforced, as the establishment cannot detain a customer for non-payment of damages and instead would have to file a civil suit against that customer. In actual practice even a civil suit is unlikely if the patron lacks the means to pay, such as damaged artwork in a museum that could be worth millions.\nIn reality, Pottery Barn—a chain of upscale home furnishing",
"-23.00300429755589"
],
[
"as they were: the hirer lost his one-third deposit, and the owner lost the rest of the rent. The court reasoned that the doctrine of \"impossibility\" could not be applied in this case because it was technically possible for the hirer to take possession of the flat and sit on the balcony. However, the owner knew the only reason the hirer would want to rent the flat was to watch the procession; had the hirer actually gone to the flat and sat on the balcony, he would have seen nothing of interest. Thus the purpose of the contract had been",
"-22.9650158934528"
],
[
"are really just substitutes for direct taxes, rather than being levied for the usual reasons for excise.\nAll of these taxes lead to avoidance behaviour that had a substantial impact on society and architecture. People deliberately bricked up windows to avoid window tax, used much larger bricks to reduce their liability for brick tax, or bought plain paper and had it filled in later to avoid wallpaper tax. Some poor people even forced themselves to live in cold dark rooms in order to avoid paying these taxes. By contrast, extremely wealthy individuals would sometimes parade their ability to pay the tax,",
"-22.955333510995843"
],
[
"companies in some countries provide reduced rates for householders who use the services of house sitters. In the UK, most insurance companies will reject claims if the house is left vacant for more than 30 days without prior arrangement, and require that an empty property be checked at least every seven days. House sitting is therefore considered a practical solution to managing properties which would otherwise stand vacant for long periods of time. \nIn Canada, some insurance claims will not be paid out if they occur in a home left empty for more than four days. Therefore, it is important",
"-22.920148987264838"
],
[
"this non-compliance to an overwhelming majority of small business owners providing illegal goods and services. Self-employed individuals, on the other hand, commonly viewed the law as \"unjust\" on the grounds that impoverished peddlers and other \"business owners\" could not afford the licence on their limited and unstable incomes.",
"-22.889086883107666"
],
[
"price and renting them to homeless people; they seemed interested at first but he says they stopped calling him back after the 2008 federal bailout was announced.\nTake Back the Land uses illegal tactics. The group commits trespassing and tenants could be charged with crimes such as vandalism. Rameau says, \"there's a disconnect between the need and the law. Being arrested is just one of the potential factors in doing this.\" The tenants are told that they may be arrested if caught. Take Back the Land has a pro-bono lawyer on standby. Kelly Penton, a spokeswoman for",
"-22.88066474207153"
],
[
"fines or jail time for the employer. Enforcement Often, both the employer and employee agree on paying in cash. Frequently, the employer is running an unreported cash-based business. These methods make detection by authorities to be time-consuming and difficult. Most small-scale operations take place without any real enforcement effort. Lawn-mowing is a good example of a cash-based business that is frequently unreported.\nIn the United States, authorities have focused enforcement resources on large-scale operations like illegal immigrants who are employed by large companies. Discovery and enforcement of small-scaled unreported employment is typically through a secondary indiscretion like fraud, tax irregularities, and",
"-22.875097063464636"
],
[
"\"ordinary and necessary expenses paid or incurred during the taxable year in carrying on a trade or business.\" The Court reasoned (and the Internal Revenue Service did not contest the point) that it was ordinary and necessary for a person engaged in a business to expect to have legal fees associated with that business, even though such things may only happen once in a lifetime. Therefore, the taxpayer in Tellier was allowed to deduct his legal fees from his gross income, even though he incurred the fees because of his crime. The U.S. Supreme Court in Tellier reiterated that the",
"-22.864686777757015"
],
[
"value and have become a sunk cost.\nLiving in a status neighbourhood is not only poor value, but you will feel the need to keep buying status objects to keep up with your neighbours, who are mostly UAWs. \nThe authors make the point that Hyperconsumers must realize more income to afford luxury items and become more vulnerable to inflation and income tax. PAWs are willing to take financial risk if it is worth the reward PAWs are not misers who put every penny under their mattress. They invest their money for good returns, and will consider riskier investments if they're worth",
"-22.84782658792392"
],
[
"person or group they help, and so often assist them with several legal problems at once.\nLaw Centres help over 120,000 people every year with problems such as eviction, unfair dismissal, discrimination, violence, abuse, exploitation, and the wrongful withdrawal of their welfare benefits.\nThe Law Centres Federation commissioned research on the Socio-Economic Value of Law Centres which showed that for every £1 spent by Law Centres on a typical housing case, an estimated £10 of “social value” is created through benefits to the local community and savings to government. Other, non-quantifiable benefits are also yielded, like preventing case escalation, empowering individuals and",
"-22.809591081117105"
],
[
"in deceitful tactics and has more than 800 complaints against the company at the Better Business Bureau and has received an F rating. Vehicles In order to keep costs low, Payless typically shares a fleet with its auxiliary, Avis Rent a Car, in many locations. Payless uses sales techniques to maintain profitability, including offering fewer vehicle classes than other rental car companies.",
"-22.777534138178453"
],
[
"are used to offset delinquent payments or damage to the property. If neither happens, the money is refunded (typically with statutory interest) when the tenant vacates. It is illegal but common for unscrupulous landlords to refuse to refund some or all of this deposit, instead keeping it for unneeded \"cleaning\" or \"repairs.\" Landlord-tenant laws in the United States typically specify that a landlord must provide a detailed accounting of all deductions from a security deposit on request and normally cannot charge for \"normal wear and tear,\" such as replacing old carpets or painting walls that have not been",
"-22.722341512097046"
],
[
"that approximately 37% of those surveyed earned between R50-100 and 34% reported daily income of between R101-150. This appears to be generally aligned with the mandated minimum wage established in 2009. However, while car guards can potentially earn R4,500/day, there are additional fees that they must pay as \"bay-fees\" to shopping mall owners, agency fees, if applicable, and uniform rental fees. These additional fees can reduce daily wages below the prescribed minimum wage, or even into a negative daily rate being earned. Issues Because this process is almost completely unregulated, when one parks their car in an area with car",
"-22.71259073006513"
],
[
"obtain auto or mortgage loan funds is illegal if and when the funds are misused intentionally. The Bank of Montreal sued hundreds of people, including Federal Conservative MP Devinder Shory, for allegedly being involved in a mortgage fraud in which the bank lost $30 million. The bank alleged that straw buyers, in exchange for a cash payment, applied for mortgage loans in the Calgary area on behalf of other parties and knew before submitting the applications that the loans would not be paid. The lawsuits were settled out of court.\nIn United States v. Quintero-Lopez, two men were charged with locating",
"-22.69381731870817"
],
[
"the use of a car park space was a valuable commodity being prevented from using it as the result of the presence of a trespasser therefore incurred a loss. On this basis he found that the demand for £40 was reasonable. He further found that as Mr Arthur was fully aware of the warning contained in the prominent notices at the time he parked and that, as a consequence, he had consented to the clamping thereby rendering Mr Anker's actions lawful when they would otherwise have been tortious.\nMr and Mrs Arthur's case was rejected and Mr Anker was awarded damages",
"-22.655897970777005"
],
[
"internet. In the video, Warren rebuts the charge that asking the rich to pay more taxes is \"class warfare\", pointing out that no one grew rich in America without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society, stating:\nThere is nobody in this country who got rich on his own. Nobody. ... You moved your goods to market on the roads the rest of us paid for; you hired workers the rest of us paid to educate; you were safe in your factory because of police forces and fire forces that the rest of us paid for. You didn't",
"-22.639646702511527"
],
[
"or on the streets, highways, thoroughfares, or public places in the city, shall not therein or thereon expose himself or herself to public view, under the penalty of a fine of $1 for each offense (Chicago City Code 1881)\nThe fine of $1 equates to more than $20 in 2018. In most cities, punishments for violating an ugly law ranged from incarceration to fines of up to $50 for each offense.\nIn May 1881, the unsightly beggar ordinance went into effect in Chicago, Illinois. It was created by Chicago alderman James Peevey. Peevey is quoted in the Chicago Tribune from May 19,",
"-22.61245704157045"
],
[
"a typical €200 (US $246) fine for the same offense would have been had it been issued to a Finn earning an average salary. The retributive theory's lack of consideration of the perpetrator's and victim's status has led many jurisdictions to move away from it in various ways, including punitive equality and taking into consideration the status and wealth, or lack of status and wealth, of an offender and their consequent ability to both pay fines and defend themselves effectively in court.\nOne critique of some concepts of just deserts is that they are primitive, emphasizing social harm rather than the",
"-22.576729845794034"
],
[
"had no choice but offer the same or continue losing customers. Free banking account holders are now charged only if they use an add-on service such as an overdraft.\nFinancial transaction fees may be charged either per item or for a flat rate covering a certain number of transactions. Often, youths, students, senior citizens or high-valued customers do not pay fees for basic financial transactions. Some offer free transactions for maintaining a very high average balance in their account. Other service charges are applicable for overdraft, non-sufficient funds, the use of an external interbank network, etc. In countries where there are",
"-22.560636408190476"
],
[
"certain man is serving a sentence for six months for stealing twenty-five cents, while another is serving the same sentence for stealing three thousand times as much. Each man should have been made to earn and repay exactly what he stole, with interest, and to pay the costs; then he should be allowed to go free. Present laws are more likely to make anarchists than anything else.\n\"We should take cognizance of the fact that criminals are sick mentally and are morally depraved, and that whether the criminal tendency is the result of heredity and environment, the law should seek a",
"-22.528508799994597"
],
[
"an investigation by the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards, who concluded that they misused their MPs' expenses to pay rent for a flat that they had already bought outright.",
"-22.52493003255222"
],
[
"younger players on the court, \"You could do a lot worse than modeling yourselves after this guy.\" Income tax evasion trial In January 1999, Javie was the only one of fifteen referees to be acquitted of tax evasion charges as a result of not reporting income he received by downgrading airline tickets provided by the league. Other referees were sentenced to probation or a period of house arrest, and ordered to pay the taxes. He fought the charges because he believed he did not intentionally do anything wrong. Discussing the trial, Javie told Referee magazine, \"My job",
"-22.497930022494984"
],
[
"cooperating witness. Through this witness, a longtime businessperson who takes permit applications and other construction issues to the city on behalf of homeowners and developers, defendants were able to pay or receive bribes without physically presenting themselves.\nFormer Chicago Inspector General David H. Hoffman said: \"Taxpayers pay city inspectors to enforce the law. Instead, the city employees charged today used their position to help people violate the law. For thousands of dollars in bribes, they wrote false inspection reports and issued fraudulent certificates. Our building-safety and zoning laws become meaningless when corrupt city employees help real-estate developers break the laws.\"",
"-22.45545586181106"
],
[
"lost, the 50% period pay could be extended.\nPenalty Charge Notices (PCN) should not be confused with 'Parking Charge Notices, the latter, being issued by private landowners seeking to impose a charge for parking on private land. Penalty notices for disorder Issued under Section 1–11 of the Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001 for public disorder offences and divided into \"lower-tier\" and \"higher-tier\" offences each with its own penalty amount, a penalty notice for disorder (PND) can only be issued to people aged 18 or over. There are 26 offences for which a notice can be issued, such as being",
"-22.44359171154065"
],
[
"redistribute wealth, or to control or manage trade, are improper in a free society.\n2.1 Property and Contract\nAs respect for property rights is fundamental to maintaining a free and prosperous society, it follows that the freedom to contract to obtain, retain, profit from, manage, or dispose of one's property must also be upheld. Libertarians would free property owners from government restrictions on their rights to control and enjoy their property, as long as their choices do not harm or infringe on the rights of others. Eminent domain, civil asset forfeiture, governmental limits on profits, governmental production mandates, and governmental controls on",
"-22.42374826411833"
],
[
"charging 10%, they will split the fee between them. Estate agents selling commercial property (known as investment agents) typically charge 1% of the sale price.\nThe fees charged by residential letting agents vary, depending on whether the agent manages the property or simply procures new tenants. Charges to prospective tenants can vary from zero to £300 in non-refundable fees usually described as \"Application\", \"Administration\" or \"Processing\" fees (or all three). There are no guidelines for letting agents on charges, except that they are forbidden by law to charge a fee for a list of properties. All charges to tenants are illegal",
"-22.414344711052763"
],
[
"Pay to Stay Pay to Stay was the name of a government policy in the United Kingdom whereby council tenants earning £30,000 (£40,000 in London) would have to pay \"market or near market rents\". The measure was due to come into effect in April 2017 with the Institute for Fiscal Studies estimating that the policy will impact upon 10% of social housing tenants. On 21 November 2016 the Housing Minister Gavin Barwell announced that the new plans for Pay to Stay would be dropped. Councils maintain the option of charging near market rates to those on incomes of £60,000",
"-22.37404764405801"
],
[
"the judge sided with the agency citing state law that lack of police presence wasn't a violation that tenants could withhold rent for. This resulted in tenants paying $25,000 in back rent.",
"-22.35834616288048"
],
[
"value, or even below the agencies' own appraisal figures because the displaced people are often unaware of their legal rights and lack the will and the funds to mount a proper legal defense in a valuation trial. Those who do so usually recover more in compensation than what is offered by the redevelopment agencies.\nThe controversy over misuse of eminent domain for redevelopment reached a climax in the wake of the U.S. Supreme Court's 2005 5 to 4 decision in Kelo v. City of New London, allowing redevelopment takings of sound, unblighted homes, solely to allow redevelopers to put the taken",
"-22.33275251762825"
],
[
"system much more progressive and generationally equitable, and argues that taxing consumption is effectively the same as taxing wages plus taxing wealth. A household of three persons (this example will use two adults plus one child; the rebate does not consider marital status) spending $30,000 a year on taxable items would devote about 3.4% of total spending ([$6,900 tax minus $5,888 rebate]/$30,000 spending) to the FairTax after the rebate. The same household spending $125,000 on taxable items would spend around 18.3% ([$28,750 tax minus $5,888 rebate]/$125,000 spending) on the FairTax. At higher spending levels, the rebate has less",
"-22.322869977142545"
],
[
"is sometimes used without any negative connotation. For example, many Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball teams have a kangaroo court to punish players for errors and other mistakes on the field, as well as for being late for a game or practice, not wearing proper attire to road games, or having a messy locker in the clubhouse. Fines are allotted, and at the end of the year, the money collected is given to charity. The organization may also use the money for a team party at the end of the season. Examples Some examples of adjudication venues described",
"-22.279133039759472"
],
[
"a bicycle but buy a poor person a bicycle, as well?\" The experiment challenges an individual to determine how large a group is required before the taking of an individual's property becomes the \"democratic right\" of the majority. Response Supporters of taxation usually assert that since property rights are determined by the state, taxation by the state cannot be considered theft. In their 2002 book, The Myth of Ownership: Taxes and Justice, Liam Murphy and Thomas Nagel argue:\n...the emphasis on distributing the tax burden relative to pretax income is a fundamental mistake. Taxation does not take from people what they",
"-22.270592397486325"
],
[
"struggling to cope with mortgage payments. Food and heating costs have rocketed, and we know they can only go up. You are working as many hours as you can to pay for city life, with little time for leisure, even less time to get to know your children, or to spend a few days with friends. Altogether it's a vicious circle, a struggle for survival, with no time to think and be oneself. No wonder that crime is on the increase and mental institutions are overcrowded. If you haven't fallen victim to one of these social ills, then you could",
"-22.24673923238879"
],
[
"pay $2 million to 16 women, all Asian, who alleged being groped, harassed, or victimized by a member of the Oakland Police Department. After a criminal trial, former Officer Richard Valerga was sentenced to six months in jail.\nIn 2010, Oakland agreed to pay $6.5 million to individuals alleging that the Oakland police illegally obtained search warrants based on false or misleading information.\nIn 2011, Oakland Police came under further criticism for its handling of Occupy Oakland. Occupier Scott Olsen was seriously injured during a melee when struck in the head by an object that some claim was a bean bag round",
"-22.244842853317095"
],
[
"At one point, Milton had amassed $1,080 in parking ticket fines owed to the city. In April 2006, he was cited by Detroit police for failing to properly secure a child passenger. He paid a $235 fine, according to 36th District Court records.",
"-22.238830308342585"
],
[
"is one for which I am liable in justice, if it is not paid, owing to poor people who gave their work for it by my orders. It was at Elgin in Murray, the Regiment I commanded wanted shoes. I commissioned something about seventy pair of shoes and brogues, which might come to 3 shillngs or three shillings and sixpence each, one with the other. The magistrates divided them among the shoemakers of the town and country, and each shoemaker furnished his proportion. I drew on the town, for the price, out of the composition laid on them, but I",
"-22.220582332480262"
],
[
"of between one and three times the sum of the deposit, to be awarded at the discretion of the Court. Tenants can also now make an application to a county court for a penalty award after the tenancy has ended. Alternatives There are a number of “no deposit” or “zero deposit” schemes in operation that are provided by insurance companies. These can offer landlords protection without having to take a deposit.\nBond schemes are an alternative for those unable to afford a deposit. They are commonly used as a homelessness prevention measure.",
"-22.200394692190457"
],
[
"months in prison. The police can, however, access the taxation data of Finnish citizens and permanent residents via a real-time datalink, so the chance of lying successfully is minor. There is no maximum day-fine, which may lead to considerably high fines for high-income persons. For example, in 2001, a Finnish businessman with a yearly income of 10 million euros, received a relatively mild punishment of six day-fines, amounting €26,000, for driving though a red traffic light. In 2009 a businessman was fined €112,000 for travelling at 82 kilometres per hour in an area with a speed limit of 60 kilometres",
"-22.177272545173764"
],
[
"run probation. In The New York Times, Thomas B. Edsall notes that \"The more commercialized fee collection and probation services get, the more the costs of these services are inflicted on the poor.\" History In 1841, John Augustus, a Boston cobbler, convinced a judge to grant him custody of a man convicted of public intoxication. The man would have been incarcerated, otherwise. The judge agreed, and instead, Augustus paid the man's fine and took him in. Augustus returned with the drunkard three weeks later for an evaluation. The judge perceived the man to be sober and respectable, and Augustus had",
"-22.171455343195703"
],
[
"a general duty of care should be owed to all visitors to land. The summary judgment for the defendant was reversed because the defendant should have warned the plaintiff of the broken handle.\nThe most heavily quoted passage from Rowland is as follows:\nA man's life or limb does not become less worthy of protection by the law nor a loss less worthy of compensation under the law because he has come upon the land of another without permission or with permission but without a business purpose. Reasonable people do not ordinarily vary their conduct depending upon such matters, and to focus",
"-22.16952711722115"
],
[
"in Landlord and Tenant law the owner of the fee is well seised because he owns both the naked legal title and the equitable title. When the landlord rents his property the Lessee is vested with equitable title and the peaceable enjoyment of the property during his or her tenure. When the Lessee moves out, the equitable title is joined with the naked legal title and the gap in seisin is closed and the owner regains fee simple title. Commonly when trusts are created the trustee owns (takes) legal title; the trustee administers the property for the",
"-22.164389302801283"
],
[
"tenant. The amount can vary from a symbolical amount up to one or more monthly lease terms. However, key money is deemed illegal and repayment can be enforced by legal means. As the Netherlands experience a shortage in living space (especially in Amsterdam and other large cities in the west), landlords and tenants nevertheless often ask key money despite it being illegal. United States In the United States, it is common to require key money in the form of a security deposit. The tenant pays one or two months' rent up-front. These funds are then held in escrow and",
"-22.15640141388576"
],
[
"\"phantom income\" was not subject to tax on primary residences. Ethical issues Some ethicists have questioned the morality of strategic default, arguing that one has a duty to make payments on debt if one is able. Others argue that there is no such moral duty, a loan being a contract between consenting adults, and noting that financial investors routinely default on non-recourse loans that have negative equity. Some argue further that there is a moral duty to strategically default, and that one should make such decisions based on one's financial interest \"unclouded by unnecessary guilt or shame\", as lenders who",
"-22.146794005679112"
],
[
"is also common in hotel, rental car services or on pay at the pump at filling stations where the company wants to confirm a valid method of payment has been received prior to providing services or goods and knowing the amount that will be charged.\nThe major consequence for the user is that they cannot access that part of their account until the authorization hold expires without being finalized or is settled and the banking system transfers the funds. If the account balance is low this could result in an unavailable funds fee. The actual balance will not be reduced",
"-22.143746901361737"
],
[
"where municipal courts across the United States are under considerable financial strain, private probation companies such as Judicial Correction Services, who are \"offender-funded\" are able to provide the service for free to local authorities while turning a substantial profit.\nA distinction is made between the \"offender-funded\" private probation model or \"probation for profit\" and private probation which is not in itself problematic. Problems arise when \"public officials allow probation companies to profit by extracting fees directly from probationers, and then fail to exercise the kind of oversight needed to protect probationers from abusive and extortionate practices. All too often, offenders on",
"-22.143110649310984"
],
[
"littering were popular offenses), and steadily escalated to the point where business started to suffer. There was a very real threat that you could be arrested for any number of reasons before you ever even stepped inside the club.\nThis ultimately led to an incident in the parking lot on the night of January 30, 1981, when an infamous punk and club regular named Pat Brown attempted to run over two police officers with his car. According to an eyewitness account of Casey Royer, Brown was driving through the parking lot with a group of friends while he had a",
"-22.115196726670547"
],
[
"authorized drivers, locations, no racing) and with the damage waiver (such as police report). Waivers may also cover theft, vandalism, loss of use, and liability. The renter often has a choice among different coverages for different fees.\nDamage waivers are not necessarily complete. They may have deductibles (also called excess) and limits on the amount covered. Liability coverage always has limits.\nThe descriptions above come from rental company websites, under headings like Policies, FAQ, Coverage, or More.\nDamage Waivers can be bought from the car rental company in most countries, or through a car hire excess insurer in the UK, or through travel",
"-22.113917838898487"
],
[
"question. In addition, property-related fees or charges based on potential or future use of a property-related service are not permitted.\nThe fourth requirement is intended to add a temporal component to the property-related fee or charge restrictions. Property owners using an existing property-related service are not supposed to be paying costs associated with future use of that service, including future service to their own property. This is especially the case with respect to paying for the costs of expensive public improvements for which property owners may not receive direct benefits from until years later (if ever at all). However, so far",
"-22.112332818185678"
],
[
"of media attention as special assessments on real property, controversial property-related fees and charges became a significant problem following the passage of Proposition 13, as many local governments labeled taxes as \"fees\" or \"charges\" and imposed them without voter approval. For example, the California Supreme Court ruled that a local municipal utility, such as a city providing domestic water service, is entitled to a reasonable \"return on investment\" (otherwise referred to as \"profit\"). As a result, a local municipal utility could legally overcharge its customers in excess of the cost of providing the utility service, and then transfer the excess",
"-22.065530706538993"
],
[
"parking contract in 2011, and victory in the High Court in 2010 over the principle of charging motorcyclists for parking in Westminster.\nAs the cabinet member for parking, Rowley received media attention after the council was censured by the European Commission for infringing contract laws - and criticised for earlier claiming in a press release it had been \"cleared of any wrong-doing\". Rowley was alleged to have falsely claimed in a press release that: \"We always maintained this contract was properly awarded following a tender process carried out in accordance with the law and we are obviously pleased that the EU",
"-22.042507997439316"
],
[
"without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society:\nThere is nobody in this country who got rich on his own. Nobody. ... You moved your goods to market on the roads the rest of us paid for; you hired workers the rest of us paid to educate; you were safe in your factory because of police forces and fire forces that the rest of us paid for. You didn't have to worry that marauding bands would come and seize everything at your factory, and hire someone to protect against this, because of the work the rest of us did.",
"-22.020222740015015"
],
[
"policy, the greater the potential workers paid in scrip could exchange it (likely at a discount) for goods and/or services the company store was unable (or unwilling) to provide, or for cash to obtain those goods and services. Indeed, one justification often given by employers for paying in scrip was that it supposedly prevented their workers from spending their earnings on \"immoral\" goods and services such as alcohol and prostitution.\nOn the other hand, a company town in a remote area with both the ability to keep any potential competition for company stores out and an ample supply of cash might",
"-22.01619713157561"
],
[
"those in extreme poverty lacked the funds to pay the fines. Judges would respond to unpaid fines by issuing arrest warrants, resulting in the incarceration of homeless individuals when the same resources used to jail the inmates could instead go towards expanding shelter services. Additional critiques lobbied at the program centered around the use of police as social service workers. Matrix police were authorized to give psychological field tests to determine if a homeless person was acting erratically and were the deciding force on whether or not to bring the individual to the hospital for mental services. In 1994, homeless",
"-21.98688215049333"
],
[
"tax returns, that he was not required to pay income taxes, and that he could claim refunds of the money withheld from his pay. Cheek also contended that his wages from a private employer (American Airlines) did not constitute income under the internal revenue laws. Cheek argued that he therefore had acted without the \"willfulness\" that was required for a criminal tax conviction. Ignorance of law Under U.S. criminal law, the general rule is that ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is not a valid defense to criminal prosecution (see also Ignorantia juris non excusat). However, there",
"-21.98638864888926"
],
[
"said that this trend was leading to big social problems across the world. On behalf of many of the world's large cities, the mayor of Barcelona called on the United Nations to do something to help stop real estate speculators from driving up the cost of housing. If nothing is done, then in the long term, it will be impossible to reconcile stagnant or falling real incomes for a large part of the workforce, with rising housing costs. The result would be overcrowded rental housing, squatting and homelessness on a very large scale. In turn, that would cause more crime,",
"-21.9800940234054"
],
[
"had the substantial benefit of a floor pension, a benefit which the non-GARs did not have. \nThe real problem with Equitable Life was that they did not have enough money to meet both (1) the floor pensions for the GARs and (2) the normal pension for the non-GARs. \nThe lesson that can be drawn is that if you have un-hedgeable guarantees in a with-profits fund any life company (because the financial market is incomplete) must have built up an Estate (spare money set aside for a rainy day) as the 'rainy day' may arrive (as it did with the collapse",
"-21.9588783053332"
],
[
"one if the person fails to repay the loan, or wait until all people who live in the flat are dead. Several projects of special cheap 'social' flats for those who failed to repay mortgages were proposed to facilitate mortgage market.",
"-21.936355253856163"
],
[
"plus the £619.64 Greater London Authority charge (collectively below the national average), while five were paying the Council Tax at the 50% reduction for a second home. Westminster North MP Karen Buck stated: \"When council spending is under unprecedented pressure, it is scandalous that residents in luxury apartments can avoid their share of council tax liability. It sometimes seems as if the more money you have the less you are required to pay.\" Nicholas Shaxson from Vanity Fair discovered that 60 apartments are owned by companies registered in tax havens as foreign companies and therefore don't have to pay taxes",
"-21.932267537136795"
],
[
"and a basic living allowance of €255 per month have been deducted. In addition, every person for whose upkeep the fined person is responsible decreases the amount of daily fine by €3. The income of the person is calculated on the basis of the latest taxation data. For speeding in traffic, however, the fine is at least as high as the petty fine, i.e. €115.\nThe person who is punished with a fine is responsible for giving accurate information concerning their income. Lying about one's income (Finnish: sakkovilppi, Swedish: bötesfusk) is a crime punishable with a fine or up to three",
"-21.92406753973046"
],
[
"need to work off their debt in workhouses. To insure against refusal to work, the reparations payments would be deducted from each pay before room and board costs, and those who refused to work would not eat or would have only a minimal diet. A variety of degrees of confinement would exist. The argument that the rich would buy crime is refuted by the argument that even a wealthy man could be killed in self-defense if he attempted a violent act and that he would risk his reputation as well.\nChapter 11, Warring Defense Agencies and Organized Crime, asserts the falsity",
"-21.896192363368755"
],
[
"which are the least bad taxes? In my opinion the least bad tax is the property tax on the unimproved value of land, the Henry George argument of many, many years ago.\"\nMichael Hudson is a proponent for taxing rent, especially land rent.\".... politically, taxing economic rent has become the bête noire of neoliberal globalism. It is what property owners and rentiers fear most of all, as land, subsoil resources and natural monopolies far exceed industrial capital in magnitude. What appears in the statistics at first glance as \"profit\" turns out upon examination to be Ricardian or \"economic\" rent.\"\nPaul Krugman agreed",
"-21.895871714688838"
],
[
"income are the physical deterioration of the building and inability to meet debt obligations. Lack of revenue inhibits the property manager’s ability to make repairs or capital improvements to the building, causing the property to fall into disrepair. To mitigate this risk, non-profit owners often establish a reserve account to cover capital expenditures in the event that a property does not generate enough income to cover maintenance costs. Furthermore, in the event that debt service cannot be covered, the lender can foreclose on the property, taking the affordable units off of the market and hurting the",
"-21.89173077075975"
],
[
"other legal mechanisms. As a result, this restriction may not have been significant. A partnership, trust or similar legal mechanism allowed an individual, or individuals, to pool their incomes and losses, thus allowing them to offset property losses against other incomes. This option was not available to individuals who derived their income from wages.\nIn 1983, the Victorian Deputy Commissioner of Taxation briefly denied Victorian property investors the deduction for interest in excess of the rental income, so losses could not be transferred nor moved to a future tax year. That ruling was quickly over-ruled by the federal tax commissioner.\nin 1985,",
"-21.88768962705217"
],
[
"that should be done for the city by itself – by its governing body. The answer is – we must do it, because we are willing to do it and can do it.\" Horsfall even argued that local employers should donate money to the gallery rather than pay higher wages to their employees because \"For we [the middle-class] alone have learnt that money may have other powers than that of buying beer and bread. Higher wages can only lead to greater debasement.\" In a lecture to the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, he stated: \nA considerable measure",
"-21.87332260495168"
],
[
"argued by merchants, are for the costs associated with the detection, prevention, and prosecution of theft. In most cases, these recovery claims are secured voluntarily, in conjunction with criminal charges. Judges like to see a penitent thief repaying merchants for their crimes. It is more likely that people caught for stealing would voluntarily pay these claims rather than endure them appearing on their credit report as judgments.",
"-21.856718473100045"
],
[
"firms with different names rather than expanding his existing firm into a very noticeable leviathan.\nThe penalties for being an illegal lender were mild. Illegal lending was a misdemeanor, and the penalty was forfeiture of the interest and perhaps the principal as well. But these were only ever imposed if the borrower sued, which he typically could not afford to do.\nOpposition to salary lenders was spearheaded by social elites, such as businessmen and charity organizations. Businessmen were encouraged not to fire employees who were indebted to loan sharks, as they unwittingly supported the industry by providing lenders with a means of",
"-21.84988875038107"
],
[
"free of charge or cheaper, albeit not always operated through a door-to-door collection. Swiss health officials and police often open up garbage for which the disposal charge has not been paid. They search for evidence such as old bills which connect the bag to the household/person they originated from. Fines for not paying the disposal fee can now be up to CHF 10,000.- in some municipalities. Again many people are now aware of this and remove their names and details from any documentation disposed of illegally before trashing it, therefore rendering it impossible and futile for health officials to identify",
"-21.846742428271682"
]
] |
4js67r | Allergy medicine. Since it is an anti-histemine, does it not suppress the immune system? Is it easier to catch things like influenza or the cold while on allergy medicine? | [
"Your immune system is kind of like a highway. There are all sorts of things on the highway to prevent cars from driving recklessly. There are two ways to enforce traffic laws on the highway, physical ~~barriers~~ deterrents and cops. The physical ~~barriers~~ deterrents are your innate immune response, the cops are the adaptive immune response. Histamine is a physical ~~barriers~~ deterrents, in our analogy, let's call it a speed bump. Speed bumps affect all traffic on the highway. If you have speed bumps engaged when you don't need them, like if you are exposed to an allergen such as pollen, it's a hassle for everyone involved. Allergy medicine turns off the speed bumps, but the cops are still around, and there are other physical ~~barriers~~ deterrents still present. EDIT: Changed barriers to deterrents to prevent confusion with the physical barriers used by the human body.",
"Histamine is only one small part, of one part (the innate), of the immune system. The answer to your question is, it slightly does, but is basically negligible because the bulk of your immunity comes from other mechanisms.",
"Anti-histamines work by blocking receptors in cells that would otherwise cause swelling/inflammation in those cells. Anti-histamines in allergy meds block the specific receptors that cause inflammation. They don't prevent all histamine action. There are separate classes of anti-histamines that work on other receptors, such as the receptors that induce over-production of stomach acid, causing ulcers. Researchers are currently working to produce an antihistamine that might help with auto-immune disorders like rheumatoid arthritis.",
"Anti-histamines don't mute the immune system. The chemical bonds to the receptors that would normally take up an allergen, preventing that allergen from causing the undesirable reaction."
] | [
[
"glucocorticoids, epinephrine (adrenaline), mast cell stabilizers, and antileukotriene agents are common treatments of allergic diseases. Anti-cholinergics, decongestants, and other compounds thought to impair eosinophil chemotaxis, are also commonly used. Although rare, the severity of anaphylaxis often requires epinephrine injection, and where medical care is unavailable, a device known as an epinephrine autoinjector may be used. Immunotherapy Allergen immunotherapy is useful for environmental allergies, allergies to insect bites, and asthma. Its benefit for food allergies is unclear and thus not recommended. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of allergen in an effort to change the immune system's response.\nMeta-analyses",
"-37.86139514923707"
],
[
"classical antihistamines that act upon the H₁ histamine receptor. Antihistamines are used as treatment for allergies. Allergies are caused by an excessive response of the body to allergens, such as the pollen released by grasses and trees. An allergic reaction causes release of histamine by the body. Other uses of antihistamines are to help with normal symptoms of insect stings even if there is no allergic reaction. Their recreational appeal exists mainly due to their anticholinergic properties, that induce anxiolysis and, in some cases such as diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine, and orphenadrine, a characteristic euphoria at moderate doses. High dosages taken to",
"-36.855000998664764"
],
[
"(anaphylaxis) occurs, then epinephrine should be used. People with potential anaphylaxis are recommended to carry auto-injectors at all times. Less severe reaction may be dealt with by taking an antihistamine tablet.\nTotal avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling). Society and culture Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 causes",
"-35.91586192207251"
],
[
"is the first product for use to treat systemic allergic responses, particularly if a patient is experiencing dyspnoea or hypotension because it is capable of reversing adverse events quickly and is very safe to use. It is recommended that people who have suffered from anaphylaxis carry an epinephrine autoinjector (EpiPen), should dyspnoea or hypotension begin to occur.\nWhole body extract immunotherapy (WBE) to treat victims of anaphylaxis has been in use since 1973. Anyone who has a suspected allergy to the venom is redirected to an allergist for assessment. The treatment uses the entire body of the ant and not just",
"-35.58217331720152"
],
[
"are receptor antagonists. Only a minority of marketed compounds are inverse agonists at the receptor. Clinically, H₁-antihistamines are used to treat allergic reactions and mast cell-related disorders. Sedation is a common side effect of H₁-antihistamines that readily cross the blood–brain barrier; some of these drugs, such as diphenhydramine and doxylamine, may therefore be used to treat insomnia. H₁-antihistamines can also reduce inflammation, since the expression of NF-κB, the transcription factor the regulates inflammatory processes, is promoted by both the receptor's constitutive activity and agonist (i.e., histamine) binding at the H₁ receptor.\nA combination of these effects, and in",
"-35.560319838576106"
],
[
"drug for them.\nThe United States government removed two second generation antihistamines, terfenadine and astemizole, from the market based on evidence that they could cause heart problems. Research Not much published research exists which compares the efficacy and safety of the various antihistamines available. The research which does exist is mostly short term studies or studies which look at too few people to make general assumptions. Another gap in the research is in information reporting the health effects for individuals with long term allergies to take antihistamines for a long period of time. Newer antihistamines have been demonstrated to be effective",
"-34.9514388708194"
],
[
"and unproven; (2) its basic elements would apply to almost all sick patients at some time because its supposed symptoms are essentially universal; (3) overuse of oral antifungal agents could lead to the development of resistant germs that could menace others; (4) adverse effects of oral antifungal agents are rare, but some inevitably will occur; and (5) neither patients nor doctors can determine effectiveness (as opposed to coincidence) without controlled trials. Because allergic symptoms can be influenced by many factors, including emotions, experiments must be designed to separate the effects of the procedure being tested from the effects of other",
"-34.89059269971767"
],
[
"skin. Allergens There is currently no regulation over use of the term \"hypoallergenic\", and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. Those with eczema are especially vulnerable to an allergic reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with and activate immune cells.\nThe American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.",
"-34.43280771591526"
],
[
"FDA's Department of Health and Human Services stated, \"Aggregation of product could enhance immune responses, specifically neutralizing antibody, which may limit the response to therapy, whereas highly deaggregated product may induce immune tolerance.\" It appears that she then went on to ask for further justification of some relevant aspect of the production process, though the majority of this particular memorandum has not been publicly released and it is unclear as to whether this concern is relevant to the high rate of allergic response to this drug.\nAdditionally, it is recommended that patients be administered antipyretics before use. According to Aldurazyme's website,",
"-34.374171946779825"
],
[
"in others, but it offers allergy sufferers a chance to reduce or stop their symptoms.\nThe therapy is indicated for people who are extremely allergic or who cannot avoid specific allergens. Immunotherapy is generally not indicated for food or medicinal allergies. This therapy is particularly useful for people with allergic rhinitis or asthma.\nThe first dose contain tiny amounts of the allergen or antigen. Dosages increase over time, as the person becomes desensitized. This technique has been tested on infants to prevent peanut allergies. Helminthic therapies Whipworm ova (Trichuris suis) and Hookworm (Necator americanus) have been tested for immunological diseases and allergies.",
"-34.33717651355255"
],
[
"preventing the release of histamine. Decongestants may also be prescribed. Another common mast cell stabilizer that is used for treating allergic conjunctivitis is sodium cromoglicate. Antihistamines Antihistamines such as diphenhydramine and chlorpheniramine are commonly used as treatment. People treated with H1 antihistamines exhibit reduced production of histamine and leukotrienes as well as downregulation of adhesion molecule expression on the vasculature which in turn attenuates allergic symptoms by 40–50%. Dual Activity Agents Dual-action medications are both mast cell stabilizers and antihistamines. They are the most common prescribed class of topical anti allergy agent. Olopatadine (Patanol, Pazeo) and ketotifen fumarate (Alaway or",
"-34.252320953281014"
],
[
"system then recognizes foreign agents bound to antibodies and triggers a more robust immune response. The use of antiserum is particularly effective against pathogens which are capable of evading the immune system in their unstimulated state but are not robust enough to evade the stimulated immune system. The existence of antibodies to the agent depends on an initial survivor whose immune system, by chance, discovered a counteragent to the pathogen or a host species which carries the pathogen but does not suffer from its effects. Further stocks of antiserum can then be produced from the initial donor",
"-34.24524106674653"
],
[
"can trigger a histamine release (allergic reaction), atopic children, who are especially susceptible to allergic reactions, should be administered dextromethorphan only if absolutely necessary, and only under the strict supervision of a healthcare professional. Neurotoxicity Dextromethorphan had been thought to cause Olney's lesions when administered intravenously; however, this was later proven inconclusive, due to lack of research on humans. Tests were performed on rats, giving them 50 mg or more every day for as long as a month. Neurotoxic changes, including vacuolation, have been observed in posterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortices of rats administered other NMDA receptor antagonists such as PCP,",
"-34.24219561258542"
],
[
"antihistamines (such as diphenhydramine), metoclopramide, and phenothiazines (such as promethazine). With respect to effectiveness it is unknown if one is superior to another. In the United States and Canada, the doxylamine-pyridoxine combination (as Diclegis in US and Diclectin in Canada) is the only approved pregnancy category \"A\" prescription treatment for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy.\nOndansetron may be beneficial, but there are some concerns regarding an association with cleft palate, and there is little high quality data. Metoclopramide is also used and relatively well tolerated. Evidence for the use of corticosteroids is weak. Alternative medicine Some studies support the use of",
"-34.092752703945735"
],
[
"antibiotics, and it may be safe to administer aztreonam to many patients with hypersensitivity (allergies) to penicillins and nearly all cephalosporins. However, like other beta lactams, there is a risk of very serious allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis. The aztreonam label directs physicians to be aware of the possibility of these severe adverse reactions. This is more likely if the patient is allergic to a certain cephalosporin known as ceftazidime. Aztreonam exhibits cross-reactivity with this cephalosporin due to a similar side chain. Physicians should evaluate prior allergy history when prescribing this medicine.\nSpecial caution is warranted in patients who are",
"-34.02074838880071"
],
[
"that certain antihistamines could be used by children 2 years of age, and other drugs being safer for younger or older children.",
"-33.949473079730524"
],
[
"altered estrogen levels and liver damage, many antifungal medicines can cause allergic reactions in people. For example, the azole group of drugs is known to have caused anaphylaxis.\nThere are also many drug interactions. Patients must read in detail the enclosed data sheet(s) of any medicine. For example, the azole antifungals such as ketoconazole or itraconazole can be both substrates and inhibitors of the P-glycoprotein, which (among other functions) excretes toxins and drugs into the intestines. Azole antifungals also are both substrates and inhibitors of the cytochrome P450 family CYP3A4, causing increased concentration when administering, for example, calcium channel blockers, immunosuppressants,",
"-33.93275357961102"
],
[
"H2 antihistamines affected the stomach. This history has led to contemporary research into drugs which are H3 receptor antagonist and which affect the Histamine H4 receptor. Society and culture Antihistamines can vary greatly in cost. Some patients consult with their doctor about drug prices to make a decision about which antihistamine to choose. Many antihistamines are older and available in generic form. Others are newer, still under patent, and generally expensive. The newer drugs are not necessarily safer or more effective. Because so many antihistamines are available, patients can have conversations with their health care provider to choose the right",
"-33.78651287627645"
],
[
"Antiserum Antiserum (plural antiseras) is human or nonhuman blood serum containing monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies that is used to spread passive immunity to many diseases. For example, convalescent serum, passive antibody transfusion from a previous human survivor, used to be the only known effective treatment for Ebola infection but with a poor success rate.\nAntisera are widely used in diagnostic virology laboratories. The most common use of antiserum in humans is as antitoxin or antivenom to treat envenomation.\nSerum therapy, also known as serotherapy, describes the treatment of infectious disease using the serum of animals that have been immunized against the specific",
"-33.72697628513197"
],
[
"the pharmacological mechanisms of the anti-IgE therapy discussed above. Furthermore, among the diseases in which omalizumab has been studied for efficacy and safety, some are not allergic diseases, because hypersensitivity reactions toward external antigens is not involved. For example, a portion of the cases of chronic idiopathic urticaria and all cases of bullous pemphigoid are clearly autoimmune diseases. For the remaining cases of chronic idiopathic urticaria and those of the different subtypes of physical urticaria, the internal abnormalities leading to the disease manifestation have not been identified. Notwithstanding these developments, it is apparent that many of those diseases involve inflammatory",
"-33.67546960958862"
],
[
"a nonprescription medicine in some countries, is used to treat skin problems such as rashes and eczema.\nIt inhibits production of interleukin (IL)-12, interferon (IFN)-gamma, IFN-alpha, and tumor-necrosis-factor (TNF)-alpha by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and T helper (Th)1 cells, but upregulates IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13 by Th2 cells. This results in a shift toward a Th2 immune response rather than general immunosuppression. The activation of the stress system (and resulting increase in cortisol and Th2 shift) seen during an infection is believed to be a protective mechanism which prevents an over-activation of the inflammatory response.\nCortisol can weaken the activity of the immune",
"-33.60040024375485"
],
[
"Antihistamine Medical uses Histamine produces increased vascular permeability, causing fluid to escape from capillaries into tissues, which leads to the classic symptoms of an allergic reaction — a runny nose and watery eyes. Histamine also promotes angiogenesis.\nAntihistamines suppress the histamine-induced wheal response (swelling) and flare response (vasodilation) by blocking the binding of histamine to its receptors or reducing histamine receptor activity on nerves, vascular smooth muscle, glandular cells, endothelium, and mast cells.\nItching, sneezing, and inflammatory responses are suppressed by antihistamines that act on H1-receptors. In 2014, antihistamines such as desloratadine were found to be effective as adjuvants to standardized",
"-33.49752397438351"
],
[
"toxin is called a toxoid. Adjuvants The use of simple molecules such as toxoids for immunization tends to produce a low response by the immune system, and thus poor immune memory. However, adding certain substances to the mixture, for example adsorbing tetanus toxoid onto alum, greatly enhances the immune response (see Roitt etc. below). These substances are known as adjuvants. Several different adjuvants have been used in vaccine preparation. Adjuvants are also used in other ways in researching the immune system.\nA more contemporary approach for \"boosting\" the immune response to simpler immunogenic molecules (known as antigens) is to conjugate the",
"-33.42365241413063"
],
[
"antihistamine. However, as in other non sedating second-generation antihistamines, the most common side effects in controlled clinical studies were somnolence, headaches and fatigue. Mechanism of action Rupatadine is a second generation, non-sedating, long-acting histamine antagonist with selective peripheral H₁ receptor antagonist activity. It further blocks the receptors of the platelet-activating factor (PAF) according to in vitro and in vivo studies.\nRupatadine possesses anti-allergic properties such as the inhibition of the degranulation of mast cells induced by immunological and non-immunological stimuli, and inhibition of the release of cytokines, particularly of the tumor necrosis factors (TNF) in human mast cells and monocytes. Pharmacokinetics",
"-33.40830013867526"
],
[
"with repolarization may be better than some other antihistamines, as levocetirizine does not significantly prolong the QT interval in healthy individuals. However, some people may still experience some slight sleepiness, headache, mouth dryness, lightheadedness, vision problems (mainly blurred vision), palpitations and fatigue. Pharmacology Levocetirizine is an antihistamine. It acts as an inverse agonist that decreases activity at histamine H1 receptors. This in turn prevents the release of other allergy chemicals and increase the blood supply to the area, and provides relief from the typical symptoms of hay fever. Chemistry Chemically, levocetirizine is the active levorotary enantiomer of cetirizine, also called",
"-33.39385066307295"
],
[
"treatment of allergic rhinitis. In June 1990, evidence of serious ventricular arrhythmias among those taking Seldane prompted the FDA to issue a report on the risk factors associated with concomitant use of the drug with macrolide antibiotics and ketoconazole. Two months later, the FDA required the manufacturer to send a letter to all physicians, alerting them to the problem; in July 1992, the existing precautions were elevated to a black box warning and the issue attracted mass media attention in reports that people with liver disease or who took ketoconazole, an antifungal agent, or the antibiotic erythromycin, could suffer cardiac",
"-33.35673580880393"
],
[
"can have toxic effects at the therapeutic target (HMG CoA reductase). Immune Responses Some pharmaceuticals can initiate allergic reactions, as in the case of penicillins. In some people, administration of penicillin can induce production of specific antibodies and initiate an immune response. Activation of this response when unwarranted can cause severe health concerns and prevent proper immune system functioning. Immune responses to pharmaceutical exposure can be very common in accidental contamination events. Tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, has been shown to alter the humoral adaptive immune response in gilthead seabream. In this case, pharmaceuticals can produce adverse effects not",
"-33.34572658711113"
],
[
"Levocetirizine Medical uses Levocetirizine is used for allergy symptoms including watery eyes, runny nose, sneezing, hives, and itching. The manufacturers claim it to be more effective with fewer side effects than previous second-generation drugs; however, there have been no published independent studies supporting these comparative assertions. A study part-funded by the manufacturer UCB concluded it may be more effective than some other second- and third-generation anti-histamines, but did not compare it to cetirizine. Side effects Levocetirizine is called a non-sedating antihistamine as it does not enter the brain in significant amounts, and is therefore unlikely to cause drowsiness. Cardiac safety",
"-33.33421839720904"
],
[
"cases one may develop a full blown allergic reaction. Physicians who perform skin test always have equipment and medications available in case an anaphylaxis reaction occurs. This is the main reason why consumers should not get skin testing performed at corner stores or by people who have no medical training.\nAntihistamines, which are commonly used to treat allergy symptoms, interfere with skin tests, as they can prevent the skin from reacting to the allergens being tested. People who take an antihistamine need either to choose a different form of allergy test or to stop taking the antihistimine temporarily before the test.",
"-33.29514980838212"
],
[
"other medications like omalizumab can be used. These options are explained in more detail below. Antihistamines Non-sedating antihistamines that block the histamine H1 receptors are the first line of therapy. First generation antihistamines such as diphenhydramine or hydroxyzine block both central and peripheral H1 receptors and can be sedating. Second generation antihistamines such as loratadine, cetirizine, or desloratadine selectively antagonize the peripheral H1 receptors and are less sedating, less anticholinergic, and generally preferred over the first generation antihistamines.\nPeople who don’t respond to the maximum dose of H1 antihistamines may benefit from increasing the dose, then to switching to another non-sedating",
"-33.25144635221841"
],
[
"with allergic conjunctivitis. They tend to have delayed results, but they have fewer side-effects than the other treatments and last much longer than those of antihistamines. Some people are given an antihistamine at the same time so that there is some relief of symptoms before the mast cell stabilizers becomes effective. Doctors commonly prescribe lodoxamide and nedocromil as mast cell stabilizers, which come as eye drops.\nA mast cell stabilizer is a class of non-steroid controller medicine that reduces the release of inflammation-causing chemicals from mast cells. They block a calcium channel essential for mast cell degranulation, stabilizing the cell, thus",
"-33.21170781433466"
],
[
"prevent or reduce the symptoms caused by the inflammation of affected tissues. Measures that are effective include avoiding the allergen. Intranasal corticosteroids are the preferred medical treatment for persistent symptoms, with other options if this is not effective. Second line therapies include antihistamines, decongestants, cromolyn, leukotriene receptor antagonists, and nasal irrigation. Antihistamines by mouth are suitable for occasional use with mild intermittent symptoms. Mite-proof covers, air filters, and withholding certain foods in childhood do not have evidence supporting their effectiveness. Antihistamines Antihistamine drugs can be taken orally and nasally to control symptoms such as sneezing, rhinorrhea, itching, and conjunctivitis.\nIt is",
"-33.203699068795686"
],
[
"reaction. Severe allergic reactions (anaphalaxis) may require treatment with an epinephrine pen, i.e., an injection device designed to be used by a non-healthcare professional when emergency treatment is warranted. A second dose is needed in 16-35% of episodes. Immunotherapy There is active research on trying oral immunotherapy (OIT) to desensitize people to egg allergens. A Cochrane Review concluded that OIT can desensitize people, but it remains unclear whether long-term tolerance develops after treatment ceases, and 69% of the people enrolled in the trials had adverse effects. They concluded there was a need for standardized protocols and guidelines prior to",
"-33.2012374013575"
],
[
"have found that injections of allergens under the skin is effective in the treatment in allergic rhinitis in children and in asthma. The benefits may last for years after treatment is stopped. It is generally safe and effective for allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis, allergic forms of asthma, and stinging insects.\nThe evidence also supports the use of sublingual immunotherapy for rhinitis and asthma but it is less strong. For seasonal allergies the benefit is small. In this form the allergen is given under the tongue and people often prefer it to injections. Immunotherapy is not recommended as a stand-alone treatment for",
"-33.15497556034825"
],
[
"Antivenom Medical uses The principle of antivenom is based on that of vaccines, developed by Edward Jenner; however, instead of inducing immunity in the patient directly, it is induced in a host animal and the hyperimmunized serum is transfused into the patient.\nAntivenoms can be classified into monovalent (when they are effective against a single species' venom) or polyvalent (when they are effective against a range of species, or several different species at the same time).\nAntivenoms for therapeutic use are often preserved as freeze-dried ampoules, but some are available only in liquid form and must be kept refrigerated. They are not",
"-33.142168353297166"
],
[
"symptom worsening. The H₂ and H₃ receptors are thought to be helpful when treating MS patients. Histamine has been shown to help with T-cell differentiation. This is important because in MS, the body's immune system attacks its own myelin sheaths on nerve cells (which causes loss of signaling function and eventual nerve degeneration). By helping T cells to differentiate, the T cells will be less likely to attack the body's own cells, and instead attack invaders. Disorders As an integral part of the immune system, histamine may be involved in immune system disorders and allergies. Mastocytosis is a rare disease",
"-33.09267553659811"
],
[
"use is as an antiseptic and antifungal agent, due to the oligodynamic effect. In multidose injectable drug delivery systems, it prevents serious adverse effects such as the Staphylococcus infection that, in one 1928 incident, killed 12 of 21 children vaccinated with a diphtheria vaccine that lacked a preservative. Unlike other vaccine preservatives used at the time, thiomersal does not reduce the potency of the vaccines that it protects. Bacteriostatics such as thiomersal are not needed in single-dose injectables.\nIn the United States, countries in the European Union, and a few other affluent countries, thiomersal is no longer used as a preservative",
"-33.08840009896085"
],
[
"exposure. If the body is exposed to the allergen multiple times the immune system will react every time the allergen is present. \nThe reason why people get allergies is not known. The allergens are not passed down through generations. It is believed if parents have allergies the child is more likely to be allergic to the same allergens. \nSome common symptoms include itchiness, swelling, running nose, watery eyes, coughing, wheezing, trouble breathing, hives, rashes, mucus production, or a more severe reaction anaphylaxis. Allergic responses and the severity vary from person to person.\nMany substances can trigger an allergic reaction. Common triggers",
"-33.057780531118624"
],
[
"Antipruritic Antipruritics, also known as anti-itch drugs, are medications that inhibit the itching (Latin: pruritus) often associated with sunburns, allergic reactions, eczema, psoriasis, chickenpox, fungal infections, insect bites and stings like those from mosquitoes, fleas, and mites, and contact dermatitis and urticaria caused by plants such as poison ivy (urushiol-induced contact dermatitis) or stinging nettle.",
"-32.96831253726123"
],
[
"both, but the term \"cosmeceutical\" has no meaning under the law\". Drugs are subject to an intensive review and approval process by FDA. Cosmetics, and these related products, although regulated, are not approved by FDA prior to sale. Cautions Some alternative and natural products and therapies may be harmful, either to the skin or systemically.\nThe FDA recommends understanding the ingredient label and says \"There is no list of ingredients that can be guaranteed not to cause allergic reactions, so consumers who are prone to allergies should pay careful attention to what they use on their skin\", further warning that \"[t]here",
"-32.926165812285035"
],
[
"a stronger immune response than normal. There are four different types (type one, two, three and four), all with varying types and degrees of an immune response. The problems that arise from each type vary from small allergic reactions to more serious illnesses such as tuberculosis or arthritis. The second kind of complication in the immune system is Autoimmunity, where the immune system would attack itself rather than the antigen. Inflammation is a prime example of autoimmunity, as the immune cells used are self-reactive. A few examples of autoimmune diseases are Type 1 diabetes, Addison’s disease and Celiac disease. The",
"-32.83419663307723"
],
[
"some cases metabolic ones as well, lead to most first-generation antihistamines having analgesic-sparing (potentiating) effects on opioid analgesics and to some extent with non-opioid ones as well. The most common antihistamines utilized for this purpose include hydroxyzine, promethazine (enzyme induction especially helps with codeine and similar prodrug opioids), phenyltoloxamine, orphenadrine, and tripelennamine; some may also have intrinsic analgesic properties of their own, orphenadrine being an example.\nSecond-generation antihistamines cross the blood–brain barrier to a much lesser extent than the first-generation antihistamines. They minimize sedatory effects due to their focused effect on peripheral histamine receptors. However, upon high doses second-generation antihistamines",
"-32.832844514909084"
],
[
"an antiviral is to prevent the uncoating of viral genome which inhibits the HAV IRES- mediated translation and replication. Amantadine’s effectiveness stems from the IRES location on the 5’NTR region which has a high affinity for antivirals making it an effective target. It was also revealed that the M2 protein of influenza A virus could be another viable target for the potential antiviral . Homologs of IRES across picornaviridae (family) All picornaviruses have been found to contain IRES. There are four classes of IRES within the picornaviridae family, ranging from 270–450 nt. Among picornaviruses, many 5’ UTRs also contain additional",
"-32.83188193911337"
],
[
"reactions, and the FDA has urged manufacturers to do the same with over-the-counter products. Asthma An association exists between paracetamol use and asthma, but whether this association is causal is still debated as of 2017. Certain evidence suggests that this association likely reflects confounders rather than being truly causal. A 2014 review found that among children, the association disappeared when respiratory infections were taken into account.\nAs of 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics and the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence continue to recommend paracetamol for pain and discomfort in children, but some experts have recommended that paracetamol use",
"-32.81968474553287"
],
[
"or a tablet of allergen extracts under the tongue, which are then absorbed through the lining of the mouth. Sublingual immunotherapy has been demonstrated to be effective against rhinoconjuctivitis and asthma symptoms. This effectiveness, however, varies depending on the type of allergen. The strongest evidence for the efficacy of sublingual immunotherapy comes from studies that used grass allergens or mite allergens to alleviate allergic rhinitis symptoms; the evidence shows modest improvement.\nSublingual immunotherapy is used to treat allergic rhinitis, often from seasonal allergies, and is typically given in several doses over a 12 week period. It works best when given 12",
"-32.81934406511118"
],
[
"Thus, even though the drug is administered with the purpose to suppress allergy (including anaphylactic reactions), it does not work immediately after injection.\nIt also increases the risk of strokes and heart disease by approximately 60%.\nIgE may play an important role in the immune system's recognition of cancer cells. Therefore, indiscriminate blocking of IgE-receptor interaction with omalizumab may have unforeseen risks. The data pooled in 2003 from the earlier phase I to phase III clinical trials showed a numeric imbalance in malignancies arising in omalizumab recipients (0.5%) compared with control subjects (0.2%). To clarify this imbalance, a more recent study was",
"-32.803362844228104"
],
[
"Allergic response Mechanism Allergies are an abnormal immune reaction. The human immune system is designed to protect the body from potential harm and in people who have allergies the immune system will react to allergens (substances that trigger an immune response). \nThe immune system will produce immunoglobulin E, IgE, antibodies for each allergen. The antibodies will cause cells in the body to produce histamines. These histamines will act on different areas of the body (eyes, throat, nose, gastrointestinal tract, skin or lungs) to produce symptoms of an allergic reaction. \nThe allergic response is not limited to a certain amount of",
"-32.769356311553565"
],
[
"may occur in up to 10% of patients receiving that agent (a small fraction of which are truly IgE-mediated allergic reactions, see amoxicillin rash). Anaphylaxis will occur in approximately 0.01% of patients. There is perhaps a 5%-10% cross-sensitivity between penicillin-derivatives, cephalosporins, and carbapenems; but this figure has been challenged by various investigators.\nNevertheless, the risk of cross-reactivity is sufficient to warrant the contraindication of all β-lactam antibiotics in patients with a history of severe allergic reactions (urticaria, anaphylaxis, interstitial nephritis) to any β-lactam antibiotic.\nA Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction may occur after initial treatment of a spirochetal infection such as syphilis with a β-lactam",
"-32.72882390957602"
],
[
"best to take oral antihistamine medication before exposure, especially for seasonal allergic rhinitis. In the case of nasal antihistamines like azelastine antihistamine nasal spray, relief from symptoms is experienced within 15 minutes allowing for a more immediate 'as-needed' approach to dosage. There is not enough evidence of antihistamine efficacy as an add-on therapy with nasal steroids in the management of intermittent or persistent allergic rhinitis in children, so its adverse effects and additional costs must be considered.\nOphthalmic antihistamines (such as azelastine in eye drop form and ketotifen) are used for conjunctivitis, while intranasal forms are used mainly for sneezing, rhinorrhea,",
"-32.726353699450556"
],
[
"IgA or haptoglobin in people with IgA and haptoglobin deficiency have been suggested to have a causal relationship with the allergic reaction. Cytokines and chemokines, which accumulate during the storage of blood components, have also been suggested as causative agents. However, the literature is scare and conflicting as passive infusion of anti-IgA antibodies in to recipients has not been found to cause an allergic reaction. Storage Once red blood cells have been washed they can only be kept for up to a day.",
"-32.711908187236986"
],
[
"because some types such as benzocaine may worsen the reaction; better drugs are lidocaine and pramoxine (brand names Sarna Sensitive and Itch-X). Oral or topical corticosteroids may be effective. Antihistamines are not effective, because the symptoms are not mediated by histamines.\nNative Americans used the plant medicinally: Zigmond (1981, p. 68) reports that the Kawaiisu people used an infusion of the leaves to relieve swellings or rheumatism, and Sparkman (1908, p. 230) also reports that the Luiseño people (who knew it as Atovikut) used it medicinally, though he does not specify for what purpose. No clinical trials have been undertaken to support",
"-32.69417067774339"
],
[
"otherwise activate eosinophils. Hypersensitivity reactions ALOX5 contributes to non-allergic reactions of the respiratory system and skin such as aspirin-induced asthma, NSAID hypersensitivity reactions, NSAID-induced nonallergic rhinitis, NSAID-induced non-allergic conjunctivitis, NSAID-induced angioedema, or NSAID-induced urticarial; it may also contribute to hypersensitivity responses of the respiratory system to cold air and possibly even alcohol beverages. These pathological responses likely involve the same ALOX5-formed metabolites as those promoting allergic reactions. ALOX5-inhibiting drugs The tissue, animal model, and animal and human genetic studies cited above implicate ALOX5 in a wide range of diseases: a) excessive inflammatory responses to pathogens, trauma, burns, and other forms",
"-32.66363104530319"
],
[
"or unavailable.\nTo help avoid shortages of these drugs, the U.S. CDC recommended oseltamivir treatment primarily for people hospitalised with pandemic flu; people at risk of serious flu complications due to underlying medical conditions; and patients at risk of serious flu complications. The CDC warned that the indiscriminate use of antiviral medications to prevent and treat influenza could ease the way for drug-resistant strains to emerge, which would make the fight against the pandemic that much harder. In addition, a British report found that people often failed to complete a full course of the drug or took the medication when not",
"-32.63217860685836"
],
[
"the immune system for an allergic response, and an elicitation phase, in which this response is triggered. As it involves a cell-mediated allergic response, ACD is termed a Type IV delayed hypersensitivity reaction, making it an exception in the usage of the designation \"allergic,\" which otherwise usually refers to type I hypersensitivity reactions.\nContact allergens are essentially soluble haptens (low in molecular weight) and, as such, have the physico-chemical properties that allow them to cross the stratum corneum of the skin. They can only cause their response as part of a complete antigen, involving their association with epidermal proteins forming hapten-protein",
"-32.61520005969942"
],
[
"include the anti-diabetic drugs acarbose and miglitol, and the antiviral drugs oseltamivir and zanamivir. Some proteins have been found to act as glycoside hydrolase inhibitors.",
"-32.52537249115994"
],
[
"drug might be effective only in early stages. It is noted by the USAMRIID that \"Ribavirin has poor in vitro and in vivo activity against the filoviruses (Ebola and Marburg) and the flaviviruses (dengue, yellow fever, Omsk hemorrhagic fever, and Kyasanur forest disease)\" The aerosol form has been used in the past to treat respiratory syncytial virus-related diseases in children, although the evidence to support this is rather weak.\nIt has been used (in combination with ketamine, midazolam, and amantadine) in treatment of rabies.\nExperimental data indicate that ribavirin may have useful activity against canine distemper and poxviruses. Ribavirin has also been",
"-32.52418324057362"
],
[
"Antimotility agent Antimotility agents are drugs used to alleviate the symptoms of diarrhea. These include loperamide (Imodium), diphenoxylate with atropine (Lomotil), and opiates such as paregoric, tincture of opium, codeine, and morphine. In diarrhea caused by invasive pathogens such as Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter, the use of such agents has generally been strongly discouraged, though evidence is lacking that they are harmful when administered in combination with antibiotics in Clostridium difficile cases. Use of antimotility agents in children and the elderly has also been discouraged in treatment of EHEC (Shiga-like toxin producing Escherichia coli) due to an",
"-32.50543198567175"
],
[
"treat people 12 years and above with chronic spontaneous urticaria (also called chronic idiopathic urticaria), which cannot be treated with elevated doses of H1-antihistamines. Adverse effects The main adverse effect is anaphylaxis (a life-threatening systemic allergic reaction), with a rate of occurrence of 1 to 2 patients per 1,000. Like other protein and antibody drugs, omalizumab also causes anaphylaxis, although at a relatively low frequency among antibody drugs. The allergic reaction is probably not due to the binding characteristics of the antibody drug, but to the protein nature of the antibody. The patients who use omalizumab are generally highly allergic.",
"-32.50527624426468"
],
[
"emergency room at once. Antivirals The two classes of antiviral drugs used against influenza are neuraminidase inhibitors (oseltamivir, zanamivir, laninamivir and peramivir) and M2 protein inhibitors (adamantane derivatives). Neuraminidase inhibitors Overall the benefits of neuraminidase inhibitors in those who are otherwise healthy do not appear to be greater than the risks. There does not appear to be any benefit in those with other health problems. In those believed to have the flu, they decreased the length of time symptoms were present by slightly less than a day but did not appear to affect the risk of complications such as needing",
"-32.50447517354405"
],
[
"for patients with severe, persistent allergic asthma has gradually persuaded the physicians treating severe asthma patients to determine whether their asthma is allergic or non-allergic in nature.\nNumerous investigator-initiated case studies or small-scale pilot studies of omalizumab have been performed on various allergic diseases and several non-allergic diseases, especially inflammatory skin diseases. These diseases include atopic dermatitis, various subtypes of physical urticaria (solar, cold-induced, local heat-induced, or delayed pressure-induced), and a spectrum of relatively less prevalent allergic or non-allergic diseases or conditions, such as allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, cutaneous or systemic mastocytosis, bee venom sensitivity (anaphylaxis), idiopathic anaphylaxis, eosinophil-associated gastrointestinal disorder, bullous",
"-32.44921996640187"
],
[
"clear as a number of studies done by the manufacturer have not been released for independent analysis. Mental illness Tentative evidence supports its use in treating a number of psychiatric disorders, including major depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Familial adenomatous polyposis It has been used to reduce colon and rectal polyps in people with familial adenomatous polyposis, but it is not known if it decreases rates of cancer, so it is not a good choice for this reason. Allergy Celecoxib contains a sulfonamide moiety and may cause allergic reactions in those allergic to other sulfonamide-containing drugs. This is in addition",
"-32.44396297861749"
],
[
"Anticalin Anticalin proteins are artificial proteins that are able to bind to antigens, either to proteins or to small molecules. They are not structurally related to antibodies, which makes them a type of antibody mimetic. Instead, they are derived from human lipocalins which are a family of naturally binding proteins. Anticalin proteins are being used in lieu of monoclonal antibodies, but are about eight times smaller with a size of about 180 amino acids and a mass of about 20 kDa.\nThe Anticalin technology is exclusively commercialized by Pieris Pharmaceuticals in Freising, Germany. Anticalin is a registered trademark of Pieris. Properties Anticalin",
"-32.43950872652931"
],
[
" Thus, in this regard, therapeutic anti-IgE antibodies represent a new class of potent mast cell stabilizers, providing the fundamental mechanism for omalizumab's effects on various allergic and non-allergic diseases involving mast cell degranulation. Many investigators have identified or elucidated a host of pharmacological effects, which help bring down the inflammatory status in the omalizumab-treated patients. IgE in allergic diseases Corticosteroids of various chemical structures and formulations, which offer various desired potency and pharmacokinetics and which generally effectively suppress inflammatory processes systemically or locally, have been the mainstay of medicine to treat the severe cases of various allergic diseases. Before",
"-32.38786278169573"
],
[
"Helicobacter, and Moraxella are susceptible to amoxicillin, whereas Citrobacter, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are resistant to it. Some E. coli and most clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus have developed resistance to amoxicillin to varying degrees. Adverse effects Adverse effects are similar to those for other β-lactam antibiotics, including nausea, vomiting, rashes, and antibiotic-associated colitis. Loose bowel movements (diarrhea) may also occur. Rarer adverse effects include mental changes, lightheadedness, insomnia, confusion, anxiety, sensitivity to lights and sounds, and unclear thinking. Immediate medical care is required upon the first signs of these adverse effects.\nThe onset of an allergic reaction to amoxicillin can",
"-32.38644375903095"
],
[
"and basophil granulocytes. Accordingly, these cells contain the body's highest concentrations of histamine granules. Non-mast cell histamine is also found in the brain, where it is used as a neurotransmitter. Inhibition HDC can be inhibited by α-fluoromethylhistidine and histidine methyl ester. Clinical Significance Antihistamines are a class of medications designed to reduce unwanted effects of histamine in the body. Typical antihistamines block specific histamine receptors, depending on what physiological purpose they serve. For example, diphenhydramine (Benadryl™), targets and inhibits the H1 histamine receptor to relieve symptoms of allergic reactions. Inhibitors of histidine decarboxylase can conceivably be used as atypical antihistamines.",
"-32.384784636305994"
],
[
"Rather than suppressing the immune system nonspecifically, as corticosteroids do, they target the responses of individual [types of] immune cells. Some of these drugs are already FDA-approved for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, however due to high-toxicity, its use is limited. Analgesia Since a large percentage of people with SLE have varying amounts of chronic pain, stronger prescription analgesics (painkillers) may be used if over-the-counter drugs (mainly nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) do not provide effective relief. Potent NSAIDs such as indomethacin and diclofenac are relatively contraindicated for people with SLE because they increase the risk of kidney failure and heart failure.\nPain is",
"-32.35836372414633"
],
[
"immunity could be achieved.\nAfter the groundbreaking work by Noon and Freeman in the UK and by Cooke and colleagues in the US, allergen immunotherapy was part of mainstream medical practice for hay fever treatment in the 1930s.\nLater, sublingual formulations were found to be effective in symptom reduction in allergic rhinitis. Sublingual immunotherapy is also found to have a better safety profile than subcutaneous immunotherapy since the local side effects caused by sublingual immunotherapy contrasted with the possible systemic events that can occur with the subcutaneous immunotherapy. Society and culture Sublingual immunotherapy drops are currently commercialized and used in most European",
"-32.35348923003767"
],
[
"excipient in pharmaceutical products, it is also used to control acidity or as a counter ion. Drugs involving succinate include metoprolol succinate, sumatriptan succinate, Doxylamine succinate or solifenacin succinate. Reductive branch of the TCA cycle Succinate can alternatively be formed by reverse activity of SDH. Under anaerobic conditions certain bacteria such as A. succinogenes, A. succiniciproducens and M. succiniciproducens, run the TCA cycle in reverse and convert glucose to succinate through the intermediates of oxaloacetate, malate and fumarate. This pathway is exploited in metabolic engineering to net generate succinate for human use. Additionally, succinic acid produced during the fermentation of",
"-32.347017833839345"
],
[
"and psychomotor retardation than the older antihistamines because it penetrates the blood/brain barrier to a smaller extent.\nOther possible side effects include headache and antimuscarinic effects such as urinary retention, dry mouth, blurred vision, and gastrointestinal problems. Interactions Substances that act as inhibitors of the CYP3A4 enzyme such as ketoconazole, erythromycin, cimetidine, and furanocoumarin derivatives (found in grapefruit) lead to increased plasma levels of loratadine — that is, more of the drug was present in the bloodstream than typical for a dose. This had clinically significant effects in controlled trials of higher-than-usual doses of loratadine (20 mg).\nAntihistamines should be discontinued about 48 hr",
"-32.34008836353314"
],
[
"form may also be used for symptomatic treatment. The antihistamine cyproheptadine is also effective, probably due to its antiserotonergic effects.\nA systematic review on non-allergic rhinitis reports improvement of overall function after treatment with capsaicin (the active component of chili peppers). The quality of evidence is low, however. Allergic Allergic rhinitis or hay fever may follow when an allergen such as pollen, dust, or Balsam of Peru is inhaled by an individual with a sensitized immune system, triggering antibody production. These antibodies mostly bind to mast cells, which contain histamine. When the mast cells are stimulated by an allergen, histamine (and",
"-32.339285884503624"
],
[
"of TNF-α in immunity makes its suppression delicate: it diminishes the immune defenses of treated patients against potential new infections and may allow the reactivation of latent ones such as hepatitis B and tuberculosis. The number of reported cases of severe side effects, including fatal ones, has led the FDA to instruct tight monitoring of patients before and during a treatment by TNF-inhibiting drugs. Nevertheless, another way to circumvent such outcomes may be to target an alternate cytokine, stressing the interest around MOR103. Multiple sclerosis In multiple sclerosis (MS), GM-CSF is produced by T helper cells (Th1 and Th17). It",
"-32.28634255249926"
],
[
"eosinophilia. Drug reactions Allergic reactions to drugs are a common cause of eosinophilia, with manifestations ranging from diffuse maculopapular rash, to severe life-threatening drug reactions with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS). Drugs that has, allopurinol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), some antipsychotics such as risperidone, and certain antibiotics. Phenibut, an analogue of the neurotransmitter GABA, has also been implicated in high doses. The reaction which has been shown to be T-cell mediated may also cause eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. Pathophysiology IgE mediated eosinophil production is induced by compounds released by basophils and mast cells, including eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis, leukotriene B4 and",
"-32.256269949735724"
],
[
"infections. They are the adamantanes and NAIs. The adamantanes only work on influenza A so since 2010 WHO recommended the usage of NAIs for treatment and prophylaxis of influenza A and B infections. In contrast to adamantanes, NAIs are less toxic and less prone to promote drug-resistant influenza. Moreover, they are effective against all neuraminidase subtypes and all strains of influenza. After the influenza pandemic in 2009, there has been great concern about viral resistance to NAIs. Influenza viruses that have reduced sensitivity to NAIs often contain mutation that affect the shape of the NA catalytic site and therefore reduce",
"-32.247928004246205"
],
[
"researched. Some research recently has been on anti-c5 inhibitors for treatment research as they are safe and used in the treatment of other diseases. Ephedrine seems to benefit some people more than other medications, but it has not been properly studied as of 2014.\nIn the laboratory MG is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015, scientists developed an in vitro functional all-human, neuromuscular junction assay from human embryonic stem cells and somatic-muscle stem cells. After the addition of pathogenic antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor and activation of the complement system, the neuromuscular co-culture shows symptoms",
"-32.2119383343088"
],
[
"anti-B, or immune antibodies developed following a sensitizing event. Isoimmunization occurs when the maternal immune system is sensitized to red blood cell surface antigens. The most common causes of isoimmunization are blood transfusion, and fetal-maternal hemorrhage. The hemolytic process can result in anemia, hyperbilirubinemia, neonatal thrombocytopenia, and neonatal neutropenia. With the use of RhD Immunoprophylaxis, (commonly called Rhogam), the incidence of anti-D has decreased dramatically and other alloantibodies are now a major cause of HDN. Testing Testing for HDN involves blood work from both mother and father, and may also include assessment with amniocentesis and Middle Cerebral Artery scans. Mother",
"-32.10898657341022"
],
[
"Bilastine Allergic rhinoconjunctivitis The clinical efficacy of bilastine in allergic rhinitis (AR) and urticaria has been assessed in 10 clinical assays in which over 4,600 patients were involved. All of them compared bilastine with placebo and another second generation antihistamine with confirmed efficacy (active comparator). Allergic rhinitis The studies on SAR were double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group involving male and female patients over 12 year of age with symptomatic disease at the beginning of the study. Nasal symptoms (sneezing, rhinorrhea, nasal itching and congestion) were assessed both before treatment and during treatment period on a daily basis. Non nasal symptoms (itchy eye,",
"-32.093318735715"
],
[
"their inhibitory effects on the locus coeruleus. Clonidine, for example, is used for the treatment of anxiety disorders and insomnia, and also as a sedative premedication for patients about to undergo surgery. Xylazine, another drug in this group, is also a powerful sedative and is often used in combination with ketamine as a general anaesthetic for veterinary surgery—in the United States it has not been approved for use in humans. Stimulants and antidepressants These are drugs whose primary effects are thought to be mediated by different neurotransmitter systems (dopamine for stimulants, serotonin for antidepressants), but many also increase",
"-32.07877548648685"
],
[
"their greater resolving power in the 20th century. Toxoids Some diseases, such as tetanus, cause disease not by bacterial growth but by bacterial production of a toxin. Tetanus toxin is so lethal that humans cannot develop immunity to a natural infection, as the amount of toxin and time required to kill a person is much less than is required by the immune system to recognize the toxin and produce antibodies against it. However the tetanus toxin is easily denatured losing its ability to produce disease, but leaving it able to induce immunity to tetanus when injected into subjects. The denatured",
"-32.0710527655865"
],
[
"has in vitro effectiveness at preventing entry of Ebolavirus Zaïre Kikwit, Tacaribe arenavirus and human herpes virus 8 in mammalian cell cultures, while confirming umifenovir's suppressive effect in vitro on Hepatitis B and poliovirus infection of mammalian cells when introduced either in advance of viral infection or during infection. Side effects Side effects in children include sensitization to the drug. No known overdose cases have been reported and allergic reactions are limited to people with hypersensitivity. The LD₅₀ is more than 4 g/kg.",
"-32.0581720496848"
],
[
"of anaphylaxis can be given cefazolin instead. These patients should be closely monitored as there is a small chance of an allergic reaction due to the similar structure of the antibiotics. Newborns There has been no established safety and effectiveness for use in premature infants and neonates. Elderly No overall differences in safety or effectiveness were observed in clinical trials comparing elderly and younger subjects, however the trials could not eliminate the possibility that some older individuals may have a higher level of sensitivity. Additional considerations People with kidney disease and those on hemodialysis may need the dose adjusted. Cefazolin",
"-32.0515444154953"
],
[
"anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-microbial (antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral), anti-cancer, and anti-diarrheal activities. Flavonoids have also been shown to inhibit topoisomerase enzymes and to induce DNA mutations in the mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) gene in in vitro studies. However, in most of the above cases no follow up in vivo or clinical research has been performed, leaving it impossible to say if these activities have any beneficial or detrimental effect on human health. Biological and pharmacological activities which have been investigated in greater depth are described below. Antioxidant Research at the Linus Pauling Institute and the European Food Safety Authority",
"-32.03170488766045"
],
[
"histamine is not well characterized. Therefore, the focus of treatment for physical urticaria has been on characterizing the effectiveness of antihistamines rather than analysis of receptor binding or the pathomechanisms.",
"-32.02428449884064"
],
[
"block immune response to the hapten-carrier adduct by preventing the adduct from binding to the antibody, a process called hapten inhibition.\nThe mechanisms of absence of immune response may vary and involve complex immunological mechanisms, but can include absent or insufficient co-stimulatory signals from antigen-presenting cells.\nHaptens have been used to study allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) and the mechanisms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) to induce autoimmune-like responses.\nThe concept of haptens emerged from the work of Karl Landsteiner\nwho also pioneered the use of synthetic haptens to study immunochemical phenomena. Examples of haptens The first researched haptens were aniline and its carboxyl derivatives",
"-32.012253634449735"
],
[
"specific IgE serum levels. Prevention Avoidance of the trigger of anaphylaxis is recommended. In cases where this may not be possible, desensitization may be an option. Immunotherapy with Hymenoptera venoms is effective at desensitizing 80–90% of adults and 98% of children against allergies to bees, wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, and fire ants. Oral immunotherapy may be effective at desensitizing some people to certain food including milk, eggs, nuts and peanuts; however, adverse effects are common. For example, many people develop an itchy throat, cough, or lip swelling during immunotherapy. Desensitization is also possible for many medications, however it is advised that",
"-32.010760849694634"
],
[
"tissues. Immune tolerance therapies seek to reset the immune system so that the body stops mistakenly attacking its own organs or cells in autoimmune disease or accepts foreign tissue in organ transplantation. Creating immunity reduces or eliminates the need for lifelong immunosuppression and attendant side effects. It has been tested on transplantations, and type 1 diabetes or other autoimmune disorders. Allergies Immunotherapy is used to treat allergies. While allergy treatments (such as antihistamines or corticosteroids) treat allergic symptoms, immunotherapy can reduce sensitivity to allergens, lessening its severity.\nImmunotherapy may produce long-term benefits. Immunotherapy is partly effective in some people and ineffective",
"-32.00726174448209"
],
[
"histamine from mast cells. Because this mechanism is classified as a pharmacological reaction, or \"pseudoallergy\", the condition is considered a food intolerance instead of a true immunoglobulin E (IgE) based allergic reaction.\nThe response is usually localized, typically in the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, or any other symptoms typical to histamine release. If sufficiently strong, it can result in an anaphylactoid reaction, which is clinically indistinguishable from true anaphylaxis. Some people with this condition tolerate small quantities of egg whites. They are more often able to tolerate well-cooked eggs, such as found in cake or dried egg-based",
"-32.001145691698184"
],
[
"are apparently related to their other molecular components; thus, a person who has demonstrated an allergy to one food or product containing iodine may not have an allergic reaction to another. Patients with various food allergies (shellfish, egg, milk, etc.) or asthma are more likely to suffer reactions to contrast media containing iodine. As with all medications, the patient's allergy history should be questioned and consulted before any containing iodine are administered.",
"-31.974344882690275"
],
[
"in principle they might be expected to lead to clinical symptoms just as habitual for anti-peptide IgE. In vitro experiments (histamine-release tests) with polyvalent glyco-allergens corroborated this view. Provocation tests with patients as well as empirical evidence however, indicate that CCDs never cause any ponderable allergic symptoms. It is assumed that the frequent contact with CCD containing foods induces tolerance akin a specific immune therapy. Other CCDs While α-galactose as a part of glycoprotein glycans from vertebrates other than higher apes was known for a long time as being a prominent xeno-antigen, its implication in allergy only began to materialize",
"-31.972745774961368"
],
[
"problems in giving acetaminophen (paracetamol) to children. The effectiveness of acetaminophen alone as an antipyretic in children is uncertain, with some evidence showing it is no better than physical methods. Therapies involving alternating doses of acetaminophen and ibuprofen have shown greater antipyretic effect than either drug alone. One meta-analysis indicated that ibuprofen is more effective than acetaminophen in children at similar doses when both are given alone.\nDue to concerns about Reye syndrome, it is recommend that aspirin and combination products containing aspirin not be given to children or teenagers during episodes of fever-causing illnesses. Plants Traditional use of higher plants",
"-31.972372623044066"
],
[
"Antiviral drug Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used specifically for treating viral infections rather than bacterial ones. Most antivirals are used for specific viral infections, while a broad-spectrum antiviral is effective against a wide range of viruses. Unlike most antibiotics, antiviral drugs do not destroy their target pathogen; instead they inhibit their development.\nAntiviral drugs are one class of antimicrobials, a larger group which also includes antibiotic (also termed antibacterial), antifungal and antiparasitic drugs, or antiviral drugs based on monoclonal antibodies. Most antivirals are considered relatively harmless to the host, and therefore can be used to treat infections. They",
"-31.947757390888"
],
[
"a year. Antihistamines There is little evidence supporting the efficacy of antihistamine for the relief of dermatitis. Sedative antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine, may be useful in those who are unable to sleep due to eczema. Second generation antihistamines have minimal evidence of benefit. Of the second generation antihistamines studied, fexofenadine is the only one to show evidence of improvement in itching with minimal side effects. Immunosuppressants Topical immunosuppressants like pimecrolimus and tacrolimus may be better in the short term and appear equal to steroids after a year of use. Their use is reasonable in those who do not respond to",
"-31.946374314356945"
],
[
"also used in the past as an emetic. It is now considered too toxic for this use.\nHydrogen peroxide is used as an emetic in veterinary practice. Treatment An antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea. Antiemetics are typically used to treat motion sickness and the side effects of medications such as opioids and chemotherapy.\nAntiemetics act by inhibiting the receptor sites associated with emesis. Hence, anticholinergics, antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, serotonin antagonists, and cannabinoids are used as antiemetics.\nEvidence to support the use of antiemetics for nausea and vomiting among adults in the emergency department is poor. It is",
"-31.94042702844672"
],
[
"hapten-carrier complex, unlike free hapten, can act as an immunogen and can induce an immune response.\nUntil 1959, the terms immunogen and antigen were not distinguished.",
"-31.9316655085604"
],
[
"is generally without long-term complications. However, its use is limited by the body's eventual development of human anti-murine antibody, which neutralizes the effects. The Band of Parents raised $2–$3 million to fund the genetic engineering of the murine cell line that produces 3F8 so that it would produce a new antibody, Hu3F8, using human genes. Hu3F8 has the same benefits as 3F8, but because it is 98% human, it does not cause a neutralizing immune response. In theory, this should allow patients to be treated with it indefinitely.\nIn March 2013, the Band of Parents led a group of nonprofit organizations",
"-31.92346574770636"
],
[
"should be distinguished from viricides, which are not medication but deactivate or destroy virus particles, either inside or outside the body. Natural antivirals are produced by some plants such as eucalyptus and Australian tea trees. Medical uses Most of the antiviral drugs now available are designed to help deal with HIV, herpes viruses, the hepatitis B and C viruses, and influenza A and B viruses. Researchers are working to extend the range of antivirals to other families of pathogens.\nDesigning safe and effective antiviral drugs is difficult, because viruses use the host's cells to replicate. This makes it difficult to find",
"-31.914903263546876"
],
[
"of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine, which increases cellular communication between neurons that utilize these compounds. The therapeutic benefits are due to noradrenergic effects at the locus coeruleus and the prefrontal cortex and dopaminergic effects at the ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens, and prefrontal cortex.\nStimulant medications are considered safe when used under medical supervision. Nonetheless, there are concerns that the long term safety of these drugs has not been adequately documented, as well as social and ethical issues regarding their use and dispensation. The U.S. FDA has added black-box warnings to some ADHD medications, warning that abuse can lead to",
"-31.888734872292844"
],
[
"Anti-nuclear antibody Antinuclear antibodies (ANAs, also known as antinuclear factor or ANF) are autoantibodies that bind to contents of the cell nucleus. In normal individuals, the immune system produces antibodies to foreign proteins (antigens) but not to human proteins (autoantigens). In some individuals, antibodies to human antigens are produced.\nThere are many subtypes of ANAs such as anti-Ro antibodies, anti-La antibodies, anti-Sm antibodies, anti-nRNP antibodies, anti-Scl-70 antibodies, anti-dsDNA antibodies, anti-histone antibodies, antibodies to nuclear pore complexes, anti-centromere antibodies and anti-sp100 antibodies. Each of these antibody subtypes binds to different proteins or protein complexes within the nucleus. They are found in",
"-31.88325848300883"
],
[
"rhinitis were found to actually have local allergic rhinitis. Steroid nasal sprays and oral antihistamines have been found to be effective for local allergic rhinitis.\nAs of 2014, local allergenic rhinitis had mostly been investigated in Europe; in the United States, the nasal provocation testing necessary to diagnose the condition was not widely available. Prevention Prevention includes avoiding the allergen in question. Other methods include not having pets, not having carpets in the home, and keeping the home dry.\nGrowing up on a farm and having many older brothers and sisters decreases the risk. Treatment The goal of rhinitis treatment is to",
"-31.883091862662695"
],
[
"genotypes. In cases of antiviral resistance, drugs have either diminished or no effectiveness against their target virus. The issue inevitably remains a major obstacle to antiviral therapy as it has developed to almost all specific and effective antimicrobials, including antiviral agents.\nThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) inclusively recommends those six months and older to get a yearly vaccination to protect from influenza A viruses (H1N1) and (H3N2) and up to two influenza B viruses (depending on the vaccination). Comprehensive protection starts by ensuring vaccinations are current and complete. However, vaccines are preventative and are not generally used once",
"-31.864285131465294"
],
[
"antibody concept was as a driver of susceptibility to certain infectious diseases. In the decades since, the concept has also been found to have clinical relevance in allergen immunotherapy, where blocking antibodies can interfere with other antibodies involved in hypersensitivity and thus improve allergy treatment.",
"-31.84879186600847"
]
] |
rnsfw | Why does April Fools' Day end after midday? | [
"When mummy and daddy get sick of silly pranks pulled by their children they make up rules such as this one.",
"Because that's the time when everyone's worked out it's April Fools day, and then the people who have been tricked try to do their jokes, only to be told it ends at midday.",
"after midday everyone already knows it's a fools day. so they just stop.",
"I'm sorry but... [/r/answers](/r/answers) or even [/r/AskReddit](/r/AskReddit) at a stretch. But this question is not for this subreddit. Really, just no.",
"So people can get shit done instead of having to second-guess everything someone tells them, or peak around every corner. That crap gets old, fast.",
"You don't want somebody to explain it like you're five, you just want them to answer your question.",
"A lot of people are taking this to be an April Fool's day prank... just to be clear, April Fool's day *does* end after midday (here in the UK at least), so I don't think the OP is trying to fool us.",
"I was told (UK here) that if you fool somebody after midday it is you who is the fool or something.",
"It doesnt for me. And that is why no one wants to hang out with me entire april. :(",
"because everyone gets bored of it around midday.",
"Everyone that says it ends at midday is just jealous because they're not awesome enough to think of funny shit to pull, and use it as a defense.",
"Because Game of Thrones Season 2 starts tonight and it better not fucking be an April Fool's Day joke or there will be riots.",
"What's even worse is that it's going to hit on Monday next year. I think I'm just going to take a vacation day.",
"r/explainlikeimfive has drifted a long way from where it started. It's become no different from r/answers.",
"This is a prime example of the kinds of posts that don't belong here! This has nothing to do with explaining like you are 5. This belongs in [/r/AskReddit](/r/AskReddit) [See this post...]( URL_0 )",
"I've always hated the \"ends at midday\" thing since I first heard about it a few years ago. Why take something as great and precious as April Fools' Day and end it so much earlier than necessary?! A full day is barely long enough to begin with.",
"Because fool me once, shame on you. Fool me after midday... you can't get fooled again."
] | [
[
"April Fool's Day (1986 film) Plot On the weekend leading up to April Fools' Day, a group of college friends, consisting of Harvey, Nikki, Rob, Skip, Nan, Chaz, Kit and Arch, gather to celebrate spring break by spending the weekend at the island mansion of Skip's cousin, Vassar student Muffy St. John. As Muffy prepares details around the house, she finds an old jack-in-the-box and recalls receiving the toy at a childhood birthday party. Her friends, meanwhile, joke around on the pier while awaiting the ferry. En route to the island, as their antics become more boisterous, local deckhand Buck",
"-28.959319726913236"
],
[
"holiday was moved to the third Monday of April in 1952. Because of the later date, and because of summer time introduced in 1981, the lighting of the Böögg's pyre at 6 p.m. has now moved to several hours before nightfall. Additionally, because of its present date, the holiday is often within a week of 1 May, leading to a stark contrast between the upper class dominated Sechseläuten and the working class holiday of May Day. This proximity of the major festivals of two political poles of the society of Zürich has led to various interferences in the past, for",
"-28.802396173909074"
],
[
"Mondays and Thursdays, until winter quarter 2017, when the switch to a weekly schedule was made. The Disreguardian In the early 1980s The Guardian published several April Fool's Day issues, titled The Disreguardian. The practice stopped at some point, but was revived on April 1, 1990, a decision that resulted in Editor-in-Chief Seth Slater's resignation in protest. The April Fool's issues continue to this day.",
"-27.967495183247593"
],
[
"a.m. and sundown every day of the year (including holidays).",
"-26.502540799905546"
],
[
"the original\nTHE first of May is inaugurated with much uproar. As soon as the clock has told of midnight, a loud blast on tin trumpets proclaims the advent of May. This is long continued. At daybreak, with their \"tintarrems,\" they proceed to the country, and strip the sycamore-trees (called May-trees) of all their young branches, to make whistles. With these shrill musical instruments they return home. Young men and women devote May-day to junketing and picnics.\nIt was a custom at Penzance, and probably at many other Cornish towns, when the author was a boy, for a number of young people",
"-26.02142012497643"
],
[
"subject of the Summer Time Act 1972. From 1972 to 1980, the day following the 3rd Saturday in March was the start of British Summer Time (unless that day was Easter Sunday, in which case BST began a week earlier), with the day following the 4th Sunday in October being the end of British Summer Time. From 1981 to 2001, the dates were set in line with various European Directives. Since 2002 the Act has specified the last Sunday in March as the start of British Summer Time with the last Sunday in October being end of British Summer Time.\nSince",
"-25.965035143948626"
],
[
"is the end of the old year while 15 April is the beginning of a new year. 14 April is usually regarded as the preparation for the new coming year. On this festival, there would be celebration by splashing water to each other. It signifies the washing-away of bad luck and welcoming good luck, prospects and happiness. They also put some bath powder on their face, which traditionally means protecting their skin. On the Sunday that is nearest to Songkran Festival, some of them celebrate in the temple while a majority of Thai people living in Kowloon City march through",
"-25.963237135845702"
],
[
"After season three's conclusion, a New Year's Eve-themed live episode of Hollywood Game Night, New Year’s Eve Game Night, was broadcast by NBC on December 31, 2015, replacing the primetime hour of New Year's Eve with Carson Daly. Andy Cohen hosted, as Lynch was unable to participate due to other commitments.\nSeason four premiered on January 5, 2016. Season four episodes aired on Tuesdays at 8 pm beginning January 5, 2016 until February 23 of the same year. The show returned with a new episode on March 13, 2016, in its new time slot of 10 pm Eastern Time. On March",
"-25.87634912948124"
],
[
"Chevy Chase, and John Belushi, the show has normally begun with a cold open sketch which ends with one or more cast members breaking character and proclaiming \"Live from New York, it's Saturday Night!\", segueing into the opening credits which start immediately after. From May 1985–April 1991, Saturday Night Live was occasionally preempted for Saturday Night's Main Event.\nIn February 2013, NBC began airing shortened hour-long repeats on Saturday evenings at 10 p.m. Eastern Time during the regular season; the episodes scheduled were sometimes rebroadcasts of the previous week's episode if it was a first-run broadcast. Since the 2014–15 season, the show's",
"-25.812573230301496"
],
[
"be lent.\" This then developed into a day of pranks in general. This even includes newspapers printing false wild stories on that day. This is also celebrated online as well in recent years. New Year's Eve New Year's Eve falls during this time as well. It is celebrated much like most of the rest of the world with some exceptions. One notable tradition is the eating of twelve grapes rapidly along with the twelve chimes of the clock at midnight (a tradition shared with other Latin countries), to bring luck for each of the months of the coming year.",
"-25.672417901136214"
],
[
"as the clock strikes midnight for New Year's Day, though it is only intended that participants link arms at the beginning of the final verse, before rushing in to the centre as a group. In the media Between 1957 and 1968, a New Year's Eve television programme, The White Heather Club, was presented to herald in the Hogmanay celebrations.\nThe show was presented by Andy Stewart who always began by singing \"Come in, come in, it's nice to see you....\" The show always ended with Andy Stewart and the cast singing, \"Haste ye Back\":\nHaste ye back, we loue you dearly,\n\nCall again",
"-25.620853789398097"
],
[
"of 11 May is another Mass called the “Misa de Aurora” which commences at 5 am. This hour is considered to be “God’s time” and attendees consume hot chocolate and a type of egg bread. Later in the morning, representative from various communities gather at the main bring into the municipal seat to march carrying banners of their communities’ patron saints. After this are various attractions such as cockfights, rodeo, folk dance and fireworks. The day ends with a “dance of gratitude” in the evening and then the festival's organizers offer drinks and sweets to attendees. The festival closes with",
"-25.610929294954985"
],
[
"time is not of any tangible effect. Summer time was expected to return in 2016, starting on July 8 (after Ramadan), but on July 5, it was decided to again cancel it. Dates and times When used, Egypt observes summer time between the last Friday in April and the last Thursday in September. The clocks are changed from UTC+02:00 to UTC+03:00. The change occurs one second after 23:59:59 on Thursday to become 1:00:00 on the last Friday in April shortening the day to 23 hours. Summer time ends one second after 23:59:59 to become 23:00:00 on the last Thursday of",
"-25.557107701082714"
],
[
"and 2004.\nThe series refers to Stockport landmarks, including Houldsworth Square and the McVitie's factory. Etymology of show's title The title is a British slang phrase meaning those who arrive earlier than is customary, and was often associated with pub customers who wait for or arrive soon after evening opening, around 5:30 pm. Until the law was changed in 1988, pubs in England closed in the afternoon. Most are now open all day. It is also widely heard in British football circles, and was resuscitated in comments about football. The phrase originates in the practice of British theatres from around 1870",
"-25.473097772075562"
],
[
"Late Night 10PM-2AM\nAn online raga database says 9 am to 12 pm Seasonality Certain ragas have seasonal associations.",
"-25.444942850532243"
],
[
"many New Year's Eve celebrations, there is a countdown during the last seconds of the old year until the beginning of the new year.\nIn Times Square on New Year's Eve, besides the 60-Second Countdown at 11:59 P.M., there are six 20-second hourly countdowns in which people can practice their countdown skills from 5:59 P.M. to 10:59 P.M. The aforementioned countdowns are also the countdowns to the end of each hour.",
"-25.42072957028722"
],
[
"known in parts of Canada as May Two-Four; a double entendre that refers both to the date around which the holiday falls (May 24) and the Canadian slang for a case of twenty-four beers (a \"two-four\"), a drink popular during the long weekend. The holiday weekend may also be known as May Long or May Run, and the term Firecracker Day was once employed in Ontario.\nA traditional, short song about Victoria Day went as follows: \"The twenty-fourth of May / Is the Queen's birthday; / If they don't give us a holiday / We'll all run away!\" The holiday is",
"-25.399132779988577"
],
[
"September 2011. On September 19, 2011, WGN America began re-running Futurama, and now airs the series weeknights during the overnight hours, and once on Saturday nights. Futurama has since doubled its viewership in syndication.\nDue to the uncertain future of the series, there have been four designated series finales. \"The Devil's Hands Are Idle Playthings\", Into the Wild Green Yonder, and \"Overclockwise\" have all been written to serve as a final episode for the show. The episode \"Meanwhile\" currently stands as the show's official series finale. Comedy Central cancellation Comedy Central announced in April 2013 that they would be airing the",
"-25.299930981593207"
],
[
"of 4.2/7, placing it 83rd among primetime shows for the week of January 31 – February 6, 2000. This was the first episode of Futurama to air on Sundays at 7 pm, having been moved there from its previous 8:30 pm slot in favor of Malcolm in the Middle. As a result, the audience for this episode dropped from a season-long average of 12 million viewers to 6.7 million viewers, at the time a series low.",
"-25.033519704913488"
],
[
"nominal end on the last Thursday in September. In 2010, the summer time started on 30 April and ended on 30 September, but between 10 August and 10 September summer time was cancelled because of Ramadan. The previous government was planning to take a decision to abolish it in 2011 before the January 25 Revolution. The transitional government abolished daylight saving time on 20 April 2011. On May 7, 2014, the Egyptian government restored daylight saving time starting on 16 May with an exception for the holy month of Ramadan.\nFrom 2015 onwards, Egypt no longer observes it. On April 29,",
"-24.985519842186477"
],
[
"held over Easter Weekend, participants are encouraged to dress and act as outrageously and/or provocatively as possible and imbibe alcohol heartily over the course of the weekend. During the ride from San Francisco to Reno, the tour bus makes several pit stops in relatively conservative places such as Placerville and Donner Pass, designed partially to get a rise out of small-town locals and unsuspecting travelers, all in real life scenes reminiscent of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert. The culmination of the event is a special Trannyshack show at a Reno nightclub, followed by Easter Sunday brunch the next day at",
"-24.941666906903265"
],
[
"through 2006, the start- and end-dates were the first Sunday in April and the last Sunday in October. From 2008, the United States Congress has had the right to go back to the previous dates. Proponents for permanently retaining November as the month for ending DST point to Halloween as a reason to delay the change—to provide extra daylight on October 31. For example, in the United States in 2019, daylight-saving time began at 2:00AM local time on March 10, and will end at 2:00AM Local Time on November 3. In the past, Australian state jurisdictions not only changed at",
"-24.93284149642568"
],
[
"as le sette di sera (\"7 in the evening\"), le otto di sera (8 in the evening) and so on until 11 p.m. which is le undici di sera. Midnight is simply mezzanotte. Following hours are l'una (di notte) (1 a.m., \"1 in the night\"), le due (di notte) (2 a.m.) or sometimes l'una del mattino (1 in the morning), le due del mattino. After dawn, hours are le otto (del mattino) (8 a.m.), le nove (del mattino) (9 a.m.) until 11 a.m. Midday (noon) is mezzogiorno. 12-hours may be used with approximate time, such as le tre e un",
"-24.828001746573136"
],
[
"the spring and is meant to celebrate the end of winter and the new season. The event is open to the public and involves a number of events and activities. These include a pottery sale, musical performances, cake walks, games and other entertainment for children, a grease pole with a twenty dollar bill at the top, a cow plop competition (in which the winner is the one onto whose pre-purchased field space an ushered-in cow first excretes fecal matter), and the Maypole Dance. The Maypole is a tall wooden pole buried in the ground on the center green-space and is",
"-24.681440272215696"
],
[
"The Weekend (Michael Gray song) Content The song adapts the line, \"I can't wait for Saturday to begin,\" from \"Get Down Saturday Night\" by Oliver Cheatham, who is co-credited as a writer.\nThe song also uses a sample of Back at Ya by Kerr for the hook. The bridge of the song uses a chord progression similar to that of \"Voyager\" by Daft Punk.",
"-24.635438724653795"
],
[
"The Midnight Show The Midnight Show is a Los Angeles-based sketch comedy group which performs monthly at The Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre. Founded in 2008, the show owes its notoriety not only to production of several viral and mature-themed internet videos on Funny or Die and YouTube (including \"Twilight ... with Cheeseburgers,\" \"Drive Recklessly,\" \"Car Ad with Andy Richter,\" \"Immortal Dog\" and \"Slider,\" starring Dax Shepard), but also to the fact that the show has functioned as a feeder of talent to the cast and writing staff of Saturday Night Live. The show contains both live and pre-filmed",
"-24.620104855232057"
],
[
"dusk to dawn, and has been held on Saturdays (Ojó Àbáméta) from time immemorial. A full week before the festival (always a Sunday), the 'senior' Eyo group, the Adimu (identified by a black, broad-rimmed hat), goes public with a staff. When this happens, it means the event will take place on the following Saturday. Each of the four other 'important' groups – Laba (Red), Oniko (yellow), Ologede (Green) and Agere (Purple) — take their turns in that order from Monday to Thursday.\nThe Eyo masquerade essentially admits tall people, which is why it is described as Agogoro Eyo (literally meaning the",
"-24.571440699743107"
],
[
"6 p.m. on this Monday night in downtown Mobile.\nCelebrations begin early on Mardi Gras day. Downtown, the long parade organized by the Order of Athena rolls first, followed by the Comic Cowboys, founded in 1884. The evening ends with a spectacular night parade of illuminated floats decorated to a theme chosen by the Order of Myths. Each parade follows a defined route so that viewers can plan attendance along particular streets or balconies.\nSome parades are long and circular so that viewers can walk to a second viewing spot and catch more throws, as the floats circle back. ",
"-24.544648013223195"
],
[
"in the contemporary United States. Even on the very first days of the period in the autumn when DST ends and New York returns to Standard Time, the sun has not yet risen over any part of the state. The same is true on the last day of Standard Time in the spring (even in Montauk, Long Island, which is the southeasternmost point of New York, the sunrise on the final day of EST in 2011 was at 6:06 AM ). A better title for the episode would have thus have been \"6:02 AM EDT\". Ratings On its initial broadcast",
"-24.517573161341716"
],
[
"at 8 p.m.\nOn 24 March 2006, the series premiered on TV Cultura with new episodes every Fridays at 2 p.m (later with reruns on Thursdays at 10 a.m.). The program stopped airing on TV Cultura on January 25, 2008.\nOn December 4, 2006, the series premiered on Disney Channel from Monday to Friday at 12 p.m.\n It was broadcast on TV Brasil from September 26, 2011 to January 20, 2013.\nThe series aired on TV Escola from April 1, 2013 on Saturdays and Sundays. The program is no longer broadcast as of December 1, 2014, due to the new programming schedule of",
"-24.479951412595256"
],
[
"tomorrow\", etc. BrE speakers may also say \"Thursday last\" or \"Thursday gone\" where AmE would prefer \"last Thursday\". \"I'll see you (on) Thursday coming\" or \"let's meet this coming Thursday\" in BrE refer to a meeting later this week, while \"not until Thursday next\" would refer to next week. Time The 24-hour clock (18:00, 18.00 or 1800) is considered normal in the UK and Europe in many applications including air, rail and bus timetables; it is largely unused in the US outside military, police, aviation and medical applications. British English tends to use the full stop or period (.) when",
"-24.47726958336716"
],
[
"day is a public holiday in New Zealand. Shops are prohibited from opening before 1 pm as per the Anzac Day Act 1966. A prior Act passed in 1949 prevented the holiday from being \"Mondayised\" (moved to the 26th or 27th should the 25th fall on a weekend), although this drew criticism from trade unionists and Labour Party politicians. In 2013, a member's bill introduced by Labour MP David Clark to Mondayise Anzac Day and Waitangi Day passed, despite opposition from the governing National Party. Commercialisation From the beginning, there has been concern to protect the Anzac tradition from inappropriate use.",
"-24.465624173288234"
],
[
"falls on a Sunday, in which case July 2 is the statutory holiday. Celebratory events will generally still take place on July 1, even though it is not the legal holiday. If it falls on a weekend, businesses normally closed that day usually dedicate the following Monday as a day off. History The enactment of the British North America Act, 1867 (today called the Constitution Act, 1867), which confederated Canada, was celebrated on July 1, 1867, with the ringing of the bells at the Cathedral Church of St. James in Toronto and \"bonfires, fireworks and illuminations, excursions, military displays and",
"-24.426655772840604"
],
[
"concluded the last week of June. Broadcast Longmire began airing in the United Kingdom on TCM, on March 17, 2013, at 9:00 pm, in Australia on GEM on May 15, 2013, at 9:30 pm. Season two began airing in Australia on July 31, 2013, and in Italy on Rete 4 on July 4, 2013, at 9:00 pm.\nThe sixth and final season began airing on TCM in the UK, on January 7, 2018.\nThe series is shown in Ireland on RTÉ One and in Germany on RTL Nitro, as of January 10, 2014, at 10:05 pm. It made its Canadian debut in",
"-24.396253097016597"
],
[
"and fart simultaneously) because it is ten o'clock. This refers 30 Rock's move from the 8:30 pm to the 10:00 pm timeslot. Tracy plans to get an island like Nicolas Cage, Celine Dion, and Charles Widmore, the latter being a fictional character from Lost. The whole cast of TGS is being filmed by the cameras of Angie Jordan's (wife of Tracy) new reality show, Queen of Jordan. Queen of Jordan first \"began\" after the events of the previous episode \"Mrs. Donaghy\". Eventually an episode of 30 Rock was filmed as an episode of \"Queen of Jordan\". \nThe episode references the",
"-24.388353990740143"
],
[
"midnight\" is often changed to the less offensive \"You shoulda heard him just around midnight\". This is evident on their live albums Love You Live, Flashpoint, Live Licks, Shine a Light,Totally Stripped, and Voodoo Lounge Uncut. This change also occurs on the version recorded at Richards's birthday party. The Altamont debut of the song in December 1969 uses \"You shoulda heard him just around midnight.\" (Source: YouTube recordings). \nThe song is also the first single released on Rolling Stones Records (catalogue number RS-19100) and is one of the two Stones songs (along with \"Wild Horses\") licensed to both the band",
"-24.380164047091966"
],
[
"It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (season 9) Production On August 6, 2011, FX announced it had picked up the show for a ninth season. It premiered on the new FXX channel and moved timeslots to Wednesday nights.\nOn May 14, 2013, Rob McElhenney revealed that Game of Thrones series creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss guest-wrote an episode of the ninth season. Charlie Day revealed it would be a Flowers for Algernon type of story about \"Charlie getting smarter\" in a Limitless style, and is called \"Flowers for Charlie\".\nIn addition, there is an episode called \"The Gang Tries Desperately to",
"-24.373079480952583"
],
[
"on a Sunday in 2016, Monday in 2017, and Tuesday in 2018, then will fall on Wednesday in 2019 but then \"leaps\" over Thursday to fall on a Friday in 2020.\nThe length of a day is also occasionally changed by the insertion of leap seconds into Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), owing to the variability of Earth's rotational period. Unlike leap days, leap seconds are not introduced on a regular schedule, since the variability in the length of the day is not entirely predictable. Algorithm The following pseudocode determines whether a year is a leap year or a common year in",
"-24.338350135440123"
],
[
"on November 8, 1956 and was produced by Paul Cohen, along with \"A Poor Man's Roses\", \"The Heart You Break May Be Your Own\", and \"Pick Me Up on Your Way Down\". \n\"Walkin' After Midnight\" is a country pop song with stylistic elements taken from the genres of jazz, traditional pop, and blues. The song was recorded in the key of C major and follows the traditional AABA form followed by a short instrumental solo and a repeat of sections B and A. \"Walkin' After Midnight\" features instrumentation from an acoustic guitar, basic drums and piano, steel guitar, electric",
"-24.24416961625684"
],
[
"last Sunday in October). Most populated places in the country are in the UTC−03:00 zone in the winter (UTC−02:00 in the summer). Because of this, with respect to local time, clocks are changed from 22:00 to 23:00 in the spring (on the Saturday before the last Sunday in March), and reset back from 23:00 to 22:00 in the autumn (on the Saturday before the last Sunday in October).\nDanmarkshavn does not use DST, because it is a weather station with an airstrip which is supplied from Iceland, which does not use DST. This might apply to some other weather stations in",
"-24.220373505842872"
],
[
"Approaching Midnight Plot Approaching Midnight portrays a U.S. Army staff sergeant (Sam Logan Khaleghi) who fights the threat of corruption and deception in his hometown after returning from battle. Development Approaching Midnight is directed, written, and directed by Sam Logan Khaleghi. Khaleghi chose to film Approaching Midnight in Michigan because he loves the state and wanted to feature the amazing architecture and geography. American Legion members were a part of making the film as they stood in as extras and an American Legion honor guard appears in the film. Filming Approaching Midnight was filmed in Detroit, Farmington, and West Bloomfield,",
"-24.198205448163208"
],
[
"2.6 rating in only four months of episodes.\nTo date, The Edge of Night is the last regularly-scheduled ABC network program to have aired in the 4:00-4:30 p.m. (Eastern Time) time slot; ABC returned the half-hour slot to its affiliates after The Edge of Night finished its run. NBC had done this in 1979, while CBS, which programmed the 4:00 p.m. time slot with Body Language at the time The Edge of Night left the air, followed suit in September 1986 after cancelling Press Your Luck a month prior. Post-cancellation aftermath The cancellation of The Edge of Night, along with ABC's relinquishing of",
"-24.180520543595776"
],
[
"4 pm Eastern due to Guiding Light moving to 3 pm. On September 28, 1981, it moved to 10 am Eastern time, and on September 20, 1982, it was replaced by The $25,000 Pyramid.\nSoon after, the show entered off-network syndication, airing on local stations around the country, and nationally on WGN, TBS, and the E! Network.\nLogo TV started airing episodes in April 2017.\nAs of July 23, 2017, the series airs Sunday nights on the digital broadcast network Antenna TV. It also can be seen on the satellite service FeTV. Cast reunions The One Day at a Time Reunion was a",
"-24.180272267345572"
],
[
"late. By July 2000, Shadows of Amn had entered its second phase of crunch, where the hours ran from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Mondays to Fridays, and from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. on Saturdays. Their first crunch phase had been a normal working week, but hours of 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. on Tuesdays and Thursdays, and 12 p.m. to 5 p.m. on Saturdays. \"As long as it takes\" would be the philosophy of the last phase, encompassing the last week of development. Smedstad said that the second phase, which they were working under in July 2000, is",
"-24.169005179719534"
],
[
"the weekend of 30 July to 1 August. 2011 The 2011 Festival has now been extended to allow campers to arrive from the Thursday lunchtime, after complaints about the long time needed to get on site caused some festival-goers to miss some of the Friday attractions in 2010.\nHeadliners for 2011 are confirmed as Blondie, Mark Ronson and the Business International and Primal Scream who will be performing the Screamadelica album in its entirety in celebration of its 20-year anniversary. Other performers include ABC, The Wonder Stuff, House of Pain, Eliza Doolittle, Bad Shepherds, Easy Star All-Stars and Ed Sheeran.\nComedy performers",
"-24.159001248772256"
],
[
"nights at 8/7c that January. After only a month of Saturday airings, NBC put the series on hiatus in late February. It did not return until May, where it continued airing in the same Saturday slot, but, concurrent with NBC's fall 1994 network upfronts, the series' return came with the news that Getting By had been cancelled. Four new episodes left over from earlier in the season aired, until the last original episode, \"My Brilliant Career\", aired on June 18, 1994. Theme song and opening sequence The first season's opening sequence began with a still shot of the suburban Chicago",
"-24.145155674777925"
],
[
"It's Five O'Clock Somewhere Content The title refers to a popular expression used to justify drinking at any time of day, given that somewhere in the world it's 5:00 p.m. (the end of the work day for a traditional \"nine-to-five\" worker). The narrator states that he hasn't had a day off in over a year and that he wants to leave work and relieve his stress by drinking alcohol. The lyrics include the phrase, \"It's only half-past twelve but I don't care. It's five o'clock somewhere\", which means that even though it is not five o'clock in the narrator's",
"-24.143707213923335"
],
[
"to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time on weekdays and 6:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. Eastern Time on weekends and holidays. AMHQ airs weekdays between 5:00 and 9:00 a.m. Eastern Time; these are followed by the Weather Channel's flagship program, Weather Center Live which is aired from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Eastern, and the network's evening program, Weather Underground, which airs from 5:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern. On weekends, AMHQ is aired from 6:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m., followed by Weekend Recharge from 9:00 am to 1:00 p.m. On April 21, 2018, Weekend Recharge began airing for an additional hour until 1:00 p.m, following the previous week's TV end to Weather Geeks, which",
"-24.11421785352286"
],
[
"Winter time (clock lag) Winter time is the practice of shifting the clock back (compared to the standard time) during winter months, usually −1 hour. It is a form of daylight saving time which is the opposite compensation to the summer time (+1, +2). However, while summer time is widely applied, use of winter time has been and is very rare. Czechoslovakia Winter time was applied in Czechoslovakia by government ordinance no. 213/1946 Sb. from 1 December 1946 (3:00→2:00) to 23 February 1947 (2:00→3:00), authorized by act 212/1946 Sb., o zimním čase (\"about the winter time\"). This simple two-paragraph act,",
"-24.112305331756943"
],
[
"was Thursday. Therefore, April 4 was Thursday so April 12, eight days later, was a Friday.",
"-24.109847839921713"
],
[
"into its late night programming on Das Erste, showing it at 04:00. However the youthful appeal of the program quickly earned it an earlier slot, which was on Mondays at midnight. It was then moved to a slot on Thursdays before it was canceled.",
"-24.097961999010295"
],
[
"become 23:00:00 on the last Thursday of September lengthening the day to 25 hours. The date did not change one second after the first 23:59:59 occurred; for all practical purposes, midnight did not occur until after the second 23:59:59. An exception was made for Ramadan; in 2006 the end of DST took place one week earlier, on 21 September 2006, which took place before the start of the holy month of Ramadan. The same practice recurred in 2007 and 2008, to avoid having longer days in Ramadan. In 2009, summer time ended on Thursday, 20 August, five weeks before the",
"-24.086308562080376"
],
[
"which had been the Western European standard for over a century, in January 1918. These changes caused some confusion before their usage became familiar. Days of the week The days of the week are named in sequence, beginning with Monday. They are pirmadienis (\"first day\"), antradienis, trečiadienis, ketvirtadienis, penktadienis, šeštadienis, and sekmadienis. They are not ordinarily capitalized.",
"-24.080284921452403"
],
[
"on The N from November 2008 - August 2013.\nThe series has aired on-and-off on TeenNick in the United States since 2009. BET also briefly aired episodes of the series in 2009.\nThe show also premiered on the Canadian network YTV on March 5, 2009 and every Thursday since, but was changed to Friday to accommodate with iCarly & Big Fun Fridays. Then, the show moved again to Mondays at 6:30pm. As of 2010, the series no longer airs on YTV.\nThe series continues to air regularly on Nickelodeon networks around the world. The show ended in Australia and New Zealand on December",
"-24.075176629936323"
],
[
"Day with the Conde Cavaliers parade. Parades Starting two Fridays before Mardi Gras, there is usually at least one parade every night. The Wednesday before Mardi Gras is reserved as a \"rain out\" day in case one or more of the earlier parades are affected by weather.\nMultiple parades lead up to Mardi Gras day. On the Sunday before Fat Tuesday, Joe Cain Day celebrations are held. In recent years these have included a jogger's run and the Joe Cain Procession, also known as the people's parade. Joining the Joe Cain Procession does not require membership in a",
"-24.06647371285362"
],
[
"late night at 2am/1am, immediately before BET After Dark and the most recent episode was broadcast on Saturday afternoons at 5/4c. In 2001, it was extended to 90 minutes. In 2008, the show was extended to two hours, but still reverts to 90 minutes depending on BET's scheduling for that day. The show celebrated its 2,000th episode on August 20, 2008. From July 25, 2011, to September 2, 2011, the show was extended to three hours.\nThe show's tenth anniversary special was on October 6, 2010. The previous hosts A.J. Calloway & Free (original; 2000–2005), Julissa & Big Tigger (2005–2006) returned",
"-24.06515291854157"
],
[
"with its second broadcast season Futurama was again placed in the 8:30 Sunday spot, but by mid-season the show was moved again, this time to 7:00 pm on Sunday, its third position in under a year. Even by the fourth season Futurama was still being aired erratically. Due to being regularly pre-empted by sporting events, it became difficult to predict when new episodes would air. This erratic schedule resulted in Fox not airing several episodes that had been produced for seasons three and four, instead holding them over for a fifth broadcast season. According to Groening, Fox executives were not supporters",
"-24.05663660238497"
],
[
"October surprise In American political jargon, an October surprise is a news event deliberately created or timed or sometimes occurring spontaneously to influence the outcome of an election, particularly one for the U.S. presidency. The reference to the month of October is because the date for national elections (as well as many state and local elections) is in early November. Therefore, events that take place in late October have greater potential to influence the decisions of prospective voters.\nSince the 1972 presidential election (when it came into use), the term \"October surprise\" has been used preemptively during the campaign season by",
"-24.056341825635172"
],
[
"in the early morning shifts and reading police reports on the \"craziness that would go on the night before.\" Critical response Upon the series premiere, 3AM was met with a mixed critical reception. In a more negative review, Brian Lowry from Variety thought that while the show was \"visually provocative\", 3AM was \"only mildly entertaining\" and \"never for a moment truly convincing.\" Lowry also criticised the title of the series, which he noted in his review as conveying the impression that \"strange things happen at night while those who work the day shift slumber, especially around the designated hour.\" Lowry",
"-24.028658278286457"
],
[
"Of May\" never saw the light of day due to the collapse of Medium Cool's distributor, Red Rhino Records.\nThe band's first album, To The Citadel, was released in 1989, desicribed by Melody Maker as \"glorious, honed to cut-glass perfection\", and gaining comparison with The Byrds and R.E.M. in Sounds. A 12\" EP, \"The Watercress Girl\" followed in 1991.\nThey changed their name to Clark Springs, releasing a single, \"Talking Kent State\" in 1993, and contributing \"She Lives By The Castle\" to A Tribute To Felt in 1995.",
"-24.022241132006457"
],
[
"The show was scheduled to move to Wednesdays at 9:30 p.m. for two 90-minute installments starting June 13. The show returned to its original time slot on Thursday, June 28 with one-hour episodes until July 19.\nIt was announced in June 2012 that ABC cancelled the series.",
"-24.01296982344502"
],
[
"3:30pm until February 22, 2014. In February 24, 2014, the show moved to weekday mornings at 11:00am to 11:45am, replacing Minute to Win It. The new format changes include a Daily Champion from Monday to Thursday, with all four champions returning on Friday to compete for the P1,000,000 Final Countdown. \nOn July 16, 2014, the show changed its timeslot to 10:45am due to Typhoon Glenda. The season six ended on August 29, 2014, as the show temporarily ceased off to give way for the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup.\nDuring the start of season seven, the show returned on September",
"-24.01169321668567"
],
[
"not uncommon for stations in Central Time to air a local New Year's special immediately after the conclusion of the network special, especially if it does not produce additional coverage focused on the area (since 2017, ABC's New Year's Rockin' Eve has featured a segment and countdown broadcast live from New Orleans). When it aired new episodes on New Year's Eve, Late Night with Conan O'Brien lampooned the bias towards Eastern Time in New Year's specials (including its lead-in The Tonight Show, which historically handled NBC's coverage of Times Square) by presenting a comedic celebration for Central Time. \nOccasionally, networks",
"-24.00561433128314"
],
[
"5-nights-a-week early primetime slot due the show's occasional M rating, Network Ten had to run with a later timeslot. From January 2009, due to lower ratings compared to TEN Late News, it was moved to a weekly Sunday slot. It originally aired one episode on Sunday evening at 5:30pm, though for several weeks Ten aired two episodes from 5:30pm to 6:30pm, however it was quickly reverted to one episode a week, and sometimes skipping a week due to other circumstances. Early on in 2009, Ten would air episodes that were classified M on a late Sunday night slot.\nThe series made",
"-24.002287325944053"
],
[
"Channel 5, prime time ends at 0:00 on weekdays, at 1:30 (or later) on Saturday nights and at 0:30 on Sunday nights. On Suria, prime time ends at 22:30 on Monday to Thursday nights, 00:30 on Friday nights, 23:00 on weekends and at 00:30 or 01:00 on eve and actual days of Public Holidays. On Vasantham, prime time ends at 23:00 on Mondays to Thursdays, 24:00 (or later) on Friday and Saturday nights and at 23:30 on Sunday nights. On Channel NewsAsia, prime time ends at 23:01, immediately after the news headlines, seven days a week and on Channel U,",
"-24.002147823688574"
],
[
"take place on or near the anniversary of its sign-on date, March 17. Since that date fell on a Tuesday in 1992, WFRV and WBAY swapped networks on March 15, which fell on a Sunday.\nThe station formerly preempted the first hour of the ABC lineup (7-8 p.m. Central) on Tuesday evenings during the football season to carry the local program Tuesday Night Touchback, which was formerly known as Monday Night Countdown before it was moved in 2007 because of Dancing with the Stars and the departure of Monday Night Football from ABC (for most of the 2000s, the slot was",
"-23.99667398375459"
],
[
"for a one-off repeat one day in the Easter holidays (as an 'Easter Surprise!'). Then in the summer holidays from late July to the end of August. Over a year later in December 2008, it was repeated again throughout the Christmas holidays till January 2009 and again from August 2009 to September 4, 2009, when it last aired.",
"-23.961438963204273"
],
[
"with 12 midnight on the clock. Solar midnight depends on longitude and time of the year rather than on time zone.\nIn the Northern Hemisphere, \"midnight\" had an ancient geographic association with \"north\" (as did \"noon\" with \"south\" – see noon). Modern Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian and Serbian languages preserve this association with their words for \"midnight\" (północ, поўнач, північ, пoнoħ – literally \"half-night\"), which also means \"north\".",
"-23.958670674590394"
],
[
"Walk).\n7th day (Thursday): all people dress up with pyjamas and enjoy the night in the Carnival's hutts enclosure (Fóra Forat Walk)\n8th day (Friday): people dress in costumes (There are people who, instead of buying a normal costume, design, make and sew their own one) and enjoy the night in the Carnival's hutts enclosure (Fóra Forat Walk).\n9th day (Saturday) and 10th day (Sunday): on Saturday (7 p.m.) and Sunday (6 p.m.), troupes parade around the main streets in a closed route (Calle Pilar, Calle Pablo Ruiz Picaso, Calle San Francisco, Calle País Valencià, Calle Arcipreste Bono, Plaza 1º de Mayo, Calle",
"-23.92797089929809"
],
[
"Cowes Week Description Cowes Week is held at the beginning of August, set after Glorious Goodwood in the social calendar, which in most years means from the first Saturday after the last Tuesday in July, until the following Saturday. It is occasionally moved to another week if the state of the tides in the normal week is unfavourable or, as in 2012, to avoid a clash with the Olympic Games. The regatta is famous for its fireworks on the final Friday. The display has taken place on the final Friday of the event since the early days and is",
"-23.927556608537998"
],
[
"Countdown's original Sunday 6pm slot. New Year's Eve : Countdown Live For the 2017 Sydney New Year's Eve live show and broadcast on the ABC, there was a countdown to midnight and the fireworks. The show was themed like the Countdown show, with many live artists including Casey Donovan, Jimmy Barnes, Phil Jamieson, Isiah Firebrace and more. The show had the Countdown theme song and some of the same graphics. Ian \"Molly\" Meldrum did not return to host. The stage also had the Countdown logo.",
"-23.900709885871038"
],
[
"opened at seven in the evening and closes at one in the morning. In 2015 the hours were changed to six until midnight. The event began in 2002, though the concept of theming an amusement park for Halloween is not new. \"Phantom Fright Nights\" received third place in the Golden Ticket Awards for best Halloween event in 2007.\nLabor Day traditionally marked the end of the season and the park would shut down until the spring. In 2002, Kennywood decided to break the long-standing tradition and turn almost half of the park into a giant Halloween extravaganza. The park's initial",
"-23.89682083533262"
],
[
"When Every Day Was the Fourth of July Plot It's the summer of 1937 in Bridgeport, Connecticut and 12-year-old Daniel Cooper (Chris Petersen) along with his 10-year-old sister Sarah (Katy Kurtzman) are looking forward to summer vacation, most particularly, the annual 4th of July festivities. Sarah soon befriends the town's gentle misfit, Albert Cavanaugh, known by the town's children as \"Snowman\" (Geoffrey Lewis), a highly decorated and now brain-damaged World War I veteran, after she defends him from the town's resident bully, \"Red\" Doyle (Eric Shea). When Snowman finds himself accused of a terrible murder, Sarah, believing him",
"-23.895515787939075"
],
[
"sun at noon time will appear overhead slightly towards the north. From the 6th and a half hour to the 12th hour, the sun inclines towards the west, until it sets. The conclusion of a day at the end of twilight may slightly vary in minutes from place to place, depending on the elevation and the terrain. Typically, nightfall ushers in more quickly in the low-lying valleys, than it does on a high mountaintop.\nThe conventional Jewish way of calibrating the time of day is to reckon the \"first hour\" of the day with the rise of dawn (Hebrew: עמוד השחר),",
"-23.88058704922878"
],
[
"in the US: \"A week today\", \"a week tomorrow\", \"a week Tuesday\" and \"Tuesday week\"; these all refer to a day more than a week in the future. \"A fortnight Friday\" and \"Friday fortnight\" refer to a day two weeks after the coming Friday). \"A week on Tuesday\" and \"a fortnight on Friday\" could refer either to a day in the past (\"it's a week on Tuesday, you need to get another one\") or in the future (\"see you a week on Tuesday\"), depending on context. In the US the standard construction is \"a week from today\", \"a week from",
"-23.87277232890483"
],
[
"held in June.\nThe event was shortened to 2,000 metres and restricted to three-year-old fillies in 2005. From this point it was staged in late May, and usually titled the Premio Mario Incisa della Rocchetta. It was switched to late June in 2009. In 2015 it was move to a date in early May and downgraded to Listed status.",
"-23.85543861455517"
],
[
"for a New Year's Eve dinner, but does not take it seriously and soon forgets about it. On New Year's Eve, while waiting for her to arrive to the dinner, the Prospector imagines entertaining her with a dance of bread rolls on forks. When she does not arrive until midnight, he walks alone through the streets, desperate. At that moment, she remembers his invitation and decides to visit him. Finding his home empty but seeing the meticulously prepared dinner and a present for her, she has a change of heart and prepares a note for him in which she asks",
"-23.844792533898726"
],
[
"episode).\nWhile originally maintaining its late-night time slot, new episodes were eventually moved to 4:00 p.m. EST in the afternoons (usually airing on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays) starting on April 10, 2006. This changed to 3:00 p.m. EST on September 5, 2006, before X-Play returned to prime-time on November 6 of the same year, to an 8:00 p.m. EST timeslot.\nOn March 4, 2007, it was announced that the G4 Studios in Santa Monica would close on April 15. Production of G4 programs was relocated to the Studios of the E! Television Network situated elsewhere in the Los Angeles area. As a consequence, there were",
"-23.826640004001092"
],
[
"season five premiere on September 23, 2003, SVU moved to Tuesday nights at 10:00 p.m. ET. NBC airs repeats on Saturday nights at varying times and previous episodes are shown on the USA Network on varying days in marathon blocks.\nWith the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot because NBC began a prime-time weeknight Jay Leno series. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC, with CTV still airing SVU on Tuesdays at 10:00 in Canada. After the 2010 Winter Olympics on March 3, 2010, the time slot for",
"-23.824774890556"
],
[
"at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC for the first five seasons, from September 30, 2001 through May 14, 2006. It was then shifted to Tuesday nights at 9 p.m. ET on September 19, 2006, and remained in that timeslot through the end of season 6 on May 21, 2007. CI was then moved to the USA Network for its 7th season and aired Thursday nights at 9:00 p.m. starting October 4, 2007 until the fall finale in December 2007. It was then moved to Sunday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on June 8, 2008 (when it paired up with In Plain Sight) until the",
"-23.785933652776293"
],
[
"Barney's Good Day Good Night Plot Barney and his friends are playing outside on a sunny day. Robert tells Barney that he has always wanted to be able to stay up all night long just too see what happens at nighttime. The kids are in for some nighttime fun during the day with the help of Barney's special \"Night Timer\". When the lights go down, they all pretend that it is nighttime and get ready for bed by brushing their teeth and putting on their pajamas. Barney teaches them that there are some unusual sights and sounds associated with nighttime.",
"-23.764399649691768"
],
[
"Mr. James decides to celebrate April Fool's Day (in February!) by having Joe install the \"trigger machines\" from YCDTOTV, and then spends the episode tricking the cast into getting slimed and watered at increasingly inopportune times, ruining Cathy's Versace blouse when she gets slimed before going on air, destroying Matthew's computer when he is watered, and angering both Bill and Lisa when they're hit with water and slime at the end of the episode.\nThe 1984 episode of VH1's I Love the '80s features a segment on Nickelodeon that includes locker jokes, and features Alyson Hannigan, Hal Sparks, Soleil Moon Frye,",
"-23.76069398695836"
],
[
"has retained its 9 PM Sunday slot since the second season, the 14th episode of season 4, featuring India-born Hollywood actress Freida Pinto and Nargis Fakhri, was moved to the 11 PM slot reportedly due to the channel's view that the content \"was too bold for prime time viewing\". Several celebrities who were regulars in the past, including Rani Mukerji, Hrithik Roshan, Saif Ali Khan, Sanjay Dutt aka Baba, Ekta Kapoor, John Abraham, and Lara Dutta, did not appear in season 4 with the most notable absence being that of Shah Rukh Khan. Both Khan and Saif Ali Khan have",
"-23.759761245921254"
],
[
"mid-season replacement. In September 2011, the show returned to its original 8:30 pm timeslot for the fourth season. In 2012, the fifth season moved back to 9:30 pm on Thursdays. International In Australia, Parks and Recreation aired on Channel Seven's digital channel, 7mate. In Canada, the series was simsubbed in most areas on City. In India, it airs on Zee Café. In the Philippines, it airs on Jack TV. In South Africa, the show airs on Pay-TV operator M-Net. In the UK, the show began airing on BBC Four in 2013. The first three seasons aired on this channel before moving",
"-23.739195253758226"
],
[
"Tuesday on ABC Family's website from August 28, 2012, after the summer finale of the third season, as a way to tide viewers over until the Halloween special. The eighth and final episode was released on October 16, 2012.",
"-23.716547745803837"
],
[
"half-hour or so after midnight on New Year's night.\nOn New Year's Eve, Sveriges Television (SVT) shows the classical comedy sketch Dinner for One, Grevinnan och Betjänten. There are also often special shows commemorating the ending of the TV year, showing highlights from the year. TV also broadcast popular movies on this night. At midnight, SVT shows the celebration in Skansen in Stockholm, where a prominent actor reads Edvard Fredin's translation of Alfred Tennyson's Ring Out, Wild Bells On New Year's Day. SVT also used to show the British half-hour comedy The Plank and the ski jumping contest in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, but",
"-23.71248795167776"
],
[
"Opening Day (The Twilight Zone) Plot A young socialite named Sally and her wealthy husband named Carl are throwing a party. While they give the outward appearance of still being happy, poison has crept into their relationship. During the party, Sally runs into her apparent lover Joe and they discuss murdering Carl. Joe claims he may not be able to go through with it but Sally tells him he must commit to their plan, as the following day is the opening day of duck season. After rejoining the party, Carl and Joe talk about hunting together the next day.\nThe",
"-23.70480675624276"
],
[
"of December and June are preferred, with the last day of March or September as second preference, and the last day of any other month as third preference. All leap seconds (as of 2017) have been scheduled for either June 30 or December 31. The extra second is displayed on UTC clocks as 23:59:60. On clocks that display local time tied to UTC, the leap second may be inserted at the end of some other hour (or half-hour or quarter-hour), depending on the local time zone. A negative leap second would suppress second 23:59:59 of the last day of a",
"-23.70366414869204"
],
[
"slot due to poor ratings. The second and third series moved to a Friday-night slot at 6:30 p.m. and abandoned the studio-based element of the show.",
"-23.698105861407385"
],
[
"seasons, ABC shortened the series' title to Norm to avoid a legal conflict with Michael Jantze's comic strip The Norm. ABC continued to keep the series on Wednesdays for its second season, though initially moved it an hour earlier. In November, the series moved back to its original timeslot, before moving back again in January. This caused ratings in the second season to fluctuate. When the series was renewed for a third season, ABC moved Norm to Friday nights (also known as the Friday night death slot), in an effort to create a new \"Working Comedy\" Friday night comedy lineup",
"-23.69215347256977"
],
[
"Fridays on the 1 April, live, from 5.15pm until 5.45pm. In the second half of the second series the show moved to 7.00pm until 7.30pm. In this series the show was revamped, with viewers being able to vote for 3 songs that would be played on the show under the title 'the playlist'. For the Christmas Special in 2016, the show moved back to a late afternoon slot, 5.30pm until 6.05pm. There were more games, and the chart was shown at the end of the episode in one block. The show is presented by Ceallach Spellman, however on 29",
"-23.690027560805902"
],
[
"9pm EST. Season 6 aired on NBC on Tuesday nights at 9pm EST. In October 2007, new episodes of season 7 aired on the USA Network on Thursday nights at 9pm EST. In June 2008 the remaining episodes of the seventh season until the end of the eighth season aired on Sunday nights at 9pm EST on USA. Starting on January 9, 2008, reruns of season 7 began airing on NBC and May 6, 2009, reruns of season 8 began airing on NBC. Criminal Intent's season finale aired August 9, 2009. June 20, 2010, reruns of season 9 began airing",
"-23.68960949173197"
],
[
"with a silver star effect at the end fired off the top of the bridge, simulating a big birthday cake with 200 lit candles. This effect has closed every Sydney New Year's Eve between NYE 1996 and NYE 1998. It was the used in the finale of the NYE 1999 celebrations. The effect has not been used in Sydney New Year's Eve since NYE 1999. NYE 2004 soundtrack The dance remix of Advance Australia Fair/Waltzing Matilda (by Hylton Mowday) was composed especially for the event. It caused backlash among the public, most notably, the Prime Minister of Australia of the",
"-23.678886821726337"
],
[
"3 in Israel at 9 pm Pacific Time on May 23, 2010. Because of the time difference, its initial Spain simulcast airing was at 6 am (5 am in the UK) BST. In Ireland, RTÉ Two decided to air it on Monday, May 24 at 9 pm rather than its usual Thursday night slot in the interest of fans who did not want the ending to be spoiled. ABC charged up to US$900,000 for a 30-second commercial during the May 23 U.S. broadcast. Ratings and viewership In its original American broadcast, \"The End\" was viewed by 13.5 million households with a 5.8 rating/15%",
"-23.6553279471118"
],
[
"Friday 10:00 pm IST. Later its timing changed Starting from Monday 14 April 2014, the show was shifted to 7:30 pm time slot.",
"-23.6213972796686"
],
[
"One Day in April Synopsis One Day in April is an intimate look at what goes on in the months leading up to a big college cycling race like Bloomington Indiana's “Little 500.” The film stars two teams of cyclists, a women's and a men's team, as well as their coaches, families, and friends who support them through the ups and downs of training for the race. “One Day in April” also goes behind the scenes to show the organizers of the event and just what goes into creating and maintaining a level of non-profit integrity that may",
"-23.61341235123109"
],
[
"for 2 months, until 14 November, along with the curfew which remained unchanged. Starting 21 September, the curfew was again shortened by two hours to 00:00-05:00 excluding Fridays where the curfew was shortened by one hour to 19:00-05:00. On 24 October, the curfew was again shortened by one hour to 01:00-05:00 excluding Fridays where the curfew remained from 19:00-05:00. The state of emergency and curfew was lifted at 16:00 on 12 November, two days earlier than expected, following a ruling by the administrative court. Casualties On 14 August, the Egyptian Health Ministry said that at least 600 protesters died and",
"-23.592892785090953"
],
[
"gaudy morning bodes a wet afternoon\" and most bizarre of all \"my, how we apples swim quoth the dogshit\"\n4,000 Weeks Holiday was not reissued on CD in the UK until 2013, but was released in that format in Japan in 2007.",
"-23.589275070116855"
],
[
"area remains active late into the night and early morning since nearby bars and dance clubs often only start entertainment at 1 am. Street music is also common in the area.\nSide streets close to the square also contain residential flats, some small offices, and tourist hostels. Other events During New Year's Eve 2018-2019, the clock of the Puerta del Sol for the first time in history rang the bells according to the schedule of the Canary Islands. After the traditional twelve strokes of midnight, the clock delayed one hour its needles to adjust to the Canary hour and also give",
"-23.58449896777165"
],
[
"after 11 pm and on Sundays to every 40 minutes. In the Monday-to-Friday peaks between 6 am and 9 am and between 4 pm and 6 pm there is a 10-minute interval service.",
"-23.578199461335316"
]
] |
6c2xac | Why are women athlete outfits far more revealing than those of men? | [
"Some of it is probably the sexualization of women, but some of it is just what the athletes find acceptable and comfortable. Many women already wear tight/ form fitting clothes in their daily lives. Few men do. So it would be unusual for that to flip when it comes to athletic wear. Women commonly wear short shorts. Guys commonly wear baggier shorts. So it's not a surprise that women feel comfortable with short shorts/ tights in athletics. It would be weird if a guy started wearing short tights when he only wears longer, more baggy clothes outside of sport.",
"The question should be. Why aren't men's athlete outfits as revealing as women's? I want to feel comfortable with my cock and balls enveloped in latex, not wrapped up like pigs in blankets.",
"As a woman I hate t shirts when exercising. I buy tank tops. They are much cooler. And tight clothes is better for running as it doesn't move around as much. Guys who want less matterial in their shirt just go shirtless.",
"There's a few sports that play up sexier outfits for women, like tennis, beach volleyball and others. Even in those, it's function over form. But if you've got a great body, what's wrong with showing it off? Especially if it gets some sponsorship dollars. Conversely, when men's sports apparel is more revealing than women's, such as in boxing and swimming, it never gets mentioned. But I know women (and quite a few men) are looking at them.",
"Bikini Rugby sounds like a fake sport designed for cheap thrills. Women's basketball uniforms are about as revealing as men's (not very). Swimsuits? Ski/skating wear?",
"[Are]( URL_1 ) [they]( URL_0 ) really, though? TBH it probably has more to do with what is socially acceptable than anything else. I'm sure a guy would be free to wear clothing similar to a girl, like extremely short shorts and a crop top, or a full bathing suit, but he won't because it's not normal right now. FYI, in reference to the Olympics, it used to be men only and everyone would compete naked. Even the audience was naked to make sure no women came to see it, because no women were allowed... and it was fine cause that was what was socially acceptable at the time."
] | [
[
"sections – \"physique\" (for a more muscular physique) and \"figure\" (traditional feminine presentation in high heels). In November 2010 the IFBBF (International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness) introduced a women's bikini contest for women who do not wish to build their muscles to figure competition levels.\nCostumes are regulation \"posing trunks\" (bikini briefs) for both men and women. Female bodybuilders in America are prohibited from wearing thongs or T-back swimsuits in contests filmed for television, though they are allowed to do so by certain fitness organizations in closed events. For men, the dress code specifies \"swim trunks only (no shorts, cut-off pants,",
"-34.07846525480272"
],
[
"as female buttocks (for example, the Miss Bum Bum contest held in Brazil, and the Miss Reef contest held in several South American countries). Controversies Despite their popularity and women's voluntary participation, swimsuit competitions, especially bikini contests, may be controversial. Critics argue that beauty contests reinforce the idea that girls and women are primarily valued for their physical appearance, and that this puts pressure on women to conform to conventional beauty standards by spending time and money on fashion, cosmetics, hair styling and even cosmetic surgery. It depletes their bodies of nutrients, energy and even water at the end and",
"-32.96728545971564"
],
[
"themselves to their competitors and notice the athletes who are performing better than them are thinner, it can lead to a weight loss mentality. Another risk factor to competitive thinness is related to revealing uniforms. For aesthetic sports, these uniforms are normally very tight, which shows off the athletes’ body. These uniforms can cause athletes to develop unhealthy body comparisons. Supplements/Steroids Anabolic steroids are artificially produced hormones called androgens, which are essentially male-type sex hormones in the body. The most powerful of the androgens is testosterone. Another group of steroids are steroidal supplements, a weaker form of androgens.",
"-32.48302152499082"
],
[
"for whatever it is they lack, sex appeal, charm, ready-made beauty.” The aesthetic commentary on women in professional fields of sports dealt with concern of participating made women unattractive. With the act of viewing female athletes in professional competitions were damaging to your eyes. Pierre de Coubertin a founder of the International Olympic Committee conveys in witnessing a female Olympic participant of the winter sport bob-sleighing, “Seeing a lady with her skirts lifted sliding in this position, usually scratching up the runway with two small pointed sticks which she holds in her hands and which help her to steer the",
"-32.02891366305266"
],
[
"it has become more common for young and/or fashionable women in Western societies to wear clothing that bared the midriff, \"short shorts,\" backless tops, sheer and other styles considered to be immodest. Gender differences Men and women are subject to different standards of modesty in dress. While both men and women, in Western culture, are generally expected to keep their genitals covered at all times, women are also expected to keep their breasts covered. Some body parts are normally more covered by men than women—e.g., the midriff and the upper part of the back. Organizations such as the Topfree Equal",
"-31.87410841792007"
],
[
"sport having larger body types than those of women athletes traditionally portrayed in mass media. Robles has been quoted as saying that, \"You can get that sponsorship if you're a super-built guy or a girl who looks good in a bikini. But not if you're a girl who's built like a guy.\" As of July 16, 2012, a company called Solve Media was sponsoring her.\nRobles has a deformity in her arm known as Madelung's deformity, which results in a radius that is shorter than normal and bowed. The deformity leads to significant pain during lifts, and Robles treats the",
"-31.686166704981588"
],
[
"classy, powerful, and well-formed ladies, usually donning low cut tops to show an enhanced chest with an equally classy matching bra.\nThe onset of classy and stylish Teddy suits also encompassed this decade and sales of silicone increased the need for bigger and more supportive bras.\nModels and celebrities all donned fashionable and extravagant bras, showing these off at red carpets events become the norm.\nIn contrast, feminist Susan Brownmiller in her book Femininity (1984) took the position that women without bras shock and anger men because men \"implicitly think that they own breasts and that only they should remove bras.\" The 1990s",
"-31.605786044645356"
],
[
"physique pose in board shorts, not in underwear. Bodybuilders are much larger than the men physique competitors as well as have an extensive routine when posing while the Physique category only gets judged by the front and back poses. Many of the competitors are not freakishly large and have a bit of a more attainable and aesthetic physique in comparison to bodybuilding. Although this category started off slow, it grew tremendously in the past 5 years, now Men's Physique seems to be the most popular class to be in. Classic Physique This is the middle ground of both Men's Physique",
"-31.58099815544847"
],
[
"soiled by perspiration, urine, semen, feces and menstrual blood Men's briefs serve the same function for the male genitalia, and women's brassieres provide support for the breasts. A corset may be worn as a foundation garment to alter a woman's body shape. For additional support and protection when playing sports, men often wear more tightly fitting underwear, including jockstraps and jockstraps with cup pocket and protective cup. Women may wear sports bras which provide greater support, thus increasing comfort and reducing the chance of damage to the ligaments of the chest during high-impact exercises such as jogging.\nIn cold climates, underwear",
"-31.578862524271244"
],
[
"seen as lacking femininity for she failed to wear lipstick or revealing clothing. Women believed that in order to gain recognition, they needed to hide their feminine qualities, to thus appear more masculine. For example, women in the sixties often wore male clothing, which often did not fit for the pant's inseam was sized for a man and not a woman's leg. This conformity had little benefit besides men demoralizing them for lack of femininity.\nSince most of their colleagues in science are men, women also find themselves left out of opportunities to discuss possible research opportunities outside of the",
"-31.490627826789932"
],
[
"in order to gain authority in the workplace. According to Entwistle, in western culture female dress is considered to be more sexual than male dress. The feminine body has historically been associated with nature, nurturing, and reproduction, something that can be problematic in most workplaces, where manifesting such sexuality is considered inappropriate.\nAccording to some sociologists and psychologists, the primary function by which most women choose clothes and accessories is to look sexually appealing so that they may attract a partner. Feminists and even Freud have spoken out against this theory, since it has been well observed that both men and",
"-31.40703000029316"
],
[
"than the old world record).\nAs of January 1, 2010, men are only allowed to wear suits from the waist to the knees. They are also only permitted to wear one piece of swimwear; they cannot wear briefs underneath jammers. This rule was enacted after the controversy in the Beijing Olympics and Rome World Championships. Women Women wear one-piece suits with thicker and higher backs for competition, though two-piece suits can also be worn during practice. Backs vary mainly in strap thickness and geometric design. Most common styles include: racerback, axel back, corset, diamondback, and butterfly-back/Fly-Back. There are also different style",
"-31.319593215055647"
],
[
"or Speedos).\" Other sports Women in athletics often wear bikinis of similar size as those worn in beach volleyball. Amy Acuff, a US high-jumper, wore a black leather bikini instead of a track suit at the 2000 Summer Olympics. Runner Florence Griffith-Joyner mixed bikini bottoms with one-legged tights at the 1988 Summer Olympics, earning her more attention than her record-breaking performance in the women's 200 meters event. In the 2007 South Pacific Games, the rules were adjusted to allow players to wear less revealing shorts and cropped sports tops instead of bikinis. At the West Asian Games in 2006, organizers",
"-31.27588058934998"
],
[
"that is represented in a direct way from the sportswear he/she is wearing. Gender On the other hand, \nboys are taught that masculinity in sports is defined in terms of \"toughness and dominance and to express disdain for females and any boy seen as weak or unwilling to take risks on or off the playing field\".\nSociety and media emphasize athletic women's physical appearance and sexual attractiveness, through representing them as women first and athletes second. Thus, the feminine athletic ideal consists of an attractive appearance, thin body, and sexual appeal, which is conveyed also through clothing: women sportswear must fit",
"-31.22420005722961"
],
[
"\"the five models broke all laws that say what women in bathing suits should look like, namely: appetizing, succulent, bitches that want to have fun ... in short, women who are there for men. (...) If sex comes to anyone's mind, it would only as the memory of a vacuum or futility. Some of the women were skeletal, not shaped for the look of a man but on the verge of anorexia: a rejection of the adult female state and a refusal of men.\" Although her contemporaries, such as Helmut Newton, tended towards more provocative or taboo subjects in their",
"-31.176517496758606"
],
[
"Skintern Causes Some observers think at that least some of the young women whose choices of clothing get them labeled as skinterns are doing so deliberately, in order to stand out from more conservatively dressed colleagues. \"Maybe if you can get noticed, you might get a full-time position,\" Wonkette editor Alex Pareene told ABC News in 2006. Nicole Williams, who coaches women entering the workforce, agrees that in some cases the skintern look is exactly what the wearer intends. \"You've got the summer to prove 'I can work here' or 'I can't work here,' so to get noticed, why not?\"",
"-31.112724227452418"
],
[
"standard. Men For competitions, male gymnasts wear two layers of clothing. The first, a singlet (or comp shirt, short for competition shirt) is a sleeveless leotard. For floor and vault, gymnasts wear a pair of very short shorts over the singlet. For their other events, they wear a pair of long pants, attached to the bottom of the feet with stirrups.\nMen's uniforms are usually less ornate than those of their female counterparts and are usually matte-colored, while women's uniforms generally employ metallic or iridescent fabrics. Singlets usually employ one or more of the national team colors, but there are no",
"-31.106159762637617"
],
[
"i.e., rules of excessive cover of the female body — is an antidote to belly-button rings, which in turn are an indicator of promiscuity and recreational sex. Really? This line of thinking has more leaps than an equestrian course. At the risk of stating the obvious, let me say that there are more than two choices for female attire. There is a whole series of gradations between the sheitel and the music video outfit. There is a lot of variation in between. Women who choose to wear jeans and a t-shirt, who play with ways to put their hair up",
"-31.094648091238923"
],
[
"an interview involving 140 men, it was concluded that “bodily practices are essential for masculine identity,\" and it was determined that the media highly publicizes female athletes who were strong, and thin. This leads to the issue of the consumption of performance enhancement drugs to achieve muscular or thin figures, and the assumption that the opponents are also taking performance-enhancing drugs, deeming it as an acceptable behavior to conform to. In addition, society's embracement of the “winning is everything” spirit leads many athletes to participate in doping, hoping that they will not be caught. Physical Pressures Elite athletes have financial",
"-31.09435532783391"
],
[
"to be the distinguishing feature of women's fashion. In a fashion layout in 1926, the female figures retain feminine styles in their ruffled shirts and ribbon bow ties but appropriate at the same time as excess of masculine styles in their dinner suits and waistcoats which deemphasize the body.",
"-31.086858949638554"
],
[
"\"least attractive\" trait for men.\nIn Middle English literature, a beautiful man should have a flat abdomen. Musculature Men's bodies portrayed in magazines marketed to men are more muscular than the men's bodies portrayed in magazines marketed to women. From this, some have concluded that men perceive a more muscular male body to be ideal, as distinct from a woman's ideal male, which is less muscular than what men perceive to be ideal. This is due to the within-gender prestige granted by increased muscularity and within-gender competition for increased muscularity. Men perceive the attractiveness of their own musculature by how closely",
"-31.08379178136238"
],
[
"and sun tanning. The posing brief standard to bodybuilding competitions is an example of this style. Male punk rock musicians have performed on the stage wearing women's bikini briefs. The 2000 Bollywood film Hera Pheri shows men sunbathing in bikinis, who were mistakenly believed to be women from a distance.\nMale bikini tops also exist and are often used as visual gags. A mankini is a type of sling swimsuit worn by men. The term is inspired by the word bikini. It was popularized by Sacha Baron Cohen when he donned one in the film Borat. Bikini waxing Bikini waxing is",
"-31.033775185755076"
],
[
"placed on them is less than women The time and money required for a man to achieve the same well-groomed appearance is much lower. Even in areas that men also face pressure to perform beauty work, such a haircuts/styling, the prices discrepancy for products and services are skewed. This phenomenon is called the \"pink tax.\"\nHowever, attractiveness varies by society; in ancient China foot binding was practiced by confining young girls' feet in tightly bound shoes to prevent the feet from growing to normal size causing the women to have an attractive \"lotus gait\". In England, women used to wear corsets",
"-30.931086643700837"
],
[
"generally include confrontational, combative coordination and the women's sports typically are less aggressive and more individualized. Over the past century, women have been given more opportunities to participate in sports, and not just in sports that are considered more \"feminine.\" Lyndsay MC Hayhurst, a Faculty of Physical Education and Health at the University of Toronto, states that research on women and girls who participate in sports has shown to \"lend [them] the opportunity to challenge and resist their domestic duties, improve their social networks and relations with communities, confront gender norms, boost self-confidence, advance communications skills, and increase their ability",
"-30.740154775616247"
],
[
"bathing costume is different from that of Celia Fiennes a hundred years earlier:\nThe ladies wear jackets and petticoats of brown linen, with chip hats, in which they fix their handkerchiefs to wipe the sweat from their faces; but, truly, whether it is owing to the steam that surrounds them, or the heat of the water, or the nature of the dress, or to all these causes together, they look so flushed, and so frightful, that I always turn my eyes another way. 19th century The English practice of men swimming in the nude was banned in the United Kingdom in",
"-30.715730529278517"
],
[
"who, nowadays, can be easily seen wearing short skirts, high heels, very deep necklines, bikinis or padded bras, all available in fabrics and prints that most of the people would consider inadequate for them. In fact, fashion is seen as imposing oppressive forms of gender identity, embodying practices designed to objectify and limit little girls.\nAt the same time, it will be difficult to ignore the limitations given to boys too. They are pressured by expectations about proper masculine behaviour from parents, school, mass media and peer groups. Masculine behaviour's role models are provided by sportsmen, military heroes, etc. and the",
"-30.5405075190356"
],
[
"hyper-masculine community, with female artists taking on these traits. Female groups and individual artists such as Young M.A. Conscious Daughters or Aaliyah have dressed in clothing considered male. Wearing baggy clothes was an attempt to shift focus away from the body and move it towards the music.\nMen have also engaged in reversing gender roles through the use of fashion. Artists such as Lil Wayne, A$AP Rocky, Kanye West, Young Thug, and other self-identified straight men have made headlines by their choices of dress. This type of androgynous dress is not exclusive to recent times though, as the years of hip",
"-30.491641827931744"
],
[
"that people may use to describe which \"look\" suits them best and which \"look\" doesn't.\nTeen boys see themselves as more physically effective than teen girls. While at the same time, teen girls perceive themselves as being more effective by means of attractiveness. Recently these perceptions among men and women have changed. Women are increasingly concerned with their physical effectiveness, while men have become more interested in their physical attractiveness. Today, unlike men, women are more critical when assessing their bodies in terms of physical fitness, appearance, health and sexuality. However, both men and women tend to be equally satisfied when",
"-30.428434353525518"
],
[
"snugly, but, most important must be sheath, exaggerating the female shape. In health/fitness magazines are included four stereotypes for masculinity: physical action, power, stance, and muscles. While for female it included three stereotypes: thin ideal, glistening/\"wet\" look, and feminine face. Thus, the health/fitness magazines tended to used the masculine and feminine ideals through stereotypes more than fashion magazines. Thus, who practice health-fitness tend to be less dressed or used close-fitting with the intention to emphasize the appeal.",
"-30.423516709532123"
],
[
"in the 1930s show women wearing two-piece suits, In 1928, Speedo introduced their racerback silk suit that was optimized to fit the body shape. 1930s By the 1930s men began to go without shirts for swimming, and barechestedness in male swimwear became the norm by the end of the 1940s, including in competitive swimming events, in which men are not only barechested, but wear a swimming suit that is intended merely to meet public decency requirements. The norm of male barechestedness in swimwear extended to other competitive sports, such as professional boxing and professional wrestling.\nBy the 1930s, necklines plunged at",
"-30.40321958009008"
],
[
"published by Cambridge University Press found that women were more likely to be described using physical features, age, marital status and aesthetics than men were, as opposed to sport related adjectives and descriptions. The same study found that women were also more likely to be referred to as \"girls\" than men were to be called \"boys\" in commentary. This disparity in the quality of coverage for women's Olympic sports has been attributed to the fact that 90% of sports journalists are male. Role of the International Olympic Committee The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was created by Pierre, Baron de Coubertin,",
"-30.330255899596523"
],
[
"are not marketed as strongly to men as they are to women. In Europe, thongs have been commonplace for many more years both as underwear and swimwear.\nIn the 2000s, some people wore thongs with low-cut hipsters and deliberately exposed them over the top of their trousers, producing an effect popularly known as a whale tail. This led to many thong designs intended to be worn in this manner, which were adorned with jewels and motifs on the back. In the early-2000s, thongs made up 31% of the women's underwear market. However, in the late-2000s, the exposure of a thong above",
"-30.310523870852194"
],
[
"be worn for a passive occasion such as sunbathing or for an activity such as surfing or swimsuit competition. Swimwear for men usually exposes the chest, while suits for women usually cover at least the breasts. Materials Rayon was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits, but its durability, especially when wet, proved problematic, with jersey and silk also sometimes being used.\nIn the 1930s, new materials were being developed and use in swimwear, particularly latex and nylon, and swimsuits gradually began hugging the body, especially women's swimsuits. Swimsuit styles In western culture, men's swimsuit styles include boardshorts,",
"-30.221628096784116"
],
[
"this criticism of their body, as they build bodies which are commonly associated with the masculine identity. Despite this there is a very dedicated female bodybuilding fan base.\nThe International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness has made several rules changes on the sport of female bodybuilding that relate to expected feminine identity. In 1992, the IFBB, attempted to \"feminize\" the sport by making the judges deduct points from competitors who were “too big,” meaning too muscular. The IFBB then made a rule change in 2000 that emphasized a need for the women to decrease muscularity once again. Before Ms. International",
"-30.158283882861724"
],
[
"becoming the required uniform for women. That regulation bottom is called a \"bun-hugger\", and players names are often written on the back of the bottom.\nThe uniform made its Olympic debut at Sydney's Bondi Beach in the 2000 Summer Olympics amid some criticism. It was the fifth largest television audience of all the sports at the 2000 Games. Much of the interest was because of the sex appeal of bikini-clad players along with their athletic ability. Bikini-clad dancers and cheerleaders entertain the audience during match breaks in many beach volleyball tournaments, including the Olympics. Even indoor volleyball costumes followed suit to",
"-30.124422608932946"
],
[
"was only when enough women were clearly established as authoritative in the work environment, that it was possible to renovate the women suit: no more feminized imitations of men’s professional garments but suit different in fabric, cut, color and ornament, helping women to show both their authority and their femininity. Wearing a suit did not represent an effort to camouflage with men but an effort to stand out and define a clear visual presence.\nIn fact, it was only in the second half of the 1980s that more feminine garments were introduced in the \"power uniform\". For instance blouse, usually seen",
"-30.102353339767433"
],
[
"wear clothing which reveals her physical attractiveness to others, such as by wearing very brief clothing, such as a microskirt, tight-fitting or see-through clothing or a low-cut top. History of the term The term is derived from a story involving ancient King Candaules who, according to the story, conceived a plot to show his unaware naked wife to his servant Gyges of Lydia. After discovering Gyges while he was watching her naked, Candaules' wife ordered him to choose between killing himself or killing her husband in order to repair the vicious mischief.\nThe term was first used in psychology by Richard",
"-30.10202565495274"
],
[
"time, swimwear evolved from weighty wool to high-tech skin-tight garments, eventually cross-breeding with sportswear, underwear and exercise wear, resulting in the interchangeable fashions of the 1990s. Men's bikini The term men's bikini is sometimes used to describe swim briefs. Men's bikinis can have high or low side panels, and string sides or tie sides. Most lack a button or flap front. Unlike swim briefs, bikinis are not designed for drag reduction and generally lack a visible waistband. Suits less than 1.5 inches wide at the hips are less common for sporting purposes and are most often worn for recreation, fashion,",
"-30.074431122571696"
],
[
"the colors of the skirt. When wearing this traditional outfit, women generally place one or both hands their hips to emphasize the dress's uniqueness.\nOlder and working women generally wear darker, longer skirts without ruffled petticoats. They wear white or dark, long-sleeved shirts, a short veil to cover their hair, and dark, woolen stockings.\nMale costumes from Susak are less ornate than their female counterparts. Men traditionally wear dark trousers and a dark vest over a long-sleeved, white, collared shirt. The outfit is completed by a soft, dark cap and may be accentuated with a colorful belt or ribbons on",
"-30.060479758889414"
],
[
"basic item of dress for both men and women. Women wore an outer garment known as a stola, which was a long pleated dress similar to the Greek chitons.\nAlthough togas are now thought of as the only clothing worn in ancient Italy, in fact, many other styles of clothing were worn and also are familiar in images seen in artwork from the period. Garments could be quite specialized, for instance, for warfare, specific occupations, or for sports. In ancient Rome women athletes wore leather briefs and brassiere for maximum coverage but the ability to compete.\nGirls and boys under the age",
"-30.059872623882256"
],
[
"disciplines), female competitors showcase their physiques (which are noticeably less massive than bodybuilders') while performing a demanding, time-limited, aerobic/dance routine. In a Figure contest, the most important attributes are a curvaceous-yet-trim body, and facial beauty; however, the physique guidelines are similar to a Fitness pageant's, and many contestants move back and forth between the two disciplines. The Figure division emerged on the bodybuilding scene when the numbers for Fitness pageant competitions started to dwindle. Typically, fitness and figure competitions are held as part of the larger-drawing bodybuilding contests. History Women's fitness competitions did not start until the 1980s.",
"-30.007878025295213"
],
[
"other traditional male attire in public without receiving a permit. They did so as well for practical reasons, but also at times to subvert dominant stereotypes. Sand was one of the women who wore men's clothing without a permit, justifying them as being less expensive and far sturdier than the typical dress of a noblewoman at the time. In addition to being comfortable, Sand's male attire enabled her to circulate more freely in Paris than most of her female contemporaries, and gave her increased access to venues from which women were often barred, even women of her social standing. Also",
"-29.958474130748073"
],
[
"sportswear to be more versatile, comfortable, and fashionable. Background By some accounts, the athleisure trend grew out of women wearing yoga pants. Another account suggests that the trend came about because people could wear them for multiple occasions without having to change, which meant greater convenience since people did not have to carry an extra gym outfit on the way to the office, for example. A decade ago, denim workwear uniforms were more popular, but today, athleisure is increasingly popular in places such as public streets and fashion stores and fashion runways. Sportswear that had been worn exclusively in gyms",
"-29.953873830064595"
],
[
"also helps them to better cope with the stifling heat. Women's dress typically consists of a cloth or short vest to cover their upper body, and an apron-like cloth to cover parts of their lower body. For special or ceremonial occasions, men and women wear blue and white vests in addition to vibrant accessories, such as an octagonal wooden hat for women, and silver helmets for men. During funerals and times of mourning, women wear their upper garments inside out, and men wear a piece of cloth, reverse side out, on their heads. It is also considered taboo to wear",
"-29.896272258163663"
],
[
"rings in African and Asian cultures, and corsets in Western cultures. Another interesting phenomenon has been the practice of wearing high heels, which shifted from a masculine fashion to a feminine fashion over time. In the United States, the ideal body image and dimensions have changed for both women and men, with the body ideal female body shape becoming progressively slimmer and the body ideal for men becoming progressively larger.\nThese differences are epitomized in the example of children's toys; G.I. Joe dolls depict the physical ideals for boys and Barbie dolls embody the ideals for girls. The Beauty Myth, as",
"-29.892218197666807"
],
[
"Australian bodybuilders have likewise been no stranger to the spotlight, however due to the often obscure nature of women's bodybuilding, female competitors are less widely promoted. \nOne of the most famous Australian female bodybuilders was Bev Francis who was a top competitor at the Ms Olympia competition in the 1980s and early 1990s. Her success was limited in the early stages of her career because some judges viewed her as too muscular. This was covered extensively in the documentary film, Pumping Iron II: The Women.\nIn 1980, Arnold Schwarzenegger won the IFBB Mr. Olympia, which was hosted in Sydney at",
"-29.804650929550917"
],
[
"of the times and were designed to be practical, yet maintain the woman athlete's dignity and femininity. While upper-class women had been playing sports at country clubs since the mid-nineteenth century, they were able to participate in activities such as tennis and croquet in full-length skirts and corsets. However, similar attire was impractical for a more active sport like basketball, so the first trousers for women were worn. Initially loose and covered by a knee-length skirt, these early pants were replaced soon after by loose bloomers over stockings. Despite men being forbidden from watching these collegiate games, the attire still",
"-29.77409207403889"
],
[
"cited the feats of renowned women in history such as Zenobia, ruler of Egypt, and Joan of Arc, submitting that these women's accomplishments are no less impressive because of their gender. Intriguingly, Wall thus argued that the \"political nonentity of women was of modern origin,\" holding that women of the past used to be judged based on their rank, not solely on their gender.",
"-29.76669934029269"
],
[
"found. Research Recent research indicates that men have a marked preference for women who have the hourglass figure. These studies found that this shape was even more highly preferred than breast size or facial features. While it is true that most men were initially drawn to a woman's cleavage, it was her hips and waist that were in fact what they found the most attractive. Scientists discovered that the most desirable waist-to-hip ratio was 0.7- a waist that measures 70 percent of the circumference of the hips. Some examples of women who possess or have possessed the \"perfect\" body were",
"-29.75763920834288"
],
[
"three piece suits with a vest and double-knit polyester shirt jackets with matching trousers known as the leisure suit. Men's leisure suits were typically form-fitted in some parts of the body, such as the waist and bottom, but the lower part of the pants were flared in a bell bottom style, to permit freedom of movement.\nDuring the disco era, men engaged in elaborate grooming rituals and spent time choosing fashion clothing, both activities that would have been considered \"feminine\" according to the gender stereotypes of the era. Women dancers wore glitter makeup, sequins or gold lamé clothing that would shimmer",
"-29.755489258444868"
],
[
"in sports are still expected to conform to strictly feminine gender norms. This is known as the \"female/athlete paradox\". Although traditional gender norms are gradually changing, female athletes, especially those that participate in male-dominated sports such as boxing, weight lifting, American football, ice hockey, and motor sports, are still often viewed as deviating from the boundaries of femininity and may suffer repercussions such as discrimination or mistreatment from administrators, harassment by fans, and decreased media attention. Health Evidence points to the negative impact of hegemonic masculinity on men's health-related behavior, with American men making 134.5 million fewer physician visits per year",
"-29.6969363133976"
],
[
"active outdoor sports. The new and improved fashions allowed for women to swing a tennis racket, whack a golf ball, but the ideas of \"proper\" feminine attire reduced the progress of more practical sportswear.\nTailored suits became more popular for the women that were beginning to work in white collar jobs. Tailored suits with no frills allowed for women maintaining an office job to seem more masculine and blend into the male dominated environment. Shortly the number of women attending colleges increased, and the shirtwaist became popular among the average college girl. The outfit worn by the typical college girl was",
"-29.68504128960194"
],
[
"the retouched bodies of celebrities, which reflect society's ideal thin body in the media. This leads to the women developing poor self-images. Women begin to see the thin ideal body, which they see constantly in the media, as the perfect body that they should aim to achieve. Men Males also face similar burdens in regards to attractiveness, whereby the media's depiction of the ideal muscular physique has caused numerous body dissatisfaction issues among young men. Teenage boys in particular, are now three times more likely to suffer from Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD), with numbers reaching 45% since 1991. BDD is",
"-29.675121121370466"
],
[
"text and text space greater than 2:1 coverage of men’s sports over women’s, the pictures are around 2:1 male athletes over female athletes. From this study, it can be found that men have an advantage over women in sports. For males the sports typically include football, hockey, baseball, soccer, basketball, pro wrestling and boxing. However, women's sports typically include figure skating, gymnastics, skiing, and diving. However, both men and women do play every sport that exists today, but on the sport side there are still have gender stereotype.\nThere is a contrast in the sports for each gender: the men's sports",
"-29.619516845821636"
],
[
"and also serve as an anatomical cue of sexual maturity, they have been seen as an attractive trait for women for thousands of years. Many of the classical poses women take when sculpted, painted or photographed, such as the Grande Odalisque, serve to emphasize the prominence of their hips. Similarly, women's fashion through the ages has often drawn attention to the girth of the wearer's hips.",
"-29.60491171735339"
],
[
"is because the women do not like the confrontational overtones of the term. There were practical health reasons that a minority of women promoted radical changes in feminine dress in the early part of the 18th Century. The burden of wearing extremely heavy dresses in all seasons that could not be washed were a health hazard, especially for frail women who might be overly susceptible to disease. Long dresses dragged on unpaved streets and floors carrying filth and germs indoors that effected household members, especially small children. In homes, long dresses were also fire hazards with open",
"-29.588087043232008"
],
[
"is only permitted to wear closer fitting styles of swimwear. Men, for instance, must wear \"Speedo\" style bathing suits and not baggy shorts or trunks. Pre-20th century In classical antiquity swimming and bathing were done naked. There are Roman murals which show women playing sports and exercising wearing two-piece suits covering the areas around their breasts and hips in a fashion remarkably similar to the present-day bikini. However, there is no evidence that they were used for swimming. All classical pictures of swimming show nude swimmers.\nIn various cultural traditions one swims, if not in the nude, in a version",
"-29.586215634888504"
],
[
"primarily for utilitarian purposes, or as a part of cross-dressing. Some men who have large breasts as a result of obesity or gynecomastia may choose to wear a brassiere to provide support for their breasts and to flatten their appearance. Other men wear bras for cross-dressing, for sexual purposes such as transvestic fetishism or feminization, or as a form of submission to their partner. Petticoat discipline may also involve male bra wear. Additionally, some male athletes – more specifically runners – may choose to wear a sports bra under their shirts in order to prevent a common medical condition called",
"-29.525918370694853"
],
[
"the Olympics, and international competitions must be \"modest, dignified and appropriate for athletic competition—not garish or theatrical in design\". Props and accessories are not allowed. Clothing can reflect the character of the skaters' chosen music and must not \"give the effect of excessive nudity inappropriate for the discipline\".\nAll men must wear trousers, a rule that has been in effect since the 1994–1995 season. Since 2003, women single skaters have been able to wear skirts, trousers, tights, and unitards, which was a change since the ISU requirement in 1988 that women skaters wear skirts during competition, a rule",
"-29.525827462497546"
],
[
"above the waist. The top, torso part may act as a top for the smooth line it gives or because it cannot become untucked from trousers or skirt. They may also be worn generally by women as underwear, activewear, or foundation garments. Unlike a leotard, a bodysuit is not usually considered a form of athletic wear. The purpose of the opening at the crotch is to facilitate access during a visit to the toilet. Stocking and pantyhose Modern stockings became popular in the 1920s with the rise in women's hemlines. They were sheer, first made of silk or rayon (then",
"-29.524985393014504"
],
[
"to be addressing issues labeled as feminine. Challenges of personal life and choices Additionally, women running for public office typically gain additional, unnecessary scrutiny on their private lives. For instance, fashion choices of politically active women are often picked apart by the media. In these \"analyses\" women rarely gain approval from those in the media, who usually say they either they show too much skin or too little, or perhaps that they either look too feminine or too masculine. Sylvia Bashevkin also notes that their romantic lives are often subject of much interest to the general population, perhaps",
"-29.49638397063245"
],
[
"nudity was a major concern in designing early swimwear. It was a major factor behind the non-participation of American women in the 1912 Olympics. At those Games, British women wore full-body silk suits of such a volume that they could be passed through a wedding ring. The suits were complemented by bras and bikini-style briefs as they became transparent when wet. Women's coaches were rare at early Olympics, and to further reduce the chances of harassment women were accompanied by chaperones. Even men wore one-piece swimsuits covering the body from hips to shoulders up to the 1940s. 1920s During the",
"-29.48580292602128"
],
[
"it's simply more comfortable not to have a sweaty shirt on—never mind a shirt and bra. People who treat women's breasts as somehow more scandalous than men's are being foolish.\"\nThe group's primary goal is to legitimize female toplessness, which although legal in New York, is not generally socially acceptable. Andrews told a reporter in 2014 that she was talking with a male friend about the law in New York that allows women to be topless anywhere a man can, but how no woman ever did. The man partnered with Andrews to found the group. He told a reporter that Andrews,",
"-29.48093110776972"
],
[
"both sexes, women much more discreetly than men. Patterns and fabrics Men's pasos are generally stripes or checks apart from plain colours and may be worn upside down or inside out with no difference. Women's htamein has a black calico band called a htet sint (အထက်ဆင့်, lit. topband) for the waist; they wear more multicoloured and floral patterns, too.\nCotton is the basic material but all sorts of fabrics, both imported and home-grown, may be made into longyis. Tootal, georgette, satin and crepe have been made into htameins. Indonesian batik, although very expensive, has been very popular for decades; outfits of",
"-29.40362869166711"
],
[
"be an experiment in sexism. He claims that, while his female colleagues receive regular criticism for whatever they wear, nobody noticed his outfit the whole time. He did, however, vary his ties and shirts more regularly than his suit.",
"-29.40050417077873"
],
[
"sports could be used to satisfy the male gaze and give examples of a \"model of femininity for female viewers to reproduce.\" She also pointed out that the magazine showed progress, with pictures inside the magazine not only showing beauty, but also women actively doing sports, something unimaginable a generation earlier.",
"-29.393619959285843"
],
[
"denim shorts and Lycra body suits\".\n\"Black women's relationships to their bodies occur within overlapping cultural contexts that offer contradictory messages about their value and function\". In a male dominated society, it is no wonder that women used to work hard to align themselves with male images including how they'd dressed. As women generally gained access to and exposure within the offerings of several sectors of society, for example music, movies and television, we saw more images of what constituted attractiveness emerge. Following this came the perception of freedom to express oneself through several avenues including apparel. Rappers Lil' Kim and",
"-29.38983925926732"
],
[
"be popular well into the Edwardian era. Sportswear and tailored fashions Changing attitudes about acceptable activities for women also made sportswear popular for women, with such notable examples as the bicycling dress and the tennis dress.\nUnfussy, tailored clothes, adapted from the earlier theme of men's tailoring and simplicity of form, were worn for outdoor activities and traveling. The shirtwaist, a costume with a bodice or waist tailored like a man's shirt with a high collar, was adopted for informal daywear and became the uniform of working women. Walking suits featured ankle-length skirts with matching jackets. The notion of \"rational dress\"",
"-29.38580142176943"
],
[
"thought women tennis players wore skirts, and asked why a young woman would choose to wear stiletto shoes: \"So you think the shoes are her fetish? ... I call them fuck-me shoes\", she said, \"because you can't walk in them but you can wear them in bed.\" Cultural debate The underlying conflict arises from the question of what is considered an appropriate way for women to present their bodies in public spaces. Some feminists have come to view criticisms of fashion choices to be what they term \"slut-shaming\", an action they view as misogynist, even when coming from other women. The",
"-29.38246458680078"
],
[
"figure skating and tennis tend to favor women in terms of spectator popularity. Basketball, high jump, and volleyball favor taller athletes, while gymnastics and wrestling favor shorter ones. Long distance runners tend to be thinner, while competitive powerlifters and American football players tend to be stockier. Athletic development often begins with athletic parents.\nPhysical conditioning is a primary athletic function for competition. Most often, trainers utilize proven athletic principles to develop athletic qualities; these qualities include coordination, flexibility, precision, power, speed, endurance, balance, awareness efficiency, and timing. While physical strength is prized over most other qualities in Western athletics, ",
"-29.37542621002649"
],
[
"such as T-shirts, crop tops and tights. Women For females, the standard gymnastic competition uniform is a leotard. Traditionally, competition leotards have always had long sleeves; however, half-length sleeved and sleeveless garments are now permitted under the Code of Points and have been worn by teams at the World Gymnastics Championships and other major events. Practice leotards and those worn in podium training sessions are generally sleeveless.\nLeotards may not ride too high on the hip or be cut too low; in rare instances, gymnasts and teams have been penalized with score deductions for their attire.\nIn the 1970s leotards were typically",
"-29.331692430165276"
],
[
"both women and men, but those with larger, wider arm holes are primarily worn by men, since the larger arm holes would expose the female breast under certain circumstances. They are often worn during athletic activities or as casual wear during warmer weather. They are colloquially known as shooter shirts in the southern United States. They were quite popular in the 1980's and were commonly associated with surfers and bodybuilders (hence the name \"muscle\" shirt) and often bore gyms. Such shirts without logos are now more commonly worn as casual wear. Tube top A tube top is a shirt with",
"-29.324376442003995"
],
[
"Sportswear (activewear) Functional considerations Sportswear is typically designed to be lightweight so as not to encumber the wearer. The best athletic wear for some forms of exercise, for example cycling, should not create drag or be too bulky.\nOn the other hand, sportswear should be loose enough so as not to restrict movement. Some sports have specific style requirements, for example the keikogi used in karate. Various physically dangerous sports require protective gear, e.g. for fencing, American football, or ice hockey.\nStandardized sportswear may also function as a uniform. In team sports the opposing sides are usually identified by the colors of",
"-29.317387946954113"
],
[
"slut shaming (most often for young girls). Women and fashion One way in which women can abide by respectability politics is through their clothing. The ways in which women dress are highly indicative of their place and level of respectability within society and a community. Women who dress respectably are more likely to be admitted into social and political institutions. This precedent became most apparent in the Victorian era. Women and marriage According to scholars such as Simone de Beauvoir, getting married is an example of respectability politics for women. While being married gives participants access",
"-29.30586911625869"
],
[
"country fielded a team in the women's competition, amid concerns the uniform was inappropriate.\nIn early 2012, the FIVB announced it would allow shorts (maximum length 3 cm (1.2 in) above the knee) and sleeved tops at the London 2012 Olympics. The federation spokesman said that \"many of these countries have religious and cultural requirements so the uniform needed to be more flexible\". In fact, the weather was so cold for the evening games at London 2012 that the players sometimes had to wear shirts and leggings. Lifestyle and culture Beach volleyball culture includes the people, language, fashion, and life surrounding the",
"-29.296698558551725"
],
[
"jammers, swim trunks, briefs or \"speedos\", thongs, and g-strings, in order of decreasing lower body coverage, and Women's swimsuits include one-piece, bikinis, or thongs. While they go through many trends in pattern, length and cut there is not much modification to the original variety of suit. A recent innovation is the burqini, favored by some Muslim women, which covers the whole body and head (but not face) in a manner similar to a diver's wetsuit. These are an updated version of full-body swimwear, which has been available for centuries, but conforms with Islam's traditional emphasis on modest dress. In Egypt,",
"-29.290516215056414"
],
[
"while female bodybuilding rules inhibit females from reaching the same muscularity.\nFemale bodybuilders are rewarded far less prize money for their competitions than their male counterparts. For example, the 2012 Mr. Olympia winner received $250,000 in prize money while the Ms. Olympia winner only received $28,000 in prize money. Breast augmentation Bodybuilding causes increased lean body mass and decreased body fat, which causes breast tissue reduction in female athletes whereas the current trend regarding the judges' search for \"feminine\" physique at competitions makes compensative breast augmentation with breast implants an increasingly popular procedure among female bodybuilders. It is estimated that",
"-29.285010956431506"
],
[
"or average features, because it suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects. There is also evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in infancy, and is probably innate,\nand that the rules by which attractiveness is established are similar across different genders and cultures.\nA feature of beautiful women that has been explored by researchers is a waist–hip ratio of approximately 0.70. Physiologists have shown that women with hourglass figures are more fertile than other women due to higher levels of certain female hormones, a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates. However, other commentators have suggested that",
"-29.25958491448546"
],
[
"Magazines, posters, television ads and social media sites are, in this hypothesis, among the many platforms today that perpetuate beauty standards for both men and women. The daily presence and circulation of these platforms, it is argued, makes escaping these ideals almost impossible. Women and men alike are faced with ideal bodies, bodies that are marketed as attainable through diets and gym memberships. However, for most people these beauty standards are neither healthy nor achievable through diet or exercise. Women often place a greater importance on weight loss than on maintaining a healthy average weight, and they commonly make great",
"-29.237179928699334"
],
[
"The upper part of dresses could now be tailored exactly to the body. Men's dresses were buttoned on the front and women's dresses got a décolletage. The lower part of men's dresses were much shorter in length than those for women. They were wide cut and often pleated with an A-line so that horse riding became more comfortable. Even a knights armor had a short metal skirt below the breastplate. It covered the straps attaching the upper legs iron cuisse to the breastplate. Decline The innovative new techniques specially improved tailoring trousers and tights which designs needed more differently cut",
"-29.2018404280534"
],
[
"sports and women's sports was fairly equal during the Olympics and then altered after the Olympics were over. \"Sportswomen are disproportionately under-represented and the sheer quantity and quality of news items on sportsmen demonstrates how male athletes are represented as dominant and superior to females.\" She also documented how women's bodies were sexualized in photographs and written coverage, noting that the women featured were either nude, semi-nude, or wearing revealing clothing. \"The sexualization of sportswomen in Sunday reporting is commonplace and aimed at the mostly male readership. It promotes the idea of female aesthetics over achievements, while the coverage of",
"-29.19748080748832"
],
[
"has a high cut leg, and usually are full in the rear). As with the bra and other type of lingerie, manufacturers of the last quarter of the century marketed panty styles that were designed primarily for their sexual allure. From this decade sexualization and eroticization of the male body was on the rise. The male body was celebrated through advertising campaigns for brands such as Calvin Klein, particularly by photographers Bruce Weber and Herb Ritts. Male bodies and men's undergarments were commodified and packaged for mass consumption, and swimwear and sportswear were influenced by sports photography and fitness. Over",
"-29.192339146335144"
],
[
"considered as a part of men's accessory, and the revolver was the most common. Simplicity is what characterizes the attire of old men. Their most important item of clothing was Goxhufi, which was type of a vest and it was made of lamb skin. It had a sleeveless design and sometimes was knee length. They were reversible according to the climate. Women's clothing Girls' clothing\nEven though young girls' costumes are not considered to be very specific or unique, in contrast to the women's attire, these costumes have gone through many transformations during their time being. A part of girls' look",
"-29.18903803469584"
],
[
"In previous years it was uncommon for women to compete in muscle building competition. Beauty pageants were the main way for women to compete. Women's body building is a relatively new cultural phenomenon, and has shown a significant increase in popularity since the 1980s. Body building has traditionally been seen as a male-appropriate activity, and various authors have documented the struggle faced by pioneering women body builders as they entered the competitive body building world in the 1970s. Gold's Gym is said to have prided itself on being ‘ovary free’ until the late 1970s. The first women's Fitness competition was",
"-29.18676646948734"
],
[
"were also worn by the common people. Although most men were cleanshaven, soldiers, military officers, and professional boxing champions preferred side-whiskers and goatee beards, as they were a sign of virility.\nThe attire of Song women was distinguished from men's clothing by being fastened on the left, not on the right. Women wore long dresses or blouses that came down almost to the knee. They also wore skirts and jackets with short or long sleeves. When strolling about outside and along the road, women of wealthy means chose to wear square purple scarves around their shoulders. Ladies also wore hairpins and",
"-29.181393505481537"
],
[
"or that of a newly pubescent girl. This look of fragility and lack of muscular strength allows women to have an image of powerlessness, obedience, and subservience to men. They are expected to follow a strict diet, monitor their hunger to maintain their size and shape, exercise to “build the breasts and banish cellulite” and “spot-reduce problem areas” such as thick ankles or thighs. Along with body image, women are also expected to participate in behaviors that allow them to maintain this image. Women are expected to always have soft, supple, hairless, and smooth skin, worry about their beauty, be",
"-29.159463868272724"
],
[
"1980s, men's bodies have been used more frequently in advertising, depicting a similarly idealized body image to that portrayed of women. Research suggests that men feel social pressure to endorse traditional masculine male models in advertising. Research by Martin and Gnoth (2009) found that feminine men preferred feminine models in private, but stated a preference for the traditional masculine models when their collective self was salient. In other words, when concerned about being classified by other men as feminine, feminine men endorsed traditional masculine models. The authors suggested this result reflected the social pressure on men to endorse traditional",
"-29.154008849553065"
],
[
"attractiveness, some marketing campaigns now exploit male body-image insecurities. Over the past 20 years, the number of men's-fitness magazines and of partially-undressed, well-muscled men in advertisements have increased. Such media provoke bodily comparisons and pressure individuals to conform, yet increase the gap between men's perceptions of their own muscularity versus their desired muscularity. In college-aged men, a strong predictor of a muscularity quest is internalization of the idealized male bodies depicted in media. Athletic participation Athletes tend to share some psychological factors that may predispose to muscle dysmorphia, factors including high levels of competitiveness, need for control,",
"-29.14827965018958"
],
[
"an article written by Laura Doan she examines the effect of women working increasingly in the field of the factory alongside the man domestically as well as abroad. More and more women started to take on very manly looks in their everyday lives. This is to say that some wore uniforms in order to work more efficiently. The great war had an impressive effect on women's fashion however many men still did not accept the new and changing woman as seen in political cartoon in Britain in which one girl is walking with another and one is wearing pants and",
"-29.13986960722832"
],
[
"clothes cut and sewn from the bias of every fabric can develop a sexy, polished image. In the past, a woman's body shape was mainly shown through the curve of the clothing. Halston changed the fitted silhouette and showed the female body shape by allowing the natural flow of the fabric to create its own shape. Halston said \"Pants give women the freedom to move around they've never had before. They don't have to worry about getting into low furniture or low sportscars. Pants will be with us for many years to come—probably forever if you can make that statement",
"-29.114347791168257"
],
[
"varying perceptions between male and female candidates is the way female candidates decide to dress and how their choice is evaluated. When women decide to dress more masculine, they are perceived as being \"conspicuous.\" When they decide to dress more feminine, they are perceived as \"deficient.\" At the same time, however, women in politics are generally expected to adhere to the masculine standard, thereby validating the idea that gender is binary and that power is associated with masculinity. As illustrated by the points above, these simultaneous, mixed messages create a \"double-bind\" for women. Some scholars go on to claim that",
"-29.10874579961819"
],
[
"anti fashion statement against the flares of the time.\nThe men's variety tend to feature baggier legs, larger pockets and more metal details such as chains, skulls, mock handcuffs and D-rings while the women's styles are usually more tailored and have less metal hardware decoration than the men's styles but occasionally have details of lace, ribbon or tartan making them seem more feminine. Further development In the late 1990s and early-to-mid 2000s, Tripp NYC's signature design that combined the chains and straps of Bondage pants with the baggy legs and bright linings of phat pants became incredibly popular amongst U.S. teenagers,",
"-29.08875162957702"
],
[
"it challenging to find dresses that fit well off the rack. Bra pad inserts can be slipped into most bras to add fullness (help fill out the cup).\nAdult females who have uneven breasts which results in poorly fitting dresses and swimwear use bra pad inserts to even out breast shape.\nMale cross-dressers often want to create the illusion of female cleavage as part of making their body appear feminine. Many crossdressers believe that displaying a convincing cleavage will distract attention from flaws in their appearance and will improve their ability to pass. Because most such males have little or no breast",
"-29.06516531201487"
],
[
"two brands in particular have been successful in straddling the line between underwear as outerwear by marketing to a contemporary customer who this look appeals to. Sports bra Sports bras were first invented in 1975, and women have been wearing them under other clothing since then. On July 10, 1999, Brandi Chastain scored the fifth kick in the penalty shootout to give the United States the win over China in the final game of the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup Final. In celebration, she spontaneously whipped off her jersey, exposing her sports bra. Her act is regarded by some as",
"-29.05432627708069"
],
[
"and it also serves as protection from cuts, stings and abrasion, and as effective protection from UV rays of the sun. These also include other related athletic clothing. Other uses The United States military has also utilized skin-tight bodysuits for use in mission specific environments, for both the benefits listed above, but also because skin-tight garments are not as susceptible to snagging or catching on branches, wires, or other obstructions.\nIn an individual sense, skin-tight garments are often considered sexy on an attractive body, as they allow the exhibition of the natural curves of the form. People who are on",
"-29.05126315598318"
],
[
"In the Victorian era, a small waist was considered the main trait of a beautiful woman. The advent of bikinis in 1946, the cheerleading fashion of the 1970s and low-rise fashion started in the early 1990s have contributed to it. Midriff exposure also became common in the culture of 20th-century music with many famous female pop stars appeared on and offstage and in music videos with their midriff exposed.\nSome get attracted to women wearing a crop top or bikini. Middle Eastern culture The eastern art of belly dancing places the female midriff on center stage. The dance movements of the",
"-29.030328450200614"
],
[
"women have been drawn closer together. There is little research that has been devoted to why men are able to complete the tests and perform much higher than women. However studies have found that those with lower spatial ability usually do worse on mechanical reasoning, and this might be tied to women's lower performance in mechanical tasks. Studies have also found that pre-natal androgens such as testosterone positively affect performance in both spatial and mechanical abilities. US Department of Defense Test of Mechanical Aptitude The mechanical comprehension subtest of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), is one of the",
"-28.991954399301903"
],
[
"women who were to attend a discothèque and rated their clothing as 'sexy' and 'bold,' also stated that their intention for the evening was to flirt and find a partner to go home with. Although direct causation cannot be stated, this research suggests that there is a direct link between a woman's ornamentation and her motivation to attract mates.\nIt is possible that women are sensitive to the changes in their physical attractiveness throughout their cycles, such that at their most fertile stages their levels of attractiveness are increased. Consequently, they choose to display their increased levels of attractiveness through this",
"-28.977988378639566"
],
[
"also says that she finds dressing other women easy, but finds it difficult when dressing herself. Constantine and Woodall share the belief that dressing to flatter body shape is vital, stating \"For us, it’s all about shape, and how that is going to cure a bodily defect. We’re like clothing doctors.\"\nDuring her time co-hosting What Not to Wear, she and Woodall won a Royal Television Society Award in 2002 for being the best factual presenters. In 2002, Constantine advised Jeremy Clarkson on a celebrity version of What Not to Wear. After Clarkson appeared on the show, Nasir Khan stated \"I'd",
"-28.971117755107116"
],
[
"Women Fully Clothed Women Fully Clothed is a Canadian live sketch comedy troupe, with a cast of four women, touring throughout the world. Overview The show was the brainchild of Robin Duke in 2003, and was originally commissioned for a Second City fundraiser.\nMost shows last for 90 minutes (although they can be as short as 20, or as long as 120). Sketches focus on issues that the everyday woman faces with a \"comedic\" twist.\nDisclaimers are made by each cast member during the show to emphasize that the show is not about male-bashing. Men are encouraged to come to the show",
"-28.95029787599924"
]
] |
22gpr6 | Is there some sort of YKK zipper monopoly? | [
"Not a monopoly, many high-end and low-end clothing manufacturers have their own zipper production companies. YKK just makes a ton of zippers and have made them for a long time. Same thing as WD40 or GE lightbulbs, they aren't the only company who is allowed to or able to make these products, they just make the most.",
"YKK is a Japanese company. Their zippers are widely regarded as the best, so a huge chunk of the fashion industry uses them. They even fabricate their own equipment to manufacture the zippers!",
"A bit, and they were fined over a $100M by a European court 7 years ago for being part of a price fixing cartel, although that was partially overturned. They control about 90% of the zipper market. They not only make zippers but the machines that make zippers and the raw material needed for zippers. Due to this vertical integration it's more of a natural monopoly due to economies of scale.",
"I hope I'm not the only one just unzipped half way so they could see what was written on their zipper.",
"YKK zippers are pretty good from my experience.",
" URL_0 Really good article. And a really good question! I have a friend whose father owns one of India's biggest zipper companies and he says that they just play in all the segments that YKK has vacated. > “There have been quality problems in the past when we’ve used cheaper zippers,” says Trina Turk, who designs her own line of women’s contemporary sportswear. “Now we just stick with YKK. When the customer is buying $200 pants, they better have a good zipper. Because the customer will blame the maker of the whole garment even if the zipper was the part that failed.” > A typical 14-inch “invisible” YKK nylon zipper (the kind that disappears behind fabric when you zip up the back of a dress) costs about 32 cents. For an apparel maker designing a garment that will cost $40-$65 to manufacture, and will retail for three times that much or more, it’s simply not worth it to skimp.",
"Its my understanding that their 'monopoly' was mad because they were the first to make an independent zipper that could be sewn in so companies like Levi could make pants, and just leave the zippers to someone else.",
"Many high fashion brands use riri or lampo zippers. But yes, Ykk is easily the most used."
] | [
[
"criticized by investors in private equity who considered cross-holdings among firms to be generally unattractive. Initial public offering In 2007, KKR filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission to raise $1.25 billion by selling an ownership interest in its management company. The filing came less than two weeks after the initial public offering of rival private equity firm Blackstone Group. KKR had previously listed its KPE vehicle in 2006, but for the first time, KKR would offer investors an ownership interest in the management company itself. The onset of the credit crunch and the shutdown of the IPO market dampened",
"-24.283697095612297"
],
[
"Unbundling Unbundling is a neologism to describe how the ubiquity of mobile devices, Internet connectivity, consumer web technologies, social media and information access in the 21st century is affecting older institutions (education, broadcasting, newspapers, games, shopping, etc.) by \"break[ing] up the packages they once offered (possibly even for free), providing particular parts of them at a scale and cost unmatchable by the old order.\" Unbundling has been called \"the great disruptor\". Etymology \"Unbundling\" most basically means simply the \"process of breaking apart something into smaller parts.\" In the context of mergers and acquisitions, unbundling refers to the \"process by which",
"-24.121314500109293"
],
[
"Zaporizhstal Ownership After the collapse of the USSR and the independence of Ukraine, the mill fell into the hands of the Ukrainian government. When privatization began in the mid-1990s, Vasily Khmelnytsky, an ambitious politician-turned-businessman, was named manager of the state's stake in the plant, and subsequently engineered the insider sale of many shares of the plant to his own investment company.\nThe Ukrainian government began offering shares in Zaporizhstal in cash auctions in 1999. By 2001, Vasyl Khmelnytsky and a consortium led by the Midland Group controlled 93% of the mill. According to court documents, the Midland Group sold its 50%",
"-23.78021027345676"
],
[
"Gazpromneft. Accounts from the auction say that the first bid of US$8.6 billion came from Baikal. When the auctioneer asked Gazpromneft to offer its price, a representative of the company asked to make a telephone call and left the room. A few minutes earlier, the auctioneer had told participants that using a mobile phone or leaving the room was against the rules. When a Gazpromneft representative returned to the room, Baikal made a bid of US$9.3 billion. Gazpromneft never placed a bid or spoke out. Shortly after the Yuganskneftegaz auction, Rosneft, Russian state-owned oil company, acquired 100% of shares in Baikalfinansgrup. The",
"-23.352113529923372"
],
[
"through when Siebel Systems bought OpenSite.\neBay and Bidder's Edge settled their legal disputes in March 2001. As part of the settlement, Bidder's Edge paid eBay an undisclosed amount and agreed not to access and re-post eBay's auction information. The settlement also required BE to drop its appeal of the preliminary injunction. Meanwhile, Bidder's Edge shut down its website on February 21, 2001.\nIn 2003, the California Supreme Court implicitly overruled the eBay v. Bidder's Edge opinion in Intel v. Hamidi, a case interpreting California's common law trespass to chattels.\nThe Hamidi court considered the eBay court analysis, which stated that if BE's",
"-23.262242076685652"
],
[
"Monopoly, and Kenner Products. Milton Bradley and Parker Brothers were merged into one division. Alan moved to expand Hasbro overseas with new units in Greece, Hungary, and Mexico.\nAlan saw the Far East as an important market to expand. In 1992, Hasbro purchased Nomura Toys Ltd. in Japan, and majority ownership of Palmyra, a Southeast Asian toy distributor. These increased the proportion of international sales from 22% in 1985 to 45% ($1.28 billion) in 1995. In 1993, Hasbro lost its bid for J. W. Spear & Sons, a U.K.-based game maker, to Mattel.\nIn the US, Hasbro's growth since 1980 were from",
"-23.134305981337093"
],
[
"an unsolicited takeover bid of €20.9 billion, which was promptly rejected by AkzoNobel’s management. Days later, the company launched an increased bid of €24.5 billion ($26.3 billion), which was again rejected by AkzoNobel’s management. A number of shareholders urged AkzoNobel to explore the offer and subsequent negotiations. In April, activist investor Elliot Investors called for the removal of the Chairman of Akzo, Antony Burgmans, following Akzo's refusal to enter talks with PPG. Elliott, which has a 3.25% stake in the company, claimed it was one of a group of investors that met the Dutch legal threshold of 10% voting-share support,",
"-23.020760698011145"
],
[
"Game of Greed: This man could pocket $100 million from the largest corporate takeover in history. Has the buyout craze gone too far?\". KKR's offer was welcomed by the board, and, to some observers, it appeared that their elevation of the reset issue as a deal-breaker in KKR's favor was little more than an excuse to reject Johnson's higher bid of $112 per share. Johnson received $53 million from the buyout. KKR collected a $75 million fee in the RJR takeover. At $31.1 billion of transaction value (including assumed debt), RJR Nabisco was, at the time, by far the largest",
"-22.972172783280257"
],
[
"retired schoolteacher Ludwig Lidl, he bought the rights to the name from him for 1,000 German marks.\nLidl is part of the Schwarz Group, the fifth-largest retailer in the world with sales of $82.4 billion (2011).\nThe first Lidl discount store was opened in 1973, copying the Aldi concept. Schwarz rigorously removed merchandise that did not sell from the shelves, and cut costs by keeping the size of the retail outlets as small as possible. By 1977, the Lidl chain comprised 33 discount stores.\nLidl opened its first UK store in 1994. Since then, Lidl UK has grown consistently, and today has over",
"-22.91500262997579"
],
[
"companies that trade on stock exchanges. TokenBridge is to allow to collect these shares from the stock market, and release paired tokens free for anyone to trade. In the process of tokenization (attaching tokens to securities), TokenBridge would take a physical possession of shares, create a register of audited token-backed securities, and release tokens onto the blockchain.\nIn August 2017, the company released its ICO, tokenized first assets, and has worked with first companies with adequate trade volume and interest from investors. The company has been considering a dedicated token to purchase services, and a yearly fee for token maintenance. In",
"-22.79146039050829"
],
[
"as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act—and in response ZipLip expanded its focus to the newly invigorated requirements for regulatory compliance, accommodating the ingestion, archiving, and long-term governance of business communications. In 2006 the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) were amended to include electronically stored content (ESI) as a type of discoverable content, and ZipLip expanded its product to include eDiscovery functionalities to accommodate the new regulation.\nIn 2007, the company changed its name from ZipLip to ZL Technologies. In 2008 ZL Technologies added records management functionality in response to a growing focus by companies on file management. The additions allowed ZL Technologies",
"-22.5688209743239"
],
[
"the disputed technology, a $2 million damage claim in its bankruptcy case, and royalty-free access to several K-Line patents.\nK-Line's 2005 bankruptcy petition stated that its annual sales were between $7 and $8 million.\nOver the next few months, K-Line's operations slowed and there were numerous layoffs and rumors of potential purchasers, which were highly publicized among hobbyists. On February 16, 2006, Lionel announced it had purchased K-Line. Since Lionel was also in bankruptcy, the deal, which actually involved the purchase of K-Line by Sanda Kan, its Chinese subcontractor, followed by Sanda Kan's licensing of the trademarks and intellectual property to Lionel,",
"-22.53736036270857"
],
[
"EBay v. Bidder's Edge Origins of dispute Bidder's Edge (\"BE\") was founded in 1997 as an \"aggregator\" of auction listings. Its website provided a database of auction listings that BE automatically collected from various auction sites, including eBay. Accordingly, BE's users could easily search auction listings from throughout the web rather than having to go to each individual auction site.\nIn early 1998, eBay allowed BE to include Beanie Babies and Furby auction listings in BE's database. It is unclear whether BE scraped these listings from eBay or linked to them in some other format. However, on April 24, 1999, eBay",
"-22.365180170862004"
],
[
"Odnoklassniki. This way, users would be able to buy and share deals from Groupon on their profiles.\nIn November 2013, Groupon purchased Korean ticket and ecommerce company Ticket Monster from LivingSocial for $260 million. In April 2015, it sold a controlling stake in Ticket Monster to a consortium including Anchor Equity Partners, KKR and TMON management. As part of the deal, Groupon retained a fully diluted 41% minority stake in the company. Financials New Enterprise Associates, Eric Lefkofsky and Brad Keywell are investors in Groupon (Lefkofsky and Keywell later formed the investment company Lightbank; Groupon is listed as a Lightbank investment).",
"-22.35675080542569"
],
[
"the boom that had begun nearly a decade earlier. In 1989, KKR closed in on a $31.1 billion takeover of RJR Nabisco. It was, at that time and for over 17 years following, the largest leverage buyout in history. The event was chronicled in the book (and later the movie), Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco. KKR would eventually prevail in acquiring RJR Nabisco at $109 per share marking a dramatic increase from the original announcement that Shearson Lehman Hutton would take RJR Nabisco private at $75 per share. A fierce series of negotiations and horse-trading ensued",
"-22.27400776091963"
],
[
"made a decision to focus exclusively on the expansion of dollar stores after selling K&K stores to KB Toys, owned by Melville Corporation. 1990s In 1993, the name Only $1.00 was changed to Dollar Tree Stores to address what could be a multi-price-point strategy in the future, and part equity interest was sold to SKM partners, a private equity firm.\nBrock and the co-founders of Dollar Tree got the idea for the company from another retailer known as Everything's A Dollar, which went bankrupt in the 1990s.\nOn March 6, 1995, Dollar Tree, Inc. went public on the NASDAQ exchange at $15",
"-22.255888874311495"
],
[
"Unbundled access Unbundled access is an often practiced form of regulation during liberalization, where new entrants of the market (challengers) are offered access to facilities of the incumbent, that are hard to duplicate (e.g. for technical or business case reasons). Its applications are mostly found in network-oriented industries (like telecommunication, mail and energy) and often concerns the last mile.\nUnbundled access is similar to Bitstream access, where the incumbent provider gives competitive access not to the actual copper wire of the local loop, but to a high-speed ADSL data connection. Both setups ensure competition for the backhaul but leave \"last mile\"",
"-22.18199331581127"
],
[
"toolbars that are compatible with Internet Explorer, a facility for users to create their own scripted toolbar buttons, and a password and form-filling wizard. The overall trend though seems to be a gradual movement away from Avant's Internet Explorer roots.\nMore radical is the addition of a native bookmark system in place of sharing Internet Explorer's Favorites. These bookmarks may be stored online - as can feeds, autofills, and browser settings. \nThis allows the user to synchronize any number of Avant installations on different computers. Avant can still share Internet Explorer's Favorites. This option was reintroduced by the developer after some",
"-22.150633946992457"
],
[
"Kelkoo Group Company History Kelkoo was founded in 1999 by Pierre Chappaz and Mauricio Lopez. Initial funding of $3 million was provided by Banexi Ventures and Innovacom. Once Kelkoo merged with 3 other European businesses, it absorbed those founders into one single collective, consisting of Per Siljubergsåsen, William Klippgen, Philip Wilkinson, and Jorge Garcia\nIn April 2000, within days of each other, Kelkoo merged with Spanish-based Dondecomprar.com and UK based competitor ShopGenie, founded by Philip Wilkinson. In September of the same year, Kelkoo merged with Norway-based Zoomit.com, paying the Zoomit-shareholders in shares amounting to a third of Kelkoo's total equity",
"-22.14696766837733"
],
[
"Kohlberg & Company History The firm was founded in 1987, when Jerome Kohlberg, Jr. resigned from Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. over differences in strategy. Kohlberg did not favor the larger buyouts (including Beatrice Companies (1985) and Safeway (1986) ), highly leveraged transactions or hostile takeovers being pursued increasingly by KKR., typified by their 1989 takeover of RJR Nabisco. Instead, Kohlberg chose to return to his roots, acquiring smaller, middle-market companies, and in 1987 he formed a new private equity firm Kohlberg & Company along with his son James, at that time a KKR executive. Their intent was",
"-22.135379874147475"
],
[
"debt collection and debt purchase sector. Political positions Zypries is considered a proponent of regulating more tightly access to internet platforms such as Google, Facebook, Amazon.com and Apple Inc.’s iTunes. A joint letter to the European Commission in November 2014, signed by Zypries and her French counterpart Axelle Lemaire on behalf of the German and French governments, suggested “essential” digital platforms should potentially be brought under existing rules for telecoms markets, a standalone regulation or specially tailored antitrust rules.\nZypries is a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which advocates for democratic",
"-22.103729811351513"
],
[
"The company was in auction with two bidders: F. Ross Johnson, the company's president and CEO, and Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, a private equity partnership.\nThe company was sold to KKR in what was then the biggest leveraged buyout in history, described in the book Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco, and a subsequent film. Subsequent acquisitions and divestitures In 1989 RJR Nabisco Inc. sold its Chun King foods division to Yeo Hiap Seng Limited and Fullerton Holdings Pte. Ltd for $52 million to reduce its debt from its $24.5 billion buyout by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co.\nIn December",
"-22.10248818062246"
],
[
"accepted by the board of directors.\nIt was accepted because KKR's offer was guaranteed whereas management's lacked a \"reset\", meaning that the final share price might have been lower than their professed $112 per share. Additionally, many in RJR's board of directors had grown concerned at recent disclosures of Johnson's unprecedented golden parachute deal. Time Magazine featured Johnson on the cover of its December 1988 issue along with the headline \"A Game of Greed: This man could pocket $100 million from the largest corporate takeover in history. Has the buyout craze gone too far?\".\nKKR's offer was welcomed by the board,",
"-22.09358901786618"
],
[
"any response by Kravis's team. KKR's final bid of $109, while a lower dollar figure, was ultimately accepted by the board of directors of RJR Nabisco. At $31.1 billion of transaction value, RJR Nabisco was the largest leveraged buyout in history until the 2007 buyout of TXU Energy by KKR and Texas Pacific Group. In 2006 and 2007, a number of leveraged buyout transactions were completed that for the first time surpassed the RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout in terms of nominal purchase price. However, adjusted for inflation, none of the leveraged buyouts of the 2006–2007 period surpassed RJR Nabisco.\nBy the",
"-22.091825895011425"
],
[
"purchase by RJR Nabisco in 1984. Two years later, the company was acquired by the Shaklee Corporation. Shaklee was then purchased in 1989 (along with its newly-acquired subsidiary Bear Creek) by the Japanese firm Yamanouchi Pharmaceutical. During the 1990s, Harry & David expanded its retail locations, opening more than 119 stores. Bear Creek Corporation launched its website in 1996 to sell all of its product lines, including Harry & David.\nIn June 2004, approximately 97% ownership of Harry & David was acquired by two investment firms in the United States: Wasserstein & Co. of New York, which purchased 63% of the",
"-22.090341123286635"
],
[
"KakaoAgit. 2014–2015: Merger of Daum and Kakao On 26 May 2014, Kakao Corp. announced that it had decided to merge with Daum Communications—one of Korea's top Internet portals—through a stock swap. Once the two firms were combined the emergent company would have a 3 trillion won ($2.9 billion) market capitalization, enabling it to lodge a credible threat to Naver, which is South Korea's biggest web portal. The new entity Daum Kakao was valued close to 10 trillion won (US $9.45 billion).\nIn 2015, the company changed its name to Kakao. Due to gambling and censorship issues within the Kakao ecosystem,",
"-22.047976801899495"
],
[
"Kohlberg & Company In 1987 Kohlberg resigned from KKR over differences in strategy and Henry Kravis and George Roberts assumed full leadership of the firm. Kohlberg did not favor the large buyouts (which would likely have included the 1989 takeover of RJR Nabisco) or hostile takeovers. Instead, Kohlberg chose to return to his roots, acquiring smaller, middle-market companies and, in 1987, founded a new private equity firm Kohlberg & Company. As of the end of 2007 Kohlberg & Company had raised six private equity funds since its inception, with approximately $3.7 billion of investor commitments. Additionally, Kohlberg",
"-22.041637713904493"
],
[
"and for a few months, the store offered complimentary internet access to all customers who purchased a computer with them.\nIn May 1997, Infomaniak became a fully-fledged ISP with the creation of TWS Infomaniak SA – the company developed its offer based on low-cost internet access and web-hosting services alongside its staple of computer equipment retail.\nOn 1 January 1998, the Swiss state monopoly on telecom services came to an end and new providers were allowed onto the Swiss market. Sunrise, a joint-venture between Tele Danmark and BT, started offering free internet access services, forcing the company to revise its strategy: in",
"-22.0400312304846"
],
[
"an example of a company jumping on the internet bandwagon without any relevant experience. This period is probably best remembered for Zapata's unsolicited (and unsuccessful) takeover bid of the Excite internet portal.\nDuring this period, Zapata also built up a controlling stake in Safety Components International, a manufacturer of air bag fabrics and cushions.\nOn December 2, 2005, Zapata Corporation Chairman, Avram (\"Avi\") Glazer, announced the sale of 4,162,394 shares, 77.3%, of Safety Components International to Wilbur L. Ross Jr. for $51.2 million. The company sold its remaining stock in Omega Proteine on December 1, 2006, leaving it with no active subsidiary.\nThe",
"-22.03487980097998"
],
[
"breakdowns, and devilishly difficult to repair — but oh, so clever!\" The Kluge brothers continued to innovate, and the company remained active as of 2017. Given that the feeder bore the Kluge name, it seems reasonable that it became a byword for over-complex mechanical contraptions. The Free Online Dictionary of Computing (FOLDOC) claims that the term kluge \"was used in connection with computers as far back as the mid-1950s and, at that time, was used exclusively for hardware kluges\". The fact that it was originally applied only to hardware again points back to the paper feeder as the origin. FOLDOC goes",
"-22.02067632775288"
],
[
"New Core was transformed to and operated as two department stores and 15 fashion premium outlets.\nIn 2005, E-Land Group became the 37th largest corporation in Korea (excluding SOE's) with assets totaling over 2 billion USD. In April 2006, E-Land Group acquired the entire South Korean operations of Carrefour which operated 32 discount stores. Carrefour Korea, despite its global presence and experiences overseas, struggled to understand the local Korean culture. Carrefour was rebranded to Homever by E-Land Group after the acquisition. The acquisition moved E-Land Group from 6th to 2nd largest discount/outlet operators with respect to total number of",
"-22.00866700289771"
],
[
"the possibility that Flipkart's current minority shareholders \"may require Flipkart to effect an initial public offering following the fourth anniversary of closing of the transactions at a valuation no less than that paid by Walmart\".\nFollowing the announcement of Walmart's deal, eBay announced that it would sell its stake in Flipkart back to the company for approximately US$1.1 billion, and re-launch its own Indian operations. The company stated that \"there is huge growth potential for e-commerce in India and significant opportunity for multiple players to succeed in India's diverse, domestic market.\" Softbank Group also sold its entire 20% stake to Walmart,",
"-21.968570836848812"
],
[
"for participation in the auction included an advance deposit of US $1.7 bn and prior clearance by the Russian Federal Antimonopoly Service.\nIn early December, the Russian state-controlled gas monopoly Gazprom submitted an application to participate in the auction through its wholly owned subsidiary, Gazpromneft. Gazpromneft had been created in September 2004 in preparation for a planned merger between Gazprom and state-owned Rosneft.\nOn December 15, 2004, Yukos filed for a bankruptcy protection in a Houston court, and obtained a temporary injunction prohibiting Gazprom from participating in the auction. On the next day, December 16, a group of Western banks",
"-21.945675089140423"
],
[
"Cybersquatting Cybersquatting (also known as domain squatting), according to the United States federal law known as the Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act, is registering, trafficking in, or using an Internet domain name with bad faith intent to profit from the goodwill of a trademark belonging to someone else. The cybersquatter then offers to sell the domain to the person or company who owns a trademark contained within the name at an inflated price.\nThe term is derived from \"squatting\", which is the act of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied space or building that the squatter does not own, rent, or otherwise have",
"-21.93139917780354"
],
[
"January 2017, Flipkart made a US$2 million investment in Tinystep, a parenting information startup.\nIn April 2017, eBay announced that it would sell its Indian subsidiary eBay.in to Flipkart and make a US$500 million cash investment in the company. eBay promoted that the partnership would eventually allow Flipkart to access eBay's network of international vendors, and vice versa, but these plans never actually came to fruition. In July 2017, Flipkart made an offer to acquire its main domestic competitor, Snapdeal, for around US$700–800 million. It was rejected by the company, which was seeking at least US$1 billion.\nFlipkart held a 51% share of",
"-21.922272559982957"
],
[
"capitalist to help get the start-up off the ground. After 6 months, Zipcube finished first in the accelerator program. Over the next year Zipcube worked on establishing itself in the UK market. Once this was done, Zipcube decided to expand into the French, German, and US markets.",
"-21.90074269790057"
],
[
"Paglo Paglo was an information technology management software as a service company that provided a search engine for IT and logs. It was designed for IT professionals and Managed Service Providers (MSPs), and it allowed them to discover all of their IT data and solve computer, network, and user problems. The company was launched on November 19, 2007. It was bought by Citrix Online.\nPaglo consisted of three key components: Paglo Crawler, Paglo Search Index, and Paglo UI. Users downloaded the open source Paglo Crawler to run on their network on any desktop computer or server. It crawled their network and",
"-21.87610846629832"
],
[
"of time or provide an instant purchase option, the domain auction has become an important tool in uniting buyers and sellers in the quest for the most beneficial domain name. Cybersquatting There are occasions when domain auctioning results from a practice known as \"cybersquatting.\" According to the U.S. federal law known as the Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act, cybersquatting is registering, trafficking in, or using a domain name with bad-faith intent to profit from the goodwill of a trademark belonging to someone else.\nMany predatory buyers will even employ software to search for newly expired domains and register them out from under",
"-21.87275069882162"
],
[
"that Blockchain technology may be the answer to cover the myriad steps in an export trade transaction, thereby enabling electronic transactions and information transfer that is both speedy and reliable. Name The word \"lading\" means \"loading\", both words being derived from the Old English word hladan. \"Lading\" specifically refers to the loading of cargo aboard a ship. The Dutch word \"lading\" has exactly the same meaning (freight, cargo, an amount of transportable goods) as it has in the English \"bill of lading\", but is not restricted to shipping.\nUnder English law, the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992 provides that",
"-21.868702723877504"
],
[
"it has not reappeared since. Controversy Prior to the founding of Bidtopia, Bargainland was a controversial seller on eBay. While it was the largest seller on eBay in 2007 and had over a million positive feedback message, it also had one of the lowest feedback scores of any high volume seller at the time, dipping below 90% positive on several occasions. Owner Paul St. James claimed that the reasons for this low feedback were due to the nature of his business in remaindered, damaged or liquidated goods, and unfair business practices on the part of resellers who he claimed were",
"-21.862861221190542"
],
[
"Opendesk Opendesk is an initiative to produce furniture on the principles of Open Making. Designs are released under Creative Commons licenses. One of Opendesk's goals is to eliminate the cost of shipping completed products in favour of local fabrication.\nOpendesk was founded by Ian Bennink, Tim Carrigan, James Arthur, Joni Steiner and Nick Ierodiaconou; the last three founders were part of Development 00, the creators of WikiHouse. The same team previously created FabHub.io, a marketplace designed to allow designers and fabricators to engage with one another. History The project was born out of a commission for furniture for a tech",
"-21.84558397217188"
],
[
"thought that KeyServ's Sears business would give ZZZZ Best enough cash to end the Ponzi scheme sooner than planned.\nAlthough KeyServ was double the size of Minkow's company, the two companies agreed to a $25 million deal in which ZZZZ Best would be the surviving company. The merger would have made Minkow the president and chairman of the board of the largest independent carpet-cleaning company in the nation. Even as the process of merging with KeyServ got underway, Minkow had ambitions of becoming more powerful. He was already making plans to raise $700–800 million to buy ServiceMaster in a hostile takeover.",
"-21.845000817382243"
],
[
"stores. In 2006, E-Land Group was the second largest retailer in South Korea based on number of stores (Source: Korea Rating). On 14 May 2008, the British retail group Tesco, which already operated in Korea, agreed to purchase 36 hypermarkets with a combination of food and non-food products from E-Land for $1.9 billion (976 million pounds) in its biggest single acquisition, making Tesco the second largest retailer in the country. The majority of the E-Land stores formerly belonged to French retailer Carrefour before 2006 and most of the stores will be converted to Tesco Homeplus outlets. Tesco's South",
"-21.799368472245988"
],
[
"able to accept deep discounts from suppliers, something that competing department stores, such as Macy's and Gimbels, could not do. In fact, Macy's and others filed numerous \"fair trade\" lawsuits against Korvette's to stop it from undercutting their prices. None succeeded. The lawsuits helped Korvette's by calling attention to prices so low that competitors thought them illegal.\nFounder Eugene Ferkauf attributed his idea for membership cards and deep discounts to luggage wholesaler Chas. W. Wolf. But where Chas. W. Wolf made limited or even surreptitious use of these devices, Korvette's popularized them by instructing employees to distribute membership cards to any",
"-21.793621157703456"
],
[
"machine. Likewise, advertisers could fax users and users could view that fax using specific URLs.\nOne Zip2 product was called \"Auto Guide\". AutoGuide connected online newspaper users with local dealership or private party car sellers. Merger and acquisition attempts In April 1998, Zip2 attempted to merge with CitySearch, its main competitor. While Musk initially supported the merger, he persuaded the board of directors not to proceed with it. The two companies \"cited incompatibilities in cultures and technology\" as the reason for the merger's failure, according to The New York Times.\nIn February 1999, Compaq Computer paid US$307 million to acquire Zip2. Elon",
"-21.79098301543854"
],
[
"Chevron. In 2008 the group bought 50 Lidl discount stores in Norway for NOK 1.9 billion.",
"-21.777587750490056"
],
[
"OpenXPKI natively supports secret sharing via Shamir's Secret Sharing algorithm.\nAn even higher security level can be achieved by protecting the private keys with a hardware security module. OpenXPKI currently supports nCipher's nShield hardware security module. Ticketing system integration OpenXPKI provides built-in integration with the RT Request Tracker. It can automatically create and link tickets in the ticketing system for incoming certificate requests and thus allows Registration Officers to keep track of their workload. Internationalization OpenXPKI fully supports Internationalization and localization of its interfaces. Alternative cryptography It is possible to extend the cryptographic backend for non-western cryptography. Support for Russian national",
"-21.742938574781874"
],
[
"this period (a Pokémon trading card game was produced simultaneously by Wizards of the Coast). Topps made its first foray into the world of games in July 2003 by acquiring the game company WizKids for $29.4 million in cash, thus acquiring ownership of the rights to the well-known gaming universes of BattleTech and Shadowrun. By inventing yet another niche, the constructible strategy game Pirates of the Spanish Main, this unit managed to reach profitability. Topps shut down Wizkids operation in November 2008 due to the economic downturn, terminating the brand while keeping their intellectual properties as the Topps company.",
"-21.680474157445133"
],
[
"the age of 27, Prokhorov partnered with Potanin to run Interros, a holding company that they used in 1995 to effect the purchase of Norilsk Nickel, one of Russia's largest nickel and palladium mining and smelting companies. During the largely un-regulated privatization of former state-controlled industries after the collapse of the USSR, Prokhorov and Potanin (the latter by then a deputy prime minister who oversaw privatization) were able acquire the shares from the workers of Norilsk Nickel for a fraction of their estimated market value and seize ownership of the company. When he departed in 2007, Prokhorov's share of the",
"-21.669640006002737"
],
[
"for a short while, Koper was known as the Imperial Austrian Port.\nWhen Trieste and Rijeka were proclaimed as free ports in 1719, Koper's status, trade, and influence began to ebb. The collapse of the Venetian Republic and the transfer of local administrative and political power to Trieste that followed further hastened this decline. Koper's maritime and commercial stagnation continued, first under Habsburg rule, and then after 1919 under the Italian rule. Despite liberation in 1945, insecurity as to its future continued into the post-war era, during the period of the Free Territory of Trieste. Koper's status and long-term future were",
"-21.650936548016034"
],
[
"conjunction with Gary Conway and subsequently released into the public domain.\nPKWARE grew rapidly in its early years, fueled by enthusiasm from the bulletin board and shareware communities, along with steady business from large corporations who were eager to minimize the demands on their limited computing resources. The .ZIP format proved so popular that it became the de facto standard for data compression and remains in use throughout the world after more than 30 years. Purchase and expansion (2001–2008) In 2000, PKWARE founder Phil Katz died at the age of 37. The following year, his family sold the company to a",
"-21.61654684646055"
],
[
"Gazprom Neft History Gazprom Neft was created under the name Sibneft (Russian: Сибнефть) in 1995 by the transfer of state owned shares in Noyabrskneftegas (production unit), the Omsk Refinery (Russia's largest oil refining complex), Noyabrskneftegasgeophysica (exploration) and Omsknefteprodukt (oil products distribution network) from Rosneft.\nIn 1996 and 1997, Sibneft was privatised through a series of loans-for-shares auctions. Roman Abramovich and Boris Berezovsky acquired the company for US$100 million, after bidding through several front companies that had been set up for this specific purpose. Initially controlled by Berezovsky, Sibneft later came under the control of Abramovich.\nSibneft twice unsuccessfully attempted a merger with",
"-21.5935988316196"
],
[
"was in talks with gaming conglomerate Sega to be part of the Sammy company. Despite Sega publicly declining the offer because the two companies lacked synergies, a takeover occurred in which Sammy purchased a 22.4 per cent stake in Sega from the company's one-time parent company, CSK. Sammy CEO, Hajime Satomi stated in a public statement that \"In the future, we may take an additional stake in Sega,\" and that Sammy would not \"Rule out the possibility of making Sega a subsidiary.\".\nDuring mid-2004, Sammy bought a controlling share in Sega Corporation at a cost of $1.1 billion, creating the new",
"-21.59038428129861"
],
[
"Korean discount store chain, Home Plus, currently has 66 outlets.\nOn 16 December 2011, E-Land purchased Elizabeth Taylor's Krupp Diamond ring for $8,818,500 (including buyer's premium). It planned to put it on display at their E-World theme park in Daegu.\nOn April 14, 2014, E-Land Group announced that they will found professional football club based in Seoul and Seoul E-Land FC are competing in K League Challenge (Second division) since 2015. 2001 Outlet 2001 Outlet (hangul:이천일 아울렛) is a South Korean retailer headquartered in Seoul, Korea. The outlet franchise is an affiliate of E-Land Group, which is also running another outlet",
"-21.57835039717611"
],
[
"Makro Ownership SHV originated in 1896 from a merger between a number of large coal mining companies, some of which had been active since the 18th century.\nIn 1968, the first Makro store opened in Amsterdam.\nIn April 1971 the first Makro in the UK opened in Eccles, Manchester.\nIn 1971, the first Makro store outside Europe opened in South Africa (the South African stores were subsequently in 1990 exchanged for a shareholding in Massmart and in 2004 SHV sold its Massmart shares).\nIn 1998, all European Makro stores were acquired by Metro AG, the German retail and wholesale giant.\nIn 2010, Makro Cash &",
"-21.5674831639044"
],
[
"race played any part in its decision on what zip codes to deliver to, asserting that they choose market areas based primarily on Internet penetration rates. The Equal Rights Center (ERC), the Washington, DC-based civil rights group referenced in the article, pursued the company about the allegations. Later in the year, the ERC announced a joint initiative with Kozmo and stated that \"Kozmo's initial service area was not motivated by racial discrimination,\" and Kozmo committed $125,000 toward increased Internet availability for underserved communities.\nWhile popular with college students and young professionals, the company failed soon after the burst of the dot-com",
"-21.547003830899484"
],
[
"that Kreuger gained a monopoly in match production, sales, or distribution, or a complete monopoly. The monopoly agreements differed from country to country. The capital was raised to a large extent through loans from Swedish and American banks, combined with issuing a large amount of participating debentures. Kreuger also often moved money from one corporation he controlled to another.\nKreuger did not limit himself to matches, but gained control of most of the forestry industry in northern Sweden and planned to become head of a cellulose cartel. He also attempted to create a telephone monopoly in Sweden.\nAfter founding the pulp manufacturer",
"-21.530561373219825"
],
[
"Monopoly Tycoon Gameplay In Monopoly Tycoon, the player operates a business by owning businesses, apartments, and being landlord to blocks. The player earns income from selling products and services, housing people in apartments and hotels. Income is also generated from rent for any blocks that the player is landlord of, plus utilities and railroads.\nMonopoly Tycoon has the same set of blocks as the board game with an additional three. When a player is landlord of all blocks of the same color, they are able to build hotels. In addition, being landlord of any property allows the player to build park",
"-21.524060819705483"
],
[
"in the brink of liquidation in 2004. \nIn 2005, Johnson Ko Chun-shun (Chinese: 高振順; Jyutping: Gou1 Zan3 Seon6; Cantonese Yale: Gōu Jan Seuhn) acquired the controlling stake (85.2%) of the listed company from the liquidator. The listed company also sold two Mainland-incorporated subsidiaries to the bond holders. The listed company also said to be refocus on Nam Pak Hong trading business, despite the division was sold to Ko in 2009. Johnson Ko was the chairman of the company from 2006 until 2009, which his position was changed to vice-chairman in June 2009. After a reverse IPO in 2007, Johnson Ko",
"-21.522403661874705"
],
[
"of a lien on the Klöckner shares at Balli's expense and reap the profits for itself.\nTwo years after the takeover, Balli sold 94.5% of the steel and metal distribution company to WestLB and 5.1% to Hamburgische Landesbank. Along with the change of ownership, there was also a change in the Group's top management: Dr. Thomas Ludwig, who had been a member of Klöckner & Co's Management Board from 1991 to 1995, was appointed the new CEO. Under his aegis, the company resumed its course of strategic expansion. Stock market flotation In 2005, Klöckner was sold to the US private equity",
"-21.48414414259605"
],
[
"Korean government and investing in commercial enterprises, particularly in Koreatown Manhattan, New York City.\nTo this day, the chaebol maintain dominance across all industries. Reductions in tariffs and removal of trade regulations designed to protect Korean conglomerates has led to increasing competition from abroad. However, among domestic firms the chaebol have kept their market share intact. Most notably, Apple's entry into the smartphone market pressured rival Samsung into diversifying its revenue streams from overseas. All but 3 of the top 50 firms listed on the Korean Stock Exchange are designated as chaebol. Consequently, the chaebol have more bargaining power and oftentimes",
"-21.474806952523068"
],
[
"and $30.4 billion - was confiscated.\nIn December 2004, Yuganskneftegaz was sold for $9.35 billion in a closed-room auction of just two bidders (one of which, Gazpromneft, was subject to a US court injunction and did not enter a bid), to an unknown front company called Baikalfinansgrup which had been registered a few days before the auction, and whose bid was financed by state-owned oil company Rosneft. Rosneft acquired Baikalfinansgrup within days of the auction, at which point the tax bill was \"slashed\". Just over a year later Yuganskneftegaz was formally valued by Rosneft at $56 billion. On February 7, 2006,",
"-21.466146759979893"
],
[
"maximum price.\nThe first firm to use the Dutch auction was Todd Shipyards in 1981. Selective buybacks In broad terms, a selective buyback is one in which identical offers are not made to every shareholder, for example, if offers are made to only some of the shareholders in the company. In the United States, no special shareholder approval of a selective buyback is required. In the UK, however, the scheme must first be approved by all shareholders, or by a special resolution (requiring a 75% majority) of the members in which no vote is cast by selling shareholders or their associates.",
"-21.458763750852086"
],
[
"ZL Technologies Background ZL Technologies was originally established as ZipLip in 1999, a secure mail carrier that provided tracking, security, and authentication services. Its first customers were telecommunications firms, large organizations that required a robust architecture in order to govern their hundreds of thousands of email inboxes. In 2000, ZipLip's secure email and data tracking capabilities expanded to provide secure file share and collaboration tools for enterprise users, and in 2001 the telecom market experienced a bubble, forcing ZipLip to shift its focus to large enterprise customers. Additionally in the early 2000s, the regulatory and legal landscape underwent major changes—such",
"-21.454022705438547"
],
[
"and Knickerbocker Toy Company, a struggling Warner Communications subsidiary. Hasbro paid 37% of its stock to Warner, which was paid into Hasbro's executive-controlled voting trust, and also received a cash infusion. In 1984, Alan G. Hassenfeld took over as president from his brother Stephen, who continued as CEO and chairman. That same year, the company was the nation's sixth best-selling toymaker, and then acquired the Milton Bradley Company, which was the nation's fifth best-selling toymaker. This brought The Game of Life, Twister, Easy Money, and Playskool into the Hasbro fold and transformed Hasbro into Hasbro Bradley. Stephen Hassenfeld became the",
"-21.444527284707874"
],
[
"Ziggo History The company is the result of the merger between Multikabel, @Home, and Casema and launched officially on 16 May 2008. Later followed by a merger with UPC Nederland in the first quarter of 2015, at that time the second largest cable company in the Netherlands. It kept the brand name Ziggo. Its main competitors are KPN and CanalDigitaal.\nMost of the share capital was up to 2012 held by holding companies of two private equity firms: Cinven and Warburg Pincus.\nOn 21 March 2012, Ziggo was listed on the NYSE Euronext stock exchange and later incorporated into the midcap equity",
"-21.441471364349127"
],
[
"usually convention exclusives (the last ones were from 2014), but some stores, such as Hot Topic and FYE, have been known to carry exclusives. Business Model Funko has over 1,100 licenses with different companies. Another aspect of their business model is tracking the popularity of a certain item and knowing when to move on to a different character. Funko does not view themselves as just a company making toys for children. They create items that appeal to children and adults.This can be noted by their range of figures from Golden Girls to superheroes. Funko comes up with an initial design",
"-21.428966603722074"
],
[
"non-free browsers, creating a market where Delrina's Cyberjack browser could not hope to compete. Acquisition by Symantec and aftermath In late Spring of 1995, Delrina Chairman Dennis Bennie met with Symantec CEO Gordon Eubanks to discuss the possibility of merging the two firms. In September 1995 Delrina's founders—who owned a controlling interest in the firm—sold the firm to Symantec in a stock deal worth $415 million US. The deal was first announced on July 6 of that year, with shareholders from both firms approving the merger on November 20. The merger was completed on November 22, 1995 and Delrina officially",
"-21.41818422860524"
],
[
"to bring excellent work and proven entrepreneurship. Zara Huang, Global Public Relations Manager at Dragonchain, stated it is an honour to receive this award as a blockchain company in Bellevue, Seattle. And that they are excited to explore future opportunities in blockchain. Interchain On November 20, 2018 they were granted the Interchain patent. Interchain allows them to post the hash of a transaction from a private blockchain, on to Bitcoin's public blockchain. Keeping sensitive business data private, while also allowing immutable proof of existence. Dragonchain currently has working Interchain with Bitcoin, Ethereum, NEO and Ethereum Classic. Tokenized Micro-License (TML) On",
"-21.406204207305564"
],
[
"Igor Zyuzin Entrepreneurial activities Zyuzin first went into business for himself in the early 1990s. he established Uglemet (the company names combines Russian words for “coal” and “metal”) in 1994, which received substantial coal sale quotas. Zyuzin and his business partner Vladimir Yorikh traded coal produced by Kuzbass mines, and then began buying up stock in mining companies themselves. Yorikh was in charge of finance and sales, while Zyuzin was responsible for other business aspects. They bought Southern Kuzbass, Mezhdurechenskugol and a number of other companies in the late 1990s.\nThe partnership of Zyuzin and Yorikh acquired a controlling stake in",
"-21.39085272909142"
],
[
"planned to follow KKR's lead but shelved those plans when KPE's performance continued to falter after its IPO. KPE's stock declined from an IPO price of €25 per share to €18.16 (a 27% decline) at the end of 2007 and a low of €11.45 (a 54.2% decline) per share in Q1 2008. KPE disclosed in May 2008 that it had completed approximately $300 million of secondary sales of selected limited\npartnership interests in and undrawn commitments to certain KKR-managed funds in order to generate liquidity and repay borrowings.\nLess than two weeks after the Blackstone Group IPO, in 2007 Kohlberg",
"-21.36775398545433"
],
[
"version 1.0 was completed and released as shareware in November 1994, thus making\nit the first purchasable browser on the market. Its name is a play on the term slip knot (a type of knot) against SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) -- an early version of TCP/IP over modem lines—and not after the fact that, unlike Mosaic and Netscape browser offerings, a SLIP connection was not necessary to view graphical web content.\nSlipKnot was given the Best Communications Shareware Program of 1995 Award by Ziff-Davis and was runner-up for the Best Overall Shareware Program of 1995.\nBy mid-1996 when further development ceased,",
"-21.366369973606197"
],
[
"to acquire the Peruvian steel company SiderPeru. The consortium, named Sider Corp, acquired 96.46% of Siderperu in 1996. Siderperu's employees acquired the remaining 3.54% of Siderperu's share capital. Stanton sold its share to its consortium partners in January 2001.\nStanton ventured into shipping in 1997 when it assembled a team of investors to partner with the Norwegian shipping company Tschudi & Eitzen to acquire ESCO, an Estonian state-owned shipping company that was privatized through O'Brien's family links to Estonia. According to the business daily Aripaev, ESCO has in the last four years accumulated huge debt, and its main shareholders were",
"-21.36274661857169"
],
[
"Senior Software Engineer. In 2007, Bansal quit Amazon to start his own venture. Flipkart In October 2007, Bansal and his co-founder, Binny Bansal, started an online bookstore, Flipkart, with an initial capital of ₹400,000 (US$5,600). They first started operating out of an apartment in Koramangala, in Bangalore, India. In the first few months, according to Bansal's own claims, he oversaw all business details, from building the first version of their website to sourcing book to packing and delivering them. From inception until 2016, Bansal held the position of Chief Executive Officer and from 2016 until 2018, he held the position",
"-21.347708458371926"
],
[
"ZipSlack Details ZipSlack used the UMSDOS filesystem under Linux, which means that it actually ran on top of the FAT filesystem, originally widely used by Microsoft operating systems, and commonly found today on various types of removable media such as ZIP disks, SuperDisks, USB flash drives, and Secure Digital cards.\nThe last release of Slackware which contained ZipSlack was Slackware 11.0. Slackware 12.0 did not contain a ZipSlack setup within its distribution, although this change was not mentioned in its release announcement. The most likely cause of this is the lack of UMSDOS support in Linux 2.6, as support",
"-21.29942629807192"
],
[
"or more Bidbutlers were active they would repeatedly bid against each other until the one with the most bids left was the \"winner\".\nThe money collected by Swoopo consisted of the cost of bids placed plus the final auction amount. As an example, a MacBook Pro with a suggested retail price of $1,799 was sold on Swoopo for $35.86. However, a total of 3,585 bids were placed, so the total amount paid by Swoopo customers was $2,151. Controversy The method of selling employed by Swoopo is controversial and has been criticized. The company, responding to claims that Swoopo is a type",
"-21.252954959636554"
],
[
"ZYpp Purpose Following its consecutive acquisitions of Ximian and SuSE GmbH in 2003, Novell decided to merge both package management systems, YaST package manager and Red Carpet, in a best of breed approach, as the two solutions so far were used at Novell. Looking at the extant open source tools and their maturity available back in 2005, none fulfilled the requirements, and were able to work smoothly with the extant Linux management infrastructure software developed by Ximian and SUSE, so it was decided to get the best ideas from extant pieces and to work on a new implementation. Libzypp, the",
"-21.223322939738864"
],
[
"Groupon is Wagjag's top competitor is because Groupon accommodates over 140 cities worldwide and offers deals in more cities than any other 'deal a day' site. Hence, their company is big and well-known. Their technique of providing discount for a customer is as follows: a discount daily is presented for a niche market item (such as spa, restaurant, etc.).\nWagJag also has a feature that breaks down urban areas into smaller areas, such as Port Perry and Oakville. This appeals to customers because a customer who purchases a deal would not want to travel too far to indulge on a great",
"-21.218977284792345"
],
[
"million.\nIn the beginning of August 2009, QuinStreet Inc. used some of its cash reserves to acquire the Internet.com division of WebMediaBrands Inc. for $18 million. Among the sites that QuinStreet Inc gained with the acquisition of Internet.com were InternetNews.com, Datamation.com, ServerWatch, Webopedia.com, ServerWatch.com, EnterpriseNetworkingPlanet, SmallBusinessComputing.com, LinuxPlanet.com and Developer.com.\nIn September 2009, QuinStreet purchased Insure.com for $16 million. The company's other financial-services properties include MoneyRates.com, Get Rich Slowly, ConsumerismCommentary.com and HSH.com.\nAn initial public offering on February 11, 2010, raised $150 million, with the shares listed on Nasdaq under the symbol QNST.\nIn India, QuinStreet operates IndiaEducation.net, IndiaEduNews.net, and ExamResults.net, which it acquired in",
"-21.1976464522304"
],
[
"the approximately $1 billion invested in KKR's real estate business as of 2017. Buyout of RJR Nabisco After the 1987 resignation of Jerome Kohlberg at age 61 (he later founded his own private equity firm, Kohlberg & Co.), Henry Kravis succeeded him as senior partner. Under Kravis and Roberts, the firm was responsible for the 1988 leveraged buyout of RJR Nabisco. RJR Nabisco was the largest buyout in history at that time, at $25 billion ($31.1 billion, including assumed debt), and remained the largest buyout for the next 17 years. The deal was chronicled in Barbarians at the Gate: The",
"-21.191442370705772"
],
[
"For Klöckner, fundamental restructuring was now the order of the day. Deutsche Bank took over the company and transformed it into a joint stock company. For the first time in its history stretching back over 80 years, Klöckner was no longer a family-run business. As part of the rescue package, ownership of the tradition-steeped enterprise was transferred to VIAG. Under the new management, the 1990s saw Klöckner evolve into a contemporary, international distribution specialist operating in areas such as steel, PC products, chemicals, textiles and tent systems. Klöckner significantly expanded its international presence in steel during these years. Focusing on",
"-21.19054639834212"
],
[
"which included nine firms, some registered in Singapore and some in India. In 2012, Flipkart co-founders sold WS Retail to a consortium of investors led by Rajeev Kuchhal. Regulatory action and lawsuits In November 2012, the Enforcement Directorate began investigating Flipkart for alleged violations of foreign direct investment regulations of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999. On 30 November 2012, Flipkart's offices were raided by the Enforcement Directorate. Documents and computer hard drives were seized by the regulatory agency.\nIn August 2014, the Enforcement Directorate claimed that it had found Flipkart to be in violation of the Foreign Exchange Management Act.\nThe",
"-21.18924269382842"
],
[
"a second-price sealed-bid auction, uses very much the same principle as a first-price sealed bid. However, the highest bidder and winner will only pay what the second highest bidder had bid. \nThe Vickrey auction is suggested to prevent the incentive for buyers to bid strategically, due to the fact it requires them to speak the truth by giving their true value of the item. If a bidder makes a very high bid, they may have to pay that price, but if they make a low bid there is a chance that they will lose the item. Therefore, the",
"-21.188396848534467"
],
[
"frequently use this tactic to offer a host of options and prices gleaned from various airlines' sites. Because the courts have entertained such litigation, some companies have specifically banned the conduct in their terms and conditions statements.\nIn eBay v. Bidder's Edge (2000), eBay successfully used the trespass to chattels tort to prevent Bidder's Edge from employing spiders to cull information about its auctions to display on its own website. Although Bidder's Edge's robots only consumed a small percentage of eBay's computer resources, the court noted that the plaintiff need not demonstrate current substantial interference as conduct which constituted a use",
"-21.176158455898985"
],
[
"ticker symbol \"KBKD\". The initial public offering was valued at $210 million. Consolidated Stores was unable to earn considerable revenue from KB Toys, and experienced financial losses during 1999 and 2000, partially caused by spending on KBKids.com; another factor was decreased video game sales at KB Toys locations. In June 2000, Consolidated Stores withdrew its plans for KBKids to become a public company, and announced plans to sell KB Toys.\nIn December 2000, Bain Capital purchased the company for $305 million, in partnership with KB Toys' management team. The investment group included 200 store managers led by Bain Capital and by",
"-21.146561808542174"
],
[
"OpenBazaar History Amir Taaki and a group of programmers from Bitcoin startup Airbitz created a decentralized marketplace prototype, called \"DarkMarket\", in April 2014 at a Bitcoin Hackathon in Toronto. DarkMarket was developed as a proof of concept in response to the seizure of the darknet market Silk Road in October 2013. Taaki compared DarkMarket's improvements on Silk Road to BitTorrent's improvements on Napster.\nAfter the hackathon, the original creators abandoned the prototype and it was later adopted and rebranded to OpenBazaar by a new team of developers. On April 4, 2016, OpenBazaar released their first version, which allowed users to buy",
"-21.139478380733635"
],
[
"Zidell Companies History Zidell traces its origins back to 1912, when Sam Zidell (real name – Yeschie Zajdell) migrated to the United States from the small village Smidyn (Russia) and began selling secondhand machinery in Roseburg, Oregon. The following year he moved to Portland, and set up the Zidell Machinery and Supply Company, selling equipment and supplies to the region's expanding industrial base.\nShortly after the end of World War II, in 1946, Sam Zidell's son Emery, who now headed the business, purchased the shipyard of Commercial Iron Works in Portland and turned it into a shipbreaking yard, called the Zidell",
"-21.130616863723844"
],
[
"proved to be its most ambitious and marked both a high-water mark and a sign of the beginning of the end of the boom that had begun nearly a decade earlier. In 1989, KKR (Kohlberg Kravis Roberts) closed in on a $31.1 billion takeover of RJR Nabisco. It was, at that time and for over 17 years, the largest leveraged buyout in history. The event was chronicled in the book (and later the movie), Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco. KKR would eventually prevail in acquiring RJR Nabisco at $109 per share, marking a dramatic increase from the",
"-21.110657777055167"
],
[
"that year, but was turned down by the Hasbro board in 1996 due to antitrust issues and Justice Department investigation into exclusionary policies between toy manufacturers and toy retailers, particularly Toys \"R\" Us.\nIn 1998, Hasbro bought Avalon Hill for $6 million and Galoob for $220 million. In 1999 Wizards of the Coast was bought in a deal worth $325 million. Wizards of the Coast is now a subsidiary of Hasbro and has Avalon Hill as its division. In 2001 money-losing Hasbro Interactive was sold to Infogrames, a French software concern, for $100 million. Hasbro entered the building block toy with its Built",
"-21.106326496083057"
],
[
"were relisted. It was later revealed that Cerberus had an agreement with their managing underwriter prohibiting them from selling their share in Seibu Holdings until October 2014. The company exceeded its original ¥2300 per share evaluation in June 2014, with its share prices rising to ¥2945 on January 21, 2015.\nOn January 19, 2015, Seibu Holdings' market capitalization of ¥975 billion overtook that of the Tokyu Corporation. Consequently, Seibu Holdings attained the highest market capitalization of any Japanese company which owns a private rail network.",
"-21.1063248408027"
],
[
"Internet Explorer. He defended this by claiming that the limitation applied only to the part \"which allows citizens and businesses to enrol for services. [But] once enrolled, they can submit transactions from any operating system, since XML - the language used - is totally platform independent.\"\nThe deal also involved Microsoft using UK government intellectual property to build products for other governments in order to recoup some of the costs of building the technology. The rate of return was to the tune of 22% of their gross sales of the intellectual property, which Pinder hoped would \"give us quite a lot",
"-21.09796405339148"
],
[
"agency and released their first public financial statement and ending the speculation on the company's plans at a time where Bitcoin prices have dropped 65% as compared to December 2017 which have hurt mining hardware sale that accounts 96% of their revenue. Bitmain will use a dual class share structure. In Bitmain's case, this means the share held by company's founders would count as 10 votes. \nBitmain's first product was the Antminer S1 which is a ASIC Bitcoin miner making 180 GH/s while using 80-200 Watts of power.\nBitmain as of 2018 had 11 mining farms operating in China. \nBitmain",
"-21.09548604954034"
],
[
"WeBank (China) WeBank (Chinese: 微众银行) is a private Chinese direct bank, founded by Tencent, Baiyeyuan, Liye Group, and other companies. Tencent is the single largest shareholder, with an estimated 30 percent ownership share. WeBank's estimated valuation is approximately US $21 billion. Its CEO and Chairman is David Ku.\nHeadquartered in Shenzhen, China, WeBank was approved by the regulatory authorities in December 2014, and began its operations in 2015. On January 4, 2015, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang pressed the \"Enter\" key on a computer terminal at the Shenzhen Qianhai WeBank, initiating the company's first-ever loan, of Rmb 35,000 (US",
"-21.08434550545644"
],
[
"tremendous buying power.\nIn addition to heading the Grosberg-Golub corporation, Grosberg was an officer in several national super market organizations including the New York Wholesale Grocers Association, president of the Seaboard Food Corporation, a national wholesale buying organization, and national secretary of the Super Market Institute.\nGrosberg retired from the grocery business in 1943. Bernard and William Golub, the sons of his original partner Lewis Golub and partners in the Grosberg-Golub Corporation, bought Grosberg's share of the company and formed the Golub Corporation. In 1973, the Golubs changed the name of Central Markets to Price Chopper. Philanthropy and civic activities Grosberg was",
"-21.06211687863106"
],
[
"Ladbrokes, estimated in 2008 to be more than 10%. In February 2008, it was discovered that another associate of Magnier's, Joe Lewis, had been building a stake estimated to be approximately 7%.\nIn June 2015, Ladbrokes announced that they were in talks with the board of Gala Coral Group over a possible merger. The combination of the two companies created Britain's biggest bookmaker, with over 4,000 betting shops and 30,000 employees.\nIn July 2016, the Competition and Markets Authority identified 642 areas where the merger would harm local competition, and said 350 to 400 shops would need to be sold off for",
"-21.054183491272852"
],
[
"Scheme (USS), urged Akzo to engage with PPG. On 2 May, Reuters revealed that the supervisory board of Azko was meeting to discuss how to deal with PPGs third offer, still maintaining it did not value the company highly enough.\nIn early May, Akzo again rejected PPGs bid, citing the deal still undervalued the company, as well as potentially facing antitrust risks, and not addressing other concerns such as \"cultural differences\". Under Dutch company law, PPG had to then decide to either make a formal bid or walkaway. In early June, PPG chose to walk away from the potential deal. As",
"-21.053580163395964"
],
[
"he is also reported as noting that \"the linking of the two firms carries not only product but distribution ramifications,\" which suggests some sort of cooperative alliance with acquisition of selling rights rather than a total 'buy-out'. Isaac Wolfson, a major British industrialist, was at the time also the head of Great Universal Stores, a large chain of retail outlets throughout Britain, Continental Europe, and the British Empire, suggesting perhaps that an earlier link-up took place between Wolfson and the originators of Collaro. The record decks comprised the mechanical unit incorporating a turntable and pickup, without electronics, and were built",
"-21.046005839598365"
],
[
"Pyaterochka History The chain opened its first store in 1999 in St. Petersburg. Pyaterochka expanded its market to Moscow in 2001 and started a franchise program a year later. Pyaterochka Holding N.V. completed an initial public offering on the London Stock Exchange in 2005. Pyaterochka and Perekrestok merged in 2006 to create X5 Retail Group; the group kept the Pyaterochka brand.\nIn 2009, X5 Retail Group acquired Kopeyka, a retail chain with more than 660 stores and seven distribution centers. All Kopeyka stores were rebranded to Pyaterochka.\nPyaterochka launched a store refurbishment program in 2013 to introduce a new range of products,",
"-21.035671240417287"
],
[
"much buyers pay voluntarily to a PWYW seller. They find that PWYW can be viable on a monopolistic market, but is less successful as a competitive strategy because it does not drive traditional posted-price sellers out of the market. Instead, the existence of a posted-price competitor reduces buyers' payments and prevents the PWYW seller from fully penetrating the market. When given the choice, most sellers opt for setting a posted price rather than a PWYW pricing strategy.\nAnother PWYW experiment looked at determinants for the price chosen by consumers of the application iProduct, which provided tutorials and lessons for potential application",
"-21.029771868197713"
],
[
"Willis Group Holdings (1998), Smiths Group (1999), and Wincor Nixdorf (1999).\nKKR's largest investment of the 1990s would be one of its least successful. In January 1998, KKR and Hicks, Muse, Tate & Furst agreed to the $1.5 billion buyout of Regal Entertainment Group. KKR and Hicks Muse had initially intended to combine Regal with Act III Cinemas, which KKR had acquired in 1997 for $706 million and United Artists Theaters, which Hicks Muse had agreed to acquire for $840 million in November 1997. Shortly after agreeing to the Regal takeover, the deal with United Artists fell apart, destroying the strategy",
"-21.024007034371607"
]
] |
6k63pk | What would happen if you were exposed to the vacuum of space while wearing a sealed helmet and air supply, but with no suit to cover the rest of your body? | [
"If you find yourself exposed to the near vacuum of space, so long as you don’t try to hold your breath, which would result in your lungs rupturing and thus pretty well guaranteed that the incident would be fatal, you’ll likely remain conscious for about 10-15 seconds, with perhaps half that being useful consciousness. After that, you’ll be fine as long as you’re placed back in a pressurized environment within about 90-180 seconds. These numbers are based on both human accidents that have occurred and on experiments run on animals. For instance, in 1965, researchers at the Brooks Air Force Base in Texas ran a series of experiments on dogs. They exposed the dogs to 1/380th normal atmospheric pressure for varying amounts of time to see how the animals’ bodies would react. In most cases, the dogs survived without permanent damage, so long as the time frame was less than 90 seconds. Once they pushed it to two minutes, the dogs typically suffered cardiac arrest and died. So that’s dogs. **What about humans**? Chimpanzees were chosen here as the guinea pigs. They did much better than the dogs, with most able to survive for up to 3 minutes, with the record being 3 and a half minutes. For those under 3 minutes, they not only were fine, but the researchers were able to confirm that their cognitive abilities, with one exception, were not damaged in any way. We don’t just need to rely on animal tests though. One of the first such accidents was when a technician at the Johnson Space Center in 1965 accidentally depressurized his suit by ripping out a hose. He remained conscious for 14 seconds. During this time, he remembered feeling the water rapidly evaporating off his tongue. Around the 15 second mark other technicians started the process of re-pressurizing the chamber. He regained consciousness at around the 15,000 ft. atmospheric pressure level, which was about 27 seconds into the ordeal. The only residual effect noted was that he couldn’t taste anything for several days after the accident, though his sense of taste returned to normal within a week. On the other end of the spectrum we have an incident involving a man who wasn’t so lucky. According to a paper by Dr. Emanuel M. Roth, Rapid Decompression Emergencies in Pressure-Suited Subject, published in 1968, it took about 3 minutes to re-pressurize the chamber the man was in. Once it was re-pressurized, he gasped a few times, then ceased to breathe. Efforts to revive him were unsuccessful. So it would appear, much like with the chimpanzees, the **3 minute mark is roughly the upper limit for humans**.",
"The pressure differential between inside your body and outside your body does really bad things and you die from it. Your body swells up, loses blood pressure, and your brain stops working in about 15 seconds. But you know all those anime shows with the skin-tight space-suits? [Yeah, that's actually based on a real thing, space activity suits]( URL_0 ). If you just wrap the body in a strong fiber that will keep it's shape, and supply air, then you can have a fun time in space. Temperature isn't that big a problem for a while. Radiation is a serious concern, but it's more of a long-term risk. You body WILL conform to the volume of the suit. Which means the suit has to be pretty damn accurate to the size you want your body to be. Which was hard in the 70's so it really hurt the guy's balls when they tested it out.",
"your lungs would rupture pretty quickly, as they and the surrounding tissues would be trying to hold back the pressure difference between your helmet's air supply and a vacuum. if your helmet was pressurized to earth normal, that would be about 33 pounds for every square inch of outer lung surface. if you were in a nasa suit, this would be 4.7 pounds per square inch. while that doesn't sound like much, those square inches add up quickly. a 10”x10” inch area, *much* smaller than your lungs, has 100 times the force...so that small area would experience 470 pounds of force. in our earth pressure scenario, that would come out to around 3,300 pounds of force, which is around the weight if a 2013 chevy malibu, or roughly 10,000 smallish bananas!"
] | [
[
"To simulate the effects of space, NASA constructed a massive vacuum chamber from which all air could be pumped. At some point during the test, LeBlanc's pressurization hose became detached from the space suit. Even though this caused his suit pressure to drop from 3.8 psi (26.2 kPa) to 0.1 psi (0.7 kPa) in less than 10 seconds, LeBlanc remained conscious for about 14 seconds before losing consciousness due to hypoxia; the much lower pressure outside the body causes rapid de-oxygenation of the blood. “As I stumbled backwards, I could feel the saliva on my tongue starting to bubble just before I went unconscious",
"-26.390945818973705"
],
[
"and in the confined space of a suit, the cooling system would become overwhelmed and the visor would fog. The astronaut would then be effectively blind because he had no way of wiping off the faceplate. In future Gemini EVAs, the work loads of the astronauts were reduced, but it was clear that during lunar exploration, workloads could be significant and changes were made to ensure that the Apollo EVA suit would be water cooled. This was accomplished by having the astronaut wear a garment that contained many thin tubes that circulated water near the skin. It was very effective",
"-25.679953423910774"
],
[
"contains a parachute, life raft, survival gear, and a 30-minute supply of breathing oxygen and a water tank.\nBecause of the helmet design, which rested on the astronaut's shoulders and allowed them to move their head around freely, astronauts were now required to wear a communications cap similar to those worn by Apollo astronauts, and because they were white (later changed to brown), the suit resembled the Vostok pressure suit worn by Yuri Gagarin. The suits were designed to withstand pressures up to 40,000 feet (12 kilometers), and immersion in the ocean for up to 24 hours at 5 °C (40 °F).\nBecause of",
"-25.659177666093456"
],
[
"remove a mirror mounted to the side of the spacecraft, his suit cooling system overheated and his face plate fogged up completely, denying him any vision. Cernan also felt excruciating pain as he moved back into his seat, as his suit was still fully pressurized and he had to move down far enough inside the spacecraft for the hatch to close. He and Stafford managed to get the hatch closed and the cabin repressurized. Cernan had spent 128 minutes outside the spacecraft.\nThe Gemini spacesuit was cooled by air. When an astronaut had an increased work load he began to sweat,",
"-25.65035349909158"
],
[
"three men.\nWhite's job was to open the hatch cover in an emergency, which he apparently tried to do; his body was found in his center seat, with his arms reaching over his head toward the hatch. Removing the cover to open the hatch was impossible because the plug door design required venting normally slightly greater-than-atmospheric pressure and pulling the cover into the cabin. Grissom was unable to reach the cabin vent control to his left, where the fire's source was located. The intense heat raised the cabin pressure even more, to the point where the cabin walls ruptured. The astronauts",
"-25.34641410014592"
],
[
"because astronauts cannot remove their space suits during long operations, such as spacewalks that usually last for several hours. Generally, three MAGs were given during space shuttle missions, one for launch, reentry, and an extra for spacewalking or for a second reentry attempt. Astronauts drink about 2 L (2.1 US qt) of salty water before reentry since fewer fluids are retained in zero G. Without the extra fluids, the astronauts might faint in Earth's gravity, further highlighting the potential necessity of the MAGs. It is worn underneath the Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment (LCVG). History During the Apollo era, astronauts used urine and",
"-25.209541667369194"
],
[
"a pressure-equalisation valve in the spacecraft's descent module unexpectedly opened at an altitude of 168 kilometres (551,000 ft), causing rapid depressurisation and the subsequent death of the entire crew. Temperature In a vacuum, there is no medium for removing heat from the body by conduction or convection. Loss of heat is by radiation from the 310 K temperature of a person to the 3 K of outer space. This is a slow process, especially in a clothed person, so there is no danger of immediately freezing. Rapid evaporative cooling of skin moisture in a vacuum may create frost, particularly in the",
"-25.071118825620943"
],
[
"90 seconds to be recompressed, after which death may be unavoidable. Swelling from ebullism can be reduced by containment in a flight suit which are necessary to prevent ebullism above 19 km. During the Space Shuttle program astronauts wore a fitted elastic garment called a Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevented ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa (15 mm Hg).\nThe only humans known to have died of exposure to vacuum in space are the three crew-members of the Soyuz 11 spacecraft; Vladislav Volkov, Georgi Dobrovolski, and Viktor Patsayev. During preparations for re-entry from orbit on June 30, 1971,",
"-25.055076368153095"
],
[
"on the pressure suit is the Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment (LCVG), which incorporates clear plastic tubing through which chilled liquid water flows for body temperature control, as well as ventilation tubes for waste gas removal.\nAfter donning the LCVG, the astronaut then puts on the LTA, before entering the airlock. The astronaut then dons the HUT, connects the LCVG umbilical to the umbilical in the HUT, and then locks the two parts of the suit together using the Body Seal Closure. Once the suit is turned on and checked out, the astronaut dons a \"Snoopy cap\", a brown and white",
"-24.765691191510996"
],
[
"either \"oxygen hoods\" – flexible, transparent soft plastic hoods with a seal around the neck similar to a space suit helmet – or tightly fitting oxygen masks, which supply pure oxygen and may be designed to directly exhaust the exhaled gas from the chamber. During treatment patients breathe 100% oxygen most of the time to maximise the effectiveness of their treatment, but have periodic \"air breaks\" during which they breathe chamber air (21% oxygen) to reduce the risk of oxygen toxicity. The exhaled treatment gas must be removed from the chamber to prevent the buildup of oxygen, which could present",
"-24.721001363403047"
],
[
"atmospheres) to normal atmospheric pressure (one atmosphere) as what would be found from deep-sea diving.\nThe first type is more common as pressure reduction from normal atmospheric pressure to a vacuum can be found in both space exploration and high-altitudes aviation. Research and experience have shown that while exposure to a vacuum causes swelling, human skin is tough enough to withstand the drop of one atmosphere. The most serious risk from vacuum exposure is hypoxia, in which the body is starved of oxygen that leads to unconsciousness within a few seconds. Rapid uncontrolled decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum",
"-24.65932964615058"
],
[
"and Belyayev attached the EVA backpack to Leonov's Berkut (“Golden Eagle”) space suit, a modified Vostok Sokol-1 intravehicular (IV) suit. The white metal EVA backpack provided 45 minutes of oxygen for breathing and cooling. Oxygen vented through a relief valve into space, carrying away heat, moisture, and exhaled carbon dioxide. The space suit pressure could be set at either 40.6 kPa (5.89 psi) or 27.40 kPa (3.974 psi).\nBelyayev then deployed and pressurized the Volga inflatable airlock. The airlock was necessary for two reasons: first, the capsule's avionics used vacuum tubes, which required a constant atmosphere for air cooling. Also, supplies of nitrogen and oxygen",
"-24.49346933882407"
],
[
"and the CO₂ gas escapes into the sealed air chamber.\nHowever, there is a chance that these water pressure activated inflation devices do not inflate the life jacket if a person is wearing waterproof clothing and falls into the water face-down. In these cases the buoyancy of the clothing holds a person on the water surface, which prevents the hydrostatic release. As a result, a person can drown although wearing a fully functional life jacket. In addition there are some circumstances in which the use of self-triggering devices can result in the wearer becoming trapped underwater. For example, the coxswain of",
"-24.382486856673495"
],
[
"used for space travel because it is considered better to allow space travelers to adapt naturally over the first one to seven days rather than to suffer the drowsiness and other side effects of medication taken over a longer period. However, transdermal dimenhydrinate anti-nausea patches are typically used whenever space suits are worn because vomiting into a space suit could be fatal by obscuring vision or blocking airflow. Space suits are generally worn during launch and landing by NASA crew members and always for extra-vehicular activities (EVAs). EVAs are consequently not usually scheduled for the first days of",
"-24.20904238941148"
],
[
"for some of the tasks currently done in space suits, but the capsule suit would have enhanced micrometeoroid protection and a higher pressure atmosphere.",
"-23.863564317987766"
],
[
"wears sufficient clothing under the suit to keep warm depending on the water temperature and expected level of exertion. The suit was usually a very baggy fit on the diver, and if over-inflated, would be too bulky to allow the diver to reach the control valves for air supply and exhaust. This contributed to the risk of suit blowup, which could cause an uncontrollable buoyant ascent, with high risk of decompression illness. To add to this problem, a runaway ascent could cause sufficient internal pressure to burst the seal at the corselet, which could result in a loss of buoyancy,",
"-23.624489457637537"
],
[
"durable, and must fit firmly in zero-gravity. Reliable fit is particularly important when wearing corrective glasses underneath tight helmets and in space suits: once inside the spacesuit, slipped glasses cannot be touched to push them back into place, sometimes for up to ten hours. Frames and glasses must be designed so that small pieces of the glasses such as screws and glass particles cannot become dislodged, then float and be inhaled. 90% of astronauts wear glasses in space, even if they do not require corrective glasses on Earth, because zero-gravity and pressure changes temporarily affect their vision.\nThe first sunglasses used",
"-23.608191010833252"
],
[
"breathing gases and protect the ears and eyes. These effects have been confirmed through various accidents in very high altitude conditions, outer space, and training vacuum chambers. Cooling Cooling of the astronaut with an SAS is generally achieved with evaporation from body perspiration which is emitted from the suit in all directions. Water, salts, and proteins can deposit on optics and other sensitive surfaces causing damage or degradation. This can limit the usefulness of an SAS. For the inflated spacesuits used on the space shuttle,\nInternational Space Station, and the Apollo program, cooling was achieved in the Primary Life Support System",
"-23.60450449970085"
],
[
"spent most of their time looking down at the bottom.\nA continuous flow of compressed air is provided to the helmet and vented to the surrounding water at a pressure very close to the ambient pressure at the exhaust port, which lets the diver breathe normally. The helmet must have a non-return valve at the air inlet port of the helmet, to prevent massive and fatal squeeze, should the air line be cut at the surface. Diving helmets, while very heavy, displace a great deal of water and combined with the air in the suit, would make the diver float with",
"-23.562809216498863"
],
[
"through an umbilical connection, where it is ultimately radiated or sublimated via the spacecraft's own thermal control system.\nBecause the space environment is essentially a vacuum, heat cannot be lost through heat convection, and can only be directly dissipated through thermal radiation, a much slower process. Thus, even though the environment of space can be extremely cold, excessive heat build-up is inevitable. Without an LCVG, there would be no means by which to expel this heat, and it would affect not only EVA performance, but the health of the suit occupant as well. The LCVG used with the Apollo/Skylab A7L suit",
"-23.39702147389471"
],
[
"and the only way to reach it was by using rocket-powered boosters. This created risks for the pilot, including explosion, high g-forces and vibrations during lift off through a dense atmosphere, and temperatures of more than 10,000 °F (5,500 °C) from air compression during reentry.\nIn space, pilots would require pressurized chambers or space suits to supply fresh air. While there, they would experience weightlessness, which could potentially cause disorientation. Further potential risks included radiation and micrometeoroid strikes, both of which would normally be absorbed in the atmosphere. All seemed possible to overcome: experience from satellites suggested micrometeoroid risk was negligible,",
"-23.260300015390385"
],
[
"is not a problem for close-fitting neoprene suits, or hybrid suits with neoprene bottoms, which prevent air from easily moving into the legs of the suit. Wearers of baggy surface dry suits can mitigate the problem by venting out as much excess air as possible before entering the water. This is typically done by crouching down and leaning forward, wrapping the arms around the knees, and then having an assistant zip the suit shut while it is stretched out tightly. Excess air can also be \"burped\" out of the neck or cuff seal. Early years In the 1830s the Deane",
"-23.2385821462085"
],
[
"of the complex. A charcoal air filter was put in place to scrub the atmosphere of any lingering potassium hydroxide fumes. The space station's programme manager said the crew never donned gas masks, but as a precaution put on surgical gloves and masks to prevent contact with any contaminants.\nOn 2 November 2006, the payload brought by the Russian Progress M-58 allowed the crew to repair the Elektron using spare parts. 2007 – Computer failure On 14 June 2007, during Expedition 15 and flight day 7 of STS-117's visit to ISS, a computer malfunction on the Russian segments at 06:30 UTC",
"-23.23686452495167"
],
[
"vacuum environment of space, temperature extremes ranging from -250 degrees Fahrenheit to 250 degrees Fahrenheit, the impact of micrometeoroids and orbital debris, and lunar dust. Above the 63,000 foot threshold, spacesuits are needed to supply oxygen and to provide a pressurized environment around the body to keep body fluids in a liquid state. Apollo and Skylab ILC began delivering spacesuits for the Apollo program in 1966. Initial deliveries of suits did not perform well in tests and NASA initially cancelled its contract with ILC and Hamilton Standard. NASA relaunched the program to develop a spacesuit for the Apollo program",
"-23.143857995048165"
],
[
"hundred feet below the surface, Robinson and Tucker were keeping warm in very thick mummy bags and using breathing masks which not only scrubbed carbon dioxide from their respirations, but recycled their expired body heat. After the Wildrake accident, the diving industry recognized the futility of using space blankets as protection against hypothermia. Norway’s Underwater Institute conducted thermal studies to test survival systems for stranded divers, and Wharton & Williams Taylor Diving, in conjunction with a local technology institute, developed a new survival suit with high heat-retention properties. Robinson and Tucker were using those suits.\nIn the Seaspread bell van, Allen",
"-23.073624252225272"
],
[
"great that if the air line is cut at the surface and there is no non-return valve, the diver would be partly squeezed into the helmet by the external pressure, and injured or possibly killed.\nHelmets also have a spring-loaded exhaust valve which allows excess air to leave the helmet. The spring force is adjustable by the diver to prevent the suit from deflating completely or over-inflating and the diver being floated uncontrollably to the surface. The exhaust valve could also be temporarily opened or closed by pressing the internal flange with the chin to let more air out, or by",
"-23.068111536471406"
],
[
"divers wearing body tights under a wetsuit for extra warmth and to make donning and removing the wetsuit easier. A \"skin\" may also be as an undersuit beneath a drysuit in temperatures where a full undersuit is not necessary. Atmospheric diving suits An atmospheric diving suit is a small one-man articulated submersible of anthropomorphic form which resembles a suit of armour, with elaborate pressure joints to allow articulation while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere.\nThese can be used for very deep dives for long periods without the need for decompression, and eliminate the majority of physiological dangers associated with",
"-22.96157355082687"
],
[
"but was of concern, as glass could be inhaled by the crew or get into the environmental systems. After replacing the hatch, the crew ate and went to bed to end their first full day in space. Day 3 The \"morning\" of the third day centered around an \"eye flash\" experiment. Some previous crews had experienced bright flashes even when they closed their eyes. Irwin reported that he had seen them during the two previous sleep periods. The experiment involves the crew facing in the same direction, wearing blindfolds and having placed shades over the windows. They described the position,",
"-22.81478889787104"
],
[
"enter the water, and then will remove his mask, or have his helmet removed and will then sit in as comfortable a place as can be found, so that in case of an emergency he can be readied for action in as short a time as possible. This often means setting up some form of shelter from the weather, and heat and sunshine are usually more of a problem than cold and wet. It is frequently necessary to cool the standby diver to avoid overheating, and dehydration can also be a problem. When the working diver is using a helmet,",
"-22.775789768062623"
],
[
"penetrated by anything, except gravity and certain kinds of light. Worn like a second skin, it is the ultimate spacesuit. It can also be a domed tent for life on the surface of Luna, Mercury or Venus. To someone outside, a nullfield looks like a perfect mirror in the shape of whatever it contains. In the stories, people in nullfield suits survive falling into Jupiter, skimming the outer atmosphere of the Sun, walking on the surface of Venus, and being buried alive on Mercury (though the kinetic energy of being shot can cause fatal heat buildup). ",
"-22.759932842978742"
],
[
"central vacuums that vent outdoors or into a nonliving space are preferable for individuals with allergies or asthma, because they prevent indoor emissions altogether.",
"-22.694689003081294"
],
[
"square inch (9.9 MPa), lithium hydroxide to 3.12 pounds (1.42 kg), cooling water to 11.5 pounds (5.2 liters), and battery capacity to 390 watt-hours.\nAn emergency backup was provided in case the main system failed, by a separate unit called the Oxygen Purge System (OPS), mounted on top of the PLSS, immediately behind the astronaut's helmet.\nThe OPS maintained suit pressure and removed carbon dioxide, heat and water vapor through a continuous, one-way air flow vented to space. \nWhen activated, the OPS provided oxygen to a separate inlet on the pressure suit, once a vent valve on a separate suit outlet was manually opened.",
"-22.684986592794303"
],
[
"ventilation garment in order to maintain a comfortable core body temperature during extra-vehicular activity (EVA). The LCVG accomplishes this task by circulating cool water through a network of flexible tubes in direct contact with the astronaut's skin. The water draws heat away from the body, resulting in a lower core temperature. The water then returns to the primary life support system (PLSS), where it is cooled in a heat exchanger before being recirculated.\nIn an independent space suit, the heat is ultimately transferred to a thin sheet of ice (formed by a separate feed water source). Due to the extremely low",
"-22.628374124586117"
],
[
"and there were very few cases where astronauts used the \"High\" Cooling selection, even though they were working hard on the Moon's surface in 100 °C (212 °F) sunlight.\nThe EVA suit did not have any temperature probes in it; these had been removed to make room for additional ELSS equipment and thus no data regarding the temperature inside the suit during the EVA were available—Cernan reported that the back of the suit was very hot. Postflight examination found a tear in the suit insulation which could have allowed high temperature buildups.\nStafford has said in a 1999 interview that there was a real",
"-22.584285935299704"
],
[
"Movement of gas into the legs and feet may also cause special difficulties in drysuits that have air exhaust values only at the shoulders or wrists, because the air in the legs and booties cannot be evacuated while the diver is inverted, and such a diver may be moving toward the surface, causing the problem of expanding air in the suit to grow worse with each meter of lost depth. (Some low-quality buoyancy control devices also cannot vent air, when inverted). If the diver is positively buoyant and rising, the buoyancy of the dry suit becomes uncontrollable after rising through",
"-22.514785306411795"
],
[
"by sublimation of water in a vacuum. Mauch In 1959 Hans Mauch was working on \"breathable\" undergarments for the Mercury space suit when he hit upon the idea of a way to build a mechanical counterpressure design. The Mauch team noticed that closed-cell foams, which trap gas within their structure, expand when outside pressure is lowered. By containing the foam within a non-expanding outer layer, it would place increasing pressure on the body as the pressure lowered. This appeared to allow for a design that would offer far better mobility than the almost rigid Mercury design.\nLate in 1959 Mauch Laboratories",
"-22.44522029091604"
],
[
"by the military and first responders to decontaminate contaminated clothing and equipment. Adsorbent materials Adsorbent materials adhere to and encapsulate contaminants on various surfaces. Adsorbent materials do not increase in volume when a contaminant is absorbed. Vacuuming Vacuuming physically removes solid materials from victims and the contaminated environment. Vacuuming should only be done when the victim and all people in the vicinity are wearing respiratory protection and the usefulness of vacuuming can be limited by the availability of supplies, equipment, and electricity. Pressurized air Pressurized air uses low-pressure air streams to remove solid, dry contaminants from equipment and the environment.",
"-22.417116266209632"
],
[
"by damaged sinus ducts.\nTo allow successful equalization when diving, it is important that the diving suit hood does not make an airtight seal over the outside ear hole, and that earplugs are not worn. It is not recommended to dive when a eustachian tube is congested or blocked, e.g. with the common cold, as this may cause what is known as a reverse block. Descent is uninhibited as the Valsalva maneuver may still clear the eustachian tubes temporarily by force, but during ascent a blockage may stop the air in the middle ear (which is now at depth pressure)",
"-22.409677185758483"
],
[
"hypothermia already present in the cold temperatures found at these depths. Under these conditions a hot water suit is a matter of survival, not comfort. Just as an emergency backup source of breathing gas is required, a backup water heater is also an essential precaution whenever dive conditions warrant a hot water suit. If the heater fails and a backup unit cannot be immediately brought online, a diver in the coldest conditions can die within minutes; depending on decompression obligations, bringing the diver directly to the surface could prove equally deadly.\nHeated water in the suit forms an active insulation barrier",
"-22.307240409194492"
],
[
"Maximum Absorbency Garment A Maximum Absorbency Garment (MAG) is an adult-sized diaper with extra absorption material that NASA astronauts wear during liftoff, landing, and extra-vehicular activity (EVA) to absorb urine and feces. It is worn by both male and female astronauts. Astronauts can urinate into the MAG, and usually wait to defecate when they return to the spacecraft. However, the MAG is rarely used for this purpose, since the astronauts use the facilities of the station before EVA and also time the consumption of the in-suit water. Nonetheless, the garment provides peace of mind for the astronauts.\nThe MAG was developed",
"-22.261421179427998"
],
[
"extended periods of stay in space.\nDue to these mental disorders, the efficiency of their work is impaired and sometimes they are forced to send the astronauts back to Earth, which is very expensive. A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that caused a fear of fluid leakage, but after a thorough investigation it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction. It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinations of the smell, which brought many unnecessary wasted expenses.\nIt is possible that the mental",
"-22.25866888476594"
],
[
"suit. This problem is managed by suit inflation from a low pressure gas supply. Excess buoyancy hazard related to excess air Dry suits pose their own unique problems compared to wet suit diving, due to the complex construction and since a diver needs to constantly manage and adjust the air volume inside the suit. During descent, air must be added to maintain constant volume. This prevents suit squeeze, loss of neutral buoyancy, and potential uncontrolled descent. During ascent, the air added at depth must be removed again, in order to prevent over-inflation, excessive buoyancy, and potential uncontrolled ascent, with possibly",
"-22.23606581567674"
],
[
"short-term immersion in cold water if the user falls overboard. These dry suits, which are only intended for temporary immersion, are less rugged than diving dry suits. They are usually made of a breathable membrane material to let sweat permeate, keeping the wearer dry and comfortable all day. Membrane type surface dry suits only keep the user dry, and have little thermal insulating properties. Most users will wear a thin thermal undersuit, or street clothes, for warmth; but wearing ordinary fabrics can be dangerous if the suit leaks in cold water because they will lose most of their insulating properties.",
"-22.20703840488568"
],
[
"is the need to go the bathroom. Various methods have been employed in suits, and in the Shuttle-era NASA used maximum absorbency garments to enable stays of 10 hours in space and partial pressure suits. Martian dust Another consideration is what would happen if astronauts somehow breathe in Mars dust. The health effect of Mars dust is a concern, based on known information about it which includes that it may be abrasive and/or reactive. Studies have been done with quartz dust and also compared it to lunar dust exposure. An Apollo 17 astronaut complained of hay fever like symptoms after",
"-22.205247886457073"
],
[
"fatal consequences. Most modern dry suits are equipped with adjustable spring-loaded automatic exhaust valves, which can assist with this problem when properly set. Suit flooding Damage to the lower part of the suit can cause a sudden inrush of very cold water for winter users, or an inrush of contaminated water or chemicals for hazmat divers.\nDamage to the upper part of the suit can cause a sudden venting of the air, resulting in a loss of buoyancy and possible uncontrolled descent, followed by flooding with water and loss of thermal insulation, and possible exposure to hazardous materials if the water",
"-22.156509809428826"
],
[
"in motion, but very difficult to keep it still. Generally, drag effects are minimized by doing tasks slowly in the water.\nAnother downside of neutral buoyancy simulation is that astronauts are not weightless within their suits, meaning that as divers tilt their suits they are pressed against whatever inside surface is facing down. This can be uncomfortable in certain orientations, such as heads-down. Thus, precise suit sizing is critical.",
"-22.11371822981164"
],
[
"some air to keep some positive pressure (\"overpressure\") inside the suit. As noted, such suits are usually limited to just 15–20 minutes of use by their mobile air supply.\nWith each suit described here, there is a manufactured device designed to protect the respiratory system of the wearer while the suit/ensemble is used to protect skin exposed to potential, or actual dermal, hazardous agents. That device is a respirator. A respirator may be something as simple as a headband strap filtering facepiece respirator (FFR), to a headharness negative pressure fullface respirator (air-purifying respirator/APR), to a full face, tight fitting, closed",
"-22.08949467545608"
],
[
"such as that offered by a spaceship or spacesuit is able to shield people from the harshest conditions. The immediate needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by a life support system, a group of devices that allow human beings to survive in outer space. The life support system supplies air, water and food. It must also maintain temperature and pressure within acceptable limits and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites is also necessary.\nSome hazards are difficult to mitigate, such as weightlessness, also defined as a microgravity environment.",
"-22.030559969163733"
],
[
"undone, and the hoses and electrical connections to the suit remained connected. As he was farthest from the origin of the fire, he suffered the least burn and suit damage. Aftermath Shortly after the AS-204 fire in 1967, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Spaceflight George Mueller announced the mission would be officially designated as Apollo 1. The capsule underwent a significant redesign as a result of the disaster. The atmosphere in the cabin was changed from 100% oxygen to a 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen environment at launch. The astronauts' spacesuits, originally made of nylon, were changed to beta cloth,",
"-22.02696925131022"
],
[
"This can be done via an umbilical from the life-support systems of the spacecraft or habitat, or from a primary life support system carried on the suit. Both of these systems involve rebreather technology as they both remove carbon dioxide from the breathing gas and add oxygen to compensate for oxygen used by the wearer.\nSpace suits usually use oxygen rebreathers as this allows a lower pressure in the suit which gives the wearer better freedom of movement. Habitat life-support systems (Submarines, undersea habitats, bomb shelters, space stations etc.)\nLiving spaces occupied by several people over medium to long periods on",
"-21.998669531894848"
],
[
"as a hot gas, the astronaut's suit had to be modified with the addition of woven metal \"pants\" made of Chromel-R metal cloth. The AMU was carried aboard the Gemini 9 mission, but was not tested because the astronaut, Eugene Cernan, had difficulty maneuvering from the Gemini cabin to the AMU storage place, at the back of the spacecraft, and overheated, causing his helmet faceplate to fog up. The AMU was also meant to be launched and flown on-board Gemini 12, and to fly untethered from the Gemini spacecraft, but was scrubbed two months before the mission. NASA",
"-21.986651285289554"
],
[
"high levels of CO\n₂, but after reviewing all indicators and sensors, NASA confirmed it was an instrumentation issue, and the suit itself was fine. At the mission status briefing, NASA reported the suit would be used on future spacewalks, and the issue was not of any concern.\nDuring the Mission Management briefing, John Shannon discussed Endeavour's heat shield and re-entry issues. He reported that after initial modeling they believe the majority of heating will be on the backside of the gouge, and not into the filler bar side, which was the preferable situation. He reiterated that it was a complicated aerodynamic",
"-21.93882236893114"
],
[
"Mechanical counterpressure suit A mechanical counterpressure (MCP) suit or space activity suit (SAS) is an experimental spacesuit which applies stable pressure against the skin by means of skintight elastic garments. The SAS is not inflated like a conventional spacesuit: it uses mechanical pressure, rather than air pressure, to compress the human body in low-pressure environments. Development was begun by NASA and the Air Force in the late 1950s and then again in the late 1960s, but neither design was used. Research is under way at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on a \"Bio-Suit\" System which is based on the",
"-21.852885152969975"
],
[
"prevent the wearer from coming into contact with a liquid. These suits do not protect against gases or dust. Gastight suits additionally protect against gases and dust. Gas/vapor protection Such suits (level A in the US) are gas or vapor-tight, providing total encapsulation and the highest level of protection against direct and airborne chemical contact. They are typically worn with a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) enclosed within the suit.\nThese suits are typically constructed of several layers and, being airtight, include a release valve so the suit does not overinflate from air exhaled by the SCBA. The release valve does retain",
"-21.845276563168227"
],
[
"dive. Configurations differ but automatic vents are generally at the left shoulder and manual vents at the wrist. Environmentally sealed suits used for diving in contaminated water have a watertight seal to the helmet, rely on the helmet exhaust valve and may not have a separate exhaust valve on the suit itself. Older, now obsolete, dry suits had no dedicated vents; venting was achieved by raising an arm and lifting one of the wrist seals or placing a finger in the neck seal.\nSurface dry suits do not normally have exhaust valves, but the wearer may vent excess air by crouching",
"-21.824009987074533"
],
[
"Scientists monitoring the flight found that, aside from a slight slowing of the pulse, Gordo suffered no ill effects from the entry into space or resultant weightlessness. Gordo wore a specially customized space suit and was fitted with instruments, including a thermometer and microphone, to monitor his health.\nIn total the flight lasted 15 minutes, of which Gordo was weightless for 8.3 minutes, as the craft exited and re-entered Earth's atmosphere at a speed of over 10,000 miles per hour. The failure of Gordo's parachute meant that both he and the capsule were lost, despite efforts to recover them. It is",
"-21.813250214792788"
],
[
"a leaking helmet, or to prevent inflow through a leaking exhaust port or neck seal. The demand valve of a lightweight helmet can also freeflow for some of the same reasons as can happen with a scuba demand valve. Open circuit scuba In scuba diving, a freeflow occurs when the diving regulator continues to supply air instead of cutting off the supply when the diver stops inhaling, or starts to flow when out of the diver's mouth due to a pressure difference over the diaphragm or a bump to the purge button, and continues to flow due to the \"venturi",
"-21.812860797799658"
],
[
"ambient pressure during inhalation, and if the circuit is not airtight external gases may leak in. This is a particular issue around the edge of a full-face mask, where the rubber mask skirt must seal against the user's face. Fire hazards of high concentration of oxygen High partial pressures of oxygen greatly increase fire hazard, and many materials which are self-extinguishing in atmospheric air will burn continuously in a high oxygen concentration.",
"-21.80457992333686"
],
[
"fifteen minutes, Shepard's suit did not have any provision for elimination of bodily wastes. After being strapped into the capsule's seat, launch delays kept him in that suit for eight hours; Shepard's endurance gave out before launch, and he was forced to empty his bladder into the suit, which shorted out the medical sensors attached to it to track the astronaut's condition in flight. After Shepard's flight, NASA called in the space suit's manufacturer, B. F. Goodrich, and by the time of John Glenn's Mercury-Atlas 6 orbital flight the following year, a liquid waste collection feature had been built into",
"-21.798425327062432"
],
[
"of the material. For this reason, it is common for military and industrial equipment to be subjected to an explosive decompression test before it is certified as safe for use. Exposure to a vacuum causes the body to explode This persistent myth is based on a failure to distinguish between two types of decompression and their exaggerated portrayal in some fictional works. The first type of decompression deals with changing from normal atmospheric pressure (one atmosphere) to a vacuum (zero atmosphere) which is usually centered around space exploration. The second type of decompression changes from exceptionally high pressure (many",
"-21.767799955901864"
],
[
"interior space, with no subdivisions, and no mouthpiece. This is most appropriate to free flow systems.\nIn this arrangement the diver can talk clearly, including talking with other divers underwater. This allows communications equipment (usually an intercom wire or by modulated ultrasound) to be installed in the mask and is very useful for working divers. If an open plan full-face mask floods underwater, it can be more difficult to clear than with a mouthpiece.\nThere also is the problem of \"dead space\" inside some masks causing risk of carbon dioxide retention. Free flow air supply overcomes these problems by providing so much",
"-21.72743412174168"
],
[
"combination of a Space Suit, the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER) and Extravehicular Mobility Unit are used, combined to form a soft-suit spacecraft for emergencies.\nA demonstration of single-person spacecraft for ISS, called the FlexCraft, was proposed in the 2010s. In 2018 a single person spacecraft capsule tested in a water pool by NASA. This design has a hatch at the bottom that an astronaut could enter into, but it would be at full pressure thus avoiding the need to purge nitrogen from the body for low-pressure suits. The capsule suit has little robotic arms, and might be able used",
"-21.708665846905205"
],
[
"was reluctant to terminate the EVA at the allotted time, and had to be ordered back into the spacecraft. While he was outside, a spare thermal glove floated away through the open hatch of the spacecraft, becoming an early piece of space debris in low Earth orbit, until it burned up upon re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. There was a mechanical problem with the hatch mechanism, which made it difficult to open and to relatch, which added to the time constraint of the spacewalk, and could have threatened the lives of both men if McDivitt had been unable to get",
"-21.69816664227983"
],
[
"and helmet will seal directly to the drysuit, leaving no skin exposed to the environment. The diver will generally use a free flow diving helmet which continually supplies more air than the diver needs to breathe so that there is a constant outflow through the exhaust valve, as the internal pressure must be slightly higher than ambient to maintain the flow. A free flow helmet has a significantly lower risk of leakage back through the exhaust valve compared to a standard demand helmet where the exhaust valve must maintain a watertight seal against a slightly higher external pressure during inhalation.",
"-21.669977722747717"
],
[
"breathable for around 20 minutes. When the oxygen supply ends, the hood will begin deflating and must be removed to avoid suffocation. These devices represent a subgroup of smoke hoods called positive-pressure respirators, which prevent the ingress of smoke or toxic gases by maintaining a higher air pressure inside the mask than outside. Consequently, any leak will cause fresh air to leak out of the mask, rather than toxic air to leak in.",
"-21.6665021659137"
],
[
"at the shoulder, upper arm, hip, waist, and ankle, and soft fabric joints at the elbow, knee, and ankle.\nThe 8.3 pounds per square inch (57 kPa) operating pressure of the Mark III makes it a \"zero-prebreathe\" suit, meaning that astronauts would be able to transition directly from a one atmosphere, mixed-gas space station environment, such as that on the International Space Station, to the suit, without risk of the bends, which can occur with rapid depressurization from an atmosphere containing nitrogen or another inert gas. Currently, astronauts must spend several hours in a reduced pressure, pure oxygen environment before EVA",
"-21.628790718794335"
],
[
"without reducing the pressure in his suit, risking \"the bends\". This added another 12 minutes to his time in vacuum, and he was overheated by 1.8 °C (3.2 °F) from the exertion. It would be almost four years before the Soviets tried another EVA. They misrepresented to the press how difficult Leonov found it to work in weightlessness and concealed the problems encountered until after the end of the Cold War. Project Gemini The first American spacewalk was performed on June 3, 1965, by Ed White from the second manned Gemini flight, Gemini IV, for 21 minutes. White was tethered to the",
"-21.612867018353427"
],
[
"a reduced-nitrogen atmosphere to purge nitrogen from their bloodstream and avoid decompression sickness in the low-pressure (4.3 psi, 30 kPa) pure-oxygen atmosphere of the spacesuit. The previous method of preparing for spacewalks involved breathing pure oxygen for several hours prior to an EVA to purge the body of nitrogen. In April 2006, Expedition 12 Commander Bill McArthur and Expedition 13 flight engineer Jeffrey Williams tested a new method of preparing for spacewalks by \"camping out\", or spending the night, in the Quest Airlock. In the chamber, the pressure was reduced from the normal 14.7 to 10.2 psi (101 to 70 kPa). Four hours",
"-21.60975360084558"
],
[
"faceplate/viewport. This flow of gas will blow off large water droplets and evaporate small droplets and light condensation, leaving the viewport clear. Though it tends to be noisy and wasteful of gas, it is trivially simple to do, does not require much practice, and is not safety critical. It is also done often in cold water. Some free-flow helmets and a few models of full-face mask pass the inlet air over the faceplate as default, and are thereby self-defogging. Clearing a flooded helmet or full-face mask There are two ways to clear a demand helmet of water: The free-flow",
"-21.558918463619193"
],
[
"cancelled if the mission is not completed successfully.\nBelt returns home and has another flashback. As he lies in bed in agony, an astral presence leaves his body and flies out the window, heading into the sky. The astronauts then report hearing a thump outside the shuttle and begin to experience an oxygen leak. Belt fixes the situation, but orders the mission to proceed. The payload is successfully deployed, but a crew member reports seeing a ghostlike entity outside the ship. Meanwhile, the agents examine NASA records and find evidence that Belt played a role in other failed missions, including the",
"-21.529188726650318"
],
[
"to decrease the stresses (and thus, mass) of their capsules. Many did not have separate airlocks, instead exposing the entire cabin to hard vacuum at times. Low pressures also exacerbate contamination issues, as substances acceptable at standard conditions may begin outgassing at lower pressures or higher temperatures. While the Soyuz spacecraft had a 14.7 psi (101 kPa) design pressure, and could use its orbital module as an airlock, the orbital module would be deleted for planned lunar missions. In any case, a pen which was insensitive to pressure and temperature would eliminate the issue (including accidental depressurizations), provide",
"-21.519304409623146"
],
[
"will automatically equalise as any pressure differential will either vent through the exhaust valve or open the demand valve and release air into the low-pressure space.\nIf a drysuit is worn, it must be equalised by inflation and deflation, much like a buoyancy compensator. Most dry suits are fitted with an auto-dump valve, which, if set correctly, and kept at the high point of the diver by good trim skills, will automatically release gas as it expands and retain a virtually constant volume during ascent. During descent the dry suit must be inflated manually.\nAlthough there are many dangers involved in",
"-21.484493886411656"
],
[
"he had discussed the oxygen supply with the other astronauts, he shows clear alarm and shock when he sees the tear in his suit.) Lloyd looks on as Pruett's body drifts away into space. With Pruett gone, Stone takes command.\nA Soviet spacecraft suddenly appears and its cosmonaut tries to make contact. It can do nothing but deliver oxygen since the Soviet ship is too small to carry additional passengers. Stone and Lloyd, suffering oxygen deprivation, cannot understand the cosmonaut's gestures or obey Keith's orders.\nDougherty arrives and he and the cosmonaut transfer the two surviving and mentally dazed Ironman astronauts into",
"-21.47474628541022"
],
[
"crew, designers created a full-sized cardboard mock-up of the cabin. Astronauts would then mimic their daily activities inside of the mock-up. Each time they knocked up against a corner, technicians would remove the part of the mock-up that had gotten in the astronauts' way until there were no more collisions and the cabin was deemed to be comfortable.\nOn the first four Shuttle missions, astronauts wore modified U.S. Air Force high-altitude full-pressure suits, which included a full-pressure helmet during ascent and descent. From the fifth flight, STS-5, until the loss of Challenger, the crew wore one-piece light blue nomex flight suits",
"-21.463055254193023"
],
[
"cabin replacing the cylinder and larger retrorockets. The Voskhod 1 crew could not wear space suits because the spacecraft taxed the limits of the launch vehicle payload capability. The complete Voskhod spacecraft weighed 5,682 kilograms (12,527 lb). On Voskhod 2, one cosmonaut seat was replaced with a cumbersome, inflatable airlock (which gave Leonov much trouble reentering the capsule) necessitated by the inability of the capsule avionics to avoid overheating in the vacuum of space. The program was discontinued after two flights. Project Mercury and Gemini In 1958, the United States announced Project Mercury, a series of low Earth orbit missions. The",
"-21.41803287269431"
],
[
"dampness or wetness.\nWhile this technology is most commonly associated with space suits, it is also used in a wide range of Earth-bound applications where open-air cooling is difficult or impossible to achieve, such as fire fighting, working in a steel mill and increasingly by surgeons during long or strenuous procedures. Garment and tubing The garment is typically a close-fitting non-stretching fabric or a tight-fitting elastic fabric, with flexible tubing sewn onto the fabric. A single layer of fabric may be used, with the tubing either on the inside directly contacting the wearer's skin, or on the outside separated by the",
"-21.409708821971435"
],
[
"Vacuum dry box A Vacuum Dry Box is a piece of safety equipment which can provide an inert, or controlled atmosphere for handling sensitive materials. These devices can commonly be found in the fume hoods of chemistry labs, in facilities handling deadly pathogens, in NASA Moon Rock Handling facilities and in Industrial applications. Inert atmosphere glove boxes are also used for painting and sandblasting.",
"-21.394274839462014"
],
[
"lacked the capability to return the astronauts to Earth; this was the first time space travelers had flown in a vehicle that could not take them home. McDivitt and Schweickart entered the LM early, having obtained permission to do so without wearing their helmets and gloves, making it easier to set up the LM. When Scott in Gumdrop pushed the button to release the LM, it initially hung on the latches at the end of the docking probe, but he hit the button again and Spider was released. After spending about 45 minutes near Gumdrop, Spider went into a slightly",
"-21.381916672398802"
],
[
"that must produce a full room air change for the shelter to be deemed \"recharged\"/ready for another ~3 hours. However if the outdoor hazard persists, the \"~3 hour\" period can be extended if the occupants have an accurate Carbon dioxide sensor, however as these devices can fail for example during the Soyuz 29 spaceflight, the experiencing of a headache can serve as a symptom to unsafe levels, in this case these headaches signaled the crew that their carbon dioxide detector had failed to alert them to change the air purifiers/carbon dioxide scrubber. Normal CO₂ levels were 8.8 mm Hg; the levels",
"-21.361950694783445"
],
[
"between environments of greatly different pressures, an airlock changes the pressure slowly to help with internal air cavity equalization and to prevent decompression sickness. This is critical in scuba diving, and a diver may have to wait in an airlock for some hours, in accordance with decompression tables.",
"-21.316027257824317"
],
[
"space travel because the sunlight is far more intense and harmful than on Earth, where it is always filtered through the atmosphere. Sun protection is needed against much higher UV radiation and even against harmful infrared radiation, both within and outside the spacecraft. Within the spacecraft, astronauts wear sunglasses with darker lenses and a thin protective gold coating. During space walks, the visor of the astronauts' helmets, which also has a thin gold coating for extra protection, functions as strong sunglasses. The frames of sunglasses and corrective glasses used in space must meet special requirements. They must be flexible and",
"-21.270256339601474"
],
[
"Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment An (Integrated) Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment (TMG or ITMG) is the outer layer of a space suit. The TMG has three functions: to insulate the suit occupant and prevent heat loss, to shield the occupant from harmful solar radiation, and to protect the astronaut from micrometeoroids and other orbital debris, which could puncture the suit and depressurize it. (These same functions are provided for spacecraft by Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Protection systems.)\nThe specific design of TMGs varies between different space agencies and different suits, though they all serve the same purpose. A7L suit (Apollo/Skylab) Outside a",
"-21.219099441048456"
],
[
"or insulation itself, so if the dry suit leaks or is torn, water can soak the undersuit, with a corresponding loss of buoyancy and insulation.\nMembrane dry suits may also be made of a waterproof but breathable material like Gore-Tex to enable comfortable wear without excessive humidity and buildup of condensation. This function does not work underwater. Sailors and boaters who intend to stay out of the water may prefer this type of suit. Neoprene Neoprene is a type of synthetic rubber which can be foamed during manufacture to a high proportion of tiny enclosed gas bubbles, forming a buoyant and",
"-21.16026169300312"
],
[
"Also, it had replaceable plastic lenses, much helping vision.\nGas mask development since has mirrored the development of chemical agents in warfare, filling the need to protect against ever more deadly threats, biological weapons, and radioactive dust in the nuclear era. However, where agents that cause harm through contact or penetration of the skin occurs, such as blister agent or nerve agent, a gas mask alone is not sufficient protection, and full protective clothing must be worn in addition, to protect from contact with the atmosphere. For reasons of civil defense and personal protection, individuals often buy gas masks believing that",
"-21.139128466893453"
],
[
"to that point. Blowup can occur for several reasons. Loss of ballast weight is another cause of buoyancy gain which may not be possible to compensate by venting. The standard diving suit can inflate during a blowup to the extent that the diver cannot bend his arms to reach the valves, and the over-pressure can burst the suit, causing a complete loss of air, and the diver sinking to the bottom to drown.\nThe standard diving system had no self contained alternative breathing gas supply. It was possible to switch out air supply hoses underwater, and the air already in the",
"-21.101636139967013"
],
[
"astronauts when the spacecraft was dark, regardless of whether or not their eyes were open, on Apollo lunar flights. This was thought to be caused by the penetration of the eye by cosmic ray particles. During the second half of the day, Young and Duke again entered the lunar module to power it up and check its systems, and perform housekeeping tasks in preparation for lunar landing. The systems were found to be functioning as expected. Following this, the crew donned their space suits and rehearsed procedures that would be used on landing day. Just before the end of flight",
"-21.076252603321336"
],
[
"overcome this, he had to partially depressurize his spacesuit to a potentially dangerous level. He succeeded in safely re-entering the ship, but he and Belyayev faced further challenges when the spacecraft's atmospheric controls flooded the cabin with 45% pure oxygen, which had to be lowered to acceptable levels before re-entry. The reentry involved two more challenges: an improperly timed retrorocket firing caused the Voskhod 2 to land 386 kilometers (240 mi) off its designated target area, the town of Perm; and the instrument compartment's failure to detach from the descent apparatus caused the spacecraft to become unstable during reentry. Soviet crewed",
"-21.06935411359882"
],
[
"Like with vacuuming, the use of pressurized air should be limited to conditions when all people in the contaminated area are wearing personal protective equipment (PPE). The use of pressurized air is often not recommended because there are many hazards associated with the method, including respiratory and skin damage. Advantages of dry decontamination Dry decontamination reduces concerns associated with cold weather decontamination while also speeding up the decontamination process by allowing victims to self-decontaminate (or be decontaminated by a first responder with minimal cross contamination). In addition, some contaminants are water-reactive and wet decontamination methods may only increase the potential",
"-21.066143238102086"
],
[
"the suit possessed a personal cloaking device that could turn Gordon totally invisible and was made of a material that could withstand the temperature of an incinerator long enough for Gordon to break out (even if it had to be repaired after the fire damage). When Gordon was acting alone, the robot Batsuit could run a 'nimble auto program' that would allow Gordon's home base to set a target and allow the suit to calculate how to reach that target, using basic contextual materials to act on its own accord. The suit proved powerful as a combat asset, and Powers",
"-21.025481057862635"
],
[
"Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment. It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads. During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and color temperatures adjusted. Food On",
"-21.00410128128715"
],
[
"air space. A sneeze- or cough-generated pathogenic aerosol will take significant time to be treated by a circulating air purifier simply because air circulators are unable to treat all air of the room simultaneously. Air circulators treat a fractional room volume per unit time and exhaust the treated air back into the room resulting in fractional air dilution. In contrast, air sanitizers that are maintained at a sufficient and homogeneous concentration (see homogeneous (chemistry)) within the interior air space provide simultaneous treatment of the entire interior air space volume, but are not able to remove particles including",
"-20.983906387991738"
],
[
"the vacuum of space. The test stand provided a reduced atmospheric pressure of about 6.9 kilopascals (1.00 psi) – equivalent to being at an altitude of 60,000 feet (18,000 m). This was done by injecting water into the exhaust, which created a superheated steam that surged out at high speeds, creating a vacuum.\nETS-1 took longer for Aerojet to complete than expected, partly due to shrinking budgets, but also because of technical challenges. It was built from pure aluminum, which did not become radioactive when irradiated by neutrons, and there was a water spray to keep it cool. Rubber gaskets were a problem,",
"-20.97606083395658"
],
[
"as an emergency life boat. Passage between the two modules was possible through a pressurized docking tunnel, a major advantage over the Soviet design, which required donning a spacesuit to switch modules. The Command Module featured five windows made of three thick panes of glass. The two inner panes, made of aluminosilicate, ensured no cabin air leaked into space. The outer pane served as a debris shield and part of the heat shield needed for atmospheric reentry. The CM was a sophisticated spacecraft with all the systems required for successful flight but with an interior",
"-20.971980040754715"
],
[
"locking mechanism is needed to ensure that it is not inadvertently released during a dive. When using a dry suit, the neck dam may be permanently omitted and the lower part of the helmet assembly attached directly to the suit.\nThe term \"Lightweight\" is relative; the helmets are only light in comparison with the old copper hats. They are supported only by the head and neck of the diver, and are uncomfortably heavy (Weight of KM 77 = 32.43 pounds) out of the water, as they must be ballasted for neutral buoyancy during the dive, so they don't tend to lift",
"-20.9646716627758"
],
[
"service module to the descent module might fail to work after direct exposure to space, that the heat shield might be compromised by direct space exposure, and that an EVA to repair the blankets might cause additional damage. Consideration was given to flying Soyuz TM-10 with one cosmonaut aboard as a rescue mission. During an EVA, the cosmonauts folded back two of the three blankets and left the third alone. During reentry, the cosmonauts ejected both the orbital module and the service module simultaneously in an effort to minimize the chances that a blanket could snag. Normally the orbital module",
"-20.9321707518975"
],
[
"dangerous to use in space'.\nEven before the Apollo 1 fire, the CM crew cabin was reviewed for hazardous materials such as paper, velcro, and even low-temperature plastics. A directive was issued but poorly enforced. When combined with high oxygen content, the Apollo 1 cabin burned within seconds, killing all three crew members.\nCosmonaut Anatoly Solovyev flew with Space Pens starting in the '80s and states \"pencil lead breaks...and is not good in space capsule; very dangerous to have metal lead particles in zero gravity\". Mission assurance and quality records Strict documentation requirements accompany anything as complex as a large-scale",
"-20.929993748555717"
],
[
"kilopascal (0.087 to 0.145 psi). On the surface, radiation exposure is a concern, especially solar flare events, which can dramatically increase the amount of radiation over a short time.\nSome of the issues a Mars suit for surface operations would face include having enough oxygen for the person as the air is mostly carbon dioxide; in addition the air is also at a much lower pressure than Earth's atmosphere at sea level. Other issues include the Martian dust, low temperatures, and radiation. Designs The Biosuit is a mechanical counterpressure suit, resulting in a body hugging form. In this type of suit,",
"-20.915297611558344"
],
[
"propellants venting from the spacecraft and reentering a cabin air intake. The RCS was inadvertently left on during descent, and the toxic fumes were sucked into the spacecraft as it drew in outside air. Brand briefly lost consciousness, while Stafford retrieved emergency oxygen masks, put one on Brand, and gave one to Slayton. The three astronauts were hospitalized for two weeks in Honolulu. Brand took responsibility for the mishap; because of high noise levels in the cabin during reentry, he believes he was unable to hear Stafford call off one item of the reentry checklist, the closure of two switches",
"-20.892179654794745"
],
[
"Sv is deadly). Almost all radiation will be received while passing the inner belt.\nThe Apollo missions marked the first event where humans traveled through the Van Allen belts, which was one of several radiation hazards known by mission planners. The astronauts had low exposure in the Van Allen belts due to the short period of time spent flying through them. Apollo flight trajectories bypassed the inner belts completely, passing through the thinner areas of the outer belts.\nAstronauts' overall exposure was actually dominated by solar particles once outside Earth's magnetic field. The total radiation received by the astronauts varied from mission",
"-20.890978269279003"
],
[
"Wake Shield Facility Wake Shield Facility is an experimental science platform that was placed in low Earth orbit by the Space Shuttle. It is a 3.7 meter (12 ft) diameter, free-flying stainless steel disk.\nThe WSF was deployed in the wake of the Space Shuttle at an orbital altitude of over 300 kilometers (186 mi), within the thermosphere, where the atmosphere is exceedingly tenuous. The forward edge of the WSF disk redirected atmospheric and other particles around the sides, leaving an \"ultra-vacuum\" in its wake. The resulting vacuum was used to study epitaxial film growth.\nThe WSF has flown into space three times, on",
"-20.888463503602622"
]
] |
77lnt9 | How stock trading works/worked? I've only seen it in movies so I'm wondering why these people were always just screaming and waving pieces of paper around and call it a job. | [
"The angered mob was buying and selling shares of stock to one another. The setting for these trades is called the trading floor. The loud shouting was to inform anyone your interest of selling or buying a quantity of stock at a price. Once you find someone to make the trade with, you each fill out a trading slip and the transaction is confirmed. Now, more popularly, the asking and bidding on shares is performed via computers.",
"It's not like that anymore, but it used to be pretty much what it looks like. Guy 1: \"I'm selling $STOCK for $MONEY\" Guy 2: \"I'll buy 1,000 $STOCK for $MONEY!\" Guy 1: \"Sold!\" Remember, the movie scenes are almost always pegged on some crazy fiscal meltdown. It didn't look that chaotic most of the time. These days it's all digital. Sellers post their prices, and buyers try to buy only to get screwed out of a nickel by unscrupulous flash traders. Heh.",
"It's almost all digital nowadays. There are people offering to buy stocks at a certain price and there are people offering to sell stocks at a certain price. A computer matches them and executes the transaction.",
"In very very very basic terms it's the super dilution of ownership of a company. Stock is basically, well the stake of a company, broken up into tiny tiny pieces and put on the public market. Usually a board of directors own enough shares to control the company while the shares that go out on the market are called publicly traded shares. Say for example, you are a cannibal recipe website called Facecook and you as a private company have grown in popularity. You now need an injection of money to go to the next level and you don't want some huge investment firm controlling so much they could replace you. You break up your company's ownership into tiny shares, keep a majority for yourself, pass on some smaller amounts to your board of directors and your employees and the rest goes on the market. You set a reasonable valuation for it on the day it goes public, called the IPO or initial public offering. People all want a piece of the action, because they know if you do well, the stock value goes up (including that face cook stock you bought). Stock price goes up as demand goes up, or if there's rumors of something awesome you're doing. But in all honesty, most people on the public market are there as hawkers at a bazaar. Their aim is to buy at low prices and sell at high prices. The amount they get to own of your company is so little, they have little to no say in what your company does as an individual. But as a collective, every time there's Frenzy to buy, they drive your stock price up and inject capital into your company. EDIT (here's the part you were looking for): For individuals who play the game at the frenzied bazaar full time, they're all trying to hit gold. Have those few super massive successful trades that can make them millionaires in a matter of minutes. With thousands of people trading non stop around the world, values fluctuate like crazy. And provided you have the right mix and the right access to buy and sell stocks from the right company, you can make a killing (and lose it). When they scream sell sell sell, they want people to dump the stock because there's reason to believe it will drop. Once it bottoms out. They'll buy it again and sell it once it rises. It's like a manifestation of what nature is - an adrenaline fuelled chaotic race for survival over limited resources where wit, cunning and luck can all work in your favour or you can lose out despite 'doing everything right'",
"Nowadays it's almost entirely electronic. Traders submit orders into the exchange that are like \"I want to buy 100 shares of XYZ at $30,\" and as soon as someone is willing to sell at that price, the exchange informs both parties that the trade has occurred. The exchange will also list what the current highest \"bid\" and lowest \"ask\" are, so you'd see that someone is currently willing to buy 100 shares of XYZ for $30 and someone else is willing to sell 500 shares for $30.01. You can also submit a \"market order\" like \"sell 1000 shares to whomever will give me the best price,\" which in the above example might cause you to sell 100 shares to the guy bidding $30, then another 400 to some other guy bidding $29.99, and the last 500 to someone else bidding $29.98. The exchange will automatically figure out who owes what and handle the transactions. However, this was all much harder before computers. Instead of submitting your order automatically, you'd need to have someone on the floor of the exchange yelling about how much you wanted to buy/sell and the price. When you tried to buy stock for your personal account, your bank would then contact their floor trader to buy that stock for you. The pieces of paper were for writing down what trades that trader personally had done. When you'd see those people in movies, it'd be during major moves in the price, which would cause significant activity in the area and increase the general level of chaos. You might think \"why wouldn't they lie about what happened?\" They could do that, but failing to follow through with a trade just because it ended up bad for you would destroy your reputation, and the rest of the traders would know and you'd never get trades again.",
"Usually the shouting is from futures pits, that means everyone in the pit is trading futures on the same commodity (they're all trading coffee or orange juice or a certain type of wheat to be delivered in a few weeks). So to make a trade two people only need to agree on the price and the number of contracts. Those were negotiated by hand signals, so people wanting to buy would look around the room for someone signaling they wanted to sell, and when someone was found they'd flash some hand signals to establish the price and number of contracts. After that they would each fill out a piece of paper from their order book with the information from the trade. So one side's paper would say, \"At specific time, I (broker 393) bought 10 contracts at a price of $3.47 per bushel from broker number 552\" and the other side's paper would hopefully say \"At the same time, I (broker 552) sold 10 contracts at a price of $3.47 per bushel to broker 393.\" Then they would hand the papers to runners who would take them to an employee of the exchange. The exchange would match these papers and record that Broker 393's account now has 10 more contracts and broker 552 has 10 fewer. There were occasionally errors, where perhaps two people think they bought from the same person, but they were pretty rare (everyone in the room paid a lot of money to be there, so no one wanted to make enough mistakes that they would lose their right to be there). So the papers are blank trade sheets, which become important when their filled out, and the shouting is an often futile attempt to get the attention of someone who you want to make a trade. Live stock market trading was done with specialists (one broker who would take the other side of every trade) who essentially created tiny areas where everyone might be trading a single stock. There was less risk of an error because the specialist was the only person who could trade with everyone. As you probably expect, specialists minted money for a very long time. Today computerized trading for almost all products is done on the same open outcry method, but the computer can record the transaction as it's made and little need for shouting or hand signals.",
"It is heavily dramatized in movies to an unrealistic level. In real life, stocks represent an investment in a company that you can later sell back for a profit. Every now and then events will happen in the environment that can drastically affect the profitability of a company and that may cause a “frenzy” on the stock market as people react to that event. More often activity on the stock market is spurred by press releases from companies saying that they are going to start making a new product or service.",
"It's called open outcry or pit trading. More common for futures than stocks AFAIK. They lasted way beyond the start of electronic trading but not many left today, especially in bigger markets. Check out the documentary, floored. They talk about what the hand signals mean and the mechanics of a trade. Most basic explanation I have is that it's like a constant, ongoing negotiation between many different buyers and sellers, all at the same time."
] | [
[
"the media.\nThe Fortune Tellers: Inside Wall Street's Game of Money, Media and Manipulation (2000, ISBN 0-684-86879-2) addresses the growing public fascination with stock market trading as fueled by cable television shows and internet sites providing platforms to pundits, stock touts, and brokerage firm stock analysts. The potential for manipulation of the media and the public by stock market insiders is discussed.\nReality Show: Inside the Last Great Television News War, (2007, ISBN 0-7432-9982-5) chronicles the struggles at TV networks ABC, NBC and CBS to enhance the stature, credibility and audience draw of their anchors of the evening network news programs. The book's focus",
"-22.829832933741272"
],
[
"Hollywood Stock Exchange Operation Because trading directly affects the prices of the securities – purchasing enough shares of a stock causes its price to rise, and selling causes its price to fall – and because the ultimate value of a moviestock is based on the film's box office, stock prices act as box office predictions. For example, if a particular moviestock trades at \"H$40.00\", the market is predicting that the movie will gross US$40 million at the box office in the first four weekends of wide release. In 2007, players in the Hollywood Stock Exchange correctly predicted 32 of the",
"-22.673312910486857"
],
[
"Stockman was a misguided Caucasian inventor (as opposed to an African American, as portrayed in the rest of the franchise) who tried to bill his Mousers to the Ajax Pest Control company. They did not like his suggestion, saying it would put them out of business (the Mouser was too effective and there would soon be no more rats to kill), and threw him out of the building.\nThe Shredder had watched this via his cameras, and offered Stockman a job. Embittered, the scientist promptly accepted, and Shredder ordered him to create a \"master control device\" for the Mousers. The Shredder,",
"-22.489944177417783"
],
[
"at auction for use in making Lucky Strike cigarettes and claimed that the higher quality tobacco resulted in a cigarette with better flavor. American engaged in a series of advertisements using Hollywood actors as endorsers of Lucky Strike, including testimonials from Douglas Fairbanks, concerning the cigarette's flavor, often described as delicious due to the tobacco being toasted. In 1937-38, American Tobacco paid the equivalent of $3.8 million in 2019 USD to 16 Hollywood actors and actresses for their endorsement of Lucky Strike, the highest paid being Joan Crawford and Gary Cooper, who were each paid $10,000 (roughly $178,000 in 2019",
"-22.272185604902916"
],
[
"Let's Go Crazy (1951).\nIn The Way We Were (1972) the main characters attend a party, dressed as the Marx Brothers. The real Groucho Marx also visited the set, of which a photograph was taken by David F. Smith.\nIn Woody Allen's Take the Money and Run (1969) Virgil's parents give an interview while wearing Groucho masks. Annie Hall (1977) starts off with a Groucho Marx joke, which is referred to again later. In Manhattan (1979), he names the Marx Brothers as the first thing that makes life worth living. In Stardust Memories there is a huge Groucho poster in the main",
"-21.965610082203057"
],
[
"Traded (film) Plot The film opens with the narrator stating that women have little value in the West and many become prostitutes. Women are sold and traded like property in Kansas.\nIn a western cabin 17 year daughter, Lily, asks Dad, Clay, if she can go to the \"tie dance\" and he says no despite Mom's support. Son, Jake, is sent outside to fetch some honey and is fatally bitten by a rattlesnake. After the funeral and the passage of time, the family is dysfunctional. The mother is in a deep depression and the daughter",
"-21.867979348899098"
],
[
"including then-fellow CNBC reporter Dennis Kneale, and cycling star Lance Armstrong. Despite his aggressiveness, his reporting frequently has a dramatic impact on the markets. The Financial Times quotes Goldman Sachs's then-chief spokesman Lucas Van Praag as saying \"Most trading floors have CNBC on with the sound turned down, but when Charlie comes on, they listen.... [H]e does move stock prices.\" Similarly, Gasparino's then-colleague at CNBC Lawrence Kudlow said of him: \"He broke some great stories. I give Charlie a lot of credit for having great sources and, to tell you the truth, most of his steers have been good. He",
"-21.7611851656402"
],
[
"to be pointing out that, metaphorically, that's what NYSE traders \"were already doing.\" \"We didn't call the press,\" wrote Hoffman. \"At that time we really had no notion of anything called a media event.\" Yet the press was quick to react and by evening the event was reported around the world. After that incident, the stock exchange spent $20,000 to enclose the gallery with bulletproof glass.\nIn October 1967, David Dellinger of the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam asked Jerry Rubin to help mobilize and direct a march on the Pentagon. The protesters gathered at the Lincoln",
"-21.71163388135028"
],
[
"characterises media investigations into his business dealings (and particularly the links between his anti-drugs charity and CIA drug trafficking) as \"yellow journalism\". Newsboys in the front line of the circulation wars Sensationalism made readers want to purchase newspapers, and circulation managers had to find new ways to handle the much heavier load. They typically relied primarily on newspaper hawkers or newsboy who sold individual copies of one paper on downtown streets. There also were plenty of newsstands that sold different titles from a stationary stand or storefront. Vending machines came in the 1950s. Home delivery was uncommon in",
"-21.704614019430664"
],
[
"Good News, Bad News (novel) Plot summary The novel revolves around two men, Charlie Millar and George, both secret agents who are mistakenly placed together as employees in a photo kiosk at Oxford Circus. Neither man is aware of the other's real identity. Then a \"Frame Thirteen\" order comes through, instructing each to assassinate the other.\nCharlie and George try at first to carry out the order. But in time they learn that the real problem lies with the organisation for which they both work. As the chase begins, the two men come to understand that things not what they seem,",
"-21.703889434429584"
],
[
"Jack of All Trades (1936 film) Plot Jack, out of work and responsible for an aged mother, takes a succession of jobs, bluffing his way through them all. Critical reception Writing for The Spectator in 1936, Graham Greene gave the film a mildly negative review. After giving high praise to the board meeting scene in the first half of the film, and describing it as an \"excellent sequence\" of \"pointed fooling\", Greene comments that the remainder of the film \"degenerates into nothing but [...] an awful eternal disembodied Cheeriness\".",
"-21.694914881984005"
],
[
"brokerage firm Smith Barney, which featured the catchphrase, \"They make money the old fashioned way... they earn it .\" Another was Puritan brand cooking oil, with \"less saturated fat than the leading oil\", featuring the famous 'tomato test'.\nHe played Jewish author Aaron Jastrow (loosely based on the real life figure of Bernard Berenson) in the highly acclaimed 1983 miniseries The Winds of War (receiving a fourth Golden Globe nomination). He declined to reprise the role when the sequel War and Remembrance was made into a miniseries (the role then went to Sir John Gielgud).\nHowever he was in the",
"-21.687249658018118"
],
[
"first outing The Cocoanuts, where Mr. Hammer (Groucho) asks him if he knew what an auction was, in which he responds \"I come from Italy on the Atlantic Auction!\" Chico's character is often assumed to be dim-witted, as he frequently misunderstands words spoken by other characters (particularly Groucho). However, he often gets the better of the same characters by extorting money from them, either by con or blackmail; again, Groucho is his most frequent target.\nChico was a talented pianist. He originally started playing with only his right hand and fake playing with his left, as his teacher did so",
"-21.563152633247228"
],
[
"(which are often hero props in the first sense as well). The term may sometimes be used in stage production, as many props from film find their way into theatre from common rental and purchase shops. Prop money Prop money must comply with local counterfeit money regulations.",
"-21.525641553686"
],
[
"Award. In Paper Money (1981), he memorably introduced the catchphrase \"Assume a can opener\" to mock the tendency of economists to make unjustified assumptions and asked \"Why are the economists almost always wrong?\" During a stint in Hollywood, he wrote screen plays, including that for The Wheeler Dealers, starring James Garner and Lee Remick, adapted from his novel of the same title.\nHe was a member of the Editorial Board of The New York Times, an editor of Esquire Magazine, a writer for Fortune magazine, and a founding member of New York magazine where he worked with such writers as Tom",
"-21.51876716883271"
],
[
"The Greatest Salesman in the World Quotes \"You were not created for a life of idleness. You cannot eat from sunrise to sunset or drink or play or make love. Work is not your enemy but your friend. If all manners of labor were forbidden to thee you would fall to your knees and beg an early death.\" The Greatest Salesman in the World part two, the end of the story This is a sequel to Mandino's 1967 bestselling book, published in 1988 and set forty years later than the first part; the main character Hafid is in a sad",
"-21.40816664515296"
],
[
"2003. The lead actors were given professional instruction in sleight-of-hand and pick-pocketing; \"all the tricks of the trade from card-shuffling to stealing watches\", according to Lester. The cast found the experience informative; Murray explained, \"I realised that most cons are all about diversion – while you're trying to con somebody you're doing something to distract them in the opposite direction so they don't notice and that's exactly how pickpockets work\".\nSeveral members of the cast described Hustle's filming schedule as incredibly hectic. Vaughn said that \"[the role] was offered to me, and I was told to get on a plane an",
"-21.404701912077144"
],
[
"a factory owner in Casualty.\nHis film credits include playing Wu Han in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and CIA liaison agent Chuck Lee in the 1985 James Bond film A View to a Kill.\nHe performed the radio play The Inventor of Fireworks, written by Benjamin Yeoh for BBC Radio 3 on 22 January 2004.\nYip wrote a play, named Gold Mountain, which was made for Liverpool Capital of Culture 2008, but owing to writing problems, it was delayed. It is based on his father's life. It premiered on 6 October 2010, at the Unity Theatre, Liverpool, and was performed",
"-21.38699570661265"
],
[
"opens his Democratic Eloquence: The Fight over Popular Speech in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1990) with the famous quote, \"You knew the job was dangerous when you took it,\" which is found on the dedication page.\nIn the Jerry Pournelle and Roland Green science fiction novel Clan and Crown, part of the Janissaries series, the mercenary Ben Murphy is in a tight situation and says to himself, \"But what the hell, you knew the job was dangerous when you took it, Fred...\", a clear reference to the Super Chicken theme song. No character named Fred occurs",
"-21.38632121370756"
],
[
"tell your story laugh by laugh by laugh... The object of the movie was for every inch of it to be a laugh.\nThe film was shot on location in San Francisco, including one scene set in Ernie's restaurant, whose striking red interior was immortalized in Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo (1958). Other scenes were filmed at San Quentin State Prison, where 100 prisoners were paid a small fee to work on the film. The regular cast and crew were stamped each day with a special ink that glowed under ultra-violet light so the guards could tell who was allowed to leave the",
"-21.22783354279818"
],
[
"China, Easter Island, or French Polynesia will save production companies the major costs of transporting crew and equipment to those actual locations.\nStock footage is often used in commercials when there is not enough money or time for production. More often than not these commercials are political or issue-oriented in nature. Sometimes it can be used to composite moving images tha create the illusion of having on-camera performers appear to be on location. The term B-roll may refer to stock footage or newly shot scenes.\nStock footage that appears on television screens or monitors shown in movies or television shows is referred",
"-21.20301113293317"
],
[
"that the news of peace was a fabrication. The affected stocks' prices immediately sank to their previous levels. Investigation The Committee of the Stock Exchange, suspecting deliberate stock manipulation, launched an investigation into the hoax. It was soon discovered that there had been a sale that Monday of more than £1.1 million of two government-based stocks, most of it purchased the previous week. Three people connected with that purchase were charged with the fraud: Lord Cochrane, a Radical member of Parliament and well-known naval hero, his uncle the Hon. Andrew Cochrane-Johnstone, and Richard Butt, Lord Cochrane's financial advisor. Captain",
"-21.100943098776042"
],
[
"friend of Brando. Brando avoided military service during the Korean War.\nEarly in his career, Brando began using cue cards instead of memorizing his lines. Despite the objections of several of the film directors he worked with, Brando felt that this helped bring realism and spontaneity to his performances. He felt otherwise he would appear to be reciting a writer's speech. In the TV documentary The Making of Superman: The Movie, Brando explained:\nIf you don't know what the words are but you have a general idea of what they are, then you look at the cue card and it gives you",
"-21.077143291491666"
],
[
"and antics on the set, Wood yelled in disgust: \"You can't make an actor out of clay.\" Marx responded, \"Nor a director out of Wood.\"\nMarx also worked as a radio comedian and show host. One of his earliest stints was a short-lived series in 1932, Flywheel, Shyster, and Flywheel, costarring Chico. Though most of the scripts and discs were thought to have been destroyed, all but one of the scripts were found in 1988 in the Library of Congress.\nIn 1947, Marx was asked to host a radio quiz program You Bet Your Life. It was broadcast by ABC and then",
"-21.034742405754514"
],
[
"the Star's sports department, he worked under Milt Dunnell in 1953 and later the Star's former weekly magazine as sports editor. While with the Star, one challenging assignment saw him smuggling a gun — he opted for a fake one made of wood — in a gun case into Maple Leaf Gardens in 1956 during a Toronto Maple Leafs playoff game against the Detroit Red Wings. The objective for Hunt was to test the Gardens' security. He was able to get past the ticket-takers and the Star ran the picture of him and the gun case on the front page",
"-20.9741515103633"
],
[
"whom he had worked before and whom he trusted, leading some critics to refer to these people as a \"stock company\", including such performers as: Fernando Rey, Francisco Rabal, Pierre Clementi, Julien Bertheau, Michel Piccoli, Claudio Brook, Silvia Pinal, Paul Frankeur and Georges Marchal. In his final film, That Obscure Object of Desire, the central character was played by Rey, but voiced by the French-speaking Piccoli. He told actors as little as possible, and limited his directions mostly to physical movements (\"move to the right\", \"walk down the hall and go through that door\", etc.), arguing that he",
"-20.973791238560807"
],
[
"for witnesses and jurors in criminal trials to sell their stories until the case is finished.\nHoward Kurtz is among many journalists who states that paying for news stories, which he says was \"essentially invented by the London tabloids,\" raises questions about their credibility. And writer Andrea Gerlin adds that the circulation wars among British newspapers has over the years led to rounds of \"media witch-hunts, checkbook journalism, and intrusive stories about celebrities.\" In 2012, it was disclosed that reporters and editors at The Sun, a UK tabloid, had for years paid hundreds of thousands of dollars to police officers, along",
"-20.963577592268848"
],
[
"list of the contents of a survival kit to his crew, concluding that a man could have \"a pretty nice weekend in Vegas\" with some of the items. When the scene was shot, Pickens spoke the scripted line (\"Dallas\"), but the word \"Vegas\" was overdubbed during post-production because the film was released not long after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in Dallas in November 1963.\nAccording to Miller, Peter Sellers quietly paid Southern tens of thousands of dollars to create some of the best-known comedy bits for Sellers' character Inspector Clouseau in the Pink Panther film series.\nSouthern also helped",
"-20.956997067623888"
],
[
"film belongs on top of sky high pile of other 'I Spy' losers\" ending the review with \"come die with me\". The review in Variety paraphrased Dromm's National Airline commercial catchphrase \"Is this any way to run an airline? You bet it is!\" to \"Is this any way to make a motion picture? You bet it isn't!\" Home media Come Spy with Me has not been reissued by 20th Century Fox or released on home video.",
"-20.95681932275329"
],
[
"ways people could get engaged and involved in social and political issues of the day. These advertisements generally had some motive aside from simply delivering information. Some of these included war bond ads which, while lacking corporate sponsors, still attempted to sell the public something instead of just delivering information. Some of these included war bond ads which, while lacking corporate sponsors, still attempted to sell the public something instead of just delivering information. Other wartime advertisements include the “Loose Lips Sink Ships” campaign that began in Britain and the “Stamp ‘em Out” campaign that spread",
"-20.919147594831884"
],
[
"which the American actors would try to explain the plot, sometimes using extensive voice-over narration, or adding scenes in which his actors would simply sit in front of the camera and just talk to each other.\nWarren said in a 1988 interview with Tom Weaver, \"I'd shoot one day on this stuff and throw it together...I was in the business to make money. I never, ever tried in any way to compete, or to make something worthwhile. I only did enough to get by, so they would buy it, so it would play, and so I'd get a few dollars. It's",
"-20.877469761719112"
],
[
"Farina. Maltin wrote in his book about the excitement when the first talkie by Our Gang was released \n\"Simplistic as it may seem, early sound films were advertised as \"The marvel of the age! Pictures that talk like living people! Electrifying! For \"Small Talk\", [#89, released May 1929] the trade blurbs read \"A sensation wherever it is being shown! Until you See and Hear Our Gang in their first All-Talking Hit 'Small Talk' you can't know the profit power of the Roach talkies. Many theaters are billing them above the feature. When Our Gang made a personal appearance tour they",
"-20.826522775458216"
],
[
"as \"Hell's Grannies\", \"Piranha Brothers\", and \"The Funniest Joke in the World\". The Hart and Lorne Terrific Hour (1970–1971) also featured mockumentary pieces which interspersed both scripted and real-life man-in-the-street interviews, the most famous likely being \"The Puck Crisis\" in which hockey pucks were claimed to have become infected with a form of Dutch elm disease.\nAll You Need Is Cash, developed from an early series of sketches in the comedy series Rutland Weekend Television, is a 1978 television film in mockumentary style about The Rutles, a fictional band that parodies The Beatles. In film Since the beginning of the 1980s,",
"-20.794864420662634"
],
[
"Business, was also featured in the same issue of the publication with a short summary. It states: \"Jack is an industrious young businessman, who has invested in a small stock of stationery, and set up shop. He unfortunately has no customers, and his various schemes to bring trade prove extremely unlucky but mighty laughable. What they are we had better let the little picture tell.\" Production The writer of the two scenarios is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions.",
"-20.751215033320477"
],
[
"containing sketches and comic songs; the songs were undertaken in a variety of comic characters.\nStarting in the 1950s, Sellers appeared in over fifty films, including I'm All Right Jack, Dr. Strangelove, Lolita, Being There and the Pink Panther series. At the peak of his career, he was one of the most popular stars at the British box office: third in most popular films in 1962, and second in 1963. Sellers's versatility enabled him to portray a wide range of comic characters using different accents and guises, and he would often assume multiple roles within the same film. In 2005, Channel",
"-20.747271893080324"
],
[
"He, like Dow, was committed to reporting on Wall Street without bias. Other reporters could be bribed into reporting favorably on a company to drive up stock prices. Dow and Jones refused to manipulate the stock market.\nThe two young men believed that Wall Street needed another financial news bureau. In November 1882, they started their own agency, Dow, Jones & Company. The business' headquarters was located in the basement of a candy store. Charles Bergstresser was the chief financier of the fledgling company, but chose to be a silent partner. Bergstresser's strength lay in his interviewing skills. Jones once remarked",
"-20.707630984622256"
],
[
"early films. Many other stock characters are popularly known, as well, such as Mammy and Jezebel. These stock characters are still continuously used and referenced for a number of different reasons. Many articles reference Mammy and Jezebel in television shows with Black female main characters, as in the television series Scandal. Jim Crow The character Jim Crow was dressed in rags, battered hat, and torn shoes. The actor blackened his face and hands and impersonated a very nimble and irreverently witty African-American field hand who sang, \"Turn about and wheel about, and do just so. And every time I turn",
"-20.68093107212917"
],
[
"to Let's Go Crazy, the earliest film to showcase Sellers's ability to portray a series of different characters within the same film, and he made another appearance opposite his Goons co-stars in the 1952 flop, Down Among the Z Men. In 1954, Sellers was cast opposite Sid James, Tony Hancock, Raymond Huntley, Donald Pleasence and Eric Sykes in the British Lion Film Corporation comedy production, Orders Are Orders. John Grierson believes that this was Sellers's breakthrough role on screen and credits this film with launching the film careers of both Sellers and Hancock. I'm All Right Jack and early years",
"-20.67969233720214"
],
[
"Market (1965 film) Plot Bok-nyeo, a mentally handicapped woman, supports her lazy husband by selling apples at the public marketplace. When her husband abandons her for another woman, another man who sympathizes with Bok-nyeo, kills him.",
"-20.617862536833854"
],
[
"Nothing but the Truth (1929 film) Plot Robert Bennett (Richard Dix) is a stockbroker who is very carefree with other people's money. Encouraging clients to buy stocks in companies that are failing is all in a day's work to him. His fiancée Gwenn Burke (Dorothy Hall) has to raise $40,000 for a charity project, comes to him with $10,000 to invest from her charity group, and wants him to double it within five days.\nMeanwhile, E. M. Burke (Berton Churchill), Frank Connelly (Louis John Bartels), and Clarence Van Dyke (Ned Sparks) bet Bennett they will pay him each $10,000 if he",
"-20.609222200651857"
],
[
"Money Talks (1997 film) Plot Franklin Maurice Hatchett (Chris Tucker) is a fast-talking small-time car wash hustler and ticket scalper who owes money to a local mobster named Carmine (Damian Chapa). The police are informed of his crimes by an investigating news reporter named James Russell (Charlie Sheen) after Hatchett unintentionally thwarts Russell's attempts to have him confess his crimes on camera, and he is arrested. When placed on a prison transport unit, he is handcuffed to a French criminal named Raymond Villard (Gerard Ismael). The transport unit is attacked on a bridge with mercenaries killing all the police",
"-20.563291010272224"
],
[
"make the film, provided Kosinski could write the script. During filming, to remain in character, Sellers refused most interview requests and kept his distance from the other actors. Sellers considered Chance's walking and voice the character's most important attributes, and in preparing for the role worked alone with a tape recorder or with his wife, and then with Ashby, to perfect the clear enunciation and flat delivery needed to reveal \"the childlike mind behind the words\". Sellers described his experience of working on the film as \"so humbling, so powerful\", and co-star Shirley MacLaine found Sellers \"a dream\" to work",
"-20.552173043775838"
],
[
"did they risk their image by smoking on screen. Even the villains were classy about the tobacco use, smoking cigars in three-piece suits as they plotted their evil plans. However, the modern day heroes have brought a new tradition of \"lighting up a cigarette while performing martial arts stunts.\" Influenced by Western cinema such as Hollywood films, the heroes in Bollywood movies now have more suave, attitude, and machismo, all which appears to be complemented by the use of cigarettes. As noted by the WHO study, the occurrence of \"good guys\" in films smoking or using tobacco has gone",
"-20.537959981826134"
],
[
"Sam Stockman Acting career Stockman began acting at the age of 10 in the independent film B&B. Since then he has also appeared on the UK soap Family Affairs, several episodes of Holby City as the troubled drug addict James Hope, in the 1999 film Don't Go Breaking My Heart, the 2011 Christmas special of Doctor Who and the 2011 film The Task. He appeared in the acclaimed UK crime drama Whitechapel as DC Emerson Kent for the duration of the series, between 2009 and 2013. Musicianship While maintaining a successful acting career, Stockman also relentlessly pursued his passion for",
"-20.529659325169632"
],
[
"Money,\" \"Unparalleled Receipts,\" and \"The Picture That Blocked Traffic on Broadway\" were some of the headlines for ads that ran in trade publications in an attempt to get theater owners to book the picture.\nAccording to a report in Exhibitor's Trade Review on the film's success in Omaha, 14,000 saw the film there in a single week, a record for that city. \"Wild cheering marked every show when the young captain socked the Kaiser on the jaw. Patriotic societies boosted the picture because of its aid in stirring up the country to war. Street car signs were used; huge street banners",
"-20.51487779454328"
],
[
"film was achieved by taking a standard Swingline stapler and spray-painting it red.\nThe website TV Tropes has named its page for the phenomenon where a product's appearance in media creates demand for it in the real world, sometimes sufficient enough for a manufacturer to make a real version of one that had previously only had a fictional existence, \"The Red Stapler\". Root says when he shows up on sets today, the crew has usually ordered several boxes of Swingline red staplers and left them waiting for him. Video game Kongregate released a mobile game based on the film, titled Office",
"-20.505547940032557"
],
[
"role as a fake news creator, said that his company employed 20 to 25 writers at a time and made $10,000 to $30,000 monthly from advertisements. Coler began his career in journalism as a magazine salesman before working as a freelance writer. He said he entered the fake news industry to prove to himself and others just how rapidly fake news can spread. Disinfomedia is not the only outlet responsible for the distribution of fake news; Facebook users play a major role in feeding into fake news stories by making sensationalized stories \"trend\", according to BuzzFeed media editor Craig Silverman,",
"-20.452077193724108"
],
[
"bankers. In addition, traders were brought in to coach actors on the set on how to hold phones, write out tickets, and talk to clients. Stone asked Lipper to design a six-week course that would expose Charlie Sheen to a cross section of young Wall Street business people. The actor said, \"I was impressed and very, very respectful of the fact that they could maintain that kind of aggressiveness and drive\".\nDouglas worked with a speech instructor on breath control in order to become better acclimatized to the fast rhythm of the film's dialogue. Early on in the shoot, Stone tested",
"-20.437331498396816"
],
[
"Stock and Two Smoking Barrels. In his review, Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, writing that while ostensibly rooted in the London underworld, Pitt's Irish traveller community were the most interesting element of the plot and the film's clearest predecessors were all American: Dick Tracy comics, Damon Runyon stories, and zany Marx Brothers comedies. He raised the question of \"What am I to say of 'Snatch', Ritchie's new film, which follows the 'Lock, Stock' formula so slavishly it could be like a new arrangement of the same song?\" Writing in the New York Times Elvis Mitchell",
"-20.41600868225214"
],
[
"of white people can be when subjected to the prejudices faced by black people. In that respect, Budd proclaims Trading Places as \"uncannily illustrative if heavy-handed\". Beginning from the premise that, in the film, the \"expectations of the races also stand upon their head\", Budd states that \"through even a highly comedic vessel a message loudly asking for a reassessment of prejudice, and for level playing fields, is heard.\" Box office Trading Places was released theatrically in the United States on June 10, 1983. During its opening weekend, the film earned $7.3 million from 1,375 theaters—an average of $5,334 per",
"-20.389681399450637"
],
[
"Star Spangled Salesman Premise The film, directed by Norman Maurer, stars Howard Morris as a movie studio clerk who is assigned to get his colleagues interested in enrolling a payroll plan that is tied to the purchase of savings bonds.",
"-20.381281408655923"
],
[
"deal in terms of a percentage of the film's profits, rather than in a guaranteed salary as in the past. This is most notable among the top stars.\nMost actors became freelancers after the end of the studio system. Financial backers increasingly demanded star actors, directors, and writers for projects to reduce risk of failure. The growing importance of the overseas market—40 to 50% of Hollywood's total revenue by 1957—also emphasized stars' names as box-office attractions. With their new power, \"working for nothing\"—receiving a percentage of profit instead of a salary—became a status symbol for stars. A top actor could expect",
"-20.374041580420453"
],
[
"would later recall rolling the story out of his typewriter, folding it up and putting it in his wallet. He said he never thought about giving the story to management, even though he risked missing the story. Twelve days later, the strike ended, and the story ran on October 3, 1973.\nAt an Associated Press Managing Editors convention the following month, Journal reporter Joseph Ungaro asked Nixon about the story. Nixon replied with a quote that was to become associated with him for the rest of his life: \"People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook.",
"-20.354539304265927"
],
[
"investigative-news show in town, hosted by Edison Carter. In the Max Headroom world, real-time ratings equal advertising dollars, and advertisements have replaced stocks as the measure of corporate worth.\nGrossberg, with his secret prodigy Bryce Lynch, develops a high-speed advertising delivery method known as Blipverts, which condenses full advertisements into a few seconds. When Carter discovers that Blipverts are killing people, Grossberg orders Lynch to prevent Carter from getting out of the building. Knocked unconscious, Carter's memories are extracted into a computer by Lynch in order to determine whether Carter uncovered Grossberg's knowledge of the danger of Blipverts. The resulting computer",
"-20.341941769864206"
],
[
"Eyman notes that Mankiewicz was put in charge of writer recruitment by Paramount. However, as \"a hard-drinking gambler, he hired men in his own image: Ben Hecht, Bartlett Cormack, Edwin Justus Mayer, writers comfortable with the iconoclasm of big-city newsrooms who would introduce their sardonic worldliness to movie audiences.\nKael notes that \"beginning in 1926, Mankiewicz worked on an astounding number of films.\" In 1927 and 1928, he did the titles (the printed dialogue and explanations) for at least twenty-five films that starred Clara Bow, Bebe Daniels, Nancy Carroll, Wallace Beery, and other public favorites. By then, sound had",
"-20.27030835126061"
],
[
"often the news is wholly toothless, sacrificing journalism for sales, and leaving us not with important public information, but with America's Favorite Pencil\".",
"-20.262494846829213"
],
[
"movie made of earth tones, sidelong glances and eliptic conversations. It tells the story of how the stars of the 1919 Chicago White Sox team took payoffs from gamblers to throw the World Series, but if you are not already familiar with that story you're unlikely to understand it after seeing this film.\" Ebert's colleague Gene Siskel, on the other hand, said, \"Eight Men Out is fascinating if you are a baseball nut ... the portrayal of the recruiting of the ball players and the tight fisted rule of Comiskey is fascinating ... thumbs up.\"\nIn an overall positive review, critic",
"-20.213777433149517"
],
[
"York Yankees baseball, listening to \"The Lone Ranger\" and \"The Texas Rangers\" on the radio, and following the stock market for fun. In the 1930s his favorite job was working at Club 18 where he liked listening to Jackie Gleason, Jack White, Frankie Hyers, and Joe Frisco. Personality Bill was down-to-earth, mild mannered, humble and, by his own admission, vain. On one of the first fine bands he joined, he said of Fred Dexter, \"Why in the world he hired me I do not know; I couldn't blow my nose.\" Bill had a remarkable memory for people he played with",
"-20.209652641264256"
],
[
"An Expensive Place to Die Plot The unnamed narrator, a British agent, is told to leak to the Chinese information about the effectiveness of nuclear weapons, in order to bolster their deterrent effect. M Datt, posing as a psychologist, believes he is working for the Chinese by accumulating compromising film of the sexual activities of various influential people. However, in fact the Chinese have no interest in these films. The narrator does a deal with the French security services to bring together the Chinese agent Kuang with the American nuclear scientist Hudson in a farmhouse in northern France, so that",
"-20.19161501553026"
],
[
"its trading companies. Most stories have an author surrogate, insofar as the author is usually capable of pointing to one character (major or minor) whom he or she identifies with to a much greater degree than any other character. This can take the form of a realistic depiction of the author (Benjamin in Animal Farm), or a negative (Woody Allen in many of his films) or positive depiction of the author. Steve Gerber depicted himself saving the universe in his final issue of Man-Thing for Marvel Comics, and Chris Claremont did the same, while Gerber's act was passive and",
"-20.180680513352854"
],
[
"actor, he has guest-starred on over 50 different TV shows and films, including Seinfeld, Friends, Curb Your Enthusiasm, 3rd Rock from the Sun, Better Off Ted, Rules of Engagement, Anger Management, and Coyote Ugly. He plays recurring characters on Crash & Bernstein and Wilfred.\nChinery’s award-winning Chip's Money Tips, debuted in 2008, to give “Money Tips in a Candy-Coated Shell” through humorous, entertaining and informative videos and written posts. Chinery says, “Most people are clueless about money. Not you - them. Other people.”",
"-20.169847785989987"
],
[
"galvanized by the debates over so-called ‘fake news’, internet companies such as Facebook have launched campaigns to educate users about how to more easily distinguish between ‘fake news’ and real news sources. Ahead of the United Kingdom national election in 2017, for example, Facebook published a series of advertisements in newspapers with ‘Tips for Spotting False News’ which suggested 10 things that might signal whether a story is genuine or not. There have also been broader initiatives bringing together a variety of donors and actors to promote fact-checking and news literacy, such as the News Integrity Initiative at the City",
"-20.162700454122387"
],
[
"film Circus World. According to a Smith biography, Hathaway developed an intense dislike for Smith for unknown reasons and tried to keep him from working again in Hollywood.\nIn 1966, Smith guest-starred as Noble Vestry in the short-lived 1966 ABC comedy/western series The Rounders, starring Chill Wills. That same year, he played the part of Joe Gore in the film entitled Waco.\nIn 1967, Smith was cast as Ed Dow in three episodes of ABC's short-lived Hondo western series, starring Ralph Taeger. He appeared in three episodes: \"Hondo and the Ghost of Ed Dow\", \"Hondo and the War Cry\", and \"Hondo and",
"-20.15920166374417"
],
[
"slow period, he traded as an antiques dealer, taking junk away on a barrow from rich areas of London and selling it as antiques.\nHe went on to perform on the stage, on television and radio, and in several films. He appeared in several films in the 1950s, including Quatermass 2 in 1957, and took a starring role in the 1961 film Pit of Darkness which was the B-feature shown with Adam Faith's What A Whopper. He featured in the 1965 Morecambe and Wise film The Intelligence Men.\nHe appeared in London's West End in comedies such as There's A Girl in",
"-20.155285884888144"
],
[
"improvise, there were boundaries and rules to it, so that the jokes wouldn't lead to nowhere. He explained that once the actors \"get a sense that someone will tell them if something doesn't work, or that we're getting too far afield, then they feel comfortable doing what they do. So, that's the balance that we struck.\"\nProduction went well, and as expected with so many comic actors and personalities around, was lively. During production, Hudlin said that whenever David Alan Grier and Martin Lawrence worked, the film's crew usually worked a little slower because wherever they were, there would be so",
"-20.150738748445292"
],
[
"and other New York tabloid columnists. To research for the role, Platt spent time with crime reporters Phil Messing of the New York Post, Lenny Levitt of Newsday, and Juan Gonzalez and Jim Dwyer of the New York Daily News. The actor went out on stories with them, watched them interview and listened to them work the phones. During lunches, he remembers that he \"got them to tell me their trade secrets.\"\nThe New York Ledger's offices were constructed at the old New York Post building on South Street in New York City. The show based the look of their offices",
"-20.14455704945385"
],
[
"by an actor, or a combination of those were traded for paid advertising and unpaid promotions by the company. Often products were offered for use in films in return for publicity stills for use in companies’ advertising. The first film to win an Academy Award for Best Picture, \"Wings\" (1927), featured a prominent placement of Hershey's candy. \nCompanies commonly sponsored radio programs, and sometimes even helped write them to include product pitches, as with Ovaltine flavored milk supplement and the \"Little Orphan Annie\" radio show. early television programs sometimes included branding in the name of the programs, such as “The",
"-20.127406898813206"
],
[
"not achieved until the 1950s. Story The narrator is getting relief from his business life by gazing at the river from the Thames Embankment, when someone who looks like a tramp starts a conversation with him. Despite his appearance he talks like an educated businessman. He has a bag of what appear to be uncut diamonds. One, which is as big as the tip of a thumb, he offers to sell for a hundred pounds, but the narrator is suspicious.\nThe man tells him that he has spent years on a project to make diamonds. It was done secretly, so that",
"-20.12623930265545"
],
[
"Evans was recruited by The Daily Telegraph's then editor, William Lewis, on strong advice from his deputy, Tony Gallagher.\nIn 2017, Evans expressed his view that fake news is “great” for the news industry, in the sense that it fostered more trust in traditional news brands by contrast, thus \"increasing [their] value.\"",
"-20.117461875022855"
],
[
"of dollars. The company had committed securities fraud by displaying stock tickers and computer screens with the names of real companies but with fake investment returns. On April 29 of the same year, the paper was closed down by the provincial publicity department because of this story. When the paper was allowed to reopen four months later, local officials told Wang that he was no longer allowed to work there. However, China Economic Times picked up the story and subsequently offered Wang a job as a senior reporter in January 2002. Publishing this story resulted in threats to both Wang",
"-20.115639203999308"
],
[
"Paper Man (1971) and The Failing of Raymond (1971) as well as a support part in Adventures of Nick Carter (1972).\nStockwell had the lead in a biker movie, The Loners (1972), the last film of Sam Katzman which Stockwell called \"a mess\", and horror comedy The Werewolf of Washington (1973). Stockwell said the script of the latter \"had a brilliant edge to it. It was satirical, political, funny, witty and wonderful\" but said the director ruined it.\nDuring the mid-1970s, he designed the distinctive cover of Young's American Stars 'n Bars (1976).\nHe continued to guest for TV shows such as Police",
"-20.095516774366843"
],
[
"January 7, 1972 in which he denounced Irving's supposed autobiography of him as a hoax, Hughes was also asked why he fired Maheu, to which he replied:\nBecause he's a no-good, dishonest son of a bitch, and he stole me blind. ... you wouldn't think it could be possible with modern methods of bookkeeping and accounting and so forth for a thing like the Maheu theft to have occurred, but believe me, it did, because the money's gone and he's got it.\nHughes was asked later in the conference call how he felt about Maheu, to which he replied:\nBitterly is a mild",
"-20.089531494799303"
],
[
"some others were also mentioned but this hasn't been verified. Career Chumlee began working for the Gold & Silver Pawn Shop at age 21, having worked there for five years before filming the first season of the reality television series Pawn Stars in July 2009. His duties include behind-the-counter work at the shop, such as testing items, loading items, and writing tickets for items purchased by customers.\nOn the series, he is depicted as the comic foil, often made the butt of the others' jokes for his perceived lack of intelligence and his incompetence, for which he has been referred to",
"-20.088389543554513"
],
[
"Lom are such a hilarious team, though it may be because each is a fine comic actor with a special talent for portraying the sort of all-consuming, epic self-absorption that makes slapstick farce initially acceptable—instead of alarming—and finally so funny.\" Film critic Elvis Mitchell has said that Sellers was one of the few comic geniuses who was able to truly hide behind his characters, giving the audience no sense of what he was really like in real life. A feature of the characterisations undertaken by Sellers is that, regardless of how clumsy or idiotic they are, he ensured that they",
"-20.07543452194659"
],
[
"Parker returned to the similar subject matter regularly over the next thirty years: Smugglers Attacked; Smugglers Alarmed; Smugglers Playing Cards; An Affray with Smugglers; Smugglers Resting and Smugglers Quarrellin'. ‘Smuggler Parker’ became a nickname and a marketing strategy – the paintings sold well. He embraced the role – dressing as a brigand at a fancy-dress ball and telling many stories about smugglers, which ‘greatly delighted the boys in his drawing classes.' The Northern Academy of the Arts The Newcastle Exhibitions continued at Brunswick Place until 1827, but sales were poor and there were divisions within the committee. Richardson and Parker",
"-20.069930650526658"
],
[
"about to poison his coffee until she was reassured that he does not know something incriminating about her role in the crime. It was an entertaining B-film that ably caught how an honest but desperate man reacts after hooking up with a falsehearted woman. The good performances overcame the cheap production values and slight story.\" Noir analysis Film critic Hans J. Wollstein wrote, \"... Framed remains a thrilling example of 1940s film noir at its best: economically told, atmospherically photographed (at, among other places, Lake Arrowhead) and more than competently acted. Carter, especially, is a revelation and it is too",
"-20.059982660168316"
],
[
"Other In 1980, Fantasy Trading Card Company produced a 60-card set of trading cards featuring publicity photos of the main cast members. 50 of the cards told the story of movie by having an image on side, and the other had brief captions. In 1995 Comic Images created a 96-card set of trading cards for the 20th Anniversary Celebration.\nIn 2000, Vital Toys created Frank-N-Furter, Riff-Raff, and Columbia action figures. They were sold separately or together in a \"box set\". Two more planned series were never released due to poor sales. Frank-N-Furter was released as a CelebriDuck on CelebriDuck.com. McFarlane Toys",
"-20.054209362904658"
],
[
"flamboyant fellows with all the tricks of the trade of Hollywood.\"",
"-20.037203570769634"
],
[
"'Beautiful' Right After NYC Terror Attack\" in a tweet that was later deleted. Tapper chastised Fox News for choosing to \"deliberately lie\" and said \"there was a time when one could tell the difference between Fox and the nutjobs at Infowars. It's getting tougher and tougher. Lies are lies.\" Tapper had in 2009, while a White House correspondent for ABC News, come to the defense of Fox News when Obama criticized the network for not being a legitimate news organization.\nFox News guest host Jason Chaffetz apologized to Tapper for misrepresenting his statement. After Fox News had deleted the tweet, Sean",
"-20.01859550300287"
],
[
"Truth and I've Got a Secret. Brand jingles were commonly used on radio and television. Major cigarette companies would advertise their brands in popular TV shows such as The Flintstones and The Beverly Hillbillies, which were watched by many children and teens. In 1964, after facing much pressure from the public, The Cigarette Advertising Code was created by the tobacco companies, which prohibited advertising directed to youth.\nAdvertising continued to use celebrities and famous athletes. Popular comedian Bob Hope was used to advertise for cigarette companies. The African-American magazine Ebony often used athletes to advertise major cigarette brands.\nThe nicotine industry",
"-19.984946133743506"
],
[
"that the boys have run off with the cash as well as the televisions (which were actually empty boxes). The overarching plotline is to prevent the construction of an expressway through the neighborhood in which all the characters reside. Using facilities that are not adequately described in the film, Foxx and local numbers man \"Glitterin' Goldie\" (Moore) use potentially corrupt connections within the city government to prevent the construction. Reception and DVD Roger Ebert, writing in the Chicago Sun-Times, gave the film one-and-half stars (out of four), calling it a \"good-hearted muddle\" but opining that \"they must have left half",
"-19.981894651498806"
],
[
"top money-maker until his departure in 1923), Will Rogers, Max Davidson, the Our Gang children, Charley Chase, Harry Langdon, Thelma Todd, ZaSu Pitts, Lupe Vélez, Patsy Kelly and, most famously, Laurel and Hardy. During the 1920s, Roach's biggest rival was producer Mack Sennett. In 1925, Roach hired away Sennett's supervising director, F. Richard Jones.\nRoach released his films through Pathé Exchange until 1927, when he went to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He converted his silent movie studio to sound in late 1928 and began releasing talking shorts in early 1929. In the days before dubbing, foreign language versions of the Roach comedies were created",
"-19.980265522841364"
],
[
"that were thrown together as star vehicles and rushed out against a strict deadline. But Sellers needs strong collaborators and a sturdy context. He may be our greatest comic actor but, unlike comedians who carry a film on the force of their immediately recognizable personality, Sellers's strong suit is his chameleonlike virtuosity, and chameleons are meaningless without a backdrop.\" Paul Taylor of The Monthly Film Bulletin called it a \"flatly directed, leadenly unfunny farce.\"",
"-19.974745722662192"
],
[
"in March 1987 at the same time as King Lear, and the same actors/models in the commercials also appear in the film as the goblins. \"\"What sets me apart from lots of people in the cinema,\" Godard has said, \"is that money is part of the screenplay, in the story of the film, and that the film is part of money, like mother-child, father-daughter.\" The ads use similar locations and a similar montage technique, and the titles some of the jeans ads make the connections obvious: Tulipes, Fer a repasser (Ironing, lit. 'Smoothing iron') and King Lear. One of the",
"-19.963555307727802"
],
[
"actress who had arrived in London to film Guns at Batasi. On 19 February 1964, just ten days after their first meeting, the couple married. Sellers soon showed signs of insecurity and paranoia; he would become highly anxious and jealous, for example, when Ekland starred opposite attractive men. Shortly after the wedding, Sellers started filming on location in Twentynine Palms, California for Billy Wilder's Kiss Me, Stupid, opposite Dean Martin and Kim Novak. The relationship between Wilder and Sellers became strained; both had different approaches to work and often clashed as a result. On the night of 5 April 1964,",
"-19.960395177018654"
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[
"post office. There he sits with his eyes never looking out and always searching in. And sometimes he finds in himself the whole human procession.\"\nSandburg went on about the storyteller, \"In fact, he sometimes indicates that when he needs an animal or fool not yet seen or heard of, he can make it for himself and give it a character so it is real to him, and when he talks about it and tells its story, it is like telling about one of his own children. He seems to love some of the precious things that are cheap, such as",
"-19.95333243807545"
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[
"inventing magic tricks and illusions for feature films, television shows, theatre and stadium productions. He worked on the 2006 film The Illusionist, and taught Edward Norton and Aaron Taylor-Johnson the necessary skills for their parts; Norton said that \"James is one of the ultimate all-stars in his field today\".\nHe was asked by Roman Polanski to teach Sir Ben Kingsley (for his role as Fagin) and other actors the art of picking pockets for the movie Oliver Twist (2005) and is listed in the credits as a Pickpocket Consultant.\nIn 2012 he also taught pickpocket skills to Helena Bonham-Carter and Sacha_Baron_Cohen for",
"-19.946522487756738"
],
[
"The Hollywood Sign (film) Plot When three great, has-been actors meet at the funeral of a legendary Hollywood agent, their alcoholic reunion leads them to visit the Hollywood Sign. There they find the body of a man – leading them to uncover an in-progress scam for stealing millions from a Las Vegas casino – which originated as a movie plot written by one of the actors' ex-girlfriends – who could not get her script produced. Desperate to make a comeback, the three risk their lives for production capital ... by writing themselves into the \"script.\"",
"-19.94195770767692"
],
[
"Tell Me Lies Tell Me Lies is a 1968 British drama film directed and produced by Peter Brook. Based on a play by Denis Cannan called US, it stars Mark Jones, Pauline Munro, Eric Allan, and Robert Langdon Lloyd. The film was shot in London in the summer of 1967 and starred actors under contract to the Royal Shakespeare Company. The film is based on the American involvement in the Vietnam War and was highly controversial at the time of its release.\nTell Me Lies premièred on 14 February 1968 in New York City, and on 15 February 1968 in London.",
"-19.941605352614715"
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[
"and many more started to arise in the mid-1970s. CAA represented the modern agency, with new ways of marketing talent by packaging actors, agencies are able to influence production schedules, budgeting of the film, and which talent will be playing each particular character. Packaging gained notoriety in the 1980s and 1990s with films such as Ghostbusters, Tootsie, Stripes, and A League of Their Own (three of which star Bill Murray). This practice continues to be prominent in films today such as Big Daddy, Happy Gilmore, The Waterboy, and Billy Madison (all of which star Adam Sandler). The ease of selling",
"-19.939085680949574"
],
[
"issue after certain news events regarding celebrities and politicians, as they earn the publication substantial income. The promise of high profits makes them more willing to pay for information. Past examples include stories about Michael Jackson, Bill Clinton, O. J. Simpson, Princess Diana, and Richard Nixon, where sources were paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for interviews. Defenders of the practice consider news information to be a commodity, which a source has a right to sell to a reporter for the highest price, in the same way the publication sells its news to the public. When payments to a source",
"-19.929428667797765"
],
[
"the new name of A Fistful of Dynamite, meant to recall the notoriety of A Fistful of Dollars. According to Peter Bogdanovich, the original title Duck, You Sucker! was meant by Leone as a close translation of the Italian title Giù la testa, coglione! (translated: \"Duck Your Head, dumbass!\"), which he contended to be a common American colloquialism. (The expletive coglione (a vulgar way to say \"testicle\") was later removed to avoid censorship issues.) One of the working titles, Once Upon a Time... the Revolution, was also used for some European releases.\nIn 1989, Image Entertainment released the film on laserdisc,",
"-19.92411817977154"
],
[
"many movies, sitcoms and other works of fiction, reporters often use yellow journalism against the main character, which typically works to set up the reporter character as an antagonist. This is done so often that it is sometimes considered to be a cliché.\nFor instance in the Spider-Man franchise, publisher J. Jonah Jameson spitefully and constantly smears the superhero in his Daily Bugle despite having his suspicions repeatedly proven wrong. Likewise, in the 1997 James Bond movie Tomorrow Never Dies, the deranged media magnate and main antagonist Elliot Carver (played by Jonathan Pryce) tries to start a war between Great Britain",
"-19.9017209255544"
],
[
"to themselves as 'Spies for Peace'. It was sold in 1988, being bought by a data storage company and later also used to store wines.",
"-19.89930885693866"
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[
"the film. But \"otherwise the traffic is that of an average gangster film that slacks off too much for proper tension and runs a great deal too long.\" Crowther praised the other leading performances but said that Morgan, a radio and TV personality known mainly for his sharp wit, \"does better when he is telling jokes\".\nDescribing Falk's performance, Crowther wrote:\nMr. Falk, moving as if weary, looking at people out of the corners of his eyes and talking as if he had borrowed Marlon Brando's chewing gum, seems a travesty of a killer, until the water suddenly freezes in his eyes",
"-19.888682055854588"
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[
"the 1960s, advertised with an armed knight riding a white horse. At the end of the Doors song \"Touch Me\", Jim Morrison says the slogan \"Stronger Than Dirt\". A widely mocked commercial in the end of the 1970s and beginning of the 1980s declared, \"Armed... with AJAX!\"\nAmerican actor Eugene Roche gained household fame as AJAX man, \"Squeaky Clean\", in many television commercials of the 1970s. In the United Kingdom, character actress Ann Lancaster appeared on television advertisements featuring the slogan, \"It cleans like a white tornado\". Colgate ceased advertising in the United Kingdom for the brand in January 1996.\nIn the",
"-19.883276678971015"
],
[
"in his famous picture, Greed because of his ability to throw a knife.\"\n\nBee Ho also performed in a number of more obscure early western films from the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Bison Films, Monogram Pictures and The Vitaphone Corporation including Hey! Hey! Westerner.\nIn May and June 1922, Bee Ho and Ada Sommerville were featured in a Broadway musical called Red Pepper which appeared at the Shubert Theatre. The stars of the show were the minstrel duo James McIntyre and Thomas Kurton Heath. The show then went on the road for one year, closing in North Dakota in June 1923.\nBee",
"-19.879366897323052"
],
[
"Catchphrase Culture According to Richard Harris, a psychology professor at Kansas State University who studied why people like to cite films in social situations, using film quotes in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others. \"People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh\", he said. He found that all of the participants in his study had used film quotes in conversation at one point or another. \"They overwhelmingly cited comedies, followed distantly by dramas and action adventure flicks.\" Horror films, musicals and",
"-19.878915618814062"
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[
"trend that some allegedly fear will take over broadcast journalism as it is known. News companies, like Fox News, are employing citizen journalists, which is a new phenomenon among journalism. Fake news The term \"fake news\" or Yellow journalism has taken over broadcast journalism throughout the past and current years. Its impact on broadcast journalism played a role in how news about the election was spread. Fake news defines how viewers see news that may be misleading or false. The main aim of Yellow Journalism is to gather the attention of people in the society. Many of these false or",
"-19.869784792164864"
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[
"Stock Theatres (COST) negotiated a special contract with Actors Equity to cover the work of actors and stage managers.\nJohn Kenley, an Ohio-based producer, ran his own summer stock circuit, Kenley Players, in Columbus, Dayton, Warren, the Carousel Theatre in Akron, and Canton, Ohio, and sent many of the shows to an affiliated theatre in Flint, Michigan. Starting in 1958 performers such as Dan Dailey in Guys and Dolls, Barbara Eden in Lady in the Dark, and Howard Keel in Kismet appeared. Kenley cast \"movie stars and television personalities\" who were nationally known. During Gypsy Rose Lee's engagement in Auntie",
"-19.828610853350256"
]
] |
45vb4g | Why is marijuana "impossible" to overdose on? | [
"Bluntly put, the median lethal dose (LD50) of THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) is so high and the methods of intake so dilute that you would have to do absolutely impossible feats to have it occur. While there are a couple of different and conflicting sources, one estimate placed it at 40,000 times as much as the dose needed to get high. This is contrasted with alcohol, where five to ten times the amounted needed to get you drunk can kill you. To extrapolate, With pot brownies you'd die of sugar poisoning long before the THC got you. With smoking, you'd have to smoke something like 1,500 pounds of weed in a period of 15 minutes. To actually manage a THC overdose you'd have to spend a lot of effort to first purify a sizable quantity of THC and then ingest it rapidly. This would never happen accidentally.",
"A lot of people are citing good numberss but missing the important info that makes those numbers matter. The peak plasma concentration of THC, meaning the most your blood can physically hold at once, is 100-200ng/ml. This is when your blood is saturated and can not absorb any more THC (Think about trying to dissolve salt. Eventually you can't dissolve any more because the solution is saturated.). This is also way below what we think a lethal dose would be for a human. This means there is a limit to how high you can get. Now you can still keep smoking pot, but you'd be wasting it, and to be honest most people never get anywhere close because why would you want to. But so when people say \"You'd need to smoke the equivalent of Xkg an hour\" the important thing they are missing is that that is chemically impossible. Your body can not absorb THC fast enough to kill you. **THAT** is why it's impossible to overdose. If you did something to damage your kidneys or whatever so that you couldn't filter it out, and your tissues kept absorbing it because you literally were smoking tonnes per hour for weeks, then it's possible it could accumulate to a dangerous level, but really that would be the kidney failure and realistically you'd die of anoxia first.",
"“In strict medical terms marijuana is far safer than many foods we commonly consume. For example, eating 10 raw potatoes can result in a toxic response. By comparison, it is physically impossible to eat enough marijuana to induce death. Marijuana in its natural form is one of the safest therapeutically active substances known to man. By any measure of rational analysis marijuana can be safely used within the supervised routine of medical care. [DEA Administrative Law Judge - 1988]” ― Francis Young",
"Virtually everyone in this thread is confusing \"overdose\" with \"lethal overdose\". You absolutely can overdose on THC/marijuana. If you have too much, you're gonna experience negative symptoms that outweigh positive effects. Typically this is called \"greening out\", and it simply means you've smoked too much grass. From wikipedia: > The term drug overdose (or simply overdose or OD) describes the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance** in quantities greater than are recommended or generally practiced**. When you green out, you can get: * Nausea * Dizziness * Temporary feelings of paranoia/fear/anxiety * Shortness of breath * Vomiting * Rapid heart rate * Trembling/feeling very cold * Disorientation * Hangover \"Overdose\" does not necessarily cause death. In the case of drugs such as heroin, overdose is often deadly, but sometimes it is not. There's a prevalent attitude in weed culture that insists that \"weed overdose is not possible\", and that smoking massive quantities is somehow a way to show how cool you are, when this is clearly not a good practice for your health. Of course, when you have a high tolerance to THC, the amount you'd need to overdose is much larger than if it were your first time smoking. TLDR: The process of smoking more and getting a better high does not continue ad infinitum. There's a point where you'll stop enjoying it, and that's an overdose, or \"too large a dose\".",
"According to a court trial in 1988, you would need to smoke 1,500 pounds of marijuana within 15 minutes to OD on THC.",
"There's no CB receptors in parts of the brain controlling respiration: URL_1 > Because cannabinoid receptors, unlike opioid receptors, are not located in the brainstem areas controlling respiration, lethal overdoses from Cannabis and cannabinoids do not occur. I also read that excessive Cannabinoids down-regulate CB receptor activity, a sort of natural overdose protection. EDIT: Here we go: URL_0 Ethan Russo MD. > If someone uses a great deal of cannabis daily, it will actually down regulate the receptor. In other words the body tries to prevent excesses of activity and it will do that by inactivating the receptor if there’s too much activity. This is why people can hit huge dabs or hotbox grams of kief, pure waste if you ask me!",
"It is possible to overdose on THC, but to do it by smoking you would have to smoke a literal truckload of marijuana. THC simply does not have the kind of significant toxic effects that many other recreational or medicinal drugs do,",
"You can drink enough alcohol before you pass out (or without even passing out if you've been drinking habitually for long enough) to raise the alcohol level in your blood high enough that it depresses the function of certain parts of the brain enough that it just stops telling the lungs to breathe or the heart to pump. That doesn't happen with marijuana because 1) you can't imbibe that much to begin with, 2) the level of THC in your blood can only get so high and it isn't high enough to cause that effect, and 3) studies suggest that marijuana depresses with a different mechanism than alcohol and no amount of THC can cause that effect. Which isn't to say that you can't kill yourself with marijuana, just that the death won't be directly attributable to overdose. If nothing else, too much marijuana can make you pass out when you really need to be awake, like when driving or when the house catches on fire.",
"Cannabis dispensary worker here. We did the math on the 40k mortality dose a few years ago. You'd have to eat a ball of coldwater hash slightly larger than a basketball. Hash is a resin so you'd die of that resin creating intestinal blockage before you could actually eat the whole thing, which you'd have to achieve in a \"Man VS Food\" worthy 30 minutes or less. Some of the new method extractions are testing as high as 90% THC. You'd have to eat a ball of shatter/wax hash a little bit smaller than a bowling ball. The taste of these products in their natural form is enough to keep anyone from actually trying this, and the consistency of shatter hash is like a Jolly Rancher. It's just physically impossible. You'd have an easier time eating a bicycle, which I understand a couple people have actually done.",
"Not ELI5: THC is a partial agonist of the cb1/cb2 neurotransmitters in your brain (and other parts of your body) where as K2/spice (synthetic weed) is a full agonist which is why it is possible to overdose on it instead of natural thc/cbd.",
"There is no credible documentation of death due to marijuana overdose in history. Studies to determine an LD50 have been largely unsuccessful and have varied results. While the numbers from studies vary, one example is that it would take smoking 3 pounds or ingesting 46 pounds to reach a toxic level. And that study is on the low end, but based on larger mammals. Many other numbers cited are much higher. Regardless of which numbers you choose to believe, it's just not possible.",
"\"Get outta here Dewey! You don't want no part of this shit!\" URL_0 ",
"Here is another point I haven't seen made. Marijuana doesn't interact with your central nervous system. Much like Benadryl. Take too much and you go to sleep. Might wake up feeling quite groggy. Now other narcotics present a different problem. Take heroin for example. An overdose of heroin interacts with your CNS by shutting down your respitory system. You literally cannot breath and thus you die. THC only interacts with the cannabid receptors and therefore it is \"impossible\" to overdose. The most often cited study for marijuana killing brain cells was when the scientific team pumped the equivalent of 160 joints into a monkey through a mask. There was no oxygen flow so the effects they saw where oxygen deprivation.",
"Sort of related, I found out a while back that I absolutely cannot tolerate edibles. I get overdoes symptoms really bad from them. I had a very very small piece of a brownie and I had some crazy symptoms like I was frying on acid. I know there wasn't other substances in the brownie because no one else that had some had anything like that happen. It was actually rather scary for me. Never had a reaction like that from smoking.",
"The same reason that you couldn't overdose on iron from eating breakfast cereal. Cereal contains added vitamins, but you can't eat that much cereal.",
"**\"Bluntly put, the median lethal dose (LD50) of THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) is so high and the methods of intake so dilute that you would have to do absolutely impossible feats to have it occur. While there are a couple of different and conflicting sources, one estimate placed it at 40,000 times as much as the dose needed to get high. This is contrasted with alcohol, where five to ten times the amounted needed to get you drunk can kill you. To extrapolate, With pot brownies you'd die of sugar poisoning long before the THC got you. With smoking, you'd have to smoke something like 1,500 pounds of weed in a period of 15 minutes. To actually manage a THC overdose you'd have to spend a lot of effort to first purify a sizable quantity of THC and then ingest it rapidly. This would never happen accidentally\"**",
"If I even tried to overdose on marijuana, I would get stoned, forget to smoke more. Damn short term memory effects!",
"The lethal dose is incredibly high because the part of the brain that controls breathing, heartrate, and general homeostasis has very few THC receptors, so marijuana doesn't effectively interfere with the automatic processes that keep you alive. Rats, however, have more THC receptors in those parts of the brain, so it is possible for rats to fatally overdose on marijuana.",
"The active compounds in cannabis are very similar to those found in our body, so they are pretty neutral as far as any potential toxicity is concerned. Cannabinoids work by binding to the endocannabinoid receptors in the body and thus stimulating an effect. When all the receptors are bound to, that's it, your at maximum blazed, the remainder of the 'overdose' doesn't have any way to take effect. Imagine the active components of cannabis is tea and your endocannabinoid receptors are mugs. Once you have filled all the mugs with tea, that's it, the tea is made. There's no more room for tea, so it either stays in the kettle or overflows all over the kitchen worktop. Either way the mugs are fine, you can drink the tea and clean up the mess in the morning.",
"Your lings when smoking cant absorb as much of the drug as the smoke contents. You will die of carbon monoxide posing before thc poisoning.",
"The main reason is that it doesn't screw with as many biological processes as a lot of other drugs do. Its active ingredient, THC binds to a certain receptor in your brain (acting as a neurotransmitter), instead of releasing neurotransmitters or inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters like other drugs do e.g. MDMA (speed). When it is broken down, it doesn't release any other highly toxic components, as is the case with for example alcohol. These two factors combined make it very difficult to overdose on THC.",
"There are no cannabinoid receptors in the autonomic circuits of the brainstem that control heart rate and respiration. So no matter how much one smokes or eats it won't depress those functions like alcohol, opioids, benzodiazepines and so on do. Most of the celebrity ods are from a combo of alcohol and depressants or opioids.",
"Is it possible for someone with a weak heart to have a heart attack due to increased heart rate while high? Could be made worse if the person is prone to panic attacks and the marijuana contributes the starting one off.",
"Like joe rogan says the only way you can get killed by weed is if your walking around and a 1500 pound bundle is tossed out of a cia airplane and lands directly on your head.",
"No one is really going into sufficient detail for ELIF I think so I'm going to cobble some of these responses together and add some detail. Explaining organic chemistry to a 5 year old is tough so... WALL OF TEXT. You cannot lethally overdose because it's LD50 (lethal dose 50% of the time for an average person) is unreachable through normal means, even ingestion. Almost all chemicals have an LD50 that is low enough to kill you if consumed. This is what 90% of people have said, but doesn't answer your question. For example Aspirin has a lethal does of about 200mg/kg, meaning you would need to consume 200mg times your weight in kilograms, and this dose would have a 50% chance of killing a person like you. So for a 200 lb man that's 40,000mg or about 125 pills. LD50 is hard to determine because no one has died from it, EDIT: but in rats it's been shown to be 666mg/kg, which is an incredibly large amount. Extrapolated to a human that's about 33 grams of solid chemical THC. So it's possible if someone created the purest chemical THC extract in the world and then *injected* over an oz of it they would die, but you'd definitely die from just filling your blood with an oz of an oily non-blood chemical just for mechanical reasons. Very few chemicals have this property of being able to be consumed em masse with no issue because many chemicals have a job to do in the body and too much of this effect will cause an over/under activation of that process that leads to death. A body is essentially a sack of chemical processes that consume, convert and use chemicals to maintain what is called \"homeostasis\". It in only in homeostasis, a state where all processes compliment each other to keeping the system working, that you can be healthy. One of the few other chemicals you can take in en masse is B12 which you can drink by the glass and just pee funny colors. It's LD50 is the order of grams (1000mg) per kg making it very hard to reach those levels. The reason why is biology and luck really; it just doesn't cause trouble. Most chemicals in high doses will disrupt some bodily process you need to keep living either by increasing, stopping it, etc., and in high enough concentrations you die. Sometimes they just do their job too well, or they mimic other important chemicals but they don't do the job at all, or other times the chemical itself is simply destructive to your body directly. B12 is a simple chemical that does not mimic (is not shaped like) other important bodily chemicals, so it does not disrupt processes normally kept in homeostasis by those chemicals being present by replacing them (which is what THC does actually, but non-harmfully). It doesn't produce harmful oxidation or release lots of free radicals that can cause tissue and DNA damage when it's metabolized. Whats more the metabolites produced when B12 is metabolized do not harm you either. In high concentrations it doesn't destabilize blood serum levels like water or salt does and make it impossible for your cells to respirate or get nutrients. It just hangs out, being B12, waiting to be used or sent to the bladder. Why? Well your body likes B12, it needs it, so if you couldn't take in B12 without it screwing up everything we wouldn't use it. But lots of (most) chemicals we need will kill us in high concentrations because of the above. If a chemical's job is keeping your body producing a certain hormone or regulating sodium channels in your nerves this can be super important and changing it can kill you. THC fits in a receptor for another naturally occurring brain chemical called a canabanoid (named after cannabis even though it is natural in the brain) and changes your perception, and few other things. It can change your perception *a lot*, but in the end a change in perception won't kill you unless you fall asleep somewhere you shouldn't. So it's a combination being similar to something that occurs naturally in the brain, and won't kill you in high concentrations because the chemical it's mimicking won't either. Also, we're just lucky nothing else about the chemical makeup of THC happens to kill us in high doses from to the hundreds of other ways chemicals can cause you to die. TL;DR Luck mostly.",
"After browsing through this thread I didn't see anyone mention one of the most important aspects of why it isn't possible. Forgive me if I missed it somewhere, and this won't really be ELI5, but it's important so hear me out. Many of the vital processes of your body are regulated by the medulla oblongata, which has nothing to do with emotions (turns out Colonel Sanders and Mama were both wrong) but helps run things like your breathing, heartrate, blood pressure etc. Now inside the medulla, which is located in the hind brain, or brain stem, there are a lot of different types of receptors, just like the rest of your body. Some of these receptors allow our brains vital processes to be affected by certain drugs. In fact, if you hear about someone overdosing on drugs, or dying from consuming too much alcohol, it is because those drugs got into the medulla and messed with the receptors and stopped the body's major vital functions. Now the interesting thing about the medulla is that it has no endocannabinoid receptors. The rest of your body does, in fact you have them all over, which is what allows you to get \"high\". But where it matters most, in the medulla, there are none, which means there is no way to fuck up the vital functions, it literally has no way to affect that part of your brain. More of an ELIAdult, and sorry for the terrible formatting, but hope that helps answer your question!",
"Drugs which you can overdose on tend to be ones which (metaphorically) drive a whole lot of trucks at your front gate, proportional to the amount you consume. Marijuana however may provide a proportional number of trucks, but they wait patiently in line to get past your gate and some may even take a sliproad and another route while waiting. Ie. MDMA causes your body to go into overdrive and produce lots of neurotransmitters which can kill you, MJ binds to your limited number of neuroreceptors and replaces the normal chemical which binds to them. Anything not used waits its turn or goes straight through you.",
"[This chart]( URL_0 ) has the ratios of how much gets you high vs. how much gets you killed. To overdose on marijuana, you'd have to have the dose equivalent of over 1,000 hits off a blunt or rips off a bong in your system at once for you to die. Nobody has reached the high score through traditional means.",
"It's possible to overdose on just about anything, it's just that the amount of marijuana required to overdose on THC is astronomical and you would pass out before even coming close to that limit anyways.",
"The first time i tried, was at my little cousins. I took like 6 of the biggest bong rips, inside the timespan of 3 minutes. We were both in the bathroom with the vent on, and after each hit i said,\" dude i dont feel anything\". After thr 6th hit, i looked up at the mirror. I swear to god my face started swirling. I gear giggling outside, its my 2 sisters and 2 cousins. I know they know we're smoking. I trip the hell out. And dismiss them and remember leaving the room. After that i blacked out and somehow made down the hall into the bedroom. I can relate that memory to when i was on ambien and woke up to take a piss. Stumbling and usuing the walls to bounce off side to side to make forward progress. Short 1 second pictures of memory, and somehow i made to the bedroom. Then, i thought i was going to die. I laid in bed and puked into a trashcan until there was nothing left. I was clawing at my face and my body felt like it was burning. I was hallucinating and seeing things. Cant really explain what. I told my cousin to call the hospital and that i was going to die. Eventually i passed out. They say you can't OD. But that day, i saw god and asked him to save me.",
"Many people don't know this but in one of the studies used as anti marijuana propaganda, they used monkeys as test subjects to test if high amounts of cannabis smoke were lethal. The test were unanimous many of the monkeys died. The study was operated by putting masks on the monkeys and pumping cannabis smoke into the mask. Years later if you research that study, you'll find that the monkeys didn't die from thc overdose or any over dose actually, but rather asphyxiation. They pumped nothing but smoke into the monkeys lungs, and the monkeys died from lack of oxygen.",
"THC is a partial cannabinoid receptor agonist meaning it has a plateau effect in which your natural bodily cannabinoid receptors can no longer be stimulated by additionally ingested THC. This is not true for some of the synthetically produced cannabinoid drugs that were marketed in the last 10 - 15 years and have since been scheduled in the United States. That is why you had more emergency room visits for things like seizures and anxiety attacks and the like because it is entirely possible to overdose on those substances. But that is not the case with THC.",
"Marijuana doesn't interact with the Medulla Oblongata, the portion of the brain which controls heartbeat and breathing, like other substances do. Where an overdose of alcohol can shut down your body's ability to continue breathing and your heart beating while you're unconscious, even if you were to smoke so much pot as to pass out your body would be able to continue to function at a basic level to keep you alive.",
"I am pretty sure that nowadays it is actually possible, but you'd have to go out of your way to actually do it. you would need a boatload of \"pure\" (90%+) thc in edible form. and probably something that helps you not puke as well. edit: forget this, just read in another comment that your blood will be saturated long before you can reach LD.",
"It is effectively impossible, though not theoretically impossible. This is because the lethal amounts of the chemicals in marijuana are so high and the amount ingested in its use are so low compared to the effects it has on the consumer that it becomes effectively impossible to consume more. In layman's terms, you smoke so much you can't move and therefore you can't smoke anymore.",
"Most drugs with a lethal overdose risk (morphine, opium) involve the metabolic breakdown products of said drugs mimics or interrupts neurotransmitter (chemical signalling drugs in the brain). Morphine breaks down into one that can interfere with the signal to breath. If you take enough of it, the signal. Is blocked completely and you OD. Marijuana doesn't have similar breakdown products",
"u/WorkingMouse has a valid point, but the real reason is that there is a lack of CB1 receptors on the brain stem. That's why it would take so much to kill you. If the brain stem had a shitload of CB1 receptors it's lethal dose would be a lot lower. Source: Foundations of Behavioral Neuroscience by Neil R. Carlson",
"Years ago I smoked some butane hash oil that had some butane still in it and I smoked so much of it I collapsed a lung. Woke up in the worst pain ever. Went to the ER, was about 30 minutes from being dead. Pretty scary. Still smoke tho.",
"just a warning though, while marijuana may be impossible to OD on, it is possible to smoke too much. One of the first times I smoked, I called an ambulance, convinced I was dying. Shit plays with your mind.",
"ELI5: Why do people in this subreddit express controversial opinions but disguise them as questions that anyone can google an answer to in less than two minutes?",
"It always seems like no one gets in trouble with smoking. Its seems its always edibles that get people crazy",
"You would black out from lack of oxygen before you would be able to come close to overdosing",
"This should be contrasted with opiate overdose: URL_0 "
] | [
[
"like marijuana. A marijuana withdrawal syndrome occurs, consisting of anxiety, depression, sleep and appetite disturbances, irritability, tremors, diaphoresis, nausea, muscle convulsions, and restlessness. Often, persons using marijuana erroneously believe that the drug is helping them combat these symptoms without realizing that actually marijuana is the cause of these effects. Therefore, when a patient anecdotally reports a drug to have medicinal value, this must be followed by objective scientific studies.\"\n\nThe US Drug Enforcement Administration also says:\nThere is a growing misconception that some illegal drugs can be taken safely. For example, savvy drug dealers have learned how to market drugs like Ecstasy",
"-32.21179717502673"
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[
"patterns of synthetic marijuana use. These side-effects included panic, vomiting, depression and psychosis and some felt the side effects were serious enough to consider seeking medical assistance.\nAn additional study conducted with the assistance of the UNSW, found that of 1100 self-reported synthetic drug users, 10% of individuals who had admitted to trying synthetic marijuana felt they were going to die, and 75% said they wouldn't try it again.\nPeople who use large quantities of cannabis may become sedated or disoriented and may experience toxic psychosis - not knowing who they are, where they are, or what time it is. High doses",
"-31.636715223321517"
],
[
"result in drug-seeking, drug taking behavior, which in many instances will lead the user to experiment with other pleasurable substances. The risk of progression from marijuana to cocaine to heroin is now well documented.\"\nIn 1995, Partnership for a Drug-Free America with support from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) and the White House Office of Drug Control Policy launched a campaign against cannabis use citing a Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA) report, which claimed that cannabis users are 85 times more likely than non-cannabis users to try cocaine. Additionally, some research suggests that marijuana use is likely",
"-31.138152084124158"
],
[
"drug According to the Washington Post, there is widespread agreement that marijuana can put users in a relaxed and positive frame of mind (although some can experience feelings of anxiety and paranoia), and for that reason, it can be considered a performance-enhancing drug, providing an athlete serenity and confidence he or she might not otherwise have had. A 2006 article in the British Journal of Sports Medicine stated that THC, the primary psychoactive compound in marijuana, “engenders a certain heaviness, marked relaxation, and excessive fatigue of the limbs.” The article also noted that, because the product is usually smoked, that",
"-30.951696259173332"
],
[
"therapeutic effects. Toxicity There are no fatal overdose cases linked to marijuana, but deaths associated with synthetic cannabinoids are increasing. The CDC found that the number of deaths from synthetic cannabinoid use tripled between 2014 and 2015. These drugs are dangerous because they are more potent than marijuana, and due to the large quantity of different structures that fall under the same common names, users are often unaware of exactly what they are getting and how potent it is. For example, Δ⁹-THC has an EC₅₀ of 250 nM at CB₁ and 1157 nM at CB₂, whereas PB-22 has an EC₅₀",
"-30.673173284667428"
],
[
"such as alcohol and cocaine. These putative effects can be taken in context of a wide range of cardiovascular phenomena regulated by the endocannabinoid system and an overall role of cannabis in causing decreased peripheral resistance and increased cardiac output, which potentially could pose a threat to those with cardiovascular disease.\nCannabis usually causes no tolerance or withdrawal symptoms except in heavy users. In a survey of heavy users 42.4% experienced withdrawal symptoms when they tried to quit marijuana such as craving, irritability, boredom, anxiety and sleep disturbances. About 9% of those who experiment with marijuana eventually become dependent. The rate",
"-30.160892912754207"
],
[
"regards to cannabis, however, typically only metabolites (produced by the body and thus not found in smoke) are tested rather than THC, so failure is unlikely to result from non-extreme passive exposure. High doses of niacin will help you pass Niacin, also known as Vitamin B3, is speciously claimed by some to \"burn it out\" of one's system when taken at high doses (250–500 mg per day). While some Internet (and other) sources claim that this works wonders, there is no supporting scientific evidence. Very high doses can also cause adverse side effects.\nThis legend may have been (inadvertently) inspired by",
"-30.042378270823974"
],
[
"alcohol and tobacco.\nWithdrawal from heavy, chronic cannabis use does not usually exceed 3–4 days, but it has the potential to be psychologically addictive. Withdrawal symptoms are generally mild - loss of appetite, insomnia, feelings of uneasiness/anxiety, tension, stomach ache, headache and irritability all being common symptoms. There are studies that show no actual increased risk of cancer from smoking marijuana, even when duration of use is expanded over several years. In fact, some studies indicate THC to have anticancer properties, with studies showing tumor reduction in mice. Confusion with Jimson weed Historically, and possibly related to the \"Reefer Madness\" legend,",
"-29.809542363262153"
],
[
"also smoke tobacco. This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not say how much cannabis they actually smoke.\nA 2015 review found that the use of high CBD-to-THC strains of cannabis showed significantly fewer positive symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations, better cognitive function and both",
"-29.73369519647258"
],
[
"Medicine report found that \"except for the harms associated with smoking, the adverse effects of marijuana use are within the range of effects tolerated for other medications.\" He points out that there are a number of delivery routes that were not considered by the Institute, such as transdermal, sublingual, and even rectal administration, in addition to vaporizers, which release cannabis' active ingredients into the air without burning the plant matter.\nA study published in the March 1, 1990 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences stated that \"there are virtually no reports of fatal cannabis overdose in humans\"",
"-29.591321221290855"
],
[
"do anything for you except kill you... I honestly don't believe [marijuana] is the gateway drug, because I use it, and I've never done anything else... I'm trying to be open about my pot smoking.\"",
"-29.059243175390293"
],
[
"Cannabis Marijuana is the world's most commonly abused illicit drug. The effects of cannabis are associated with deficits in memory, learning, decision-making, and speed of processing. Montgomery et al. (2012) conducted a study on twenty cannabis-only users and 20 non-illicit drug users to test the effect of cannabis on prospective memory. Cannabis users found it more difficult to perform an action at a certain time than nonusers. The results provide support for the cannabis-related deficits in prospective memory. Ecstasy Prospective memory impairments in recreational drug users have been documented in recent years. Hadjiefthyvoulou et al. (2011) compared performance of ecstasy",
"-29.057013889680093"
],
[
"needed to kill 50% of tested rodents is extremely high. Cannabis has not been reported to cause fatal overdose in humans. Mechanism of action The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the body for long periods of time. Even after a single administration of THC, detectable levels of THC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (depending on the amount administered and the sensitivity of the assessment method). A number of investigators have suggested that this is an important factor in marijuana's effects, perhaps because cannabinoids may accumulate in the body, particularly in the",
"-28.975970567844342"
],
[
"have occurred due to LSD. Eight individuals who accidentally consumed very high amounts by mistaking LSD for cocaine developed comatose states, hyperthermia, vomiting, gastric bleeding, and respiratory problems–however, all survived with supportive care.\nReassurance in a calm, safe environment is beneficial. Agitation can be safely addressed with benzodiazepines such as lorazepam or diazepam. Neuroleptics such as haloperidol are recommended against because they may have adverse effects. LSD is rapidly absorbed, so activated charcoal and emptying of the stomach is of little benefit, unless done within 30–60 minutes of ingesting an overdose of LSD. Sedation or physical restraint is rarely required, and",
"-28.87361366164987"
],
[
"dose means that overdoses are likely for those who mistake it for heroin or other powdered narcotics, especially those that have been diluted prior to consumption. Endogenous production Hydromorphone is made from morphine via catalytic hydrogenation and is also produced in trace amounts by human and other mammalian metabolism of morphine and occasionally appears in assays of opium latex in very small quantities, apparently forming in the plant in an unknown percentage of cases under poorly understood conditions. Bacteria Some bacteria have been shown to be able to turn morphine into closely related drugs including hydromorphone and dihydromorphine among others.",
"-28.822630098002264"
],
[
"psychedelic drug DMT has been reported. Medical vaporizers Studies have shown that vaporizing cannabis exposes the user to lower levels of harmful substances than smoking cannabis. These findings are important for it is estimated that 10–20 percent of patients with chronic pain, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and HIV/AIDS have admitted to smoking cannabis for therapeutic purposes. For patients, a study found that smoking cannabis sativa reduced daily pain by 34%, a statistically significant amount.\nIn a study published in the Journal of Psychopharmacology in May 2008, it was stated that vaporizers were a \"suitable method for the administration of THC\". A",
"-28.813581173773855"
],
[
"in my late teens,\" Garner wrote.\nI drank to get drunk but ultimately didn't like the effect. Not so with grass. It had the opposite effect from alcohol: it made me more tolerant and forgiving. I did a little bit of cocaine in the Eighties, courtesy of John Belushi, but fortunately I didn't like it. But I smoked marijuana for 50 years and I don't know where I'd be without it. It opened my mind and now it eases my arthritis. After decades of research I've concluded that marijuana should be legal and alcohol illegal. Statue On April 21, 2006, a",
"-28.56425091266283"
],
[
"a risk of addiction.\nCocaine addiction is a psychological desire to use cocaine regularly. Cocaine overdose may result in cardiovascular and brain damage, such as: constricting blood vessels in the brain, causing strokes and constricting arteries in the heart; causing heart attacks. The use of cocaine creates euphoria and high amounts of energy. If taken in large, unsafe doses, it is possible to cause mood swings, paranoia, insomnia, psychosis, high blood pressure, a fast heart rate, panic attacks, cognitive impairments and drastic changes in personality. The symptoms of cocaine withdrawal (also known as comedown or crash) range from moderate to severe:",
"-28.499252319335938"
],
[
"through smoking and some multi drug users report intentionally buying marijuana laced with methamphetamine.\nIt is possible that drug users may accidentally purchase a product without knowing that it has been laced with a more potent drug, but psychiatrist Dr Bill MacEwan believes that drug dealers in British Columbia are intentionally lacing cannabis with methamphetamine to make it more addictive. He had some psychiatric patients that claimed they only smoked pot but their drug tests were positive for methamphetamine use. Cocaine The most common adulterants found in 1998 in samples in Rome, Italy were lidocaine and caffeine. Cocaine is sometimes mixed",
"-28.271166938531678"
],
[
"Schedule I. Gettman believes that \"high potential for abuse\" means that a drug has a potential for abuse similar to that of heroin or cocaine. Gettman argues further that since laboratory animals do not self-administer cannabis, and because cannabis' toxicity is virtually non-existent compared to that of heroin or cocaine, cannabis lacks the high abuse potential required for inclusion in Schedule I or II.\nGettman also states: \"The acceptance of cannabis' medical use by eight (now thirty-three and DC) states since 1996 and the experiences of patients, doctors, and state officials in these states establish marijuana's accepted medical use in the",
"-28.265165047479968"
],
[
"When depressants are used, effects often include ataxia, anxiolysis, pain relief, sedation or somnolence, and cognitive/memory impairment, as well as in some instances euphoria, dissociation, muscle relaxation, lowered blood pressure or heart rate, respiratory depression, and anticonvulsant effects, and even similar effects of General Anaesthesia and/or death at high doses. Cannabis may sometimes be considered a depressant. THC may slow brain function to a small degree, while reducing reaction to stimuli. Cannabis may also treat insomnia, anxiety and muscle spasms similar to other depressive drugs. Other depressants can include drugs like Xanax (a benzodiazepine) and a number of opiates.\nDepressants",
"-28.250541295739822"
],
[
"brain and gastrointestinal tract. This binding reduces the perception of and reaction to pain, while also increasing pain tolerance. Opiates are hypothesized to be used as self-medication for aggression and rage. Opiates are effective anxiolytics, mood stabilizers, and anti-depressants, however, people tend to self-medicate anxiety and depression with depressants and stimulants respectively, though this is by no means an absolute analysis. Cannabis Cannabis is paradoxical in that it simultaneously produces stimulating, sedating and mildly psychedelic properties and both anxiolytic or anxiogenic properties, depending on the individual and circumstances of use. Depressant properties are more obvious in occasional users, and stimulating",
"-28.248768300545635"
],
[
"of action provides almost immediate relief from symptoms and because that fast onset greatly simplifies titration. For these reasons, and because of the difficulties arising from the way cannabinoids are metabolized after being ingested, oral dosing is probably the least satisfactory route for cannabis administration.\nVoters in eight U.S. states showed their support for cannabis prescriptions or recommendations given by physicians between 1996 and 1999, including Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Maine, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington, going against policies of the federal government. In May 2001, \"The Chronic Cannabis Use in the Compassionate Investigational New Drug Program: An Examination of Benefits",
"-28.221211997661158"
],
[
"time the potency of illegal drugs will increase with new methods of production. The potency effect was clearly demonstrated during alcohol prohibition in the US with the advent of highly distilled liquors like moonshine. It is also clearly evident in marijuana production today with the use of hydroponic growing methods.\nThe potency effect is particularly dangerous from a health perspective because lower doses can have greater effects than the user expects which can be harmful or fatal. And very often highly concentrated drugs will be \"cut\" with unknown substances in order to dilute their effects.<https://fee.org/articles/how-prohibition-makes-drugs-more-potent-and-deadly/> Misleading health statistics The United States",
"-28.186935119330883"
],
[
"\"pharmacologically sound\". However, Isbell rejected removing controls on marijuana, which would \"open the way to more potent stuff\" such as hashish, with the consequent risk of high-dose effects.",
"-28.166130823694402"
],
[
"some users experience, little is known about CBD's effects on humans. The well-controlled studies with humans have a hard time showing that CBD can be distinguished from a placebo, or that it has any systematic effect on the adverse effects of cannabis. When ingested orally, THC can produce stronger psychotropic effects than when inhaled. At doses exceeding the psychotropic threshold, users may experience adverse side effects such as anxiety and panic attacks that can result in increased heart rate and changes in blood pressure.\nIn the United States research about medical cannabis has been hindered by federal law. Smoking any substance",
"-28.158863877950353"
],
[
"overdose increases. Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other drugs of abuse. In addition, all benzodiazepines are listed in Beers List, which is significant in clinical practice. Cannabis Cannabis is often considered either in its own unique category or as a mild psychedelic. The chemical compound tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is found in cannabis, has many depressant effects such as muscle relaxation, sedation, decreased alertness, and less tiredness. Contrary to the previous statement, activation of the CB1 receptor by cannabinoids causes an inhibition of GABA, the exact opposite of what central nervous system depressants do. Methods of intake",
"-28.079130288388114"
],
[
"because of tighter regulations on prescribing narcotics for pain relief. Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its alkaloid constituents, and whether legal or illegal, most current drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as heroin rather than with unrefined opium.\nIntravenous injection of opiates is most used: by comparison with injection, \"dragon chasing\" (heating of heroin on a piece of foil), and madak and \"ack ack\" (smoking of cigarettes containing tobacco mixed with heroin powder) are only 40 percent and 20 percent efficient, respectively. One study of British heroin addicts found a 12-fold excess mortality ratio",
"-27.93662830664107"
],
[
"cases, cannabis can lead to acute psychosis and dissociative states such as depersonalization and derealization.\nAny episode of acute psychosis that accompanies cannabis use usually abates after 6 hours, but in rare instances, heavy users may find the symptoms continuing for many days. If the episode is accompanied by aggression or sedation, physical restraint may be necessary.\nWhile psychoactive drugs are typically categorized as stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen, cannabis exhibits a mix of all of them, perhaps leaning more towards hallucinogenic or psychedelic properties, though with other effects quite pronounced. THC is considered the primary active component of the cannabis plant. Scientific",
"-27.88620469016314"
],
[
"which only the top chemists have the training to synthesize, most often contain no LSD; instead, they often contain PCP, a veterinary tranquilizer which produces disassociation and hallucinations in humans. In some cases, the dealer has intentionally substituted a less expensive, more available illegal drug for another drug. In other cases, the substitution was made by a higher-level drug cartel or organization, and the dealer may in fact believe that the bogus product is MDMA or LSD. Addiction Not all club drugs are addictive (e.g. nitrous oxide). However, some club drugs are addictive. Amphetamine heavily used in recreational fashion pose",
"-27.877604436973343"
],
[
"effects. Marijuana's cardiovascular effects are not associated with serious health problems for most young, healthy users. Researchers reported in the International Journal of Cardiology, \"Marijuana use by older people, particularly those with some degree of coronary artery or cerebrovascular disease, poses greater risks due to the resulting increase in catecholamines, cardiac workload, and carboxyhemoglobin levels, and concurrent episodes of profound postural hypotension. Indeed, marijuana may be a much more common cause of myocardial infarction than is generally recognized. In day-to-day practice, a history of marijuana use is often not sought by many practitioners, and even when sought, the patient's",
"-27.786561894248734"
],
[
"They continued to work with cannabis, developing more pharmaceuticals and eventually receiving the Jamaican Order of Merit for their work.\nLater, in the 1970s, a synthetic version of THC was produced and approved for use in the United States as the drug Marinol. It was delivered as a capsule, to be swallowed. Patients complained that the violent nausea associated with chemotherapy made swallowing capsules difficult. Further, along with ingested cannabis, capsules are harder to dose-titrate accurately than smoked cannabis because their onset of action is so much slower. Smoking has remained the route of choice for many patients because its onset",
"-27.731941010730225"
],
[
"similar to caffeine), attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.\nAccording to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or insomnia, and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise. However, cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.\nRisk of adverse outcomes from cannabis use may be reduced by implementation of evidence-based education and intervention tools communicated to the public with",
"-27.671048080548644"
],
[
"believed that over 100 million Americans have tried cannabis, with 25 million Americans having used it within the past year.\nThe psychoactive effects of cannabis are known to have a triphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking, introspection and metacognition have been reported among cases of anxiety and paranoia. Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by 11-OH-THC, a psychoactive metabolite",
"-27.665815718763042"
],
[
"be blamed on \"bad acid.\" This legend was made famous at the 1969 Woodstock festival, when concert-goers were warned to stay away from \"the brown acid\", which was allegedly bad.\nOne possible reason people believe that they had \"bad acid\" could be because they were simply sold a much higher dose than usual, which is not uncommon due to the inherent lack of quality control of illicit drugs, and with LSD in particular being effective at microgram rather than milligram doses. The stronger the dose, the stronger and potentially more anxiety-provoking the trip can get.\nHowever, drugs sometimes falsely represented by",
"-27.593619178966037"
],
[
"recently a murder resulted directly from the stored alcohol. In recent times the sale of marijuana has reached an epidemic. This is coming from Mintabie as well. The reason it continues is that the people have to be caught in the act, an almost impossible task as the Marla Police Station is about 40 kilometres (25 mi) away\nA month after Iwantja made these allegations, SAPOL confirmed Mintabie as the source for a significant amount of the drugs including alcohol coming on to the APY Lands. On that occasion, SAPOL also reported that it had \"recently found buried at Mintabie a",
"-27.580014764214866"
],
[
"be significantly more addictive than marijuana. The greater addictiveness and more severe adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoids in comparison to marijuana are thought to stem from the fact that many of the synthetic cannabinoids are full agonists to the cannabinoids receptors, CB₁ and CB₂, compared to THC, which is only a partial agonist. It has also been seen that phase 1 metabolism of JWH-018 results in at least nine monohydroxylated metabolites, three of which have been shown to be full agonists of the CB₁ receptors, compared to the metabolism of THC, which only results in one psychoactive monohydroxylated metabolite. This",
"-27.56554886032427"
],
[
"cannot be used as a narcotic due to very low levels of opium alkaloids, they do have enough that drug tests are often fooled and give out false positives after an otherwise drug-free person consumes just a few poppyseed muffins. Because of this, all poppyseed pastries place the person who consumes them prior to a test at a high risk of being inaccurately considered a drug user. This defense could, of course, easily be used by someone who had indeed been using heroin or another poppy-based narcotic prior to being tested, and therefore is not generally defensible in court. Though",
"-27.561659294675337"
],
[
"group for intervention programs. Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be poly-drug users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug. Almost two-thirds of the poly drug users in the 2009-2010 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey used cannabis.\nThe gateway effect may appear due to social factors involved in using any illegal drug. Because of the illegal status of cannabis, its consumers are likely to find themselves in situations allowing them to acquaint with individuals using or selling other illegal drugs. Studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may",
"-27.480362067399255"
],
[
"instances.\nIn general, non-medical use of morphine entails taking more than prescribed or outside of medical supervision, injecting oral formulations, mixing it with unapproved potentiators such as alcohol, cocaine, and the like, or defeating the extended-release mechanism by chewing the tablets or turning into a powder for snorting or preparing injectables. The latter method can be as time-consuming and involved as traditional methods of smoking opium. This and the fact that the liver destroys a large percentage of the drug on the first pass impacts the demand side of the equation for clandestine re-sellers, as many customers are not needle users",
"-27.47321208275389"
],
[
"the past. Between 3 and 35% of deaths among those who use heroin are due to suicide (approximately fourteenfold greater than those who do not use). In adolescents who misuse alcohol, neurological and psychological dysfunctions may contribute to the increased risk of suicide.\nThe misuse of cocaine and methamphetamine has a high correlation with suicide. In those who use cocaine, the risk is greatest during the withdrawal phase. Those who used inhalants are also at significant risk with around 20% attempting suicide at some point and more than 65% considering it. Smoking cigarettes is associated with risk of suicide. There is",
"-27.45429823728682"
],
[
"times a day. In the US, as of 2013, cannabis is the most commonly identified illicit substance used by people admitted to treatment facilities. Demand for treatment for cannabis use disorder increased internationally between 1995 and 2002. In the United States, the average adult who seeks treatment has consumed cannabis for over 10 years almost daily and has attempted to quit six or more times.\nNo medications have been found effective for cannabis dependence as of 2019, but psychotherapeutic models hold promise.\nTreatment options for cannabis dependence are far fewer than for opiate or alcohol dependence. Most treatment falls into",
"-27.384107585052334"
],
[
"other psychoactive drugs, for example THC. Cannabinoid-enriched e-liquids require lengthy, complex processing, some being readily available online despite lack of quality control, expiry date, conditions of preservation, or any toxicological and clinical assessment. The health effects specific to vaping these cannabis preparations is largely unknown.",
"-27.35271147788444"
],
[
"try multiple recreational substances. The \"gateway\" drugs are merely those that are (usually) available at an earlier age than the harder drugs. Researchers have noted in an extensive review that it is dangerous to present the sequence of events described in gateway \"theory\" in causative terms as this hinders both research and intervention. Research Cannabis research is challenging since the plant is illegal in most countries. Research-grade samples of the drug are difficult to obtain for research purposes, unless granted under authority of national governments.\nThere are also other difficulties in researching the effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis",
"-27.3052244654682"
],
[
"that observed with cocaine, opiates, and alcohol. A 2018 review of the nature of dependency on marijuana states that the risk of dependence formation among regular marijuana consumers has declined since 2002. Memory and intelligence Acute cannabis intoxication has been shown to negatively affect attention, psychomotor task ability, and short-term memory. Studies of chronic cannabis use have not consistently demonstrated a long-lasting or refractory effect on the attention span, memory function, or cognitive abilities of moderate-dose long-term users. Once cannabis use was discontinued, these effects disappeared in users abstinent for a period of several months.\nChronic use of cannabis during adolescence,",
"-27.267699883916066"
],
[
"most of his career writing about drugs, Wyndorf now upholds that drugs are not an inspiration for music nor a gateway into creativity. In a 1995 interview Wyndorf stated that legalizing mushrooms in America might be a bad idea stating \"Americans have been so suppressed for so long that given that kind of freedom they would tend to abuse it\".",
"-27.234337744885124"
],
[
"causal because THC stays in the bloodstream for days to weeks after intoxication.\nAccording to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency room visits associated with cannabis use in 2011. These statistics include visits in which the patient was treated for a condition induced by or related to recent cannabis use. The drug use must be \"implicated\" in the emergency department visit, but does not need to be the direct cause of the visit. Most of the illicit drug emergency room visits involved multiple drugs. In 129,000 cases, cannabis was the only implicated drug.\nThe short",
"-27.231440623851086"
],
[
"the central nervous system in order to create positive emotions and feelings. The hallucinogen LSD is a psychoactive drug commonly used as a recreational drug.\nSome national laws prohibit the use of different recreational drugs; and medicinal drugs that have the potential for recreational use are often heavily regulated. However, there are many recreational drugs that are legal in many jurisdictions and widely culturally accepted.\nCannabis is the most commonly consumed controlled recreational drug in the world (as of 2012). Its use in many countries is illegal but is legally used in several countries usually with the proviso that it can only",
"-27.215464762048214"
],
[
"Mason stated: \"If it is perceived that the Public Health Service is going around giving marijuana to folks, there would be a perception that this stuff can't be so bad.\"",
"-27.213243917005457"
],
[
"that the THC content in marijuana had increased worldwide from 1970 to 2009. It is unclear, however, whether the increase in THC content has caused people to consume more THC or if users adjust based on the potency of the cannabis. It is likely that the higher THC content allows people to ingest less tar. At the same time, CBD levels in seized samples have lowered, in part because of the desire to produce higher THC levels and because more illegal growers cultivate indoors using artificial lights. This helps avoid detection but reduces the CBD production of the plant.\nAustralia's National",
"-27.189134400076"
],
[
"at raves in Europe. The drug organization Norconon states that other synthetic drugs used in clubs, or which are sold as \"Ecstasy\" include harmaline; piperazines (e.g., BZP and TFMPP); PMA/PMMA; mephedrone (generally used outside the US) and MDPV.\nThough far less common than other \"club drugs\" like MDMA, ketamine, or LSD, heroin can be found in some of New York City's clubs. Marijuana and related cannabis products are used by some clubgoers; for example, some Rohypnol and ketamine users mix the powdered drug with marijuana and smoke it. Desired effects Although each club drug has different effects, their use in clubs",
"-27.15081042062957"
],
[
"mutagenic effects. Tolerance Tolerance to LSD builds up with consistent use and cross-tolerance has been demonstrated between LSD, mescaline\nand psilocybin.\nThis tolerance is probably caused by downregulation of 5-HT2A receptors in the brain and diminishes a few days after cessation of use.\nThe NIH comments that LSD is addictive, while other sources state it is not. A 2009 textbook states that it \"rarely produce[s] compulsive use\". A 2006 review states it is readily abused but does not result in addiction. Overdose As of 2008 there were no documented fatalities attributed directly to an LSD overdose. Despite this several behavioral fatalities and suicides",
"-27.14381190460699"
],
[
"be caused by substances. Discontinuation or marked reduction in the dose of a substance such as a drug (drug withdrawal), for example an antidepressant (antidepressant discontinuation syndrome), can cause a panic attack. According to the Harvard Mental Health Letter, \"the most commonly reported side effects of smoking marijuana are anxiety and panic attacks. Studies report that about 20% to 30% of recreational users experience such problems after smoking marijuana.\"\nA common denominator of current psychiatric approaches to panic disorder is that no real danger exists, and the person’s anxiety is inappropriate. Panic disorder People who have repeated, persistent attacks or feel",
"-27.113606758473907"
],
[
"more addictive than cannabis, caffeine, ethanol, cocaine, and heroin when considering both somatic and psychological dependence. However, due to the stronger withdrawal effects of ethanol, cocaine and heroin, nicotine may have a lower potential for somatic dependence than these substances. About half of Canadians who currently smoke have tried to quit. McGill University health professor Jennifer O'Loughlin stated that nicotine addiction can occur as soon as five months after the start of smoking.\nIngesting a compound by smoking is one of the most rapid and efficient methods of introducing it into the bloodstream, second only to injection, which allows for the",
"-27.093255091414903"
],
[
"(after a long pause): \"You can't compare the harms of an illegal activity with a legal one.\"\nIn February 2009, Smith was accused by Nutt of making a political decision in rejecting the scientific advice to downgrade ecstasy from a class A drug. The advisory council on the misuse of drugs (ACMD) report on ecstasy, based on a 12-month study of 4,000 academic papers, concluded that it is nowhere near as dangerous as other class A drugs such as heroin and crack cocaine, and should be downgraded to class B alongside amphetamines and cannabis. The advice was not followed; the government",
"-27.077695781277725"
],
[
"(1.8 percent of the group dying per year). Most heroin deaths result not from overdose per se, but combination with other depressant drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepines.\nThe smoking of opium does not involve the burning of the material as might be imagined. Rather, the prepared opium is indirectly heated to temperatures at which the active alkaloids, chiefly morphine, are vaporized. In the past, smokers would use a specially designed opium pipe which had a removable knob-like pipe-bowl of fired earthenware attached by a metal fitting to a long, cylindrical stem. A small \"pill\" of opium about the size of",
"-27.02706275357923"
],
[
"Combining multiple depressants can be very dangerous because the central nervous system's depressive properties have been proposed to increase exponentially instead of linearly. This characteristic makes depressants a common choice for deliberate overdoses in the case of suicide. The use of alcohol or benzodiazepines along with the usual dose of heroin is often the cause of overdose deaths in opiate addicts.",
"-27.024941835945356"
],
[
"Marijuana is the drug of choice when exploring what musicians prefer to incorporate in their music. Rock, hip hop, pop, electronic, and country music mention this particular drug a greater amount than any other substance. However, Jazz and Folk music tend to branch off of this popular trend and instead incorporate drugs like acid and cocaine into their lyrics.\nIn terms of a specific personal example, social activist and musician Linda McCartney is known for publicly remarked that she considered marijuana \"pretty lightweight\" while finding harder drugs to be \"disgusting\". She ended up being arrested in Barbados in 1984 for possession",
"-27.009372209551657"
],
[
"described by Donald A. Cooper of the DEA thus: \nGiven the world wide ready availability of marijuana, it is somewhat difficult to produce a viable argument for making [controlled substance analogs (CsA's)] of cannabinoids. However, ten years ago (1978) an attempt to produce CsA's from cannabis extracts was encountered in the Jacksonville, Florida area. In this case a concentrated extract of cannabis had been obtained by a soxhlet extraction. The extract had been acetylated with acetic anhydride, and in the final step, the excess acetic anhydride removed by distillation (reference is unretrievable due to its appearance in an underground periodical).",
"-26.966842485853704"
],
[
"shown. In 2010, Arizona passed the Arizona Medical Marijuana Act, § 36-2802, which provides that a \"registered qualifying patient shall not be considered to be under the influence of marijuana solely because of the presence of metabolites of components of marijuana that appear in insufficient concentration to cause impairment.\"\nIn State ex rel. Montgomery v. Harris (2013), the Supreme Court of Arizona held that § 28-1381 applies only to metabolites capable of causing impairment. In this case, the defendant's blood tested positive for Carboxy-THC, a non-impairing metabolite of cannabis. California California Vehicle Code §23152(f) makes it unlawful for a person under",
"-26.94238907226827"
],
[
"drug.\nIt is recommended that cannabis use be stopped in pregnancy. Nausea and vomiting Medical cannabis is somewhat effective in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) and may be a reasonable option in those who do not improve following preferential treatment. Comparative studies have found cannabinoids to be more effective than some conventional antiemetics such as prochlorperazine, promethazine, and metoclopramide in controlling CINV, but these are used less frequently because of side effects including dizziness, dysphoria, and hallucinations. Long-term cannabis use may cause nausea and vomiting, a condition known as cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.\nA 2016 Cochrane review said that cannabinoids were \"probably effective\"",
"-26.941096499776904"
],
[
"strong and, therefore, very dangerous.\nSome heroin dealers mix fentanyl powder with heroin to increase potency or compensate for low-quality heroin. In 2006, illegally manufactured, non-pharmaceutical fentanyl often mixed with cocaine or heroin caused an outbreak of overdose deaths in the United States and Canada, heavily concentrated in the cities of Dayton, Ohio; Chicago; Detroit; and Philadelphia. Enforcement and seizures Several large quantities of illicitly produced fentanyl have been seized by U.S. law enforcement agencies. In November 2016, the DEA uncovered an operation making counterfeit oxycodone and Xanax from a home in Cottonwood Heights, Utah. They found about 70,000 pills in",
"-26.903484843964264"
],
[
"marijuana that causes a high, was first isolated by Israeli scientists Raphael Mechoulam of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem's Center for Research on Pain and Yechiel Gaoni of the Weizmann Institute in 1964.\nMarijuana for medical use has been permitted in Israel since the early 1990s for cancer patients and those with pain-related illnesses such as Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis, Crohn's disease, other chronic pain and post-traumatic stress disorder. Patients can smoke cannabis, ingest it in liquid and caplet form, or apply it to the skin as a balm.\nIn 2004, the Israeli military began using Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), one of the active ingredients",
"-26.90180671942653"
],
[
"Some depressants, such as Rohypnol, are dangerous to take while drinking alcohol. \"Ketamine often is taken in \"trail mixes\" of methamphetamine, phencyclidine, cocaine, sildenafil citrate (Viagra), morphine or heroin.\" Injury or death due to risky behaviour Another risk with club drugs is one shared by all drugs, from legal drugs like alcohol to abused over-the-counter drugs (taking large amounts of dextromethorphan cough syrup) and illegal drugs (BZP, amphetamines, etc.): while impaired, the user is more likely to be injured, engage in dangerous or risky behaviour (e.g., unsafe sex) or, if she or he drives, have an accident resulting in injury",
"-26.865694271502434"
],
[
"in suicidal ideation or rate of suicide attempts, but those who continue to use cannabis into adult life exhibit an increased incidence of both, although multiple other contributory factors are also implicated.\nIn the general population a weak (indirect) association appears to exist between suicidal behaviour and cannabis consumption in both psychotic and non-psychotic users, although it remains unclear whether regular cannabis use increases the risk of suicide. Cannabis use is a risk factor in suicidality, but suicide attempts are characterized by many additional risk factors including mood disorders, alcohol use, stress, personal problems and poor support. Gateway drug hypothesis The",
"-26.860193148371764"
],
[
"withdrawal upon cessation of use (i.e. are dependent), characterized by sleep problems, irritability, dysphoria, and craving. Cannabis withdrawal is less severe than withdrawal from alcohol.\nAccording to DSM-V criteria, 9% of those who are exposed to cannabis develop cannabis use disorder, compared to 20% for cocaine, 23% for alcohol and 68% for nicotine. Cannabis abuse disorder in the DSM-V involves a combination of DSM-IV criteria for cannabis abuse and dependence, plus the addition of craving, minus the criterion related to legal troubles. Overdose THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of the cannabis plant, has low toxicity. The dose of THC",
"-26.79490004046238"
],
[
"associated with cannabis use. Research in these events is complicated because cannabis is often used in conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol and cocaine. These putative effects can be taken in context of a wide range of cardiovascular phenomena regulated by the endocannabinoid system and an overall role of cannabis in causing decreased peripheral resistance and increased cardiac output, which potentially could pose a threat to those with cardiovascular disease. There is some evidence from case reports that cannabis use may provoke fatal cardiovascular events in young people who have not been diagnosed with cardiovascular disease. Smoking cannabis",
"-26.788190627443328"
],
[
"high potency cannabis (e.g. skunk) particularly increase the risk. Currently, they are researching why some people are especially vulnerable to this drug while most develop no problems. In 2009 Murray had a public disagreement with David Nutt in the pages of The Guardian about the dangers of cannabis in triggering psychosis.\nMurray previously wrote that while the risk increase is \"about five-fold [...] for the heaviest users\", the issue has become a political football. Murray has commented repeatedly on these issues in BBC articles and programmes, including in a Panorama documentary on BBC One. Knighthood Murray was knighted in the 2011",
"-26.750618802325334"
],
[
"effective at treating addiction?\n\nCasal: I believe that it has very likely no bearing whatsoever on the treatment of addiction.\nNarconon asserts that methadone, amphetamines, methamphetamines, morphine, copper, mercury, and other toxins, some consumed years earlier, leave the body by means of sweating. This contrasts with the view of the body's drug retention taken by mainstream science, which has found that most recreational drugs leave the body within a few days (with the exception of cannabis, which in the case of frequent use can remain in the body for up to a month). Niacin According to Narconon, vitamin and mineral supplements are",
"-26.744995725617628"
],
[
"and use in an unfamiliar environment are major contributing factors to this anxiety. Cannabidiol (CBD), another cannabinoid found in cannabis in varying amounts, has been shown to ameliorate the adverse effects of THC, including anxiety, that some consumers experience.\nCannabis produces many other subjective effects, including an increased enjoyment of food taste and aroma, and marked distortions in the perception of time (where experiencing a \"rush\" of ideas can create the subjective impression of much time passing). At higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinations, and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some",
"-26.706988411286147"
],
[
"those who used it in place of alcohol or tobacco either reduced or stopped their intake of the latter substances.\nA limited number of studies have examined the effects of cannabis smoking on the respiratory system. Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. The available evidence does not support a causal relationship between cannabis use and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Short-term use of cannabis is associated with bronchodilation. Other side effects of cannabis use include cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.\nCannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is",
"-26.690175767420442"
],
[
"cannabis abstinence rates compared to placebo. It's worth noting that venlafaxine is sometimes poorly tolerated, and infrequent use or abrupt discontinuation of its use can lead to withdrawal symptoms from the medication itself, including irritability, dysphoria, and insomnia. It is possible that venlafaxine use actually exacerbated cannabis withdrawal symptoms, leading people to use more cannabis than placebo to alleviate their discomfort. Mirtazapine, which increases serotonin and norepinephrine, has also failed to improve abstinence rates in people with cannabis use disorder.\nPeople sometimes use cannabis to cope with their anxiety, and cannabis withdrawal can lead to symptoms of anxiety. Buspirone, a serotonin",
"-26.685569380540983"
],
[
"of patients in treatment for cannabis use disorders. These symptoms include dysphoria (anxiety, irritability, depression, restlessness), disturbed sleep, gastrointestinal symptoms, and decreased appetite. It is often paired with Rhythmic movement disorder. Most symptoms begin during the first week of abstinence and resolve after a few weeks. According to a study in the U.S., 12.1% of heavy cannabis users showed cannabis withdrawal as defined by the DSM-5, and this was associated with significant disability as well as mood, anxiety and personality disorders. Cause Cannabis addiction is often due to prolonged and increasing use of the drug. Increasing the strength of",
"-26.658755121548893"
],
[
"is sometimes considerable and here the licit drugs and medicines – such as alcohol, nicotine and antidepressants – have to be considered in conjunction with the controlled psychoactive substances. The risk level will depend on the dosage level of both substances. If the drugs taken are illegal, they have a chance of being mixed (also known as \"cutting\") with other substances which dealers are reported to do to increase the perceived quantity when selling to others to increase their returns. This is particularly common with powdered drugs such as cocaine or MDMA which can be mixed with relative ease by",
"-26.61504866188625"
],
[
"cannabis. Spotting cannabis oil or resin is thought to be particularly harmful to the lungs, as the smoke comes off the oil at such a high temperature. One possible way of minimizing the risks of spotting marijuana is using cooler knives, leading to the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) being vaporised rather than the entire plant matter being burnt. Some users also fill the lower half of the spottle with ice (that stays in place by being frozen to the edges of the spottle), but much more common is to just freeze the bottle, which leads to a cooler smoke that is less",
"-26.59891541081015"
],
[
"by misadventure\" caused by an acute cerebral edema due to a reaction to compounds present in the combination medication Equagesic. Although there was initial speculation that cannabis found in Lee's stomach may have contributed to his death, Teare refuted this, stating that it would \"be both 'irresponsible and irrational' to say that [cannabis] might have triggered either the events of Bruce's collapse on May 10 or his death on July 20\". Dr. R. R. Lycette, the clinical pathologist at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, reported at the coroner hearing that the death could not have been caused by cannabis.\nAt the 1975 San",
"-26.58404512917332"
],
[
"were admitted to a hospital intensive care unit. Switzerland While THC remains illegal, CBD is not subject to the Swiss Narcotic Acts because this substance does not produce a comparable psychoactive effect. Cannabis products containing less than 1% THC can be sold and purchased legally. Research As of 2019, there was only limited high-quality evidence for cannabidiol having a neurological effect in people, mainly due to the weak design and small number of subjects in randomized controlled trials.",
"-26.56465836027928"
],
[
"found in adulterated marijuana.\nIn 2008, 30 German teenagers were hospitalized after the marijuana which they smoked was found to have been contaminated with lead (presumably metallic lead particles), which was added in order to increase its weight.\nRarely, cannabis (especially that of low quality) is laced with PCP, particularly in the United States. However, it is not always done surreptitiously. Dealers who do so often (but not always) advertise their wares as being \"enhanced\" with other substances, and charge more money than they would otherwise, even if they do not say exactly what the lacing agents are. Such",
"-26.563151339583783"
],
[
"could be reached using the drug.\nIn 1938, shortly after the federal government cracked down on marijuana, the prohibitionist warning was carried in the book Marihuana: America’s New Drug Problem. The book included several pages of excerpts from The Hasheesh Eater and noted that\nIt was Ludlow… who contributed the most remarkable description of the hashish effects. He not only described the acute hashish episode with great intensity and fidelity but recorded the development of an addiction and the subsequent struggle which resulted in his breaking the habit. As an autobiography of a drug addict it is, in several respects, superior to",
"-26.542474045689232"
],
[
"effects are almost immediate when the smoke is inhaled. Between 1996 and 1999, eight U.S. states supported cannabis prescriptions opposing policies of the federal government. Most people who are prescribed marijuana for medical purposes use it to alleviate severe pain. Ancient China Cannabis, called má 麻 (meaning \"hemp; cannabis; numbness\") or dàmá 大麻 (with \"big; great\") in Chinese, was used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago.\nThe botanist Hui-lin Li wrote that in China, \"The use of Cannabis in medicine was probably a very early development. Since ancient humans used hemp seed as food, it was quite natural",
"-26.54186428547837"
],
[
"because they are so effective at blocking emotional pain, including anxiety. Similarly to alcohol, people with anxiety disorders are more likely to become addicted to opioids due to their anxiolytic effect. These drugs range from the commonly prescribed hydrocodone, to the often illegal heroin, and all the way to much more potent varieties like fentanyl often used in trauma or end of life pain management. Most people purchasing these drugs illegally are seeking them out to get a euphoric like high, but many others seek them out because they are so effective at reducing both physical pain and",
"-26.53193040107726"
],
[
"American Academy of Ophthalmology released a position statement stating that cannabis was not more effective than prescription medications. Furthermore, no scientific evidence has been found that demonstrates increased benefits and/or diminished risks of cannabis use to treat glaucoma compared with the wide variety of pharmaceutical agents now available.\nIn 2010 the American Glaucoma Society published a position paper discrediting the use of cannabis as a legitimate treatment for elevated intraocular pressure, for reasons including short duration of action and side effects that limit many activities of daily living.",
"-26.491274557774886"
],
[
"evidence of increased heroin usage among the compiled studies. In fact, they found that a few studies had participants that reduced their drug usage, or in other studies that it had not changed. A limitation of their study was noted that majority (90%) of reversed overdoses were heroin induced, when a study recruited methadone users specifically. Take-home naloxone programs have also been implemented overseas in Europe, Asia, and Australia, but studies of these programs used uncontrolled study designs. Prevention program report According to the CDC, deaths from drug overdoses have more than doubled since 1999 in the U.S. 43, 982",
"-26.48549637467022"
],
[
"their \"radar\" in the 5 years prior, though the condition was being diagnosed more often now. Many people are struck by the notion that cannabis could induce symptoms of nausea and vomiting, given the common perception that cannabis can be used to prevent nausea and vomiting. Research directions It is unclear why cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome is disproportionately uncommon in recognition of how widely used cannabis is throughout the world. There may be genetic differences between cannabis users that affect one's risk for developing cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. The pathophysiology of the syndrome is also unclear, especially with regards to the effect",
"-26.43593321327353"
],
[
"the influence of drugs may be able to break free from them with enough effort. They are also vulnerable to being cut with wire cutters or melted with a cigarette lighter. In official uses, it is recommended to use a specialized flexicuff cutter to remove the cuffs from a detainee, rather than scissors or knives which could cause injury to the detained or detainer.",
"-26.408486472602817"
],
[
"term effects of cannabis can be altered if it has been laced with opioid drugs such as heroin or fentanyl. The added drugs are meant to enhance the psychoactive properties, add to its weight, and increase profitability, despite the increased danger of overdose. Long term Heavy, long-term exposure to marijuana may have biologically based physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences and may be \"associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature\". Mothers who used marijuana during pregnancy have children with more depression, hyperactivity, and inattention. It is recommended that cannabis use be",
"-26.35549653606722"
],
[
"representative in the World Health Assembly effectively banned the publication, apparently because the study seemed to contradict the dominant myth of addictive drugs, as applied to cocaine. Part of the study's findings were \"that occasional cocaine use does not typically lead to severe or even minor physical or social problems.\" In the sixth meeting of the B committee the US representative threatened that \"If WHO activities relating to drugs failed to reinforce proven drug control approaches, funds for the relevant programs should be curtailed\". This led to the WHO decision to postpone publication. The study has not been published officially",
"-26.35348283784697"
],
[
"Costa continues to support the global control of cannabis, the most widely used illicit drug in the world today, stating: \"Cannabis is the most vulnerable point of the whole multilateral edifice.\" Citing more potent strains and increased \"cannabis-related health damage\", Mr. Costa argued that \"the harmful characteristics of cannabis are no longer that different from those of other plant-based drugs such as cocaine and heroin.\"\nIn 2008, Costa criticized the culture of drug use among Western celebrities and pop stars, arguing that their drug use had dire consequences for production and trafficking countries in other regions of the world, such as",
"-26.35296899577679"
],
[
"drugs, specifically proglumide, have been shown to slow the development of tolerance to morphine. Overdose A large overdose can cause asphyxia and death by respiratory depression if the person does not receive medical attention immediately. Overdose treatment includes the administration of naloxone. The latter completely reverses morphine's effects, but may result in immediate onset of withdrawal in opiate-addicted subjects. Multiple doses may be needed.\nThe minimum lethal dose of morphine sulfate is 120 mg, but in case of hypersensitivity, 60 mg can bring sudden death. In serious drug dependency (high tolerance), 2000–3000 mg per day can be tolerated. Pharmacology Morphine has classically been divided",
"-26.29283198484336"
],
[
"polycyclic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene. Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when compared with those of tobacco. Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis edibles.\nThere is serious suspicion among cardiologists, spurring research but falling short of definitive proof, that cannabis use has the potential to contribute to cardiovascular disease. Cannabis is believed to",
"-26.287380067427875"
],
[
"drug addiction as long as it was depicted in a negative light. Soon after, DC Comics had their own drug abuse storyline in Green Lantern/Green Arrow #85-86. Written by Denny O'Neil with art by Neal Adams, the storyline was entitled \"Snowbirds Don't Fly,\" and it revealed that the Green Arrow's sidekick Speedy had become addicted to heroin.\nThe 1971 revision to the Comics Code has also been seen as relaxing the rules on the use of vampires, ghouls and werewolves in comic books, allowing the growth of a number of supernatural and horror-oriented titles, such as Swamp Thing, Ghost Rider and",
"-26.262348808319075"
],
[
"Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario on teenagers who used marijuana and proved that because it uses endocannabinoid system, it shouldn't be used for people under the age of 25 due to risk of memory loss, eruption of symptoms of schizophrenia and psychosis and even permanent brain damage. 2016 In June 2016 she and Cory Gerritsen had studied cannabis' ingredients; cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol and proved that the latter causes psychosis in adolescents. On November of the same year Dr. Mizrahi worked with Dr. Bill MacEwan on a case of a 21-year old who killed a 13-year old tween while being",
"-26.258253817009972"
],
[
"breakthrough nausea and vomiting.\nSome studies and patient groups say that the use of cannabinoids derived from cannabis during chemotherapy greatly reduces the associated nausea and vomiting, and enables the patient to eat. Synthesized tetrahydrocannabinol (also one of the main active substances in marijuana) is marketed as Marinol and may be practical for this application. Natural medical cannabis is also used and recommended by some oncologists, though its use is regulated and it is not legal in all jurisdictions. However, Marinol was less effective than megestrol acetate in helping cancer patients regain lost appetites. A phase III study found no difference",
"-26.255669438909536"
],
[
"often, though the frequency of ecstasy contamination rose in the years leading up to 2002. Joe Reevy of Mass Spec Analytical, a company which analyses confiscated banknotes for the police, pointed out that heroin and ecstasy degrade more rapidly than cocaine, and that a single note which had been used to snort cocaine could subsequently contaminate many others when placed in a sorting machine, to explain the frequency of cocaine contamination.\nMoney recovered from police raids on the drugs trade are often heavily contaminated. In one raid in 2002, £465,000 was found which had been stored in a room where heroin",
"-26.253322298289277"
],
[
"industry and subsequently overdosed. She said that she identified with the feelings that might lead someone to use heroin: \"I've been in that place where you're so fucked up and you're so lost that you don't know who you are anymore, and you're miserable—and here's this escape route. I've never done heroin, but I've done plenty of other things to escape.\" She said that the song is about \"trying not to take responsibility for other people's shit and trying to love yourself at the same time.\" Another song that she found easy to write was \"Building a Mystery\", co-written with",
"-26.212730385857867"
],
[
"smoking technique, and different absorptions of THC\". A 2014 study found \"no correlation between degree of impairment and THCA-A blood concentration\". Because of these findings, some safety organizations have advocated that police use behavioral impairment tests instead of metabolite testing. False indications of driving impairment Testing for metabolites of THC, versus the actual THC intoxicant, can result in DUID convictions of users who aren't actually impaired. According to National Institute on Drug Abuse, \"the role played by marijuana in crashes is often unclear because it can be detected in body fluids for days or even weeks after intoxication\". False positives",
"-26.209611408077762"
],
[
"Abuse, \"Studies show that someone who smokes five joints per week may be taking in as many cancer-causing chemicals as someone who smokes a full pack of cigarettes every day.\" Marijuana contains more than 400 chemicals, including the most harmful substances found in tobacco smoke. For example, smoking one marijuana cigarette deposits about four times more tar into the lungs than a filtered tobacco cigarette. ... The short-term effects are also harmful. They include: memory loss, distorted perception, trouble with thinking and problem solving, loss of motor skills, decrease in muscle strength, increased heart rate, and anxiety. Marijuana impacts young",
"-26.204445595125435"
],
[
"treatment for lung diseases. But problems flowing from addiction led many to perceive the drug element of medications to be morally destructive. In the United States, the Supreme Court decisions of Webb et al. v U.S. 249 U.S. 96 (1919) and U.S. v Behrman 258 U.S. 280 (1922) drove the use of narcotics underground and consolidated their criminal status.\nIn the terms adopted by Schur (1965), drug dealing is now victimless because neither the buyer nor the seller is likely to report it. The consumption of some drugs can damage the health of users and, in some cases, cause",
"-26.203729651329922"
],
[
"marijuana, and cigarettes early in life, while also abusing a wider array of illicit drugs compared to those who discounted delayed reinforcers less.\"\nEscalation or dysregulation is the next and more severe phase of substance abuse. In this phase individuals \"lose control\" of their addiction with large levels of drug consumption and binge drug use. Animal studies suggest that individuals with higher levels of impulsivity may be more prone to the escalation stage of substance abuse.\nImpulsivity is also related to the abstinence, relapse, and treatment stages of substance abuse. People who scored high on the Barratt",
"-26.198082384027657"
],
[
"conditions. Another review found tentative evidence for use of cannabis in treating peripheral neuropathy, but little evidence of benefit for other types of long term pain.\nWhen cannabis is inhaled to relieve pain, blood levels of cannabinoids rise faster than when oral products are used, peaking within three minutes and attaining an analgesic effect in seven minutes. A 2014 review found limited and weak evidence that smoked cannabis was effective for chronic non-cancer pain. A 2015 meta-analysis found that inhaled medical cannabis was effective in reducing neuropathic pain in the short term for one in five to six patients. Another 2015",
"-26.1961483664345"
]
] |
2jc3hk | How come in Elementary school, we are taught that the Primary Colors are red, blue, and yellow, but in High School Physics, we're taught the Primary colors are red, blue, and green? | [
"RBY are the primaries of the reflective color wheel. RBG are the primaries in the transmissive color wheel.",
"Red, blue, and green (RGB) are the colors the eye detects, and are therefore the primary *additive* colors. Colors that add together. Sprinkle a few drops of water on a TV screen, and you’ll see that the picture elements are only red, green, and blue. (Red + green light looks yellow or orange.) Cyan, magenta, and yellow are the *subtractive* colors. Colors that subtract from the default white. They are the ideal primary colors to use with printing technology, or with paints. Of course, the real world isn’t ideal, so printers use black as well (CMYK). Red, yellow, and blue are the traditional colors of art, but aren’t the ideal three primary colors for mixing paints, but that’s okay because artists usually use a wide variety of base colors.",
"Your elementary school was wrong. But they were TRYING to teach you about subtractive colors (even if they didn't use that word). This applies to dyes. You take a surface which reflects white light and you add dyes that **subtract** from the colors that surface reflects. If you have Magenta dye (not red) it subtracts Cyan (not blue) and Yellow. If you have Cyan it subtracts Magenta and Yellow. If you haveYellow it subtracts Cyan and Magenta. So subtractive color is based on Cyan/Magenta/Yellow Additive color is what your high school physics class was talking about. Additive color is what happens when you add LIGHT to something. If you have no light and you add red light you get red. If you have no light and you add blue light you get blue, if you have no light and you add green light you get green. Additive color is based on Red/Green/Blue They are different color systems. Subtractive is for dyes and paints (because it changes the reflective surface, not the light, which is white). Additive is for light.",
"Because in elementary school we learn the primary colours for mixing paint. In high school physics we learn the primary colours to mix light.",
"Primary colors are just sets of colors that can be used to make other colors. For humans, we usually use three colors because our vision is trichromatic (based on three colors). RGB is often used in electronics. RBY is often used by artists. Cyan, magenta, and yellow are often used for making dyes. Basically, you pick three colors that can be used to make lots of other colors and you base your choice off of whatever works best for your medium."
] | [
[
"format is increasingly common in which the elementary school contains kindergarten or 1st grade to 5th or 6th grade and the middle School contains 6th or 7th and 8th grade. In addition, some elementary schools are splitting into two levels, sometimes in separate buildings: elementary school (usually K-2) and intermediate (3-5).\nThe K-8 format is also an emerging popular concept in which students may attend only two schools for all of their K-12 education. Many charter schools feature the K-8 format in which all elementary grades are housed in one section of the school, and the traditional junior high school students",
"-34.54781823929807"
],
[
"grades has three sections. After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the primary school moved to the Delmas campus, as the secondary school still is.\nThe secondary school is composed of seven grades with about 1000 students divided into two sections, Third Cycle (Troisième Cycle) and Secondary School (Secondaire). Students are arranged in different sections per grade: blue, yellow, purple, red, or green. The seventh and the eight grades currently have 5 classes of all colors. The ninth and tenth(neuvieme, troisieme) grades have 4 classes (purple is dropped). The eleventh,twelfth and thirteenth (Seconde,Rhéto, Philo) generally have three classes (yellow is dropped). Students are",
"-33.737649116432294"
],
[
"elementary schools have four or eight grades, i.e., up to ages 10 or 14 (also known as the intermediate grades). Basic subjects are taught and pupils often remain in one or two classrooms throughout the school day, except for physical education, library, music, art, and computer classes. In 2001, there were about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States. \"Middle schools\" and \"junior high schools\" are schools that span grades 5 or 6 to 8 and 7 to 8, respectively, but junior high schools spanning grades 7 to 9 are also common.\nThe range defined by either is",
"-33.15802878563045"
],
[
"blue are the tie colours representing each year group. When a student joins in year 7, he is given the colour which was the colour to the year 11 the previous academic year. This tie colour remains the same for the remainder of the student's time in school until reaching sixth form.\nPrior to 1980, the school was divided into four houses each with a different tie and badge colours: Faraday (green), Shaftsbury (red), Wellington (yellow) and Churchill (blue). Each pupil would remain in their respective house until they left school. In or around 1968, a special sixth form badge was",
"-32.473225465268115"
],
[
"two elementary schools serving grades K-6, and six elementary schools serving grades K-8.",
"-32.46897530426213"
],
[
"Grade 8.\nIn Ontario, the term \"Middle School\" and \"Senior Public School\" (sometimes just grades 7 and 8) are used, with the latter being used particularly in the Old Toronto and Scarborough sections of Toronto plus in Mississauga, Brampton and Kitchener-Waterloo. In many smaller Ontario cities and in some parts of larger cities, most elementary schools serve junior kindergarten to grade 8 meaning there are no separate Middle Schools buildings, while in some cities (such as Hamilton) specific schools do serve the intermediate grades (i.e. Grades 6–8 or Grades 7–8) but are still called \"Elementary\" or \"Public\" schools with",
"-32.220372620207854"
],
[
"Primary school A primary school, junior school (in UK) or elementary school (in US & Canada) is a school for children from about four to eleven years old, in which they receive primary or elementary education. It can refer to both the physical structure (buildings) and the organisation. Typically it comes after preschool, and before secondary school.\nThe International Standard Classification of Education considers primary education as a single phase where programmes are typically designed to provide fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics and to establish a solid foundation for learning. This is ISCED Level 1: Primary education or first",
"-32.00140183487383"
],
[
"from Grades 1-5 and a flexible resource program for students with some limited learning disabilities. Elementary school The AAS Elementary School teaches Kindergarten through to grade 5.\n\nThe curriculum encompasses Mathematics, Language Arts, Social Studies and Science and also regular specialist teaching in subjects such as Art, Music, ICT and Physical Education. Although the language of instruction is English, Bulgarian and French are offered as world language options. Middle school In order to facilitate the transition from elementary to middle school, grade 6 students are self-contained and taught by two core teachers. Students see specialist teachers for all other",
"-31.7367324807592"
],
[
"the school's colors have been blue and white. The colors were chosen years before by the Dialectic (blue) and Philanthropic (white) Societies, the oldest student organization at the university. The school had required participation in one of the clubs, and traditionally the \"Di\"s were from the western part of North Carolina while the \"Phi\"s were from the eastern part of the state.\nSociety members would wear a blue or white ribbon at university functions, and blue or white ribbons were attached to their diplomas at graduation. On public occasions, both groups were equally represented, and eventually both colors were used by",
"-31.671908434815123"
],
[
"school colors changed from sky blue and brown to navy blue and Columbia blue.",
"-31.497195790114347"
],
[
"The primary school colors are red and black, and the secondary color is white. Owensboro Middle School Beginning the 2010-2011 school year, Owensboro Middle School will hold students in grades 5-8. The students will be separated into two buildings: a \"North Campus,\" serving grades 7-8 and a \"South Campus,\" serving grades 5-6. The North Campus is located at 1300 Booth Avenue and the South Campus is located at 2631 South Griffith Avenue. The two campuses are separated by a football field that is used by both campuses. The middle school bears the same \"Red Devil\" team names as Owensboro High",
"-31.47571472470554"
],
[
"as its colors. When the two schools merged in 1933, they also merged the colors. Blue and white became the official colors of Buckhannon-Upshur High School and have remained to this day. Fight song \"Here Comes the Blue and White\"\n(to the tune of the 1940s song \"Weenie Man\")\nHere comes the Blue and White \n\nTo win this game tonight\n\nThey'll win it any old time\n\nTo keep their rep up high!\n\nThey're worth their weight in gold\n\nThose husky lads so bold\n\nHey boys we really have a team!\n\nRah! Rah! Rah!\n\nHere comes the Blue and White\n\nTo win this game tonight\n\nThey'll win it any old",
"-31.358646587737894"
],
[
"primary school colors are black and old gold. The school's fight songs are \"On Iowa!,\" the \"Iowa Fight Song,\" and \"Roll Along Iowa.\" A fourth song, the \"Hawkeye Victory Polka,\" commonly referred to as \"The Beer Song\" or \"In Heaven There Is No Beer,\" is played specifically following Iowa football and basketball victories. The school's alma mater is \"Alma Mater, Iowa.\"",
"-31.27163146298699"
],
[
"chosen. During this year, a parade was held in Des Moines, and the schools marched wearing their school colors. Miss Louise Patterson, principal of North, suggested that pink and green be used (North had previously been without colors).\nLater in 1894, a committee was appointed to select school colors. After several combinations had been considered, one boy looked out the window and saw pink blossoms set against the green leaves of a crab apple tree. “Why not pick the colors which we have already used,” he said. The committee then chose pink and green as the official colors of North High",
"-31.192126038382412"
],
[
"colours are awarded to those who have represented the school in multiple events. School colours include junior colours normally awarded to boys in the fourth form and below who have represented the school on a number of occasions, half colours which are awarded to those who have competed in several events for the school, and full colours for those who have shown a good commitment in representing the school. Other ties include the prefects tie for elected prefects, the senior prefects tie for the four senior prefects and the John Carpenter Club tie which is awarded to those who have",
"-30.859091742808232"
],
[
"school tradition. Blue represents devotion; silver, purity. In the top right corner of the badge is the Guild Cross, which reinforces the links with The Society of the Sacred Advent. The Anglican faith, on which the School is founded, is reflected in the Bishop's mitre in the lower left corner. A band, symbolising strength and stability supports the initials of the school.",
"-30.844754319587082"
],
[
"functions), a tennis lawn, a basketball court, and a children's playground. The school has a sports field, which is used for its sports activities, as well as for athletics. Uniform Kindergarten students wear Persian coloured checked shorts, and a Persian blue shirt attached to the shorts, while girls wear Persian blue dress.\nBoys, up to the 7th grade, wear white shorts, white half-sleeved shirts, school belt, black shoes, and the school tie (which is dark bottle green with a thin yellow stripes running diagonally). The students usually pin a badge of their house name (and the house colour on the background)",
"-30.6366915914914"
],
[
"twelfth grade. Those four schools are separated into one high school, and three elementary schools which handle the pre-k through eighth grades.",
"-30.610281707675313"
],
[
"subjects they have with other teachers are library, P.E, music, and Japanese. The older grades(4-6) usually have more subjects with other teachers, though they are still the same subjects as before.\nIn the secondary school, Grade 7's study set subjects, including some new ones that aren't offered in primary school. Grade 8's have the same subjects but can pick a language from either Japanese or French. Grade 9 and 10's have six core subjects(English, History, Theology and Spirituality, maths, science, HPE) and choose three electives. Sport The School Participates in various sports through SATIS. They do very well for a small",
"-30.536599508439394"
],
[
"to an elementary school housed Grades K through 5 for students who lived within the area close to the school. In 2008-2009, the school became a school for grades 3 through 5, switching principals and some faculty.\nSecond grade was added to the school along with new classrooms in the fall of 2018. History West Street school opened in 1956. The school originally housed Grades K through 6 (eventually Grades K through 5) for students who lived within the area close to the school. In 2008-2009, the school became a school for grades K through 2, switching principals and some faculty.\nIn",
"-30.531987334004953"
],
[
"state constitution, which, while providing at Article X, Section 2, that \"no distinction shall be made on account of race or color\", nonetheless required that \"separate schools for white and colored children shall be maintained.\" Furthermore, a 1935 state education law required: \nThe schools provided shall be of two kinds; those for white children and those for colored children. The schools for white children shall be free for all white children between the ages of six and twenty-one years, inclusive; and the schools for colored children shall be free to all colored children between the ages of six and twenty-one",
"-30.53107935238222"
],
[
"no formal joint activities between the two schools, but many children in each school have siblings at the other school. Uniform The boys wear a uniform of grey shorts, grey blazers with red trim, white shirts and plain red ties; and a grey peaked cap. The school logo \"WS\" in red is on the cap and on the breast pocket of the blazer.",
"-30.4881399326041"
],
[
"school, there are students from kindergarten to grade 8. All students in these grades take classes in Math, French, and physical education. Due to the low enrollment numbers, many of the grade classes are what is called a 'split class,' in which one teacher has a class of two consecutive grades because there either were not enough students to make a full class of one grade, or too many too fit into one.\nTo further the learning of French, the school offers a part-day French immersion program for grades 5 to 8. Students in this program go to a separate classroom",
"-30.46869766099553"
],
[
"and white serving as the school colors.",
"-30.444139091479883"
],
[
"Randoseru Design In more conservative schools the color, brand and design is mandated, typically with red as the traditional color for girls and black for boys. More colorful versions such as pink, brown, dark blue, green, blue and even two-tones are also available. These varieties have existed since the 1960s but sold poorly due to the lock-step mentality of the education system that gradually began changing in the early 2000s.\nThe increased variety of colors is partly as a compromise for parents to retain some tradition within modernized schools which no longer require the use of traditional uniforms or the randoseru.\nA",
"-30.42538938182406"
],
[
"however, UK students had decided on blue and light yellow prior to the Kentucky-Centre College football game on December 19, 1887. The shade of blue, which is close to a royal blue, was chosen when a student asked the question, \"What color blue?\" At the time, Richard C. Stoll (who lettered in football at UK in 1889–94) pulled off his necktie and held it up. The students then adopted that particular shade of blue. A year later, UK students officially dropped the light yellow color for white because the two colors did not look good together. Basketball Beginning in the",
"-30.41655066209205"
],
[
"and black students begin kindergarten with math scores three quarters of a standard deviation lower than those of white students and with reading scores a half standard deviation lower than those of white students. Six years later, Hispanic-white gaps narrow by roughly a third, whereas black-white gaps widen by about a third. More specifically, the Hispanic-white gap is a half standard deviation in math, and three-eighths in reading at the end of fifth grade. The trends in the Hispanic-white gaps are especially interesting because of the rapid narrowing that occurs between kindergarten and first grade. Specifically, the estimated math gap",
"-30.34360289140386"
],
[
"high house, specialising in mathematics. House colour is green.\n5th house: A senior high house, specialising in sciences. House colour is light blue.\n6th house: A senior high house, specialising in sciences. House colour is dark blue.\nStudents belong to the same house throughout their study in Inagakuen, and have a home-room in their house. Owing to the size of the school, and the elective nature of some of the studies, it is not possible for students to receive all of their lessons in their own home-room (as is normal in Japanese schools). There is a 10-minute break between each class to allow",
"-30.2979562681503"
],
[
"School is: 95% White, 3% Black, 1% Hispanic and 1% Asian/American Indian.",
"-30.25940684467787"
],
[
"a K–5 Children's Academy. It is the feeder school to the middle and upper school.\nThe curriculum used in grades K–3 (and eventually K–5) and the middle and upper school emphasizes standards-based skills. Math Investigations teach students to integrate literacy skills with mathematics competencies.\nMiddle and high school teachers use the University of Chicago Math Project to develop modules that assist students in grades 6–12 to move through a mathematics sequence that culminates with AP Calculus in the 12th grade.\nThe science curriculum follows the standards established by the National Science Foundation. Using research to direct its decision, the Academy's Science Committee inverted",
"-30.23170073934307"
],
[
"and the students progress. Pre-School or Pre-Kindergarten accept as young as age 3 and is not required. From there education models differ as elementary school can last anywhere from grade 5 (age 10–11) to grade 8 (age 13–14) depending on the structure. Some states have middle schools which is part of secondary education and between elementary school and high school encompassing grades from 6 to 9, while others have no middle school and instead combined mixed high schools. High school is generally grades 9-12, with the exception of the mixed model which is 7-12.\nAll children are guaranteed the",
"-30.21523372755837"
],
[
"Elementary School is a federally designated Title I school. According to the Pennsylvania Department of Education, just 37% of 5th grade students at Dunbar Borough Elementary School were on grade level in reading on the PSSAs given in April 2015. In mathematics, only 28% of 5th grade students showed on grade level skills. No fifth grade writing scores were reported. In 4th grade, 30% were on grade level in reading, while 6% showed on grade level math skills. In science, 71% of fourth graders showed on grade level understanding. Among third (3rd) graders, 43% were on grade level in reading",
"-30.166356708628882"
],
[
"world around them. Elementary School (Grades 1 through 5) Elementary School engage students in active learning to develop learners' skills as well as habits related to character and citizenship.\nThe approach to literacy is based on the Reader's and Writer's Workshop, a customized methodology for international schools in which students in grades 5 through 8 apply learning in a meaningful way. In addition, other subjects are taught by hands-on projects that develop in the student the curiosity and the proactivity in relation to the learning process itself. Middle School (Grades 6 through 8) Middle School is based on interdisciplinary collaboration, in",
"-30.140980633012077"
],
[
"in the nursery for the instruction of her own children; any private student could use it with a small group of children belonging to the families of friends and neighbors as an amateur instructor, and the professional music and public school teacher could apply it to their regular classes.\nThe part played by color was easily grasped. Tonic, Dominant and Third were the three primary colors, red, blue and yellow, respectively; the second was Orange (red plus yellow); and the fourth was Green (blue plus yellow), the Octave light red; the sixth Violet (blue and light red), and the seventh Pink",
"-30.10812047062791"
],
[
"to the famous verse from Psalm 119:105 \"Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.\"\nIn 1912 the original school colours of yellow and white were changed to navy blue and green. The colours of the School badge are blue, green and white, with blue associated with loyalty, green representing growth, and white representing purity.\nFrom 1949, the name Somerville House surmounted the badge and the side letters of B.G.H.S. were omitted.",
"-30.098612835048698"
],
[
"attend separate middle schools, beginning at 6th grade and then completing at 8th grade before they transition to high school. Additionally, students may have the option of attending elementary schools that include all eight primary grades. In this case, the student will directly proceed to High School.\nIn most U.S. elementary schools, students have all their core classes from one or two homeroom teachers (as opposed to middle and high schools that typically have students rotate from one specialized teacher to the next throughout the day). In some elementary schools, when funding and supplies are adequate, additional teachers are hired to",
"-29.86595169823704"
],
[
"and 7-12 cover secondary education topics. Kindergarten Kindergarten is a full-day, fully integrated program. Phonics and sight sounds of letters are taught, as well as social skills in light of God's Word. Elementary First through sixth grades teach an academic program emphasizing the fundamentals of learning. Traditional methods such as phonics, memorization, penmanship, grammar, and mathematics are used to teach the courses. Music, weekly chapel, intramural sports, and field trips add variety and fun to the academic program. Students may also participate in ACSI-sponsored academic competitions.",
"-29.855869644166887"
],
[
"Elementary school (United States) Curriculum Primary education tends to focus on basic academic learning and socialization skills, introducing children to the broad range of knowledge, skill and behavioral adjustment they need to succeed in life – and, particularly, in secondary school.\nIn general, a student learns basic arithmetic and sometimes rudimentary algebra in mathematics, English proficiency (such as basic grammar, spelling, and vocabulary), and fundamentals of other subjects. Learning standards are identified for all areas of a curriculum by individual states, including those for mathematics, social studies, science, physical development, the fine arts, and reading. While the concept of state learning standards",
"-29.855471955019198"
],
[
"red, yellow, green and blue as you move from the front of the school to the back, and the locker colours are red, yellow, green, teal and blue. Houses As of the 2017-2018 school year, students at L'Amoreaux CI are now in one of 4 houses selected randomly at the start of the year: Incendium, Pelagus, Telluris and Zephyrus (latin for the 4 elements). Siblings are grouped in the same house to not create any rivalry. SHSM (Specialist High Skills Major) Programs l'Amoreaux Collegiate is one of the schools in the TDSB, which offers 2 SHSM (Specialist High Skills Major)",
"-29.849688285888988"
],
[
"on inquiry base learning, however pre-k dives deeper into preparing kindergarten readiness. Primary education Historically, in the United States, local public control (and private alternatives) have allowed for some variation in the organization of schools. Elementary school includes kindergarten through sixth grade (or sometimes, to fourth grade, fifth grade or eighth grade). Basic subjects are taught in elementary school, and students often remain in one classroom throughout the school day, except for specialized programs, such as physical education, library, music, and art classes. There are (as of 2001) about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States.\nTypically, the curriculum",
"-29.844852115536924"
],
[
"exercise area, swimming pool and a multi-purpose sport hall. School color Blue is chosen as the school color, manifested in the school uniforms.",
"-29.83065817700117"
],
[
"century, elementary education began to divide into primary (still called elementary) and secondary education. Elementary schools were defined in law in England through a series of acts of parliament which made education compulsory and free for children up to the age of 11 (later increased to 12). There were six (and later seven) standards for children to pass; science education did not feature in any of these standards, but for some schools it was an add-on especially at the higher standards (such as sixth and seventh—science subjects included physics, chemistry, mechanics). Promotion from one standard to the next was on",
"-29.823468249429425"
],
[
"and learning. The school colors are rooted in color psychology and denote energy, enthusiasm, hope, optimism, and stability. Futures Academy embodies a campus culture is welcoming, warm, and authentic. The middle school and high school utilizes updated technology for educational purposes and offers the ability to use either electronic or traditional resources, such as textbooks. Courses Futures Academy offers over 170 courses including 27 honors and 18 AP courses, along with college prep, general and workshop-level courses in English, practical arts, fine arts, math, foreign language, science, social science, test prep, and personal development. Specialty courses such as the Science",
"-29.758037584753765"
],
[
"enter primary education. These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where the term kindergarten refers to the earliest levels of primary education. Kindergarten \"provide[s] a child-centred, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them.\" Primary Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first five to seven years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six to eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and",
"-29.712383121242055"
],
[
"Pan-Asia International School Education PAIS offers classes from pre-Kindergarten to Grade 12. Uniform For Kindergarten, the uniform is blue checkered shorts or skirts, yellow shirts, white socks, and formal shoes. In Primary and Middle School, boys wear black pants, and skirts for girls are also checkered blue, but the color of the shirts are blue and comes both in short or long sleeves. In High School, boys wear black pants and light blue shirt with grey collar, while girls still wear the blue checkered skirts but with a matching blue long-sleeves blouses. Sports uniform for all students consists of",
"-29.6530545451933"
],
[
"School (Arabic: مدرسة دار الكلمة النموذجية), meaning “The House of the Word”) is located on the hilltop Mt. Murair campus and serves students in grades K-12. The school is coeducational and Lutheran-based, serving both Christian and Muslim students from the towns, villages, and refugee camps of the Bethlehem area. The Extra-Curricular Program after school offers students the opportunity to receive instruction in their specific, chosen areas of interest from professionals in those fields. The Bright Stars program (run through the ICB) is similar to the ECP program, but it meets once a week and is open to children who attend",
"-29.642254748410778"
],
[
"of the school as a whole. So the school has one principal and 6 vice-principals. Students wear a school uniform with the school logo on their shirt which is coloured according to which house they are in.\n1st house: Since 2003/2004 academic year, this house has been entirely a junior high house, with no senior high students. The house colour is red.\n2nd house: A senior high only house, specialising in foreign languages. House colour is yellow\n3rd house: A senior high only house, specialising in social studies (humanities). House colour is white, or orange if on a white background.\n4th house: A senior",
"-29.590090434901867"
],
[
"school became an academy on 1 April 2011. Present day There are approximately 1000 pupils aged between 11 and 18, including approximately 300 in the sixth form. They are split into six houses - Bebbington (Red), Flavell (Yellow), Schofield (Blue), Watson (Green), Orford (Orange) and Nicolle (Purple). These are all named after former headmistresses of the school. Prior to 2012 pupils were split into house groups according to their forms (i.e. 10A, 11B etc.) until sixth form. From 2012 to 2016, forms were made up of girls of different houses. From 2016, the form system has reverted to",
"-29.539451618329622"
],
[
"child should be 6 years old, but some education systems allow children younger than 6 to enroll in first year (as long as they turn 6 during the first academic semester). Older students who have not completed their elementary education are allowed to attend, though those over 18 are separated from the younger children.\nThe National Council of Education (Conselho Nacional de Educação) establishes a core curriculum consisting of Portuguese language, history, geography, science, mathematics, arts and physical education (for years 2, 3, 4 and 5). As for years 6, 7, 8 and 9, one or two foreign languages are also",
"-29.488903143937932"
],
[
"at a designated ELC-only lunchtime. Elementary School: grades K-5 Students in the elementary school are organized into classes with a maximum of 22 students. Teachers are supported by instructional aides. Students receive instruction in reading, writing, math, social studies, and science in their classrooms. The elementary school’s literacy program is based on the Columbia Teachers’ College program, and students use the enVision math common core program. Outside their home classrooms, students attend their choice of daily Spanish or Chinese language classes. A Chinese-immersion program started in Kindergarten in August 2017. Art, music, and PE classes occur in a three-day rotational",
"-29.383633061603177"
],
[
"Elementary Schools serve grades 1 through 5. The John T. \"Tiger\" Nichols, Jr. Middle School (1999) serves grades 6 through 8, and the Middleborough High School serves grades 9 through 12. Middleborough High's mascot is the \"Sachem\", and their colors are black and orange. Other sports teams in town include the semi-pro football team the Middleborough Cobras and the middle school baseball team the Tigers. \nMiddleborough is also home to the Frederick L. Chamberlain School, a private institution that serves students from around the world struggling with learning disabilities.\nIn 1856, Middleborough-born, Baltimore businessman-wholesale hardware merchant, banker, and steamship",
"-29.377577823584943"
],
[
"The school uniform consists of a light blue shirt adorned with the school coat of arms, grey shorts or trousers, a striped blue and white tie, a dark blue blazer striped with light blue and white. Brown shoes over grey socks are worn as well, the socks are edged at the top with the school tricolour. All grade 8s wear silver buttons on their ties and blue buttons on their blazers, marking their low ranking in the school. Merit colours are only awarded to matrics and grade 11s who have achieved with distinction on the sporting field, academics or the",
"-29.372191128031773"
],
[
"school colors are blue and gold.\nDeWitt High School houses grades 9 through 12. DeWitt Middle School houses grades 6 through 8, and both DeWitt Elementary and Gillett Elementary provide kindergarten through 5th grade. In popular culture In September 2011, the feature film Mud (2013; written and directed by Jeff Nichols, starring Reese Witherspoon and Matthew McConaughey) was filmed in and around Arkansas County. The movie featured a scene filmed at DeWitt Hospital & Nursing Home.",
"-29.36256099461889"
],
[
"Blue School Educational Approach Blue School has developed an education model which combines elements of other approaches and unique elements of its own. It offers a dynamically balanced education for seriously curious young people age 2 through grade 8.\nThe school's Advisory Board include Lawrence Cohen, Ph.D., Sir Ken Robinson, Ph.D., and Dan Siegel, M.D..\nDr. Larry Cohen describes it as \"more about creativity than control\". History Blue School was first established as an informal parent-run playgroup by the founders of the Blue Man Group and their wives when their children approached pre-school age.\nIn September 2007, the playgroup opened as \"Blue Man",
"-29.331129813654115"
],
[
"of colours.\nThe second, 'Half Colours' are awarded in fifth or sixth year, which is represented by a light blue tie (replacing the navy, red and white tie). Pupils must be participating in the activity throughout fourth and fifth year to be able to get this award.\nThe third, 'Full Colours' is the final level of the colours system. It is represented by a ribbon outlining the rims of the school blazer. Pupils must demonstrate a very high level of attainment, performance and achievement to be eligible for this award. Houses and extra-curricular activities When starting school pupils are allocated into one",
"-29.325186508991465"
],
[
"elementary school, actually begins well before students reach kindergarten as a “school readiness” gap. One study claims that about half the test score gap between black and white high school students is already evident when children start school.\nA variety of different tests at kindergarten entry have provided evidence of such a gap, including the U.S. Department of Education's Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey of Kindergarten children (ECLS-K). While results differ depending on the instrument, estimates of the black-white gap range from slightly less than half a standard deviation to slightly more than 1 standard deviation.\nThis early disparity in performance is critical,",
"-29.313248545338865"
],
[
"schooling children attend from 3 to 6 years of age. The names of the levels are nursery, shishu (children), etc. But the view of kindergarten education has changed much from previous years. Almost every rural area now has at least one Kindergarten School, with most being run in the Bengali language. They also follow the textbooks published by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) with a light modification, adding some extra books in the syllabus. The grades generally start from Nursery (sometimes \"Play\"), \"KG\" afterwards, and ends with the 5th grade. Separate from the National Education System, kindergarten is",
"-29.237862435518764"
],
[
"Education in the Netherlands Elementary education Between the ages of four and twelve, children attend elementary school (basisschool; which is literally, \"foundation school\"). This school has eight grades, called groep 1 (group 1) through groep 8 (group 8). School attendance is not necessary until group 2 (at age five), but almost all children commence school at age four (in group 1). Groups 1 and 2 used to be held in a separate institution akin to kindergarten (kleuterschool; literally, \"toddler's school\"), until it was merged with elementary schools in 1985.\nFrom group 3 on, children learn how to read, write and",
"-29.23685152779035"
],
[
"Phrapathom Wittayalai School School color Blue represent to courage, intelligence, and patients.\nYellow represent to good manners, tidy, and moral.",
"-29.23206523967383"
],
[
"elementary and high school levels (often known outside the United States as the primary and secondary levels).\nStudents have the options of having their education held in public schools, private schools, or home school. In most public and private schools, education is divided into three levels: elementary school, junior high school (also often called middle school), and high school. In almost all schools at these levels, children are divided by age groups into grades. Post-secondary education, better known as \"college\" or \"university\" in the United States, is generally governed separately from the elementary and high school system.\nIn the",
"-29.197399671720632"
],
[
"Elementary School (K-4) and Mountain Park Middle School (5-9); and one separate school, Cardinal Newman School (K-9).",
"-29.150890683886246"
],
[
"Ontario and Quebec while kindergarten (or equivalent) is available in every province, but provincial funding and the level of hours provided varies widely. Starting at grade one, at about age six, there is universal Crown-funded access up to grade twelve (or equivalent). Schools are generally divided into elementary schools (kindergarten to Grade 6), junior high schools (Grades 7 to 9), and high schools (Grades 10 to 12). However, in many areas middle schools are also provided and in some schools, particularly in rural areas, the elementary and middle levels can be combined into one school. In 2003, Grade 13 (also",
"-29.064921472037895"
],
[
"of the top 100 schools in the United States. The school team is the Rockets and its colors are black and orange.",
"-29.035045634169364"
],
[
"for school and grade level, such as color.",
"-29.0283541000681"
],
[
"Colors are blue & white. 2013 API results 901.\nLatimer Elementary School is one of two K-8 schools in the district. The other one is Easterbrook. Latimer reopened in the fall of 2014.\nMoreland Middle School (MMS) is the primary middle (6-8) school in the district. In the summer of 2006, Samuel Rogers Middle School was shut down and the students were diverted to the Castro Middle School campus, now renamed Moreland Middle School. Samuel Rogers Middle School and Castro Middle School were always \"friendly\" rivals, competing against each other in sports. The mascot of MMS is a Mustang, and the school",
"-29.007221857769764"
],
[
"Aut Coepisse Noli Aut Confice. The school colours The school was divided into four 'Colours' named Red, Green, Blue and Yellow, each having a LEADER. Each Colour would be run by a nominated council, which would look into all cases of breach of out-door discipline and administer suitable punishment. In the early days, there were only four sport houses; Red House, Yellow House, Blue House and Green House.\nRed House was renamed Cheeseman House, as an honour to H.R. Cheeseman, the man behind the establishment of the school.\nYellow House was renamed Stowell House, as an honor to Mr. E. de La",
"-28.973589809131227"
],
[
"purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 187 to 490 students in that grade range.\nSchool colors are royal blue and gold. Sports offered include softball (women), baseball (men), cross country (men and women), basketball (men and women), volleyball (women) and soccer (men and women).",
"-28.973257072328124"
],
[
"sloping stripes with HCCS on it in the colors of the houses the students belong to. While the secondary section wears self-colored ties (red, blue, green and yellow) based upon the house in which the student belongs to.\nThe Physical Education uniform of the primary section consists of a round neck T-shirt in the colour of their respective houses with the school emblem on the front, in black. This is worn with a black divider skirt. While the secondary girls wear a white blouse with the red collar and the school logo of the colour of their house they belong to",
"-28.968715050636092"
],
[
"School colors The school color is royal purple. There are two theories of how Holy Cross chose purple as its official color. One suggests it was derived from the royal purple used by Emperor Constantine the Great (born about 275 A.D., died in 337 AD) as displayed on his labarum (military standard) and on those of later Christian emperors of Rome.\nThe other version is attributed to Walter J. Connors, an 1887 graduate, and was printed in the October 1940 issue of the Alumnus. According to the account, there was a disagreement during the 1870s between Holy Cross students from Massachusetts",
"-28.94138386218401"
],
[
"consists of grades pre-kindergarten to fifth. The school's colors are navy and white and its mascot is the soaring eagle. It was built in 1872, and in 1911, the industrial arts portion of the school was built. From the years 1911 to 1934, the first and older building instilled primary instruction- such as the core subjects of learning- while the newer building offered woodworking, home economics, and other courses. In 1934, the eldest building was completely torn down to further renovate the school. Therefore, the newest building was attached to the 1911 building, consisting of both classrooms and an auditorium.",
"-28.92147603185731"
],
[
"the school was at the heart of the community and was supported by it. Together, these elements formed a stylized \"M\" for Menzieshill.\nOriginally, the school colours were those of the school badge – bottle green, grey, and red – with the addition of black. The bottle-green blazers were highly distinctive but were later replaced by more traditional black ones. In the 1970s, the school uniform stipulated that other items had to be in \"the school colours\", which allowed pupils of both sexes to dress entirely (shirt, jumper, and trousers) in bottle-green or bright red if they so wished. Later,",
"-28.920635006172233"
],
[
"as part of their name, although grade nine is now missing), whereas middle schools are usually grades 6–8 or only grades 7–8 or 6–7 (i.e. around ages 11–14), varying from area to area and also according to population vs. building capacity.\nAnother common model is grades 5–8. Alberta, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island junior high schools (the term \"Middle School\" is not commonly used) include only grades 7–9, with the first year of high school traditionally being grade 10. In some places students go from elementary school to secondary school, meaning the elementary school covers to the end of",
"-28.90108022853019"
],
[
"grades K-4th went to elementary school, grades 5th-6th went to intermediate school, 7th-8th went to middle school, and grades 9th-12th went to High School. Under the reformed system of schooling, grades K-5 go to elementary school, 6-8 goes to middle school, and 9-12 goes to high school. Former intermediate schools include Central Intermediate and West Main Intermediate. Central is now a private school and West Main is a vacant facility.\nAs of September 2006 construction is underway on Carson, Cherry Valley, Hillview, and Legend Elementary Schools as well as Heritage (old Lincoln), and Liberty Middle Schools District management The district's Board",
"-28.87855944572948"
],
[
"If more boys were in the household, an additional blue, green and then, depending on the region, either purple or orange koinobori were added. After the government's decree that converted Boy's Day (Tango no Sekku) into the present Children's Day (Kodomo no Hi), the holiday came to celebrate the happiness of both boys and girls. As a result, the red koinobori came to represent the mother of the family and it is not uncommon for the color to be varied as pink. Similarly, the other colors and sizes of carp came to represent all the family's children, both sons and",
"-28.865199793988722"
],
[
"pale green blouse.\nBrown Leather lace up Shoes with brown socks.\nTie not compulsory. School houses On enrolment, students are allocated at random to the four houses of Itchika (red), Kara Kara (yellow), Ourapilla (black), and Wookarin (blue). The houses take their names from the language of the original indigenous inhabitants of the land on which the school is situated.",
"-28.814508401526837"
],
[
"All-through school An All-through school is a school which provides both primary and secondary education, namely from the 1st to 12th grade in the United States and from Year 1 to 13 in the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, they accept children at age 4, and school them right through to the age of 16 (or 18 with a sixth form).\nIn 2009, there were only 13 all-through state schools in England, but the Coalition Government's Free school (England) programme has seen the number expand rapidly. Definition The term \"all-through\" can be legitimately applied to establishments in many different circumstances,",
"-28.80280181350099"
],
[
"green and blue were chosen as they are the colours most commonly associated with the school's namesake religious figures; blue for the Virgin Mary and green for St. Patrick. 21st century The school enjoys a healthy reputation amongst the community as a school of high achievement with some year groups experiencing a regular pass rate of 95% in exams. The school serves the catchment of Dumbarton, Alexandria, Balloch, Helensburgh and the Rosneath peninsula .\nThe school is currently providing educational services for around 1100 pupils and the current headmaster is Chris Smith, who assumed the role with the retirement of previous",
"-28.78677806271662"
],
[
"the Design and Technology Centre.\nThe school became a direct grant grammar school in 1946 as a result of the Education Act 1944 and chose to become independent when direct grants were abolished by the 1974–9 Labour Government. Colours House colours are awarded, given at the end of the term should that person perform well in an activity or sport.\nSchool colours are awarded to pupils typically in their final year, who perform exceptionally well in sport or any other school activity. They would be expected to compete in a school team (such as Cricket, Rugby, Hockey or Football) and show continued",
"-28.78274062325181"
],
[
"classes in Bible, math, phonics/language, spelling, writing, as well as health, history, science, and foreign language. First graders learn sentence structure, while multiplication and division skills are taught in second grade. Parts of speech are introduced in third grade, and students learn to diagram in grade four. Fifth grade students do a complete research paper in preparation for their middle school years. Middle school Students have the option to enroll in the academy's accelerated math program. RCA's middle school includes changing classes, lockers, and more prominent field trips. With the academy's curriculum, students also prepare science projects, research projects, take",
"-28.772392792001483"
],
[
"after 8 years (including kindergarten) of primary school, in which pupils study the same subjects as their German counterparts, with the addition of compulsory Ancient Greek, Latin and Klassieke Culturele Vorming (Classical Cultural Education), history of the Ancient Greek and Roman culture and literature. Schools have some freedom in choosing their specific curriculum, with for example Spanish, Philosophy and Technasium, a very technical and highly demanding course, being available as final exams. Usually schools will have all classes mandatory in switching combinations for the first three or so years (with the exception of Technasium which is a free choice from",
"-28.768209912424936"
],
[
"year.\nIn the early years, the school colors were blue and white and after the new school was built in 1950, the colors were changed to royal blue and gold. The years from the late 1940s through the 1950s and later in the 1970s were years of basketball excellence for St. Rose. Consolidation and decline In 1977, St. Rose High School was renamed Sacred Heart High School. Mt. Carmel Elementary and St. Rose Elementary were consolidated and renamed as Sacred Heart Elementary for the 2000-2001 school year. Grades PreK-3 were housed in the Mt. Carmel building, while grades 4-6 were",
"-28.73397317668423"
],
[
"Middle School French immersion is part of the curriculum until the end of Grade 6, at which point students have the option to continue. From Grades 4 to 6, French and English instruction share equal time.",
"-28.710933965892764"
],
[
"middle school teachers at the same time, starting with the first year. For most of the school day, middle school students are separated from elementary school students. When middle schoolers interact with elementary schoolers, middle schoolers are placed in mentorship positions over elementary school students.\nWhen the school first opened in 1994, 50% of the students were White, 25% were Hispanic, and 25% were Black. At the time 72 children of Rice University employees attended the school. In 1996 the students were about 37% White, 33% Black, 27% Hispanic, and 3% Asian. School uniforms Rice requires school uniforms for all of",
"-28.693259737952758"
],
[
"and Girls School then became coeducational in 1939 on the Haynsworth Street school and was named Edmunds High School in memory of Superintendent Samuel Henry Edmunds. The Girls School became Calhoun Junior High and then McLaurin Junior High in 1950 in memory of Superintendent Linnie McLaurin. The colors were purple and white. This color combination represented the merging of the two junior high schools: McLaurin Junior High School, whose colors were red and white, and Alice Drive Junior High (now Alice Drive Middle School), with colors blue and white. In 1970, when Lincoln and Edmunds High Schools integrated and",
"-28.681081023427396"
],
[
"King\".\nBlue and White, being the colors of the school's patroness, the Blessed Virgin Mary, were chosen as the school's colors. Thus blue and white are the colors of the uniforms of the varsity teams. Most of the school songs, yells and cheers have the words blue and white. Collegiate leagues The Ateneo de Manila University is a member of the University Athletic Association of the Philippines, the premiere sports league in the country. It fields teams in all fifteen sporting events of the league. Ateneo was a founding member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association, which was established in 1924.",
"-28.669578275163076"
],
[
"degrees, baccalauréat and bachillerato, corresponding to the French and Argentine titles similar to high school in the United States. Three educational levels The first level begins at kindergarten where students will perform their first tasks. Games and rules will be useful to teach and enforce student's behavior allocating positive incentives to help little kids to develop their character within social activities. Games and activities are fully bilingual after which students are expected to know writing and reading basis in French and Spanish.\nThe second level continues at elementary school where students will learn to master writing and reading skills. Furthermore, students",
"-28.668814654578455"
],
[
"Elementary schools in Japan Elementary school (小学校 Shōgakkō) in Japan is compulsory. All children begin first grade in the April after they turn six--kindergarten is growing increasingly popular, but is not mandatory—and starting school is considered a very important event in a child's life. History In the Edo period, some children attended terakoya or temple schools where they learned practical methods of reading, writing, and calculation.\nIn 1886, the modern elementary school system started as compulsory education. Until 1947, only elementary schools were compulsory. Immediately before and during World War II, state education was used as a propaganda tool by the",
"-28.646850975230336"
],
[
"the sixth year of compulsory education in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. United States' equivalent In the United States, most children enter the public school education system at age(s) 5–6 to start the First Grade. Children are divided into year groups or grades based on age; in Fourth Grade students are usually 9–10 years old and typically attending an Elementary or Primary School. Standard subjects include maths, sciences, English, grammar, writing, literature, and history (often including history of the founding of the United States, and that depending on which State the school is in may include Regional and local",
"-28.63542077640159"
],
[
"In Quebec, the speaker (if Francophone) will often say primary one, primary two (a direct translation from the French), and so on; while Anglophones will say grade one, grade two. (Compare American first grade, second grade (sporadically found in Canada), and English/Welsh Year 1, Year 2, Scottish/Nth.Irish Primary 1, Primary 2 or P1, P2, and Sth.Irish First Class, Second Class and so on.). The year of school before grade 1 is usually called \"Kindergarten\", with the exception of Nova Scotia, where it is called \"grade primary\".\nIn the U.S., the four years of high school are termed the freshman, sophomore, junior,",
"-28.61721849929745"
],
[
"the age of 3-4, consists of 1-2 grades, (depending on the parents).\nSecond: elementary school. the first grade pupils enter at the age of 6-7 .and It consists of 8 grades, each year there is more academic efforts and main subjects added plus more school methods improvements. By the 8th grade a student is 13–14 years old ready to take the certificate exams and entering high school.\nThird: upper second school and high school. At this level the school methods add some main academic subjects such as chemistry, biology, physics, geography, etc...\nthere are three grades in this level. The students ages are",
"-28.604137039041234"
],
[
"provided, but in the high school a reasonable knowledge of academic English is required. Children entering K-1 must turn age 4 before October 1 of that year. Class and grade level assignment is determined by looking at past records. Elementary school The Arts, Dutch, Computer, Library and PE are taught by specialists. Field trips are regular and are linked back to the curriculum. More than 50 teachers work in the Elementary School. As of 2019 the Elementary School Principal was Tim Messick.\nThere is an art program called Art Masterpiece sponsored by the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) intended according to the",
"-28.601660311658634"
],
[
"The committee soon discovered that Princeton already used the colors, however, and changed their recommendation. For this reason some references claim that Ohio State's original school colors were orange and black. This claim is not quite accurate, in that the committee never filed the original report with that recommendation.",
"-28.590076117121498"
],
[
"which provides historical and social backgrounds to the old and New Testament. In seventh and eighth grades, students are allowed to choose two academic electives to support their learning. Choices have included the History of the Vietnam War, the 60s and Short Story Writing, along with Middle and Upper School combined Yearbook elective. Core subjects in the curriculum include English, math (including 3 math tracks), modern and classical languages (including Spanish, French, Latin and Greek) and science. Upper School The Upper School program provides an excellent variety of academic opportunities and offers more academic freedoms for students. All students are",
"-28.57818307807247"
],
[
"school for students in 4th and 5th grade, a middle school for students from 6th to 8th grade, and a high school for students in 9th to 12th grade. While the primary schools are located in the respective towns indicated by their names (Elma Primary, Marilla Primary, and Wales Primary), the other three schools are located on the same expansive campus at 2111 Girdle Road in Elma. The Campus is divided such that the high school and middle school are separated by the intermediate school, acting as a buffer between the similar age groups. The three buildings are connected by",
"-28.57027962613938"
],
[
"Elementary School achieved AYP status. In 2011, only 74% of the students were reading on grade level in grades 3rd through 6th. In math, 81% of the students in 3rd through 6th grades were on grade level and 47% scored advanced. In 4th grade science, 91% of the pupils were on grade level. In 2012, only 78% of the students were reading on grade level in grades 3rd through 6th. In math, 71% of the students in 3rd through 6th grades were on grade level and 44% scored advanced. In 4th grade science, 83% of the pupils were on grade",
"-28.569900454834396"
],
[
"for students wishing to pursue AP or IB classes. Classes are distinguished by the color of their shirts so when in high school at ECA students that are between the grades 9 and 12 must wear a beige shirt as uniform. Sports include swimming, soccer basketball,. As for after high school education students most students reach higher education by moving to The United States to go to college. The Middle School portion of ECA is made up of about 60 students between the grades 6 and 8 who because of the student distinction and uniform code must wear blue shirts",
"-28.552515030398354"
],
[
"the Principal in charge of the Girls Section. Student life The school serves Kindergarten and Grades 1 through 12. The grades are grouped into sections Kindergarten (lower and upper KG), pre-primary (grades I and II), primary (grades III to V), middle (grades VI-VIII), secondary (grades IX and X) and higher secondary (grades XI and XII). Each section has office bearers - Captain, Vice Captain and Captains for four colour houses for LKG-UKG, I-V and VI-VIII, and for IX-XII they have Captain, Vice Captain, Head Girl/Head Boy, Sports Secretary, Joint Secretary and Captains for four colour houses to help teachers and",
"-28.545443112536304"
],
[
"to the Fourth Grade as it is called in the USA, Canada and some other parts of the world. Note that the word \"Class\" is used instead of \"Grade\" and the year is written in Roman Numeral). The pre-primary and primary divisions are housed in one campus, commonly called the \"Primary School\".\nThe Middle school has five sections each of Classes V to VII and the High School has five sections each of Classes VIII to X. Both the Middle school and High School are housed in another building, commonly called the \"High School Campus\". The High School Campus and the",
"-28.536251889086998"
],
[
"their birthday is. Hence in Korea, kindergarten children are called five-, six- and seven-year-olds). The school year begins in March. It is followed by primary school. Normally the kindergartens are graded on a three-tier basis.\nKorean kindergartens are private schools, and monthly costs vary. Korean parents often send their children to English kindergartens to give them a head start in English. Such specialized kindergartens can be mostly taught in Korean with some English lessons, mostly taught in English with some Korean lessons, or completely taught in English. Almost all middle-class parents send their children to kindergarten.\nKindergarten programs in South Korea attempt",
"-28.53566754473968"
],
[
"elementary education was offered was started by the Rhenish Missionary Society. By the end of the first World War the Venerable Söhnge came to Worcester with instructions from the Society to develop a Teachers Training College for Coloured people.\nThe Dutch Reformed Mission Church, who had by then taken over the duties of the Rhenish Society, started a school for Coloured deaf children in 1933. Ironically it was under the Apartheid system that schools were first built for the Coloured and Black African communities. During the Apartheid years, education was only offered on an elementary level in the Zweletemba township.\nIn 1997",
"-28.49759341340541"
]
] |
7qntfx | We've all seen optical illusions, but are there tactile illusions, olfactory illusions or audio illusions? | [
"The most well known auditory illusion is called a \"Shepard tone\" which sounds like a pitch continuously increasing or decreasing forever. Made famous by [Super Mario 64 ]( URL_0 )",
"Absolutely yes. Two good examples of tactile illusion: - Phantom cellphone vibrate, where you are sure your pocket is vibrating but it isn't. - Phantom limb pain, where an amputated arm or leg still seems to hurt.",
"The [McGurk Effect]( URL_1 ) is a pretty good auditory illusion. [Here is a video.]( URL_0 ) The McGurk effect demonstrates that what we see influences what we hear. A man saying 'Baa' repeated will sound like he is saying 'Faa', if the 'Baa' audio is dubbed over a video of him saying 'Faa'.",
"[The Thermal Grill. ]( URL_0 ) This is one of the trippiest things I've experienced. Warm water running through one pipe, cool in another, and they're looped side by side for a short distance such that they appear to be a single coil. Placing your hand on the coil feels like you'll get burned, but touching individual tubes reveals the temperature difference. I experienced this only once, and I think it was at EPCOT. It was over twenty years ago, and I still find it amazing and mind boggling.",
"One of the oldest tactile illusions is the Aristotle illusion. It is easy to perform. Cross your fingers, then touch a small spherical object such as a dried pea, and it feels like you are touching two peas. This also works if you touch your nose.",
"An example of auditory illusion is \"*soramimi*\" (Japanese for \"auditory illusion\", which is usually used for a specific genre : misheard lyrics) when listening to a song in another language, what actually happens is that you're victim of your phonological cribble (basically, the only sounds you're able to hear are those of your mother tongue), so not all the original sounds of the foreign language arrive to your brain and your brain makes up for it, creating something that makes sense for you out of that noise. The reason it has become so well-known in Japan is that obviously, the more phonemes there are in your mother tongue, the less you're subject to those auditory illusions, but since Japanese has few phonemes, Japanese people get a lot of those illusions out of a lot of languages.",
"Tactile: Have a partner use two toothpicks to lightly poke your skin. They can either start with the toothpicks far apart and move them closer together until you only sense one poke or start with them close and move them farther apart until you feel two pokes. Different areas of your body have different densities of nerve endings. This means you will sense two pokes much closer together on your fingertips than you would on the back of your neck. Auditory: I'm not sure what this is called, but in a choir rehearsal we practiced singing one note in perfect unison. It produced a faint overtone maybe one octave higher. I kept thinking who the f is trying to show off right now, but then our choir director explained the phenomenon.",
"Here's a tactile one you try at home. Cross your fingers, the index and middle. Now, without looking, touch something small like a marble or pen with the crossed fingers. You should feel two objects. Why? Your brain feels something on the opposite sides of your fingers and with visual reference assumes there are two things.",
"When something isn’t “Smells like the taste” or “Taste like the smell” used to confuse me as a baby when something like smelling a fruity shampoo but it tasted like a chemical vat. I was so reckless as a baby. I still am, but I use to, too.",
"Ventriloquists make use of auditory illusions all the time. They'll throw some phonemes together so quickly they seem like they're pronouncing a different letter."
] | [
[
"Illusion (musical) Plot The story, a critique of American influences on Australian life through a 'surrealistic pantomime', concerns Travis the Private Eye. Carboni, the Common Man, a newspaper seller, tries to persuade Travis to track down the Glowing Man. Along the way Travis encounters politicians, the Church, the judiciary, the media, big business, police, criminals, junkies and others. Production history Mullins had conceived the concept for Illusion in the early 1980 as the third part of a trilogy of experimental performance.\nThe musical was first performed for the Adelaide Festival of the Arts from 7 to 22 March 1986",
"-27.142727632346578"
],
[
"Henri Robin Henri Robin (1811–1874), born Henrik Joseph Donckel, was a French illusionist, born in Hazebrouck. In the early 1850s, he performed at Windsor Castle, at the request of Queen Victoria. In 1861, he became the first illusionist to offer a full programme of magic at Egyptian Hall in London. Between 1862 and 1869, he managed a theatre in the Boulevard du Temple, Paris. His most well-known illusion in these years was \"The Medium of Inkerman\", in which a drum on stage was apparently struck by an unseen spirit, in response to questions from the audience.",
"-25.41485329612624"
],
[
"Illusions & Mirrors Plot The film traces the delusions of a young woman, played by Natalie Portman. She is making futile attempts to follow a phantom travelling through the dunes of an empty sea beach, and, when it comes to an encounter in an abandoned house at the end, the woman finds a disturbing surprise.",
"-25.398262458431418"
],
[
"parapsychologist Cornell exposed a number of fraudulent mediums including Rita Goold and Alec Harris. \nThe psychologist and skeptic Richard Wiseman has noted that Cornell conducted a \"great deal of fascinating work\". He investigated the reliability of eyewitness testimony for ghosts by dressing up as a fake spirit in several locations in Cambridge. Cornell discovered that the eyewitness reports were often far from accurate and unreliable.\nHowever, Cornell was not just another debunker, but understood and often remarked that ghosts and paranormal activity had been recorded throughout human history and so there was clearly something else going on that we did not",
"-24.817066713032546"
],
[
"of pious fraud, citing a lack of empirical evidence. The exposure of supposed mediums whose use of séance tools derived from the techniques of stage magic has been disturbing to many believers in spirit communication. In particular, the 1870s exposures of the Davenport Brothers as illusionists and the 1887 report of the Seybert Commission brought an end to the first historic phase of Spiritualism. Stage magicians like John Nevil Maskelyne and Harry Houdini made a side-line of exposing fraudulent mediums during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1976, M. Lamar Keene described deceptive techniques that he himself had",
"-24.61057612998411"
],
[
"Illusions (1982 film) Plot According to film scholar and critic Clyde Taylor, “Dash's film plays inventively on themes of cultural, sexual and racial domination.” The film is set in Hollywood in 1942, a time when the role of the film industry was to create an illusion for the audience to believe in. This illusion was based on the creation of American history in films; what is seen on screen is usually what they want you to believe and not actually the truth. Made during a time of heavy war propaganda, Hollywood created its own version of America",
"-24.166644726938102"
],
[
"the first illusionist to adapt to this new medium. It was unusual because many thought that magicians needed a stage and curtains to hide the workings of their tricks. Gwynne could perform his act with the audience entirely surrounding him, which heightened the mystery. As he had in vaudeville, Gwynne became one of the most popular performers in nightclubs during their heyday before World War II. Motion Pictures While performing in nightclubs in California in 1940, Gwynne and his family settled in Hollywood. Gwynne was cast in several motion pictures by Universal Studios, including, Dark Streets of Cairo (1940); Bagdad",
"-24.14550711470656"
],
[
"these ideas.\" Suggested relationship to ghost sightings Psychologist Richard Wiseman of the University of Hertfordshire suggests that the odd sensations that people attribute to ghosts may be caused by infrasonic vibrations. Vic Tandy, experimental officer and part-time lecturer in the school of international studies and law at Coventry University, along with Dr. Tony Lawrence of the University's psychology department, wrote in 1998 a paper called \"Ghosts in the Machine\" for the Journal of the Society for Psychical Research. Their research suggested that an infrasonic signal of 19 Hz might be responsible for some ghost sightings. Tandy was working late one night",
"-23.9932951649389"
],
[
"Matthew Solomon). Instead, trick films create illusions using film techniques.\nTrick films generally convey a sprightly humor, created not so much by jokes or comedic situations as by the energetic whimsy inherent in making impossible events seem to occur. As the philosopher Noël Carroll has pointed out, the comedy in Méliès's trick film style is \"a matter of joy borne of marvelous transformations and physically impossible events,\" \"a comedy of metaphysical release that celebrates the possibility of substituting the laws of physics with the laws of the imagination.\"",
"-23.873175805289065"
],
[
"good or evil.\nAngier's theft of Borden's teleportation illusion in the film echoes many real-world examples of stolen tricks among magicians. Outside the film, similar rivalries include magicians John Nevil Maskelyne and Harry Kellar's dispute over a levitation illusion. Gary Westfahl of Locus Online also notes a \"new proclivity for mayhem\" in the film over the novel, citing the murder/suicide disposition of Angier's duplicates and intensified violent acts of revenge and counter-revenge. This \"relates to a more general alteration in the events and tone of the film\" rather than significantly changing the underlying themes.\nNor is this theme of cutthroat competition limited",
"-23.638106938971987"
],
[
"backgrounds.\nRonald Pearsall in his book Table-rappers: The Victorians and the Occult (1972) documented how every Victorian medium investigated had been exposed as using trickery, in the book he revealed how mediums would even use acrobatic techniques during séances to convince audiences of spirit presences.\nIn 1976, M. Lamar Keene, a medium in Florida and at the Spiritualist Camp Chesterfield in Indiana, confessed to defrauding the public in his book The Psychic Mafia. Keene detailed a multitude of common stage magic techniques utilized by mediums which are supposed to give an appearance of paranormal powers or supernatural involvement.\nAfter her death in the",
"-23.588589219842106"
],
[
"stage illusions, most of which were sold off and are either in collections, or being used by other performers; many of whom are in the Michigan area.",
"-23.52695852238685"
],
[
"one of the world's most popular film genres. Techniques explored in these trick films included slow motion and fast motion created by varying the camera cranking speed; the editing device called the substitution splice; and various in-camera effects, such as multiple exposure. Double exposures, especially, achieved to show faded or ghostly images on screen.\nThe spectacular nature of trick films lives on especially on horror films. Trick films convey energetic whimsy that make impossible events seem to occur on screen. Trick films are in essence films in which artists use camera techniques to create magic tricks or special effects that feel",
"-23.48746332565497"
],
[
" It is not known whether Herrmann or the others bought the illusions directly from LeGrand or from another source, but they willingly performed the illusions after knowing that they were invented by Robert-Houdin. Robert-Houdin on tour Robert-Houdin's little theatre became a mecca for magic enthusiasts. Herrmann was a constant visitor to the Palais Royal. The public complained, because Robert-Houdin could not magically make his theatre bigger. It became the place for the Paris elite to go. Even King Louis Philippe rented out the room for a private performance. After the triumph he gave at",
"-23.08332379005151"
],
[
"as table-rapping, slate (writing), spirit photography, eerie inexplicable sounds and many other \"psychic\" experiments.\nAnother popular theatrical séance, this one touring theatrical stages and smaller venues, entitled Phantoms, was presented by mentalist Gregory Bishop (Edmonds). Phantoms employed items associated with, and actually belonging to, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Harry Houdini. First presented in 1995, it was designed for presentation in two versions: the larger, and more family-friendly stage version, and the smaller (somewhat \"scarier\" version), presented in private homes and in club settings. The larger, stage version of the show included the spirit cabinet illusion, along with a",
"-22.961594968837744"
],
[
"The Illusionist: Music from the Motion Picture Background and development Bob Last, a co-producer of the film, introduced Chomet to Malcolm Ross, a Scottish musician who was previously apart of the band Josef K. Composition The soundtrackIn \"Chanson Illusionist\", voice impersonations of Juliette Gréco, Les Frères Jacques, Georges Brassens, Barbara, Yves Montand, Édith Piaf, Jacques Brel, and Serge Gainsbourg are performed by an ensemble of voice actors.",
"-22.829982892493717"
],
[
"with illusions and magic tricks, and decked out their sets with elaborate sets, costumes, and characters. While filmmakers like the Lumière brothers were tinkering with motion picture devices and shot documentary-like films, Méliès, and to an extent, Segundo de Chomón as well, were developing magic tricks on film. They created sophisticated sight gags and theatrical special effects to either entertain or scare the audience.\nIn his autobiography, Méliès recalled a day when he was capturing footage on a Paris street when his camera jammed. Frustrated, he fiddled with the hand crank, fixed the problem, and started shooting again. When he",
"-22.82862120543723"
],
[
"and Prince Albert and toured in the United States and Australia, thus bringing the bullet catch into mainstream magic illusions. At least four of Anderson's rivals adapted and imitated his trick in their own performances.\nThe bullet catch is arguably one of the most dangerous and daring illusions that a magician can attempt, even when performed in a controlled situation. Legends surround the trick, claiming that more than twelve magicians have been killed while performing it.\nAlthough there are few documented cases of death, there are several accounts of the performer being shot. The number of deaths surrounding the bullet catch has",
"-22.73381816514302"
],
[
"the people around her. She can even project illusions over television. She also wields a mandolin with an extending handle that can be used as a weapon. A psychopathic killer, she is not afraid to do whatever it takes to destroy her opponents.\nThe unidentified Harlequin has illusion-casting powers similar to her predecessors. However, her illusions are much more intense and powerful than the illusions cast by Molly Mayne and Marcie Cooper, which were created from their glasses. When casting her illusions, if the victim has any doubt that the illusion is not real , they will feel the pain",
"-22.708629459142685"
],
[
"Shadow of Illusion Production Director Mario Caiano began work on Shadow of Illusion right after his film Love Birds – Una strana voglia d'amare. The film began production under the original title Le ombre. Caiano recalled that the film had a strange production with producers who were not seen before or after production. Caiano was promised by the producers an actor that was internationally known for the film, but did not get him. William Berger was shooting La colomba non deva volare in Egypt at the time and got in contact to star in the film. Other members of Berger's",
"-22.633183293175534"
],
[
"principally recorded between 1905-1923. The psychical researcher W. W. Baggally from the Society for Psychical Research interviewed witnesses and declared the phenomena genuine. However, skeptics were unconvinced noting that \"as with most investigations of hauntings, you either believe the witnesses or you don't, for there is no other evidence.\" The psychical researcher Frank Podmore suggested that some of the visions may have been hallucinations.",
"-22.539794646872906"
],
[
"Illusionist\" was adapted into the 2006 film The Illusionist, was born in New York City and raised in Connecticut.\nMore recently, Stephen King, born in Portland, Maine, has used the small towns of his home state as the setting for much of his horror fiction, with several of his stories taking place in or near the fictional town of Castle Rock. Just to the south, Exeter, New Hampshire was the birthplace of best-selling novelist John Irving and Dan Brown, author of The Da Vinci Code. Rick Moody has set many of his works in southern New England, focusing on wealthy families",
"-22.486860210818122"
],
[
"camera lens, where it shatters and drips” or a scene in which a boy has a dream in slow-motion (Sklar, 324). The surrealist dream sequence was actually shot in reverse and switched in post-production. Buñuel does not romanticize the characters, and even the abused blind man is revealed to have cruel habits of preying on children and selling fake elixirs. Controversy about possible plagiarism Journalist Verónica Calderón, in an article published on August 14, 2010 in the Spanish newspaper El País, collects statements by Morelia Guerrero, daughter of Mexican journalist and writer Jesús R. Guerrero (Numarán, Michoacán, 1911-1979), in which",
"-22.344599186384585"
],
[
"have had similar experiences and will thus confirm the accuracy of the individual's abduction experience. Drug-induced hallucinations Some alleged abductees may be under the influence of recreational drugs. For example, Terence McKenna described seeing \"Machine Elves\" while experimenting with Dimethyltryptamine (DMT). The description of Machine Elves is often consistent with the description of gray aliens. In studies conducted from 1990–1995 at University of New Mexico, psychiatrist Rick Strassman found that approximately 20 percent of volunteers injected with high doses of DMT had experiences similar to purported alien abductions. Parallels with other phenomena Many parallels have been drawn between",
"-22.264868795347866"
],
[
"expectations of stage magic for decades afterwards. Steinmeyer has explained:\nBefore Selbit's illusion, it was not a cliche that pretty ladies were teased and tortured by magicians. Since the days of Robert-Houdin, both men and women were used as the subjects for magic illusions. Victorian gowns often made it unrealistic for a lady to take part in an illusion or be pressed into a tight space.\n One female magician Dorothy Dietrich has turned the tables and used men as assistants, sawing them in half. \nChanges in fashion and great social upheavals during the first decades of the 20th century made",
"-22.20773663232103"
],
[
"on a pseudo-mythical tale of a magician who stunned audiences in Vienna in the latter part of the 19th century. It was made into the film, The Illusionist (2006).\nMillhauser's stories often treat fantasy themes in a manner reminiscent of Poe or Borges, with a distinctively American voice. As critic Russell Potter has noted, \"in (Millhauser's stories), mechanical cowboys at penny arcades come to life; curious amusement parks, museums, or catacombs beckon with secret passageways and walking automata; dreamers dream and children fly out their windows at night on magic carpets.\"\nMillhauser's collections of stories continued with The Barnum Museum (1990),",
"-22.01349857122659"
],
[
"Vonck. His illusionist work continued the tradition of trompe l'oeil still lifes of game of the Netherlandish masters of the 17th century such as Jacob Biltius, Cornelis Biltius and Cornelis Norbertus Gysbrechts. Jacquin's illusionist works of birds against plain walls use natural light and shade effects together with accurate painting of the plumage to create the illusionistic effect that they are real.\nJacquin also painted a few realistic street scenes.",
"-21.989125461812364"
],
[
"Louisa moved back to Australia. By July Merlin was settled in Melbourne where he embarked on a new theatrical enterprise which projected a spectral illusion onto a stage.}}\nThis spectral illusion, popularly known as Pepper’s ghost, used a series of angled sheets of glass to project a ghost onto the stage alongside the actors. A provisional patent had been lodged in England by John Henry Pepper and Henry Dircks in February 1863, and this may have been why it was possible for Merlin to lodge one here in Australia. \nMerlin’s consortium was the first to successfully perform the trick for the",
"-21.92016095708823"
],
[
"Illusions since 2008. In each video, he lightheartedly demonstrates and reacts to at least one toy, puzzle, or optical illusion which is either part of his collection or will be stocked through an online toy store, run as part of the Grand Illusions brand (to which he is a director). There are now several hundred videos on the channel which are around 10 minutes in length each, and have collectively been viewed hundreds of millions of times. The channel surpassed one million subscribers in June 2019 and was awarded a golden YouTube Play Button, which Rowett unboxed in a video.",
"-21.90366849765269"
],
[
"terrified of the ghostly noises in the attic of a deserted house, more so than even Jeff, and he doesn't appear to have any sense of other paranormal phenomenon when he can not physically see them. He also shows a subservience to the 1920s American gangster ghost of Bugsy in the eighth episode \"Murder Ain't What it Used to Be\".",
"-21.882001891266555"
],
[
"dissolves. It is among a few of the best examples of trick films that Georges Méliès and Segundo de Chomón helped popularized.\nIn 1912, French director Abel Gance released his short film Le masque d'horreur (The Mask of Horror). The film tells a story of a mad sculptor who searches for the perfect realization of \"the mask of horror\". He places himself in front of a mirror after smearing blood over himself with the glass of an oil lamp. He then swallows a virulent poison to observe the effects of pain.\nIn 1913, German directors Stellan Rye and Paul Wegener made the",
"-21.843989509681705"
],
[
"the Earl and Countess of Derby.\nJohn Milner has mentored a chosen cache of magicians in the art of stage illusion and magical performance. For instance, in The Magic Circular, January 2003, Andrew O'Connor, owner of Objective Productions, spoke about being taught by John. \"I had done magic as a young kid and had I met a man called John Milner, who was an extra on a television series I worked on. John was a student of Ken Brooke's and John taught me magic and later Ken Brooke taught me.\" He has also conceived and performed bespoke illusions for many corporate",
"-21.82100165970769"
],
[
"25 February 2011, The Illusionist won the first César Award for Best Animated Feature.\nIt was nominated for Best Animated Feature Film in the 83rd Academy Awards, but lost to Toy Story 3; and an Annie Award for Best Animated Feature, losing to How to Train Your Dragon.",
"-21.79550788726192"
],
[
"that eyewitness testimony in relation to paranormal claims is unreliable.\nBesterman was skeptical of most physical mediums. In 1934, he visited Brazil to investigate the medium Carlos Mirabelli and detected trickery.",
"-21.785644714866066"
],
[
"It was among the first Hollywood feature films to portray a haunting as an authentic supernatural event. Previously, ghosts had often been played for comedy (The Ghost Goes West, 1936; Topper, 1937), were revealed to be practical jokes (Blondie Has Servant Trouble, 1940) or as a subterfuge to obscure an illegal activity (The Cat and the Canary, 1939; Abbott and Costello’s Hold That Ghost, 1941).\nParamount added special effects to the film, having decided at the last moment to emphasize its \"supernatural premise\"; those effects were removed by censors when the film was distributed in England. Music Victor Young's",
"-21.699399301724043"
],
[
"work area within the Illusions, Inc. warehouse, detective Mr. Bruce reviews Mr. Gallico's contract and explains that the contract is as Mr. Ormond stated: anything Mr. Gallico invents is the property of Illusions, Inc. As the detective is leaving, he asks Mr. Gallico to tell Ms. Lee where and when to meet him for dinner. Just then Mr. Ormond and the real Great Rinaldi (John Emery) arrive. \nMr. Ormond and The Great Rinaldi are shown the buzz-saw illusion's inner workings and ruminate on the performance of the trick by The Great Rinaldi and not by Mr. Gallico, the trick's",
"-21.686820090311812"
],
[
"ghosts in another room. He wakes up from a dream stating that this was a dream. He meets his crew searching for him and tells that he listened a full script in his dream. He goes back to the room to find Raju's bag which is full of cash and also the pouch of gold coins earlier in his pocket and gets spooked. Inspired by the story, he starts the movie with Raju's story with all the ghosts looking at the shoot with great happiness. Shooting 70% of the shooting of the film took place in Surat, Gujarat.",
"-21.659951185341924"
],
[
"Not an Illusion, made from 2003 to 2008 and released in the same year. According to Abedian, her camera operator got a call from Ghobadi and left her afterwards to make the movie about the same topic with Ghobadi in a few days.",
"-21.654903967370046"
],
[
"Nevil Maskelyne. Maskelyne exposed the Davenport brothers by appearing in the audience during their shows and explaining how the trick was done. \nThe psychical researcher Hereward Carrington exposed fraudulent mediums' tricks, such as those used in slate-writing, table-turning, trumpet mediumship, materializations, sealed-letter reading, and spirit photography. The skeptic Joseph McCabe, in his book Is Spiritualism Based on Fraud? (1920), documented many fraudulent mediums and their tricks.\nMagicians and writers on magic have a long history of exposing the fraudulent methods of mediumship. During the 1920s, professional magician Harry Houdini undertook a well-publicised campaign to expose fraudulent mediums; he was adamant",
"-21.582765091763576"
],
[
"used to catch bats, but Paranormal investigators have repurposed them to supposedly pick up sounds of ghosts. The results of the bat box experiments varied; in the fire station itself, Alex picked up a moaning sound on the top floor. On another location they investigated but didn't film at, Toni felt the bat box definitely picked up the sounds of an entity responding to their questions. while Alex didn't think they picked up anything supernatural, although he felt a 'presence' in the room with him.\nThe film's original title was Credo and some marketing work was done under that name; a",
"-21.572329179616645"
],
[
"Dark Magic (film) Dark Magic (1939) is a short comedy film produced by Robert Benchley for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Benchley appears as Joe Doakes, who goes to a magic shop to see a magician perform magic tricks. Sharp-eyed viewers will recognize \"Mr. Calypso\", the magic demonstrator, as none other than sleight-of-hand master John Scarne.",
"-21.535219373647124"
],
[
"were reported in 1884 by Charles Richet. Playing cards were enclosed in envelopes and a subject put under hypnosis attempted to identify them. The subject was reported to have been successful in a series of 133 trials but the results dropped to chance level when performed before a group of scientists in Cambridge. J. M. Peirce and E. C. Pickering reported a similar experiment in which they tested 36 subjects over 23,384 trials which did not obtain above chance scores.\nIn 1881, Eleanor Sidgwick revealed the fraudulent methods that spirit photographers such as Édouard Isidore Buguet, Frederic Hudson and William H.",
"-21.50489804247627"
],
[
"such attractions include corn mazes or cornfields, hedge mazes, farms, wooded areas or forests, and parks.\nHaunted attractions (also known as \"haunts\" or \"mazes\" within the industry) use many effects, such as intense lighting (strobe lights, black lights, etc.), animatronics, CGI, scent dispensers, fog machines, spinning tunnels, air blasters, old antiques, gory images, and intense scenes of horror, terror, torment, murder, mischief, or comedy. Visitors often encounter various actors dressed up in elaborate and often scary costumes, masks, and prosthetics. These actors may perform skits or lurk and come out unexpectedly to frighten, shock, disturb, or amuse the customer.\nThe typical haunted",
"-21.495586955948966"
],
[
"between fantasy and reality, especially with space and time. Like the dreams they wished to bring to life, film had no limits or rules.\" Cinema provided more convincing illusions than its closest rival, theatre, and the tendency for Surrealists to express themselves through film was a sign of their confidence in the adaptability of cinema to Surrealism's goals and requirements. They were the first to take seriously the resemblance between film's imaginary images and those of dreams and the unconscious. Luis Buñuel said, \"The film seems to be the involuntary imitation of the dream.\"\nSurrealist filmmakers sought to re-define human awareness",
"-21.49128595762886"
],
[
"evolved into numerous theatrical productions and had a major influence on phantasmagoria.\nIn Italy, the Museum of Precinema collezione Minici Zotti in Padua houses a collection of 70 French shadow puppets, similar to those used in the cabaret Le Chat Noir, together with an original theatre and painted backdrops, as well as two magic lanterns for projecting scenes. So far, the shadow plays identified are La Marche a l'étoile (introduced by Henri Rivière), Le Sphinx (introduced by Amédée Vignola), L'Âge d'or and Le Carneval de Venise, and it is supposed that the shadow puppets were created for a tour in France",
"-21.421866320888512"
],
[
"well known novel The Haunting of Hill House.\nThe 1970s saw screen depictions of ghosts diverge into distinct genres of the romantic and horror. A common theme in the romantic genre from this period is the ghost as a benign guide or messenger, often with unfinished business, such as 1989's Field of Dreams, the 1990 film Ghost, and the 1993 comedy Heart and Souls. In the horror genre, 1980's The Fog, and the A Nightmare on Elm Street series of films from the 1980s and 1990s are notable examples of the trend for the merging of ghost stories with scenes of",
"-21.419732880000083"
],
[
"given rise to a story that the trick carries with it a curse to those who attempt to perform it, though in reality there have been far more successful performances than fatalities. This is a bit suspect, as magicians will often include stories of death, dismemberment and curses as part of the staging of many tricks in order to build up hype.\nThomas Frost in his 1876 book The Lives of the Conjurors wrote of two separate performers in the 1820s, Torrini De Grisy and De Linsky, who were responsible for the deaths of their son and wife, respectively. In 1869,",
"-21.36378434440121"
],
[
"otherworldly. Other examples of trick films include 1901's The Big Swallow in which a man tries to swallow the audience, and 1901's The Haunted Curiosity Shop in which apparitions appear inside an antiques shop. 1910s In 1910, Edison Studios in the United States produced the first filmed version of Mary Shelley's 1818 classic Gothic novel Frankenstein, the popular story of a scientist creating a hideous, sapient creature through a scientific experiment. Adapted to the screen for the first time by director J. Searle Dawley, his movie Frankenstein (1910) was deliberately designed to de-emphasize the horrific aspects of the story and",
"-21.33788005783572"
],
[
"of the film The Secret of Roan Inish. Supernatural creatures Fiction may feature disguise for dramatic or comedic considerations. For instance, besides the aerial-daemonic Asmodeus and the undead-human Dracula, non-human primates have also been represented as vampires. Aliens Gary Westfahl wrote that Stanisław Lem and other writers use a standard argument: that \"science fiction writers, as human beings, are inherently incapable of imagining truly alien beings, meaning that all aliens in science fiction are nothing but disguised humans.\"\nVarious works of science fiction have described aliens disguised in human form.\nThe theme of alien infiltration in human form appeared commonly during the",
"-21.28416587272659"
],
[
"culminates in this grand funerary service production. It's strange stuff. It just seemed like it would be a great area in which to make a film.\n— Don Coscarelli, Los Angeles Times interview\nDreams and surrealism are also an important part of Phantasm. Marc Savlov of the Austin Chronicle compares Phantasm to the works of Alejandro Jodorowsky and Luis Buñuel in terms of weirdness. Savlov describes the film as existentialist horror and \"a truly bizarre mix of outlandish horror, cheapo gore, and psychological mindgames that purposefully blur the line between waking and dreaming.\" Gina McIntyre of the Los Angeles Times describes the film",
"-21.280752245744225"
],
[
"Charles Reynolds (magician) Charles Raymond Reynolds (September 9, 1932 – November 4, 2010) was a behind-the-scenes magician involved with virtually every elements of magic production—inventing illusions, producing and direction magic acts, helping performers perfect their acts, and writing on the subject.\nReynolds was born in Toledo, Ohio, and as a child, he saw Harry Blackstone, Sr. perform. Reynolds was immediately drawn to magic, starting with a Gilbert Mysto Kit.\nHe majored in theater at the University of Michigan, and earned his master's degree there too. He undertook a number of jobs in media and journalism. He met Doug Henning while writing an",
"-21.226438871992286"
],
[
"Eugène Robert-Houdin; evening shows; proceedings of 'the Gala magic clubs of Blois'; and awards to the best magical practitioners.\nGuided tours are conducted by illusionists. Attractions Highlights include: The six-headed dragon automaton, which was constructed by artists Michel and Jean-Pierre Hartmann and which operates every half-hour; the rotunda, which contains artifacts and displays on the history of magic, pictures and music; the Greek temple honoring jugglers of the Middle Ages, the physicist Pinetti (eighteenth century magician Joseph Pinetti Willedall de Merci), and genius inventor Buatier De Kolta; a life-sized kaleidoscope and the 'chessboard of the optical illusions'; an exposition of",
"-21.21076494359295"
],
[
"the Medium's Cabinet (1935) which exposed the tricks of mediumship. He also exposed how the indian rope trick could be performed by camera trickery. In 1935, Dunninger attended a séance of the fraudulent medium Emerson Gilbert. His testimony was used in court against the medium.\nDunninger had a standing offer of $10,000 to anyone who could prove that he used confederates or \"stooges.\" Through Scientific American magazine and his own organization the Universal Council for Psychic Research he also made an offer to any medium who could produce by psychic or supernatural means any physical phenomena that he could not duplicate",
"-21.13575236068573"
],
[
"Pasaje Del Terror Special effects The attraction prides itself with rich special effects and artistic designs. The attraction works on the 'what you can't see will scare you' tactic. Actors use the dark to intense advantage, springing up when the group least expects it. Special rooms and passageways are designed to transfigure or disappear in an attempt to confuse the group. Candles flicker persistently, sometimes drowning out any light. A soundtrack is present throughout. Claustrophobia also plays a great part in special effects. Rooms spin, passageways tighten, wooden bridges shake over an undergrowth and doors seem to lock of their",
"-21.06002603424713"
],
[
"and long, leather fringe.\n\"Perfect Illusion\" was featured in a trailer for US horror show, American Horror Story: Roanoke, speaking to the anonymity of the season, as the theme was kept a mystery until the premiere. Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Joanne liner notes.",
"-21.004532354825642"
],
[
"magic act performed at Méliès's theatre of illusions, the Théâtre Robert-Houdin in Paris. In the stage version, the magician was Gaston Velle, who would himself later become a director of Méliès-like trick films for Pathé Frères. In the film version, Méliès himself plays the magician. The special effects used are substitution splices and dissolves.",
"-20.934878809726797"
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[
"sometimes seem to become more pronounced. According to investigator Benton Jamison, abduction experiencers who report UFO sightings that should have been, but are not, reported by independent corroborating witnesses often seem to \"be 'psychic personalities' in the sense of Jan Ehrenwald.\" Capture Abduction claimants report unusual feelings preceding the onset of an abduction experience. These feelings manifest as a compulsive desire to be at a certain place at a certain time or as expectations that something \"familiar yet unknown,\" will soon occur. Abductees also report feeling severe, undirected anxiety at this point even though nothing unusual has actually occurred yet.",
"-20.929528814333025"
],
[
"Fleece) attributed to Solomon Trismosin. Newer incarnations of these stories like Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film) have the capacity to carry forward alchemical allegory on film. Movies like the Harry Potter film series, serve the same function for more recent fiction.\nLike other twentieth century forms of entertainment, movies and shows featuring alchemy often include elements of magic and fantasy. Sometimes this extends to magic realism as is in Parash Pathar (1958), and Hudson Hawk (1991). This same sort of portrayal can be found in science fantasy movies like 9 (2009), or in fantasy films like The Dark Crystal",
"-20.926746049546637"
],
[
"magic show in Barasat. Indrajal Sorcar's troupe, Indrajal, uses 48 tons of equipment, 75 artists, dozens of settings, 12 jadoo girls, psychedelic laser lighting systems, more than 400 brocade dresses, original music by his own orchestra and more than 50 tricks of illusion.\nHis earliest stage experience involved him assisting his father at Kolkata's New Empire in 1959. His first solo stage performance was held at Siliguri Railway Institute Hall in 1963. Some of his most famous illusions that continue from his father's legend, include: X-Ray Eyes, where he solves mathematical equations, reads Shakespeare lines and even sketches on the spot,",
"-20.881052530836314"
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[
"audience, and second sight, in which the blindfolded performer finds objects hidden by his assistant somewhere in the theatre.\nThe Society for Psychical Research (SPR) accepted Smith's claims that the act was genuine and after becoming a member of the society he was appointed private secretary to the Honorary Secretary Edmund Gurney from 1883 to 1888. In 1887, Gurney carried out a number of \"hypnotic experiments\" in Brighton, with Smith as his \"hypnotiser\", which in their day made Gurney an impressive figure to the British public.\nSince then it has been heavily studied and critiqued by Trevor H. Hall in his study",
"-20.875883221597178"
],
[
"Ada Besinnet Ada Maud Besinnet Roche (1890–1936) also known as Ada Bessinet was an American spiritualist medium. Career Besinnet was known for materializing 'phantom' faces, producing voices and 'psychic' lights in her séances. Psychical researchers were convinced that all her phenomena were fraudulent but some suggested she may have been in a dissociated state. Researchers found the phantom faces suspicious, commenting that they had a strong resemblance to her own face.\nBesinnet refused to sit with the magician Harry Houdini. She had been exposed as a fraud by an undercover magician Fulton Oursler. During the séance he heard the medium leaving",
"-20.87515565135982"
],
[
"were intended to look Egyptian. He has been described as a follower of the magician William Ellsworth Robinson, whose stage persona was Chung Ling Soo.\nHe is said to have got his first inspiration in magic while watching a magician perform at the Royal Aquarium theatre in London in about 1890 and to have started out at that time as a performer in the small halls of London. By 1910 Marchinsky was recognised as a leading stage illusionist.\nHis act was on a large scale. An article written after his death described it as follows: \"When the curtain rose, the audience saw",
"-20.843472799373558"
],
[
"1793 in the form of a magic lantern show by Paul Philidor (then under the name of Paul de Philipsthal). Philidor was one of the earliest known performers of such shows having adapted what he himself had seen by Johann Georg Schröpfer. With his understanding of optics, Robert realised the potential of what would become \"phantasmagoria\". His further technological developments were combined with his skills in painting and showmanship, developing a pre-cinema horror show. Fantoscope Robert read the works of 17th-century scholar Athanasius Kircher and was particularly interested in the magic lantern, an early form of slide",
"-20.840674716153444"
],
[
"tools in films. \nSome other films that convey elements of magic realism are The Holy Mountain (1973), Dreams (1990), The Green Mile (1999), Amélie (2001), The Mistress of Spices (2005), Pan's Labyrinth (2006), The Fall (2006), Undertow (2009), The Lovely Bones (2009), Where the Wild Things Are (2009), Biutiful (2010), Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives (2010), Beasts of the Southern Wild (2012), Life of Pi (2012), Birdman (2014), Magical Girl (2014), The Prophet (2014), Bare (2015), The Firefly (2015), Utopians (2015), and a number of films by Woody Allen including The Purple Rose of Cairo (1985), Alice",
"-20.775538663961925"
],
[
"that her performances were genuine and that she was not engaged in any deception. Another psychic investigator of the time, Harry Houdini, observed one of her séances and asserted that they were fraudulent. Houdini was never convinced by Carrière and likened her performance to a magician's trick, the Hindu needle trick.\nThe physician-psychical researcher Gustav Geley investigated Carrière and wrote she was a genuine psychic but never-published photographs were discovered after Geley's death which revealed fraudulent activity from the psychic's companion, Juliette Bisson, such as wires seen running from Carrière's head supporting fake ectoplasm. Another physician-psychical researcher, Albert von Schrenck-Notzing, investigated",
"-20.772245497726544"
],
[
"The English diplomatic corps is the only one in which examples of madness are common.\n— Le Moniteur Universel, 29 January 1810 1852 discovery On 15 April 1852, during the demolition of a house on the Hamburg road in Perleberg three hundred paces from the White Swan, a skeleton was discovered under the threshold of the stable. The back of the skull showed a fracture as though from the blow of a heavy instrument. All of the upper teeth were perfect, but one of the lower molars showed signs of having been removed by a dentist. The owner of the house, a",
"-20.76438643387519"
],
[
"\"Alight Of Night is devoid of current context, making for a weird timelessness. A treat.\" \nGigwise: \"With Alight of Night we see glimpses of a new intelligence that divides them from the 80's contemporary... it'd be hyperbolic to try and claim Crystal Stilts are revolutionaries of their genre but they're playing new tricks and they're all the better for it.\"",
"-20.730829953681678"
],
[
"abduction experients are not different from the general population in term of psychopathology prevalence\". Dr. Elizabeth Slater conducted a blind study of nine abduction claimants and found them to be prone to \"mildly paranoid thinking,\" nightmares and having a weak sexual identity, while Dr. Richard McNally of Harvard Medical School concluded in a similar study of 10 abductees that \"none of them was suffering from any sort of psychiatric illness.\" Paranormal Alleged abductees are seen by many pro-abduction researchers to have a higher incidence of non-abduction related paranormal events and abilities. Following an abduction experience, these paranormal abilities and occurrences",
"-20.679373756749555"
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[
"magic lantern show (1799-1804), a key influence in Gothic writings of the 19th century, including the work of Sheridan Le Fanu. This enabled him, with the assistance of visual artist Howard Wood, to create Phantasmagoria, a walk-through film of an evening's entertainment at the ruined convent.\nHe went on to write, the best-selling critical volume: Gothic Machine, Pre-cinematic Media and Film in Popular Visual Culture 1670-1910 which sold out in four months. Jerrold Hogle wrote of this study: ‘This work remains a significant advance in Gothic and cultural studies.’ This volume was followed by Sexuality and the Gothic Magic Lantern: Desire,",
"-20.67790747268009"
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[
"no discernible human occupant. Critical reception Frank Rich of The New York Times wrote that the main draw of Merlin was Henning's \"spectacular\" illusions. Rich also found Theoni V. Aldredge's costumes to be \"imaginative,\" albeit trying too hard to be like those in Cats and Star Wars at times. He panned the other aspects of the musical, particularly Henning's acting, singing and dancing. Overall, he felt that Merlin would have worked better as a magic show than as a musical.",
"-20.671295451844344"
],
[
"Shadow Magic Plot The film is set in Beijing, 1902, in the last years of the Qing Dynasty. A young portrait photographer, Liu Jinglun (Xia Yu), chances on a newly arrived Englishman, Raymond Wallace (Jared Harris) in the capital. Liu, a self-learner of rudimentary English, is keen on new technology and gadgets, while Raymond has brought along the latest motion picture camera and projector with some silent film shorts from the West. Liu is fascinated by the \"shadow magic\" and offers to help Raymond bring in audiences for his theatre. Hence Liu and Raymond become partners. ",
"-20.6524257074052"
],
[
"The Aura (film) Plot In neo-noir fashion El Aura narrates in the first person the hallucinating voyage of Espinoza, a quiet, cynical taxidermist, who suffers epilepsy attacks, and is obsessed with committing the perfect crime.\nHe claims that the cops are too stupid to find out about it when it's well executed, and that the robbers are too stupid to execute it the right way; and that he could do it himself relying on his photographic memory and his strategic planning skills.\nOn his first ever hunting trip, in the calm of the Patagonian forest, with one squeeze of the trigger his",
"-20.639134333323454"
],
[
"reject the Hollywood model but also to create her own…” (September 7, 1983). Marcia Pally from the Village Voice applauds that Illusions “Cleverly uses film itself as a metaphor for the myths fostered by whites and men about Blacks and women”. Critics and authors S.W. Hartman and Jasmine Griffin concur by stating, Illusions explores questions of race, representation, and gender in Hollywood cinema-in particular, the absence of ‘meaningful’ and ‘realistic’ images of our lives”. The Black American Cinema Society awarded the film in 1985. Illusions also was nominated in 1988 for a Cable ACE Award in Art Direction and was",
"-20.63366158536519"
],
[
"Satan or The 400 Tricks of the Devil, a tale about an engineer who barters with the Devil for superhuman powers and is forced to face the consequences. Méliès would also make other horror-based short films that aren't inspired by Faust, most notably the fantastical and unsettling Le papillon fantastique (1909), where a magician turns a butterfly woman into a spider beast. Trick Films As the 19th century gave way to the 20th, artists and engineers were all pushing the boundaries of film. Artists like Méliès, first achieved fame as a magician. During the time, stage magicians entertained large crowds",
"-20.6243308008643"
],
[
"likelihood of the character falling into the uncanny valley. Films that have attempted to create realistic-looking humans include Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within in 2001, Final Fantasy: Advent Children in 2005, The Polar Express in 2004, Beowulf in 2007 and Resident Evil: Degeneration in 2009.\nThe creation of virtual worlds allows real-time animation in virtual reality, a medium that has been experimented with since 1962 and started to see commercial entertainment applications in the 1990s.\nIn the first decades of the 21st century computer animation techniques slowly became much more common than traditional cel animation. To recreate the much-appreciated look of traditional",
"-20.612275645660702"
],
[
"romance: Mirage (1965) and Arabesque (1966).\nA decade before Brian De Palma earned a reputation exploiting Hitchcockian motifs, Stone's work in the 1960s employed Hitchcock-like narratives, even while the director was still an active film maker. Hitchcock's influence is especially evident in the Edward Dmytryk-directed Mirage, a suspense-mystery that Stone adapted from the Howard Fast novel Fallen Angel. The narrative has Gregory Peck suffering from \"unconscious amnesia\" while dodging bullets in downtown New York. Although shot in black-and-white, many of its themes and images are reminiscent of Vertigo. The cast included Walter Matthau and George Kennedy from Charade.\nPeck was also in",
"-20.570144866855117"
],
[
"section. Other types of delusions covered in this section include others not being who they claim to be, that people close to the respondent have been replaced with lookalikes, and delusions of conspiracy. Furthermore, hypochondrial delusions, and grandiose delusions, etc., are rated by the interviewer. Section 20 - Further information for classification of Part 2 symptoms This section is fully rated by the interviewer after the interview, and deals with aspects of duration and course of schizophrenia and psychosis and other symptoms rated in part 2 of the SCAN interview. Section 21 - Cognitive impairment and decline This section consists",
"-20.5647490239935"
],
[
"Trick film In the early history of cinema, trick films were short silent films designed to feature innovative special effects. History The trick film genre was developed by Georges Méliès in some of his first cinematic experiments, and his works remain the most classic examples of the genre. Other early experimenters included the French showmen Émile and Vincent Isola, the British magicians David Devant and John Nevil Maskelyne, and the American cinematographers Billy Bitzer and James Stuart Blackton.\nIn the first years of film, especially between 1898 and 1908, the trick film was one of the world's most popular film genres.",
"-20.55946852674242"
],
[
"between real and magical elements, or different modes of production. This device explores the reality of what exists. Fredrick Jameson, in \"On Magic Realism in Film\", advances a hypothesis that magical realism in film is a formal mode that is constitutionally dependent on a type of historical raw material in which disjunction is structurally present. Like Water for Chocolate (1992) begins and ends with the first person narrative to establishing the magical realism storytelling frame. Telling a story from a child's point of view, the historical gaps and holes perspective, and with cinematic color heightening the presence, are magical realist",
"-20.524015716218855"
],
[
"the Hitchcockian style by withholding information from the audience until characters disclose it, and not being clear as to whether the characters are honest and whether the flashbacks are real. According to Radstone, the style is characterised by \"its closed-in camerawork, its aesthetic and narrative concerns with surveillance, its claustrophobic interiority\". Film studies professor Oliver C. Speck has written that Haneke rejected \"pseudo-realism\" in its recreations of Georges's childhood.\nThough it resembles a whodunit, the film does not reveal who sent the tapes. A solution may not be possible, as given the setting and the camerawork, the camera could not record",
"-20.517763427749742"
],
[
"films had the ability to tell a story using techniques such as superimposition, and slow motion, the Surrealists saw this as mimicking dreams.\nEarly applications of psychoanalysis to cinema concentrated on unmasking latent meanings behind screen images, before moving on to a consideration of film as a representation of fantasy. From there, a wider consideration of the subject position of the viewer led to wider engagements with critical theory - to psychoanalytic film theory proper.\nFreud's concepts of the Oedipus complex, narcissism, castration, the unconscious, the return, and hysteria are all utilized in film theory.\nThe 'unconscious' of a film are examined; this",
"-20.482192101568216"
],
[
"Glasses\", Honey, I Shrunk the Audience! referred to them as “Safety Goggles”, and Mickey's PhilharMagic calls them \"Opera Glasses\"). However, the glasses are sometimes referred to as \"3D Safety Goggles\", foreshadowing the \"dangerous\" experiments guests will be visiting.\nAt Disney California Adventure, the queue was different in that it featured a cast member at the turnstile handing out the glasses individually and the \"hallway\" scene from the Disney's Hollywood Studios queue was replaced with a \"courtyard\" filled with various props. The queue winded around a fake \"set\", blending in with the rest of the Hollywood Land district. Guests also saw",
"-20.460912975860992"
],
[
"person says that they have never seen or believed in ghosts at all, the second person then says that, this is doubtful and with that the second person vanishes. This was the version used in the Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark book series. Skeptical reception Paranormal researcher Michael Goss in his book The Evidence for Phantom Hitch-Hikers discovered that many reports of vanishing hitchhikers turn out be based on folklore and hearsay stories. Goss also examined some cases and attributed them to hallucination of the experiencer. According to Goss most of the stories are \"fabricated, folklore creations retold",
"-20.44519066635985"
],
[
"University of London.\nBetween 1997 and 2001, ASKE attracted more than 70 members from the United Kingdom as far afield as Malta, Italy and the United States. Paranormal investigator Tony Youens said that despite frequent stories of haunting ghosts, he has had \"surprisingly\" few invitations to examine such claims of paranormal activity in these years. The people reporting such events, though \"often deeply upset and concerned\" by them, \"don't want you to take a look\". Youens maintains that, when given the chance, everything can be explained, and that there are no supernatural phenomena whatsoever.\nIn 2003, having been affiliated to the European",
"-20.442244684352772"
],
[
"available on Netflix and the Fox Reality Channel with Valentino reprising the role. Valentino also appeared in the Masked Magician persona on a 1999 episode of Diagnosis: Murder.\nIn October 2007, a graphic novel starring the character of the Masked Magician was released by Heavy Ink.\nIn 2012, the website of Nash Entertainment—the producers of the Breaking the Magician's Code: Magic's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed—listed a movie called Masked Magician, about a magician who uses illusions to fight crime, was \"in development\".",
"-20.419409042951884"
],
[
"solo work. However, British interest in trick films was generally on the wane by 1912, with even an elaborate production like Méliès's The Conquest of the Pole received relatively coolly.\nElements of the trick film style survived in the sight gags of silent comedy films, such as Buster Keaton's Sherlock Jr. The spectacular nature of trick films also lived on in other genres, including musical films, science fiction films, horror films, and swashbuckler films. Style Trick films should not be confused with short silent films that feature conventional stage magic acts (\"films of tricks,\" in the words of the film historian",
"-20.37335381117009"
],
[
"sleight of hand, and surrealistic sets to capture the dreamlike quality of content and transitions. There is a scene in which red velvet curtains behind a woman suddenly become her dress that feels exactly like the film-goer is dreaming. Ernst was obviously an astute observer of what qualities go into making an experience oneiric.” Barrett also liked Richter’s own sequence which Crowther had dismissed. “The only other artist's sequence which tries for a realistic recreation of a night-time dream is Richter's in which a man stops himself from committing a murder but nevertheless finds a bloody knife in his",
"-20.372372430792893"
],
[
"conjures up a rare sense of enchantment, creating the feeling that it would be easy to slip between the parallel worlds of humans and fairies. To do this with just a single strand of fairy lights, music and unaccompanied voices is something of an achievement.\nFor the 2001 season, the company paired Measure for Measure with Coriolanus. Both productions were well received; Susannah Clapp of The Observer, reviewing Measure for Measure, stated:\nMore and more it seems the best theatre is happening outside theatre buildings. Take the company called Shakespeare at the Tobacco Factory. Just over a year ago its artistic director",
"-20.37022618116316"
],
[
"for gossip, rumours and hangout discussions among friends and family. Cinema Classic Bengali films with horror/supernatural plot are only a handful. Kankal (1950), Hanabari (1952), Monihara of the Teen Kanya movie anthology (1961) Kuheli (1971), were quite popular horror/supernatural thriller flick in the era of Bengali black and white movies.\nIn many Bengali films, ghosts are depicted in a lightly comical mood and sometimes in a friendly way. One of the examples is Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne (1969) as mentioned earlier is adopted from the story of Upendra Kishore Roychowdhury and directed by Satyajit Ray. In this film the King of",
"-20.360448630061"
],
[
"passed a hoop over him and brought it to the audience for examination. Then he was brought back down and brought out of his trance. Papa Bamberg was speechless.\nAfter leaving the theatre, Papa Bamberg told his son that, “I was always under the impression that no illusion could mystify me, and of all of the illusions I have seen in my time,” Papa Bamberg added, “I could make out a theory of my own regarding the techniques.” He went on to tell Theo that what he saw that evening was, “…beyond my comprehension. It is a",
"-20.3266813926748"
],
[
"the Davenports were found to be on opposite sides of the stage waving musical instruments around in the air.\nAccording to the magician Harry Houdini, Ira had confessed to him that he and his brother had faked their \"spirit\" phenomena. Houdini in his book A Magician Amongst the Spirits (1924) also reproduced a letter from Ira claiming \"we never in public affirmed our Belief in spiritualism.\" The spiritualist Arthur Conan Doyle refused to accept the exposures of fraud, and insisted that in private Ira was a practicing spiritualist.\nIn 1998, skeptical investigator Joe Nickell discovered the Davenports' scrapbook from the museum at",
"-20.292054187040776"
],
[
" and the work of the Brothers Grimm.\nRichard Roeper judged it to be a \"surreal fairy tale\" with \"omnipresent symbolism\". Matt Goldberg said it was \"an effective and surreal dark fairy tale\"... ...\"with a dreamlike sensibility... ...Everything in the picture is slightly askew and provides immediacy to Hanna’s offbeat coming-of-age tale... ...a film that refuses to exist solely in the realm of reality or fairy tale... ...'gritty' realism simply isn’t worthy of the story he’s trying to tell.\" Fairy tale motifs are strewn through the film. In the \"tightly-edited patchwork of visual iconography, allusion and symbolism\" Wiegler is equated with",
"-20.28012771196518"
],
[
"Characters in Ghost Trick: Phantom Detective Ghost Trick: Phantom Detective is a Nintendo DS video game developed by Shu Takumi in 2010. Like Takumi's other works, Ghost Trick has a strong emphasis on characters, while the plot's central theme is death and mystery. It stars Sissel, a ghost who is attempting to recover his memories. Other major characters include Lynne, who acts as a sidekick to Sissel, and is seeking to uncover a mystery of 10 years ago; Jowd, a detective who is accused of murdering his wife; Kamila, the daughter of Jowd; Missile, a Pomeranian who, after dying, chooses",
"-20.20826660527382"
],
[
"nightmare-like hallucinations (Bobster thinks to be attacked by a cooked bird and by his own objects, while Nesbitt thinks he sees a stained-glass figure of a knight come to life and try to kill him), resulting in their deaths by jumping out of a window and being run over by a carriage. Holmes suspects foul play about the murders, which were presumed to be suicides, but is rebuffed by Scotland Yard policeman Lestrade when he suggests a connection between the deaths. Holmes is later expelled from Brompton after getting framed for cheating by his rival Dudley. As Holmes reluctantly prepares",
"-20.18305317981867"
],
[
"of Freemasonry.)\nStage magic is performed for an audience in a variety of media and locations: on stage, on television, in the street, and live at parties or events. It is often combined with other forms of entertainment, such as comedy or music and showmanship is often an essential part of magic performances. Performance magic relies on deception, psychological manipulation, sleight of hand and other forms of trickery to give an audience the illusion that a performer can achieve the impossible. Audiences amazed at the stunt performances and escape acts of Harry Houdini, for example, regarded him as a magician.\nFantasy magicians",
"-20.168929640190527"
],
[
"cameras, and audio recorders—scour reportedly haunted venues, trying to uncover visual and audio evidence of ghosts. Many use portable recording devices in an attempt to capture EVP. Films Films involving EVP include Poltergeist, The Sixth Sense, and White Noise. It has also been featured on television series like Ghost Whisperer, The Omega Factor, A Haunting, Ghost Hunters, MonsterQuest, Ghost Adventures, The Secret Saturdays, Fact or Faked: Paranormal Files, Supernatural, Derren Brown Investigates, and Ghost Lab. Novels Legion, a 1983 novel by William Peter Blatty, contains a subplot where Dr. Vincent Amfortas, a terminally ill neurologist, leaves a \"to-be-opened-upon-my-death\" letter for",
"-20.160827133251587"
],
[
"Theater In Trance is a documentary which Fassbinder shot in Cologne in June 1981 at the \"Theaters of the World\" Festival. Over scenes from groups such as the Squat Theatre and the Tanztheater Wuppertal Pina Bausch Fassbinder spoke passages from Antonin Artaud as well as his own commentary. Lola (1981) Lola tells the story of an upright, new building commissioner who arrives in a small town. He falls in love with Lola, innocently unaware of the fact that she is a famed prostitute and the mistress of an unscrupulous developer. Unable to reconcile his idealistic image of Lola with reality,",
"-20.143876273243222"
],
[
"the episode was shot at the Royal Masonic Senior School. Reception The episode is strongly based around the concept of surrealism. In fact, Tom Soter believes that the dreams were inspired by the Salvador Dalí sequence in Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbound (1945). The Avengers Forever! website acknowledged that a number of people do not rate the episode very highly, but remarked that \"it is a very clever story, with some great twists and a nice little nail-biter in the middle. If I was forced to make gripe, it would be the lack of a real diabolical mastermind; but the especially effective",
"-20.112312590237707"
],
[
"individuals and the heads then switching bodies, which would have required the use of computer visual effects to accomplish. Scardino insisted that most of the magic tricks should be credible feats to make the magicians seem more believable, but some tricks still required the use of visual effects. David Copperfield served as a technical advisor on the film and developed a live stage illusion for the film's climax, featuring a body switch between Carell's and Buscemi's characters. Scardino insisted that the illusion should not depend on camera tricks, stating \"I wanted one big stage illusion where you go, 'Oh, wow,",
"-20.084422251733486"
],
[
"Parapsycho – Spectrum of Fear Parapsycho – Spectrum of Fear (German: Parapsycho - Spektrum der Angst) is a 1975 Austrian horror film directed by Peter Patzak, starring Marisa Mell, Leon Askin and Debra Berger. Split into three episodes, it uses extrasensory perception, reincarnation and telepathy as its subject matter. Even in the school of New German Cinema, the film was ground breaking for using footage of a real autopsy, beginning with the incision of the body from sternum to pubic bone, rather than recreating the scene using prosthetics or special effects.",
"-20.044557048029674"
]
] |
5d9l2z | How can there be a lowest possible temperature(-273K)? Why can't we go lower? | [
"by -273K you are probably referring to -273 C, which is 0 K. Kelvin is an absolute scale, there is no negative (in the sense of being colder than 0). 0 Kelvin is the absence of heat. (Note, I'm doing some handwaving here, there actually systems that can have a negative kelvin temperature, but these are actually *hotter* than any system with a positive temperature. They are not negative in the sense of being 'colder'.) Part of the confusion of why we can't 'go lower' probably arises from Celsius and Farenheit, which are not absolute scales. Their zero point is arbitrary, and doesn't correspond to some 'minimum.' Hence, going below zero is not a problem for them. The thing to realize however, is that even negative x Farenheit or Negative Y Celsius still has heat present. It's only negative in the sense that *it is below where we decided to put the zero.* The same is not true in Kelvins. 0 is when all of the heat is gone. You can't remove more heat than all of the heat.",
"Temperature is basically a measurement of the amount of motion in a substance. The amount it's bouncing around, vibrating, etc. Absolute zero is, more or less, when you can't reduce the amount of movement a substance is undergoing any more. There isn't really an \"absolute hot\" because physics puts no constraints on how much energy you can put into a system (other than general relativity saying that if you put enough in, it will eventually collapse into a black hole).",
"Temperature is (basically) caused by the movement of molecules. Absolute zero is the lowest temperature because at that temperature all movement of molecules stops. It is relatively easy for scientists to reach temperatures slightly higher than absolute zero. \"Absolute hot\" is only theoretical, but many scientists believe that at a certain temperature the molecules would have so much energy that they wouldn't be stable anymore. That temperature is thought to be 1.417×10^32 K. That's: * 141,700,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Kelvin * 255,059,999,999,999,980,000,000,000,000,000 Fahrenheit Also, there is no -273K. There is 0K which is equal to -273C.",
"Heat is a characteristic of an object. Cold is just the absence of heat. Temperature measures heat. In that sense, it's no different than a tangible object. You can have zero apples. Or you can convert the whole universe into apples. but you can't actually have negative apples. The minimum number of apples you can have is 0. Same with temperature. There's a lower theoretical bound (0 Kelvin/ -273 Celsius) and no upper bound, save for the limits of tech/resources."
] | [
[
"sub-zero temperatures —which contributed to its impracticality.",
"-28.658249677391723"
],
[
"temperature which was expanded from a pressure of about 22 bar. Air, under these conditions, is almost an ideal gas, but not quite. As a result the real temperature change will not be exactly zero. With our present knowledge of the thermodynamic properties of air we can calculate that the temperature of the air should drop by about 3 degrees Celsius when the volume is doubled under adiabatic conditions. However, due to the low heat capacity of the air and the high heat capacity of the strong copper containers and the water of the calorimeter, the observed temperature drop",
"-26.477221987675875"
],
[
"the temperature may fall down reaching −10 °C (14 °F) or less.",
"-26.121052660921123"
],
[
"quantities. For some quantities, the zero level is naturally distinguished from all other levels, whereas for others it is more or less arbitrarily chosen. For example, for an absolute temperature (as measured in kelvins) zero is the lowest possible value (negative temperatures are defined, but negative-temperature systems are not actually colder). This is in contrast to for example temperatures on the Celsius scale, where zero is arbitrarily defined to be at the freezing point of water. Measuring sound intensity in decibels or phons, the zero level is arbitrarily set at a reference value—for example, at a value for the threshold",
"-25.882567139342427"
],
[
"maximum temperature can easily reach higher than 120 °C), increasing the risk of data loss.\nHowever, more recent studies by Google have shown that it's not the heat as much as it's the system utilization (which causes more heat because of inefficient design of CPU's and other IC's) that causes more errors. The cnet.com article cites a paper written by Bianca Schroeder (University of Toronto), Eduardo Pinheiro (Google Inc.), and Wolf-Dietrich Weber (Google Inc.). Research properties The idea behind making a research chip of this sort is that it allows companies to explore the possibilities of tera-scale computing. Instead of being forced",
"-25.713016748952214"
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[
"be compared. The scientifically valid change in temperature from 32 to 96 °F (0 to 36 °C) is by a factor of 1.13 (308.71° K/273.15° K), not 3. If an air cylinder is pressurized to 4,500 psi at 96° F and later the temperature drops to 32° F, the pressure gauge will indicate 4,000 psi (4,500/1.13). Stated differently, a drop in temperature of 10° F (5.5° C) causes a pressure decrease of about 82 psi (565 kPa). Failure to accurately account for the effect of temperature on pressure readings can result in underfilled air bottles, which in turn could lead to a firefighter running out of air prematurely.",
"-24.719427130068652"
],
[
"For example, a conventional heat pump system used to heat a building in Montana's −70 °F (−57 °C) low temperature or cool a building in the highest temperature ever recorded in the US—134 °F (57 °C) in Death Valley, California, in 1913 would require a large amount of energy due to the extreme difference between inside and outside air temperatures. A few feet below the earth's surface, however, the ground remains at a relatively constant temperature. Utilizing this large source of relatively moderate temperature earth, a heating or cooling system's capacity can often be significantly reduced. Although ground temperatures vary according to latitude, at",
"-24.015173673979007"
],
[
"from 32 to 96 °F is by a factor of 1.13 (308.71/273.15), not 3. If an air cylinder is pressurized to 4,500 psi at 96 °F and later the temperature drops to 32 °F, the pressure gauge will indicate 4,000 psi (4,500/1.13). Stated differently, a drop in temperature of 10 degrees Fahrenheit causes a pressure decrease of about 82 psi.",
"-23.513248672243208"
],
[
"the same problem as it appears in the construction of scales of measurement in the natural sciences. In the case of temperature there are two degrees of freedom for its measurement - the choice of unit and the zero. Different temperature scales map its intensity in different ways. In the celsius scale the zero is chosen to be the point where water freezes, and likewise, in cardinal utility theory one would be tempted to think that the choice of zero would correspond to a good or service that brings exactly 0 utils. However this is not necessarily true. The mathematical",
"-23.48704964260105"
],
[
"regarding temperature as a quantity that can be measured on a scale of real numbers.\nThough this version of the law is one of the most commonly stated versions, it is only one of a diversity of statements that are labeled as \"the zeroth law\" by competent writers. Some statements go further so as to supply the important physical fact that temperature is one-dimensional and that one can conceptually arrange bodies in real number sequence from colder to hotter. Perhaps there exists no unique \"best possible statement\" of the \"zeroth law\", because there is in the literature a range of",
"-23.12683671922423"
],
[
"the like), radiant cooling systems have not been widely applied. Condensation caused by humidity is a limiting factor for the cooling capacity of a radiant cooling system. The surface temperature should not be equal or below the dew point temperature in the space. Some standards suggest a limit for the relative humidity in a space to 60% or 70%. An air temperature of 26 °C (79 °F) would mean a dew point between 17 °C and 20 °C (63 °F and 68 °F). There is, however, evidence that suggests decreasing the surface temperature to below the dew point temperature for a short period of time",
"-23.126212356830365"
],
[
"space with a ΔT below 5°F to be destratified. In the United States, ASHRAE Standard 55 prescribes 3°C as the limit for the vertical air temperature difference between head and ankle levels, but has no standard recommending an ideal ΔT between floor and ceiling. Destratification technologies Reducing thermal stratification can be accomplished by controlling the variables that are associated with increased stratification. Since many of the variables, including ceiling height, people and processes, solar gain, and outside weather conditions cannot be controlled, the most common technologies used are related to the building's HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) system. One",
"-23.090352895727847"
],
[
"higher set temperature will require 80% power to maintain it? If the gain was finally set to a 50° PB, then 80% power will not be applied unless the furnace is 15° below setpoint, so for this other application the operators will have to remember always to set the setpoint temperature 15° higher than actually needed. This 15° figure is not completely constant either: it will depend on the surrounding ambient temperature, as well as other factors that affect heat loss from or absorption within the furnace.\nTo resolve these two problems, many feedback control schemes include mathematical extensions to improve",
"-23.068501330330037"
],
[
"of thermodynamics. The customarily stated minimalist version of such a law postulates only that all bodies, which when thermally connected would be in thermal equilibrium, should be said to have the same temperature by definition, but by itself does not establish temperature as a quantity expressed as a real number on a scale. A more physically informative version of such a law views empirical temperature as a chart on a hotness manifold. While the zeroth law permits the definitions of many different empirical scales of temperature, the second law of thermodynamics selects the definition of a single preferred, absolute temperature,",
"-22.914810830479837"
],
[
"colder and more when it is hotter. If it were possible to cool a system to absolute zero, all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in this classical sense. The object would be described as having zero thermal energy. Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics, however, matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero, because of the uncertainty principle. Cooling Cooling refers to the process of becoming cold, or lowering in temperature. This could be accomplished by removing heat from a system, or exposing the system",
"-22.728452283714432"
],
[
"the pressure of a gas is determined by using the formula PV = nRT. What is particularly important to understand from the formula is that the temperature is in kelvins, not degrees Fahrenheit. Consider the freezing point of water at 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) and compare it to 96 °F (35.6 °C; normal human body temperature is 37 °C). While 96 is arithmetically three times 32, the difference in temperature from a scientific point of view is not threefold. Instead of comparing 32 to 96, temperatures of 273.15 K and 308.71 K should be compared. The actual scientifically valid change in temperature",
"-22.613649046979845"
],
[
"Limitations Freezing can occur once the ambient air temperature gets below 0 °C. Another limitation is the temperature difference across the heat exchanger. A heat exchanger that has a very low temperature difference across can become economically unrealistic. The economics of the heat exchanger allow for a minimum free cooling water temperature of about 5 °C. Energy efficiency Data centers account for 2% of the Global Electricity Consumption. \nUnited Kingdom: In 2013, Chancellor George Osborne agreed to make a concession for data centers to be exempt from Carbon Reduction Commitment (CRC) and allow them to produce their own Climate Change",
"-22.560208892682567"
],
[
"cool down) is proportional to how much hotter (or cooler) the surrounding material is. The coefficient in the equation takes into account the thermal conductivity, the specific heat, and the density of the material. Character of the solutions The heat equation implies that peaks (local maxima) of will be gradually eroded down, while depressions (local minima) will be filled in. The value at some point will remain stable only as long as it is equal to the average value in its immediate surroundings. In particular, if the values in a neighborhood are very close",
"-22.452893240144476"
],
[
"heat at this maximum would be dispersing to the points around it, which would contradict the assumption that this represents the steady state of a system.",
"-22.376173122553155"
],
[
"based on an ideal cyclic process envisaged for a Carnot heat engine, and calibrated through the internationally agreed and prescribed value of the Boltzmann constant.\nIn theory, there is a unique absolute extreme of coldness, in which a body has only zero-point energy; according to the third law of thermodynamics, its temperature, known as absolute zero, is approachable but unattainable through any actual physical process. It is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale. The definition of the Kelvin scale is based on a ratio of quantities of energy in processes in an ideal Carnot engine. The ratios are brought to",
"-22.2949271092657"
],
[
"Earth's areas that experience a decline in temperature (ultimately to −273 °C) is not scientifically accurate. Below −196 °C (−320 °F), the two dominant gases of Earth's atmosphere (oxygen and nitrogen) would liquefy and fall to the surface. Once the temperature drops below −220 °C (−365 °F), the liquefied gases would solidify, causing the atmospheric pressure in the affected zone to drop to zero. The remaining atmosphere would move to this zone and soon Earth would have no gaseous atmosphere, with a surface pressure of zero. None of these events occur in the film, although there is a drastic drop of pressure happening at the",
"-22.241075366022415"
],
[
"(2.0 in) to no upper limit.",
"-22.150291090103565"
],
[
"there is no need to respect the upper limit for the subsequent days. In order to apply the adaptive model, there should be no mechanical cooling system for the space, occupants should be engaged in sedentary activities with metabolic rates of 1-1.3 met, and a prevailing mean temperature greater than 10 °C (50.0 °F) and less than 33.5 °C (92.3 °F).\nThis model applies especially to occupant-controlled, natural-conditioned spaces, where the outdoor climate can actually affect the indoor conditions and so the comfort zone. In fact, studies by de Dear and Brager showed that occupants in naturally ventilated buildings were tolerant of a wider range",
"-22.125760532915592"
],
[
"external factors.\nIn addition to varying throughout the day, normal body temperature may also differ as much as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) from one day to the next, so that the highest or lowest temperatures on one day will not always exactly match the highest or lowest temperatures on the next day.\nNormal human body temperature varies slightly from person to person and by the time of day. Consequently, each type of measurement has a range of normal temperatures. The range for normal human body temperatures, taken orally, is 36.8±0.5 °C (98.2±0.9 °F). This means that any oral temperature between 36.3 and 37.3 °C (97.3",
"-22.08559153281385"
],
[
"Yet the temperature range is limited to about 2 mK for practical reasons. At very low temperatures both the viscosity and the thermal conductivity of the circulating fluid become larger if the temperature is lowered. To reduce the viscous heating the diameters of the inlet and outlet tubes of the mixing chamber must go as T⁻³\nₘ and to get low heat flow the lengths of the tubes should go as T⁻⁸\nₘ. That means that, to reduce the temperature by a factor 2, one needs to increase the diameter by a factor 8 and the length by a factor 256. Hence the",
"-21.87543608568376"
],
[
"higher than atmospheric pressure, then upon opening the box our gas will do work on the surrounding atmosphere to expand. As this expansion is adiabatic and the gas has done work\nNow as the internal energy has decreased, so has the temperature. Modern experiments As of November 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology Low Temperature Lab. However, this was the temperature of one particular type of motion—a quantum property called nuclear spin—not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees of freedom. At such low temperatures, the concept",
"-21.832800855161622"
],
[
"air above. An SBL plays a particularly important role in high latitudes where it is often prolonged (days to months), resulting in very cold air temperatures.\nPhysical laws and equations of motions, which govern the planetary boundary layer dynamics and microphysics, are strongly non-linear and considerably influenced by properties of the Earth's surface and evolution of the processes in the free atmosphere. To deal with this complicity, the whole array of turbulence modelling has been proposed. However, they are often not accurate enough to meet practical requests. Significant improvements are expected from application of a large eddy simulation technique to problems",
"-21.817081263288856"
],
[
"that if a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in contact, heat flows from the negative to the positive-temperature system.\nMost familiar systems cannot achieve negative temperatures because adding energy always increases their entropy. However, some systems have a maximum amount of energy that they can hold, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease. Because temperature is defined by the relationship between energy and entropy, such a system's temperature becomes negative, even though energy is being added. As a result, the Boltzmann factor for states of systems at negative temperature increases rather than decreases",
"-21.781907539378153"
],
[
"the cylinder decreases. The relationship between the temperature and the pressure of a gas is defined by the formula PV = nRT. (See Universal gas constant.) What is particularly important to understand from the formula is that the temperature is in kelvins, not degrees Fahrenheit. Consider the freezing point of water at 32° F (0° C, 273.15° K) and compare it to 96° F (35.6° C or 308.71° K; normal human body temperature is 37° C). While 96 is arithmetically three times 32, the difference in temperature from a scientific point of view is not threefold. Instead of comparing 32° F to 96° F, temperatures of 273.15° K and 308.71° K should",
"-21.754654170075355"
],
[
"temperature goes up. At 100 °C and atmospheric pressure, equilibrium is not reached until the air is 100% water. If the liquid is heated a little over 100 °C, the transition from liquid to gas will occur not only at the surface, but throughout the liquid volume: the water boils. Number of phases For a given composition, only certain phases are possible at a given temperature and pressure. The number and type of phases that will form is hard to predict and is usually determined by experiment. The results of such experiments can be plotted in phase diagrams.\nThe phase diagram shown here",
"-21.600806393660605"
],
[
"ranging from 0% to 100%, depending on the levels of the other factors contributing to thermal comfort. However, the recommended range of indoor relative humidity in air conditioned buildings is generally 30-60%.\nIn general, higher temperatures will require lower relative humidities to achieve thermal comfort compared to lower temperatures, with all other factors held constant. For example, with clothing level = 1, Metabolic rate = 1.1, and air speed 0.1 m/s, a change in air temperature and mean radiant temperature from 20 degrees C to 24 degrees C would lower the maximum acceptable relative humidity from 100% to 65% to maintain",
"-21.578828838537447"
],
[
"C = 0) and as a label for the distance between the pitch classes D and F♯. (In much the same way, the term \"10 degrees\" can label both a temperature and the distance between two temperatures.) Only one of these labelings is sensitive to the (arbitrary) choice of pitch class 0. For example, if one makes a different choice about which pitch class is labeled 0, then the pitch class E will no longer be labeled \"4\". However, the distance between D and F♯ will still be assigned the number 4. Both this and the issue in the paragraph directly",
"-21.54273985605687"
],
[
"versus temperatures for a variety of liquids. As can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest normal boiling points.\nFor example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point (-24.2 °C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure. Note that at higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure is less than that at sea level, so boiling points",
"-21.517966635150515"
],
[
"because they depend upon the creation of a pressure differential; atmospheric pressure is lower at high altitudes, and so the maximum differential is also lower.",
"-21.41000199865084"
],
[
"heating caused will vary accordingly: it is much less for a flight with a maximum speed of only 1 km/s than for one with a maximum speed of 7 or 8 km/s.\nThe minimum delta-v and the corresponding maximum altitude for a given range can be calculated, d, assuming a spherical Earth of circumference 40 000 km and neglecting the earth's rotation and atmosphere. Let θ be half the angle that the projectile is to go around the earth, so in degrees it is 45°×d/10 000 km. The minimum-delta-v trajectory corresponds to an ellipse with one focus at the centre of the Earth and the",
"-21.408855185378343"
],
[
"risk at temperatures below 22.5 °C (72.5 °F), air speed due to the HVAC system must be 0.15 m/s (30 ft/min) or below. The vertical air temperature difference between ankle and head is limited to 3 °C (5.4 °F) for seated occupants and 4 °C (7.2 °F) for standing occupants. If occupants' feet will be in contact with the floor, the temperature must be 19–29 °C (66–84 °F). Temperature variations with time When occupants do not have control over the cyclical variation or drifts in indoor environmental conditions, the conditions within this section must be met. Operative temperatures may not fluctuate more than 1.1 °C (2.0 °F) within 15 minutes,",
"-21.396742758515757"
],
[
"temperatures from 1,200°R to 4,700°R (667 K to 2,611 K). Five nozzles ranging from Mach 3.2 to Mach 7.1 are currently available.",
"-21.308524838648736"
],
[
"state but not in thermodynamic equilibrium While for bodies in their own thermodynamic equilibrium states, the notion of temperature requires that all empirical thermometers must agree as to which of two bodies is the hotter or that they are at the same temperature, this requirement is not safe for bodies that are in steady states though not in thermodynamic equilibrium. It can then well be that different empirical thermometers disagree about which is the hotter, and if this is so, then at least one of the bodies does not have a well defined absolute thermodynamic temperature. Nevertheless, any one given",
"-21.207293594256043"
],
[
"the stratosphere. The temperature gradient is estimated to be 2.2, 3–15 or 5.5 degrees per km. It is a result of greenhouse effect, caused by methane. Mean temperature of the surface is 42±4 K (measured in 2005), and the mean value for all the atmosphere is 90⁺²⁵\n−18 K (2008).\nAt height 20–40 km the temperature reaches its maximum (100–110 K; stratopause) and then slowly decreases (about 0.2 K/km; mesosphere). Causes of this decrease are unclear; it can be related to cooling action of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide or other reasons. Above 200 km temperature reaches approximately 80 K and then remains constant.\nTemperature",
"-21.190352115780115"
],
[
"g's than an acceleration of 19.6 meters per second squared. It is hard to remember that the specific gravity of water is 1.0 and that something with a higher specific gravity will sink in water. But if we understand it, it is very easy. Other examples of specific properties specific heat, specific modulus, specific volume, specific activity, specific impulse, specific power, specific fuel consumption",
"-21.155394663568586"
],
[
"is possible to use purely statistical or hybrid statistical/numerical methods to do this. For example, temperature can take on a theoretically infinite number of possible values (events); a statistical method would produce a distribution assigning a probability value to every possible temperature. Implausibly high or low temperatures would then have close to zero probability values.\nIf it were possible to run the model for every possible set of initial conditions, each with an associated probability, then according to how many members (i.e., individual model runs) of the ensemble predict a certain event, one could compute the actual conditional probability of the",
"-21.152682704792824"
],
[
"unique property of temperature. It holds even in the presence of long-range forces. (That is, there is no \"force\" that can maintain temperature discrepancies.) For example, in a system in thermodynamic equilibrium in a vertical gravitational field, the pressure on the top wall is less than that on the bottom wall, but the temperature is the same everywhere.\nA thermodynamic operation may occur as an event restricted to the walls that are within the surroundings, directly affecting neither the walls of contact of the system of interest with its surroundings, nor its interior, and occurring within a definitely limited time.",
"-20.931068174275424"
],
[
"very high temperatures. It can get up to 180 degrees before it melts. In the summer my studio can get up to 120, 125, and in the winter I don't have heat so it's very cold. So these pieces have to be able to freeze.\n— Petah Coyne March 24, 1994. In her Studio, Greenpoint, Brooklyn",
"-20.88121611904353"
],
[
"meter) there will be high performance loss in system and suitable amount of heat cannot be delivered or rejected from building. Optimization of distance between spiral GHEs As it is known, concept of extracting/injecting heat from/to ground is temperature different between two mediums. When there are more than one spiral GHEs embedded in ground it means that we have more thermal interactions in ground. When distance between heat exchangers is low (lower than 5 meter) thermal interactions between them is also too high. By increasing distance between them thermal interactions will be reduced and therefore we have low performance loss",
"-20.874424531357363"
],
[
"4.0%. Research Research is going now in the direction of lower-temperature SOFCs (600 °C). Low temperature systems can reduce costs by reducing insulation, materials, start-up and degradation-related costs. With higher operating temperatures, the temperature gradient increases the severity of thermal stresses, which affects materials cost and life of the system. An intermediate temperature system (650-800 °C) would enable the use of cheaper metallic materials with better mechanical properties and thermal conductivity. New developments in nano-scale electrolyte structures have been shown to bring down operating temperatures to around 350 °C, which would enable the use of even cheaper steel and elastomeric/polymeric components.\nLowering operating temperatures",
"-20.865700550493784"
],
[
"at close to 60 °C. Because the hot input is at its maximum temperature of 60 °C, and the exiting water at the bottom pipe is nearly at that temperature but not quite, the water in the top pipe can warm the one in the bottom pipe to nearly its own temperature. At the cold end—the water exit from the top pipe, because the cold water entering the bottom pipe is still cold at 20 °C, it can extract the last of the heat from the now-cooled hot water in the top pipe, bringing its temperature down nearly to the level of the",
"-20.81220557092456"
],
[
"temperature, without mechanical lift. \nOnce the CCL is determined, the surface temperature necessary to raise a mass of air to that height can be found by using the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) to determine the potential temperature. In the early morning, this temperature is typically larger than the surface temperature, in the mid-afternoon, it may be the same.\nCompare this to the Lifting Condensation Level (LCL) where the air is lifted and cooled without first increasing the surface temperature. The LCL is less than or equal to the CCL depending on the temperature profile.\nBoth condensation levels indicate the altitude (or",
"-20.757662214396987"
],
[
"nor change more than 2.2 °C (4.0 °F) within 1 hour. Acceptable thermal conditions in occupant-controlled naturally conditioned spaces This method, also known as the adaptive comfort model, is applicable in buildings without mechanical cooling (and no operating heating system) where occupants’ met rates are 1.0-1.3 met and their clothing levels are 0.5-1.0 clo. For this model the standard provides a graph of acceptable indoor temperature limits at prevailing mean outdoor temperatures (a mean of the daily mean outdoor temperatures of the previous 7–30 days). An accompanying table lists provisions for higher operative temperatures at air speeds above 0.3 m/s (59 ft/min)",
"-20.74540461835568"
],
[
"– 1 = 0 is overdetermined (having two equations but only one unknown), but it is not inconsistent since it has the solution x = 1.\nA system is underdetermined if the number of equations is lower than the number of the variables. An underdetermined system is either inconsistent or has infinitely many solutions in an algebraically closed extension K of k.\nA system is zero-dimensional if it has a finite number of solutions in an algebraically closed extension K of k. This terminology comes from the fact that the algebraic variety of the solutions has dimension zero. A system with infinitely many solutions",
"-20.734288694919087"
],
[
"might metabolize more slowly and evolve more slowly than life on Earth. On the other hand, lower temperatures could also enable living systems to use chemical species that would be too unstable at Earth temperatures to be useful.\nAmmonia could be a liquid at Earth-like temperatures, but at much higher pressures; for example, at 60 atm, ammonia melts at −77 °C (196 K) and boils at 98 °C (371 K).\nAmmonia and ammonia–water mixtures remain liquid at temperatures far below the freezing point of pure water, so such biochemistries might be well suited to planets and moons orbiting outside the water-based habitability zone. Such conditions could exist,",
"-20.7041963922984"
],
[
"the thermal throttle point (at which the CPU reduces speed or shuts down to prevent damage due to overheating) instead of the absolute temperature. For example, for a CPU with maximal temperature of 85 °C and a current temperature reading of 35 °C, the value reported by PECI would be −50 °C. Advantages Since the value reported by PECI takes into account internal processor information about safe operating temperatures, it alleviates the need for the BIOS or operating system to make potentially incorrect assumptions about this limit. Furthermore, it supports dynamic fan control with a high degree of accuracy, where",
"-20.700566679763142"
],
[
"ways that admit alternative resolutions.\nMpemba paradox is that under certain conditions, hot water will freeze faster than cold water even though it must pass through the same temperature as the cold water during the freezing process. This is a seeming violation of Newton's law of cooling but in reality it is due to non-linear effects that influence the freezing process. The assumption that only the temperature of the water will affect freezing is not correct. Paradoxes relating to unphysical mathematical idealizations A common paradox occurs with mathematical idealizations such as point sources which describe physical phenomena well at distant or",
"-20.614446821971796"
],
[
"This is −6.5 °C/km ⋅ 2.5 km/h = −16.25 °C/h.\nOne of the reasons why this computation is possible is because f′ is a constant function. A more accurate description of how the temperature near the car varies over time would require an accurate model of how the temperature varies at different altitudes. This model may not have a constant derivative. To compute the temperature change in such a model, it would be necessary to know g and not just g′, because without knowing g it is not possible to know where to evaluate f′. Further generalizations All extensions of calculus have a chain",
"-20.590739501756616"
],
[
"Wilson and Leo Kadanoff and the existence of a second order phase transition. Sometimes, taking the limit as ε goes to zero is not possible. This is the case when we have a Landau pole and for nonrenormalizable couplings like the Fermi interaction. However, even for these two examples, if the regulator only gives reasonable results for and we are working with scales of the order of , regulators with still give pretty accurate approximations. The physical reason why we can't take the limit of ε going to zero is the existence of new physics below Λ.\nIt is",
"-20.58528739999747"
],
[
"Higher Heating Value may exceed 100%, since typical heating value definitions assume that all heat is released when combustion products are cooled to somewhere between 15.56 °C (60.01 °F) and 25 °C (77 °F).",
"-20.576793021231424"
],
[
"heating medium and the liquid. This is due to the lack of hydrostatic pressure drop in the evaporator. The lack of hydrostatic pressure drop will eliminate the temperature drop thus causing the temperature to be relatively uniform. Besides that, the local heat transfer coefficient inside the tube is depending on the change in temperature. A minimum threshold of change in temperature (ΔT) of 5 °C was found by Luopeng Yang in one of his experiments. If the change in temperature is less than 5 °C, the liquid film will not be able to travel up the tubes which resulting in a drop",
"-20.519236092746723"
],
[
"sufficiently high temperature, the repulsive interactions dominate at all pressures.\nThis can be seen in the graph showing the high temperature behavior. As temperature increases, the initial slope becomes less negative, the pressure at which Z is a minimum gets smaller, and the pressure at which repulsive interactions start to dominate, i.e. where Z goes from less than unity to greater than unity, gets smaller. At the Boyle temperature (327 K for N₂), the attractive and repulsive effects cancel each other at low pressure. Then Z remains at the ideal gas value of unity up to pressures of several tens of",
"-20.505669816280715"
],
[
"ranges from 0 to 10 or occasionally more. In factoring one 2 million degree polynomial, the search and polish stages found all 2 million zeros in one grid search and required no deflation which shows the power of the grid search on this class of polynomial. When deflation is needed, one pass is almost always sufficient. However, if you have a multiple zero or two (or more) very, very closely spaced zeros, the uniqueness test will discard a legitimate zero but it will be found by later deflation. Stage three has enough tests and alternatives to handle almost all possible",
"-20.50037379952846"
],
[
"every 10 percent lower, dew point drops 3 °F. Frost point The frost point is similar to the dew point in that it is the temperature to which a given parcel of humid air must be cooled, at constant atmospheric pressure, for water vapor to be deposited on a surface as ice crystals without undergoing the liquid phase (compare with sublimation). The frost point for a given parcel of air is always higher than the dew point, as the stronger bonding between water molecules on the surface of ice requires higher temperature to break.",
"-20.46889353595907"
],
[
"law of thermodynamics. The physical reason is that the ideal gas law, exactly read, refers to the limit of infinitely high temperature and zero pressure. This is one of the reasons why the thermodynamic temperature is defined in terms of an ideal Carnot engine. Kinetic theory approach The magnitude of the kelvin is now defined in terms of kinetic theory, derived from the value of Boltzmann's constant. A more thorough account of this is below at Theoretical foundation.\nKinetic theory provides a microscopic account of temperature for some bodies of material, especially gases, based on macroscopic systems' being composed of many",
"-20.45781494991388"
],
[
"about 95 °C are sufficient, as for space heating, flat-plate collectors of the nonconcentrating type are generally used. Because of the relatively high heat losses through the glazing, flat plate collectors will not reach temperatures much above 200 °C even when the heat transfer fluid is stagnant. Such temperatures are too low for efficient conversion to electricity.\nThe efficiency of heat engines increases with the temperature of the heat source. To achieve this in solar thermal energy plants, solar radiation is concentrated by mirrors or lenses to obtain higher temperatures – a technique called Concentrated Solar Power (CSP). The practical effect of high",
"-20.400005153554957"
],
[
"Sub-Doppler cooling Sub-Doppler cooling is a mechanism that can be used to cool a substance to a temperature lower than the Doppler cooling limit. When atoms or molecules are cooled to reach the Doppler cooling limit, the natural decay induced repulsion is balanced with the cooling and trapping force induced by doppler cooling. The substance would meet the case that temperature can't be cooled to lower temperature. There are methods to break the doppler cooling limit and reach the sub-doppler cooling. \nThe methods to get sub-doppler cooling includes dark magneto-optical trap, optical molasses, and Sisyphus cooling. Dark magneto-optical trap A",
"-20.39761318662204"
],
[
"in some neighborhood about that point.\nIf the description of the system requires variations in the intensive parameters that are too large, the very assumptions upon which the definitions of these intensive parameters are based will break down, and the system will be in neither global nor local equilibrium. For example, it takes a certain number of collisions for a particle to equilibrate to its surroundings. If the average distance it has moved during these collisions removes it from the neighborhood it is equilibrating to, it will never equilibrate, and there will be no LTE. Temperature is, by definition, proportional",
"-20.36349995789351"
],
[
"the temperature at the bottom of the No. 2 reactor was still 114.4 degrees Celsius (237.92 °F), compared to the 84.9 °C degrees(184.82 °F) in the No.1 reactor and the 101.3 °C (214.34 °F) in the No. 3 reactor. The new method has led to some temperature decrease, but not as significant as the decrease that occurred in the No.3 reactor.\nAfter some positive effect was noticed using both the core spray system and feed water piping, TEPCO decided on 16 September to increase the amount of water pumped into the No. 2 reactor by one ton, in an attempt to further lower the temperature in",
"-20.327155666833278"
],
[
"a gas. At the critical point, the two are the same. So for temperatures above the critical temperature (126.2 K), there is no phase transition; as pressure increases the gas gradually transforms into something more like a liquid. Just above the critical point there is a range of pressure for which Z drops quite rapidly (see the 130 K curve), but at higher temperatures the process is entirely gradual.\nThe final figures shows the behavior at temperatures well above the critical temperatures. The repulsive interactions are essentially unaffected by temperature, but the attractive interaction have less and less influence. Thus, at",
"-20.321866434038384"
],
[
"point is reached and condensation occurs. A heater coil placed after the cooling coil re-heats the air (therefore known as a re-heat coil) to the desired supply temperature. This process has the effect of reducing the relative humidity level of the supply air.\nIn colder climates, where winter temperatures regularly drop below freezing, then frost coils or pre-heat coils are often employed as a first stage of air treatment to ensure that downstream filters or chilled water coils are protected against freezing. The control of the frost coil is such that if a certain off-coil air temperature is not reached then",
"-20.29374428896699"
],
[
"could act, much like the glass in a greenhouse, to raise the temperature of the lower air.\nA 1968 study by the Stanford Research Institute for the American Petroleum Institute noted:\nIf the earth's temperature increases significantly, a number of events might be expected to occur, including the melting of the Antarctic ice cap, a rise in sea levels, warming of the oceans, and an increase in photosynthesis. [..] Revelle makes the point that man is now engaged in a vast geophysical experiment with his environment, the earth. Significant temperature changes are almost certain to occur by the year 2000 and",
"-20.292808989121113"
],
[
"Dew point Humidity If all the other factors influencing humidity remain constant, at ground level the relative humidity rises as the temperature falls; this is because less vapor is needed to saturate the air. In normal conditions, the dew point temperature will not be greater than the air temperature, since relative humidity cannot exceed 100%.\nIn technical terms, the dew point is the temperature at which the water vapor in a sample of air at constant barometric pressure condenses into liquid water at the same rate at which it evaporates. At temperatures below the dew point, the rate of condensation will",
"-20.281930457393173"
],
[
"to identify. For example, water turns into steam at 100 °C or 212 °F (the boiling point depends partly on atmospheric pressure, which decreases at higher altitudes).\nWith many other processes and gradations, however, the point of change is much more difficult to locate, and remains somewhat vague. Thus, the boundaries between qualitatively different things may be unsharp: we know that there are boundaries, but we cannot define them exactly.\nAccording to the modern idea of the continuum fallacy, the fact that a statement is to an extent vague, does not automatically mean that it is invalid. The problem then becomes one of how",
"-20.266290598199703"
],
[
"represents the repulsive force among three molecules, which is expected to increase at lower temperature, as molecules are pressed together.\nThe reason why the third virial coefficient decreased below the critical temperature is that it had been analyzed incorrectly. Generally the PρT isotherms were measured conveniently in the gaseous phase. Below the critical temperature, gaseous phase condenses and coexists with liquid phase, and the PρT isotherm becomes flat. Saturation pressure does not change until gas condenses completely to liquid, and then pressure rises as density increases. There is a large gap between pure gaseous phase and pure liquid phase where no",
"-20.156459897872992"
],
[
"can be achieved by heating the system past a point of infinite temperature. As the energy in such systems increases, the entropy increases for some range, but eventually attains a maximum value at a critical temperature and then begins to decrease as the highest energy states begin to fill. At the point of maximum entropy, the temperature function shows the behavior of a singularity, because the slope of the entropy function decreases to zero and then turns negative. Since temperature is the inverse of the derivative of the entropy, the temperature goes to positive infinity at this point, switching to",
"-20.10987020144239"
],
[
"the topic of considerable research in the 1930s.\nConsider two cooling systems that are otherwise similar, operating at an ambient air temperature of 20°C. An all-liquid design might operate between 30°C and 90°C, offering 60°C of temperature difference to carry away heat. An evaporative cooling system might operate between 80°C and 110°C, which at first glance appears to be much less temperature difference, but this analysis overlooks the enormous amount of heat energy soaked up during the generation of steam, equivalent to 500°C. In effect, the evaporative version is operating between 80°C and 560°C, a 480°C effective temperature difference. Such a",
"-20.087624297855655"
],
[
"sink to reduce their temperature through increased thermal mass and heat dissipation (primarily by conduction and convection and to a lesser extent by radiation). Heat sinks have become almost essential to modern integrated circuits like microprocessors, DSPs, GPUs, and more.\nA heat sink usually consists of a metal structure with one or more flat surfaces to ensure good thermal contact with the components to be cooled, and an array of comb or fin like protrusions to increase the surface contact with the air, and thus the rate of heat dissipation.\nA heat sink is sometimes used in conjunction with a fan to",
"-20.038372701441403"
],
[
"system. So, all solids that possess an appreciable vapour pressure at a certain temperature usually can sublime in air (e.g. water ice just below 0 °C). For some substances, such as carbon and arsenic, sublimation is much easier than evaporation from the melt, because the pressure of their triple point is very high, and it is difficult to obtain them as liquids.\nThe term sublimation refers to a physical change of state and is not used to describe the transformation of a solid to a gas in a chemical reaction. For example, the dissociation on heating of solid ammonium chloride into hydrogen",
"-20.022210589435417"
],
[
"where the temperature is much cooler.",
"-20.021558234700933"
],
[
"removed to reach 0 °C (32 °F) more heat must be removed before the water changes to solid state (ice), so water can be liquid or solid at 0 °C (32 °F).\nWith the above definition there are simple ways in which the effect might be observed. For example, if the hotter temperature melts the frost on a cooling surface and thus increases the thermal conductivity between the cooling surface and the water container. On the other hand, there may be many circumstances in which the effect is not observed. Historical context Various effects of heat on the freezing of water were described by ancient",
"-20.02141562430188"
],
[
"temperature to less than −269 °C (−452.2 F, 4 K), which is less than four degrees above absolute zero. Only in this exceptionally cold state will helium liquefy, the boiling point of helium being at −268.94 °C (−452.092 F). Kamerlingh Onnes received a Nobel Prize for his achievement.\nOnnes' method relied upon depressurising the subject gases, causing them to cool by adiabatic cooling. This follows from the first law of thermodynamics;\nwhere U = internal energy, Q = heat added to the system, W = work done by the system.\nConsider a gas in a box of set volume. If the pressure in the box is",
"-20.016437434358522"
],
[
"negative infinity as the slope turns negative. When brought into contact with a system at a positive temperature, energy will be transferred as heat from the negative temperature system to the positive temperature system.",
"-20.01522197504528"
],
[
"the temperature to rise to where water can exist for short periods.",
"-20.003310866268293"
],
[
"if they are not wearing much clothing, higher temperatures can be more comfortable than the PMV model predicts. Air speeds up to 0.8 m/s (2.6 ft/s) are allowed without local control, and 1.2 m/s is possible with local control. This elevated air movement increases the maximum temperature for an office space in the summer to 30 °C from 27.5 °C (86.0–81.5 °F). Virtual Energy for Thermal Comfort \"Virtual Energy for Thermal Comfort\" is the amount of energy that will be required to make a non-air-conditioned building relatively as comfortable as one with air-conditioning. This is based on the assumption that the home will eventually install air-conditioning",
"-19.980038962094113"
],
[
"merely below its boiling point in all regions of the Earth, but below its freezing point at many altitudes. As a condensible greenhouse gas, it precipitates, with a much lower scale height and shorter atmospheric lifetime- weeks instead of decades. Without other greenhouse gases, Earth's blackbody temperature, below the freezing point of water, would cause water vapor to be removed from the atmosphere. Water vapor is thus a \"slave\" to the non-condensible greenhouse gases. Air density and volume Humidity depends on water vaporization and condensation, which, in turn, mainly depends on temperature. Therefore, when applying more pressure",
"-19.970397610362852"
],
[
"for interior walls that have little or no vapor resistance (e.g., they use fibrous insulation) and controls air leakage condensation as well as vapor diffusion condensation. This approach will ensure that condensation does not occur on or to the inside of the vapor barrier during cold weather. The 1/3:2/3 rule will ensure that the vapor barrier temperature will not fall below the dew point temperature of the interior air, and will minimize the possibility of cold-weather condensation problems. For example, with an internal room temperature of 20 °C (68 °F), the vapor barrier will then only reach 7.3 °C (45 °F) when the outside",
"-19.943967649131082"
],
[
"to a linear function , then the value at the center of that neighborhood will not be changing at that time (that is, the derivative will be zero).\nA more subtle consequence is the maximum principle, that says that the maximum value of in any region of the medium will not exceed the maximum value that previously occurred in , unless it is on the boundary of . That is, the maximum temperature in a region can increase only if heat comes in from outside . This is a property of parabolic partial differential equations and is",
"-19.934676058590412"
],
[
"with increasing temperature. As the pressure is increased, the compressibility decreases, being 3.9×10⁻¹⁰ Pa⁻¹ at 0 °C and 100 megapascals (1,000 bar).\nThe bulk modulus of water is about 2.2 GPa. The low compressibility of non-gases, and of water in particular, leads to their often being assumed as incompressible. The low compressibility of water means that even in the deep oceans at 4 km depth, where pressures are 40 MPa, there is only a 1.8% decrease in volume. Melting point The melting point of ice is 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K) at standard pressure; however, pure liquid water can be supercooled well below that temperature without freezing if the",
"-19.896683854516596"
],
[
"to activate some of those degrees of freedom. Those modes are said to be \"frozen out\". In that case, the specific heat of the substance is going to increase with temperature, sometimes in a step-like fashion, as more modes become unfrozen and start absorbing part of the input heat energy.\nFor example, the molar heat capacity of nitrogen N\n₂ at constant volume is 20.6 J/K/mol (at 15 °C, 1 atm), which is 2.49. That is the value expected from theory if each molecule had 5 degrees of freedom. These turn out to be three degrees of the molecule's",
"-19.89164140878711"
],
[
"Naitoh said that TEPCO was only measuring temperatures outside the reactors, and that the temperatures inside should be confirmed through simulation to confirm that they had fallen below 100 degrees, and that there were no risks of nuclear reactions recurring.\nIn the first week of February 2012, temperatures inside reactor No. 2 became unstable. On 7 February, the amount of cooling water was increased from 10.5 tons to 13.5 tons per hour. After a slight initial decrease in temperature, sensor readings again showed the temperature rising at some locations in the bottom of the reactor. On 11 February, temperatures rose once",
"-19.845094517222606"
],
[
"(i.e. \"ground elevation\"). A point with a measure \"altitude=0\" is, however, not to be confused with an undefined value: it refers to an altitude of 0 meters above the geoid.",
"-19.841527670418145"
],
[
"rate of condensation at the cold end and far lower than the molecular speed. Note/explanation: The condensation rate is very close to the sticking coefficient times the molecular speed times the gas density, if the condensing surface is very cold. However, if the surface is close to the temperature of the gas, the evaporation caused by the finite temperature of the surface largely cancels this heat flux. If the temperature difference is more than some tens of degrees, the evaporation from the surface is typically negligible, as can be assessed from the vapor pressure curves. In most cases, with very",
"-19.820476492954185"
],
[
"statistical mechanics, the thermodynamic limit exists, but depends on boundary conditions. For example, this happens in six vertex model: the bulk free energy is different for periodic boundary conditions and for domain wall boundary conditions.",
"-19.817716747882514"
],
[
"warm solutions possible at hydrogen concentrations and CO₂ pressures as low as 1% and 0.55 bar, respectively.",
"-19.812254721007776"
],
[
"below the value of 0.82D to avoid the region of two normal depths due to the fact that if the depth exceeds the depth of 0.82D then any small disturbance in water surface may lead the water surface to seek alternate normal depths thus leading to surface instability.",
"-19.799761451315135"
],
[
"layer close to the surface, which leads to an energy balance equilibrium.\nHowever, in Emanuel's model, if the temperature difference between the sea and the top of the troposphere is too large, there is no solution to the equilibrium equation. As more air is drawn in, the released heat reduces the central pressure further, drawing in more heat in a runaway positive feedback. The actual limit to hypercane intensity depends on other energy dissipation factors that are uncertain: whether inflow ceases to be isothermal, whether shock waves would form in the outflow around the eye, or whether turbulent breakdown of the",
"-19.731155146087985"
],
[
"experiments, in which a state of supersaturation is induced to accomplish its function.\nFor a given dew point and its corresponding absolute humidity, the relative humidity will change inversely, albeit nonlinearly, with the temperature. This is because the partial pressure of water increases with temperature – the operative principle behind everything from hair dryers to dehumidifiers.\nDue to the increasing potential for a higher water vapor partial pressure at higher air temperatures, the water content of air at sea level can get as high as 3% by mass at 30 °C (86 °F) compared to no more than about 0.5% by mass at 0 °C",
"-19.727897018834483"
],
[
"point. Thus, if the controller's setting is 22 °C (72 °F), setting the thermostat to its maximum warm or cool settings will deflect the output temperature, generally by only a few degrees Fahrenheit (about two degrees Celsius) at most. So, although the thermostat can be set to its lowest marking of 16 °C (60 °F), in reality, it may change the HVAC system's output temperature only to 21 °C (70 °F). In this case, the thermostat has a \"swing\" of 2 °C (4 °F): it can alter the produced temperature from the main controller's set point by a maximum of 1 °C (2 °F) in either direction. Consequently, while not",
"-19.69103615632048"
],
[
"a lower resistance or a bigger surface-mount package (such as a 1206) are usually specified. In contrast, a \"worst-case zero-ohm\" real-world jumper with 0.05-ohm impedance in a similar 0805 package could only pass 3.1 amperes maximum. The use of specific tolerance resistances is a much safer design practice for higher currents than the \"zero-ohm\" option, although the bill-of-materials cost can be higher for low-ohm devices.",
"-19.689703984884545"
],
[
"cannot be too small due to cooling considerations: a temperature of 1K implies energy fluctuations of 20 GHz. Temperatures of tens of mili-Kelvin achieved in dilution refrigerators allow qubit operation at a ~5 GHz energy level separation. The qubit energy level separation may often be adjusted by means of controlling a dedicated bias current line, providing a \"knob\" to fine tune the qubit parameters. Single qubit gates An arbitrary single qubit gate is achieved by rotation in the Bloch sphere. The rotations between the different energy levels of a single qubit are induced by microwave pulses sent to an antenna or transmission",
"-19.68375231907703"
],
[
" 0/ 10 = 0% |\n 1 0ms 0/ 10 = 0% 0/ 10 = 0% air.setup [192.168.11.1]\n 0/ 10 = 0% |\n 2 8ms",
"-19.66815430216957"
],
[
"If this explanation were correct, then it would imply that the rate of cooling should be proportional to , where is the length of the cube edges, and thus the time for the drink to cool should be proportional to . In fact, dimensional analysis shows this common explanation to be incorrect, and gives the surprising result that the time to cool the drink is proportional to .\nThe important dimensional quantities are the length scale of the cubes (dimension ), the time (dimension ), the temperature (dimension ), the thermal conductivity (dimensions ), and",
"-19.63041145564057"
],
[
"at ambient temperatures increase with decreasing boiling points. This is illustrated in the vapor pressure chart (see right) that shows graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids. At the normal boiling point of a liquid, the vapor pressure is equal to the standard atmospheric pressure defined as 1 atmosphere, 760 Torr, 101.325 kPa, or 14.69595 psi.\nFor example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point (−24.2 °C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line)",
"-19.618251550127752"
],
[
"to assess a climate mitigation scenario that would limit average global temperature increase to only 1.5ᵒC above pre-industrial levels. This is mainly due to the fact that few reliable multi-model studies have been conducted to thoroughly explore this scenario. Nevertheless, what few studies that have been done agree that mitigation technologies must be implemented immediately and scaled up quickly and reflect energy demand decrease. A change below 1 °C with respect to pre-industrial era is now inconceivable because by 2017 there was already an increase of 1 °C.\nBecause of the immediate inability to control the temperature at the 1 °C target, the next",
"-19.54842754197307"
]
] |
2c9pqm | Why are Monsanto considered to be evil? | [
"Monsanto tends to get into trouble because of their tendency to employ strong arm legal tactics against farmers. Specifically, they patented their seeds, so when you buy seed from Monsanto you're really just buying a license to a plant which will grow and produce its own seeds...but legally you can't plant those seeds because your license doesn't cover them. So if you're a poor farmer in India and Monsanto's people convince you their seed is amazing and will give you a great crop yield, and you fork over all your money to buy their seed but that year your crop fails...now you're broke and you have no useful seed because if you just replant your crops you'll get sued. And that's the best case, if you went into debt for those seeds now you're in the hole money you can't recoup without a harvest, but you can't harvest anything without licensing more plants...or totally reinvesting in seed from somewhere else...that you can't afford because you're in debt. This actually cause a rash of farmer suicides. Also since plants are living things they tend to attempt to reproduce, so if GMO wheat from Monsanto's research farm in Oregon spreads itself and ends up in your organic farm, your certifications are all in trouble. If you're big enough to sell to other states or countries if they don't allow GMO wheat you can't sell to them anymore, your whole business is fucked. This also happened. Finally, if you're a farmer, and your neighbor's a farmer, and he buys Monsanto's seeds but you don't. Some seasons later Monsanto comes over and realizes his crops fertilized your crops and now you're growing hybrid plants through no intent of your own. Technically that's patent infringement and now Monsanto is suing you because the guy next door to you bought their product and then plants did their thing and tried to make more plants.",
"The reason people do not like Monsanto is usually because they do not like GMO's in the first place, and so they unquestionably accept the various urban legends they have been presented about the company. For example, I'd encourage you to do your own research regarding Monsanto's supposedly litigious nature.",
"Because they are a giant corporation and all giant corporations are generally considered to be inherently evil. Monsanto has a somewhat undeserved reputation for extra evilness because they produce a lot of Genetically Modified Organisms but, for the life of me, I can find almost no credible research on why GMO's are so bad.",
"If I recall, they are 'legal bullies' to a lot of farmers. They sell the seeds to the farmer, who then grows the crops and sells the grain/beans etc. If the farmer tries to keep any grain to replant, Monsanto will sue them out of their pants. Monsanto also uses various methods to make it very hard for farmers to escape this cycle, so that the farmers are reliant on Monsanto products. URL_2 URL_3 URL_0 URL_1 It's a complicated issue with many good (and bad) points on either side.",
"Well-off white people are afraid of technology and think it's okay to condemn foreigners to starvation because understanding science is hard.",
"Big, successful, technological, no general public marketing, operates (among other things) with genetics and food, the stuff of sci-fi nightmares. It's the perfect villain for any veggie-vegan-hippie-conspiracy-liberal-robinhoodian-braveheartian activist. As with everything, they are as evil and as good as any large corporation.",
"Check the archives. This is asked three times a week.",
"I love how people in this thread are being so absurdly general about GMOs. As if it's all the same. Like it's binary- either you don't modify, or you do. It is so much more nuanced than that. There is an extremely wide range of ways to modify food. Some of those practices are just fine, and some aren't. Yet, all the actions of genetic modification are clumped together. People get very defensive one way or the other when your bring it up. GMOS ARE OK!!! GMOS ARE HORRIBLE!! It all depends. Some are amazing, and in the future, could massively expand in a very incredible way, and the misconceptions could easily get in the way of that beneficial expansion. But the other side is that some of these GMO practices are really not good, at all. Monsanto, employs both positive and negative practices. The negative is the cycle they have put themselves into with pesticides. Continually modifying the seed to withstand more and more bombardment from what is essentially a nerve agent. Insects have short lives, and thus many generation in a short time. They adapt to the new pesticide levels, so they blast more on. Whoops, they adapted again, let's spray more! Whoops, it's damaging the plant. Let's modify the plant to take it! Whoops, the bugs adapted again. More pesticides it is! Whoops.... on and on. This is their 'solution.' And this is, very fairly IMO, part of the root of the mistrust for GMOS. And that's not good. Modifying food is something we've done for a long time and we're on the edge of really expanding it in wonderful ways. Synthetic meat, for example, could really be amazing . But with the current trust level, it will be hard for it to be adapted when it's ready to go. Some of the mistrust is earned, and some of it isn't. One thing is for sure though- this 'one way or the other' thinking has got to go, as do these endless cycles that companies like Monsanto perpetuate.",
"Jesus, can *MONSANTO QUESTIONS* please be linked to in the sidebar. This is fucking insane how often the question comes up."
] | [
[
"is.\nBelief that Monsanto is particularly problematic has inspired such actions as the March Against Monsanto and the singling out of Monsanto over other agribusinesses such as DuPont, Syngenta, Dow, BASF and Bayer, and has been identified as a salient feature of anti-GMO activism.\nAn example of Monsanto-based conspiracy theorizing were the claims by some anti-GMO activists that Monsanto banned GMOs from their cafeterias while promoting them for sale and consumption by the public. Anti-GMO/chemtrail blogger Barbara H. Peterson, a retired correctional officer and rancher, complained that Monsanto \"has painted those of us attempting to shed light on the dangers of genetically",
"-29.402999196230667"
],
[
"million. Chhabria stated that a punitive award was appropriate because the evidence \"easily supported a conclusion that Monsanto was more concerned with tamping down safety inquiries and manipulating public opinion than it was with ensuring its product is safe.\" Chhabria stated that there is evidence is on both sides concerning whether glyphosate causes cancer and that the behavior of Monsanto showed \"a lack of concern about the risk that its product might be carcinogenic.\"\nOn 13 May 2019 a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay a couple $2 billion in damages after finding that the company had failed to",
"-29.14027283537871"
],
[
"products over the course of a £1 million advertising campaign. The ASA ruled that Monsanto had presented its opinions \"as accepted fact\" and had published \"wrong\" and \"unproven\" scientific claims. Monsanto responded with an apology and claimed it was not intending to deceive and instead \"did not take sufficiently into account the difference in culture between the UK and the USA in the way some of this information was presented.\"\nIn 2001, French environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case against Monsanto for misleading the public about the environmental impact of its herbicide Roundup, on the basis that glyphosate, Roundup's",
"-29.024843322695233"
],
[
"They believe that the legislation has drawn what they call \"a blurry line between industry and government\".\nThey also believe that there has been a conflict of interest between former employees of Monsanto who work for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and that Monsanto has used their patent rights to create a monopoly of the food supply which has resulted in economic losses by small farmers. Activist and journalist Emilie Rensink, who helped organize the march, said that in her view the appointment of ex-Monsanto executives to head the FDA has resulted in political favoritism, including Monsanto subsidies",
"-28.93577783492219"
],
[
"court upheld the verdict; Monsanto appealed again to the French Supreme Court, and in 2009 it also upheld the verdict.\nIn August 2012, a Brazilian Regional Federal Court ordered Monsanto to pay a $250,000 fine for false advertising. In 2004, advertising that related to the use of GM soya seed, and the herbicide glyphosate used in its cultivation, claimed it was beneficial to the conservation of the environment. The federal prosecutor maintained that Monsanto misrepresented the amount of herbicide required and stated that \"there is no scientific certainty that soybeans marketed by Monsanto use less herbicide.\" The presiding judge condemned Monsanto",
"-28.6609107790282"
],
[
"that Monsanto was more concerned with tamping down safety inquiries and manipulating public opinion than it was with ensuring its product is safe.\" Chhabria stated that there is evidence is on both sides concerning whether glyphosate causes cancer and that the behavior of Monsanto showed \"a lack of concern about the risk that its product might be carcinogenic.\"\nOn 13 May 2019 a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay a couple $2 billion in damages after finding that the company had failed to adequately inform consumers of the possible carcinogenicity of Roundup. On July 26, 2019, an Alameda",
"-28.555628164234804"
],
[
"virtues of a “natural” lifestyle.\" MIT Technology Review reported in February 2018 that Russian-backed disinformation campaigns were sowing public confusion about GMOs by promoting conspiracy theories. Monsanto A major aspect of many conspiracy theories is the fear that large agribusinesses, especially Monsanto are working to undermine the health and safety of the general public by introducing and promoting GMOs in the food supply. One claim is that Monsanto is deliberately hiding scientific evidence that GMOs are harmful. Some anti-GMO activists claimed that Monsanto infiltrated both the American Food and Drug Administration and the American Association for the Advancement of",
"-28.026825549197383"
],
[
"kids.\" Out of her anger, frustration, and concerns for the health of her children, Canal developed the idea for a \"March Against Monsanto\" social media campaign. Social media campaign Canal started a Facebook social media campaign on February 28, 2013. She stated: \"For too long, Monsanto has been the benefactor of corporate subsidies and political favoritism ... Organic and small farmers suffer losses while Monsanto continues to forge its monopoly over the world's food supply, including exclusive patenting rights over seeds and genetic makeup.\" She argued that Monsanto benefited from corporate subsidies and political favoritism and that",
"-25.79040194346453"
],
[
"is a case where Monsanto was not a party, but was alleged to have been involved in the events under dispute. In 1997, the news division of WTVT (Channel 13), a Fox–owned station in Tampa, Florida, planned to air an investigative report by Steve Wilson and Jane Akre on the health risks allegedly associated with Monsanto's bovine growth hormone product, Posilac. Just before the story was to air, Fox received a threatening letter from Monsanto, saying the reporters were biased and that the story would damage the company. Fox tried to work with the reporters to address Monsanto's concerns, and",
"-25.572747448764858"
],
[
"Monsanto's Roundup product. \nOn 10 August 2018, Dewayne Johnson, who has non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, was awarded $289 million in damages (later cut to $78 million on appeal) after a jury in San Francisco found that Monsanto had failed to adequately warn consumers of cancer risks posed by the herbicide. Johnson had routinely used two different glyphosate formulations in his work as a groundskeeper, RoundUp and another Monsanto product called Ranger Pro. The jury's verdict addressed the question of whether Monsanto knowingly failed to warn consumers that RoundUp could be harmful, but not whether RoundUp causes cancer. Court documents from the case",
"-25.49391689815093"
],
[
"2002 related to the agency's assessment on its genetically modified cotton. Monsanto told the company to disguise an invoice for the bribe as \"consulting fees\". Monsanto also has admitted to paying bribes to a number of other high-ranking Indonesian officials between 1997 and 2002. On March 5, 2008, the deferred prosecution agreement against Monsanto was dismissed with prejudice (unopposed by the Department of Justice) by the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, thereby indicating that Monsanto had complied fully with the terms of the agreement.\nIn 2014, Monsanto reached a settlement with soft wheat farmers over the 2013 discovery",
"-25.493250584811904"
],
[
"Monsanto. While noting the film's beginning awkwardly with Koons-Garcia's pointing the finger of shame at the political motivation of Monsanto, they concluded it \"gets slightly more hopeful as it goes along\".\nSan Francisco Chronicle wrote the filmmaker \"has taken a complex subject and made it digestible for anyone who cares about what they put into their stomachs,\" but also noted that \"Monsanto will attack Garcia's documentary as a piece of unbalanced journalism\".\nVictoria Gilman of Chemical & Engineering News criticized the lack of balance in the film, noting that Garcia defended farmers being deprived of the ability to raise non-GMO canola oil",
"-25.327835912816226"
],
[
" which have given them an unfair advantage over small farmers. Organizer Canal points to Michael Taylor, a lawyer who has spent the last few decades moving between Monsanto and the FDA and USDA, saying that she believes that US food regulatory agencies are so deeply embedded with Monsanto that it's useless to attempt to affect change through governmental channels. Media coverage The protests were reported on by news outlets including ABC News, the Associated Press, The Washington Post, The Los Angeles Times, USA Today, and CNN (in the United States), and Russia Today and The Guardian (outside",
"-24.91548560571391"
],
[
"of the most toxic in America. Action As a result of CAP's efforts a lawsuit in Alabama was brought against Monsanto.",
"-24.583936202310724"
],
[
"Monsanto in federal court in San Francisco, on behalf of plaintiffs seeking to recover damages for non-Hodgkins lymphoma, that, the plaintiffs allege, were a result of exposure to Monsanto's glyphosate-based herbicide, Roundup. Kennedy and his team also filed a class action lawsuit against Monsanto for failing to warn consumers about the dangers allegedly posed by exposure to Roundup. In September 2018, Kennedy and his partners filed a class-action lawsuit against Columbia Gas of Massachusetts alleging negligence following gas explosions in three towns north of Boston. Of Columbia Gas, Kennedy said “as they build new miles of pipe, the same company",
"-24.346629482111894"
],
[
"the state government to provide pay about Rs 4.5 crore (about one million US$) to indebted farmers in some districts, and because the government blamed Monsanto's seeds for crop failures. The order was later lifted.\nIn 2006, AP tried to convince Monsanto to reduce the price of Bt seeds. Unsatisfied, the state filed several cases against Monsanto and its Mumbai-based licensee, Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds. Research by International Food Policy Research Institute found no evidence supporting an increased suicide rate following the introduction of Bt cotton and that Bt cotton. The report stated that farmer suicides predated commercial introduction in 2002 (and",
"-24.251669983379543"
],
[
"2001 Monsanto Incident Some activities by activists attending the WSF have also been criticised, such as at the WSF 2001, where activists invaded and destroyed an experimental genetically modified plantation of the Monsanto Company.\nOn January 26, 2001 a number of activists with Brazil's Movimento dos Sem-Terra (MST) reacted in protest to the growing role of Monsanto in global agribusiness, which was considered by the group to be unethically using their seed patents to harm the rights of rural peoples, tore up an experimental plot of transgenic crops in Não-me-Toque, 300 km from Porto Alegre, where the World Social Forum was taking",
"-24.23049462219933"
],
[
"to 2011, Monsanto improperly accounted for incentive rebates. The actions inflated Monsanto's reported profit by $31 million over the two years. Monsanto paid $80 million in penalties pursuant to a subsequent settlement with the US Securities and Exchange Commission. Monsanto materially misstated its consolidated earnings in response to losing market share of Roundup to generic producers. Monsanto overhauled its internal controls. Two of their top CPAs were suspended and Monsanto was required to hire, at their expense, an independent ethics/compliance consultant for two years. Alleged ghostwriting controversy A review of glyphosate's carcinogenic potential by four independent expert panels, with a",
"-24.00171079444408"
],
[
"a tech article on the USA Today newspaper mentions an \"unlikely ally\" of the Monsanto Company, the Raëlian Movement of Brazil. The movement gave vocal support in response to the company's support for genetically modified organisms particularly in their country. Brazilian farmers have been using Monsanto's genetically engineered soy plants as well as the Roundup herbicide to which it was artificially adapted. The Raëlians spoke against the Brazilian government's ban on GMOs.\nAnti-war: In 2006, About 30 Raëlians, some topless, took part in an anti-war demonstration in Seoul, South Korea. In 2003, Raëlians in white alien costumes bore",
"-23.947754769556923"
],
[
"stating on her web page that Specter was \"ill informed\" in regard to the shipment after Orissa. She also said that \"for the record, ever since I sued Monsanto in 1999 for its illegal Bt cotton trials in India, I have received death threats\" \"concerted PR assault on me for the last two years from Lynas, Specter and an equally vocal Twitter group is a sign that the global outrage against the control over our seed and food, by Monsanto through GMOs, is making the biotech industry panic.\" David Remnick, the editor of the New Yorker, responded by publishing a",
"-23.89517349829839"
],
[
"Johnson Prize. In an interview in 2008, Goldacre said that \"one of the central themes\" of his book [Bad Science] was \"that there are no real differences between the $600 billion pharmaceutical industry and the $50 billion food supplement pill industry.\" Bad Pharma (2012) His second book, Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients, was published in the UK in September 2012 and in the United States and Canada in February 2013. In the book he argues that:\nDrugs are tested by the people who manufacture them, in poorly designed trials, on hopelessly small numbers of weird, unrepresentative",
"-23.88631154129689"
],
[
"WTVT Whistleblower lawsuit In 1997, Wilson and Akre began work on a story regarding the agricultural biotechnology company Monsanto and recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), a milk additive that had been approved for use by the Food and Drug Administration but also blamed for a number of health issues. Wilson and Akre planned a four-part investigative report on Monsanto's use of rBGH, which prompted Monsanto to write to Roger Ailes, president of Fox News Channel, in an attempt to have the report reviewed for bias and because of the \"enormous damage that can be done\" as a result of",
"-23.33544592166436"
],
[
"was accused of misleading investors of the company's financials.\nIn 2013, after 3 decades of practicing law, Eade began publishing his novels, beginning with An Involuntary Spy, the fictional story of a whistleblower who goes on the run from authorities to warn the public of the dangers of genetically engineered foods, which critics have said has broken wide open the GMO controversy. The benchmark of Eade's novels is that they are based on current events that affect our daily lives. He has written eighteen novels which have been translated into four languages. Television and movies In 2006, Eade produced and",
"-23.322564000758575"
],
[
"committed against humanity under the false promise of 'feeding the world' with toxic GMOs.\" He continued with a statement that he set in boldface: \"that it is the moral right—and even the obligation—of human beings everywhere to actively plan and carry out the killing of those engaged in heinous crimes against humanity.\" A day after the post a website called \"Monsanto Collaborator\" appeared online which listed the names of scientists and journalists who allegedly collaborate with the bio industry; Adams denied creating the website claiming that Monsanto set up the website in order to frame him.",
"-23.277950106043136"
],
[
"have to pay Monsanto their technology-use fee, damages or costs. The court ruled that Schmeiser did not receive any benefit from Monsanto's technology, but still ruled in a 5–4 decision that Monsanto had a valid patent, and that unintentional possession didn't matter, thus Schmeiser infringed on the patent. Schmeiser v. Monsanto On August 11, 1999, Schmeiser filed a separate lawsuit against Monsanto for ten million dollars for \"libel, trespass, and contamination of his fields with Roundup Ready Canola\". As of 2007, Schmeiser had not started to prosecute that lawsuit.\nIn 2002 Schmeiser's wife filed suit against Monsanto for $140 plus costs",
"-23.236353679327294"
],
[
"accused by the committee, which represents the interests of all UK taxpayers, of being \"evil\" for not paying its \"fair amount of tax\". She told Matt Brittin, head of Google UK, \"I think that you do evil\". In 2015, the UK Government introduced a new law intended to penalise Google and other large multinational corporations' artificial tax avoidance.\nIn 2015, The Commercial Appeal reported that \"critics say Google's recent moves belie search giant's motto\".",
"-23.076962747611105"
],
[
"in the interest of obtaining more profits. Consequentially, this friction between the Peasant Movement and Monsanto created unrest among the Haitians. Haitians showed resistance towards the company by burning thousands of pounds of seeds and refusing to use their GMOs. Executive Director Chavannes Jean-Baptiste, who is also the spokesperson for the National Peasant Movement of the Congress of Papaye, called Monsanto’s donation of seeds an attack on small agriculture, farms, biodiversity, Creole seeds, and on the remnants of Haiti’s environment. Monsanto Monsanto is a corporation involved in the bio-tech and agricultural industries. The bio-tech industry is an industry that specializes",
"-23.071427086077165"
],
[
"by 1991.\nThree years later, journalist John Tierney noted Trump \"appears to have ignored some of his own advice\" in the book due to \"well-publicized problems with his banks.\" Trump's self-promotion, best-selling book and media celebrity status led one commentator in 2006 to call him \"a poster-child for the 'greed is good' 1980s.\" (The phrase \"Greed is good\" was from the movie Wall Street, which was released a month after The Art of the Deal.)\nJim Geraghty in the National Review said in 2015 that the book showed \"a much softer, warmer, and probably happier figure than the man dominating the airwaves",
"-22.853930135723203"
],
[
"being condemned for being too successful, too efficient, and too good a competitor. Whatever damage the antitrust laws may have done to our economy, whatever distortions of the structure of the nation's capital they may have created, these are less disastrous than the fact that the effective purpose, the hidden intent, and the actual practice of the antitrust laws in the United States have led to the condemnation of the productive and efficient members of our society because they are productive and efficient.",
"-22.81921681787935"
],
[
"comparison to the IARC assessment, was published in September 2016. Using emails released in August 2017 by plaintiffs' lawyers who are suing Monsanto, Bloomberg Business Week reported that \"Monsanto scientists were heavily involved in organizing, reviewing, and editing drafts submitted by the outside experts.\" A Monsanto spokesperson responded that Monsanto had provided only non-substantive cosmetic copyediting. United States Monsanto regularly lobbied the US government with expenses reaching $8.8 million in 2008 and $6.3 million in 2011. $2 million was spent on matters concerning \"Foreign Agriculture Biotechnology Laws, Regulations, and Trade\". Some US diplomats in Europe at other times worked",
"-22.804565986560192"
],
[
"The jury's verdict addressed the question of whether Monsanto knowingly failed to warn consumers that RoundUp could be harmful, but not whether RoundUp causes cancer. Court documents from the case show the company's efforts to influence scientific research via ghostwriting. After the IARC classified glyphosate as a \"probably carcinogenic to humans\" in 2015, over 300 federal lawsuits have been filed that were consolidated into a multidistrict litigation called In re: RoundUp Products Liability.\nIn March 2019, a man was awarded $80 million in a lawsuit claiming Roundup was a substantial factor in his cancer, resulting in Costco stores discontinuing sales.",
"-22.764452636474743"
],
[
"popular among antigovernment 'Patriots', and to Media Bypass, an antigovernment magazine with strong antisemitic leanings\", and for selling of books such as Des Griffin's Fourth Reich of the Rich and Peter Kershaw's In Caesar's Grip, and recommending The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a well-known antisemitic hoax.\nHovind claims that the cyanide-releasing compound laetrile is a \"cancer cure\" which the U.S. government is conspiring to suppress and that diseases including HIV, Gulf war syndrome, Crohn's colitis, and rheumatoid arthritis and Alzheimer's were engineered by \"the money masters and governments of the world\" for the purpose of global economic domination. ",
"-22.748332945771836"
],
[
"avert the worst effects of climate change.\"\nCanadian academic and environmental activist David Suzuki stated, \"Trump just passed on the best deal the planet has ever seen\". Navroz Dubash of the Centre for Policy Research in New Delhi expressed bafflement at Trump's move, citing the declining costs of renewable energy sources and the increasing difficulty of obtaining investment for fossil-fuel projects. Environmental scientist and risk assessor Dana Nuccitelli stated that it \"now seems inevitable that the history books will view Trump as America's worst-ever president\". Bob Ward of the Grantham Research Institute also described Trump's speech as \"confused nonsense\". Stephen Hawking",
"-22.685556860174984"
],
[
"are underrepresented in the positions with the highest pay. Controversies In 2013, the entire board of the Journal of Library Administration resigned in a dispute over author licensing agreements.\nIn 2016, Critical Reviews in Toxicology was accused by the Center for Public Integrity of being a \"broker of junk science\". Monsanto was found to have worked with an outside consulting firm to induce the journal to publish a biased review of the health effects of its product \"Roundup\".\nIn 2017, Taylor & Francis was strongly criticized for getting rid of the editor-in-chief of International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, who accepted",
"-22.683961230766727"
],
[
"distribution method is suspicious; this is further supported by the inordinate knowledge of the virus had by officials from the US government.\nThough the novel does not explicitly say so, it is implied that globalism has caused many problems. Large multinational corporations have become increasingly socially irresponsible. The Coca-Cola corporation is used as a stand-in for these corporations and it is their irresponsible decisions and the resulting consequences, both intended and unintended, which drive the plot of the novel. A corporate executive is shown propagating a cover up even after he has died and in The City.\nEqually, the",
"-22.65320184922166"
],
[
"dissenting opinion in which she stated that \"I am not altogether convinced that ... the Government’s interest in recovering the proceeds of crime ought to trump the defendant’s (often highly consequential) right to retain counsel of choice\", but ultimately concluded that United States v. Monsanto should control the outcome of the case because Luis never asked the Court to overrule Monsanto in her arguments before the Court. Commentary and analysis In her analysis of the case for SCOTUSblog, Amy Howe wrote that \"it’s not clear how significant the effect of this decision will actually be\" because the government can still",
"-22.586910617828835"
],
[
"banned from the European parliament after the Monsanto refused to attend a parliamentary hearing into allegations of regulatory interference. Haiti After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Monsanto donated $255,000 for disaster relief and 60,000 seed sacks (475 tons) of hybrid (non-GM) corn and vegetable seeds worth $4 million. However, a Catholic Relief Services (CRS) rapid assessment of seed supply and demand for the five most common food security crops found that the Haitians had enough seed and recommended that imported seeds be introduced only on a small scale. Emmanuel Prophete, head of Haiti's Ministry of Agriculture's Service National Semencier (SNS), stated",
"-22.501882301206933"
],
[
"Monsanto filed a lawsuit against its former computer programmer Jiunn-Ren Chen, alleging that he stole files from its systems. As defendant The Public Patent Foundation has unsuccessfully attempted to invalidate several Monsanto patents. In 2006, the foundation filed for ex parte reexamination of four patents, which the United States Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) granted. However, by 2008 the PTO had confirmed the validity of all four patents, with minor amendments to two patents, and allowing new patent claims to issue for the other two patents. In 2011 the Public Patent Foundation filed claims in the Southern District of New",
"-22.4829474495491"
],
[
"the world are struggling to fill their stomachs. And it's getting more and more difficult every day.\"\nLuiz Inácio Lula da Silva gave a strong rebuttal, calling both claims \"fallacies resulting from commercial interests\", and putting the blame instead on U.S. and European agricultural subsidies, and a problem restricted to U.S. ethanol produced from maize. He also said that \"biofuels aren't the villain that threatens food security\". In the middle of this new wave of criticism, Hugo Chavez reaffirmed his opposition and said that he is concerned that \"so much U.S.-produced corn could be used to make biofuel, instead of feeding",
"-22.358652892289683"
],
[
"they would just edit & sign their names so to speak. Recall that is how we handled Williams Kroes & Munro, 2000.\" Advertising controversies The New York Times reported that in 1996, \"Dennis C. Vacco, the Attorney General of New York, ordered the company Monsanto to pull ads that said Roundup was \"safer than table salt\" and \"practically nontoxic\" to mammals, birds and fish. The company withdrew the spots, but also said that the phrase in question was permissible under E.P.A. guidelines.\"\nIn 2001, French environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case against Monsanto for misleading the public about the",
"-22.317649074888323"
],
[
"the World Trade Organization, World Bank and International Monetary Fund. They also call for fair trade, environmental protection, debt forgiveness and more aid. They support the campaign to Make Poverty History. Opposing anti-Americanism The authors stand unambiguously in support of the United States—the country and its people—while still allowing for criticism of its government and foreign policy. While noting that the United States is \"not a model society\", the authors note that it is a strong and stable democracy. In particular they commend America for its \"vibrant culture\". This said, they note that America has in the past supported dictators,",
"-22.266332802711986"
],
[
"and taxation issues regarding the new American giants. There is fear that they are significantly evading taxes, and posting information that may violate European privacy laws. The Wall Street Journal in 2015 reported \"deep concerns in Europe's highest policy circles about the power of U.S. technology companies.\" Mitigation of anti-Americanism Sometimes developments help neutralize anti-Americanism. In 2015, the United States Department of Justice went on the attack against corruption at FIFA, arresting many top world soccer leaders long suspected of bribery and corruption. In this case the U.S. government's self-defined role as \"policeman of the world\" won widespread international support.",
"-22.251542722593513"
],
[
"Arkansas to stop the ban; this lawsuit was dismissed in February 2018. Other legal actions In 2005, the US DOJ filed a Deferred Prosecution Agreement in which Monsanto admitted to violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (15 U.S.C. § 78dd-1) and making false entries into its books and records (15 U.S.C § 78m(b)(2) & (5)). Monsanto also agreed to pay a $1.5 million fine. The case involved bribes paid to an Indonesian official. Monsanto admitted a senior manager at Monsanto directed an Indonesian consulting firm to give a $50,000 bribe to a high-level official in Indonesia's environment ministry in",
"-22.0879087523208"
],
[
"positive thinking and can-do haziness – specific details cost extra.\"\nThe Intercept wrote critically of the book's advice, including the recommendation by Trump and Kiyosaki to invest in multi-level marketing companies, asserting instead that these are harmful pyramid schemes. The Intercept contrasted assertions in the book with promises by Trump during his 2016 campaign for president, writing Trump's later views were contradictory with the work. San Antonio Express-News was critical of the contradictory advice imparted in the book, writing, \"Trump and Kiyosaki argued that because they were already rich, they had no need to make more money, all the while cashing",
"-21.843588895979337"
],
[
"purchased by OMICS Publishing Group, which is considered a predatory and junk science publisher. OMICS is being sued by FTC. FTC has alleged that OMICS \"misrepresented the legitimacy of its publications, deceived researchers, and obfuscated sizeable publication fee.\" Pulsus Group has been on Jeffrey Beall's list of \"Potential, possible, or probable\" predatory open-access publishers. Tax Canada has a very high rate of tax evasion. Individuals and companies with high net worths use offshore tax havens to illegally avoid paying tax. Canadians have $170 billion sitting in the world's top ten tax-haven countries. Canadian federal and provincial governments lose an estimated",
"-21.81963698209438"
],
[
"confident that the jury will conclude, as two other juries have found in similar cases, that the former Monsanto Company is not responsible for the alleged injuries,” a Monsanto statement said.\nIn May 2016, A Missouri state jury ordered Monsanto to pay $46.5 million in a case where 3 plaintiffs claimed PCB exposure caused non-Hodgkin lymphoma.\nIn December 2016, the state of Washington filed suit in King County. The state sought damages and clean up costs related to PCBs. In March 2018 Ohio Attorney General Mike DeWine also filed a lawsuit against Monsanto over health issues posed by PCBs. Alachlor Alachlor is",
"-21.751297156522924"
],
[
"quickly they spent their illegal proceeds. Kagan agreed with Kennedy that the court's decision created inequity and drew an arbitrary distinction, but further opined that Monsanto might have been wrongly decided. Kagan suggested she would be willing to overturn such precedent in the future, but declined to do so in the case at bar because Luis had not sought that relief. Her vote thus rested on procedural grounds while she expressed skepticism that the government should be able to freeze the assets of a criminal defendant not yet convicted, and thus still benefiting from the presumption of innocence, with a",
"-21.740982809395064"
],
[
"is present and a market will often either under-produce a product with a positive externalisation or overproduce a product that generates a negative externalisation. Air pollution, for instance, is a negative externalisation that cannot be easily incorporated into markets as the world's air is not owned and then sold for use to polluters. So too much pollution could be emitted and people not involved in the production pay the cost of the pollution instead of the firm that initially emitted the air pollution. Critics of market failure theory, like Ronald Coase, Harold Demsetz and James M. Buchanan, argue that government",
"-21.68681331397238"
],
[
"for a B.A and the Ohio State University for a law degree.\nIn an oral history, EPA Administrator William K. Reilly described Fisher as one of his ablest people, proving to be a star as his Assistant Administrator for Toxics and Pesticides. Publicity Fisher was mentioned in the documentary Circle of Poison (2018) reporting the export of chemical products manufactured in the US for export that are banned from domestic use. \nFisher was mentioned in the documentary The Future of Food (2004) as an example of a revolving door between Monsanto and the government.",
"-21.667374535114504"
],
[
"October 2011 edition, the magazine criticised Apple Inc. for their poor philanthropy records. The magazine's April 2012 edition was dedicated to the Democratic Republic of the Congo with an in-depth report on the humanitarian situation in the country. Environmental concerns Despite its \"print-like\" content and popularity, GSDM, reportedly, is not planning to issue the magazine's paper version mostly due to their commitment to environmentally friendly activities and concerns.",
"-21.573672369559063"
],
[
"from \"business leaders\" in The New York Times stating \"If we fail to act now, it is scientifically irrefutable that there will be catastrophic and irreversible consequences for humanity and our planet\" and encouraging \"investment in the clean energy economy\" to \"create new energy jobs and increase our energy security\".\nAlthough \"not a believer in climate change,\" Trump has stated that \"clean air is a pressing problem\" and has said: \"There is still much that needs to be investigated in the field of climate change. Perhaps the best use of our limited financial resources should be in dealing with making sure",
"-21.548584571835818"
],
[
"the distribution of illegal drugs which gives them more economic power, thus making it easier for them to potentially overthrow governments.\nIn this interview he also expressed his belief that currently, the global market is the largest force shaping the lives of people throughout the world. For this reason, he believes that the most effective way to solve social problems in individual countries is to address them at a global level by changing the policies dictating the global market. He explained that since most people are not given the power to directly change these policies, the most effective way to bring",
"-21.5265141876298"
],
[
"markets as the world's air is not owned and then sold for use to polluters. So, too much pollution could be emitted and people not involved in the production pay the cost of the pollution instead of the firm that initially emitted the air pollution. Critics of market failure theory, like Ronald Coase, Harold Demsetz, and James M. Buchanan argue that government programs and policies also fall short of absolute perfection. In this view, market failures are often small, and government failures are sometimes large. It is therefore the case that imperfect markets are often better than imperfect governmental alternatives.",
"-21.508485494130582"
],
[
"she \"didn't put the language in the bill and doesn't support it either\".\nSen. Bernie Sanders vowed to continue fighting for GMO labeling and for a defeat of the provision by not allowing it back into law after its expiration. In a May 28, 2013 interview with CNN's Jake Tapper, Sanders claimed there were \"about 27 states in this country that are moving forward on the labeling of GMO food\", saying this showed the \"momentum is with us\". He went on to say, \"Essentially, what that Monsanto Protection Act rider said is that even if a court were to determine that",
"-21.41652579692891"
],
[
"one of the great dangers we face, and it's one we can prevent if we act now. By denying the evidence for climate change, and pulling out of the Paris Agreement, Donald Trump will cause avoidable environmental damage to our beautiful planet, endangering the natural world, for us and our children.\" Hawking further stated that this could lead Earth \"to become like Venus, with a temperature of two hundred and fifty degrees, and raining sulphuric acid\". Appearances in popular media In 1988, Hawking, Arthur C. Clarke and Carl Sagan were interviewed in God, the Universe and Everything Else. They discussed",
"-21.381792488857172"
],
[
"the United States to retain broad antidumping attributes and does not control the damage of billions of dollars in distorted agricultural subsidies.”",
"-21.359834128175862"
],
[
"replaced it with a new one. He also took five percent of the entire tax income – the equivalent of billions of pounds in today's world – and spent it on his personal wine cellar, while many people within the country were suffering from starvation and plague. This guy definitely wasn't that nice a guy, and if you write that down he sounds really evil. Does history paint him as being really evil? Not really, it paints him as being a bit of a jolly chap who was quite infatuated with six women. That's fascinating inspiration and we really want",
"-21.311716102762148"
],
[
"producers would also oppose it, because it would increase their costs and possibly reduce their consumer base.\nAnother tax that the UN might promote would be some sort of global resources dividend. Human rights reform The United Nations Commission on Human Rights came under fire during its existence for the high-profile positions it gave to member states that did not guarantee the human rights of their own citizens. Several nations known to have been guilty of gross violations of human rights became members of the organization, such as Libya, Cuba, Sudan, Algeria, China, Azerbaijan and Vietnam. Meanwhile, the United States was",
"-21.302931259648176"
],
[
"official at the Environmental Protection Agency had worked to quash a review of Roundup’s main ingredient, glyphosate, that was to have been conducted by the United States Department of Health and Human Services.\" The records show that Monsanto was able to prepare \"a public relations assault\" on the finding after they were alerted to the determination by Jess Rowland, the head of the EPA's cancer assessment review committee at that time, months in advance. Emails also showed that Rowland \"had promised to beat back an effort by the Department of Health and Human Services to conduct its",
"-21.267298088700045"
],
[
"offered Haiti's citizens 475 tons of seeds for farmers to regrow these crops that were destroyed in the process. Haitian farmers and citizens of the Papaye Peasant Movement, an alliance of people who fight to provide unity of all the peasants of Haiti and promote cultural and economic growth, did not consider this to be helpful, according to the film. The Haitian peasants believed that Monsanto had ulterior motives. Monsanto is a well known corporation in the United States known for their involvement in the agricultural industry, however, the Haitian's believed their gratuities were only due to corporate greed and",
"-21.2378729400225"
],
[
"Trump said he was worth at least $2.7 billion at the time, and sought $2.5 billion in compensatory damages and an additional $2.5 billion in punitive damages.\nTrump called the book \"terribly written\" and said, \"Rather than sitting back and letting false statements be published without challenge, I believe it is important to expose irresponsible, malicious and false reporting. The writer and publisher of this book knew full well that their statements were false and malicious, but in hopes of generating book sales, they did not care. In so doing, they exposed themselves to this lawsuit.\" Trump's attorneys stated: \"The obvious",
"-21.1403313538176"
],
[
"so when they write purposely negative and horrible and false articles, we can sue them and win lots of money\". Trump specifically alleged that reporting about him by The New York Times and The Washington Post has included falsehoods. Trump says the media \"put false meaning into the words I say\", and says he does not mind being criticized by the media as long as they are honest about it.\nAfter Trump won the nomination, historians Fredrik Logevall and Kenneth Osgood noted that, \"Hardly a day passes without some columnist comparing Donald J. Trump to Huey Long, Father Coughlin or George",
"-21.0367379854124"
],
[
"and Greenpeace International had sued Olivier Vermont and his publisher Albin Michel for issuing \"defamatory statements, untruths, distortions of the facts and absurd allegations\".\nWriting in Cosmos, journalist Wilson da Silva reacted to Greenpeace's destruction of a genetically modified wheat crop in Ginninderra as another sign that the organization has \"lost its way\" and had degenerated into a \"sad, dogmatic, reactionary phalanx of anti-science zealots who care not for evidence, but for publicity\". Brent Spar tanker Research published in natural science journal Nature accused Greenpeace of not caring for facts, when it criticized the dumping of the Brent Spar tanker, and",
"-21.034666619582254"
],
[
"O'Reilly said of Soros \"If Mike Myers didn't invent Dr. Evil, some would give Soros that moniker.\" O'Reilly also accused Media Matters for America of receiving funds from Soros; although Media Matters denies having any funding directly or indirectly from Soros, he and the group's founder, David Brock, have raised money together to fund political advertisements challenging John McCain in the 2008 election for what politico.com called \"attack ads\". O'Reilly responded to the politico report by labeling Soros, Brock and Paul Begala an \"American axis of evil\" and saying \nThis, ladies and gentlemen, is ultra dangerous. Most Americans have",
"-21.011346838946338"
],
[
"all environmental harm is actually due to a small number of organized producers. Contrary to the notion that environmental protection is bad for the economy and jobs, the worst sources of environmental harm are commonly due to a surprisingly small fraction of all economic activity—and to an even smaller fraction of the jobs. In the first peer-reviewed article in which this perspective was spelled out, for example, Freudenburg found that the majority of all toxic emissions in the U.S. economy came from industries that were responsible for only about 5% of the gross national product—and just 1.4% of the nation's",
"-21.002896238293033"
],
[
"was involved in a long-running court case over the destruction of a field of rapeseed at the Roslin Institute near Dalkeith in 1999. [Although initially found guilty of \"wilfully and recklessly\" destroying plants belonging to Monsanto Company, all charges were quashed due to a delay in the hearing of the appeal, which Mr Ballard claimed was because the Crown was unable to provide relevant evidence.\nHe holds membership of a large number of organisations listed in his Register of Interest as Friends of the Earth, Sustrans, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Democratic Left Scotland, Reforesting Scotland, Water of Leith Conservation Trust, Friends",
"-20.979725895798765"
],
[
"million to Trump's presidential inauguration. In 2017, the Associated Press reported that Dow was pressuring the Trump administration to ignore risk assessment studies about the harms of pesticides. Writing Liveris is the author of Make it in America : the case for re-inventing the economy (first published 2011, updated 2012). Liveris argues that a healthy manufacturing sector is essential to creating jobs. Failing to support American manufacturing, as well as research and development, undermines America's potential to engage in new growth sectors such as clean energy and nanotechnology.. Memberships Liveris serves on the board of directors of the battery company",
"-20.97281563433353"
],
[
"his bloodstream.\nBetimes, Alachlor was prohibited by the French government in November 2007. Formal recognition of hazard An employment tribunal formally recognised in 2010 that François in fact had been poisoned. Trial division The Monsanto product with which François was poisoned is known commercially as Lasso.\nIn December 2011, final arguments to the court were heard.\nIn February 2012, the Tribunal de Grande Instance of Lyon condemned Monsanto to pay damages to François. Appeal division In 2015 at the appeal court, Monsanto lawyers repeatedly refused to concede that their product was toxic and that the damages owed were fictitious.\nMonsanto is fighting a nasty",
"-20.944584588025464"
],
[
"incapable of accurately perceiving the world. However, according to Kathleen Hall Jamieson of Annenberg Public Policy Center, the term could backfire on Trump supporters because people might interpret it to mean that Trump is the one who is \"deranged\", rather than those who criticize him. Some Trump supporters have asserted that he plays a form of \"multi-dimensional chess\" on a mental level that his critics cannot comprehend, which they say explains why critics are frustrated and confused by Trump's words and actions. Fox News anchor Bret Baier and former House speaker Paul Ryan have characterized Trump as a \"troll\" who",
"-20.921215826179832"
],
[
"regulated by international institutions there could be an adverse effect. It is because the international institutions such as IMF, WTO, and World Bank lack transparency and accountability. Without government oversight, they reach decisions without public debate and resolve trade disputes involving \"uncompetitive\" or \"onerous\" environmental, labor, and capital laws in secret tribunals—without appeal to a nation's courts.\nIn East Asia's financial crisis, Russia's failed conversion to a market economy, failed development in sub-Saharan Africa, and financial meltdown in Argentina, Stiglitz argues that IMF policies contributed to a disaster: It failed to promote productive investment opportunities and demand for credit of quality;",
"-20.89215711329598"
],
[
"has \"caused instability and extremism and stuck in a quagmire\" in Yemen.\nIn October 2018, the economist Paul Krugman argued \"[t]here's a new axis of evil: Russia, Saudi Arabia — and the United States\", the three countries that declined to endorse the United Nation's latest climate study at the 2018 United Nations Climate Change Conference.\nIn November 2018, U.S. National Security Advisor John Bolton referred to Cuba, Venezuela and Nicaragua as a \"troika of tyranny\" in Latin America. Bill Bailey British Comedian Bill Bailey also referred to the Axis of Evil in his Part Troll tour. He queried whether it was possible",
"-20.864442069199868"
],
[
"with over 6 million copies sold.\nIn August 2015, Russia's Yekaterinburg region considered the banning of Beevor's books, accusing him of Nazi sympathies, citing his lack of Russian sources when writing about Russia, and claiming he had promoted false stereotypes introduced by Nazi Germany during World War II. Beevor responded by calling the banning \"a government trying to impose its own version of history\", comparing it to other \"attempts to dictate a truth\", such as denial of the Holocaust and the Armenian Genocide.\nIn January 2018, Beevor's book about the Battle of Stalingrad was banned in Ukraine. Beevor told RFE/RL: \"I must",
"-20.83716125326464"
],
[
"Falkenberg (Director General for the Environment) asking for these criteria to be removed. As of 2015, 82 pesticides used in the US were banned in Europe and US animal welfare standards are generally lower than those in Europe.\nA columnist in The Guardian stated that food safety in the EU might be compromised because of low or different standards in US food regulations, if currently EU-banned food were allowed to be imported. In June 2015, the BBC reported that food safety had become 'a stumbling block' because of differing US and EU attitudes to genetically modified crops, pesticides (endocrine disrupting chemicals),",
"-20.834539676841814"
],
[
"remains uncompetitive without more subsidies.\" In another review, science policy writer Jon Turney stated that the \"strongest suit\" of the book was \"energy economics and supply data\".\nNew York Times' Matthew L. Wald analyzes the argument put forth in the Doomsday Machine that \"even if global warming science was not explicitly invented by the nuclear lobby, the science could hardly suit the lobby better\". He comments, \"In fact, the [nuclear] industry continues to argue that in the United States it is by far the largest source of zero-carbon energy, and recently began a campaign of upbeat ads to improve its image.\"",
"-20.808428808224562"
],
[
"Monsanto. ... Our policy is that he should have disclosed that information. We apologize to our readers.\nAfter the story was published, Fumento acknowledged that he benefited from Monsanto's grant to Hudson:\nIt was a $60,000 book grant to my employer, solicited back in 1999, which was applied to pre-established salary and benefits.\nHowever, Fumento said Scripps Howard had no such policy and that the syndicate canceled his column upon receiving a phone call from Javers, without consulting him. Moreover, such a policy wouldn't make sense, he said, because it presumes once you've benefited from a grant you are considered forever in the",
"-20.79018406313844"
],
[
"Earth International and Greenpeace, as well as the Green Party of Canada, have dubbed Australia, Canada and United States, the \"Axis of Environmental Evil\" because of their lack of support for international environmental agreements, particularly those related to climate change.\nDuring a March 2018 interview with the Egyptian media, Saudi Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman referred Iran, Turkey and Islamist organizations such as ISIL and the Muslim Brotherhood as the \"triangle of evil\", to describe their current policies in the Middle East. Those remarks were later dismissed by Iran, describing it as \"childish\" and said that Saudi Arabia's intervention in Yemen",
"-20.780498009175062"
],
[
"encourage overproduction of goods such as tomatoes or sugar, which are then sold cheaply or 'dumped' in poor countries. Local farmers cannot sell their goods as cheaply and go out of business.\nThe campaign points to the treatment of agriculture at the WTO, which has institutionalised these injustices. In the few instances where developing countries have used the complex and expensive WTO process to declare subsidies (e.g. US cotton subsidies) excessive, developed countries ignore these rulings, which the WTO itself does not enforce. Recently rich countries have begun to talk about cutting export subsidies, but they often demand greater access to",
"-20.768158783961553"
],
[
"it will have major implications on the freedom of scientists, researchers and other commentators to engage in robust criticism of scientific and pseudo-scientific work.\" The Defamation Act 2013 substantially reformed the law.\nIn 2008, Dawkins pointed out major factual errors in The Atlas of Creation, such as images of fishing lures mislabeled as insects, and subsequently his website has been banned in Turkey and Pakistan. Dawkins gave a speech at the 2012 Jaipur Literature Festival where a video link with Salman Rushdie was cancelled due to ongoing controversy over the Rushdie affair. He has given a high appraisal of Nick Cohen's",
"-20.744107240141602"
],
[
"of Agriculture and the Environment. Stanley Greenberg, an election advisor to Tony Blair, later worked as a Monsanto consultant. Former Labour spokesperson David Hill, became Monsanto's media adviser at the lobbying firm Bell Pottinger. The Labour government was challenged in Parliament about \"trips, facilities, gifts and other offerings of financial value provided by Monsanto to civil servants\", but only acknowledged that Department of Trade and Industry had two working lunches with Monsanto. Peter Luff, then a Conservative Party MP and Chairman of the Agriculture Select Committee, received up to £10,000 a year from Bell Pottinger on behalf of Monsanto. European",
"-20.71981628361391"
],
[
"is viewed.\nMultiple real-world policies have been said to be affected by this bias. In American federal policy, the Delaney clause outlawing cancer-causing additives from foods (regardless of actual risk) and the desire for perfect cleanup of Superfund sites have been alleged to be overly focused on complete elimination. Furthermore, the effort needed to implement zero-risk laws grew as technological advances enabled the detection of smaller quantities of hazardous substances. Limited resources were increasingly being devoted to low-risk issues.\nCritics of the zero-risk bias model cite that it has the tendency to neglect overall risk reduction. For instance, when eliminating two side",
"-20.714844321482815"
],
[
"is bad does come from capitalism, but that can be corrected by appropriate government regulations, and by the generous government provision of important services and safety nets. But a lot of what is good and indispensable comes from capitalism too”.\nBergmann studied microsimulation at Harvard University with computer generated simulation that provided a model with equations of macrovariables constructed on analogies of microeconomics. She believes that microsimulation provides “rigor, realism, and an ability to incorporate complexitys revealed by more empirical investigations into the workings of business.” In a class with Professor Edward Chamberlin at Harvard, Bergmann discovered that economic theory,",
"-20.70282799427514"
],
[
"were otherwise inappropriate.... I believe that Mr. Taylor's behavior adhered to all applicable ethical standards.' Kessler said that Taylor had not been 'intimately' involved in Monsanto's efforts to obtain approval, as Rifkin charged, and that he was involved in the FDA's bST policy only in the final stages of review. Kessler attached a nine-page memo by FDA ethics official Jack M. Kress supporting that position. Upon arriving at the FDA in the summer of 1991, Taylor recused himself for one year from taking part in any agency action dealing directly with Monsanto or any other King and Spalding clients.\"",
"-20.595873256679624"
],
[
"newspapers from 47 countries simultaneously published a joint editorial expressing their views on climate change in order to promote awareness of the problem. He wrote, \"[w]hatever you think about global warming and whether humans are responsible, I think we have to salute this remarkable feat of international cooperation.\" Dawkins has also stated that he accepts that global warming is a threat to the human species. Dawkins has also commended Al Gore's documentary An Inconvenient Truth and in response to the question \"Is global warming a threat to the human species?\" has replied:\n\"Yes. You could say that the human species is",
"-20.508913038880564"
],
[
"criticized Trump, saying that he \"will cause avoidable environmental damage to our beautiful planet, endangering the natural world, for us and our children.\"\nEnvironmental groups, such as the Sierra Club and Natural Resources Defense Council, condemned Trump's decision. American environmentalist and writer Bill McKibben, the founder of the climate change action group 350.org, called the move \"a stupid and reckless decision—our nation's dumbest act since launching the war in Iraq.\" McKibben wrote that Trump's decision to withdraw amounted \"to a thorough repudiation of two of the civilizing forces on our planet: diplomacy and science.\" He called upon U.S. states and cities",
"-20.49049961240962"
],
[
"relaunched the following year.\nIn May 1999 a ruling against Nestlé was issued by the UK Advertising Standards Authority (ASA). Nestlé claimed in an anti-boycott advertisement that it markets infant formula \"ethically and responsibly\". The ASA found that Nestlé could not support this nor other claims in the face of evidence provided by the campaigning group Baby Milk Action.\nIn November 2000 the European Parliament invited IBFAN, UNICEF, and Nestlé to present evidence to a Public Hearing before the Development and Cooperation Committee. Evidence was presented by the IBFAN group from Pakistan and UNICEF's legal officer commented on Nestlé's failure to bring",
"-20.48514494972187"
],
[
"no blockbusters that would constitute political damage. A Clinton spokesman said, \"Is it possible to be quoted yawning?\" and that, \"these books are nothing more than cash for rehash.\" Media Matters for America had no major objections to it compared to Her Way, aside from criticizing Bernstein on some grounds, such as falsely claiming during interviews for the book that he had revealed that Clinton had failed the D. C. Bar Exam, when in fact she had revealed it herself four years prior.\nThe general consensus was that while the Gerth-Van Natta book was a little on the negative side",
"-20.4299272733042"
],
[
"industry, in the long-run they may prove to have unethical, negative effects. Subsidies are intended to support public interest, however, they can violate ethical or legal principles if they lead to higher consumer prices or discriminate against some producers to benefit others. For example, domestic subsidies granted by individual US states may be unconstitutional if they discriminate against out-of-state producers, violating the Privileges and Immunities Clause or the Dormant Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. Depending on their nature, subsidies are discouraged by international trade agreements such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). This trend, however, may change in",
"-20.407302102037534"
],
[
"Britain until 2014, when it was released under the title of Pandaleaks, after a series of injunctions and court orders. The book criticizes WWF for its supposed involvement with corporations that are responsible for large-scale destruction of the environment, such as Coca-Cola, and gives details into the existence of the secret 1001 Club, whose members, Huismann claims, continue to have an unhealthy influence on WWF's policy making. WWF has sought to deny the allegations made against it. Human rights abuses by paramilitaries In 2017, a report by Survival International claimed that WWF-funded paramilitaries are not only committing abuses against the",
"-20.394713976595085"
],
[
"grounds that it did not harm consumers. Running through the different critiques of US antitrust policy is the common theme that government interference in the operation of free markets does more harm than good. \"The only cure for bad theory\", writes Bork, \"is better theory\". The late Harvard Law School Professor Phillip Areeda, who favours more aggressive antitrust policy, in at least one Supreme Court case challenged Robert Bork's preference for non intervention. Policy developments Anti-cartel enforcement is a key focus of competition law enforcement policy. In the United States the Antitrust Criminal Penalty Enhancement and Reform Act 2004 raised",
"-20.36692169762682"
],
[
"can make it on his own. Misunderstanding Erik's motives, Andy accuses Erik of being too good to take his money, as it was made through the production of biological weapons. Although Andy admits that he knew that the research was likely unethical, his wife, Esther, brushes off his guilt and says that the money kept their daughter alive long enough to give birth to Eric. Meanwhile, the situation in the Middle East worsens considerably. Biological weapons are at first rumored to have been deployed, then proven. Although the United States urges calm, Europe suffers massive",
"-20.358504421368707"
],
[
"GMOs were \"a conspiracy by Jewish Multinational Companies and Israel for world domination\" while a Latvian study showed that a segment of the population of that country believed that GMOs were part of a greater conspiracy theory to poison the population of the country.\n\nA study of media rhetorical devices used in Hunan, China found that the news articles that were opposed to trials of golden rice promoted conspiracy theories \"including the view that the West was using genetic engineering to establish global control over agriculture and that GM products were instruments for genocide\". Likewise, a study of the rhetoric used",
"-20.344012793822912"
],
[
"dump was released by WikiLeaks.\" Regarding the Trump-Russia investigation, Maddow said: \"If the Trump presidency is knowingly the product of a foreign-intelligence operation, that is a full-stop national crisis.\" Concerning \"alternative facts\" and fake news, Maddow said: \"The president denigrating the press is important in terms of his behavior as an increasingly authoritarian-style leader, period.\"\nFollowing the October 2018 murder of Saudi Arabian dissident journalist and Washington Post columnist Jamal Khashoggi, Maddow argued that Donald Trump's business ties to Saudi Arabia are raising some troubling questions.\nIn December 2018, Maddow criticized President Trump's decision to withdraw U.S. troops from Syria. Personal life",
"-20.33876964575029"
],
[
"argued that the real dangers are due to the world's current social institutions that claim to promote environmentally irresponsible consumption and production. Under what they call the \"grow or die\" imperative of capitalism, they say there is little reason to expect hazardous consumption and production practices to change in a timely manner. They also claim that markets and states invariably drag their feet on substantive environmental reform and are notoriously slow to adopt viable sustainable technologies. Immanuel Wallerstein, referring to the externalization of costs as the \"dirty secret\" of capitalism, claims that there are built-in limits to ecological reform and",
"-20.300360204681056"
],
[
"exclusive global marketing rights to at least one Harry Potter movie and subsequently enticing children to drink more soft drinks, a move criticised by the Center for Science in the Public Interest.\nOn August 9, 2015 the New York Times published an article that revealed that Coca-Cola had made a large investment to the non-profit called the Global Energy Balance Network, which promoted a scientific solution to the obesity crisis, which was that more exercise rather than cutting back on calories was the way to maintain a healthy weight. Health experts stated that the non-profit's message was misleading and part",
"-20.292081124149263"
],
[
"the profit of your greedy companies and industries.\nAyman al-Zawahiri, Osama bin Laden's aide, said global warming reflected \nhow brutal and greedy the Western Crusader world is, with America at its top \nBin Laden has also called for a boycott of American goods and the destruction of the American economy as a way of fighting global warming. Technology On the subject of technology, bin Laden is said to have ambivalent feelings –being interested in \"earth-moving machinery and genetic engineering of plants, on the one hand,\" but rejecting \"chilled water on the other.\" In Afghanistan, his sons' education reportedly eschewed the arts",
"-20.290218050358817"
],
[
"Trump plagiarized Obama's cake.\nThe matter raised the profile of copyright questions about cakes.",
"-20.217740535386838"
],
[
"sharply critical of the use of drones, calling them a human rights violation and an \"illegal assassination program\" saying that they are \"off target nine times out of ten.\" She has also been critical of America's \"expanding wars\" and accused the United States of currently \"bombing seven countries,\" which Politifact rated as a true statement.\nStein is against the construction of Israeli settlements in the Jordan Valley and wants to end the occupation of the West Bank. Stein has accused the Israeli government of \"apartheid, assassination, illegal settlements, blockades, building of nuclear bombs, indefinite detention, collective punishment, and defiance of international",
"-20.204811148083536"
],
[
"in 2005. The book was criticized for containing no natural cures. Trudeau claimed that he was not able to include them because of threats by the FTC. The book became a bestseller selling 5 million copies.\nTwo years later, Trudeau published a second medical book titled More Natural Cures Revealed: Previously Censored Brand Name Products That Cure Disease (ISBN 0-9755995-4-2). According to Trudeau, the book identifies brand name products that will cure myriad illnesses. Trudeau's books claim that animals in the wild rarely develop degenerative conditions like cancer or Alzheimer's disease, and that many diseases are caused not by viruses or bacteria,",
"-20.2033546240782"
],
[
"required to introduce wide-ranging reforms - increasing transparency, reducing corruption and raising the quality of its output\". But it warned that \"in the short term, this will cause a great deal of pain and disruption\".\nAs of 2016, tariff-free quotas for the export of most agricultural products to the EU were very small. Russia On 29 July 2013 Russia banned the import of chocolate products made by the Ukrainian company Roshen and asked Belarus and Kazakhstan to follow suit. A Russian sanitary official stated that the company had not met quality and safety standards, but critics alleged that the ban was",
"-20.203247715573525"
],
[
"the Bush and Obama administration instituted Buy American Act clause as party of massive stimulus package, which was designed to favor American-made goods over traded goods. Likewise, the EU has imposed new subsidies to protect their agricultural sectors for their own protection. These movements of deglobalization can be seen as the example of how developed nations react to the Financial crisis of 2007–08 through deglobalization movements.\nRecently a change in the pattern of anti-globalism has been observed: anti-globalism now has a strong foothold in the Global North and among right-wing (conservative) politicians, with much different attitudes in the Global South, particular",
"-20.148848588840337"
]
] |
qipko | How do you know something is done/said by Anonymous, when they are, by definition, anonymous? Can anyone do stuff/say things on behalf of Abobynous, or do they somehow have a recognized leadership who are not anonymous to each other/their members? | [
"Any unknown person can do or say things in the name of Anonymous. That's why you basically have to ignore everything Anonymous says they will do, and only look at what they actually do. There's no leadership, but there are I believe certain core groups who know one another by persistent pseudonyms, and may possibly know one another afk. They are probably disproportionately influential, in that they run widely-subscribed youtube/twitter/whatever accounts which play a significant role in getting messages out to the rest of Anonymous, but they aren't leadership in any classical sense of the word.",
"Abobynous. I shall henceforth be replacing anonymous with this wonderful word.",
"We are Abobynous We are begion We do not borgive We do not borget Bexpect us",
"It's essentially an organization with a [phantom cell structure]( URL_0 ).",
"Somewhat tangential, but perhaps this could alleviate some confusion you may have. A lot of people argue about the idea that anyone that *says* they're Anonymous automatically *is* Anonymous. \"So does that mean that if an FBI says he's Anonymous, he actually *is*?\" Some people insist that he would be. This is nonsense. It's pretty much just propaganda, chosen to make it look like Anonymous is legion, and also because it just sounds cool. I'd say you are Anonymous if you fulfill two criteria. 1. You understand--to some unspecified amount--what Anonymous *is*. 2. You *identify* as part of Anonymous. 1\\. makes it so my mom--who can't even use a computer nor understand the history of Anonymous or even what they stand for--can't call herself Anonymous just because she saw a brief newsreport on them and their support for OWS. You need to have a somewhat decent understanding of who they are. It just goes without saying. 2\\. makes it so that FBI agents and such do not instantly become Anonymous just because they *say* they are. You become Anonymous if you *feel* you are. You can lie and say you're not Anonymous and still be an Anon. A fed can lie and say he's Anon when he's working to subvert Anon. This is the same basic criteria to fit into pretty much any subculture. Someone can feel that they are a goth even if they never wear goth clothing or listen to goth music. As long as they understand what a goth is and think they're one of them, I'd argue that they are one."
] | [
[
"our society as a whole. David Davenport, an assistant professor in the Computer Engineering Department of Bilkent University in Ankara, Turkey, considers that by allowing anonymous Net communication, the fabric of our society is at risk. \"Accountability requires those responsible for any misconduct be identified and brought to justice. However, if people remain anonymous, by definition, they cannot be identified, making it impossible to hold them accountable.\" he says. Anonymous (group) Anonymous (used as a mass noun) is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. A website nominally associated with the group describes it as \"an internet",
"-32.250642388776555"
],
[
"people, working together and doing things together for various purposes.\"\nThe group's few rules include not disclosing one's identity, not talking about the group, and not attacking media. Members commonly use the tagline \"We are Anonymous. We are Legion. We do not forgive. We do not forget. Expect us.\" Brian Kelly writes that three of the group's key characteristics are \"(1) an unrelenting moral stance on issues and rights, regardless of direct provocation; (2) a physical presence that accompanies\nonline hacking activity; and (3) a distinctive brand.\"\nJournalists have commented that Anonymous' secrecy, fabrications, and media awareness pose an unusual challenge for reporting",
"-31.198431564009297"
],
[
"Anonymous work Description In the United States, anonymous work is legally defined as \"a work on the copies or phonorecords of which no natural person is identified as author.\" Explanations In the case of very old works, the author's name may simply be lost over the course of history and time. In such cases the author is often referred to as Anonymus, the Latin form of \"anonymous\". In other cases, the creator's name is intentionally kept secret. The author's reasons may vary from fear of persecution to protection of his or her reputation. Legal reasons may also bar",
"-30.90733394245035"
],
[
"we wish, that we wouldn't be able to do in regular society. ...That's more or less the point of it. Do as you wish. ... There's a common phrase: 'we are doing it for the lulz.'\n— Trent Peacock. Search Engine: The Face of Anonymous, February 7, 2008.\nBecause Anonymous has no leadership, no action can be attributed to the membership as a whole. Parmy Olson and others have criticized media coverage that presents the group as well-organized or homogeneous; Olson writes, \"There was no single leader pulling the levers, but a few organizational minds that sometimes pooled together to start planning a",
"-30.725384852281422"
],
[
"When it is necessary to refer to someone who is anonymous, it is typically necessary to create a type of pseudo-identification for that person. In literature, the most common way to state that the identity of an author is unknown is to refer to them as simply \"Anonymous\". This is usually the case with older texts in which the author is long dead and unable to claim authorship of a work. When the work claims to be that of some famous author the pseudonymous author is identified as \"Pseudo-\", as in Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, an author claiming—and long believed—to be",
"-30.416780857776757"
],
[
"Anonymous (group) Philosophy Long-standing political question that has gone unanswered with often tragic consequences for social movements. This is an Internet-based, non-extremist, socialist community movement that looks for answers to questions that are unanswered.\nInternal dissent is also a regular feature of the group. A website associated with the group describes it as \"an Internet gathering\" with \"a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives\". Gabriella Coleman writes of the group: \"In some ways, it may be impossible to gauge the intent and motive of thousands of participants, many of who don't even bother to",
"-30.26735109735455"
],
[
"or opinion is true or not; and whether the information or opinion is recorded in a material form or not. [emphasis added]\nThis raises the question of reasonableness: assume it is theoretically possible to identify a person from information which does not include a name or address, but does contain clues which could be pursued to find out who it relates to. How much extra effort does it take to make it unreasonable that such information could be identified? For instance, if the information involves an IP address, and the relevant ISP stores logs which could easily be inspected (if",
"-29.599245725257788"
],
[
"the actions of Anonymous are themselves, anonymously and unaccountably, censoring websites in response to positions with which they disagree.\"\nGabriella Coleman has compared the group to the trickster archetype and said that \"they dramatize the importance of anonymity and privacy in an era when both are rapidly eroding. Given that vast databases track us, given the vast explosion of surveillance, there's something enchanting, mesmerizing and at a minimum thought-provoking about Anonymous' interventions\". When asked what good Anonymous had done for the world, Parmy Olson replied:\nIn some cases, yes, I think it has in terms of some of the stuff they did",
"-29.414632115120185"
],
[
"Another app, called Anomo, allows for users to start entirely anonymous and then as time progresses users get the option to reveal different aspects about themselves to other users. This type of range of anonymity allows users to try to get to know one another over time. With room for free expression and communication among semi-known identities, there is discussion that with this type of technology a market for political activism in other parts of the world is possible. Anonymous social media websites have now been a place recently used for political expression and platforms. Since the 2016 U.S. presidential",
"-29.160015350978938"
],
[
"Anonymous is not 'a group of super hackers.' ... Anonymous is everyone and everywhere. We have no leaders, no single entity directing us.\" The video said that Project Chanology participants include \"individuals from all walks of life ... united by an awareness that someone must do the right thing.\" Specific controversies involving the CoS were cited in the video as the explanation for actions by Anonymous.\nIn an email to CNET News, Anonymous stated that coordinated activities were planned for February 10, 2008, in many major cities around the world. Anonymous hoped to use \"real world\" protests to rally public opinion",
"-28.9779068874559"
],
[
"or without additional information that may become available, is personal data.\nIdentifiability\nAn individual is 'identified' if distinguished from other members of a group. In most cases an individual's name, together with some other information, will be sufficient to identify them, but a person can be identified even if their name is not known. Start by looking at the means available to identify an individual and the extent to which such means are readily available to you.\nDoes the data 'relate to' the identifiable living individual, whether in personal or family life, business or profession?\nRelates to means: Data which identifies an individual, even",
"-28.58238860611891"
],
[
"questions or revealing information that is specifically related to their invisible stigma. Discretion is not as active of a passing strategy as the other two strategies, but it does involve interpersonal elusiveness and speaking in ambiguous language when the conversation threatens to potentially reveal one's stigmatized identity. An example of this strategy (and a way to distinguish it from concealment) would be a person who is very willing to reveal personal information to their coworker but is also very reluctant to discuss any topics that they think may be related to their invisible stigma. Revealing When a person chooses",
"-28.22601841762662"
],
[
"signs and, in revealing them to us, causes us to interact with the ‘before’ which informs our being and is an essential part of who we are, because – he says – there can be no relationships between individuals if we do not start first with the singular, with the individual himself. \nThe achievement of a 'we' is by no means a foregone conclusion. First, there must be a call to account, a self-awareness; it is not a question of isolating oneself from the context in which one finds oneself, far from it. Such an undertaking requires concentration, listening, opening",
"-28.13817383150308"
],
[
"of note, who wishes to remain anonymous.",
"-27.913555251958314"
],
[
"suspects that a person is involved in criminal activity may detain a person long enough to dispel that suspicion. Questions related to a person's identity are a \"routine and accepted part of many Terry stops.\" Knowing a person's identity may, of course, help to clear a suspect and divert the attention of the police to another suspect. On the other hand, knowing the suspect's name may just as quickly confirm to the officer that the person is wanted for another, unrelated crime. In cases such as this, where the police are investigating a domestic dispute, officers",
"-27.842300979114952"
],
[
"gathering\" with \"a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives\". The group became known for a series of well-publicized publicity stunts and distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks on government, religious, and corporate websites. An image commonly associated with Anonymous is the \"man without a head\" represents leaderless organization and anonymity. Legal protection of anonymity Anonymity is perceived as a right by many, especially the anonymity in the internet communications. The partial right for anonymity is legally protected to various degrees in different jurisdictions. European Union The right to internet anonymity is also covered by European",
"-27.786530552320983"
],
[
"speak anonymously online is protected by the First Amendment and various other laws. These laws restrict the ability of the government and civil litigants to obtain the identity of anonymous speakers. The First Amendment says that \"Congress shall make no law … abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press\". This protection has been interpreted by the U.S. Supreme Court to protect the right to speak anonymously offline.\nFor example, in McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission, the Supreme Court overturned an Ohio law banning the distribution of anonymous election pamphlets, claiming that an \"author's decision to remain anonymous … is",
"-27.747184679523343"
],
[
"Issues facing the anonymous Attempts at anonymity are not always met with support from society.\nAnonymity sometimes clashes with the policies and procedures of governments or private organizations. In the United States, disclosure of identity is required to be able to vote, though the secret ballot prevents disclosure of individual voting patterns. In airports in most countries, passengers are not allowed to board flights unless they have identified themselves to airline or transportation security personnel, typically in the form of the presentation of an identification card.\nOn the other hand, some policies and procedures require anonymity. Referring to the anonymous",
"-27.690239383926382"
],
[
"stunt.\" Some members protest using legal means, while others employ illegal measures such as DDoS attacks and hacking. Membership is open to anyone who wishes to state they are a member of the collective; British journalist\nCarole Cadwalladr of The Observer compared the group's decentralized structure to that of al-Qaeda: \"If you believe in Anonymous, and call yourself Anonymous, you are Anonymous.\" Olson, who formerly described Anonymous as a \"brand\", stated in 2012 that she now characterized it as a \"movement\" rather than a group: \"anyone can be part of it. It is a crowd of people, a nebulous crowd of",
"-27.571677944419207"
],
[
"and 'what is my role in this world?' (Albert, Ashforth & Dutton, 2000) In order to understand identification, one must understand identity (Ashforth, Harrison & Corley, 2008). Identity is the answer to the questions of 'who am I' and 'who are we?' and it has emerged in scholarly literature in three different contexts: \nmicro (social identity theory,\nself categorization theory),\nidentity theory (structural identity or identity control theory)\nand organizational identity (central, distinctive characteristics of an organization).\nCorporate identity has been named as another context in which identity has been discussed (Hatch & Schultz, 1997).\nSocial identity is \"the part of the individual's",
"-27.337542616412975"
],
[
"situation is supposed to be. People act to verify or confirm their identities and in doing so they bring about a situation in which relevant meanings are consistent with their identity standard.\nThe next of the four components is input or also known as perceptions. Input is the meanings of how one sees oneself in a situation. These self-meanings often are derived from the way in which others see the self. This results from the feedback others have about how we come across in a given situation.\nThe third component of the identity control theory is comparator. The comparator compares the meanings",
"-27.333026061358396"
],
[
"leave a trace of their thoughts, motivations, and reactions. Among those that do, opinions vary considerably.\"\nBroadly speaking, Anons oppose Internet censorship and control and the majority of their actions target governments, organizations, and corporations that they accuse of censorship. Anons were early supporters of the global Occupy movement and the Arab Spring. Since 2008, a frequent subject of disagreement within Anonymous is whether members should focus on pranking and entertainment or more serious (and, in some cases, political) activism.\nWe [Anonymous] just happen to be a group of people on the Internet who need—just kind of an outlet to do as",
"-27.25739253872598"
],
[
"to that the information they are providing is not connected to the information that just preceded it. That is, while an utterance that follows another is usually connected to the one that preceded it, ‘oh’ can be used to signal that the utterance is not connected to the one that directly before it, but rather to something further back (for example “I went to the market and bought some fruit. I got apples, pears, grapes, and oranges. It was really crowded there today. Oh, and kiwis.”) (1999).\nFox Tree published two articles with Herb Clark, Professor of Psychology at Stanford",
"-27.241119941965735"
],
[
"Organizational identification Definitions of identification and organizational identification Cheney and Tompkins (1987) state that identification is \"the appropriation of identity, either (1) by the individual or collective in question or (2) by others. Identification includes \"the development and maintenance of an individual's or group's 'sameness' or 'substance' against a backdrop of change and 'outside' elements.\" Salient symbolic linkages (through communication) are important to identification, identification is a process, and the nature of a particular individual's or group's identification with something is continually changing (1987). Identification, to organizations or anything else, is \"an active process by which individuals",
"-27.11957167435321"
],
[
"Anonymous Christian Anonymous Christian is the controversial notion introduced by the Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner (1904–1984) that declares that people who have never heard the Christian Gospel might be saved through Christ. Non-Christians could have \"in [their] basic orientation and fundamental decision,\" Rahner wrote, \"accepted the salvific grace of God, through Christ, although [they] may never have heard of the Christian revelation.\"\nThe theologians W. D. Davies and Dale Allison wrote that proponents of the notion find scriptural support in Romans 2:14–16, as well as in Matthew 25:31–46.\nThe notion of inclusivism, for which Rahner's Anonymous Christian is the principal Christian model,",
"-27.078440707515256"
],
[
"Wishful Identification Wishful Identification & Identification There has been some inconsistency in the definition of identification. Some researchers define identification as hoping to be a certain media figure, to be in a certain mediated situation of that media figure, or to act a similar way to that media figure. However, this definition is not applied as widely as the one introduced by Cohen (2001): “a mechanism through which audience members experience reception and interpretation of the text from the inside, as if the events were happening to them.” While identification is characterized as sharing media figures’ points of view, vicarious",
"-27.03750649894937"
],
[
"engaging in each transaction (possibly for later solicitation, or for redemption or security purposes), or that act as a numerical pseudonym, for use in data mining.\nAnonymity can also be used as a protection against legal prosecution. For example, when committing unlawful actions, many criminals attempt to avoid identification by the means of obscuring/covering their faces with scarves or masks, and wear gloves or other hand coverings in order to not leave any fingerprints. In organized crime, groups of criminals may collaborate on a certain project without revealing to each other their names or other personally identifiable information. The movie The",
"-26.97442699635576"
],
[
"Anonymous social media Anonymous social media is a subcategory of social media where the main social functionality is to share and interact around content and information anonymously on mobile and web-based platforms. Another key aspect of anonymous social media is that content or information posted is not connected with particular online identities or profiles. Background Appearing very early on the web as mostly anonymous-confession websites, this genre of social media has evolved into various types and formats of anonymous self-expression. One of the earliest anonymous social media forums was 2channel, which was first introduced online on May 30, 1999 as",
"-26.88756724502673"
],
[
"election, anonymous social media websites are now a prevalent place in which political expression is asserted. Moreover, anonymous social media can also provided authentic connection to complete anonymous communication. There have been cases where these anonymous platforms have saved individuals from life-threatening situation or spread news about a social cause.\nAnother prospective use for anonymous social media is content creation. For example, a study done in 2017 found that about 700,000 unique images had been posted on 4chan's /pol/ board during their study period out of a 1 million studied images suggesting that anonymous social networks can serve as a platform",
"-26.862148636369966"
],
[
"Online identity Internet identity (IID), also online identity or internet persona, is a social identity that an Internet user establishes in online communities and websites. It can also be considered as an actively constructed presentation of oneself. Although some people choose to use their real names online, some Internet users prefer to be anonymous, identifying themselves by means of pseudonyms, which reveal varying amounts of personally identifiable information. An online identity may even be determined by a user's relationship to a certain social group they are a part of online. Some can even be deceptive about their identity.\nIn some online",
"-26.853887482662685"
],
[
"on the part of the leader effectively communicates to the group that the leader is \"one of their own\" – a central, contributing member who identifies with the group, and acts in the best interest of the group. Thus, leaders with many idiosyncrasy credits are afforded more trust and leeway when suggesting unique or innovative ways of conducting the group's activities, as the group believes that whatever is suggested by the leader is in the best interest of the group.",
"-26.814738508939627"
],
[
"explanation of a suspect's behavior (e.g.; the person lost their job, the person got evicted, etc.). Such statements may help us understand why the person committed the crime, however an uncritical listener may believe the speaker is trying to gain sympathy for the person and his or her actions. It does not follow that a person proposing an explanation has any sympathy for the views or actions being explained. This is an important distinction because we need to be able to understand and explain terrible events and behavior in attempting to discourage or prevent them. Types There are many and",
"-26.76410910495906"
],
[
"ideas of Roger Brown, says that human beings learn to name, or to transform experience into symbols, from language tutors, such as parents, peers, educators, and the media. He argues that human beings create names by abstracting from experience and then classifying those abstractions as \"same as\" or \"different from\" other symbolic categorizations for experience. Brown urges that all names are incomplete—as abstractions, they simultaneously direct attention to certain parts of experience and away from other parts of experience.\nBrown suggests that all names create expectancies about experience. He argues that this enables human beings to use names rhetorically to clarify",
"-26.66276910470333"
],
[
"themselves an identity which allows them to identify with or to be identified with a particular territory\" (1) and how they \"come to be taken as spokespeople for these territories\". (2) A skim through the contents page of his first book of poems, A Scottish Assembly, ....an orgy of naming which at least suggests, before I have examined a single poem in detail, that Crawford's own poetic project is an attempt to \"construct for [himself] an identity which allows [him] to identify with or to be identified with a particular territory\" (3), a strategy which ought to result in him",
"-26.570960981800454"
],
[
"to shape themselves into whoever (or whatever) they desire to become. Stories of people learning about their \"hidden extroversion\" or \"unknown creativity\" or becoming \"someone else\" are still at large. Research from scientists such as Danah Boyd and Knut Lundby has even found that in some cultures, the ability to form an identity online is considered a sacred privilege. This is because having an online identity allows the user to accomplish things that otherwise are impossible to do in real life. These cultures believe that the self has become a subjective concept on the online spaces; by logging onto their",
"-26.529409183291136"
],
[
"Aphorismus Aphorismus (from the Greek: ἀφορισμός, aphorismós, \"a marking off\", also \"rejection, banishment\") is a figure of speech that calls into question if a word is properly used (\"How can you call yourself a man?\"). It often appears in the form of a rhetorical question which is meant to imply a difference between the present thing being discussed and the general notion of the subject.",
"-26.50997237159754"
],
[
"opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. (...) Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization 'terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.\" For this and for political reasons, many news sources (such as",
"-26.437113318548654"
],
[
"about the people he routinely dehumanizes and degrades online?\" Powers also wrote on Twitter that \"people do not have a 'right' to stay anonymous so they can spew their racist, misogynist, homophobic garbage\".",
"-26.432154025766067"
],
[
"presence from the Internet and to \"save people from Scientology by reversing the brainwashing\". Project Chanology participants plan to join the Church of Scientology posing as interested members in order to infiltrate the organization.\nAndrea Seabrook of National Public Radio's All Things Considered reported Anonymous was previously known for \"technologically sophisticated pranks\" such as spamming chat rooms online and \"ordering dozens of pizzas for people they don't like\". Ryan Singel of Wired appeared on the program on January 27, 2008, and told Seabrook that members of Anonymous were motivated by \"the tactics the Church of Scientology uses to control information about",
"-26.36255177811836"
],
[
"communication are traditional suggestion boxes, written feedback, and Caller ID blocking. Additionally, the appropriateness of anonymous organizational communication varies depending on the use, with organizational surveys or assessments typically perceived as highly appropriate and firing perceived as highly inappropriate. Anonymity use and appropriateness have also been found to be significantly related to the quality of relationships with key others at work. \nWith few perceived negative consequences, anonymous or semi-anonymous forums often provide a soapbox for disruptive conversational behavior. The term \"troll\" is sometimes used to refer to those who engage in such disruptive behavior.\nRelative anonymity is often enjoyed in large",
"-26.348819162143627"
],
[
"is not easily verified but restricts identity. Items include political activity and hobbies). Parks and Archey-Ladas (2003) found that despite the freedom afforded to users to create identities online, people quite frequently had many linkages between their online and offline lives on their personal home pages. While it is suggested by Parks and Archey-Ladas (2003) that people present verifiable information online, it is assumed that the\ninformation is honest, as Parks and Archey-Ladas did not actually follow up with an attempt to contact owners of pages. As such, this study only demonstrates people present verifiable information, but did not actually find",
"-26.268471400253475"
],
[
"a Clan member can \"refrain from mentioning\" something she would prefer other people did not know, even though residual clues would probably reveal that something was being concealed. Cultural conventions, Auel suggests, would cause other Clan members to ignore the concealment out of sheer courtesy, though, again, Ayla has trouble grasping this concept.\nFinally, the wider Clan possesses not only a colloquial, everyday \"localized\" language, but also a more formal \"ancient\" or \"spirit language,\" used to converse with ancestors and understood by every Clan member, anywhere. This language facilitates easy communication at inter-regional meetings of normally separated groups and does not",
"-26.257598797150422"
],
[
"Identity Interrogation Identity interrogation is a method of authentication or identity proofing that involves posing one or more knowledge-based authentication questions to an individual. Identity interrogation questions such as \"What is your mother’s maiden name?\" or \"What are the last four digits of your social security number?\" This questioning process requires individuals to reveal personally identifiable information (PII) in order to prove his or her identity. It is a method businesses use to prevent identity theft or impersonation of customers.\nIdentity interrogation is primarily employed during remote, not in-person interactions, such as with a teller at a bank. Many interactions",
"-26.202714529732475"
],
[
"area or, alternatively, if they do not know where they came from, they should owe allegiance to the clan to which their family had traditionally owed allegiance. Alternatively, they may offer allegiance to any of the particular named clans in the hope that the Chief will accept them as a member of his clan. Thus if a person offers his allegiance to a particular Chief by joining his clan society or by wearing his tartan, he can be deemed to have elected to join that particular clan and should be viewed as a member of that clan. ",
"-26.162140908723813"
],
[
"identities People establish their identities (or faces), and their partners, through a process referred to as \"facework\". Everyone has a desired identity which they are constantly working towards establishing. This desired identity can be both threatened and supported by attempts to negotiate a relational identity (the identity one shares with one's partner). Thus, a person's desired identity is directly influenced by their relationships, and their relational identity by their desired individual identity. Cultural influence Identity management pays significant attention to intercultural relationships and how they affect the relational and individual identities of those involved, especially the different ways in which",
"-26.157086521212477"
],
[
"mind toward others? Are you in harmony with everyone-by willing one thing? Or are you divisively in a faction, or are you at loggerheads with everyone and everyone with you? Do you want for everyone what you want for yourself, or do you want the highest for yourself, for yourself and for yours, or that you and yours shall be highest? Do you do unto others what you want others to do to you-by willing one thing? This willing is the eternal order that orders everything, that brings you in harmony with the dead and with the people you never",
"-26.1415383706626"
],
[
"Organizational identity Public Perceptions of Organizational Identity Organizational identity is formed by top leaders' establishment of the core values and beliefs that guide and drive the organization's behavior. An organization's top leaders must be able to answer the question \"Who are we?\" as an organization because it affects how they interpret issues, identify threats, craft strategy, communicate about the organization, and resolve conflicts. Public perceptions are often swayed via media attention, while once a member of the organization, an employee may have a completely different perception. Organizations use four identity-building actions when identifying and discussing: storytelling, use of analogies, procuring",
"-26.14128433984297"
],
[
"of abuse by the group \"Anonymous\", along with \"misinformation\" and \"misrepresentation\" in the media. In September 2009 it asked the Australian Human Rights Commission's Freedom of Religion and Belief to restrict access to web sites it believes incites \"religious vilification.\" Interests Splintering of the Internet community can occur when members of specific interest groups use the Internet to exclude or avoid views that contradict their own cherished beliefs and theories. Called Cyberbalkanization (or sometimes cyber-balkanization), it refers to the division of the Internet or the world wide web into sub-groups with specific interests (digital tribes), where the sub-group's members almost",
"-26.134237161306373"
],
[
"be able to identify strangers in public using facial recognition, or surreptitiously record and broadcast private conversations. The \"Find my Face\" feature on Google+ functions to create a model of your face, and of people you know, in order to simplify tagging photos. However, the only current app that can identify strangers is called MORIS (Mobile Offender Recognition and Identification System), and is a $3,000 iPhone app used by police officers.\nSome companies in the US have posted anti-Google Glass signs in their establishments. In July 2013, prior to the official release of the product, Stephen Balaban, co-founder of software company",
"-26.09449862906331"
],
[
"on a cognitive level, but on an emotional one. Additionally, the psychology of persuasion has noted that if people see a symbol of authority, even if they know the groups or person projecting the symbol has no actual authority, they begin to believe that there is real authority in that party. Both of these theories contribute to arguments scholars make about the role of psychology in terrorism by helping to explain why humans react to terrorist attacks.\nPsychology also contributes to the understanding of how visual propaganda put forward by terrorist groups contributes to their organization. In the book,",
"-26.077353515807772"
],
[
"but they are not required to do so. Legal standards No uniform standard exists in the United States for determining the circumstances under which an anonymous online speaker may be unmasked. The federal and state courts that have considered the issue have applied a variety of tests. Summary judgment standard This standard requires an ISP to divulge the identity of an anonymous poster if the plaintiff's case would be able to withstand a motion for summary judgment. This means that the plaintiff must \"make a sufficient showing on [every] essential element of its case with respect to which",
"-26.062357665708987"
],
[
"identifiable information. The latter is distinct from the former in that Private information can be used to identify a unique individual. Personal information, on the other hand, is information belonging to the private life of an individual that cannot be used to uniquely identify that individual. This can range from an individual’s favourite colour, to the details of their domestic life. The latter is a common example of personal information that is also regarded as sensitive, where the individual sharing these details with a trusted listener would prefer for it not to be shared with anyone else, and the sharing",
"-26.059651242903783"
],
[
"considers that \"people will often speak more honestly if they are allowed to speak anonymously\". According to Ross Eaman, in his book The A to Z of Journalism, until the mid-19th century, most writers in Great Britain, especially the less well known, did not sign their names to their work in newspapers, magazines and reviews. Anonymity on the Internet Most commentary on the Internet is essentially done anonymously, using unidentifiable pseudonyms. While these usernames can take on an identity of their own, they are frequently separated and anonymous from the actual author. According to the University of Stockholm this is",
"-26.042275457148207"
],
[
"selves in ways impossible to do with their real identities. Users can edit and change their virtual selves' appearance and behavior to control other users' perception of them.\nThe ability to create and change your identity in this way, is due to anonymity. Anonymity is a paramount and dynamic feature of virtual social interaction within the online public sphere. As individuals are not required to reveal their real identity, they are able to explore new and undiscovered aspects of themselves. In this expansion of the self, anonymous individuals may try on various identities which break traditional social norms, without fear of",
"-26.015333946823375"
],
[
"their group. The United Nations Human Rights Committee defines privacy as:\n\"... the sphere of a person's life in which he or she can freely express his or her identity, be it by entering into relationships with others or alone. The Committee is of the view that a person's surname [and name] constitutes an important component of one's identity and that the protection against arbitrary or unlawful interference with one's privacy includes the protection against arbitrary or unlawful interference with the right to choose and change one's own name.\"\nThis means that individuals have the right to have their name or surname",
"-25.947902938976767"
],
[
"thinking about self-identity and identification in general. After a number of years of research into identity and identification in organizations, Cheney and Tompkins (1987) clarified the application of these concepts in organizations.\nOrganizational identification (OI) is a form of organizational control and happens when \"a decision maker identifies with an organization [and] desires to choose the alternative which best promotes the perceived interests of that organization\" (Cheney and Tompkins, 1987). Other authors have defined OI as an alignment of individual and organizational values (Pratt, 1998), as well as the perception of oneness with and belongingness to the organization (Ashforth &",
"-25.928489005193114"
],
[
"anonymous caller on the basis of a face sketch, offers the man a ride home and introduces himself.\nIn a voiceover, Rathod says the man told him his real name but he does not wish to reveal it since doing so would give away the man's religion. Rathod admits that he knew the caller was disturbed because of the insecure environment and the incompetence of the governing authorities, but he never imagined a common man would go to such lengths to achieve this end. He also notes that the facts of this incident cannot be found in any written record but",
"-25.906354204766103"
],
[
"retribution or judgment. This contributes to the creation of 'super-selves', through which individuals may amplify aspects of their projected identities in order to form an ideal expression of the self. The fact that the vast majority of virtual encounters are anonymous in nature allows a 'strangers on a train' phenomenon to\ntake place. Through invented and unknown personae, individuals are able to engage in self-disclosure, transvestism, and fantasies. However, this freedom may not be absolute, as there are many risks in participating in an online community, including identity theft and the potential linkage between anonymous and manifest identities. Anonymity also may",
"-25.87245224797516"
],
[
"not use the official name of the person, there can be disputes on which identities are responsible for an action.",
"-25.870289193699136"
],
[
"a right to control access to and uses of spaces, locations, and personal information, means that it is the right holder who determines access. To drive this point home Moore offers the following case. \"Imagine upon exiting your house one day you find a person searching through your trash painstakingly putting the shredded notes and documents back together. In response to your stunned silence he proclaims 'you don’t have anything to worry about – there is no reason to hide, is there?'\" Second, individuals may wish to hide embarrassing behavior or conduct not accepted by the",
"-25.842876800263184"
],
[
"of the group. The groups would then create symbols of either language, clothing or ideology to identify who belongs to the group and where are their position in the society. The process of identifying the who resides in the groups also expands to identifying the power structure of the group. The identification of the power structure within the group is commonly distributed as a hierarchical power structure meaning groups are organized with one head of the group overseeing the whole group.The group will eventually grow to a state in which labor is divided within specializations meaning that there are branches",
"-25.830591835518135"
],
[
"to commit these crimes online is the anonymity the internet gives us. It is easier to commit crimes when no one knows who you are online so the shame would be gone. People have the opportunity to give in to temptation since they are anonymous and possibly commit criminal acts such as blackmailing. The ability to be anonymous encourages antisocial tendencies and the ability to spread fake news.",
"-25.80602935249044"
],
[
"a Hergé expert who wishes to remain anonymous.",
"-25.79322726672399"
],
[
"as in 'on his own' (from Tod Sl'oan'). Hence, someone 'on his tod' is alone.",
"-25.785402854264248"
],
[
"In general, knowing who committed the online crime is difficult because many use pseudonyms or remain anonymous. Sometimes it can be traced back. But in the case of a public coffee shop, they have no way of pinpointing the exact user. There is also a problem with the issues surrounding extremely harmful but not legal acts. For example, the posting of content that instigates a person's suicide. It is a criminal offense if there is proof of \"beyond reasonable doubt\" but different situations may produce different outcomes. Depending on the country, there is certain laws that come with the Web",
"-25.77838005493686"
],
[
"link themselves to elements in a social scene\" and identifications help us make sense of our world and thoughts and help us to make decisions (Cheney, 1983). The process of identification occurs largely through language as one expresses similarities or affiliations with particular groups, including organizations (Cheney and Tompkins 1987, Cheney 1983).\nPhillip Tompkins was one of the first to use the phrase 'organizational identification' and is a pioneer in the study of organizational communication (Tompkins, 2005). Simon (1947) has also been given credit for establishing organizational identification in theory and scholarship. Notions of organizational identity started with broader",
"-25.767351835151203"
],
[
"community. The sacred cannot be signified directly, since it is essentially an imaginary or ideal construction of mimetic desire. The significance is realized in the human relationships as mediated by the sign. When an individual refers to an object or idea, the reference is fundamentally to the significance of that object or idea for the human community. Language attempts to reproduce the non-violent presence of the community to itself, even though it may attempt to do so sacrificially, by designating a scapegoat victim.\nGenerative Anthropology is so called because human culture is understood as a \"genetic\" development of the originary event.",
"-25.761130553495605"
],
[
"deduced, one can begin to sort out the rest of the information and decide where it belongs in the mental outline. Before getting the big picture of a message, it can be difficult to focus on what the speaker is saying, because it is impossible to know where any particular piece of information fits. Questions It is usually helpful to ask oneself questions about the speaker's message. If the listener is mentally asking questions about what is being said, it is a good sign that he/she is actively involved in effective informational listening.",
"-25.71749685058603"
],
[
"instantly to prepared points from their opposition in a logical way.\nA point of information is also a request for information from the current speaker, in Robert's Rules of Order. The 11th edition of Robert's Rules, published in 2011, changes the name to request for information to clarify its purpose.",
"-25.686160273959104"
],
[
"organization that claimed to be associated with Anonymous—organized cyberprotests against police, setting up a website and a Twitter account to do so. The group promised that if any protesters were harassed or harmed, they would attack the city's servers and computers, taking them offline. City officials said that e-mail systems were targeted and phones died, while the Internet crashed at the City Hall. Prior to August 15, members of Anonymous corresponding with Mother Jones said that they were working on confirming the identity of the undisclosed police officer who shot Brown and would release his name as soon as they",
"-25.633662566977364"
],
[
"most anonymous of the credential types, multiples, could be prevented from accessing the Talkomatic system, thus preventing any type of anonymous access.\nTalkomatic (Web version) was designed to be freely available for use by anyone but complete anonymity invited abuse. The Version 4 solution was to implement an in-room voting system for rooms holding three or more participants. Participants who deemed the conduct of another to be inappropriate could \"vote-down\" the offending user. If a participant's conduct is deemed inappropriate by more than half of the participants, the offending participant is ejected from the room.\nIn addition to Brown",
"-25.633459663164103"
],
[
"compliance, identification, and internalization. This theory explains how groups convert hesitant recruits into zealous followers over time.\nAt the stage of compliance, group members comply with authority's demands, but personally do not agree with them. If authority does not monitor the members, they will probably not obey.\nIdentification occurs when the target of the influence admires and therefore imitates the authority, mimics authority's actions, values, characteristics, and takes on behaviours of the person with power. If prolonged and continuous, identification can lead to the final stage – internalization.\nWhen internalization occurs, individual adopts the induced behaviour because it is congruent with his/her value",
"-25.608712381101213"
],
[
"the anonymous defendant's identity to allow the plaintiff to properly proceed.\"\nThe so-called Dendrite standard was adopted by the Arizona Supreme Court in Mobilisa, Inc. v. Doe, and most recently, by Maryland's highest court in Independent Newspapers v. Brodie. After reviewing the treatment of anonymous online speech by other state and federal courts, the Maryland court concluded that \"a test requiring notice and opportunity to be heard, coupled with a showing of a prima facie case and the application of a balancing test—such as the standard set forth in Dendrite—most appropriately balances a speaker's constitutional right to anonymous Internet",
"-25.55151466630923"
],
[
"neighbour boy. Next to identification with the leader, people identify with others because they feel they have something in common. For example: a group of people who like the same music. This mechanism plays an important role in the formation of groups. It contributes to the development of character and the ego is formed by identification with a group (group norms). Partial identification promotes the social life of persons who will be able to identify with one another through this common bond to one another, instead of considering someone as a rival. Partial identification and empathy Freud went on to",
"-25.540226953555248"
],
[
"on this, claiming that the individual, the community, the human body as a whole have a 'means by which they know the world' (this entails language, culture, semiotic systems, mathematics, science etc.). In order to verify particular means, or particular statements belonging to certain means (e.g., the propositions of the natural sciences), a person would have to 'step outside' the means and critique them neutrally, in order to provide a foundation for adopting them. However, this is impossible. The only way in which one can know the world is through the means by which they know the world; a method",
"-25.53775986470282"
],
[
"in their own introspections and those of their participants, then how can it gain legitimacy? Three strategies are accountable: identifying behaviors that establish credibility, finding common ground that enables mutual understanding, and developing a trust that allows one to know when to give the benefit of the doubt.\nThat is to say, that words are only meaningful if validated by one's actions; When people report strategies, feelings or beliefs, their behaviors must correspond with these statements if they are to be believed.\nEven when their introspections are uninformative, people still give confident descriptions of their mental processes, being \"unaware of",
"-25.52843350538751"
],
[
"of processes of collective naming, classifying, monitoring, judging, and reflecting on the individual members of the group or organization. And an individual in a collective context learns to participate in discussions and discourses about \"themself\", that is, group reflections on themself, their appearance, their orientations and attitudes, their strategies and conduct. Thus, an individual learns (in line with George Herbert Mead's earlier formulations) a naming and classification of themself (self-description and identity) and a characterization of their judgments, actions, and predispositions.\nIn acquiring a language and conceptual framework for this mode of activity along with experience and skills in reflective discussion",
"-25.52113561728038"
],
[
"member begins the process by listening to the community and guiding them to find their own truths. They create an environment that promotes truthful storytelling and transparency and encourage 100% community participation. then they have the perpetrators and victims tell their stories. They then ask perpetrators to choose whether they will ask for forgiveness and victims to choose whether they will give forgiveness. The following day, they host a ceremony in which the participants sacrifice an animal (usually a goal or fowl). Finally, the community circles around a self-designated peace tree which acts as a permanent spot at which",
"-25.506109651527368"
],
[
"the listener what to do. Sometimes the commands are quite benign directives such as \"Stand up\" or \"Shut the door.\" Whether it is a command for something simple or something that is a threat, it is still considered a \"command hallucination.\" Some helpful questions that can assist one in figuring out if he/she may be suffering from this include: \"What are the voices telling you to do?\", \"When did your voices first start telling you to do things?\", \"Do you recognize the person who is telling you to harm yourself (or others)?\", \"Do you think you can resist doing what",
"-25.47676828272961"
],
[
"one thing needful\".\n\nThe single individual can know very many things but not do much of anything that relates to the knowing. One can reflect on what the Bible says or one could decide to do something in relation to what they know. Kierkegaard put it this way in his Concluding Postscript (1846) and again in his journals. \nThe ethical is not only a knowing; it is also a doing that is related to a knowing, and a doing of such a nature that the repetition of it can at times and in more ways than one become more difficult than",
"-25.461793372305692"
],
[
"can be used not just to identify an individual, but also to unearth other personal data associated with an individual – such as other photos featuring the individual, blog posts, social networking profiles, Internet behavior, travel patterns, etc. – all through facial features alone. Concerns have been raised over who would have access to the knowledge of one's whereabouts and people with them at any given time. Moreover, individuals have limited ability to avoid or thwart face recognition tracking unless they hide their faces. This fundamentally changes the dynamic of day-to-day privacy by enabling any marketer, government agency, or random",
"-25.43268418520165"
],
[
"an aspect of the freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment\" and that \"anonymous pamphleteering is not a pernicious, fraudulent practice, but an honorable tradition of advocacy and of dissent\", as well as a \"shield\" against the so-called tyranny of the majority. Various courts have interpreted these offline protections to extend to the online world.\nIdentifying the author of an anonymous post may require a Doe subpoena. This involves gaining access to the IP address of the poster via the hosting website. The courts can then order an ISP to identify the subscriber to whom it had assigned said IP",
"-25.396515614345844"
],
[
"by another \"handler\" like Sandrine, who tells her the same story, claiming to be from a different country and a different agency, but still desiring the same unknown element.\nLike Sandrine, once the handler had extracted all of the evidence he could from Sarah, he attempts to kill her. Not able to trust anyone, Sarah spends the duration of her time in the construct trying to stay alive long enough to uncover the truth, and find out why so many people want her dead. She endures a series of wire-fu fights and a car chase while conducting an intense investigation into",
"-25.389794581577007"
],
[
"which double the Kantian categories of the conscious spirit. These categories of the unconscious prevent humans from completely revealing the mystery of existence, since all his knowledge must fit into this categorical framework. Thus, the Great Anonymous maintains an isolated \"centrality of existence\", because a complete knowledge would make the man godlike, but also infuses human activity with a creative tension. Blaga's metaphysical axiology also follows this conception. All categories encompass human powers of expression, and their dynamic influence is finally projected into values. In other words, what we can not overcome, we idolise. This \"finalist self-deluding\" repetitively ensures the",
"-25.38024689501617"
],
[
"Bruce Bonafede Bruce Bonafede is an American author, award-winning playwright, and ghostwriter living in Southern California. He is the author of Nobody Knows My Name by Anonymous, a humor book published by Mill City Press in 2013. Nobody Knows My Name by Anonymous is a series of short comedy pieces that takes a humorous and satirical look at fame and the desire to be famous.\nBonafede’s first produced play, Advice to the Players, is a serious drama that studies the relationship between art and life. The play’s inspiration was an incident at the 1981 International Theater Festival in Baltimore, where",
"-25.375163198943483"
],
[
"information pertaining to the request, the more indirect the speech act may be considered to be.\nIndirect speech acts are commonly used to reject proposals and to make requests. For example, if a speaker asks, \"Would you like to meet me for coffee?\" and the other replies, \"I have class.\" The second speaker has used an indirect speech act to reject the proposal. This is indirect because the literal meaning of \"I have class\" does not entail any sort of rejection.\nThis poses a problem for linguists, as it is confusing (on a rather simple approach) to see how the person who",
"-25.365681235693046"
],
[
"can affect our offline self; altering our attitudes and values. Online anonymity and presentation of the self Online anonymity is commonly described using the phrase \"On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog\". Online anonymity allows users to present different versions of themselves in online environments. Unconstrained by physical limitations, users are free to choose and construct their virtual form(s) and identities. Virtual spaces which foster such freedom and anonymity therefore allow users to depart from the expectations, norms, and behaviours of their daily lives. It can be said that this unlimited freedom of anonymous expression allows for the",
"-25.34251120861154"
],
[
"The Ghost Boys have defaced a lot of .navy.mil sites using the “Free DkD[||!!” Slogan which recalls what happen after Mitnick's arrest. Anonymous Perhaps the most prolific and well known hacktivist group, Anonymous has been prominent and prevalent in many major online hacks over the past decade. Anonymous originated on the forums of 4chan during 2003, but didn't rise to prominence until 2008 when they directly attacked the Church of Scientology in a massive DoS attack. Since then, Anonymous has participated in a great number of online projects such as Operation: Payback and Operation: Safe Winter. However, while a great",
"-25.341179476592515"
],
[
"a party or other social gathering or ceremony.\nIn more general terms still, it is a person who provides or creates the names for things. and this can apply to the application of names in a scientific or any other context but especially in relation to specialist terminologies, glossaries etc.",
"-25.308049170678714"
],
[
"groups based on such meaningless associations between them have consistently been found to \"act as if those sharing the meaningless labels were kin or close friends.\"\nResearchers since Tajfel have made strides into unraveling the mystery behind this phenomenon. Today it is broken down into two basic psychological processes, one cognitive and one motivational. \nFirst, knowing that one is a part of this group is used to make sense of the world. When one associates with a particular group, those in the group focus on the similarities between the members. However, for people not in the group, or \"outsiders,\" differences are",
"-25.234898415539647"
],
[
"person is a foreign agent or terrorist, or the unmasked information includes evidence about a crime. Instances Unmasking is not rare or even unusual. For example, according to a report from the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), \"The number of U.S. person identities that NSA released during calendar year 2015 in response to specific requests to unmask an identity was 2,232.\" That number (which does not include other U.S. intelligence agencies, nor includes unmasked statements by U.S. persons whose names remain masked, and also does not include U.S. person information that the NSA deemed appropriate",
"-25.230994000594364"
],
[
"in order to change the meaning. In other words, if one person does not understand a certain word or phrase, another person may substitute a synonym or symbol in order to get the meaning across. However, upon learning the new way of interpreting a specific symbol, the person may change his or her already-formed ideas to incorporate the new information.\nJean Dalby Clift says that people not only add their own interpretations to symbols, they also create personal symbols that represent their own understanding of their lives: what she calls \"core images\" of the person. She argues that symbolic work",
"-25.22550830169348"
],
[
"is a name, are easier to contextualize: they are natural answers to Who is who? in a situation where individuals can be identified both by name or by sight, e.g. at the conference. Halliday's semantic analysis of equatives Halliday divides clauses into two categories: 'intensive', where the process is ascription (the assigning of an attribute) and the equative, which is treated as a type of effective clause with the process being syntactically one of action rather than ascription. The intensive clause, like Mary is/seems happy, Mary was/became a teacher, is a non-reversible, one-participant type with the verb being of",
"-25.224628235417185"
],
[
"relatives, though it does not give their names.\nEach officer's profile has a \"Reflections\" section where visitors can post comments. These comments are moderated and negative, derogatory or abusive postings are removed.\nThere is a search function that allows searching by last name, agency, state, range of years or cause of death.",
"-25.212466499273432"
],
[
"it was a challenge to keep the identity of contributors hidden without discrediting the value of their work. Any distinct allusion to the identity of contributors was largely removed; the alternative solution of substituting the identity of a contributor with a different name was discussed, but not considered feasible.\nAdditionally, contributors had earlier been asked only to incorporate transcribed versions of their speech and not the speech itself. While permission could be sought from initial contributors again, the lack of success in the anonymization process meant that it would be challenging to seek materials from initial contributors. At the same time,",
"-25.210610027399525"
],
[
"this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic, as he also calls it) one if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. Husserl's Logical Investigations (1900–1901) is considered the starting",
"-25.161646745284088"
],
[
"bring about a situation in which perceived meanings are consistent with their identity standard. If the identity is a role identity, then the behavior that brings about the changes in the situational meanings to make them consistent with the identity standard is appropriate role behavior. If the identity is a group or category based identity, the behavior which verifies the identity is the behavior that maintains group boundaries and divisions in the social structure. By verifying identities, people create and maintain the social structure in which the identities are embedded(Burke,2007). Identity Control and Emotions As one might guess, the identity",
"-25.160563347832067"
],
[
"Therefore, individual identity is the basis of all other forms of identity. If we do not believe in ourselves and in what surrounds us, we cannot believe in the collectivity and what lies further. Therefore, if we are not attached to our own people and own identity, we cannot be attached to humanity as a whole. It is from this philosophical starting point, as well as his numerous books (essays and novels) and his journal Mesopotamia that Selim MATAR starts to occupy himself with the concept of “national identity”. In fact he is considered as the founding figure of the",
"-25.15883927795221"
],
[
"particularly obscure. Each user must somehow pass the name on to the next, and must somehow \"mean\" the right individual as they do so (suppose \"Socrates\" is the name of a pet aardvark). Kripke himself notes the difficulty, John Searle makes much of it.\nMark Sainsbury argued for a causal theory similar to Kripke's, except that the baptised object is eliminated. A \"baptism\" may be a baptism of nothing, he argues: a name can be intelligibly introduced even if it names nothing. The causal chain we associate with the use of proper names may begin merely with a \"journalistic\" source.\nThe causal",
"-25.151446052281244"
],
[
"and check for standing, but your name does not have to become public if you don't want it to. Also when you are contacting a group like the ACLU, you may have to be persistent, they are very busy, they will get back to you, but you have to be patient, nothing will happen quickly. Selman has contacted many bookstores attempting to arrange book signings, he is comfortable doing speaking engagements. He states his goal is to get the word out.",
"-25.13068570122232"
]
] |
31jcin | Why does my dog bark at door bell noises from the tv when we don't even have a door bell. | [
"Are you sure she's not adopted or something...? Maybe it's just because the sound is unpleasant to her. Does she actually run up to the door as if someone is about to walk in?",
"What do you watch? She might have heard other dogs barking at doorbells on TV and now associates the sound of doorbells with mysterious invisible dogs freaking out.",
"My dog did this too, we got him as a puppy and he didn't have any experience of doorbells. He's almost entirely silent but one of the only times I've heard him bark was at a doorbell on TV",
"Unsure why dogs do things sometimes. We got a puppy at 4 weeks old. She would never come near anyone wearing a hat. If you put any kind of head covering on she would yelp and hide under the couch. We were never able to work out why?",
"My doorbell makes a buzzing sound that doesn't sound anything like a traditional bell. Every time my dog hears a doorbell on TV, he runs to the front door as if someone is there. I think he connects it with people answering their doors on TV after hearing the bell but I'm probably giving him too much credit. He has no reaction to things like buzzers in basketball games or bells on gameshows strangely.",
"From the wonderful world of felines: when my cat was a kitten, he had no framework to understand what the sound of a can opening was. Yet the first time I did it, wham, he was right at my ankle.",
"The dog may have learnt that when the doorbell rings, someone appears at the door (on the TV). So, when it heard a doorbell on the TV, it goes to the door to see if someone is there.",
"Dogs ears are incredibly sensitive. The doorbell noise from the television is excruciating to yours and she runs to the door to try to get the fuck out of the house.",
"Not a doorbell, but mine howls at computer beeps: URL_0 Edit: corrected auto-correct"
] | [
[
"open carrier until someone talked or the repeater carrier dropped after approximately 8 seconds.\nSince the doorbell sound was annoying, users tended to try to hold the repeater carrier on until the called party answered so they wouldn't have to listen to continual ding-dongs. If base was slow to answer, the transmission might sound like, \"Unit four to base,\" <squelch tail>... <squelch tail>... <squelch tail>... <repeater drops>. On some radio models, the doorbell sound was programmable but it's not clear if those responsible for systems knew this (Note: some operators of this system knew this was possible, but did not change",
"-32.60398578204331"
],
[
"whistles while sitting in his cage. We also see an Irish setter over looking its babies that hatched from eggs, A police dog yelling things, the spitz, and a St. Bernard Booze Hound that howls a song while hiccuping. The last dog is a hot dog.\nNow back on the show, a mysterious light is going over dog ads like asbestos dog biscuits, itching canine art galleries, K-9 kennel, and so on and so on. And then it is time for the show to begin.\nFirst to perform, The Scotties. Which are two Scottish dogs dancing a Scottish dance. Then the Russian",
"-32.48265913044452"
],
[
"doorbell uses a bell box to signal the occupant of a home or business.\nA bell box for early telephones is commonly known as a ringer box.\nOther types of bell boxes include alarm clocks, burglar alarms, and smoke alarms.",
"-31.812694853426365"
],
[
"the dog identifies the house as a della Rovere home, and that it remains quiet indicates that the viewer is the husband of the woman.",
"-31.59341798198875"
],
[
"kitchen telephone off the hook after calling his home from White House Farm to establish that part of his alibi.\nAfter Bamber telephoned the police, a British Telecom operator checked the White House Farm line—at 3:56 am according to the police log, and at 4:30 am according to the Court of Appeal—and found that the line was open. The operator could hear a dog barking. According to British Telecom, if Nevill had telephoned Bamber without replacing the receiver, the line between them would have remained open for between eight and 16 minutes. Bamber would therefore not have been able to use his",
"-31.590640293157776"
],
[
"a ringing noise to alert its owner, while the user of the first phone hears a ringing noise in its earpiece. If the second phone is picked up, then the operators of the two units are able to talk to one another through them. If the phone is not picked up, the operator of the first phone continues to hear a ringing noise until they hang up their own phone.\nOne of the main struggles for Alexander Graham Bell and his team was to prove to non-English speakers that this new phenomenon \"worked in their language.\" It was a concept that",
"-31.280167836812325"
],
[
"him a cough sweet instead. Bean finds the remote control for the television and initially mistakes it for a phone, due to his own TV at home having no remote. He tests the remote control's signal range and turns the volume up once he is outside his room until his other neighbour in room 427 comes outside to investigate the noise. Bean hides the remote in his jacket and pretends to tell the guest inside room 426 to be quiet, and goes back inside once the neighbour is gone.\nBack in his room, Bean unpacks his suitcase and places Teddy in",
"-31.048679100815207"
],
[
"Call bell A call bell (sometimes called a counter bell, service bell, or concierge bell) is a bell that alerts and causes attention to the attendant who hears it. Summary A call bell is used in hotels or other such facilities where people need to call attention to the person in charge to check them in, take their bags, of for any other reasons.\nIt is mostly used in restaurants and usually attached to every table in restaurants. If a customer presses the button on the call bell, there is a sound and the table number is shown on the display,",
"-30.84712686133571"
],
[
"doorbell rings—his family is there.",
"-30.611168665876903"
],
[
"barking when she calls / You're hiding behind the fence / You've been disobedient.\" Critical reception Jeff Apter, music journalist and author of the 2009 biography Gwen Stefani and No Doubt: A Simple Kind of Life, suggested that \"Doghouse\" was another song on The Beacon Street Collection that was in desperate need of a tune-up for a more satisfying sound. However, he attributed the progressive sound of the single to the band's first collaboration with outsider musicians, such as Boisse, Jordan, and McNair.",
"-30.601599447254557"
],
[
"radio or one of the pre-set alarm noises. The noises always begin with a rocket blast-off noise as someone says \"3...2...1... .\" The alarms available are a bugle call, a cuckoo clock sound, a spring bounce sound, the Nickelodeon Theme (Nick, Nick, Nick, Nick, N-Nick, Nick, Nick, Nickelodeon!), or the radio. A second version of the clock featured 8 noises, adding on a marching band sound, train whistle, \"Wake up!\" repeated, and a Rooster Call. The clock display is green. It features one circular speaker on the left side of the clock. The radio antenna included is simply a flexible",
"-30.197269891796168"
],
[
"of many accommodation buildings are thin and not insulated against sound. As such, simple actions like closing a door or turning on the television can easily be heard by neighbors. When this noise becomes too loud to bear, Japanese people tend to bang their connecting walls in protest.\nIn China, kabedon was used in a commercial for Listerine mouthwash.",
"-29.730271084474225"
],
[
"puts it on the fireplace mantle, stating that it's \"what our house has been missing\". Once it's on the mantle, however, things take a turn for the worse. It turns out the clock's ticking is incredibly loud, even so it can be heard upstairs. Unknown to the family, the clock attaches itself to the mantle, preventing it from being moved. But the strangest of all, Rusty goes downstairs in the middle of the night and turns on the living room light switch. Every time he flips the switch, the living room is replaced with an ancient-looking torture chamber. This happens",
"-29.41542959457729"
],
[
"One and BBC Two but following a large number of complaints they were removed just two months later. However, a BBC TWO DOG was used during the overnight BBC Learning Zone strand until 2015. The DOGs for the other channels appear at the top left-hand corner on other channels except BBC News (which is bottom left and forms part of integrated information graphics), its international counterpart, BBC World News, and BBC Parliament. The BBC News Channel's DOG does not appear when it airs Breakfast. Whilst BBC Four and BBC Parliament have static DOGs, the ones on CBBC and CBeebies",
"-29.330939445178956"
],
[
"ringing the front doorbell.’ However, instead of going to the front door, I went to the staircase and turned the light switch on and off, on and off … That particular switch, working on a hidden battery concocted by Papa, was connected to a buzzer in the room where Uncle Frits, aunt Kitty, and Anne lived. The doorbell kept ringing. My mind saw the Jews vanishing behind the double wall in the attic. I opened the front door. The German soldier ran to the kitchen door and he turned the key to let his pal in.\n— --“The Righteous Among the Nations:",
"-29.100213424564572"
],
[
"above the door on the right appears to be a horse-like figure (see fig. 7). \n On the bracket complex on the left door post appears to be the head of a Japanese Lion Dog. Japanese Lion Dogs are also seen painted on each of the panels of the doors on Side 2. These dogs are a common thing to see near Japanese temples and shrines. This is because they are seen as apotropaic, and supposedly ward off evil spirits. They are most often seen in pairs, representing the duality of life. They are Buddhist in origin because their image",
"-29.059918414015556"
],
[
"several times. A redesigned version of Santa's Little Helper can be seen sleeping on top of his dog house and Homer is seen sleeping on top of his house in a manner similar to Snoopy. When Marge first speaks, she uses a muted trombone. This is a parody of the \"wah wah wah\" voice that is used for adults in the various Peanuts specials. At the end of the segment, she says to the audience that they can send complaints to an address which she only says in more muted trombone noises. Milhouse' prayer to the Grand Pumpkin is similar",
"-28.912011300737504"
],
[
"that is, the time when (on land) all but the dog were asleep. The name is also said to be derived from Sirius, the \"Dog Star\", on the claim that Sirius was the first star that can be seen at night. An alternative folk etymology is that the name arose because someone tasked with one of these 'half' watches was said to be 'dodging the watch', taking or standing the 'dodge watch'. This became shortened to 'dog watch'. Another variation is that those sleeping get only 'dog sleep' in this watch. Stephen Maturin of Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey-Maturin series retells",
"-28.80709173635114"
],
[
"Door phone A door phone or door bell phone is a set of electrical and electronic elements used to handle two-way communication (street to home) in houses, apartments or villas. The device is connected to a secure communication system used to control the opening of the door giving access to any kind of buildings, offices, or apartment blocks. They are so widely used in the mentioned structures, that nowadays, they form part of the standard electrical installation of most buildings.\nThe simplest version is a simple intercom that establishes a communication between the street door and the house. In buildings where",
"-28.774014187496505"
],
[
"cook at the restaurant who had a penchant for making himself late-night snacks. Staff and guest both have reported lights and televisions turning on and off for no apparent reason, knocking on doors with no one there, and sounds and voices with no one present. Paranormal investigators say that reports of hearing children running down the halls could be attributed to \"residual energy\" from the recycled brick used in constructing the building that came from the elementary school. The Dude Rancher's web site states that room 226 is said to be a particularly active area for paranormal phenomena. ",
"-28.771349254762754"
],
[
"the doorbell at the house when they first met, in the very first episode. Every visitor now enters the house with the catchphrase \"I had to knock because the doorbell is broken\" - one of many catchphrases in the programme.\nThe village mayor, Modest, seems more interested in model aircraft than in his work as mayor. He always makes the same speech: \"To those who are present: congratulations! For those who are absent: congratulations as well!\". He is assisted by his playful and hyperactive secretary Eugène Van Leemhuyzen. The minister's delegate regularly pays a visit to the town, but his visits",
"-28.63305875728838"
],
[
"from the camera, receive notifications when the doorbell is rung, and communicate with visitors at the door via the integrated speaker and microphone. It is also capable of operating as a surveillance camera, and can automatically trigger recordings when rung, or when its motion sensors are activated. A second-generation model (Ring Doorbell 2) was released in 2017, with refreshed hardware, and a 1080p camera with improved low-light performance.\nThe \"Ring Chime\" accessory is a unit plugged into a power outlet to play the doorbell's chime. The \"Chime Pro\" is an extended version that also doubles as a wireless repeater for Wi-Fi",
"-28.54634838089987"
],
[
"the next day.\nDuring the night, a fire broke out in the house and the bulldog was the first to be awakened. The old dog became alarmed and ran from room to room tugging at the sheets of the bed to wake the students and the owner. Once the owner and the students had assembled outside, they were horrified to discover that one boy was still in the house. By this time, the house was almost completely full of smoke. Before the boys had time to react, they saw the bulldog run back into the burning house. Moments later, the final",
"-28.50054578925483"
],
[
"family received mail, and the writers wanted to create a joke about the different types of mail each of the family get. After Bart's \"dog burning\" fantasy, when he hears a ship's horn in the distance, there was originally going to be a faint cry of \"more dogs\", but it was deemed that it took the joke too far. Hank Azaria ad-libbed the entire sequence during the credits in which Chief Wiggum and Lou sing along to \"Jammin'\". Cultural references The title is a reference to the novel and film The Caine Mutiny. The dog \"Laddie\" is a play on",
"-28.438011601101607"
],
[
"Sleeping Dogs (TV series) Sleeping Dogs is a late night programme aired on BBC Choice Wales that ran for two series from 2000 until 2001. The show consisted of an entertaining yet peculiar mix of short, quirky factual films featuring people from all walks of life from around Wales coupled with darkly surreal comic shorts.",
"-28.426553601428168"
],
[
"on the radio one evening, she hears interference in the form of a rustling noise over the music. She tries to get the music back by flipping switches and dials, but begins to hear the sounds of people from other apartments in the building. She is so surprised by this that she shuts off the radio. When Jim arrives home, he also tries the radio to get some music, but instead hears elevator noises and doorbells. Believing that the electronics in the building are interfering with the signal he turns the radio off, and determines to call the people who",
"-28.41348589147674"
],
[
"this, Mrs. Jones tries to call the United Press again until Mr. Jones says: \"Oh, no. No you don't! We're not going through that again!\" and hangs up the phone.\nMr. and Mrs. Jones continue to enjoy the music as we see them relaxing to it in their easy chairs. The narrator closes by saying the couple dare never to tell anyone of their unusual house pets.",
"-28.36292042263085"
],
[
"Please don't use phone any more. – A\". At night, a shadowy figure is subsequently seen opening a building's skylight, pouring liquid down, and resealing the opening.\nThe next morning Fletcher tells Noah that a young lady is coming for breakfast and Noah is unable to tell him that she's already arrived, \"oh, tried to very hard, sir, but you talk too fast\". Fletcher and Adrienne have a bantering conversation about wedding bells, because, as he puts it, \"it's high time\". Just then, ringing is heard and she says, \"there go your wedding bells now\". The ticker tape machine prints out",
"-28.28043834376149"
],
[
"similarly listens to the dog through the iPhone's microphone.",
"-28.154164644089178"
],
[
"and Horace are left, finally, to be alone in their room. Right before calling it a night, their 6 AM wakeup call arrives. They have to check out.",
"-28.128331475687446"
],
[
"nothing, will have a prank played on them\n so even in East Frisian-North German areas those who do not give anything can expect to have their doorbells rung later on in the evening or other similar 'joke'; equally those who do not sing, also get nothing.\nSince the end of the 1990s Martinisingen has had competition from Halloween as a result of shop advertising and the American TV series as well as the enthusiasm of a few teachers in primary schools and kindergartens, but the new festival, apart from discos, has been criticised and largely rejected, according to the newspaper, the",
"-28.080479103693506"
],
[
"dogs, much more soon.\" Some Bell fans voiced speculation that the phrase \"stay tuned\" may have been meant to indicate Bell's return to broadcasting in some form, but 2011 ended with no such announcement forthcoming, though shortly before Christmas he did report that a malfunctioning fire extinguisher in his radio room caused tens of thousands of dollars' worth of damage to his equipment and house.\nOn February 2, 2012, Art Bell joined an Art Bell Fan Forum named BellGab with the username \"Art Bell\". Art Bell fans can view the posts where Art Bell interacted with his fans up until the",
"-28.074687706801342"
],
[
"Off-hook tone United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, a warbling signal sounding rather like an alarm siren is played at steadily increasing volume to a telephone left off-hook and unused on telephone lines provided by the BT Group and many PABX extensions. It is sometimes referred to as a howler.\nIn some cases it is composed of the DTMF tones * and # played alternately.\nTelephone lines provided by NTL/Virgin Media tend to use the American style tones, including a recorded message.",
"-28.060319191310555"
],
[
"which was in need of countryside sound effects, and was first heard on-air during test transmissions between July and September 1992 prior to the launch of Classic FM. It has featured in a number of TV and radio reports including Countryfile in 2008 and on BBC Breakfast TV. Reception Some listeners have found the recording a relaxing alternative to other stations. However, other listeners have been annoyed by the sounds of crows crowing and gunshot-like sounds of wood cracking, as it expands in the morning sun. Several myths have appeared about some of the sounds heard in the",
"-27.967221459111897"
],
[
"The Phone Rings Every Night The Phone Rings Every Night (German: Nachts ging das Telefon) is a 1962 German drama film directed by Géza von Cziffra and starring Ingrid Andree, Karin Heske and Elke Sommer. Two rival gangs clash on a yacht in Saint-Tropez.",
"-27.966679208911955"
],
[
"is also often promoted as a means of incoming call recognition when the line often rings for other members of the household.",
"-27.90070614113938"
],
[
"Hi Honey, I'm Home! (titled after the catchphrase that male lead characters in some classic sitcoms said to their wives when returning home from work) focused on a 1950s sitcom family called the Nielsens, whose show has been removed from syndication, forcing the family to leave TV Land and move into a real 1990s suburban neighborhood, repeatedly confronting the family with a culture shock. The series aired on Fridays as part of ABC's TGIF lineup, with the episode being \"rerun\" on Nick at Nite in primetime on the following Sunday.\nIn 2008, the channel announced that it was developing a family-oriented",
"-27.813981900573708"
],
[
"is ringing when it's really not. ’Black Dog’ is like a fully fucking awesome motherfucker—this is when they got really heavy.”\nDavid Lynch (referring to the “Black Dog” pairing): We're bringing the thunder. We're bringing the tannin. We're bringing the viscosity. We're coming at you with guns blazing, with a Malbec from Argentina.",
"-27.802164385211654"
],
[
"they called them \"people in the Utility Room\" or the \"Butlers\". The camera men were referred to as 'the window cleaner' (due to them looking in on the proceedings).\nWhen celebrity guests were about to appear a doorbell sound effect was played, and when their time on the programme was up a distant car horn sound effect was played (this was supposed to be the guest's cab home).\nSegments were linked by canned footage of (supposedly) the mansion and its grounds with Securicor style security guards standing outside the front door. Champagne bottle In addition to the clock that all other phone-in",
"-27.780467865697574"
],
[
"the announcement (especially for individuals not fluent in English) the phrase was replaced with \"doors closing\" in 2004.\nIn 2011, the \"doors closing\" recording was replaced in post-refurbishment Metrocars with a simple beeping sound, similar to that of the London Underground. The train emits a solid 3-second beep when the doors are released, and a rapid 3-second beeping immediately before the doors are closed, in line with the 2010 UK Rail Vehicle Accessibility Regulations (RVAR).\nWhen the automated next station announcements were introduced they featured a female announcer, however during late 2014 this was replaced with a male announcer. Future Nexus has",
"-27.77947628032416"
],
[
"a dead letter, the bell continues to ring at the same time each night. If it stops being run, something seriously wrong will have arisen with regards to our respect for our heritage.\n\nSome years ago, there was some talk of demolishing the Peperbus because it was too difficult to repair. After fierce blowback from the community, the City Council agreed to leave the Peperbus alone but to provide electric night lighting to dissuade vandalism. Such wisdom deserves apt praise. And may the Peperbus bell sound out through the centuries the purest sounds and predict, like the healthy beat of a",
"-27.694544658239465"
],
[
"When the phone stops ringing, you're on the air; (2) Don't say \"Hello.\"\nMany fans and regular callers of the show have home-brewed their own electronic devices to aid in sending sound over the phone.\nLeidecker has continued to present the show using Joyce's original format, including receptacle programming. He asks that callers try to use Skype and avoid calling in on their cellphones, for better sound quality. Topics Joyce typically followed one theme for an entire program. Topics vary wildly, from motion pictures, to various music and copyright issues and the CIA; one episode each was devoted to Ken Nordine and",
"-27.606518598797265"
],
[
"The Babaloos Series The show is about a group of home appliances that live in a suburban house. They are nocturnal, meaning they are able to sleep in the day and be awake in the night. Among these characters are staunch Mrs. Fork, gentle Spoon, cheerful Mr. Bowl, curious Baby Towel, his caring mother Mommy Towel, and adventurous and intelligent Pencil. In each episode, they encounter an everyday problem that they must conquer before Kevin, the boy living in the house, wakes up.",
"-27.567505727580283"
],
[
"up a telegraph line between their houses to send messages to each other, although they had to call each other on the telephone due to the confusing messages sent back and forth. During one summer, Doc and Skinner started an elderberry business to gather berries and sell them door to door. They had found out that when they picked the ripe berries, the unripe ones came off the branches too, so they built a device that was able to separate them. The device was a bent piece of metal to form a trough. They would pour water",
"-27.53504930064082"
],
[
"personal answering service for the residents, and would volunteer before ringing the number if someone was at home, and if they weren't, where they were, or when they'd be home. For the first time, subscribers heard a dial tone upon lifting the receiver, instead of the familiar question: \"number please.\"",
"-27.48061183281243"
],
[
"caller's claims, but only offered a forum where they would not be openly ridiculed. Bell was one of only a few talk show hosts who did not screen incoming calls, but this changed in 2006. On the October 31, 2006 edition of Coast to Coast AM, (renamed for the night to Ghost to Ghost AM), Bell was asked why he was now using call-screeners. The explanation given was that for him to use un-screened open phone lines while in the Philippines would require listeners to call there directly at enormous cost to them. Art admitted that he should have chosen",
"-27.443690117477672"
],
[
"police phone in the old booth.\nWith the help of Curly Messer, who was a deputy sheriff at the time, Mirabella moved the phone booth to its current site on U.S. 98. The booth did protect the officers from the elements, but some people still sneaked into it to make long distance calls. Eventually the dial was removed from the phone, making it impossible for tourists to make calls.\nIt has been featured on television shows Real People, Ripley's Believe It or Not!, The Today Show, and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. It was featured in the movie Tate's Hell, which",
"-27.322151895263232"
],
[
"film. This feature would result in the production team chorusing \"Don't phone, it's just for fun!\" which was a Chris Evans creation, initially used on his radio shows before he shot to fame on The Big Breakfast. Question of the Day A phone-in feature encouraging viewers to provide humorous answers throughout the morning to a pertinent (or occasionally inane) question. At one point it was accompanied by a fanfare, apparently played on the trumpet by \"little Ted\" beneath the camera (in fact a member of the team waving a toy trumpet in shot). One morning's question was \"What should the",
"-27.32098497543484"
],
[
"waking himself up. He tries a better alarm clock than his older one, which didn't work, a wind-up clock. He put it under his bed so he would have to get out of bed to find it. But with the clock ticking loudly under his bed, he feels like he is on top of a bomb and therefore gets no sleep. As a result, Greg accidentally sets off the fire alarm at school in his sleep-deprived state. The entire school has to evacuate, and the fire brigade is called. After everyone goes back in, the head teacher says that whoever",
"-27.290649508067872"
],
[
"Something Happened on the Way to Heaven Music video A dog is napping in a meadow, dreaming of being in a silent movie in which it saves a woman tied to a set of railroad tracks from being run over by a train. The opening of the song is heard faintly in the distance, coming from the open back door of a concert hall, and the dog wakes up and ventures inside. Here, Collins and his band do a sound check and then perform the song as the dog explores the facility, eating from the band's buffet table, climbing among",
"-27.092882870012545"
],
[
"home of the late M. H. Mason, a local eccentric known for his antique dolls, puppets, and morbid taxidermy displays. Once at the house Catherine is greatly unsettled by Mason's elderly niece Edith, her maid Maude, the house, and its contents. She is pressured to stay by both Edith and Maude, and reluctantly chooses to stay, despite her own reservations about everything. That night Catherine hears several odd noises that sounds like people walking around during the night, an occurrence that Edith later tries to explain away as Maude walking about. However these noises are only the first of",
"-27.07062563020736"
],
[
"a phone receiver is left off-hook, sometimes this message is played:\nIf you'd like to make a call, please hang up and try again. If you need help, hang up, and then dial your operator.\nThe message may be repeated, then followed by a loud, obnoxious rasping off-hook tone intended to remain audible even if the handset is on the desktop instead of at the subscriber's ear. This tone is louder than the standard busy/fast busy signal.\nAnother version of this recording is sometimes heard:\nThe time allotted for you to dial has been exceeded. Please hang up and try your call again.\nThe message",
"-27.06462132348679"
],
[
"outside his window by disguising himself as a dog and barking, then tries sleeping in different positions (along with sleeping with his face on pillow until he can't breath), then watches a chess game on TV. As he nearly falls asleep, he becomes startled when the television channel cuts to a Bodyform advertisement featuring loud rock music. Finally, he takes out a picture of a flock of sheep and begins counting them, first with his finger and then, after losing count a few times, with the assistance of a calculator. When he sees the number of sheep (albeit inaccurate) on",
"-27.064419015565363"
],
[
"has no intention of staying up for the whole night and ties a tripwire to the bedpost, also connecting it to the bell, so that if Daffy starts sleepwalking again the bell will wake up both Daffy and Speedy. Sure enough, Daffy begins sleepwalking and trips the bell, which wakes Speedy who then starts frantically ringing it himself to make it look like he was on guard. Afterwards, Daffy goes to sleep again, though not before Speedy makes him pay another five pesos for his continued services.\nAs dawn breaks, Daffy starts sleepwalking again, but this time he gets out of",
"-27.01729871763382"
],
[
"program, WVTK changed the name of the morning show to \"The Wake-Up Crew with Bruce & Hobbes.\"\nAs of 2011, Hobbes was the only full-time, canine, morning radio-show host in the United States. A domestic violence survivor, the dog has become arguably the most prominent canine in Vermont history. Since joining the staff of WVTK, Hobbes has been made an honorary police K-9 in three Vermont communities, and four departments - Middlebury, Vergennes and Bristol. The dog is also an honorary deputy sheriff in the Addison County Sheriff's Department. In 2011, Hobbes made history when he became the first",
"-27.004376903991215"
],
[
"the window, and it sticks on a pole. Porky, half-asleep and thinking it is cold in the room, asks Sylvester to close the window \"like a good kitty\". Sylvester proceeds to do so, himself barely awake and walking on thin air, as the pole springs the bed back into the room. Sylvester closes a tiny curtain on a birdhouse, gets back into the bed that isn't there and falls to the ground. He comes through the bedroom door with a big lump on his head. At that moment, he sees that the mice are about to drop an anvil on",
"-26.94932558410801"
],
[
"Noise (TV programming block) Noise (のいず Noizu) was a Fuji TV late night anime programming block, broadcast each Wednesday night from 26:08 to 26:38. It is Fuji TV's second late night anime-themed time block, after noitaminA, which airs every Thursday night. It first began on October 15, 2008, with Michiko to Hatchin. After broadcasting three anime series, the block was cancelled on favor of extending noitaminA which started airing two productions at once instead of only one.",
"-26.944745469023474"
],
[
"high school. But the last straw for The Dog House came on April 21, 2005, when station management fired the show after they made offensive comments toward two female members of the San Francisco Renegades Drum and Bugle Corps. The band's members, Lisa Johnson and Robin Kinoshita, were at the station to promote an annual fundraiser when JV and Elvis allegedly made lewd remarks towards them. JV has since returned to KYLD as their morning host.\nOn August 6, 2008, KYLD PD Jazzy Jim Archer and evening host Joe Breezy were fired over an April Fool's Day 2008 prank, in which",
"-26.908734429001925"
],
[
"\"I hear the blues a-callin\", for example, refers to troubled listeners who call the show. Grammer recorded several variations of the final spoken line of the theme, which were rotated for each of the episodes. Other than season finales, a short, silent scene, often revisiting a small subplot aside from the central story of the episode, appears with the credits and song, which the actors performed without written dialogue based on the scriptwriter's suggestion.\nThe title card at the start of each episode shows a white line being drawn in the shape of the Seattle skyline on a black background",
"-26.901426577591337"
],
[
"separate room below the bell chamber to house the ringers. Etymology The word belfry comes from Old French berfrei or beffroi, which is derived from Proto-Germanic *bergan \"to protect\" and *frithuz \"peace\"; that is, it was originally a watch tower providing protection against hostile incursions. In larger towns, watchmen in these towers were also on the lookout for fires. Though flags were used by the watchmen for communication, these towers usually contained an alarm bell or bells built into a Bell-Cot, thus Middle English speakers thought berfrei had something to do with bells: they altered it to belfry, an interesting",
"-26.88984184130095"
],
[
"she is sound asleep. A strange mildew smell is in the bedroom. Carnacki investigates the house, including the three cellars, but can find no explanation.\nThe opening of the door happens again the following night, and this time while Carnacki is speaking to his mother the two of them hear a door slam twice downstairs. The smell of mildew is powerful as Carnacki investigates the house. More doors are heard slamming in the night, but Carnacki can find nothing. The next day, he consults the landlord, and learns something of the house's mysterious history, which includes a former tenant named Captain",
"-26.872463900916046"
],
[
"section, the sound of an old-fashioned clock alarm ringing goes off a few times. In the coda, a group of sound effects are heard, including a BOING!! heard before the last group of orchestral chords. Cultural references In a sixth-season episode of the television series M*A*S*H (\"Your Hit Parade\"), the tune is played over the public announcement system during a particularly grueling session in the operating room. B.J. Hunnicutt mistakenly identifies it as \"The Musical Clock.\"",
"-26.857807974913158"
],
[
"visitor to keep ringing the doorbell. A Nero Wolfe Mystery (A&E Network) Executive producer Michael Jaffe adapted The Doorbell Rang for the series premiere of A Nero Wolfe Mystery (2001–2002), a Jaffe/Braunstein Films coproduction with the A&E Network. The first of four Nero Wolfe episodes directed by executive producer and star Timothy Hutton, \"The Doorbell Rang\" made its debut April 22, 2001, on A&E.\nTimothy Hutton is Archie Goodwin; Maury Chaykin is Nero Wolfe. Other members of the cast are Debra Monk (Rachel Bruner), Francie Swift (Sarah Dacos), Colin Fox (Fritz Brenner), Saul Rubinek (Lon Cohen), Conrad Dunn (Saul Panzer), Fulvio",
"-26.812691152146726"
],
[
"home. Often a home will have telephone outlets in the kitchen, study, living room or bedrooms for convenience. Telephone company regulations may limit the total number of telephones that can be in use at one time. The telephone cabling typically uses two pair twisted cable terminated onto a telephone plug. The cabling is typically installed as a daisy chain starting from the point where the telephone company connects to the home or outlets may each be wired back to the entrance. Distributed audio Distributed audio provides music throughout the house, where the music sources are all centralized. Rooms are provided",
"-26.78929880145006"
],
[
"A Dog's Show A Dog's Show is a New Zealand television series featuring sheepdog trials, presented by John Gordon. For many years it screened on TV ONE on Sundays at 6pm (before the evening news). It was broadcast between 1977 and 1992. Reruns were screened on TVNZ 6 (at 11:00pm) while that station was broadcasting. The show was replaced in 1993 by Tux Wonder Dogs (which screened until 1999, and again 2004-2005). Theme Music The theme music was an instrumental version of the Statler Brothers song Flowers on the Wall. Of note, this soundtrack was also used in the",
"-26.78628813708201"
],
[
"conditioning era.\nSecondary characteristics of the dogtrot house includes placement of the chimneys, staircases, and porches. Chimneys were almost always located at each gable end of the house, with each serving one of the two main rooms. If the house was 1½ or the rarer two stories, the necessary staircase was usually at least partially enclosed or boxed in. The stairway was most commonly placed in one or both of the main rooms, although it was sometimes placed in the open hallway. Although some houses had only the open central hall and flanking rooms, most dogtrots",
"-26.772982992057223"
],
[
"Dog In the summer of 1992, while Francesa was on vacation at the Breakers, in Palm Beach, Florida, Russo jokingly started the show by saying, \"Welcome to....and the Mad Dog\", leaving silence where the \"Mike\" should have been. Francesa was furious, calling several station bigwigs and demanding an apology. On another occasion, Francesa returned from a vacation a day early, hoping to rejoin Russo on the air; Russo, savoring the solo airtime, accused Francesa of trying to horn in on his time. There was a great deal of shouting, and during a closed-door cool-down meeting with WFAN executives they nearly",
"-26.760832863652467"
],
[
"order to locate the bathroom, and then once the man in room 425 leaves, he uses his drill to cut a giant hole in the wall in order for him to gain access to the bathroom.\nOnce again, the noise is heard throughout the hotel, and the vibration travels all the way to the lobby and restaurant, prompting the manager (Roger Brierley) to investigate where it is coming from. Just as he knocks on the door to Mr. Bean's room, the man from room 425 complains that he left his watch in the bathroom but can't get the door open. The",
"-26.749292649095878"
],
[
"that the guard dog, having escaped from the ticket booth, has sneaked into the back of his Mini after Bean squeaked the toy. As he drives off, Bean squeaks the toy again and the dog barks, shocking Bean. Production The entire episode was filmed on location at Clarence Pier, Southsea. This is one of only two episodes to be filmed entirely on location with one storyline and the last episode to be directed by Paul Weiland. The other episode-length story, Mr. Bean in Room 426, was also filmed in Southsea. This is also the last episode in the series to",
"-26.70079244291992"
],
[
"the art houses\" there.\nCleese later recalled a scene, \"there was a scene where I had to make a call from a public phone booth. None of the phones worked and I had to go from booth to booth with increasing fury before I found one that did. In England, that scene got a big laugh because no one here expects the phones to work. But it played to total silence in America, where they all expect to get through on a phone the first time.\"",
"-26.661393436043"
],
[
"of dog (as opposed to a generic model) along with barking sounds and movements.\nThe toyline was discontinued in 2002; however, the 2010 series of the same name was produced by Hasbro Studios and aired on The Hub in 2010.\nThe toyline was relaunched in 2014 by Funrise and they are still available in stores today. 1986 TV series After the TV special became successful, Hanna-Barbera gained the rights to create an animated TV series. The series was broadcast on ABC from September 1986 to February 1989. While the series was loosely based on the special, it made no mention of the",
"-26.658292847918347"
],
[
"Busy signal The Beep-Beep Line or Jam Line In the early 1960s through the early 1980s, a telephone busy signal provided an early form of social media in many cities and towns of the United States called the \"Jam Line\" or \"Beep Line.\" Due to a flaw in the telephone switching equipment, teenagers discovered they could talk to each other over the busy signal, often exchanging phone numbers, mostly for the purpose of dating. Common phone numbers for this to form on were popular radio station request lines, where teens would be calling in en masse to try to",
"-26.651535087323282"
],
[
"from, actual or imminently anticipated bad behaviour.\nIn a few towns in the United Kingdom, the curfew bell is still rung as a continuation of the medieval tradition where the bell used to be rung from the parish church to guide travelers safely towards a town or village as darkness fell, or when bad weather made it difficult to follow trackways and for the villagers to extinguish their lights and fires as a safety measure to combat accidental fires. Until 1100 it was against the law to burn any lights after the ringing of the curfew bell. In Morpeth, the curfew",
"-26.632577841170132"
],
[
"screeners and answer the phones himself—a format he called \"Chat With Bob\"—letting prank callers, and anyone who wanted to be on the radio at all, speak (although he would censor them if necessary). This would lead to an inordinant number of people calling in and flushing toilets or holding the receiver up to the radio to hear the show on the six second tape delay; Lassiter would frequently respond to these calls by mocking the lengthy period of time they would wait on hold (typically forty minutes to an hour) just to do something completely trivial. Monologues Although he was",
"-26.62511146342149"
],
[
"to work today, to which Daffy boxes himself (\"Now he tells me!\") before they drive home. When they climb back into the drawers to sleep, the alarm clock goes off again at 06:15. It gets shot by Porky, falls over and dies.",
"-26.622960477401648"
],
[
"House Calls: The Big Brother Talk Show Format In each show Gretchen and a guest host talk and answer viewer questions about events in the \"Big Brother\" household. Viewers are also able to send in emails to the show which are read on air and subscribers of the live Internet feed are able to submit questions to be chosen as the \"SuperPass Question of the Week\" which is discussed by the hosts. After each eviction, the evicted HouseGuest would join the hosts and answer viewer questions.\nDuring Big Brother: All-Stars the format was changed to include special guest hosts. This was",
"-26.613588219799567"
],
[
"watch them perform from his seat as if he was watching TV, Bean soon becomes bored and rudely shuts the door on them just as they finish the song before heading for bed. Act 3: Christmas Day The following morning, Bean wakes up excited to the fact it is Christmas morning, and proceeds to check the stockings – his turns out to be a sock of his filled with the other; Teddy's turns out to contain a tin that holds a pair of button eyes within; the mouse's turns out to have a piece of cheese that Bean immediately places",
"-26.57826397754252"
],
[
"to it being a sports orientated channel at the time, but after the 2011 rebrand to allow a wide range of content to be broadcast, the channel's DOG was moved to the bottom-right hand corner of the screen. The ABC3 and ABC Kids channels originally placed their DOGs in the top-left hand corner of the screen, but have since moved them down to the bottom-right hand corner as of late 2013. Datacasting channels and home shopping channels show their DOGs in the top-right hand corner of the screen.\nDOGs are generally shown in a semi-transparent format, but are shown opaque during",
"-26.56762627349235"
],
[
"the air. Much like newspaper classifieds, common \"Hog Calls\" are regarding items for sale or upcoming community events.\nAmong its most well known programs are \"Sunday Night Dead\" with Grateful Don Potter, \"Uncle Sherman's Dirty Boogie\" on Saturday nights, \"Please Stand By\" the in-studio live music show, on Sunday mornings. \"Please Stand By\", hosted by Sleepy John Sandidge, features local and world-famous Country, Folk, and Blues acts. The station also hosts several popular music festivals each year including the Humbug Hoedown in December, and is the radio volunteer for the free music festival each October in Golden Gate",
"-26.556353798572673"
],
[
"within the House, and also to the Secondary Realms. The ring is inaudible to mortals, save Arthur and Leaf. House telephones resemble an early form of terrestrial telephone, and seem to work in the same fashion, in that they require an operator. During Lady Friday, Superior Saturday attempts to prevent Arthur from using them; but as they fall under the authority of the Lower House, and their wiring under the authority of the Far Reaches, she has limited success. The telephone operators are especially willing to connect Arthur, as he is the only one to give them the courtesy of",
"-26.552051848033443"
],
[
"until 1999, showed DOGs throughout broadcasting. From 1991 the DOG was removed during advertisements. In 1999, the DOG was removed during the clock.\nMost DOGs are removed during advertisements, trade test transmissions or when a program is not aired. An exception to this is Intereconomia. Canal 3/24 did not remove their DOG during advertisements between 2011 and 2014. Thailand Thailand introduced DOGs in 1991. Thai TV logos are in full-color, and the logos are removed during commercial breaks, trade test transmissions, transitions between programs and when a Thai Royal Family member is shown during the broadcast. All Thai-based television",
"-26.508577512078773"
],
[
"them video footage of themselves that they didn't film, and even a duplicate of Scott who is trying to break into the house. Time is also distorted as they experience a night that doesn't seem to end, even though their clocks indicate it should be mid-morning. During one episode of terrifying noises outside, there is an urgent knocking on the door. Penny tells Scott to open it, and that it's Mr. Jones. Scott opens the door to find a masked figure who grabs Scott - but he is just trying to hold on in vain as strong winds suck him",
"-26.50254538207082"
],
[
"meta-communication in communication. Ivan Pavlov: Context as meta-signaling about primary signal Ivan Pavlov had learned that the ringing of the bell signaled \"food is on the way\" in his experiment in which dogs were trained to salivate upon hearing a bell ring. This was accomplished by ringing a bell just prior to feeding the dogs. After repeating this procedure for some time it was found that the dogs would salivate after hearing the bell - without the need for food being presented.\nSomething that is not often discussed in context with this experiment is the fact that the dogs would not",
"-26.489819471957162"
],
[
"atmosphere of openness and presence of mind in these spaces. In a similar fashion, the policy regarding cell phone usage is that they are encouraged to be used outside of the common areas. Snacks are sold each weeknight and ice cream on weekend nights. Due to the decrepit nature of the lodge and the difficulty of reducing noise, quiet hours are enforced between 11 PM and 7 AM. Each morning at breakfast, announcements are made by directors regarding the daily weather forecast as well as the upcoming program. Every week on Sunday evening the current theme for the week is",
"-26.47314003156498"
],
[
"the door behind him. Timms knocked at the door, but when no one answered, sent for a blacksmith and had the lock forced. According to author Edward Walford in Volume 4 of his \"Old and New London\" (1878):\n\"In the lower part (of the house) all was shut and silent, but on ascending the stairs they heard the moans of a person seemingly in distress. They went to the chamber, and there on an old pallet bed they found Mr. Elwes, apparently in the agonies of death. For some time he seemed quite insensible.\"\nHe remained in this condition until some \"cordials\"",
"-26.456572331575444"
],
[
"\"Hate to Get Up in the Morning\" as I did in the show, but the camera is a severe judge and I am afraid even with the great amount of care and fuss they can't improve what the Fates decreed to be a homely face. As for my voice, I made a recording. When the record was first played on the set, one of the electricians, who didn't know whose voice it was, said, \"If the guy who wrote that song could hear the record, he would turn over in his grave\"--which gives you a fair idea. ",
"-26.452934659086168"
],
[
"the 1940s and another design was also invented by Paul L. Schroth Sr. Clock radio A clock radio is an alarm clock and radio receiver integrated in one device. The clock may turn on the radio at a designated time to wake the user, and usually includes a buzzer alarm. Typically, clock radios are placed on the bedside stand. Some models offer dual alarm for awakening at different times and \"snooze\", usually a large button on the top that silences the alarm and sets it to resume sounding a few minutes later. Some clock radios also have a \"sleep\" timer,",
"-26.42996056069387"
],
[
"night, as the girls try to sleep, Gene's friend, Frog Millhouse (Smiley Burnette), makes wild animal noises to scare the girls into leaving the next day. One such noise sends Sandra into Gene's arms, and she asks him to sleep on the porch. The following day, Gene and Sandra go riding and come across the beautiful house and fertile land that is actually hers. Gene, who is falling in love with Sandra, is about to tell her the truth when she says she wants to lease the rocky land (Gene's) for her sheep.\nWhen Morgan learns about the sheep on Gene's",
"-26.40353978361236"
],
[
"shipment on time, and then commandeer a train full of napalm so they can return to Springfield.\nMeanwhile, back in Springfield, Marge feels that Homer always gets to go on better adventures while she is left at home; she and Lisa decide to be adventurous too and go to buy a musical doorbell which plays the song \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\". After installation, Lisa rings the doorbell, despite Marge's insistence that they should let visitors do the ringing first. The doorbell starts to malfunction and repeatedly plays the song. Marge attempts to cut the wires to the doorbell,",
"-26.382009742432274"
],
[
"A redesigned version of Santa's Little Helper can be seen sleeping atop his dog house a la Snoopy, while Homer is seen sleeping on top of the family house in a similar manner.\nWhen Marge first speaks, her voice is replaced with a muted trombone sound, a parody of the \"wah wah wah\" voice that is used for adults in all Peanuts specials. The dance scene during the Halloween party is a parody of the dance scene in A Charlie Brown Christmas right down to Kang and Kodos in a nonspeaking cameo as the twins \"3 and 4\". Parts of the",
"-26.37373113713693"
],
[
"is equipped to connect callers to the audio console and onto the air via a telephone hybrid. However, in modern broadcasting, this is not always the case.\nCall screeners may take the calls initially in an adjacent room (or simply away from the microphone), in order to determine which ones would get onto the air, particularly in the case of a talk show. Most call-in shows have special software which the screener types the caller's information into, which in turn appears on the computer in front of the host. This is how he or she knows how to introduce the caller",
"-26.3660988848751"
],
[
"set contained only the dial, a handset cradle with hook switch, and the handset positioned in the cradle, while the subscriber set contained the ringer and the electrical components to interface the unit with the telephone network.\nThe 102 telephone was plagued by problems with excessive sidetone, resulting in a poor experience for users hearing their own voice very loudly, and in extreme cases in early versions also unstable feedback from the receiver into the transmitter. This resulted in users lowering their voice to the point where the other party found them difficult to hear. This problem was resolved with a",
"-26.36221055741771"
],
[
"On\". Most of the story of Sleeping Dogs involves real people that were part of the Sun Yee On, but with changed names.",
"-26.33544230181724"
],
[
"Police Magistrate had to convey his documents to the old court house. On 1 July 1876 the Brisbane Courier's Gympie correspondent commented on the bad acoustics of the alcove behind the bench, stating that \"sounds as if a multitude of voices were speaking at the one time were heard all over the building, and caused much confusion ...directly a word is uttered, it is immediately sucked into the alcove, and smashed into fragments against the walls, the pieces being hurled back at the speaker\".\nFurniture was still a problem in 1881, when a letter of complaint from residents of Gympie noted",
"-26.28547325063846"
],
[
"combinations for the \"C\" type ringer found in the model 500 and 2500 landline telephone sets. These gongs provided \"distinctive tones\" for hearing-impaired customers and also made it possible to distinguish the specific telephone that was ringing when several telephones were placed in close proximity. A \"Bell Chime\" was also offered, which could be set to sound like a doorbell or to ring like a standard telephone.\nWhile rings, ringers, ring signals, or what might be viewed as the call signals which are the predecessors of ringtones, date back to the beginnings of telephony, modern ringtones appeared in the 1960s and",
"-26.283788530086895"
],
[
"was forced to pull it off the air and replace with a tamer version warning about the cost of giving a pet for Christmas, with a new rendition of \"How Much Is That Doggie In The Window?\" being sung by a young child and the shots of the revolver removed.\nAnother PIF by the RSPCA called \"My Little Puppy\" was made in 2001. The PIF shows why getting a dog is fun and exciting, then large words shows up saying \"My Little Puppy\". The voiceover then talks about the disadvantages of the dog, and shows it abandoned in a very unsanitary",
"-26.26066334458301"
],
[
"the basement, where coal and wine are kept. A coat rack originally also appeared here, but was later moved to the foyer. The window above the front door announces that you are at \"Skeldale House\", a feature that remains today. Regarding the clock: \"That clock should have been taken out and burnt,\" joked director Roderick Graham. \"When you are doing retakes, how do you sync the tick-tock from the previous take? It was a nightmare and would drown out the dialogue.\"\n\"The staircase went nowhere,\" revealed Peter Davison. \"If you had to run downstairs to answer the phone, it meant perching",
"-26.247671034285304"
],
[
"one of them might have been \"conceivably made by a dog\". He did state that none of the markings had been made by a mongoose.\nPrice visited the Irvings and observed double walls of wooden panelling covering the interior rooms of the old stone farmhouse which featured considerable interior air space between stone and wood walls that \"makes the whole house one great speaking-tube, with walls like soundingboards. By speaking into one of the many apertures in the panels, it should be possible to convey the voice to various parts of the house.\" According to Richard Wiseman \"Price and Lambert were",
"-26.23455578525318"
],
[
"shortly after a buzzer is sounded, for a number of times, the buzzer will come to elicit salivation, part of an emotional response. In operant conditioning, if a piece of food is presented to a dog after the dog makes a particular motor response, the dog will come to make that motor response more frequently. \nFor Staats, these two types of conditioning are not separate, they interact. A piece of food elicits an emotional response. A piece of food presented after the dog has made a motor response will have the effect of strengthening that motor response so that it",
"-26.219820092897862"
],
[
"get the phone book from the living room, which usually only takes a minute or two. However, when Rusty (who was talking the whole time) gets back into the living room, three hours have passed. Lisa lets Andrea have her room for the night and she sleeps on the couch in the living room. But the loud ticking from the clock keeps Lisa awake all night. Finally, near 3:00 am, she asks Andrea if she can sleep with her. Andrea says yes and tells Lisa to get her pillow from the living room. But when Lisa gets her pillow, the",
"-26.218127928033937"
]
] |
nycui | File names. Why can't Microsoft Office save or open files that have slashes or colons in their names? | [
"Slashes and colons are used as part of the *file system*; that is, the thing that tells the computer where to look for a file with that name. The Windows OS has been updated to distinguish between a slash in a filename and a \"meaningful\" slash, but MS Office has not. Before things like Windows and Macs existed, you had to make a computer do things by just typing commands. Spaces were \"meaningful\" when you typed in those commands, so it was impossible to have a filename with spaces in it. Because of that, some very old programs cannot handle filenames with spaces.",
"This just reminds me how much I hate whitespace. Fuck whitespace!",
"what alienangel2 said. I also remember when you couldn't give any file a name longer than 8 characters. so if you called something 'thisismyfile.txt, it would be automatically shortened to 'thisism~.txt'",
"In addition and like others have said, file names are limitations of the file system. The file system is like the drawer that holds the files. The drawer has sections and each section can only fit a certain kind of file. A legal sized file won't fit in a drawer that holds letter sized documents. As a holdover from the days of the beginnings of Windows, many filename characters are not permitted such as < > ?!: etc., that is because the file system is not equipped to handle those types. Using Microsoft Office on a Mac, you could save all kinds of filenames, save for those with a colon. This is because Classic Mac OS uses colons to separate files. The newer Mac OS uses colons at the basic system level, so it is reserved. All other types are permitted.",
"Slashes are used as a command parameter for programs which run on command prompt. Colons are used to write a list of files to perform an action on command prompt, like copy or save. \" < \", \" > \" and \"|\" are used to join commands and/or send the output of them somewhere else. \"?\" and \"*\" are masks that allow you to make a search for something you don't quite know or for all files. Backslash is used to separate the folders on command prompt. **TL;DR: These characters are used on the command prompt.**"
] | [
[
"file systems, filenames are not case sensitive (i.e., the names MYFILE and myfile refer to the same file); in others, filenames are case sensitive (i.e., the names MYFILE, MyFile, and myfile refer to three separate files).\nMost modern file systems allow filenames to contain a wide range of characters from the Unicode character set. However, they may have restrictions on the use of certain special characters, disallowing them within filenames; those characters might be used to indicate a device, device type, directory prefix, file path separator, or file type. Directories File systems typically have directories (also called folders) which allow the",
"-28.374866051861318"
],
[
"unique filenames allow dupecheck to work properly. There's a defined character set which can be used in naming of the folders. The selected character set is chosen to minimize problems due to the many platforms a release may encounter during its distribution. Since FTP servers, operating systems or file systems may not allow special characters in file or directory names, only a small set of characters is allowed. Substitutions are made where special characters would normally be used (e.g. ç replaced by c) or these characters are omitted, such as an apostrophe. This can happen automatically by site scripts. As",
"-27.992784582544118"
],
[
"filenames consisted of a maximum of eight characters from a restricted character set (e.g. no spaces), followed by a period, followed by three more characters. In order to permit these legacy programs to access files in the FAT file system, each file had to be given two names—one long, more descriptive one, and one that conformed to the 8.3 format. This was accomplished with a name-mangling scheme in which the first six characters of the filename are followed by a tilde and a digit. For example, \"Program Files\" might become \"PROGRA~1\".\nThe tilde symbol is also often used",
"-27.219026108286926"
],
[
"are typically accessed using names (filenames). In some operating systems, the name is associated with the file itself. In others, the file is anonymous, and is pointed to by links that have names. In the latter case, a user can identify the name of the link with the file itself, but this is a false analogue, especially where there exists more than one link to the same file.\nFiles (or links to files) can be located in directories. However, more generally, a directory can contain either a list of files or a list of links to files. Within this",
"-26.89711942151189"
],
[
"directory will not be created.\nIf the /NFL (no file names in log) option is not used, the files being copied will be listed after the name of the directory they are in.\nAt the end of the output is a table giving numbers of directories, files, and bytes. For each of these, the table gives the total number found in the source, the number \"copied\" (but this includes directories marked \"New Dir\" even if they are not copied), the number \"skipped\" (because they already exist in the target), and the number of \"mismatches\", \"FAILED\", and \"extras\". \"Failed\" can mean that there",
"-26.825328494684072"
],
[
"directory tree. Filename IV chaining When enabled, the initialization vector for filename encryption is derived from the file's parent directories, causing two files with the same name — but in different directories — to have different encrypted filenames.\nIf a directory is renamed, all files and directories contained therein will need to have their encrypted filenames re-encrypted, which can be an expensive operation. This option should be disabled if heavily populated directories will be renamed often. Per-file IV initialization vector When enabled, each file is encrypted with a random 8-byte initialization vector, which is stored within the encrypted file in the",
"-26.670121276722057"
],
[
"cannot see these names. Using older versions of DOS utilities to manipulate files means that the long names are not visible and are lost if files are moved or renamed, as well as by the copy (but not the original), if the file is copied. During a Windows 95 automatic upgrade of an older Windows 3.1 system, DOS and third-party disk utilities which can destroy long file names are identified and made unavailable. When Windows 95 is started in DOS mode, e.g. for running DOS programs, low-level access to disks is locked out. In case the need arises to depend",
"-26.531017763569253"
],
[
"the filename by itself retrieves the most recent version, while prior saved version can be accessed using a special naming convention such as \"filename;4\" or \"filename(-4)\" to access the version four saves ago.\nSee comparison of file systems#Metadata for details on which file systems support which kinds of metadata. File system as an abstract user interface In some cases, a file system may not make use of a storage device but can be used to organize and represent access to any data, whether it is stored or dynamically generated (e.g. procfs). Utilities File systems include utilities to initialize, alter parameters of",
"-26.329627605382484"
],
[
"A, grave combining). Letter case preservation Some filesystems, such as FAT, store filenames as upper-case regardless of the letter case used to create them. For example, a file created with the name \"MyName.Txt\" or \"myname.txt\" would be stored with the filename \"MYNAME.TXT\". Any variation of upper and lower case can be used to refer to the same file. These kinds of file systems are called case-insensitive and are not case-preserving. Some filesystems prohibit the use of lower case letters in filenames altogether.\nSome file systems store filenames in the form that they were originally created; these are referred to as case-retentive",
"-26.156996919642552"
],
[
"for filename extensions to not be displayed. Malicious users have tried to spread computer viruses and computer worms by using file names formed like LOVE-LETTER-FOR-YOU.TXT.vbs. The hope is that this will appear as LOVE-LETTER-FOR-YOU.TXT, a harmless text file, without alerting the user to the fact that it is a harmful computer program, in this case, written in VBScript. Default behavior for ReactOS is to display filename extensions in ReactOS Explorer.\nLater Windows versions (starting with Windows XP Service Pack 2 and Windows Server 2003) included customizable lists of filename extensions that should be considered \"dangerous\" in certain \"zones\" of",
"-26.143429546558764"
],
[
"file names are listed alongside their short filename aliases in DIR listings. If an entry exists for a file, it will be copied and moved with the file for as long as these command line processors are used to perform the operation. This scheme is still maintained by successors such as 4OS2, 4NT / Take Command. It was adopted also by various other programs like Volkov Commander (VC), DOS Navigator (DN), Open DOS Navigator (ODN), Necromancer's DOS Navigator (NDN), Windows Commander, Total Commander, Double Commander, 7-Zip, XnView, ACDSee, Newsbin Pro, V, FreeCOM and some CUI_LIB-based applications.\nHuman68K, the operating system of",
"-26.079388910042326"
],
[
"share the same features and restrictions as the filesystem containing the source directory. No support for very long filenames Due to encryption, the filenames for encrypted files produced by EncFS are longer than the original filenames. Therefore, filenames whose length is close to the maximum supported by the filesystem cannot be stored by EncFS, since they will exceed the length limit after encryption. Most filesystems limit filenames to 255 bytes; in that case, EncFS only supports filenames up to 190 bytes. General security concerns Anyone having access to the source directory is able to see how many files are in",
"-25.80016021319898"
],
[
"is mostly intended for the human user. \nIt is more common, especially in binary files, for the file itself to contain internal metadata describing its contents.\nThis model generally requires the full filename to be provided in commands, whereas the metadata approach often allows the extension to be omitted.\nThe VFAT, NTFS, and ReFS file systems for Windows also do not separate the extension metadata from the rest of the file name, and allow multiple extensions.\nWith the advent of graphical user interfaces, the issue of file management and interface behavior arose. Microsoft Windows allowed multiple applications to be associated with a given",
"-25.617890788067598"
],
[
"then only removes the first filename.\nOther filesystems, by design, provide only one filename per file, which guarantees that alteration of one filename's file does not alter the other filename's file. Length restrictions Some filesystems restrict the length of filenames. In some cases, these lengths apply to the entire file name, as in 44 characters on IBM S/370. In other cases, the length limits may apply to particular portions of the filename, such as the name of a file in a directory, or a directory name. For example, 9 (e.g., 8-bit FAT in Standalone Disk BASIC), 11 (e.g. FAT12, FAT16, FAT32",
"-25.556122494951524"
],
[
"file whose name is myfile and prints it to the screen. It is generally not a good idea to look for files this way. This can take a considerable amount of time, so it is best to specify the directory more precisely. Some operating systems may mount dynamic file systems that are not congenial to find. More complex filenames including characters special to the shell may need to be enclosed in single quotes. Search all but one subdirectory tree $ find / -path excluded_path -prune -o -type f -name myfile -print\nThis searches every directory except the subdirectory tree excluded_path (full",
"-25.53317055568914"
],
[
"stored as one file without being separated into pieces, similar to files on a Microsoft Windows system after a drive has been defragmented), while \"P\" indicates it is specially protected (cannot be deleted, even by a privileged user, unless the P bit is cleared by separate command). The numbers in brackets (like \"< 40>\") represent the protections for the file, which is always displayed in decimal. Protections indicate if the file may be seen by any other user, by other users with the same programmer number, if the file is read only or if it may be altered by another",
"-25.518154570600018"
],
[
"(plus a three-character extension) with no spaces, for example, whereas NTFS allows much longer names that can contain spaces. You can call a file \"Payroll records\" in NTFS, but in FAT you would be restricted to something like payroll.dat (unless you were using VFAT, a FAT extension allowing long file names).\nFile manager programs are utility programs that allow users to manipulate files directly. They allow you to move, create, delete and rename files and folders, although they do not actually allow you to read the contents of a file or store information in it. Every computer system provides at least",
"-25.433302924153395"
],
[
"to package software for easier distribution and installation than binary executables. Filename extension The DOS and Windows operating systems required filenames to include an extension (of at least one, and typically 3 characters) to identify the file type and use. Filename extensions must be unique for each type of file. Many operating systems identify a file's type from its contents without the need for an extension in its name. However, the use of three-character extensions has been embraced as a useful and efficient shorthand for identifying file types. Integrity check Archive files are often stored on magnetic media, which is",
"-25.41067051043501"
],
[
"for instance, be easily treated as plain text by renaming it from filename.html to filename.txt. Although this strategy was useful to expert users who could easily understand and manipulate this information, it was often confusing to less technical users, who could accidentally make a file unusable (or \"lose\" it) by renaming it incorrectly.\nThis led more recent operating system shells, such as Windows 95 and Mac OS X, to hide the extension when listing files. This prevents the user from accidentally changing the file type, and allows expert users to turn this feature off and display the extensions.\nHiding the extension, however,",
"-25.399354536290048"
],
[
"name without the version number, in which case the most recent instance of the file is opened. \nThe \"purge\" DCL/CCL command can be used at any time to manage the number of versions in a specific directory. By default, all but the highest numbered versions of all files in the current directory will be deleted; this behavior can be overridden with the /keep=n switch and/or by specifying directory path(s) and/or filename patterns. VMS systems are often scripted to purge user directories on a regular schedule; this is sometimes misconstrued by end-users as a property of the versioning system.",
"-25.264656654006103"
],
[
"number allocation, this may not be the case (e.g. on FreeBSD 5 and up).\nAs with other special file types, the computer system accesses device nodes using standard system calls and treats them like regular computer files. Two standard types of device files exist; unfortunately their names are rather counter-intuitive for historical reasons, and explanations of the difference between the two are often incorrect as a result. Character devices Character special files or character devices provide unbuffered, direct access to the hardware device. They do not necessarily allow programs to read or write single characters at a time; that is up",
"-25.226459927580436"
],
[
"can create the appearance of two or more identical filenames in the same folder. For example, a company logo may be needed both in .eps format (for publishing) and .png format (for web sites). With the extensions visible, these would appear as the unique filenames: \"CompanyLogo.eps\" and \"CompanyLogo.png\". On the other hand, hiding the extensions would make both appear as \"CompanyLogo\", which can lead to confusion.\nHiding extensions can also pose a security risk. For example, a malicious user could create an executable program with an innocent name such as \"Holiday photo.jpg.exe\". The \".exe\" would be hidden and an unsuspecting user",
"-25.195890936811338"
],
[
"of the name rather than the entire name. Many Windows applications are limited to a MAX_PATH value of 260, but Windows file names can easily exceed this limit . Filename extensions Many file systems, including FAT, NTFS, and VMS systems, allow a filename extension that consists of one or more characters following the last period in the filename, dividing the filename into two parts: a base name or stem and an extension or suffix used by some applications to indicate the file type. Multiple output files created by an application use the same basename and various extensions. For example, a",
"-25.18239629402524"
],
[
"In Mac OS X, the names of aliases are no longer italicized, but the arrow badge remains. Additionally, an alias retains its dynamic reference to an object and does not have to be specified even when calling files on remote servers. History To execute an application or render a file in early graphical user interfaces, the user had to click on the representation of the actual file or executable in the location where the application or file was. The concept of disassociating the executable from the icon representing an instruction to perform a task associated with that file or executable",
"-25.169776984781493"
],
[
"problem with older Windows versions (95, 98, ME) that see all-uppercase filenames if this extension has been used, and therefore can change the capitalization of a file when it is transported, such as on a USB flash drive. This can cause problems for operating systems that do not exhibit the case-insensitive filename behavior as DOS and Windows do. Current (>2.6) versions of Linux will recognize this extension when reading; the mount option shortname determines whether this feature is used when writing.",
"-25.106674195325468"
],
[
"and program languages still support this convention, or can be configured to insert this character at the end of a file when editing, or at least properly cope with them in text files. In such cases, it is often termed a \"soft\" EOF, as it does not necessarily represent the physical end of the file, but is more a marker indicating that \"there is no useful data beyond this point\". In reality, more data may exist beyond this character up to the actual end of the data in the file system, thus it can be used to hide file content",
"-25.06610762415221"
],
[
"Uniqueness Within a single directory, filenames must be unique. Since the filename syntax also applies for directories, it is not possible to create a file and directory entries with the same name in a single directory. Multiple files in different directories may have the same name.\nUniqueness approach may differ both on the case sensitivity and on the Unicode normalization form such as NFC, NFD.\nThis means two separate files might be created with the same text filename and a different byte implementation of the filename, such as L\"\\x00C0.txt\" (UTF-16, NFC) (Latin capital A with grave) and L\"\\x0041\\x0300.txt\" (UTF-16, NFD) (Latin capital",
"-24.97183711057005"
],
[
"of Windows 2000, XP and Windows Server 2003) matching the logon name of the user. Should a folder of that name already exist, the profile-creation process will create a new one, typically named username.computername, on workgroup computers, or username.domainname on Active Directory member computers.\nOnce a profile folder has been created, Windows will never automatically rename that folder. Thus if the username itself is subsequently changed, the profile folder will remain as is, and the profile will no longer match the username, which could lead to confusion. For this reason, the administrator might want to avoid renaming user accounts if at",
"-24.909972953639226"
],
[
"X# program files must begin with a namespace directive. X# lacks a namespace hierarchy, so any directive will change the current namespace until it's changed again or the file ends. Variables or constants in different namespaces may have the same name as the namespace is prefixed to the member's name on assembly output. Namespaces cannot reference each other except through \"cheats\" using native-assembly-level operations.\nnamespace FIRST// Everything variable or constant name will be prefixed with FIRST and an underscore. Hence the true full name of the below variable// is FIRST_aVar.var aVarnamespace SECOND// It's not a problem to name another variable aVar.",
"-24.900356398749864"
],
[
"attempt is made to create too many files with the same first six letters. Also, one is more likely to encounter issues creating files or folders in the root directory, since FAT12 and FAT16 only allocate space for 512 root directory entries on hard disks. Since long filenames use more than one directory entry, this problem may occur with fewer than 512 files or folders in the root directory. There is space only for 25 long filenames of maximum length (512/20). This problem does not exist for FAT32 volumes.\nThe long filename system allows a maximum length of 255 UCS-2",
"-24.89899469795637"
],
[
"a removable media). This takes longer but a backup of the data is a nice side effect. Long file paths and long file names In hierarchical file systems, files are accessed by means of a path that is a branching list of directories containing the file. Different file systems have different limits on the depth of the path. File systems also have a limit on the length of an individual filename.\nCopying files with long names or located in paths of significant depth from one file system to another may cause undesirable results. This depends on how the utility doing the",
"-24.888807412964525"
],
[
"while the page title remains designed for display and human readability, its slug may be optimized for brevity or for consumption by search engines. Long page titles may also be truncated to keep the final URL to a reasonable length.\nSlugs may be entirely lowercase, with accented characters replaced by letters from the English alphabet and whitespace characters replaced by a dash or an underscore to avoid being encoded. Punctuation marks are generally removed, and some also remove short, common words such as conjunctions. For example, the original title This, That, and the Other! An Outré Collection would have a generated",
"-24.885711862312746"
],
[
"more modular.\nData storage devices and many modern programming languages support namespaces. Storage devices use directories (or folders) as namespaces. This allows two files with the same name to be stored on the device so long as they are stored in different directories. In some programming languages (e.g. C++, Python), the identifiers naming namespaces are themselves associated with an enclosing namespace. Thus, in these languages namespaces can nest, forming a namespace tree. At the root of this tree is the unnamed global namespace.",
"-24.855173135874793"
],
[
"viruses and other clandestinely installed software to integrate themselves with the operating system in a way that is difficult for ordinary users to detect or undo. The profile support in the Windows 9x family is meant for convenience only; unless some registry keys are modified, the system can be accessed by pressing \"Cancel\" at login, even if all profiles have a password. Windows 95's default login dialog box also allows new user profiles to be created without having to log in first.\nUsers and software can render the operating system unable to function by deleting or overwriting important system files",
"-24.755842777041835"
],
[
"which relies on randomly generated filenames to link them. Not only does this exacerbate the issue of knowing exactly what is in an MXF file without specialized tools, but it breaks the functionality of standard desktop computer techniques which are generally used to manipulate data on a level as fundamental as moving, copying, renaming, and deleting. Using a randomly generated filename is uninformative to the user, but changing the name breaks the loose database structure between files.\nFurthermore, the currently popular MXF export tools (i.e. the ones that are free or cost the least) will not allow the user to create",
"-24.71477112386492"
],
[
"other file systems with hash-ordered directories such as ReiserFS, ext3 (with Htree-indexes enabled) and ext4, all of which have TEA-hashed filenames. To avoid this, each directory entry has a directory index item, whose right-hand key value of the item is set to a per-directory counter that increments with each new directory entry. Iteration over these index items thus returns entries in roughly the same order as they are stored on disk.\nBesides inode items, files and directories also have a reference item whose right-hand key value is the object id of their parent directory. The data part of the",
"-24.70043750484183"
],
[
"characters, which are rarely used today; for 8-bit content, the character code 255, commonly defined as a nonbreaking space character, can be used instead of DEL.\nMany file systems do not allow control characters in the filenames, as they may have reserved functions.",
"-24.687829714646796"
],
[
"definition, it is of paramount importance that the term \"file\" includes directories. This permits the existence of directory hierarchies, i.e., directories containing sub-directories. A name that refers to a file within a directory must be typically unique. In other words, there must be no identical names within a directory. However, in some operating systems, a name may include a specification of type that means a directory can contain an identical name for more than one type of object such as a directory and a file.\nIn environments in which a file is named, a file's name and the",
"-24.678356382471975"
],
[
"the format has to be converted from filesystem to filesystem. While this is also true to an extent with filename extensions—for instance, for compatibility with MS-DOS's three character limit—most forms of storage have a roughly equivalent definition of a file's data and name, but may have varying or no representation of further metadata.\nNote that zip files or archive files solve the problem of handling metadata. A utility program collects multiple files together along with metadata about each file and the folders/directories they came from all within one new file (e.g. a zip file with extension .zip). The new file is",
"-24.65862588746677"
],
[
"no filenames is only checked before prog is run! If you explicitly set ARGC to 1 so that there are no arguments, awk will simply quit because it feels there are no more input files. Therefore, you need to explicitly say to read from standard input with the special filename -. Self-contained AWK scripts On Unix-like operating systems self-contained AWK scripts can be constructed using the shebang syntax.\nFor example, a script that prints the content of a given file may be built by creating a file named print.awk with the following content:\n#!/usr/bin/awk -f{ print $0 }\nIt can be invoked with:",
"-24.650003889357322"
],
[
"not only on file names, but also on the contents of the file (provided a proper handler for the file type is installed) as well as the keywords, comments and all other forms of metadata that Windows Search recognizes. For instance, searching the computer for \"The Beatles\" returns a list of music files on the computer which have \"The Beatles\" in their song titles, artists or album names, as well as any e-mails and documents that include the phrase \"The Beatles\" in their titles or contents.\nWindows Search features incremental search search (also known as \"search as you type\"). It begins",
"-24.634356529684737"
],
[
"the following approaches to read \"foreign\" file formats, if not work with them completely. Filename extension One popular method used by many operating systems, including Windows, macOS, CP/M, DOS, VMS and VM/CMS is to determine the format of a file based on the end of its name, more specifically the letters following the final period. This portion of the filename is known as the filename extension. For example, HTML documents are identified by names that end with .html (or .htm), and GIF images by .gif. In the original FAT file system, file names were limited to an eight-character identifier and",
"-24.626410562173987"
],
[
"of PC systems such as CP/M and derivative systems such as MS-DOS, the extension is a separate namespace from the filename. Under Microsoft's DOS and Windows, extensions such as EXE, COM or BAT indicate that a file is a program executable. In OS/360 and successors, the part of the dataset name following the last period is treated as an extension by some software, e.g., TSO EDIT, but it has no special significance to the operating system itself; the same applies to Unix files in MVS.\nFilesystems for UNIX-like operating systems do not separate the extension metadata from the rest of the",
"-24.61693502750859"
],
[
"filespec exists on multiple drives, then those files on higher-numbered drives will be excluded. \nFilenames are limited to eight alphanumeric characters (the first character must be alpha) which are case insensitive (only capital letters are used; any lowercase letters entered are capitalized). File extensions are up to three characters and obey the same rules. File passwords are up to eight characters obeying the same rules (TRSDOS 6 versions up to 6.2 support both owner and user passwords). Entire diskettes can also be assigned master passwords, which may limit user access via the BACKUP and PURGE commands.\nFile access by partial filenames",
"-24.59471232170472"
],
[
"need not be user-readable. Slug Some systems define a slug as the part of a URL that identifies a page in human-readable keywords. It is usually the end part of the URL, which can be interpreted as the name of the resource, similar to the basename in a filename or the title of a page. The name is based on the use of the word slug in the news media to indicate a short name given to an article for internal use.\nSlugs are typically generated automatically from a page title but can also be entered or altered manually, so that",
"-24.556768651964376"
],
[
"of this is that a file name that begins with the system name refers to files on other computers and can be opened without the need for any special networking. The same is true for devices. Other system entities, such as processes, are referenced using module names which are written %system#module. The VOS system and module names have no defined relationship with IP addresses or domain names—The VOS API was developed in late 1980—before the Internet was widely adopted and long before URLs were even invented.\nHistorically, StrataLINK was a proprietary 10Mb CSMA/CD ring network which allowed high performance",
"-24.543171541474294"
],
[
"asked the file server to access a file, the system nameserver would pass along the request to the file system, which would immediately honor it. However, since the user was not known, the ACL's would be check against the file being accessed.\nGroups of related names were known as contexts. Contexts were also names, and thus similar to the file system concept of a directory. Users could build their own contexts out of seemingly unrelated objects; printers using completely separate drivers (servers) could be collected into a single list, a file could have different names in different places (or for different",
"-24.542206757694657"
],
[
"operating systems such as Multics and UNIX stored the file name as a single string, not split into base name and extension components, with the \".\" is just another character allowed in file names. Such systems generally allow for variable-length filenames, permitting more than one dot, and hence multiple suffixes. Some components of Multics and UNIX, and applications running on them, used suffixes, in some cases, to indicate file types, but they did not use them as much—for example, executables and ordinary text files had no suffixes in their names.\nThe High Performance File System (HPFS), used in Microsoft and IBM's",
"-24.515765514108352"
],
[
"readable or writable by the Compressed Folders feature, nor is AES Encryption supported.\nMicrosoft Office started using the zip archive format in 2006 for their Office Open XML .docx, .xlsx, .pptx, etc. files, which became the default file format with Microsoft Office 2007. Legacy There are numerous other standards and formats using \"zip\" as part of their name. For example, zip is distinct from gzip, and the latter is defined in an IETF RFC (RFC 1952). Both zip and gzip primarily use the DEFLATE algorithm for compression. Likewise, the ZLIB format (IETF RFC 1950) also uses the DEFLATE compression algorithm, but",
"-24.507642486598343"
],
[
"Ubuntu releases are also given code names, using an adjective and an animal with the same first letter — an alliteration, e.g., \"Dapper Drake\". With the exception of the first two releases, code names are in alphabetical order, allowing a quick determination of which release is newer. As of Ubuntu 17.10, however, the initial letter \"rolled over\" and returned to \"A\". Names are occasionally chosen so that animal appearance or habits reflects some new feature, e.g., \"Koala's favourite leaf is Eucalyptus\"; see below. Ubuntu releases are often referred to using only the adjective portion of the code name, e.g., \"Feisty\". Ubuntu",
"-24.459217961877584"
],
[
"called a path.\nIn many operating systems, programs have an associated working directory in which they execute. Typically, file names accessed by the program are assumed to reside within this directory if the file names are not specified with an explicit directory name.\nSome operating systems restrict a user's access to only their home directory or project directory, thus isolating their activities from all other users. In early versions of Unix the root directory was the home directory of the root user, but modern Unix usually uses another directory such as /root for this purpose.\nIn keeping with Unix philosophy, Unix systems treat",
"-24.448828929274896"
],
[
"has been preserved nonetheless. In the case of files, the sticky-bit may be used by the system to indicate the style of file locking to be performed. In the case of directories, the sticky bit prevents any process, other than one which has super-user privileges or one having an effective user ID of the file owner, from deleting a file within that directory. The sticky bit is most commonly used on publicly writable directories, such as the various temporary working space directories on the system. Root squash Root squash is a reduction of the access rights for",
"-24.44611044334306"
],
[
"the original owner before s/he can renew it. This practice is often used to extort large amounts of money from legitimate domain name holders who rely on their domain names to remain in business. Basic uses and purposes of Domain Names In order for the exchange of information to be organized and searchable on the World Wide Web domain names are used. Domain names are substitutes for IP addresses, which are presented numerically, in order to further simplify the process of searching for information on the Internet. Domain name servers maintain the list that matches domain names to IP",
"-24.424404677753046"
],
[
"and can be imitated freely (unless the typeface is protected by a design patent, which is of much more limited duration and rarely applied for). Copyright protection is available for the representation of a typeface in software (a computer font), and the names of typefaces can be protected by trademark.\nMicrosoft has since licensed and distributes Linotype's version of Zapf's original design called Palatino Linotype in all versions of Windows since Windows 2000. During the Palatino Linotype development process, Zapf and Linotype requested that Microsoft cease to include Book Antiqua with Office, but Microsoft concluded that this was impossible as too",
"-24.42151539993938"
],
[
"was added to the file deletion process known as “bleaching”. This file encryption process seeks out files with random characters in their names, destroys them and then permanently removes them from the computer’s hard drive. A custom cookie selection feature was also added to allow users to select specific cookies to be excluded from the deletion process making it so homepages, internet preferences, logins and passwords can be stored for future visits to a website. Software updates also included the ability to clean CHK files created by scandisk and third party programs files such as ActiveX and Java that",
"-24.38756666559493"
],
[
"be disabled. Also, removing individual entries from an index.dat file (for example, by using Windows Explorer) only prevents those entries being used; it does not remove the files referenced until the next \"cleanup\". (Marking single entries as deleted rather than erasing them is a common database method of quickly removing items from use whilst also retaining those items should it be desirable to reverse the deletion.)\nWhile employees of Microsoft have claimed that the Windows operating system deliberately hides index.dat files, users of the Microsoft system point to the fact that Windows Explorer offers users a detailed view of the content",
"-24.35380887571955"
],
[
"folders. Moved folders in Vista preserve creation and modification dates. Access date gets the time of the operation.\nIf an external data storage device is unexpectedly disengaged or accidentally removed while copying files onto it, the user is given the chance to retry the operation without restarting that file copy operation from the beginning; this gives the user the chance to reconnect that external data storage device involved and retry the operation.\nWhen renaming a file, even when extensions are being displayed, Explorer highlights only the filename without selecting the extension. Renaming multiple files is quicker as pressing Tab automatically renames the",
"-24.31211971520679"
],
[
"of the keywords, contacting the node with an ID closest to that keyword hash, and retrieving the list of filenames that contain the keyword. Since every filename in the list has its hash attached, the chosen file can then be obtained in the normal way.",
"-24.28548019111622"
],
[
"file is preferentially selected for execution. For example, if a directory in the system path contains two files named foo.com and foo.exe, the following would execute foo.com:\nC:\\>foo\nA user wishing to run foo.exe can explicitly use the complete filename:\nC:\\>foo.exe\nTaking advantage of this default behaviour, virus writers and other malicious programmers have used names like notepad.com for their creations, hoping that if it is placed in the same directory as the corresponding EXE file, a command or batch file may accidentally trigger their program instead of the text editor notepad.exe. Again, these .com files may in fact contain a .exe format executable.\nOn",
"-24.24592790112365"
],
[
"as a consequence of being derived from the UNIX-like NeXTSTEP operating system. Improvements The filename extension was originally used to determine the file's generic type. The need to condense a file's type into three characters frequently led to abbreviated extensions. Examples include using .GFX for graphics files, .TXT for plain text, and .MUS for music. However, because many different software programs have been made that all handle these data types (and others) in a variety of ways, filename extensions started to become closely associated with certain products—even specific product versions. For example, early WordStar files used .WS or .WSn, where",
"-24.231225840107072"
],
[
"OS/2 also supported long file names and did not divide the file name into a name and an extension. The convention of using suffixes continued, even though HPFS supported extended attributes for files, allowing a file's type to be stored in the file as an extended attribute.\nMicrosoft's Windows NT's native file system, NTFS, supported long file names and did not divide the file name into a name and an extension, but again, the convention of using suffixes to simulate extensions continued, for compatibility with existing versions of Windows.\nWhen the Internet age first arrived, those using Windows systems that were still",
"-24.211180569742282"
],
[
"be labeled in a variety of ways, for example delete, Erase (for example in One Laptop Per Child), or with a left pointing arrow. A dedicated symbol for \"backspace\" exists as U+232B ⌫ but its use as a keyboard label is not universal.\nThe backspace is distinct from the delete key, which in paper media for computers would punch out all the holes to strike out a character, and in modern computers deletes text following it. Also, the delete key often works as a generic command to remove an object (such as an image inside a document, or a file in",
"-24.203360151906963"
],
[
"user's computer.\nUnfortunately, simply deleting a directory won't remove WinFixer because it actively undoes whatever the user attempts. Frequently, the procedure that works on one system will not work on another because there are a large number of variants. Some sites provide manual techniques to remove infections that the automated tools can not remove. Domain ownership The company that makes WinFixer, Winsoftware Ltd., claims to be based in Liverpool, England (Stanley Street, postcode: 13088.) However, this address has been proven false.\nThe domain WINFIXER.COM on the whois database shows it is owned by a void company in Ukraine and another in Warsaw,",
"-24.191301689805186"
],
[
"hierarchical directory placement, is that Microsoft primarily relies on the principles of NetBIOS, which is a flat-file method of network object management that for Microsoft software, goes all the way back to Windows NT 3.1 and MS-DOS LAN Manager. Allowing for duplication of object names in the directory, or completely removing the use of NetBIOS names, would prevent backward compatibility with legacy software and equipment. However, disallowing duplicate object names in this way is a violation of the LDAP RFCs on which Active Directory is supposedly based.\nAs the number of users in a domain increases, conventions such as \"first initial,",
"-24.19125198571419"
],
[
"file is created and there is not an area of contiguous space available for its initial allocation the space must be assigned in fragments. When a file is modified such that it becomes larger it may exceed the space initially allocated to it, another allocation must be assigned elsewhere and the file becomes fragmented.\nIn some operating systems a system administrator may use disk quotas to limit the allocation of disk space. Filenames A filename (or file name) is used to identify a storage location in the file system. Most file systems have restrictions on the length of filenames. In some",
"-24.169668381582596"
],
[
"share the file, and added drag-and-drop functionality, where users can simply drag selected files to folders, for improved organization.\nA new update in August 2016 changed several visual elements of the website; the logo was updated, the search box design was refreshed, and the primary color was changed from red to blue. It also improved the functionality to download files locally from the website; users can now compress and download large Drive items into multiple 2 GB .zip files with an improved naming structure, better Google Forms handling, and empty folders are now included in the .zip, thereby preserving the user's",
"-24.151135956228245"
],
[
"can also be created on Unix systems, which serve a similar function. Mac Macintosh does not have extensions for shortcuts, although symbolic links can be created within the Unix subsystem.\nThe extension .webloc is used for Internet URLs within the Safari browser. The correct term for file \"shortcuts\" is \"alias\". Aliases in Macintosh System 7 through Mac OS 9 were distinguished from other files by using names in italics. In Mac OS 8 and later, another distinguishing mark was added: an \"alias arrow\" – a black arrow on a small white square – similar to that used for shortcuts in Microsoft Windows.",
"-24.13845941540785"
],
[
"File sequence Identification Every GUI program shows contents of folders by usually ordering its files according to some criteria, mostly related to the files' metadata, like the filename. The criterion is, by default, the alphanumeric ordering of filenames, although some operating systems do that in \"smarter\" ways than others: for example file1.ext should ideally be placed before file10.ext, like GNOME Files and Thunar do, whereas, alphanumerically, it comes after (more on that later). Other criteria exist, like ordering files by their file type (or by their extension) and, if the same type, by either filename or last-access date, and so",
"-24.12770056637237"
],
[
"characters (after any directory specifier), followed optionally by a filename extension consisting of a period . and at most three further characters. For systems that only support 8.3 filenames, excess characters are ignored and if a file name has no extension, the ., if present, has no significance (that is, myfile and myfile. are equivalent). Furthermore, in these systems file and directory names are uppercase, although systems that use the 8.3 standard are usually case-insensitive (hence CamelCap.tpu will be equivalent to the name CAMELCAP.TPU). However, on non-8.3 Operating Systems (such as almost any modern operating systems) accessing 8.3 File Systems",
"-24.11596797556922"
],
[
"inaccessible.\nAnother common type of file identification is the filename. Implementing a file naming protocol is essential to maintaining consistency and efficient discovery and retrieval of objects in a collection, and is especially applicable during digitization of analog media. Using a file naming convention, such as the 8.3 filename or the Warez standard naming, will ensure compatibility with other systems and facilitate migration of data, and deciding between descriptive (containing descriptive words and numbers) and non-descriptive (often randomly generated numbers) file names is generally determined by the size and scope of a given collection. However, filenames are not good for semantic",
"-24.11162657980458"
],
[
"As typeface shapes themselves cannot be copyrighted in the United States, the lawsuit centered on trademark infringement. A US court decided that Monotype's trademarks were \"fanciful\" and did not have descriptive value of the actual products. However it also decided that URW was confusing the public deliberately because \"the purloining of the first part of a well-known trademark and the appending of it to a worthless suffix is a method of trademark poaching long condemned by the courts.\" The court issued an injunction preventing URW from using their chosen names. Licensing The basic standard for copyrighted digital font use is",
"-24.10849964892259"
],
[
"system to open the file in particular applications.\nBeginning with System 1, Macintosh operating systems have attached type codes and creator codes as part of the file metadata. These four-character codes were designed to specify both the application that created the file (the creator code) and the specific type of the file (the type code) so that other applications could easily open and process the file data. However, while type and creator codes extended the flexibility of the system — a particular type of file was not restricted to opening in a particular application — they suffered many of the same",
"-24.097696876682676"
],
[
"after a file name is a version number. The operating system associates a version number with every file, and requests for a file get the latest version unless specified otherwise. Creating a new file will by default create the next version and leave the previous version intact; this program however is deliberately choosing to create version 101, to identify a public release. Enhanced security variants As a result of ICL's heavy involvement with delivery of computer services to the UK Public Sector, in particular those with special security requirements such as OPCON CCIS, it was an early entrant into the",
"-24.064928899625556"
],
[
"the case of characters. Microsoft Windows supports multiple file systems, each with different policies regarding case-sensitivity. The common FAT file system can have multiple files whose names differ only in case if the user uses a disk editor to edit the file names in the directory entries. User applications, however, will usually not allow the user to create multiple files with the same name but differing in case.\nMost computers organize files into hierarchies using folders, directories, or catalogs. The concept is the same irrespective of the terminology used. Each folder can contain an arbitrary number of files, and it can",
"-24.029355595004745"
],
[
"more efficient to use a variant of the exec primary that collects filenames up to ARG_MAX and then executes COMMAND with a list of filenames.\n$ find . -exec COMMAND {} +\nThis will ensure that filenames with whitespaces are passed to the executed COMMAND without being split up by the shell. Delete files and directories The -delete action is a GNU extension, and using it turns on -depth. So, if you are testing a find command with -print instead of -delete in order to figure out what will happen before going for it, you need to use -depth -print.\nDelete empty files",
"-23.996471672086045"
],
[
"to wit, entries are being created within the target directory and erased from within the source directory, \"write\" permission in both directories is required to complete the move. Moving files from one file system to another may fail entirely or may be automatically performed as an atomic copy-and-delete action; the actual details are dependent upon the implementation.\nWrite permission on the directory being migrated (so to speak) is additionally required in the case where a directory is being re-parented, sciz., moved to a different parent directory. This is because the \"..\" entry—which can always be used as an \"alias\"",
"-23.965775483986363"
],
[
"word processors of the office suites LibreOffice and OpenOffice.org (Writer) or as a complete database dump. With a free account users that are logged in can also add and alter entries. All entries have to be checked at least once before a release is made. History The cause for the start of the project was the arrival of OpenOffice.org in 2002, which was missing the thesaurus of its parent, StarOffice, due to its licensing. OpenThesaurus filled that gap by importing possible synonyms from a freely available German/English dictionary and refining and updating these in crowdsourced work through the use of",
"-23.957512470136862"
],
[
"file name. The dot character is just another character in the main filename. A file name can have no extensions, a single extension, or more than one extension. More than one extension usually represents nested transformations, such as files.tar.gz (the .tar indicates that the file is a tar archive of one or more files, and the .gz indicates that the tar archive file is compressed with gzip). Programs transforming or creating files may add the appropriate extension to names inferred from input file names (unless explicitly given an output file name), but programs reading files usually ignore the information; it",
"-23.949517446162645"
],
[
"files anywhere in the room, or into any file cabinet within the room. Multiple root directories Unix abstracts the nature of this tree hierarchy entirely and in Unix and Unix-like systems the root directory is denoted by the / (slash) sign. Though the root directory is conventionally referred to as /, the directory entry itself has no name – its name is the \"empty\" part before the initial directory separator character (/). All filesystem entries, including mounted filesystems are \"branches\" of this root.\nUnder DOS, OS/2, and Microsoft Windows, each partition has a drive letter assignment (labeled C:\\ for a",
"-23.93904705074965"
],
[
"produce small caps.\" Many of the operating system's predecessors and contemporaries used all-uppercase lettering, so many people wrote the name in upper case due to force of habit. It is not an acronym.\nTrademark names can be registered by different entities in different countries and trademark laws in some countries allow the same trademark name to be controlled by two different entities if each entity uses the trademark in easily distinguishable categories. The result is that Unix has been used as a brand name for various products including book shelves, ink pens, bottled glue, diapers, hair driers and food containers.\nSeveral plural",
"-23.937556094955653"
],
[
"path to the file's directory must uniquely identify it among all other files in the computer system—no two files can have the same name and path. Where a file is anonymous, named references to it will exist within a namespace. In most cases, any name within the namespace will refer to exactly zero or one file. However, any file may be represented within any namespace by zero, one or more names.\nAny string of characters may be a well-formed name for a file or a link depending upon the context of application. Whether or not a name is",
"-23.926005388842896"
],
[
"Normal usage is identical to Unix-like operating systems:\n rmdir name_of_directory\nThe equivalent command in MS-DOS and earlier (non-NT-based) versions of Microsoft Windows for deleting non-empty directories is deltree.\nIn later version of Windows:\n rd /s directory_name\nWindows based on the NT kernel (XP, Vista, 7, 8, Server 2003/2008) are case insensitive, just like their earlier predecessors, unless two files of the same name and different case exist. Then case sensitivity applies when selecting which file to use, or if the case does not match either file, one may be chosen by Windows.\nHaving two files named the same with different case sensitivity is",
"-23.881265813775826"
],
[
"usage is similar to multiword file names written for operating systems and applications that are confused by embedded space codes—such file names instead use an underscore (_) as a word separator, as_in_this_phrase.\nAnother such symbol was U+2422 ␢ BLANK SYMBOL. This was used in the early years of computer programming when writing on coding forms. Keypunch operators immediately recognized the symbol as an \"explicit space\". It was used in BCDIC, EBCDIC, and ASCII-1963.",
"-23.86372312943422"
],
[
"all mail to the main address, i.e., the auxiliaries are used as aliases of the main address. The advantage of this approach is that the user can easily detect which auxiliary email is 'leaking' with spam and block or dispose it.\nSome services require additional time to set up forwarding, but others allow to create new addresses \"on the fly\" without registering them with the service in advance. However, this method allows storage and access of all emails from a single main account, although to manage forwarding for some services the user has to remember the password for each alias.\nA variation",
"-23.823805476793495"
],
[
"X and Jane works for company Y, then it is not a problem for each of them to be employee #123. In this analogy, the ID number is the identifier, and the company serves as the namespace. It does not cause problems for the same identifier to identify a different person in each namespace.\nIn large computer programs or documents it is common to have hundreds or thousands of identifiers. Namespaces (or a similar technique, see Emulating namespaces) provide a mechanism for hiding local identifiers. They provide a means of grouping logically related identifiers into corresponding namespaces, thereby making the system",
"-23.80949541622249"
],
[
"the menu by placing aliases to them in an \"Apple Menu Items\" subfolder of the System Folder. System 7 also introduced the following: AppleScript, a scripting language for automating tasks; 32-bit QuickDraw, supporting so-called \"true color\" imaging, previously available as a system extension; and TrueType, an outline font standard.\nThe Trash, under System 6 and earlier, empties itself automatically when shutting down the computer—or, if MultiFinder is not running, when launching an application. System 7 reimplements the Trash as a special hidden folder, allowing files to remain in it across reboots until the user deliberately chose the \"Empty Trash\" command. System",
"-23.79043497366365"
],
[
"as a synonym for \"directory\", while the word \"file\" is universally used for actual data items on a disk (sometimes called \"documents,\" especially on the Apple Macintosh). In Unix-like systems, this is resolved to some degree by the creed \"everything is a file\"; folders are themselves just a special type of file, and many commands (to copy, delete, move, or rename) can be executed without knowing whether the file identifies an entire folder or not. Tab positions Because tabs can be cut in different positions, the position of the tab can be referred to as well. For instance, for the",
"-23.78886171022168"
],
[
"when the file is entered at the console or opened in editors. Many file format standards (e.g. PNG or GIF) include the SUB character in their headers to perform precisely this function. Some modern text file formats (e.g. CSV-1203) still recommend a trailing EOF character to be appended as the last character in the file. However, typing Control+Z does not embed an EOF character into a file in either MS-DOS or Microsoft Windows, nor do the APIs of those systems use the character to denote the actual end of a file.\nSome programming languages (e.g. Visual Basic) will not read past",
"-23.76805427070576"
],
[
"names, be transferred or reassigned to another resource by their owners. For example, a company that changes its corporate name could sell its old i-name to another company, while both companies could retain their original i-numbers. What most differentiates i-names from domain names is that in practice they will have a synonymous (equivalent) persistent i-number (below). I-numbers I-numbers are machine readable identifiers (similar to IP addresses) that are assigned to a resource (for instance, a person, organization, application or file) and never reassigned. This means an i-number can always be used to address a network representation of the resource as",
"-23.76448836117561"
],
[
"consists of a name and the associated data. The name must be a null-terminated string, and exists in a namespace identified by a small-integer namespace identifier. Currently, two namespaces exist: user and system. The user namespace has no restrictions with regard to naming or contents. The system namespace is primarily used by the kernel for access control lists and mandatory access control. Linux In Linux, the ext2, ext3, ext4, JFS, Squashfs, Yaffs2, ReiserFS, Reiser4, XFS, Btrfs, OrangeFS, Lustre, OCFS2 1.6, ZFS, and F2FS filesystems support extended attributes (abbreviated xattr) when enabled in the kernel configuration. Any regular file or directory",
"-23.75645488628652"
],
[
"file entries in the central directory need not coincide with the order of file entries in the archive.\nEach entry stored in a ZIP archive is introduced by a local file header with information about the file such as the comment, file size and file name, followed by optional \"extra\" data fields, and then the possibly compressed, possibly encrypted file data. The \"Extra\" data fields are the key to the extensibility of the ZIP format. \"Extra\" fields are exploited to support the ZIP64 format, WinZip-compatible AES encryption, file attributes, and higher-resolution NTFS or Unix file timestamps. Other extensions are possible via",
"-23.731744497898035"
],
[
"there are exceptions. For example, when using UNIX and GNU versions of chmod to set the permissions of a file, and symbolic notation is used, and no user is specified, then the mask is applied to the requested permissions before they are applied to the file. For example:\n$ umask 0000$ chmod +rwx filename\n$ ls -l filename\n-rwxrwxrwx filename$ umask 0022$ chmod +rwx filename\n$ ls -l filename\n-rwxr-xr-x filename Processes Each process has its own mask, which is applied whenever the process creates a new file. When a shell, or any other process, spawns a new process, the child process inherits the mask",
"-23.695822838286404"
],
[
"restricted to 8.3 filename formats had to create web pages with names ending in .HTM, while those using Macintosh or UNIX computers could use the recommended .html filename extension. This also became a problem for programmers experimenting with the Java programming language, since it requires source code files to have the four-letter suffix .java and compiles object code output files with the five-letter .class suffix.\nEventually, Windows 95 introduced support for long file names, and removed the 8.3 name/extension split in file names from non-NT Windows, in an extended version of the commonly used FAT file system called VFAT. VFAT first",
"-23.689403228796436"
],
[
"values passed in), but by default, the aliases are constant so they cannot be modified. They may be declared explicitly as read-write aliases for the original value or as copies using the is rw or is copy directives should the programmer require them to be modified locally. Blocks and closures Parameters can also be passed to arbitrary blocks, which act as closures. This is how, for example, for and while loop iterators are named. In the following example, a list is traversed, 3 elements at a time, and passed to the loop's block as the variables, $a, $b, $c.\n for",
"-23.689068456122186"
],
[
"Filing Protocol (AFP) products (such as GroupLogic's ExtremeZ-IP) still use this feature of the file system. Very small ADS (named \"Zone.Identifier\") are added by Internet Explorer and recently by other browsers to mark files downloaded from external sites as possibly unsafe to run; the local shell would then require user confirmation before opening them. When the user indicates that they no longer want this confirmation dialog, this ADS is deleted.\nAlternate streams are not listed in Windows Explorer, and their size is not included in the file's size. When the file is copied or moved to another file system without ADS",
"-23.669929034425877"
],
[
"packaged into a single archive like almost all other sections. These releases have content that is not further compressible without loss of quality, but also have small enough files that they can be transferred reliably without breaking them up. Since these releases rarely have large numbers of files, leaving them unpackaged is more convenient and allows for easier scripting. For example, scripts can read ID3 information from MP3s and sort releases based on those contents. Naming Rules for naming files and folders are an important part of the standards. Correctly named folders make it easier to maintain clean archives and",
"-23.64668614405673"
],
[
"Filename References: absolute vs relative An absolute reference includes all directory levels. In some systems, a filename reference that does not include the complete directory path defaults to the current working directory. This is a relative reference. One advantage of using a relative reference in program configuration files or scripts is that different instances of the script or program can use different files.\nThis makes an absolute or relative path composed of a sequence of filenames. Number of names per file Unix-like file systems allow a file to have more than one name; in traditional Unix-style file systems, the names are",
"-23.63386369824002"
],
[
"in length, one file name record is required but the entire file is represented by three 32-byte directory records. This is called a directory file set, and a 256 MiB sub-directory can hold up to 2,796,202 file sets. (If files have longer names, this number will decrease but this is the maximum based on the minimum three-record file set.) To help improve the sequential searching of the directories (including the root) a hash value of the file name is derived for each file and stored in the directory record. When searching for a file, the file name is first converted",
"-23.632467836752767"
],
[
"do not each have a separate namespace. As a consequence, for compatibility with Legacy NetBios implementations, user accounts with an identical sAMAccountName are not allowed within the same domain even if the accounts objects are in separate OUs. This is because sAMAccountName, a user object attribute, must be unique within the domain. However, two users in different OUs can have the same Common Name (CN), the name under which they are stored in the directory itself such as \"fred.staff-ou.domain\" and \"fred.student-ou.domain\", where \"staff-ou\" and \"student-ou\" are the OUs.\nIn general the reason for this lack of allowance for duplicate names through",
"-23.601505206039292"
],
[
"order of sections in a file is irrelevant, but implementations may vary. Example Following is an example INI file for an imaginary program. It has two sections: one for the owner of the software, and one for a payroll database connection. Comments note who modified the file last and why an IP address is used instead of a DNS name.\n; last modified 1 April 2001 by John Doe[owner]name=John Doeorganization=Acme Widgets Inc.[database]; use IP address in case network name resolution is not workingserver=192.0.2.62 port=143file=\"payroll.dat\" Accessing INI files Under Windows, the Profile API is the programming interface used",
"-23.59821128520707"
]
] |
2edl71 | Why can't we tickle ourselves? | [
"I can. Am I a mutant? Is this my power?",
"A few people here are claiming tickling is a defense mechanism but that's not entirely correct. The theory goes, tickling developed as a play mechanism to teach basic combat/defense skills. Think of the places that are normally ticklish: neck, underarms, behind/around knees, haunches etc - all places that are vulnerable to attack (from predators, for example). So it's advantageous to learn and hone reflexes that protect those areas. When someone is tickled, they act to escape it. However, it's fun (kids laugh when they're tickled), so that they practice repeatedly. The reason most people can't tickle themselves is probably because it doesn't lead to good practice, so it evolved as a particularly social mechanism. I can't comment on the actual nuts and bolts of it, if that's what you're looking for",
"It's a defense mechanism from others. We don' believe to be a threat to ourselves.",
"Try the top of the inside of the your mouth.",
"I think we can relate this to laughter and it's social history. Laughter developed as a way for one person in a tribe to say, \"everything is OK, even though it looks/sounds like there might be trouble\". If your think about this in a tribal setting, it makes sense. Laughter evolved as a social reassurance that the tribe wasn't about to be eaten. Tickling, similarly, probably evolved as a way to reinforce that even though it looked like someone or something was attacking our weak spots, it was OK and wasn't a legit threat. The juxtaposed pain that comes along with tickling is our primal side reminding us that these areas are indeed our \"holy shit I just got bit in my abdomen I'm gonna die\" spots. Ergo: tickling. Something that being is both laughter and pain at the same time. Laughter to let those around us know we aren't getting killed, and pain to remind us that we could very possibly be killed."
] | [
[
"not be extreme tickling, but could include prolonged tickling upon a sensitive area until the victim has released the required information. In the former case, it could be used as a way of \"pranking\" a person, as the act of being tickled can produce many sounds and sensations that could be viewed as being embarrassing to the victim. In this way, the tickling can continue to the point where a certain reaction is revealed.\nThis method of \"pranking\" could also incorporate the use of physical restraint or restraint using materials. This would be done to leave a desired area of the",
"-30.731082529615378"
],
[
"when tickled. The vocalization, described as a distinct \"chirping\", has been likened to laughter, and is interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding. In clinical studies, the chirping is associated with positive emotional feelings, and social bonding occurs with the tickler, resulting in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling. However, as the rats age, the tendency to chirp declines. Like most rat vocalizations, the chirping is at frequencies too high for humans to hear without special equipment, so bat detectors have been used for this purpose. Visual Rodents, like all placental mammals except primates, have just two types",
"-30.632601422606967"
],
[
"Tickling game Terminology Knismolagnia is the experience of \"arousal from tickling\". Acarophilia, often confused with knismolagnia, refers to arousal from scratching.\nExcessive tickling has been described as a primary sexual obsession and, under these circumstances, is sometimes considered a form of paraphilia. People whose sexuality is based almost solely on tickling can be said to have a tickling fixation. This fixation may also exist outside of sexual contexts. Overview Consensual tickling can be regarded as a form of physical intimacy as it involves the touching of one person's body by another. It could serve as a bonding experience between friends, or",
"-30.505126818810822"
],
[
"Tickle torture Other uses and meanings The term tickle torture can apply to many different situations that do not include the aforementioned acts of either sexual gratification or malicious torture.\nTickle torture can be an extended act of tickling where the recipient of the tickling would view it as a long time or tickling of an intense nature. This can be due to the length of time they are tickled, the intensity of the tickling or the areas that are being tickled. This can simply be a 30-second tickle applied to the victim's bare feet, which can seem like a much",
"-30.055859741260065"
],
[
"body bare and vulnerable to the tickling, in a way that the victim would not be able to remove this area from the tickling, and would have to simply endure. This can also be seen as \"punishment\" or \"payback\" as the tickler could be using the tickling as retribution from a previous tickling experience or \"prank\". Consensual In sexual fetishism, tickle torture is an activity between consenting partners. A torture session usually begins with one partner allowing the other to tie them up in a position that exposes bare parts of the body, particularly those that are sensitive to tickling.",
"-29.50371240567256"
],
[
"associated with positive emotional feelings, and social bonding occurs with the tickler, resulting in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling. However, as the rats age, the tendency to chirp appears to decline. Audible communication Brown rats also produce communicative noises capable of being heard by humans. The most commonly heard in domestic rats is bruxing, or teeth-grinding, which is most usually triggered by happiness, but can also be 'self-comforting' in stressful situations, such as a visit to the vet. The noise is best described as either a quick clicking or 'burring' sound, varying from animal to animal.\nIn addition,",
"-29.44562827772461"
],
[
"to tickle yourself. A sensation is experienced as ticklish when it is unpredictable. However, forward models predict the outcome of your motor movements, meaning the motion is predictable, and therefore not ticklish.\nEvidence for forward models comes from studies of motor adaptation. When a person's goal-directed reaching movements are perturbed by a force field, they gradually, but steadily, adapt the movement of their arm to allow them to again reach their goal. However, they do so in such a way that preserves some high level movement characteristics; bell-shaped velocity profiles, straight line translation of the hand, and smooth, continuous movements. These",
"-29.384702157069114"
],
[
"Though many parts of the human body are deemed ticklish, tickle torture is commonly associated with the tickling of the bare feet or armpits.\nThe bondage methods of the tickling usually follows the same basic methods. The object of the bondage is to render the victim unable to remove themselves from the tickling, as well as rendering the ticklish areas of the victim vulnerable. The victim is usually bound in a sitting or lying position rather than a standing one as to expose the soles of the feet which are often among the areas upon which tickling is inflicted. The restraint",
"-29.13705108173599"
],
[
"understanding is derived from imitation, due to lack of verbal skill imitation is a toddlers way of communication with the world. It is what connects them to the communicating world, as they continue to grow they begin to learn more and more. That is why it is crucial for parents to be cautious as to how they act and behave around their toddlers. Imitation is the toddlers way of confirming and dis-conforming socially acceptable actions in our society. Actions like washing dishes, cleaning up the house and doing chores are actions you want your toddlers to imitate. Imitating negative things",
"-28.68282767293931"
],
[
"laugh and respond to tickle skin as rats age, however, it has also been reported that in females, brain maturation after puberty appears to redefine tickling as aversive, leading to avoidance rather than appetitive responses. Further studies show that rats chirp when wrestling one another, before receiving morphine, or when mating. The sound has been interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding. High frequency ultrasonic vocalizations are important in rat communication and function to elicit approach behavior in the recipient.\nThe initial goal of research by Jaak Panksepp and Jeff Burgdorf was to track the biological origins of how the",
"-28.31306034748559"
],
[
"of the arms above the head leaves the upper body and underarms susceptible to the tickling. This enables the torturer to use whatever they want, e.g. fingers, tongue, beard, feathers, brush, pine cones, salt sticks, electric toothbrush or a hairbrush.",
"-28.29581469662662"
],
[
"because when the predicted sensory feedback (efference copy) matches the actual sensory feedback, the actual feedback will be attenuated. If the predicted sensory feedback does not match the actual sensory feedback, whether caused by a delay (as in the mediation by the robotic arm) or by external influences from the environment, the brain cannot predict the tickling motion on the body and a more intense tickling sensation is perceived. This is the reason why one cannot tickle oneself. Speech It has been argued that motor efference copies play an important role in speech production. Tian and Poeppel propose that a",
"-28.29321940112277"
],
[
"when tickled, suggesting that laughter derived from a common origin among primate species, and therefore evolved prior to the origin of humans. Rats Rats emit long, 50-kHz ultrasonic calls that are induced during rough and tumble play, and when tickled by humans. The vocalization is described as distinct \"chirping\". Like humans, rats have \"tickle skin\", areas of the body that generate greater laughter responses than others. Rats that laugh the most also play the most and prefer to spend more time with other laughing rats. It has been reported that there is no decline in the tendency to",
"-28.279344107140787"
],
[
"have postulated that this is because when a person sends a motor command to produce the tickling motion, the efference copy anticipates and cancels out the sensory outcome. This idea is further supported by evidence that a delay between the self-produced tickling motor command and the actual execution of this movement (mediated by a robotic arm) causes an increase in the perceived tickliness of the sensation. This shows that when the efference copy is incompatible with the afference, the sensory information is perceived as if it were exafference. Therefore, it is theorized that it is not possible to tickle ourselves",
"-28.091669382614782"
],
[
"longer time if the victim's feet are very ticklish. While the palm of the hand is far more sensitive to touch, other commonly ticklish areas include the armpits, sides of the torso, neck, knee, midriff, thighs, navel, and the ribs. Many people consider the soles of their feet the most ticklish, due to the many nerve endings located there: this explains why tickling one's feet against their will is the most common example of \"tickle torture\".\n\"Tickle torture\" may also have other uses, including the act of tickling a person as a practical joke, or even an interrogation method. This may",
"-27.86569485173277"
],
[
"reached a conclusion as to whether kissing is learned or a behavior from instinct. It may be related to grooming behavior also seen between other animals, or arising as a result of mothers premasticating food for their children. Non-human primates also exhibit kissing behavior. Dogs, cats, birds and other animals display licking, nuzzling, and grooming behavior among themselves, and also towards humans or other species. This is sometimes interpreted by observers as a type of kissing.\nKissing in humans is postulated to have evolved from the direct mouth-to-mouth regurgitation of food (kiss-feeding) from parent to offspring or male to female (courtship",
"-27.652369888979592"
],
[
"of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs. An example of conditioned emotional response is conditioned suppression.\nAs an adaptive mechanism, emotional conditioning helps shield an individual from harm or prepare it for important biological events such as sexual activity. Thus, a stimulus that has occurred before sexual interaction comes to cause sexual arousal, which prepares the individual for sexual contact. For example, sexual arousal has been conditioned in human subjects by pairing a stimulus like a picture of a jar of pennies with views of an erotic film clip. Similar experiments involving blue gourami fish and",
"-27.420638078467164"
],
[
"brain processes emotions and social behavior. They compared rat vocalizations during social interactions to the joy and laughter commonly experienced by children in social play. They concluded that the 50-kHz rat vocalizations might reflect positive affective states (feelings or emotions), analogous to those experienced by children laughing during social play.\nMore recent studies have investigated the emotional states of rats after being tickled. An animal's optimism or pessimism can be assessed by cognitive bias studies. After being tickled, rats are more optimistic, indicating the interaction invokes a positive affective state. Furthermore, rats self-administer playback of the 50-kHz trill",
"-27.233096529031172"
],
[
"of itch sensation versus touch sensation. While it is possible to trigger a knismesis response in oneself, it is usually impossible to produce gargalesthesia, the gargalesis tickle response, in oneself. Hypergargalesthesia is the condition of extreme sensitivity to tickling. The words knismesis and gargalesis were both used by Susie Dent in an episode of the BBC game show, Would I Lie to You? (Season 11, episode 4).",
"-27.17765128616884"
],
[
"kissing, one believing that it is instinctual and intuitive and the other that it evolved from what is known as kiss feeding, a process used by mothers to feed their infants by passing chewed food to their babies' mouths.\nThe earliest reference to kissing-like behavior comes from the Vedas, Sanskrit scriptures that informed Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, around 3,500 years ago, according to Vaughn Bryant, an anthropologist at Texas A&M University who specializes in the history of the kiss.\nBoth lip and tongue kissing are mentioned in Sumerian poetry:\nMy lips are too small, they know not to kiss.\nMy precious sweet, lying by",
"-27.081346328894142"
],
[
"step, because that will just take all the fun out of the process. So we must first try to come to the table like civilized people and have a dialogue with the cockroaches. But the problem is that a cockroach cannot understand human language [i.e., reasoned argument]. And cockroach grammar is so difficult—nobody has yet discovered which of their verbs end in \"ing\"--that 80% of the cockroaches themselves do not know it and prefer to speak in other languages. When even the cockroaches do not understand their own language, how could you possibly understand it?! This is precisely why negotiations",
"-27.05688850453589"
],
[
"word-play with low incongruity might trigger a more appreciative response. Also included in the book: evolutionary theories that account for visceral and social laughter, and the phenomenon of comedic entropy. Unnoticed fall-back to former behavior patterns This model defines laughter as an acoustic signal to make individuals aware of an unnoticed fall-back to former behaviour patterns. To some extent it unifies superiority and incongruity theory. Ticklishness is also considered to have a defined relation to humor via the development of human bipedalism. Bergson In Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic, French philosopher Henri Bergson, renowned for his",
"-26.715635701286374"
],
[
"ticks are a normal occurrence. Removing the tick with fingers is never a good idea because the squeezing to grasp the tick could potentially inject more infectious material into the pet. Applying rubbing alcohol to the bite area to thoroughly clean the wound is recommended.",
"-26.6479534470418"
],
[
"as a pacifying signal when being menaced by aggression signals from another dog. Yawning, accompanied by a head turned away from the aggressor, can defuse a potentially threatening situation. It is also recognized as a calming signal. Licking and sniffing Licking behavior has multiple causes and meanings and should not be simply interpreted as affection. Dogs that are familiar with each other may lick each other's faces in greeting, then sniff any moist membranes where odors are strongest (i.e. mouth, nose, anal region, or urogenital region.) Mating behaviors are characterized by licking in a more vigorous manner than used during",
"-26.578345627553063"
],
[
"Indigenous American Communities often tease children to playfully illustrate and teach them how their behaviour negatively affects the community. Children in many Indigenous American Communities also learn by observing what others do in addition to collaborating with them. Along with teasing, this form of informal learning is different from the ways that Western American children learn. Informal ways of child learning include mutual responsibility, as well as active collaboration with adults and peers. This differentiates from the more formal way of learning because it is not adult-oriented.\nPeople may be teased on matters such as their appearance, weight, behavior, abilities, clothing,",
"-26.573393453472818"
],
[
"Evolution of knuckle-walking There are competing hypotheses as to how knuckle-walking evolved as a form of locomotion, stemming from comparisons between African apes. High magnitudes of integration would indicate homoplasy of knuckle-walking in gorillas and chimpanzees, in which a trait is shared or similar between two species but is not derived from a common ancestor. However, results show that they are not characterized by such high magnitudes, which does not support independent evolution of knuckle-walking. Similarities between gorillas and chimpanzees have been suggested to support a common origin for knuckle-walking, such as manual pressure distribution when practicing this form of",
"-26.431069449754432"
],
[
"Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People's Ears Cause and effect This story is a resource for teachers to teach the skill cause and effect: \"A cause is something that makes something else happen; An effect is what happens as a result of the cause\" \nThe idea that the mosquito is to blame for the unfortunate death of the owlet is an example of cause and effect. The actions from the other animals also offers several more examples of cause and effect as each animal does something that causes the next animal to do something. This chain of events finally causes the",
"-26.418630990752717"
],
[
"by actually kissing, or faked by using the thumbs as a barrier for the lips and turning so the audience is unable to fully see the act.\nSome literature suggests that a significant percentage of humanity does not kiss. It has been claimed that in Sub-Saharan African, Asiatic, Polynesian and possibly in some Native American cultures, kissing was relatively unimportant until European colonization. Historically however, the culture of kissing is thought to have begun and spread from the Eastern World, specifically India.\nWith the Andamanese, kissing was only used as a sign of affection towards children and had no sexual undertones.\nIn traditional",
"-26.347370516799856"
],
[
"are just a few months old. This might be because they have not yet developed what Piaget calls \"primary circular reactions\". Because they cannot coordinate sensory motor actions they cannot learn to make different associations between their motoric behaviors and the environment. Another limitation concerns the kind of conditioned stimuli humans can learn. When researchers attempt to condition children to fear things such as curtains or wooden blocks they have had great difficulty. Humans may be \"innately disposed to fear certain stimuli\". Advertising Thanks to contacts provided by an academic colleague, E. B. Titchener, Watson subsequently began working for U.S.",
"-26.31011403526645"
],
[
"an organism's response to self-generated stimuli, to the auditory system. The corollary discharge is used to inhibit the auditory system's response to the cricket's own song and prevent desensitization. This inhibition allows the cricket to remain responsive to external sounds such as a competing male's song. Speech Sensorimotor integration is involved in the development, production, and perception of speech. Speech development Two key elements of speech development are babbling and audition. The linking of a motor action to a heard sound is thought to be learned. One reason for this is that deaf infants do not canonically babble. Another is",
"-26.134995189291658"
],
[
"Whispering ASMR In 2010, it was discovered that whispering is one of the many triggers of ASMR, especially when a female whispers. This phenomenon made news headlines after videos on YouTube of people speaking up close to the camera in a soft whisper, giving the viewer tingles. People often listen to these videos to help them sleep and to relax. In animals A number of species of animals have been observed to whisper, including the cotton-top tamarin and the barbastelle bat. The reasons for animal whispering vary, and are not fully understood, but whispering among the tamarins appears to serve",
"-26.126825250743423"
],
[
"why you are better than Puss? Puss can play as well as you; and Puss can drink milk, and lie upon the carpet; and she can run as fast as you, and faster too, a great deal; and she can climb trees better; and she can catch mice, which you cannot do. But can Puss talk? No. Can Puss read? No. Then that is the reason why you are better than Puss—because you can talk and read.\nAndrew O'Malley writes in his survey of 18th-century children's literature, \"from helping poor animals [Charles] eventually makes a seamless transition to performing small acts",
"-26.12634567404166"
],
[
"when pecking the key or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission training). Another apparent operant behavior that appears without reinforcement is contrafreeloading.\nThese observations and others appear to contradict the law of effect, and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.g.) A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of classical conditioning; the autoshaping procedure has, in fact, become one of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors can be influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus-response) and operant contingencies (response-reinforcement), and the",
"-26.014913439641532"
],
[
"hypoemotionality, loss of fear, hypersexuality, and hyperorality, a condition in which inappropriate objects are placed in the mouth. Some monkeys also displayed an inability to recognize familiar objects and would approach animate and inanimate objects indiscriminately, exhibiting a loss of fear towards the experimenters. This behavioral disorder was later named Klüver-Bucy syndrome accordingly, and later research proved it was specifically due to amygdala lesions. Monkey mothers who had amygdala damage showed a reduction in maternal behaviors towards their infants, often physically abusing or neglecting them. In 1981, researchers found that selective radio frequency lesions of the whole amygdala caused Klüver-Bucy",
"-26.005876996950292"
],
[
"time.\nWhether teasing is playful or hurtful or educative is largely subject to the interpretation of the person being teased. If the person being teased feels harmed, then the teasing is hurtful. A difference in power between people may also make the behavior hurtful rather than playful. Ultimately though, if someone perceives him or herself as the victim of teasing, and experiences the teasing as unpleasant, then it is considered hurtful. If parents' intentions are positive, as in many Indigenous American Communities, then teasing to the community can be seen as an educational tool. The child may or may not understand",
"-25.929530287714442"
],
[
"it mildly embarrasses the children in a shared reference to give them a good sense of the consequences of their behavior. This type of teasing is thought to teach children to be less egocentric, teaches autonomy and responsibility to monitor their own behavior. Parental teasing also is practiced to encourage the child to think of their behavior in a social context. Some Indigenous American mothers have reported that this urges the children to understand how their behavior affects others around them. From examples in Eisenberg's article, parents use teasing as way of reinforcing relationships and participation in group/community activities (Prosocial",
"-25.865792688753572"
],
[
"getting close to them. \nEntomophobia may develop after the person has had a traumatic experience with the insect(s) in question. It may develop early or later in life and is quite common among the animal phobias. Typically one has from a fear from one specific type of insect, and entomophobia leads to behavioral changes: the person with entomophobia will avoid situations where they may encounter the specific type of insect. Cognitive behavioral therapy is considered an effective treatment.",
"-25.712230142962653"
],
[
"two stimuli evoking fear that are unconditioned: A sudden noise and the loss of support (physical support). But because older children are afraid of many things (Different animals, strange people etc...) it must be that those fear provoking stimuli are learned. Watson stated that fear can be observed by the following reaction with infants: Crying, breathing rapidly, closing their eyes or jumping suddenly.\nRage: Rage is an innate response to the body movement of the child being constrained. If a very young child is held in a way that she cannot move at all then she will begin to",
"-25.644676105697727"
],
[
"that in the moment. If the other person continues to do it after being asked to stop then it is a form of bullying or abuse.\nAnother way to look at teasing is as an honest reflection on differences, expressed in a joking fashion with the goal of \"clearing the air\". It can express a comfort with the other which can be comforting. As opposed to being nice to someone's face while making disparaging remarks behind their back, teasing can be a way to express differences in a direct fashion rather than internalizing them. In indigenous American communities Some indigenous American",
"-25.618216949282214"
],
[
"communities use teasing to teach their children about the expectations and values of the community and to change negative behaviors. Teasing gives children a better understanding of how their behavior affects the people around them. Teasing in Indigenous American communities is used to learn community acceptance, humbleness, correcting a behavior and social control.\nIn some Mexican indigenous American communities, teasing is used in an effective educative way. Teasing is found more useful because it allows the child to feel and understand the relevant effect of their behavior instead of receiving out of context feedback. Some parents in Indigenous American communities believe",
"-25.56494165764161"
],
[
"a child scratching their arm to decrease the level of itchiness experienced from a bug bite. Common forms of aversive stimulation abated by engaging in specific behaviors include sinus pain, itching, hunger, etc. Function versus topography As previously stated function refers to the effect the behavior produces on the environment. The actual form of the behavior is referred to the topography. Different behaviors may serve the same function, thus describing one limitation of treating behaviors based on form alone. For example, a child may scream, hit, and cry to obtain attention from their parent. What the behavior looks like often",
"-25.49817808053922"
],
[
"in order to develop responses to questions and statements. Adults in Trackton believe that children need to learn how to act around a variety of individuals and should not be told what to say and instead should learn these social skills on their own. Verbal play and \"talking junk\" is encouraged of children in order to handle situations in which they receive unpredictable responses and eventually lead to mastering the art of story telling. Heath observed that adults do not force children to master the skill of writing literature or even reading, claiming that if it \"is necessary it will",
"-25.464254765989608"
],
[
"greetings. Licking can communicate information about dominance, intentions, and state of mind, and like the yawn, is mainly a pacifying behavior. All pacifying behaviors contain elements of puppy behavior, including licking. Puppies lick themselves and their litter-mates as part of the cleaning process, and it appears to build bonds. Later in life, licking ceases to be a cleaning function and forms a ritualized gesture indicating friendliness. When stressed, a dog might lick the air, its own lips, or drop down and lick its paws or body.Lip-licking and sniffing are also recognized as calming signals. Auditory Long-distance contact calls are common",
"-25.351032430204214"
],
[
"Tick (pejorative) Tick, often also as the plural ticks, is a common term used in Germany's right-wing extremist environment to degrade and insult those who think differently, especially leftists and Punks.\nAccording to today’s right-wing extremist ideology so-called ticks are seen as the main concept of the enemy and are regarded as \"un-Germans ideologicall and culturally\". The degradation of humans to ticks, i.e. parasites, ties in with the animal metaphors used in the language of National Socialism. The terms \"pests\" and \"Jewish parasites\" were widespread in National Sozialism. Today these pest metaphors are also widely used in right-wing extremist music and",
"-25.347092173280544"
],
[
"during mild competition. Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to discipline younger ones. Individuals of any age and sex will touch each other's mouths, temporal glands, and genitals, particularly during meetings or when excited. This allows individuals to pick up chemical cues. Touching is especially important for mother–calf communication. When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them. If a calf wants to rest, it will press against its mother's front legs and when it wants to suckle, it will touch her breast",
"-25.30372548289597"
],
[
"children frequently imitate others' actions.\nImitation can be divided into two types: imitative learning and automatic imitation. Imitative learning occurs when a person consciously mimics an observed action in order to learn the mechanism behind that action and perform it himself or herself. Babies begin copying movements soon after birth; this behavior begins to diminish around the age of three. Before that, it is not possible to diagnose echopraxia, because it is difficult to differentiate between imitative learning and automatic imitation. If the imitative behavior continues beyond infanthood, it may be considered echopraxia.\nEchopraxia may be more easily distinguished in older individuals,",
"-25.270310865162173"
],
[
"human kisses (e.g. French kiss); in the former, the tongue is used to push food from mother to child with the child receiving both the mother's food and tongue in sucking movements, and the latter simply forgoes the premasticated food. In fact, observations across various species and cultures confirms that the act of kissing and premastication have most likely evolved from the similar relationship-based feeding behaviours. History and culture Written records of premastication have been found in Ancient Egypt, though the practice likely extends back into prehistoric times to non-human ancestors. For instance, in the Ancient Egyptian Ebers medical papyrus,",
"-25.23262438166421"
],
[
"personality and learning is the result of the interaction between environment, behavior and psychological process. There is evidence, however, that imitation is a class of behavior that can be learned just like anything else. Children have been shown to imitate behavior that they have never displayed before and are never reinforced for, after being taught to imitate in general.\nSeveral people have criticized the level of training required to perform behavior modification procedures, especially those that are restrictive or use aversives, aversion therapy, or punishment protocols. Some desire to limit such restrictive procedures only to licensed psychologists or licensed counselors. Once",
"-25.228609022364253"
],
[
"Children start fingerspelling as early as the age of 2. However, they are not aware of the association between fingerspelling and alphabet. It is not until the age of 4 that they realize that fingerspelling consists of a fixed sequence of units. Mapping problem In word learning, the mapping problem refers to the question of how infants attach the forms of language to the things that they experience in the world. There are infinite objects, concepts, and actions in the world that words could be mapped onto. Many theories have been proposed to account for the way in which the",
"-25.224930555006722"
],
[
"Teasing Teasing has multiple meanings and uses. In human interactions, teasing exists in three major forms: playful, hurtful, and educative. Teasing can have a variety of effects, depending on how it is utilized and its intended effect. When teasing is unwelcome, it may be regarded as harassment or mobbing, especially in the work place and school, or as a form of bullying or emotional abuse. If done in public, it may be regarded as humiliation. Teasing can also be regarded as educative when it is used as a way of Informal learning. Adults in some of the",
"-25.1887426651665"
],
[
"is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. Instances in which nonhuman primates have expressed joy have been reported. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body, such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age.\nChimpanzees have displayed different behaviours in response to a dying or dead group member. When witnessing a sudden death, the other group members act in frenzy, with vocalisations, aggressive displays and touching of the corpse. A dying elder elicited care in the others and upon death, the attendance and",
"-25.177464518288616"
],
[
"of with a quick lash of the tongue, but can become a hassle if encountered in a large group -- as they move very, very fast.\nScreepies: Frog-like creatures and the first things you'll encounter in the world. They attack Scaler in groups, leaping at him with jaws agape. One lash of the tongue takes them out easily, but take care -- they have quite a bite.\nHidden Crab: A little beast that likes to hide and throw explosives at you! Keep moving and he won't be able to get a lock on you.\nRatos: Despite their name, their behavior is more like",
"-25.171996571400086"
],
[
"someone is in this state, they are incapable of making rational choices for more than a short period of time due to an emotion-driven subconscious process that overrides their conscious mind. This phenomenon explains why an overeater cannot resist having another bite... and another... and another, despite the fact that they are not physically hungry and they know that overeating is unhealthy.\nCBTraining was born out of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and utilizes well established theories of psychology and treatment, including: bibliotherapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, behavioral self-control theory, behavioral economic theory, self-determination theory, and motivational interviewing. Each of these methods",
"-25.16625794423453"
],
[
"contagious yawning when exposed to human yawning. Dogs are very adept at reading human communication actions, so it is unclear if this phenomenon is rooted in evolutionary history or a result of domestication. Fish can also yawn, and they increase this behavior due to lack of oxygen. Culture Some cultures lend yawning spiritual significance. An open mouth has been associated with letting good immaterial things (such as the soul) escape or letting bad ones (evil spirits) enter, and yawning may have been thought to increase these risks. Covering the mouth when yawning may have been a way to prevent such",
"-25.15974528393417"
],
[
"own language skills develop with larger variation in babbling sounds, and elicit responses in conversation through babbling. From 7 months to the end of their first year babies are able to understand frequently heard words and can respond to simple requests. Their babbling becomes more complex and they communicate with it as if they are making sense, they use babbling to express their desires. Non-verbal communication also develops and actions such as waving goodbye are produced. This is also the period in which babies often say their first word, an important milestone in the child's life. Symbolic thought Symbolic thought",
"-25.054263654135866"
],
[
"thumb sucking (or sucking on other objects such as pens, pipes, lollipops), dental cleaning (e.g. flossing), chewing gum, hypersalivation, drooling and mouth breathing. Some consider habitual lip licking or picking to be a form of nervous tic, and do not consider this to be true angular cheilitis, instead calling it perlèche (derived from the French word pourlècher meaning \"to lick one’s lips\"), or \"factitious cheilitis\" is applied to this habit. The term \"cheilocandidiasis\" describes exfoliative (flaking) lesions of the lips and the skin around the lips, and is caused by a superficial candidal infection due to chronic lip licking. Less",
"-25.0162938022695"
],
[
"Ticks (song) Content The song's main character is at a bar, attempting to pick up a date. In doing so, he uses several humorous pickup lines, such as \"I'd like to check you for ticks.\"\nPaisley stated that the song is not about blood-sucking insects but rather about a guy flirting with a gal. Paisley was inspired to write the song from experience working on a farm. “Working out here on the farm, I literally have to check for ticks every time I come in from the woods or the fields,” he notes. “Now, if a young guy who lives in",
"-24.95812391448999"
],
[
"and wooded areas. Although ticks are not consistently repelled by DEET-containing repellents, insect repellents should still be applied to one's body and gear. It is recommended that one perform thorough tick checks after being outside, and to remove any tick immediately. If a tick is found, one should remove the tick by the head, preferably with a pair of fine-tipped tweezers. Squeezing the abdomen of a tick while it is attached can force viruses and bacteria into the wound, increasing the chance of infection. Crushing an unattached tick will also release bacteria and viruses from its abdomen, which may then",
"-24.924188363569556"
],
[
"up vocabulary words than bonobos did. She did not learn fifty vocabulary words until she was thirty-four months old. By this time, a typical child has already learned up to several hundred vocabulary words. Before Panpanzee began to progress, the researchers almost removed her from the study because of the lack of improvement. She was not picking up words fast enough and not learning enough symbols. The researchers assumed this was because chimpanzees did not have the capacity to be able to learn a language. They also assumed it was bonobos genetic superiority that led to Kanzi to have the",
"-24.86983448216779"
],
[
"dogs, and even humans, an adaptation created to help individual creatures survive in a hostile world.\nFear learning changes across the lifetime due to natural developmental changes in the brain. This includes changes in the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. Pheromones and why fear can be contagious In threatening situations insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones (\"Schreckstoff\" in German). This is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like",
"-24.815374141180655"
],
[
"Panbanisha made Julie Cohen realize that just because an animal may not have the same innate language abilities as humans, does not mean that they cannot think, understand, or have feelings. Panbanisha made it clear to her and other humans we should not judge an animal on their language capabilities. Panbanisha Compared with Other Apes Bonobos are able to learn languages similarly to humans. At the Language Research Center at Georgia State University, the researchers learned that chimpanzees will pick up English if they teach it like it is their first language not their second. Panbanisha started to learn Yerkish",
"-24.814184204034973"
],
[
"with others, and this has been suggested to be due to the freedom to control what they say and so not have their cognitive abilities stretched by having to work out how to respond to what someone has just said.\nWhile similar to private speech which usually starts after 3 and ends about 7, crib talk lacks its self-regulatory instructions. Problems Crib talk is difficult to transcribe because such young children typically have poor pronunciation, and because there may be little context to infer the likely meaning of a child’s words, even with the help of a parent. This has limited",
"-24.743224268546328"
],
[
"diving away on their own. When making a ticking sound, the callers do not open their mouths, so it is hard to distinguish who is the maker of the sound. The parent who carries the chicks tend to make the ticking sound more often than those that do not, and both of male and female parents are equally likely to tick. Another vocalization noise is clucking, and this signals for food. When a parent clucks, the young respond to it by poking their head out of their parent back where they are on to receive food. Reproduction and survival The",
"-24.734423249217798"
],
[
"feeding of premasticated food and ritualized mouth to mouth contact for bonding has been observed in anthropoid apes such as gorillas, orangutans and chimpanzees. All of this supports the idea that human behaviours of kissing and feeding of premastication foods, either directly or indirectly from the mouth, have their behavioural roots in higher animals and ancestral great apes. Human kiss precursor In all human cultures premastication/kiss-feeding or kissing between mother and infant has been observed in all with kissing believed to be a socially ritualized form of feeding premasticated food. There is high similarity in the execution of kiss-feeding and",
"-24.72481259860797"
],
[
"by increasing child responsiveness and by increasing imitative language.\nReinforcement learning, both positive and negative, and punishment, are used by people that children imitate to either promote or discontinue behavior. If a child imitates a certain type of behavior or action and the consequences are rewarding, the child is very likely to continue performing the same behavior or action. The behavior \"has been reinforced (i.e. strengthened)\". However, if the imitation is not accepted and approved by others, then the behavior will be weakened.\nNaturally, children are surrounded by many different types of people that influence their actions and behaviors, including parents, family",
"-24.7033781204118"
],
[
"Fingerplay Fingerplay, commonly seen in early childhood, is hand action or movement combined with singing or spoken-words to engage the child's interest. According to Erikson, many children develop autonomy and \"want to learn and imitate the activities and behavior of others\". According to Wong's Essentials of Pediatric Nursing, \"gestures precedes speech and in this way a child communicates satisfactorily\". From all ages children become active listeners and can control their eyes, body, and attention on the teacher.\nSome chants or common rhymes that incorporate fingerplay include the \"Itsy Bitsy Spider\", \"Round and round the garden\", and \"This Little Piggy\". The article",
"-24.631452151719714"
],
[
"imitated the target behavior on puppet B at a significantly higher rate than the control group which had not seen the two puppets paired. This suggests that the pre-exposed infants had formed an association between the puppets without any reinforcement. This exhibits latent learning in infants, showing that infants can learn by observation, even when they do not show any indication that they are learning until they are older. The Impact of Different Drugs on Latent Learning Many drugs abused by humans imitate dopamine, the neurotransmitter that gives humans motivation to seek rewards. It is shown that zebra-fish can",
"-24.622016894223634"
],
[
"Human infants are not necessarily excited or upset when babbling; they may also babble spontaneously and incessantly when they are emotionally calm.\nThe sounds of babbling are produced before an infant begins to construct recognizable words. This can be partly attributed to the immaturity of the vocal tract and neuromusculature at this age in life. Infants first begin vocalizing by crying, followed by cooing and then vocal play. These first forms of sound production are the easiest for children to use because they contain natural, reflexive, mostly vowel sounds.\nBabbling is assumed to occur in all children acquiring language.",
"-24.60518501338811"
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[
"of a bell, the bell being a conditioned stimulus and the salivating now being a conditioned response to it. They salivated at the sound of a bell because they were anticipating food.\nLatent learning is when an animal learns something even though it has no motivation or stimulus associating a reward with learning it. Animals are therefore able to simply be exposed to information for the sake of information and it will come to their One significant example of latent learning is rats subconsciously creating mental maps and using that information to be able to find a biological stimulus such as",
"-24.544577968044905"
],
[
"child's finger comes in contact with the mouth and the child starts sucking on it. If the sensation is pleasurable to the child, then the child will attempt to recreate the behavior. Infants use their initial reflexes (grasping and sucking) to explore their environment and create schemes. Schemes are groups of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment. Once a child begins to create schemes they use accommodation and assimilation to become progressively adapted to the world. Assimilation is when a child responds to a new event in a way that is consistent with",
"-24.455724336366984"
],
[
"communication can help reduce risk behaviors through individual risk factors such as self-esteem, academic achievement, and parental involvement in monitoring\". Knapp, Stafford, and Daly stated, \"verbally aggressive behavior is contextual: most parents likely have said something verbally aggressive to their child at some point, even if they later regretted doing so\".\nThe parental use of verbal aggressiveness can cause a disruption in the relationship between the child and the parent. When a parent uses verbally aggressive behavior children are often frightened, which leads to avoidance of the parent. The verbal aggressiveness causes the child to feel fear and anxiety and",
"-24.426440004695905"
],
[
"regular speech. This theory originates with the developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who observed that children will often narrate their actions out loud before eventually replacing the habit with the adult equivalent: sub-vocal articulation. During sub-vocal articulation, no sound is made but the mouth still moves. Eventually, adults may learn to inhibit their mouth movements, although they still experience the words as \"inner speech\".\nJones and Fernyhough cite other evidence for this hypothesis that inner speech is essentially like any other action. They mention that schizophrenics suffering auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) need only open their mouths in order to disrupt the voices",
"-24.424666037841234"
],
[
"behavior). Parents tease their children to be able to “control the behavior of the child and to have fun with them”.\nAn Inuit principal of learning that follows a similar teasing pattern is known as issumaksaiyuk, meaning to cause thought. Oftentimes, adults pose questions or hypothetical situations to the children (sometimes dangerous) but in a teasing, playful manner, often dramatizing their responses. These questions raise the child's awareness to issues surrounding their community, as well as give them a sense of agency within the community as a member capable of having an effect and creating change. Once the child begins to",
"-24.41522362586693"
],
[
"entitled, \"Fingerplay Fun\" explains fingerplay as a form of chants or songs to gather the child's attention. Reciting chants or stories \"help him develop an ear for sounds and discover that sounds can be manipulated and changed\".\nAn example of fingerplay, \"Five Little Monkeys\":\nFive little monkeys (five fingers)\n\nJumping on the bed—(rest elbow on other hand, jump arm up and down)\n\nOne fell off, (hold up one finger, bring down as if falling)\n\nAnd bumped his head. (hand to head)\nA fingerplay is a nursery rhyme for children that uses hand movements coordinated with words to engage and sustain children's interest. Fingerplays can be in",
"-24.406769822351635"
],
[
"noted that various non-human primates perform self-directed activities such as grooming and scratching in situations likely to involve anxiety and uncertainty, and that these behaviours are increased by anxiogenic (anxiety-producing) drugs and reduced by anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) drugs. In humans, he noted that similar self-directed behaviour, together with aimless manipulation of objects (chewing pens, twisting rings), can be used as indicators of 'stressful stimuli and may reflect an emotional condition of negative affect'. History The subsequent development of research on displacement activities was a direct consequence of Konrad Lorenz's works on instincts. However, the first mentions of the phenomenon came in",
"-24.370112489582425"
],
[
"(1960) found that monkeys did better with observational learning if they saw the \"tutor\" monkey make a mistake before making the right choice. Heyes (1993) distinguished imitation and non-imitative social learning in the following way: imitation occurs when animals learn about behavior from observing conspecifics, whereas non-imitative social learning occurs when animals learn about the environment from observing others.\nNot all imitation and learning through observing is the same, and they often differ in the degree to which they take on an active or passive form. John Dewey describes an important distinction between two different forms of imitation: imitation as an",
"-24.360678072669543"
],
[
"mouth moves in distinct ways during speech production. When producing each individual sound out loud, humans use different parts of their mouths, as well as different methods to produce particular sounds. During the beginnings of babbling, infants tend to have greater mouth openings on the right side. This finding suggests that babbling is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain. The larynx, or voicebox, is originally high in the throat which allows the baby to continue to breathe while swallowing. It descends during the first year of life, allowing the pharynx to develop and facilitates the production of adult-like",
"-24.318931905610953"
],
[
"animals is a debated topic. For an action to be an instance of imitative learning, an animal must observe and reproduce the specific pattern of movements produced by the model. Some researchers have proposed evidence that true imitation does not occur in non-primates, and that the observational learning exhibited involves less cognitively complex means such as stimulus enhancement.\nChimpanzees are more apt to learning by emulation rather than true imitation. The exception is encultured chimpanzees, which are chimpanzees raised as if they were children. In one study by Buttelman et al., encultured chimpanzees were found to behave similarly to young children",
"-24.30440720495244"
],
[
"can also lead to sexually harmful behaviour, particularly when coupled with a lowered sense of risk and danger and a child with a brain injury can often become vulnerable to exploitation by peers or by strangers.\nA reduced ability to access and to process language and therefore to ‘word find’ appropriately can result in an increased inclination to use a more readily accessible word - such as a swear word or a more aggressive word - and this can obviously alienate and concern friends, who could interpret this as anger or aggression. Potential emotional effects Everything we",
"-24.292036766564706"
],
[
"Latent learning Latent Learning vs Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is when an animal eventually subconsciously anticipates a biological stimulus such as food when they experience a seemingly random stimulus, due to a repeated experience of their association. One significant example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov's experiment in which dogs showed a conditioned response to a bell the experimenters had purposely tried to associate with feeding time. After the dogs had been conditioned, the dogs no longer only salivated for the food, which was a biological need and therefore an unconditioned stimulus. The dogs began to salivate at the sound",
"-24.28229547562023"
],
[
"develop a fear of sex. Other fears Some sufferers of genophobia may develop the fear as a result of preexisting fears. Some people may have nosophobia: the fear of contracting a disease or virus. They may also have gymnophobia: the fear of nudity. Others may have extreme fear of being touched. These issues, along with stress disorders, can manifest themselves as the innate fear of sex. Symptoms Symptoms of genophobia can be feeling of panic, terror, and dread. Other symptoms are increased speed of heartbeat, shortness of breath, trembling/shaking, anxiety, sweating, crying, and avoidance of others. Treatments There is no",
"-24.279830320185283"
],
[
"of food. Language development most certainly did not stop there—since otherwise bees or ants would have comparable communication systems to ours—but this is where it is hypothesized to have begun, giving our ancestors the ability to take communication out of the here and now.",
"-24.26389947307689"
],
[
"the pediatric population has come down. Adaptive value of reflexes Reflexes vary in utility. Some reflexes hold a survival value (e.g., the rooting reflex, which helps a breastfed infant find the mother's nipple). Babies display the rooting reflex only when they are hungry and touched by another person, not when they touch themselves. There are a few reflexes that likely assisted in the survival of babies during human evolutionary past (e.g., the Moro reflex). Other reflexes such as sucking and grabbing help establish gratifying interaction between parents and infants. They can encourage a parent to respond with love and affection,",
"-24.25789737829473"
],
[
"by the tick. The use of tweezers is the most common removal method, but fine-point tweezers are the best to avoid tearing the tick and spreading possible infections in the bite area. Spread the dog’s fur and grasp the tick closest to the skin and very gently pull straight upward in a slow, steady motion. Another removal method is the use of a tick removal hook such as the Tick Twister or the Tick Stick, where one places the prongs on either side of the tick and twists upward. Tick removal hooks might be the most useful in areas where",
"-24.251414752798155"
],
[
"Some neurons in the nose are specialized to detect pheromones. Touch Touch or somatosensation (adjectival form: somatic), also called tactition (adjectival form: tactile) or mechanoreception, is a perception resulting from activation of neural receptors, generally in the skin including hair follicles, but also in the tongue, throat, and mucosa. A variety of pressure receptors respond to variations in pressure (firm, brushing, sustained, etc.). The touch sense of itching caused by insect bites or allergies involves special itch-specific neurons in the skin and spinal cord. The loss or impairment of the ability to feel anything touched is called tactile anesthesia.",
"-24.240682618212304"
],
[
"loud but sustained chirping mixed with the occasional meow.\nSome researchers believe this chattering may also be an involuntary instinctual imitation of the moment a killing bite on the neck occurs. This action activates a vibration of the feline's jaws to allow the precision to slide between a prey's spine.\nChirping is also used by mothers to comfort and get the attention of the kittens in their litters. The kittens learn to identify their mothers' chirps fairly early in life. There was also mention of a call, that presumably was a chirp, in Brown et al. 1978 where a five-week-old kitten had",
"-24.225735033804085"
],
[
"the marketers desired goal of the child influencing the parents to buy the product. In the 2011 issue of the Journal of Children and Media the three main types of nagging are identified as: juvenile nagging, nagging to test boundaries, and manipulative nagging. The trend was that both nagging as a whole and manipulative nagging significantly increasing with age.\nAnother study suggests that there are two main ways children pester their parents. The first method is persistent nagging, which is said to be whiny where the child tries to get what they want by being badly behaved until they succeed. This",
"-24.22529220842989"
],
[
"calls and avoid playback of 22-kHz calls.\nWhen rats are given naloxone (an opioid antagonist), tickling no longer evokes the 50-kHz vocalisation which indicates that the rewarding properties of tickling are modulated by endogenous opioids. Dogs Dogs sometimes pant in a manner that sounds like a human laugh. By analyzing the pant using a sonograph, this pant varies with bursts of frequencies. When this vocalization is played to dogs in a shelter setting, it can initiate play, promote pro-social behavior, and decrease stress levels. One study compared the behaviour of 120 dogs with and without exposure to a recorded \"dog-laugh\".",
"-24.214054915937595"
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[
"scream and stiffen her body. Later this reaction is applied to different situations. Children get angry when they are forced to take a bath or clean their room. These situations provoke rage because they are associated with physical restraint.\nLove: Watson said that love was an automatic response from infants when they were stroked lightly, tickled or patted. The infant then responds with smiles and laughs and other affectionate responses. According to Watson, infants do not love specific people but they are conditioned to do so. Because the mother's face is progressively associated with the patting and stroking it becomes the",
"-24.190379953506636"
],
[
"like breathing and panting. It sounds similar to screeching. The differences between chimpanzee and human laughter may be the result of adaptations that have evolved to enable human speech. One study analyzed sounds made by human babies and bonobos when tickled. It found that although the bonobo’s laugh was a higher frequency, the laugh followed the same sonographic pattern of human babies to include as similar facial expressions. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body such as the armpits and belly.\nResearch has noted the similarity in forms of laughter among humans and apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, orangutans)",
"-24.188751365465578"
],
[
"from the mouth. Also, food moves slowly in comparison to liquid, and is not often sucked into the pharynx, allowing for laryngeal penetration or aspiration of the bolus. The food bolus will trigger a gag response first and be expelled before it hits the laryngeal vestibule. Infants therefore utilize the gag reflex for learning three important concepts: the borders of their mouth, desensitizing their gag reflex, and how to protect their airway when volitionally swallowing solid foods.\nAs infants get closer to one year old, the gag reflex moves posteriorly, closer to the laryngeal vestibule. This allows food to move closer",
"-24.18392392824171"
],
[
"jars by pairing these cues with conventional erotica. According to John Bancroft, conditioning alone cannot explain fetishism, because it does not result in fetishism for most people. He suggests that conditioning combines with some other factor, such as an abnormality in the sexual learning process.\nTheories of sexual imprinting propose that humans learn to recognize sexually desirable features and activities during childhood. Fetishism could result when a child is imprinted with an overly narrow or \"incorrect\" concept of a sex object. Imprinting seems to occur during the child's earliest experiences with arousal and desire, and is based on \"an egocentric evaluation",
"-24.169302987284027"
],
[
"environment. Additionally, researchers have also observed that infants who have learnt avoidance through crawling carried this avoidance over to when they start walking, rather than having to relearn these skills. These carryover effects indicate that infants are learning and processing through interactions with their environment and can apply their learnings to other new situations. Mixed results It has also been observed that a mother's emotions, seen through facial expression, can sometimes regulate an infant's behavior. Infants were placed on a visual cliff with a clear drop, and were able to see their mothers' facial expressions. When the mothers expressed",
"-24.138431829109322"
],
[
"has the opposite effect on children's eating habits. In this article, researchers found that limiting or prohibiting a child's access to foods high in fat, sugar, and energy led to the desire to overeat these \"forbidden\" foods. It creates a sense of anxiety within the child which can lead into them feeling insecure lowering their self-esteem. Children and adults eating in this type of environment also tend to use technology, like being on their phones or watching television, at the table distracting each other from engaging in conversation. Not only was there less communication going on but they also",
"-24.096608903069864"
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[
"sensations. An infant develops this kind of pleasure to feel the hair on his or her early life, manifesting as aggressive behavior that will drive to pull the hair of people with which it interacts. Trichophilia is considered a paraphilia which is usually inoffensive. Prevalence In order to determine the relative prevalence of different fetishes, scientists obtained a sample of at least 5000 individuals worldwide, in 2007, from 381 Internet discussion groups. The relative prevalences were estimated based on (a) the number of groups devoted to a particular fetish, (b) the number of individuals participating in the groups and",
"-24.081677209585905"
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[
"deliver the needed therapy. Aids, such as mirrors, tape recorders, and tongue depressors may be utilized to help the children to become aware of their speech sounds and to work toward more natural speech production. Discrimination While more common in childhood, speech impairments can result in a child being bullied. Bullying is a harmful activity that often takes place at school, though may be present in adult life. Bullying involves the consistent and intentional harassment of another individual, and may be physical or verbal in nature.\nSpeech impairments (e.g., stuttering) and language impairments (e.g., dyslexia, auditory processing disorder)",
"-24.03051205034717"
],
[
"of developmental learning have a critical period, for instance, for imprinting among geese and language acquisition among humans. In such cases, genes determine the timing of the environmental impact.\nA related concept is labeled \"biased learning\" (Alcock 2001:101–103) and \"prepared learning\" (Wilson, 1998:86–87). For instance, after eating food that subsequently made them sick, rats are predisposed to associate that food with smell, not sound (Alcock 2001:101–103). Many primate species learn to fear snakes with little experience (Wilson, 1998:86–87).\nSee developmental biology and developmental psychology.\nIt corresponds to Aristotle's material cause. Causal relationships The figure shows the causal relationships among the",
"-24.02609069540631"
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[
"clearly and obviously that they were distressed while giving a speech. This non-verbal communication is a signal of discomfort to the observer and is perhaps an unconscious request for help.\" These behaviors that are included in the fidget factor lead youth to have difficulty forming relationships as these actions may be perceived as inauthentic or secretive. Fidgeting has been identified through discourse analysis of couples in conflict as a visual cue of shame, related to facial tension and masking of expressions.\nFreeze Factor: stillness, facial tension and silence. \nIndividuals who scored higher on this factor typically displayed a lack of any",
"-24.013795437233057"
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[
"projection neurons. This pathway triggers scratching in mice. Pleasure The parabrachial nucleus relays satiety and pain-related signals to higher brain regions; when inhibited, this can produce \"liking\" responses to certain pleasurable stimuli, such as sweet taste.",
"-23.995787085266784"
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[
"fear in children varies from 3%-21% depending on age and method used to measure dental fear. “A very young child may find the smells of a dental surgery and the sounds of the equipment working very overwhelming” says H.R. Chapman and N. C. Kirby-Turner. Such overwhelming situations can make a child afraid and if the fear is not corrected, it can become harder to get the child to participate in dental procedures.\nSome forms of treatment for children who do experience dental fear include allowing the family to come into the room with them to allow the child to see that",
"-23.983199600930675"
]
] |
6kb210 | On most standardized tests, why is it so important that we specifically use a #2 pencil? | [
"It's a compromise between hard enough to make a mark that's readable by the machine (machines worked by sensing opaqueness so #3 and #4 weren't always dark enough to be readable) vs not smudging when erased (#1 is darker than #2, but is harder to cleanly erase without creating a bigger smudge patch that could also lead to errors). In truth, the machines have improved with technology and can read most types of marks very accurately, but since #2 remains in the sweet spot (and keeps people from using ink that's much harder to cleanly erase), they still recommend it.",
"The numbers relate to the hardness of the graphite (lead) of the pencil. At a guess, #2 is the best compromise to get a particular shade that the scantron machines find easiest to read, while not leaving a mark so soft as to be rubbed off easily.",
"Other types of pencil are used for artistic purposes, like sketches, and they use especially hard graphite that creates a very light mark. This is so it can be easily erased, or left invisible under the final paint or ink. Since it's purpose is to be less visible than a normal #2 pencil, it is in fact invisible to the Scantron machines that grade millions of tests.",
"\\#2 corresponds to roughly HB to 2B on the HB scale. It isn't an exact standard, as it varies between manufacturers and countries. URL_0 Harder pencils, like a 4H tend to be used in engineering drafts as they make thin light lines. Softer pencils like 6B tend to be used in art for quick dark shading. It's just a standard for text scanning and really would only be a problem with the H series of pencils as they tend to produce lighter grey shades which might not scan well. Something like a 3B should work just fine. Source: I mostly use a 3B for art and have of the pencil varieties among my art materials, so I've actually used most of them."
] | [
[
"Artist-grade pencils have the largest color ranges; 72 color sets are very common and there are several brands of 120 colors or more. They are also typically available as individual pencils. Student and scholastic grade Many of the same companies that produce artist-grade colored pencils also offer student-grade materials and scholastic-level colored pencils. Lightfastness rating is usually not included in student- and scholastic-grade colored pencils. Core composition and pigment-binder ratio vary among artist- and student-grade colored pencils even when the same company produces them. As they are intended for different users, student- and scholastic-grade colored pencils lack the high quality",
"-28.791617805021815"
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[
"teachers must have either professional or temporary certification by the Bureau of Educator Certification.\nPaper and pencil tests are offered 6 times per Calendar Year, with 2 additional supplemental administrations. Supplemental administrations cost considerably more than regular testing dates. As an alternative to paper-and-pencil tests, many tests are now offered on the computer during the week at 36 locations throughout the state. The computer-based tests are equivalent to the paper-and-pencil tests in length and difficulty. History The federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) requires that, in order for states to receive federal funding, all teachers must be \"highly",
"-28.780613516108133"
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[
"textbooks, or any communications device during this test. A student is only allowed to use a Number 2 Pencil with an eraser for this exam, and nothing else. The number 2 pencil with the eraser must be brought by the student, as the testing center usually does not provide any.",
"-28.743262843825505"
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[
"Carpenter pencil A carpenter pencil (carpentry pencil, carpenter's pencil) is a pencil that has a body with a rectangular or elliptical cross-section to prevent it from rolling away. Carpenter pencils are easier to grip than standard pencils, because they have a larger surface area. The non-round core allows thick or thin lines to be drawn by rotating the pencil. Thin lines are required for high precision markings and are easy to erase, but thick markings are needed to mark on rough surfaces. The lead is strong to withstand the stress of marking on such surfaces. The pencil is robust to",
"-27.689956178190187"
],
[
"with a different weight distribution for more comfortable, balanced writing. It's also has a wide double layer comfort grip to reduce writing stress. In the United States this pencil comes in a model using 0.7mm lead only. There is no knock system for the US model. In Japan the G-Spec Dr. Grip is available, which is the same pencil, but using 0.5mm lead with a knock system.\nThe pencils are available in 0.5mm and 0.7mm depending on the style of pencil.",
"-27.46900408874717"
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[
"Basic Elementary Skills Test Different sub-tests The reading test requires the child to read a list of words as quickly as possible. The writing test examines the ability of the child to write sentences or paragraphs based on their age. The mathematics sub-test involves identifying numbers and solving simple problems. In the spelling test the child's ability to spell words correctly is measured. Scoring marks Marks are awarded for each correct answer, except for writing test where points are taken away for making mistakes and more points are earned for longer sentences. The raw marks are converted to approximate grade",
"-27.21421127632493"
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[
"over the original pencils of the artist and pays specific attention to highlighting key elements of the penciller's work while adding depth by varying line quality and thickness.",
"-27.01966262406495"
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[
"Pencil Code The Pencil Code is a high-order finite-difference code for solving partial differential equations, written in Fortran 95. The code is designed for efficient computation with massive parallelization. Due to its modular structure, it can be used for a large variety of physical setups like hydro- and magnetohydrodynamics relevant for, e.g., astrophysics, geophysics, cosmology, turbulence, and combustion. Many such setups are available as ready-to-run samples. Methods The computational scheme is finite-difference and non-conservative; the time integration is implemented by an explicit scheme. Due to the usage of the vector potential, the magnetic field is intrinsically divergence free. High-order (4th,",
"-26.903067221865058"
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[
"crayon and a pencil in that it contains a brightly colored wax core within a protective paper casing, but its proportions are closer to that of a standard pencil. Wax pencils are primarily used to write onto nonporous surfaces such as porcelain or glass.\nNormal pencils, chalk, and crayons all share the characteristic that they cannot \"run out\". The useful life of these implements is closely linked to their physical existence. However, specialized accessories such as pencil sharpeners may be required to reshape the working end of the pigment core or to remove the outer casing from around the tip. Assisted",
"-26.15464442175835"
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[
"Worksheet Education In the classroom setting, worksheets usually refer to a loose sheet of paper with questions or exercises for students to complete and record answers. They are used, to some degree, in most subjects, and have widespread use in the math curriculum where there are two major types. The first type of math worksheet contains a collection of similar math problems or exercises. These are intended to help a student become proficient in a particular mathematical skill that was taught to them in class. They are commonly given to students as homework. The second type of math worksheet is",
"-26.074729423737153"
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[
"question everyone asks by speaking into the pencils is \"can we play?\" or \"are you here?\" or \"are you there?\"\nThe top pencil is precariously balanced on a central pivot point, meaning that it can easily rotate on the pivot due to slight wind gusts, or the breathing of players expecting the pencil to move. History In Spain, teenage girls have played Juego de la Lapicera for generations in school playgrounds and sleepovers to find which boys in their class found them attractive.\n\nAccording to Caitlyn Dewey of The Washington Post, this game is valuable as an example of cross-cultural viral trends:",
"-26.009858214121778"
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[
"write. A three-ring binder can be used to create a slanted desk by turning the binder sideways. Also, students with Down syndrome often try to hold their pencils by anchoring them against the thumb rather than using the tip of their thumb. Shortened pencils or triangular-shaped pencils encourage students to hold them correctly. Using any of these assistive technologies can help down syndrome students during their educational process. Benefits Today many people with disabilities are breaking barriers through the use of technology. For some individuals with disabilities, assistive technology is a necessary tool that enables them to engage in or",
"-25.963150025636423"
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[
"pencil to mark panel frames and vanishing points, which he introduces after the rough stage. He chooses not to put too much time or polish into this stage, preferring to work quickly, lightly and instinctively. He uses a mechanical pencil with 0.9mm 2H lead at this stage for fine outlines and detail work, and a traditional pencil for more organic work, including softer lines, shading large areas and creating more fluid motion. The \"best tool of all\", according to him, is a traditional pencil cut with a craft knife, which he says can produce a variety of marks, and be",
"-25.860820934351068"
],
[
"Colored pencil A colored pencil (American English), coloured pencil (Commonwealth English), pencil crayon, lead or coloured/colouring lead (Canadian English, Newfoundland English) is an art medium constructed of a narrow, pigmented core encased in a wooden cylindrical case. Unlike graphite and charcoal pencils, colored pencils’ cores are wax- or oil-based and contain varying proportions of pigments, additives, and binding agents. Water-soluble (watercolor) pencils and pastel pencils are also manufactured as well as colored leads for mechanical pencils.\nColored pencils vary greatly in terms of quality and usability; concentration of pigments in the core, lightfastness of the pigments, durability of the colored pencil,",
"-25.725005827844143"
],
[
"Pencil board Shitajiki (下敷き, lit. \"under-sheet\") is a Japanese word for various types of materials placed under a sheet of paper for writing, either to prevent marking on the sheets below or to provide a better surface for writing. They are usually referred to as pencil boards in English.\nShitajiki for handwriting are generally made of plastic about 1 to 2 mm in thickness, making them flexible but still durable. Typically, they are B5 sized (slightly smaller than U.S. letter size), although other sizes are also available (typically A4 or A5). Shitajiki for calligraphy are typically made of dark (blue or",
"-25.71550921734888"
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[
"in which student must give a short written answer, usually several letters or numbers.\nThe II part contains one or several tasks in which student must use his creativity to complete them. For example, he can be given a hard mathematical exercise to solve, a composition to write or a question to answer argumentatively. Unlike the previous part, that is checked by a computer, this part is checked by three experts of the regional examination committee. Paper forms There are four stationery forms used in the course of each subject USE test: the registration form, the answer sheet No. 1",
"-25.631948260532226"
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[
"released.\nAn advanced ratchet type has a mechanism that rotates the pencil lead 9° counter-clockwise every time the lead is pressed on to the paper (which counts as one stroke), to distribute wear evenly. This auto-rotation mechanism keeps the lead 50% narrower than in the common propelling mechanical pencils, resulting in uniform thickness of the lines written onto the paper. The design was first patented by Schmidt of Germany, and later developed by Mitsubishi Pencil Company of Japan, and named Kuru Toga under the Uni brand. This type of pencil is most suited for Asian languages that have multiple strokes per",
"-25.61838838044787"
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[
"it possible to draw two parallel lines at once.\nThe flat pencil is one of the oldest pencil types. The first versions were made by hollowing out sticks of juniper wood. A superior technique was discovered: two wooden halves were carved with a groove running down them, a plumbago stick placed in one of the grooves, and the two halves then glued together—essentially the same method in use to this day.\nSimilar pencils (called 'jumbo pencils') are sometimes used by children. A pencil that is designed for a child rather than a carpenter would have a softer core, enabling the user to",
"-25.612300331384176"
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[
"draw with less physical effort. Carpenter pencils are sometimes used by artists and designers to draw a thick line easily when needed. For instance, Old English letters are easier to draw with a carpenter pencil than with an ordinary pen.",
"-25.5885357245279"
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[
"a third model of Pencil: Pencil Gold, made from an anodized, brushed aluminum. Pencil is an active stylus whose main features include palm rejection erase, and blend. Inside the tip and eraser are 14k gold-plated switches, allowing Pencil to communicate with an iPad over Bluetooth LE. Pencil’s Palm Rejection allows users to rest their hand on the iPad while drawing, Blend lets users smudge or blur with their fingertips, and the built-in eraser enables users to flip Pencil around to erase. Pencil is certified Bluetooth Smart and has a built-in battery that charges off of a USB port.\nIn July 2014,",
"-25.286413551362784"
],
[
"Dr. Grip Features The deflection-deflection system is a special form of lead advancement. A pencil using this system is also commonly known as a \"shaker pencil\". A small, metal weight lies around the core of the pencil, and when shaken, slides up and down; thus pushing the lead advancer down and advancing more lead.\nFor ergonomics, the Dr. Grip pencil was designed with a wide barrel and cushioned grip to relieve writing stress and fatigue. Models The majority of Dr. Grip pencil models only differ in color. The \"Center of Gravity\" pencil is a slightly different model in that it's designed",
"-25.258966759312898"
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[
"once. If a teacher wanted to create a test of medium difficulty, they would provide a test with a word bank, but some words may be used more than once and others not at all. The hardest variety of such a test is a fill-in-the-blank test in which no word bank is provided at all. This generally requires a higher level of understanding and memory than a multiple choice test. Because of this, fill-in-the-blank tests[with no word bank] are often feared by students. Essay Items such as short answer or essay typically require a test taker",
"-25.23351786439889"
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[
"often-used accelerated reading program in schools. Students are assessed and given a reading level and a range. Books rated below their level are easy to read, while books above their level challenge the student. Sometimes students are not even allowed to check out books from the school library that are outside their range. Vygotsky argued that a major shortcoming of standardized tests is that they only measure what students are capable of on their own, not in a group setting where their minds are being pushed by other students.\nIn the context of second language learning, the ZPD can be useful",
"-25.228060870353147"
],
[
"Blue pencil doctrine Etymology The term stems from the act of editing written copy with a blue pencil. In UK law The principle was established by the House of Lords in the case of Nordenfelt v Maxim, Nordenfelt Guns and Ammunition Co (1894).\nOther statutory provisions such as the Sale of Goods Act 1979 and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999 have established the Blue Pencil principle in statute law.\nIn Rose & Frank Co v JR Crompton & Bros Ltd, the Blue Pencil Rule was used to strike out an unacceptable clause in a memorandum of understanding agreement which",
"-25.20272764301626"
],
[
"5.5. Each administration of the QUIS was preceded by a practice session to refamiliarize the subject with the interface. As the researchers expected, the format of the questionnaire did not affect users' ratings. However, it was of note that subjects using the online format wrote more in the comment sections than those who used the paper format. Also, the comments made by subjects using the online format provided better feedback in terms of problems, strengths, and examples. These results indicated that the online QUIS format provides more higher-quality information to developers, researchers and human factors experts than the paper-pencil format.",
"-25.181697218853515"
],
[
"Pencil fighting Pencil fighting involves two players trying to break one-another's pencils using pencils. The World Extreme Pencil Fighting League is an organization of pencil fighters based in Seattle, Washington. Overview Pencil fighting typically involves two players attempting to break one-another's pencils. Players take turns in which one player holds their pencil horizontally with both hands while the other player flicks their pencil at it in attempts to break it. The first player to break the other's pencil is the winner. Foul plays have been suggested, such as intentionally hitting a player on the fingers, dropping the pencil, and missing",
"-25.13480382063426"
],
[
"Mechanical pencil A mechanical pencil, also clutch pencil, is a pencil with a replaceable and mechanically extendable solid pigment core called a \"lead\" /ˈlɛd/. The lead, often made of graphite, is not bonded to the outer casing, and can be mechanically extended as its point is worn away as it is being used. Other names include microtip pencil, automatic pencil, drafting pencil, technical pencil, click pencil, pump pen, pump pencil, leadholder, pacer (Australian English), pen pencil (Indian English), and lead pencil (Bangladeshi and American English).\nMechanical pencils are used to provide lines of constant width without sharpening in technical drawing and",
"-25.114478346542455"
],
[
"to tailor them to the requirements of the readability formulas.\nFurthermore, the Lexile framework costs states and school districts valuable resources. Even though other readability formulas, such as the Flesch–Kincaid used in Microsoft Word's software, are widely used to establish reading levels and difficulty, the Lexile scale is the major method of establishing text difficulty in American schools. However, unlike readability formulas of the past, MetaMetrics, the creator of the Lexile framework, \"retained the processing of readability as intellectual property, requiring educators and other clients to pay for their services to obtain readability levels.\" Mesmer lists the cost of using",
"-24.890706863836385"
],
[
"Pencil extender A pencil extender (or pencil lengthener) is a small instrument (made out of metal or wood) allowing to extend small pencils, in order to facilitate their use. History Ever more efficient means of mass production of pencils has driven the replacement cost of a pencil down. Before this, people would continue to use the stub of a pencil to delay the cost of a new one. For those who \"did not feel comfortable using a stub, pencil extenders were sold. These devices function something like a porte-crayon [...] the pencil stub can be inserted into the end of",
"-24.880693150567822"
],
[
"mechanical pencils can be refilled, but some inexpensive models are meant to be disposable and are discarded when empty. Hardness As with non-mechanical pencils, the leads of mechanical pencils are available in a range of hardness ratings, depending on the user's desired balance between darkness and durability. A commonly-used mechanical pencil lead is identical in density, but not in thickness to a traditional HB (US#2) pencil lead. Pigments Mechanical pencils with colored leads are less common, but do exist. Crayola's \"Twistable\" product line includes two different types of colored pencils (erasable and non-erasable) with mechanical feed mechanisms, but does not",
"-24.84054328251841"
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[
"skills. Math curriculum Because the TAG admissions process is selective- one of the definitions of a TAG student is a national-norm math score of “82” or higher- a TAG student enters the school having already taken Algebra. In some cases, as is such with alumni of William B. Travis Academy, students will have completed both Algebra and Geometry before even leaving middle school.\nTypically, the majority of the class takes Geometry their freshman year. As an effect, students take Algebra 2 Pre-AP as sophomores, Pre-Calculus and AP Statistics as juniors, and AP Calculus AB as seniors. Students who enter the school",
"-24.76519576110877"
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[
"answer their own questions. Teachers can also create a worksheet or use note cards to have the students do as homework to get into the classroom the next day. Just asking them \"What do you know about the topic?\", \"Is this topic interesting to you?\". Another way is to give the class a test and go over the answers with them, allowing them to correct their own test and find prior knowledge. Using end-of-unit tests can be a great thing for the students; it helps them recognize the important parts of the upcoming unit. There are many ways to find",
"-24.69581679510884"
],
[
"be otherwise possible using a single hole long point sharpener.\nCarpenters may use carpenter pencils, the flattened shape of which stops them from rolling away, while still providing a constant line width. These pencils were traditionally sharpened with tools conveniently to hand, such as a plane or sandpaper. Rotating pencil sharpeners are now available for these, in which a rotating plastic collar holds the pencil in position, although they then sharpen them to the usual conical point as for a round pencil, abandoning some distinctive aspects of the carpenter's pencil.\nMechanical pencils with thin diameter leads dispense the graphite lead progressively during",
"-24.67881412434508"
],
[
"applied on the lead, the lead is automatically retracted inwards.\nHigher-end mechanical pencils often feature a lead hardness grade indicator and sometimes feature a retractable lead guide pipe. This allows the lead guide pipe to retract back into the pencil body, which will keep it protected in storage and during transit and makes it 'pocket-safe'. Lead variations In spite of the name, pencil leads do not contain the toxic chemical element lead, but are typically made with graphite and clay, or plastic polymers. Compared to standard pencils, mechanical pencils have a smaller range of marking types, though numerous variations exist. Most",
"-24.608141955790416"
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[
"The test assesses skills in reading comprehension and math. Scores are grouped in three levels: Below level 1 means that students were not able to respond to even the most simple questions; level 1 means the students did not achieve the expected level in skills but could respond to simple questions; and level 2 means they achieved/exceeded the expected skills for their grade level. In 2012, 48.7% of students in Lima achieved level 2 in reading comprehension compared to 45.3% in 2011. In math, only 19.3% students achieved level 2, with 46.4% at level 1 and 34.2% less than level",
"-24.603539874544367"
],
[
"Charlie Charlie challenge Four pencils In an early version of the game, two players each hold one pencils in the shape of a square, pressing the ends of their pencils against the other player's. Like a Ouija board, it uses the ideomotor phenomenon, with players moving the pencils without conscious control. Two pencils The two pencil game involves crossing one pens or pencils to create a grid (with sectors labelled \"yes\" and \"no\") and then asking questions to a \"supernatural entity\" named \"Charlie.\" The upper pencil is then expected to rotate to indicate the answer to such questions. The first",
"-24.54786511484417"
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[
"use and thus do not require sharpening; such pencils are sometimes called \"self-sharpening\". A type of mechanical pencil has a rotating gear mechanism which rotates the lead slightly every time the lead is lifted off the paper, helping to maintain a consistent, sharp point. If a finer or broader line is needed, a separate mechanical pencil using a lead with a different diameter is required.",
"-24.543719852263166"
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[
"syllabus with something else. For example, instead of taking quizzes a student could write a short paper or instead of taking a written final a student could take a dialogical final. Students can also increase the number of units the class is for by doing more work or decrease the number of units by doing less work, though either and any of these changes to a class syllabus must be negotiated between the student and the professor.\nWhenever a class is contracted, a student must write out a contract, a self-evaluation, and a professor evaluation. A copy of the contract is",
"-24.48223561188206"
],
[
"States, pencil sharpeners with various mechanisms have been developed and put on the market. These devices were often heavy and intended for use in offices. Examples are the Perfect Pencil Pointer (Goodell. Co.), the GEM Pencil Sharpener (by Gould & Cook Co.), the Planetary Pencil Sharpener (A. B. Dick Co.), all from USA or the Jupiter (Guhl & Harbeck Co.) from Germany. At the beginning of the 20th century the company Automatic Pencil Sharpener Co. (APSCO) was founded and has brought out the US Automatic Pencil Sharpener after 1907, which dominated in this years. Later they sell machines with milling",
"-24.47748276294442"
],
[
"may also draw straight horizontal, vertical, or diagonal lines with the pencil tool, without the need of the straight line tool, by holding the ⇧ Shift key and dragging the tool. Moreover, it is also possible to thicken or thin a line either before or simultaneously while it is being drawn via Ctrl++ (NumPad only) or Ctrl+- (NumPad only). To crop whitespace or eliminate parts of a graphic, the blue handle in the lower right corner can be dragged to increase canvas size or crop a graphic. Users can also draw perfect shapes (which have a width equal to",
"-24.461430919429404"
],
[
"all teachers are competent in numeracy and literacy, regardless of their specialism.\" Information about the tests Official information about the tests is provided by the Department for Education: Professional skills tests.\nThe literacy test focuses on spelling, punctuation, grammar and comprehension. The test questions are randomly selected from a bank of standardised questions. The overall difficulty of the test varies, and the passmark is adjusted accordingly.\nThe numeracy test starts off with a section of 12 mental arithmetic questions, each with a strict time limit, though paper working is allowed. These questions are spoken through headphones and do not appear on the",
"-24.29650906484312"
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[
"from the page to sharpen it into an even cone shape. This line of pencils is named as Kuru Toga.",
"-24.27980413081241"
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[
"that serves the purpose of challenging students beliefs and undermine [sic] parental authority\". Mathematics Similarly, textbooks such as Dale Seymour's Investigations omit many standard arithmetic methods, instead relying on students to construct their own ways to compute averages, and perform multiplication and division. Teachers are directed to discourage students who may have been taught how to regroup or take a sum and divide by the number of items to compute an average.",
"-24.27005248272326"
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[
"to trace his pencil work when inking, allowing for a looser finish. Knives and scalpels fill a variety of needs, including cutting board or scraping off mistakes. A cutting mat aids paper trimming. Process white is a thick opaque white material for covering mistakes. Adhesives and tapes help composite an image from different sources.",
"-24.25347920495551"
],
[
"\"wood\"? Maybe the listener would associate the word \"pencil\" with \"round\" instead (as pencils are, usually, in fact, round!). Wittgenstein writes regarding several possible \"interpretations\" which may arise after such a lesson. The student may interpret your pointing at a pencil and saying \"pencil\" to mean the following: (1) This is a pencil; (2) This is round; (3) This is wood; (4) This is one; (5) This is hard, etc., etc. The Brown Book During the academic year 1934–1935, Wittgenstein dictated to Francis Skinner and Alice Ambrose a text of which three copies were typed and bound. Later it became",
"-24.185664657969028"
],
[
"of the graphite by friction, so that although it remains steady while writing, the graphite can be advanced forward to compensate for gradual wear or retracted to protect it when not in use. The graphite in mechanical pencils is typically much narrower than in wooden pencils, frequently in sub-millimeter diameters. This makes them particularly useful for fine diagrams or small handwriting, although different sizes of refill leads cannot be interchanged in the same pencil unless it has been specially designed for that purpose. Brushes Although in Western civilization writing is usually done with some form of pencil or pen, other",
"-24.166842606820865"
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[
"opened, its forward movement cannot be controlled except by external means. This can be easily done by keeping the tip of the pencil a few millimeters above a work surface or the palm of one's hand. Some clutch pencils do have mechanisms which incrementally advance the lead, such as the Alvin Tech-Matic leadholder, but these are not normally considered to be in the same category as most pencils with propelling mechanisms.\nRatchet-based pencils are a variant of the clutch pencil, in which the lead is held in place by two or three small jaws inside a ring at the tip. The",
"-24.154083074245136"
],
[
"tip of the pencil, while the shavings emerge through a slot along the blade edge. It is important that the cylindrical alignment hole closely fit the diameter of the pencil, to keep the pencil from wobbling, which would cause stepped or lurching cut-depths and point breakage. Another important feature is a larger clearance hole at the end of the cone allowing sections of the pencil lead which break away to be removed with only minor inconvenience. Prism sharpeners can be bare or enclosed in a container to collect the shavings, while some enclosed sharpeners may be harder to clear in",
"-24.14773086103378"
],
[
"to clearer guidelines for markers and this enhances marker standardisation”.\nTwenty years on from the initial development work, the tests have been updated again. From January 2014, the paper-based tests feature new graphics designed to motivate and engage young learners. In addition, computer-based tests are being launched on a country-by-country basis. Format All three exams in the suite are designed to test the four core language skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening).\nEach of the exams has three papers: a Listening paper, a Reading and Writing paper, and a Speaking paper. Each paper is worth a third of the total marks.\nResults are",
"-24.110201617935672"
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[
"problems and course materials, and conducts lessons primarily within a lecture and discursive format. College Prep breaks with the typical pre-college sequence of mathematics courses in the United States (see: Mathematics education in the United States) and follows an integrated curriculum that combines numerous topics and strands of mathematics throughout the year. For this reason, classes are generically designated Math I through VI. Despite the integrated format, each section does maintain a concentration on a core mathematical field; Math I (algebra), Math II (geometry), Math III (trigonometry), Math IV (applied mathematics and analysis), Math V (AB & BC calculus), and",
"-24.07559863885399"
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[
"also come under fire from education groups and parents for encouraging teachers to teach students how to pass a test, rather than to teach students the fundamental material in the core subjects such as English. Another point of criticism on the FCAT is that all students of the same grade take the same test, despite the fact that different students are enrolled in different courses. To compensate for this, in many schools, teachers are directed to cover FCAT skills, regardless of what subject they are supposed to be covering. \nRetired teacher and Lakeland, FL political activist Carol Castagnero",
"-24.075166949871345"
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[
"Written Test Qualified students will undergo a test. This is usually a simple aptitude test but depending on company and the position looking for, the difficulty level of the test may be at the higher side. Campuses globally has been using Wheebox Graduate Employability Test to measure Skills in English Language, Mathematical Skills, Critical Thinking Skills and IT Coding Skills. The Wheebox test has been marked as Standard in India for Graduate hiring in Engineering campuses by many Fortune and Multinational companies. Group discussion Most of the companies will have this round as a filtering round. This round may be",
"-24.050933853315655"
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[
"The Lower School also employs Word Journeys and Words Their Way, developmental spelling and phonics programs based on the philosophy that understanding of the printed word occurs in clear stages. Instruction is designed to meet the specific needs of each boy. Handwriting Without Tears meets the fine motor needs of boys through its clear, simple letter formation and interactive learning style. Science and mathematics Everyday Math emphasizes a balance between learning concepts, skills, and problem solving. In each grade level, content is divided into six strands: number and numeration, operations and computation, data and chance, measurement, geometry and patterns,",
"-24.04304568702355"
],
[
"staff is usually a member of the teaching staff in the same district or, at a larger scale, in the same académie. To avoid conflicts of interests, a teacher who has lectured to a student or group of students cannot grade that exam. Also, to ensure greater objectivity on the part of the examiners, the test is anonymous. The grader sees only an exam paper with a serial number, with all personally identifying material stripped away and forbidden from appearing, thus curbing any favoritism based upon sex, religion, national origin, or ethnicity.\nUnlike the English GCSEs, Scottish Standard Grades or the",
"-24.04123200205504"
],
[
"to academic grading Alternatives to letter-grading assessments have been tried in some schools, but still remain a marginal approach due to the heavy emphasis and history of letter grading. Alternatives to standard letter grading are able to evaluate the students skills and understanding of the course material. The flaws in the standard letter grading system are major and require a lot of attention. These issues include ways for students to achieve high grades without actually understanding the course material. They don't have any real understanding of the complex information taught in the class. Kyle Spencer discusses an issue a",
"-24.040744849766725"
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[
"rare teachers who reminded me why I want to spend the rest of my life chasing numbers and equations. Because, they may be hard, they may be complicated, they may be downright impossible; but if you work hard enough and long enough at them, you will be able to find that underlying charm and beauty that makes it worth your effort.\" Department of Mathematics, CIIT One of his many contributions to the students of Mathematics Department at CIIT, includes his struggle with regards to the teaching of \"Set Theory and Logic\" in the 1st semester of BS rather than in",
"-24.035547266277717"
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[
"the second line.\nThe number under the second line is the sought-after product of the pair of factors above the first line. Educational standards Local standards usually define the educational methods and content included in the elementary level of instruction. In the United States and Canada, controversial subjects include the amount of calculator usage compared to manual computation and the broader debate between traditional mathematics and reform mathematics.\nIn the United States, the 1989 NCTM standards led to curricula which de-emphasized or omitted much of what was considered to be elementary arithmetic in elementary school, and replaced it with emphasis on topics",
"-24.023380425118376"
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[
"levels. These students can have challenges with reading, writing, spelling, and math as well as moderate executive functioning issues. Many of the academic subjects are taught through an arts-based curriculum, whether through the performing arts, dramatic arts, or visual arts, but there is also traditional work with textbooks and worksheets. In addition, all class sizes are smaller than those in public schools and in most private schools and are scaled according to the subject; this enables the teacher(s) to prepare lesson plans in order to meet the students’ academic learning styles and needs. More than 84 percent of Lab teachers",
"-24.014057289226912"
],
[
"The Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ), a council providing GCSE and GCE (O- and A- Level) and Highers, are prohibiting calculators with symbolic algebra manipulation and symbolic differentiation/integration from the examinations. Therefore, the Algebra FX 2.0 series is not allowed due to its computer algebra system (CAS). United States In the United States, the Algebra FX 2.0 and the Algebra FX 2.0 Plus are allowed by the College Board on the SAT, the SAT Subject Tests in Mathematics, and AP examinations in Biology, Calculus, Chemistry, Physics, and Statistics. However, the calculators are banned from the ACT examination due to their",
"-24.00306733767502"
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[
"the 1990s. It received updates in 1994. In 1999, it was reviewed with stakeholders and the current version was launched in March 2004. Format Both versions of the exam (B1 Preliminary and B1 Preliminary for Schools) are made up of three exam papers, which cover all four language skills (Reading, Writing, Listening and Speaking).\nThe Speaking paper is taken face-to-face and candidates have the choice of taking the Reading and Writing paper and Listening paper on either a computer or on paper.\n1. Reading and Writing (1 hour 30 minutes – 50% of total marks)\nThe Reading and Writing paper has eight",
"-23.999648327699106"
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[
"accuracy.\nPerelman, along with the National Council of Teachers of English also criticized the 25-minute writing section of the test for damaging standards of writing teaching in the classroom. They say that writing teachers training their students for the SAT will not focus on revision, depth, accuracy, but will instead produce long, formulaic, and wordy pieces. \"You're getting teachers to train students to be bad writers\", concluded Perelman.",
"-23.968774048649266"
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[
"used, and the referee is the only person allowed to distribute the pencils. The events are monitored by referees, and penalties exist for delaying the event, pencil tilting and dropping a pencil. Those called on a foul can have their pencil struck with any sized pencil, as long as \"it’s made of wood and you can actually write with it\". The competition includes a champion who holds a championship belt.",
"-23.96614239763585"
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[
"utilizes this tool to help teachers organize their grades, and allows students/parents to see their current grades without asking their teachers.",
"-23.951464471581858"
],
[
"fee for re-sits.\nThe tests are conducted on computers in supervised environments. Candidates cannot take any materials, phones, watches, etc. into the test room. Paper is provided for doing mental calculations. The tests can be taken on the same day, or at different times depending on the availability of test slots. Skills tests in the wider United Kingdom The professional skills tests are only required for initial teacher training in England. Teachers training in Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland do not have to take the tests. However a B grade in GCSE English and Maths is required in Wales, compared to",
"-23.926503747541574"
],
[
"multiple cutting edges quickly sharpen the pencil, with a more precise finish than a single-blade device. Some cylindrical sharpeners have only one helical cutter cylinder, but most have two cylinders or more. \nMost planetary sharpeners have a large opening, with a rotatable guide disk in front of it that has multiple holes of different sizes, to accommodate pencils of many different diameters. Advanced models have a spring-driven holder for the pencil, so that the pencil automatically is pushed into the mechanism while being sharpened. Some versions also offer a regulator of the desired sharpness, since it is not always desired",
"-23.862972214992624"
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[
"asking pupils to write it in assessments but provide a uniform language in which to present code examples to students, ensuring that all pupils have a fair understanding and is not hindered by learning a different programming language different to the one exemplified in the assessment. Syntax Syntax and structure in HAGGIS are very similar to other programming languages and can be easily learned. Line numbers In some examples in examination papers line numbers are used to allow easy reference; this is not a part of the language however. Indentation Code within other structures should be intended so it can",
"-23.85624162235763"
],
[
"101 (topic) 101 is a topic for beginners in any area. It has all the basic principles and concepts that are expected in a particular field.\nIn American university course numbering systems, the number 101 is often used for an introductory course at a beginner's level in a department's subject area. This common numbering system was designed to make transfer between colleges easier. In theory, any numbered course in one academic institution should bring a student to the same standard as a similarly numbered course at other institutions. History The term was first introduced by the University of Buffalo in 1929.",
"-23.84911422478035"
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[
"of the American school system. Some teachers supplement such textbooks in order to teach standard methods more quickly. Some curricula do not teach long division. Critics believe the NCTM revised its standards to explicitly call for continuing instruction of standard methods, largely because of the negative response to some of these curricula (see below). College professors and employers have sometimes claimed that students that have been taught using reform curricula do not possess basic mathematical skills. One study found that, although first-grade students in 1999 with an average or above-average aptitude for math did equally well with either",
"-23.845256116241217"
],
[
"for comparison). The set of the eigenvalues is called the spectrum of the pencil and is written .\nMoreover, the pencil is said to have one or more eigenvalues at infinity if has one or more 0 eigenvalues. Applications Matrix pencils play an important role in numerical linear algebra. The problem of finding the eigenvalues of a pencil is called the generalized eigenvalue problem. The most popular algorithm for this task is the QZ algorithm, which is an implicit version of the QR algorithm to solve the associated eigenvalue problem without forming explicitly the matrix (which could be",
"-23.845129808760248"
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[
"calculator. It also says that this test was \"developed with the expectation that most students are using graphing calculators.\"\nStudents are not permitted to use calculators on the Mathematics Level 1 test that have a QWERTY format keyboard, that require an electrical outlet, that make noise, use paper tape, that have non-traditional methods of input (such as a stylus), or those that are part of a communication device (such as PDA's, laptops, or cell phones). Calculators that have slanted screens or large displays (numbers 1 in. or more) are seated at the discretion of the test supervisor. Preparation The College Board",
"-23.781622284877812"
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[
"essay. The math section assesses students on geometry, algebra, and pre-algebra. Testers have three and a half hours to complete the exam, and are free to divide their time as they wish between the two sections. Because the math and English sections are graded separately and can be passed separately, some students can sit for the exam twice, with three and a half hours for the math section and three and a half hours for English. Mathematics The CHSPE mathematics section has 50 multiple-choice questions broken into 4 content clusters: number sense and operations; patterns, relationships, and algebra; data, statistics,",
"-23.75796959269792"
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[
"they are allowed to pass the class. The program is initially implemented in district elementary schools. For some classes, like English, essential skills may be demonstrated by receiving a passing grade on assigned essays or tests. In classes like mathematics, Essential Skills must be demonstrated by receiving a passing grade in specific skills on cumulative tests. In addition, WHS policy does not allow F or D grades. Any grade below a grade of C is considered a No Mark (NM) or a No Credit (NC); the class must then be repeated to get a passing grade. This plan attempts to",
"-23.755142022157088"
],
[
"survive in a construction environment, for example when placed in a bag together with heavy tools. The core is often stronger than in other pencils. Carpenter pencils are also used by builders, because they are suitable for marking on rough surfaces, such as concrete or stone. This shape and lead density aid in marking legible lines with a straight edge that are clear and easy to follow with a saw blade.\nCarpenter pencils are typically manually sharpened with a knife, since sharpeners for round pencils do not work. \nNotching the middle of the lead with the corner of a file makes",
"-23.75453051290242"
],
[
"used with some exceptions (Some schools offer the Lebanese baccalaureate but instead of the 0-20 scale a 100-point scale is used) IB schools unanimously use a 100-point scale if not an American grading scale (Refer to the American grading system).\nIn the typical school offering a Lebanese curriculum (to which the outcome is a Lebanese Baccalaureate) getting high grades is very hard because teachers do not use the full scale. For instance the highest score one can earn in essay writing in some schools is 14 out of 20 (with the class averaging 9 or 10). Each subject has a weight",
"-23.746720668976195"
],
[
"Pencil sharpener A pencil sharpener (also referred to as pencil pointer or in Ireland as a parer or topper) is a tool for sharpening a pencil's writing point by shaving away its worn surface. Pencil sharpeners may be operated manually or by an electric motor. It is common for many sharpeners to have a casing around them, which can be removed for emptying the pencil shavings debris into a trash bin. History Before the development of dedicated pencil sharpeners, a pencil was sharpened by whittling it with a knife. Pencil sharpener tools made this task much easier and gave a",
"-23.721596129238605"
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[
"particular variables and formulas and makes the student explain why their solution is correct and well explained. Examples of level 4+ work could include having multiple solutions, having a generalization formula that works for the general case P(n). These usually follow the format goal, plan, execution (base case is shown here), and then reflection. These thinking assessments allow one to think openly about a problem and write a general solution that can give the reader reading it, an infinite array of solutions for the problem, and really shows the student has thought out of the box, and connected the ideas",
"-23.708525505266152"
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[
"a shaft [...] Extenders were especially common among engineers and draftsmen, whose favorite pencils were prized dearly. The use of an extender also has the advantage that the pencil does not appreciably change its heft as it wears down.\" Artists currently use extenders to maximize the use of their colored pencils.",
"-23.69702265970409"
],
[
"4B in that environment. However, his website explains that he uses 6B lead, with some variation. For pieces rendered entirely in pencil, he employs a variety of pencil leads of varying degrees of hardness. After darkening in the construction lines that he wishes to keep, he erases the lighter ones with a kneaded eraser before rendering greater detail. For more detailed erasures, he uses a pencil-shaped white eraser, and to erase large areas, he uses a larger, hand-held white eraser, which he calls a \"thermonuclear eraser\", because it \"takes care of everything\".\nFor inking, which is Hughes' least favorite part of",
"-23.694039848982356"
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[
"homework's. The LRC is used after school to host a Homework Club, where students can do their homework's and revise using the school's facilities. In December 2015, a new initiative by the school's Maths reps and Maths Department led to the creation of a school tuck shop in the LRC, supplying stationery to students at an inexpensive price. For example, a pencil can be bought for the small price of 10 Pence, making it easy for all students to be well equipped. The LRC is also used for lessons, where teachers read to students or students can revise for exams.",
"-23.69360463913472"
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[
"to prepare the model for software that can only handle triangles. Advantages and disadvantages Box modeling is a modeling method that is quick and easy to learn. It is also appreciably faster than placing each point individually. However, it is difficult to add high amounts of detail to models created using this technique without practice.",
"-23.685198527760804"
],
[
"wide, the method is most reliable when identifying teachers who are consistently in the top or bottom 10%, rather than trying to draw fine distinctions between teachers that produce more or less typical achievements, such as attempting to determine whether a teacher should be rated as being slightly above or slightly below the median.\nValue added scores assume that students are randomly assigned to teachers. In reality students are rarely randomly assigned to teachers or to schools. According to economist and professor, Dr. Jesse M. Rothstein of University of California, Berkeley, \"Non-random assignment of students to teachers can bias value added",
"-23.636844760621898"
],
[
"typically based on a weighted average (the \"mit'am\") of the PET score and the GPA of the Bagrut (High School Completion Examination). In addition, some programs in science and engineering require that the applicant's bagrut includes the maximum number of units (\"5 units\") for mathematics.\nSome programs have two cutoffs for the mit'am, a higher one for \"guaranteed admission\" and a lower one for \"automatic rejection\". Mit'am scores between the two cutoffs may be admitted on a space-available basis. Palestine In Palestine there is a National Center for Examinations and Evaluation.\nIn Palestine, students are required to undergo the Tawjihi examinations, which",
"-23.623882050276734"
],
[
"be scored objectively. “One problem concerning the validity of the drawing technique is that researchers choose procedures that will no doubt result in nonsignificant findings. For example, they isolate one or a few indices from a figure drawing rating scale, taken completely out of context, and then attempt to correlate these indices with measure they view as excellent criterion variables, such as self-report inventories.” Additionally, the test typically not used on patients with very low IQs because their drawings tend to be quite meager.",
"-23.61397774685429"
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[
"the event of a blockage. \nA few prism sharpeners are hand-cranked, rotating the cutting blade instead of rotating the pencil. Moderate care is needed to not break the tip of the pencil being sharpened, requiring the pencil to be sharpened again. However, because pencils may have different standard diameters in different nations, imported sharpeners may have non-standard-sized alignment guide-holes, making sharpening attempts difficult. If the alignment hole is too small, the pencil cannot be inserted, while if it is too large, the tip of the pencil repeatedly will break off. Prism sharpeners may be right- or left-handed, requiring clockwise",
"-23.60865303935134"
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[
"schools, drastic and specific measures are taken to raise scores, usually at the expense of any freedom or flexibility in the curriculum. The schools adopt blanket teaching materials that have been compared to military manuals.\nKozol also calls attention to the negative physiological effects these tests have on the children who take them. In L.A., standardized tests are given to children as young as 5 or 6, who without strong reading skills become frustrated to the point of crying and wetting their pants. Furthermore, the children who do not perform to standard are being forced to repeat multiple grades, which increase",
"-23.59940587449819"
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[
"versions of the full Schaum's Outlines called \"Easy Outlines\" started to appear in the late 1990s, aimed primarily at high-school students, especially those taking AP courses. These typically feature the same explanatory material as their full-size counterparts, sometimes edited to omit advanced topics, but contain greatly reduced sets of worked examples and usually lack any supplementary exercises. As a result, they are less suited to self-study for those learning a subject for the first time, unless they are used alongside a standard textbook or other resource. They cost about half the price of the full outlines, however, and their smaller",
"-23.59878044923971"
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[
"the class was summarize. However, a simple quiz usually does not count very much, and instructors usually provide this type of test as a formative assessment to help determine whether the student is learning the material. In addition, doing this at the time the instructor collected all can make a significant part of the final course grade. Mathematical questions Most mathematics questions, or calculation questions from subjects such as chemistry, physics or economics employ a style which does not fall into any of the above categories, although some papers, notably the Maths Challenge papers in the United Kingdom employ multiple",
"-23.56505527047557"
],
[
"include modular arithmetic, algebraic inequalities, bases other than 10, matrices, symbolic logic, Boolean algebra, and abstract algebra. In elementary school, in addition to bases other than 10, students were taught basic set theory and made to distinguish \"numerals\" from \"numbers.\" Criticisms Parents and teachers who opposed the New Math in the U.S. complained that the new curriculum was too far outside of students' ordinary experience and was not worth taking time away from more traditional topics, such as arithmetic. The material also put new demands on teachers, many of whom were required to teach material they did not fully understand.",
"-23.564050654153107"
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[
"is more difficult than grading multiple-choice tests electronically, essays can also be graded by computer. In other instances, essays and other open-ended responses are graded according to a pre-determined assessment rubric by trained graders. For example, at Pearson, all essay graders have four-year university degrees, and a majority are current or former classroom teachers. United States Standardized testing has been a part of American education since the 1800s, but the widespread reliance on standardized is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. For instance the College Entrance Examination Board did not begin standardized testing in connection to higher education until 1900.",
"-23.55235816639106"
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[
"problem sets during class time. It has been shown that students are having the most difficulty when they are doing their homework. Pinterest Pinterest is a web-based software platform that allows its users to share and discover new information through the use of pictures, descriptions, and short videos. It can also be seen as an online pin board where users can post on their board, collect from other boards, and privately share posted pins. This can be useful in the classroom through having students post their works on their own board or a class board and to share (re-pin) information",
"-23.547431580838747"
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[
"Baccalaureate. Regular honors courses are more intense and faster paced than typical college preparatory courses. AP and IB on the other hand, are college-level classes. Tracking (streaming) Tracking is the practice of dividing students at the primary or secondary school level into classes on the basis of ability or achievement. One common use is to offer different curricula for students preparing for college and for those preparing for direct entry into technical schools or the workplace. Standardized testing Under the No Child Left Behind Act and Every Student Succeeds Acts, all American states must test students in public schools statewide",
"-23.509836336190347"
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[
"pencil, shaking the pencil back and forth causes a weight inside the pencil to operate a mechanism in the cap. A button may be present on the top or side of the pencil, to allow the user to advance the lead manually when necessary. Another variation advances the lead automatically. In this design, the lead is advanced by a ratchet but only prevented from going back into the pencil, just held from falling by a small amount of friction. The nib is a spring-loaded collar that, when depressed as the lead is worn away, extends out again when pressure is",
"-23.503294678754173"
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[
"learning. In standardized tests, languishing schools have been able to raise their testing grades a full level by implementing PBL. Although students do work in groups, they also become more independent because they are receiving little instruction from the teacher. With Project-Based Learning students also learn skills that are essential in higher education. The students learn more than just finding answers, PBL allows them to expand their minds and think beyond what they normally would. Students have to find answers to questions and combine them using critically thinking skills to come up with answers.\nPBL is significant to the study of",
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[
"tip may be cut into a triangle shape, and then the edges of the triangle are trimmed down. This technique requires a total of 6 cuts, and takes practice to master without breaking the lead. Specialized pencil sharpeners Specialized sharpeners are available that operate on non-standard sizes of pencil-shaped markers, such as wax crayons used in primary schools. Sharpeners that have two openings, one for normal pencils and one for larger crayons, are fairly common. Sharpeners with a single blade for use on wax crayons are available, and sometimes included in boxes of crayons. These often have plastic blades, which",
"-23.484104254457634"
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[
"style where the teacher often acts as a mediator for discussion rather than a lecturer. While large lecture-style classes exist, Reed emphasizes its smaller lab and conference sections.\nAlthough letter grades are given to students, grades are de-emphasized at Reed and focus is placed on a narrative evaluation. According to the school, \"A conventional letter grade for each course is recorded for every student, but the registrar's office does not distribute grades to students, provided that work continues at satisfactory (C or higher) levels. Unsatisfactory grades are reported directly to the student and the student's adviser. Papers and exams are generally",
"-23.47756931890035"
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[
"only required to answer 2 out of 4 of the given questions. All Section C questions are based on the same chapters every year and are thus predictable. A question in Section C carries 10 marks with at least 4 subquestions per question. This paper tests the student's ability to apply various concepts and formulae in real-life situations. The total weighting of the paper is 100 marks and constitutes 56% of the grade.\nIn 2020, the first batch of students learning the new syllabus, KSSM, will receive new Form 4 textbooks with new chapters which contain certain topics from A-levels. Additional",
"-23.474187718937173"
],
[
"consists of battery of proficiency tests in Science, Mathematics, English, and Logical Thinking.",
"-23.473479639797006"
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[
"use them.\nCertain classes, such as those associated with mathematics or history and geography use transparencies to illustrate a point or problem. Math classes in particular use a roll of acetate to illustrate sufficiently long problems and to create illustrations a computer cannot, due to a lack of math symbols on a standard computer keyboard. This problem is typically limited to high school and college-level mathematics, because of the inclusion of algebra and calculus courses, respectively. In recent years, more and more colleges are switching to digital projectors and PowerPoint presentations.\nAerospace companies, like Boeing and Beechcraft, used transparencies for years in",
"-23.4623621768842"
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[
"grades. However, the grades students get on their final paper are either 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. A 6",
"-23.460814814898185"
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[
"for a drawing or model to be \"not to scale\". A 2D pencil drawing can be inaccurately foreshortened and skewed (and thus not to scale), yet still be a completely valid part definition as long as the labeled dimensions are the only dimensions used, and no scaling of the drawing by the user occurs. This is because what the drawing and labels convey is in reality a symbol of what is wanted, rather than a true replica of it. (For example, a sketch of a hole that is clearly not round still accurately defines the part as having a true",
"-23.44421005005279"
]
] |
5t0r10 | How pizza delivery became a thing, when no other restaurants really offered hot food deliveries like that. | [
"According to the story, the first pizza delivered was to Queen Margherita in Italy in the late 1800's. (Who still has a pizza named after her, the one with tomato, basil, and mozzarella cheese.) Previous to this pizza was considered peasant food. According to the story, she woke up one day and said she was bored with the fancy, expensive food she's always eating and wanted something different. The most renowned pizza chef in the area made the pizza, now called a Margherita pizza, with the colors of the Italian flag and had it delivered to her. The queen declared it delicious, and as is frequently the case everyone wanted to try what the queen had tried and loved: Freshly made pizza delivered to her door. Source: URL_0 ",
"I have a book about New Haven pizza- New Haven is considered by many as the birthplace of American pizza. Pizza was seemingly always delivered since it came to America in the early 20th century. Here are some excerpts: \"...pizza was largely popularized starting in the 1910s when it was sold on the street and delivered to the factories and the Market Exchange, an important regional farmer's market.\" One of the most famous pizza places/owners is even credited as the inventor of the pizza box to facilitate delivery. About Frank Pepe's: \"(Pepe) continued to deliver pies...but he employed a new method to package them, the pizza box. The National Folding Box Co., a local firm, began making them, creating the oldest record of a pizza box in the world.\" So again, to reiterate what I stated above- Pizza seems to have started in America as a food that was typically delivered. The tradition was just copied and continued from these original locations.",
"Pizza's characteristics mean it's quite hard to make well at home (mainly, you need time to develop the dough, and a hotter oven than most homes have). Yet pizza is also well suited to being delivered: - Single object, no complexity - No liquid components to spill, unlike curry - Doesn't degrade much in quality for a while after it's done, even when put into a package, unlike breaded fried foods - Takes only minutes to make once you've set up the right kitchen",
"I wish I had a concrete source to provide you with, but in searching the internet for the history of pizza delivery I did come across a few connections that may be helpful: Pizza as a food took off in American following WWII, when soldiers returning from overseas found themselves wanting that delicious pizza they ate while in Italy. During this time, car culture also began to pick up, with more people having access to a car, which is important to note for the whole \"delivery\" part. Moving forward into the middle of the century: work/life shifts that found both men and women in the workplace and spending more time traveling to get to their jobs found people with less time to cook dinner and greater interest in dining out or getting take out dinner. Around this time somebody also figured out the better design for the pizza box, which made it easier to transport. One other important thing for you factor in in regards to why more restaurants don't deliver is demand and profitability, etc. If you live in an area that isn't densely populated, it may not be worth the time for a business to offer delivery if each delivery takes the person 45 minutes one direction for order number 1 and another 30 minutes another direction to drop off order number 2. edit: clarity",
"Three factors: the nature of pizza production, the physical and financial infrastructure available for that production in the United States after World War II, and the portable nature of pizza itself. First, production: a pizza parlor needs only two pieces of specialized equipment, a heavy stand mixer for the dough and an oven that will hold temperatures over 700F. If you are handy, you can build the oven yourself with brick and pipe. So long as you aren't trying to open a full-service restaurant with lots of seating and a varied menu, the only expensive piece of equipment you have to acquire is that stand mixer. Second, infrastructure: after World War II, the US government had a lot of surplus items they were selling cheap: jeeps, canteens, army boots,... and huge Hobart stand mixers. The Hobart mixers were big enough to mix a battalion's bread, and they were going cheap. A veteran could get a small business loan from the GI bill, buy his mixer, rent a small storefront, build his oven, and boom, he was in the restaurant business. It's a restaurant that can make a lot of pizza efficiently, but it can't make much else. You aren't going to get a lot of sit-down trade. People want to take what you make to eat someplace else. This brings us to the third item: pizza is a perfectly portable food. It doesn't need a knife and fork. It can be reheated multiple times without a discernable loss in quality. By varying the toppings of vegetables and meat, it can easily be a single-dish meal that makes the entire family happy. As pizza parlors spread from urban centers, owners realized there was a limit to the walk-in traffic they could expect. They knew from their urban experience many customers were taking the pizza home. How could they replicate that trade in the suburbs? By offering a new service: pizza delivered to the customer's house. Edit: something I forgot, which added steam to the spread of pizza delivery in the 1950's, particularly in the midwest: narcotics. Suppose you are an Italian organized crime boss in Chicago or Kansas City and you want to distribute narcotics in Lincoln, Nebraska. You can't just send a couple of Sicilian nephews to hang out on a street corner. Two Italian guys just stopping to buy gas in Lincoln would attract attention in the 1950's. People would notice. If the same two guys open a pizza parlor, however, no one cares. They can hire compromised people down on their luck as delivery men. They will learn soon enough who can move and consume their product. They have the perfect cover business: all cash, deliveries going all over the city, and open late. I don't know how much this happened in the East, and I don't think it happened at all out West, but I know this happened around KC and Chicago a lot.",
"What leads pizza to be something people get delivered instead of make at home? 1. Frozen pizzas until 10 years ago tasted like shit. 2. In a larger city you usually have to compromise on living arrangements. You may not have an oven at all, or perhaps a smaller counter top oven. It can be faster for one person to take a small vehicle out than for 5 people to individually make their way to the store. If you have a ton of orders backing up you aren't able to make the next order (where would you put it), so in general it is best to get as many deliveries out as possible. 3. The nature of pizza (usually people would order 1-2 pizzas), makes it easy to deliver. You can stack up 5 deliveries on top of each other and they stay warm. There isn't a ton of diversity in the packaging so you don't have shifting problems. The technology on the bags is actually really advanced. 4. To make a supreme pizza you're looking at buying 3/4 too much toppings, because that is how they sell them. You can't buy a 1/4 of a green pepper (usually). The pizza store actually makes money by buying a bunch more, whereas a person at home would have to go through all the toppings or waste them.",
"I think a forgotten reason is that pizza, wings and Chinese food stay hot and fresh in a way that McD's doesnt.",
"Becuase it's cheap and feeds a lot, like Chinese food, and even some sandwich places deliver, like Jimmy Johns. When people want nicer food, they usually go out to eat, and since there is a delivery fee, most people don't want to spend even more on expensive food. The food will also likely be in styrofoam food boxes, so not a quality arrangement. Services like Grubhub don't make a lot of money with nicer restaurants, it's lower class restaurants that can't afford drivers is where they do a lot of business.",
"Pizza delivery driver here. As others have stated pizza is still fine if you keep it in the bags for a long time. Pro tip if you have your pizza being delivered a long way away ask them not to cut the pizza. It stays better not cut. It also tastes fine after sitting on the oven at the restaurant for a while. We do this to keep them warm while we wait for people to pick them up. It keeps its taste too doesn't get soggy. I deliver other meals for my pizza place and those tend to get kinda nasty after about 20 minutes so we try to get those delivered first. Mozzarella sticks and pasta can get gross if you let them sit.",
"Many food services offer delivery, particularly in cities. At the time of the pizza delivery boom most Mom & Pop grocery stores would deliver food to your house if needed (because you were a member of the local community), chinese food delivered, most delis would deliver, even McDonald's delivered during this era.",
"Pizza has a huge markup, a low amount of required equipment and holds at tempature better than most things. The high markup and low startup costs lead to lots of pizza places around with enough income to attempt methods ti generate more sales. Since pizza is still good after sitting in an insulated bag for 45 minutes delivery was successful. There are other foods that work well ti be delivered but none of them have the combination of mark up and appeal that pizza has.",
"Fun fact: my city has places that deliver mexican, chinese, bagals, and even cookies. Anyway, as for why pizza: It's hard to make a good pizza without a lot of experience, but besides that the profit margin on pizza is very, very good. Because of this it is easier to assume the risks involved with delivery because the chance of profit is much higher than with other foods.",
"Most commercial ovens are between 500 and 600. Your oven should be able to get pretty close. And even 375 is enough to get a crispy crust if you pre-bake it a little first. Not quite as good, but works if you don't have the best equipment",
"because it can feed groups of people and only requires hands to eat. my theory is that most pizzas are purchased to feed social gatherings and are consumed in concert with other activities that make sitting at a table with plates and utensils unattractive",
"You can get Chinese / Indian / similar food delivered pretty much anywhere. A lot of fancy food would look like a total mess on delivery, but everything that's inexpensive and delivers well is delivered.",
"Pizza travels well, and all the ingredients are tasty at the same temp. I think it makes sense, same reason Chinese and Thai food is good for delivery.",
"Well now there is food delivery with an app called postmates which you choose where you want to eat. They pick up your order and deliver it."
] | [
[
"Pizza box History Containers to deliver freshly baked pizzas have existed at least since the 19th century, when Neapolitan pizza bakers put their products in multi-layered metallic containers known as stufe (singular stufa, \"oven\") and then sent them to the street sellers. The aerated container was round and made of tin or copper. Disposable packaging started to be developed in the United States, after the Second World War. At that time pizza was becoming increasingly popular and the first pizza delivery services were created. In the beginning they attempted to deliver pizzas in simple cardboard boxes, similar to those used",
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[
"groceries began offering pizzas to their Italian American communities.\nAccording to a 2009 response published in a column on Serious Eats, the first printed reference to \"pizza\" served in the US is a 1904 article in The Boston Journal. Giovanni and Gennero Bruno came to America from Naples, Italy, in 1903 and introduced the Neapolitan pizza to Boston. Later, Vincent Bruno (Giovanni's son) went on to open the first pizzeria in Chicago.\nConflicting stories have the first pizzeria opening in 1905 when Gennero Lombardi applied for a license in New York to make and sell pizza. One of the generally accepted",
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[
"first US business to sell pizza, Lombardi's, opened in 1897 as a grocery store at 53½ Spring Street, with tomato pies wrapped in paper and tied with a string at lunchtime to workers from the area's factories. In 1905, putative founder Gennaro Lombardi received a business license to operate a pizzeria restaurant, and soon had a clientele that included Italian tenor Enrico Caruso. He later passed the business on to his son, George. While the original Lombardi's closed its doors in 1984, it was reopened in 1994 just down the street and is run by Lombardi's grandson. In 2019, suspicion",
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[
"cuisine, pizza has become popular in many different parts of the world. Pizza is an oven-baked, flat, disc-shaped bread typically topped with a tomato sauce, cheese (usually mozzarella), and various toppings depending on the culture. Since the original pizza, several other types of pizzas have evolved.\nSince Naples was the capital of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, its cuisine took much from the culinary traditions of all the Campania region, reaching a balance between dishes based on rural ingredients (pasta, vegetables, cheese) and seafood dishes (fish, crustaceans, mollusks). A vast variety of recipes is influenced by the local aristocratic cuisine, like",
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[
"make pizza readily available nationwide. \nCommon toppings for pizza in the United States include ground beef, mushrooms, onions, pepperoni, pineapple, garlic, olives, peppers, carrots, tomatoes, spinach, anchovies, chicken, bacon, ham, and sausage. Distinct regional types developed in the 20th century, including California, Chicago, Detroit, Greek, New Haven, New York, and St. Louis styles. The first pizzeria in the U.S. was opened in New York's Little Italy in 1905, and since then regions throughout the U.S. offer variations, including deep-dish, stuffed, pockets, turnovers, rolled, and pizza-on-a-stick, each with seemingly limitless combinations of sauce and toppings.\nAnother variation is grilled pizza, created by",
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[
"History of pizza Innovation The innovation that led to flat bread pizza was the use of tomato as a topping. For some time after the tomato was brought to Europe from the Americas in the 16th century, it was believed by many Europeans to be poisonous, as some other fruits of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family are. However, by the late 18th century, it was common for the poor of the area around Naples to add tomato to their yeast-based flat bread, and so the pizza began. The dish gained popularity, and soon pizza became a tourist attraction as visitors to",
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[
"in cake shops, but these often became wet, bent or even broke in two. Other pizza chefs tried to put pizzas on plates and transport them inside paper bags. This partly solved the problem. However, it was almost impossible to transport more than a single pizza inside one bag. In this way, the pizzas on the top would have ruined the surface of the others.\nThe first patent for a pizza box made of corrugated cardboard was applied in 1963 and it already displayed the characteristics of today's pizza packaging: plane blanks, foldability without need of adhesive, stackability and ventilation slots.",
"-31.407601144441287"
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[
"Pizza delivery Ordering Ordering pizza for delivery usually involves contacting a local pizza restaurant or chain by telephone or online. Online ordering is available in many countries, where some pizza chains offer online menus and ordering.\nThe pizza delivery industry has kept pace with technological developments since the 1980s beginning with the rise of the personal computer. Specialized computer software for the pizza delivery business helps determine the most efficient routes for carriers, track exact order and delivery times, manage calls and orders with PoS software, and other functions. Since 2008 GPS tracking technology has been used for real-time monitoring of",
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[
"(olive oil, rosemary and garlic), and pizza rossa (tomato sauce only). Other typical toppings include artichokes, asparagus, eggplant, ground meat and onions, potatoes, prosciutto, salami, sausage, ground truffles, zucchini, olive oil sun-dried tomatoes, arugula, gorgonzola, anchovies, and black olives. Outside of Italy This style of pizza popular casual food in Argentina and Malta, where for many years it has been a common way for people to grab a quick snack or meal. Pizza al taglio shops are also appearing in the United States. In each country, the style of crusts and toppings may be adapted to suit their own cultures.",
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[
"Pan pizza History Dan and Frank Carney opened a pizza parlor in Wichita, Kansas which would later become Pizza Hut. At first, the brothers focused on a thin crust pizza which included cheese, pepperoni, and/or sausage. The pizza parlor franchised into Pizza Hut in 1959 and added a thicker crust pan pizza.\nOther pizza companies also later included pan pizza. In 1989, Domino's Pizza introduced its deep dish or pan pizza. Its introduction followed market research showing that 40% of pizza customers preferred thick crusts. The new product launch cost approximately $25 million, of which $15 million was spent on new",
"-31.210372562840348"
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[
"either baked or fried. \nIn some areas, just before serving, they are topped with marinara or other traditional sauce, or with a mixture of garlic, olive oil and parsley.\nSimilar dishes are scacciata and stromboli. Cultural notes In Italy, as of the 1960s, calzones were popularly believed to be the most efficient type of pizza for home delivery.",
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[
"Pizza Ranch History The first restaurant opened December 21, 1981, in Hull, Iowa. The six original house pizzas were the Roundup (deluxe), Sweet Swine (Hawaiian), Texan Taco, Bronco (meat lover's), Prairie (veggie lover's) and Sagebrush. Initially, Pizza Ranch only offered a Tuesday night buffet, while the rest of the dining hours were for take-out or dine-in orders. The second Pizza Ranch opened in Orange City in 1983, where the first noon buffet was introduced. In 1987, with the addition of a Sioux City restaurant, the menu expanded to offer chicken.\nPizza Ranch has grown over the years and",
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[
"Pizza History Foods similar to pizza have been made since the Neolithic Age. Records of people adding other ingredients to bread to make it more flavorful can be found throughout ancient history. In the 6th century BC, the Persian soldiers of Achaemenid Empire during the rule King Darius I baked flatbreads with cheese and dates on top of their battle shields and the ancient Greeks supplemented their bread with oils, herbs, and cheese. An early reference to a pizza-like food occurs in the Aeneid, when Celaeno, queen of the Harpies, foretells that the Trojans would not find peace until they",
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[
"their trademark.\nMost of its restaurants do not offer delivery options, focusing rather in carry out and dine-in options. When eating at the restaurant, customers are served by a waiter or waitress, rather than receiving the food over the counter. Also, Ledo offers many menu items, such as hamburgers, pasta, its own beer line (Ledo Lager), and more, in addition to specialty pizza types usually offered by pizza chains such as Pizza Hut or Papa John's.\nThe restaurant chain has been called by several names, including Ledo Pizza and Ledo Pizza and Pasta.\nThe original location in Adelphi, Maryland, at the Adelphi Shopping",
"-30.397758283419535"
],
[
"Pizza Inn History In 1958, two Texas brothers, F.J. (Joe) and R. L. Spillman, opened the first Pizza Inn across from Southern Methodist University in Dallas.\nIn the mid-'80s, the restaurant chain had a commercial deal with the Von Erich family, icons in Texas at the time, with Kerry Von Erich, Kevin Von Erich, and Mike Von Erich appearing in a series of televised commercials. \nOn June 3, 2011 Pizza Inn launched a new sister restaurant in Fort Worth, Texas, known as Pie Five Pizza, that specializes in handcrafted pizzas ready in five minutes.\nAs of January 2015, the parent company Pizza",
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[
"that is typically topped with tomato sauce and other ingredients. Until the 1860s, sfincione was the type of pizza usually consumed in Sicily, especially in the Western portion of the island. Other variations of pizzas are also found in other regions of Italy, for example pizza al padellino or pizza al tegamino, a small-sized, thick-crust, deep-dish pizza typically served in Turin, Piedmont. United States 13% of the United States population consumes pizza on any given day. Pizza chains such as Domino's Pizza, Pizza Hut, and Papa John's, pizzas from take and bake pizzerias, and chilled or frozen pizzas from supermarkets",
"-30.198424438101938"
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[
"Pizza by the slice Overview Some pizzerias provide pizza by the slice and whole pizza pies, and some only provide pizza by the slice. Pizza by the slice is typically pre-cooked and pre-sliced, and is sometimes kept warm under heat lamps. Upon ordering, slices are sometimes re-heated in a pizza oven before being served. Selling pizza by the slice sometimes enables restaurants to realize increased profits, because the slice format allows for quick lunchtime service compared to customers having to order and wait for a whole pizza that is prepared from scratch. The price of pizza slices is also typically",
"-30.14849548332859"
],
[
"However, the American chains have also created Canadian specialty pizzas that are available only in Canada. Pizza in the United States Pizza first made its appearance in the United States with the arrival of Italian immigrants in the late 19th century and was popular among large Italian populations in New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, Trenton and Saint Louis. In the late 19th century, pizza was introduced by peddlers who walked up and down the streets with a metal washtub of pizzas on their heads, selling their pizzas at two cents a slice. It was not long until small cafes and",
"-30.135184505430516"
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[
"straps, and waterproofing. These systems proved to be cheaper, more efficient and faster to use. Pizza box Modern pizza boxes are made of corrugated fiberboard. Corrugated board has a number of advantages for pizza delivery: it is cheap, recyclable, and disposable, it is stiff yet light, it is absorbent thus keeping oil and juice from leaking, and the channels of air in the cardboard have excellent insulation properties.\nThe history of the pizza box began in Naples during the 1800s where bakers put pizzas into metal containers called stufas: round, vented tin or copper containers with shelves that held the pizzas",
"-30.126483548781835"
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[
"United States, from its origins with the Italian American labor force in the northeast, the sub began to show up on menus of local pizzerias. As time went on and popularity grew, small restaurants, called hoagie shops and sub shops, that specialized in the sandwich began to open.\nPizzerias may have been among the first Italian-American eateries, but even at the turn of the [20th] century distinctions were clear-cut as to what constituted a true ristorante. To be merely a pizza-maker was to be at the bottom of the culinary and social scale; so many pizzeria owners began offering other dishes,",
"-29.952584366488736"
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[
"official letter of recognition from the Queen's \"head of service\" remains on display in Esposito's shop, now called the Pizzeria Brandi.\nPizza was brought to the United States with Italian immigrants in the late nineteenth century and first appeared in areas where Italian immigrants concentrated. The country's first pizzeria, Lombardi's, opened in 1905. Following World War II, veterans returning from the Italian Campaign, who were introduced to Italy's native cuisine, proved a ready market for pizza in particular. Preparation Pizza is sold fresh, frozen, and as portion-size slices or pieces. Methods have been developed to overcome challenges such as preventing the",
"-29.91616486106068"
],
[
"its first tip under \"Food Safety Tips for College Students\" by Louisa Graham, a discussion of the considerable risks of eating unrefrigerated pizza.\nAt some holiday meals, such as Christmas and Thanksgiving in the United States, it is customary to prepare much more food than necessary, specifically so the host can send leftovers home with guests. Cold turkey is archetypal in the United States as a Thanksgiving leftover, with turkey meat often reappearing in sandwiches, soups, and casseroles for several days after the feast. Chop suey During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Chinese cuisine gained a foothold in the",
"-29.849596069194376"
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[
"sold from open-air stands and out of pizza bakeries, antecedents to modern pizzerias.\nA popular contemporary legend holds that the archetypal pizza, pizza Margherita, was invented in 1889, when the Royal Palace of Capodimonte commissioned the Neapolitan pizzaiolo (pizza maker) Raffaele Esposito to create a pizza in honor of the visiting Queen Margherita. Of the three different pizzas he created, the Queen strongly preferred a pizza swathed in the colors of the Italian flag — red (tomato), green (basil), and white (mozzarella). Supposedly, this kind of pizza was then named after the Queen, although later research cast doubt on this legend. An",
"-29.849009542434942"
],
[
"offering a cheese stuffed crust pizza in grocery stores in 2001.\nIn 2012, Pizza Hut launched hot dog stuffed crust pizza in Japan, China, and South Korea, followed by Australia, Canada, the U.K., and the U.S. Domino’s also sold a hot dog stuffed crust pizza in the U.S., U.K., and New Zealand.\nPizza Hut New Zealand has sold marmite stuffed crust pizza, and Pizza Hut Japan introduced a pizza with a crust of pockets stuffed with, alternately, Camembert, shrimp, sausage, and mozzarella. Pizza Hut Japan offered a crust stuffed with shrimp and mayonnaise, and Pizza Hut Germany offered a “German King” with",
"-29.74940957184299"
],
[
"Pizza al taglio Preparation In the most traditional Italian pizza al taglio shops, such as pizzerie (singular pizzeria) and bakeries, the pizza is often cooked in a wood-fired oven. In today's establishments, electric ovens are also often used. The rectangular pizza shape makes it easier to cut and divide the pizza to the buyer's desire, which is often distinguished by weight. The dish is often eaten as a casual, takeaway dish that is eaten outside of restaurants where it is served, such as in a piazza. Varieties The simplest varieties include pizza Margherita (tomato sauce, cheese, and basil), pizza bianca",
"-29.730384841299383"
],
[
"fish), or, as in the most popular kind in the West, rolled in nori (dried laver) with filling. The filling often includes fish, seafood, chicken or cucumber.\nPizza is a common fast food category in the United States, with nationwide chains including Papa John's, Domino's Pizza, Sbarro and Pizza Hut. It trails only the burger industry in supplying children's fast food calories. Menus are more limited and standardized than in traditional pizzerias, and pizza delivery is offered.\nKebab houses are a form of fast food restaurant from the Middle East, especially Turkey and Lebanon. Meat is shaven from a rotisserie, and is",
"-29.70947482122574"
],
[
"conveyor belt oven, or, in the case of more expensive restaurants, a wood or coal-fired brick oven. On deck ovens, pizza can be slid into the oven on a long paddle, called a peel, and baked directly on the hot bricks or baked on a screen (a round metal grate, typically aluminum). Prior to use, a peel may be sprinkled with cornmeal to allow pizza to easily slide onto and off of it. When made at home, it can be baked on a pizza stone in a regular oven to reproduce the effect of a brick oven. Cooking directly in",
"-29.57697619253304"
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[
"the customer on the counter.\nPizza toppings include, among other things, reindeer salami, lingonberry, chanterelles, spruce oil, roasted chicken and wings sauce. Toppings are sourced locally, for example the cheese for the Helsinki restaurant comes from Helsinki, Kuusamo and Suonenjoki. There is also a dessert pizza, Rosé wine in the tap and local bottle beer, pale ale specially made for No Pizza.\nFirst No Pizza restaurant was opened in June 2018 in Helsinki in shopping center Citycenter. In the middle of the restaurant there is a so-called Black Box containing the kitchen and bar area. No Pizza created its own playlist which",
"-29.531470670190174"
],
[
"origins of selling pizza are believed to be rooted within the Ghigiarelli family, when Mrs. Ghigiarelli used to serve her homemade pizza to coal miners who gathered to play cards. This led to what is known as \"Old Forge Pizza.\" This pizza is typically rectangular in shape with a balanced sauce, and topped with a blend of cheeses – usually mozzarella and white American or mozzarella and mild cheddar – on a crispy thick crust. Old Forge style pizza is served at many restaurants in Northeastern Pennsylvania and as far away as Michigan, Florida, and Colorado. Schools The Old",
"-29.417709864501376"
],
[
"to regular pizza.\nThe empanada, which in gourmet versions is baked, is usually deep-fried in this case. Empanadas can be made with beef, fish, ham & cheese, neapolitan (using the same toppings as that pizza) or vegetarian.\nSandwiches are usually served hot, like the tostado or the lomito, the latter having a great number of versions, with food courts offering all kinds of ingredients and combinations.\nOther local street food includes local versions of the hotdog called pancho, and the hamburger or hamburguesa. Despite being very popular in the past, these have been displaced by a number of reasons, mainly a local perception",
"-29.37411726382561"
],
[
"in Canada, allowing customers to purchase their delivered pizzas without cash or cheque.\nIn 2008, Panago released a private label line of take-home products called Panago Cucina. The Cucina product line includes olives, balsamic vinegar, olive oil, pizza seasoning shakers, organic juices and water. Panago has published recipes that customers can use at home that incorporate ingredients from the product line at Panago.com. In 2008, Panago also launched a reusable insulated pizza bag. The bag is designed to keep pizza hot for customers who pick up their pizza.\nCustomers can also choose dairy-free Daiya cheese as a topping. Awards and",
"-29.365046769031323"
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[
"Sell it to Them, stated middle-class Chinese perceive Pizza Hut as \"akin to fine dining\", though Pizza Hut was \"China's largest and most successful foreign casual-dining chain\". Products In North America, Pizza Hut has notably sold: pan pizza, baked in pan with a crispy edge; stuffed crust pizza, with the outermost edge wrapped around a cylinder of mozzarella cheese; \"hand-tossed\", more like traditional pizzeria crusts; “Thin 'N Crispy”, a thin, crisp dough which was Pizza Hut's original style; Dippin' Strips pizza, a pizza cut into small strips that can be dipped into a number of sauces; the P’Zone, a calzone",
"-29.333020655021755"
],
[
"carry-out, delivery, and dine-in options. Some full-sized Pizza Hut locations have a lunch buffet, with \"all-you-can-eat\" pizza, salad, desserts, and bread sticks, and a pasta bar. Pizza Hut has other business concepts independent of the store type.\nAn upscale concept was unveiled in 2004, called Pizza Hut Italian Bistro. At 50 U.S. locations, the Bistro is similar to a traditional Pizza Hut, except that the menu features new, Italian-themed dishes such as penne pasta, chicken pomodoro, and toasted sandwiches. Instead of black, white, and red, Bistro locations feature a burgundy and tan motif. Pizza Hut Bistros still serve the chain's traditional",
"-29.315005159005523"
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[
"being delivered. The pizza saver's origin goes back to a 1985 patent by Carmela Vitale. The pizza saver is often criticized for being a waste of resources as it is only used once and then thrown away. For this reason, ideas for its reuse are being developed. Bags and boxes for transport There are special padded transport bags and boxes for delivery. Some of these bags can be heated in order to keep the temperature at the desired level. Mostly, they can either be plugged to a socket or powered by the 12 volt car battery. This means that the",
"-29.28306368656922"
],
[
"Pizzarello (food) Pizzarello is a traditional Italian food from Apulia, a region in southern Italy. Its original name in the local dialect is Pizzaridd. The Pizzarello is a long salty baked bread, seasoned with tomatoes and sometimes also with olives. The baking makes it crunchy. Origins Christians wake up early on Good Friday, in the week of Easter. As they had a long fasting day, during which they could not eat meat, stalls in the streets sold a typical sandwich filled with cheese, tomatoes and other vegetables.\nThe typical Pizzaridd, originally made only for Good Friday, became over time a",
"-29.214605292654596"
],
[
"a timely preparation of the final product, whereby sauce and various toppings are added and the pizza is then cooked.",
"-29.1495106627699"
],
[
"letter to commend his pizzas, stating that they \"were found to be delicious\". Esposito used this recommendation to successfully promote his restaurant, naming the pizza most enjoyed by the Queen, \"Pizza Margherita\".\nIt is widely reported that this event caused pizza to become a fad, from which it retained enduring popularity. Because of Esposito's experiments with ingredients and presentation, and his successful preparation of the dish for Queen Margherita, it is suggested by some that Esposito was the father of the modern pizza. Esposito's restaurant still exists, although the name has been changed to Pizzeria di Brandi, and the royal letter",
"-29.129815096297534"
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[
"a stuffed pizza having an average preparation time of up to 45 minutes. Diners can shorten this waiting period by ordering ahead or taking a half-baked pizza so they can finish baking it in their home oven. Giordano's was voted \"Chicago's Best Pizza\" by NBC, CBS Chicago, New York Times, Chicago Tribune, Chicago Magazine, Chicago Eater and Home & Garden Magazine.",
"-29.00939284476044"
],
[
"Religious tradition According to religious tradition, the pizza di Pasqua should be prepared on Maundy Thursday or Good Friday to be eaten at Easter, following the period of fasting and abstinence dictated by Lent. Once ready, it was customary to bring the pizza di Pasqua to the church, so that it would be blessed together with the other foods to be consumed on Easter day. Sweet variant In the Umbria-Marche areas there is also a sweet variant. This sweet pie, without cheese, with candied fruits or without, in addition to the presence of sugar has also a fiocca, that is",
"-28.995625663897954"
],
[
"or a la piedra (on a stone oven), and stuffed with numerous ingredients -— is a dish which can be found in nearly every corner of the country. Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba also serve it with fainá, which is a chick pea-flour dough placed over the piece of pizza. People say that what makes the Argentine pizza unique is the blending of Italian and Spanish cultures. At the turn of the 19th century, immigrants from Naples and Genoa opened the first pizza bars, though Spanish residents subsequently owned most of the pizza businesses.\nBread products are consumed all around",
"-28.976006835931912"
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[
"pizza; on later levels, the users must mark the dough themselves with virtual pizza sauce. The pizza then is dragged onto the conveyor belt and the user must add pizza toppings to the different sections to complete the customer's order. The user must work quickly, as the second a topping is put on the pizza, the conveyor belt starts moving the pizza towards the oven. If the pizza is what the customer ordered when it makes it to the oven, Squirt will take the pizza away and come back with another order. If it is incorrect, Frankie will eat the",
"-28.929621289658826"
],
[
"Grandma pizza History The origins of grandma pizza can be traced back the early 20th century in Long Island when Italian immigrants from southern Italy would try to replicate some of the food and pizza from their old country with what few ingredients they had available. This eventually morphed into a pizza that would be made at home with simple ingredients in their home kitchens. Due to the humble beginnings and background of the pizza, it was dubbed \"grandma pizza\" since it was rarely made outside of a home kitchen and mainly made by first-generation immigrants. Pizzerias rarely sold this",
"-28.891468273366627"
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[
"are forced by hunger to eat their tables (Book III). In Book VII, Aeneas and his men are served a meal that includes round cakes (like pita bread) topped with cooked vegetables. When they eat the bread, they realize that these are the \"tables\" prophesied by Celaeno.\nModern pizza evolved from similar flatbread dishes in Naples, Italy, in the 18th or early 19th century. Prior to that time, flatbread was often topped with ingredients such as garlic, salt, lard, cheese, and basil. It is uncertain when tomatoes were first added and there are many conflicting claims. Until about 1830, pizza was",
"-28.879693648777902"
],
[
"Lombardi's Pizza History Gennaro Lombardi started the business in 1897 as a grocery store at 53½ Spring Street, and began selling tomato pies wrapped in paper and tied with a string at lunchtime to workers from the area's factories. In 1905 Lombardi received a business license to operate a pizzeria restaurant, and soon had a clientele that included Italian tenor Enrico Caruso. He later passed the business on to his son, George.\nIn 1984, the original Lombardi's closed, but reopened 10 years later a block away at 32 Spring Street, run by Gennaro Lombardi III, Gennaro Lombardi's grandson, and his childhood",
"-28.869887585169636"
],
[
"for a corresponding sized slice, which was wrapped in paper tied with string. In 1924, Totonno left Lombardi's to open his own pizzeria on Coney Island, called Totonno's.\nThe original pizzerias in New York used coal-fired ovens and baked their pizza with the cheese on the bottom and sauce on top.\nBy 2010, over 400 pizza restaurants existed in New York City, with hundreds more of varied cuisine also offering the dish. Characteristics New York-style pizza is traditionally hand-tossed, consisting in its basic form of a light layer of tomato sauce sprinkled with dry, grated, full-fat mozzarella cheese; additional toppings are",
"-28.841203808260616"
],
[
"Pizza quattro stagioni Preparation Pizza quattro stagioni is typically prepared using artichokes, tomatoes or basil, mushrooms and ham or prosciutto, or olives. The artichokes represent spring, tomatoes or basil represent summer, mushrooms represent autumn and the ham or olives represent winter. Other ingredients may also be used. It is typically prepared using a tomato sauce and cheese. Fresh-cooked or canned artichoke hearts may be used.\nSome of the topping ingredients can first be dried in an oven to reduce their moisture, which prevents the pizza from being soggy when finished. Baking it on a pizza stone can also prevent sogginess. It",
"-28.835293485055445"
],
[
"California Pizza Kitchen Description The California Pizza Kitchen chain is widely known for its innovative and nontraditional pizzas, such as the \"Original BBQ Chicken Pizza\", Thai Chicken, and Jamaican Jerk Chicken pizzas. They also serve various kinds of pasta, salads, soups, sandwiches, and desserts. They have an extensive children's menu for children ages 10 and under which includes a variety of different pizzas, pastas, salad and chicken.\nThe chain has over 250 locations in 32 U.S. states and 10 other countries, including 15 California Pizza Kitchen nontraditional, franchise concepts designed for airports, universities, and stadiums.\nCPK's brand is licensed to",
"-28.81372891455976"
],
[
"Aggieville near Kansas State University. The first Pizza Hut restaurant east of the Mississippi River was opened in Athens, Ohio, in 1966 by Lawrence Berberick and Gary Meyers.\nPizza Hut's international presence includes Canada and Mexico in North America, and India (not in the Pizza Hut division, but in the Yum! India division), Bangladesh, Pakistan, Japan, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei Darussalam, China (now part of Yum! spinoff Yum China), Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Myanmar, and Macau in Asia. Pizza Hut was one of the first American franchises to open",
"-28.80554245356325"
],
[
"Jasuben Pizza History It is reported that Jasuben started this business in 1990s with a couple named Andarben and Jorawar Singh Rajput. After they started making pizzas, Jasuben moved back to Pune where she lived earlier but Andarben continued to run the business. It was Andarben who later developed a \"secret recipe\" of the sauce that is still used in their pizzas. It is also reported that at a point in time they were presumably selling more pizzas than Pizza Hut and Domino's Pizza combined within the city. Pizza The type of pizza served is an Indianized version of the",
"-28.76165259690606"
],
[
"Godfather's Pizza, and Round Table Pizza, as well as Domino's, Pizza Hut, Little Caesars and Papa John's. Pizzas from take and bake pizzerias, and chilled or frozen pizzas from supermarkets make pizza readily available nationwide. 13% of the US population consumes pizza on any given day.",
"-28.730179396756284"
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[
"pizzas for his staff.\nUpon returning from Italy, Al Bayati rented a space on Yafa Street on the north side of the Green Zone. Although pizza was not considered popular to Iraqis, he set out to build an authentic Italian restaurant. He hired a local bricklayer to build a wood fire pizza oven, used a dairy near Abu Ghraib prison to make customized mozzarella cheese and a farmer who grew tomatoes similar to those grown in Tuscany. Basil and oregano came from his own garden. The business had to endure frequent blackouts.\nThe restaurant suffered as the insurgency",
"-28.68540153822687"
],
[
"Brought by Italian tradition and spread all over the world this case is not an exception, far from being it pizza like breads and pasta are part of everyday food since long time ago. Pizza Uruguayan style pizza uses a thicker crust and this rising higher than the usual Neapolitan pizza. It is commonly sliced squared, resembling pizza al taglio or Sicilian pizza. Pizzas with an even thicker crust are referred to as \"pizza de cumpleaños\" (birthday party pizzas) as it is common to serve to guests on such occasions.\nPizza can come with a lot of ingredients but most common",
"-28.68501215573633"
],
[
"apart from one another. Since the 1940s pizza take-out was done with the pizza sitting on a round cardboard base and covered with a paper bag. It is believed Domino's developed the modern corrugated flat square pizza box in the early 1960s, but they never patented it. Patent designs for pizza boxes date to at least 1968. Innovations since have included various venting configurations; built-in holders for extra sauces; designs for easier recycling; and perforated tops so wedge-shaped pieces of cardboard can be used as plates. The lid of the box is often supported by a disposable plastic",
"-28.679238424636424"
],
[
"Online food ordering History The first online food order was a pizza from Pizza Hut in 1994.\nThe first online food ordering service, World Wide Waiter (now known as Waiter.com), was founded in 1995. The site originally serviced only northern California, later expanding to several additional cities in the United States.\nGrubHub was founded in 2004. \nBy the late 2000s, major pizza chains had created their own mobile applications and started doing 20-30 percent of their business online. With increased smartphone penetration, and the growth of both Uber and the sharing economy, food delivery startups started to receive more attention. In 2010,",
"-28.668739442480728"
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[
"groups, and innovate the menu to fit family target customer. In 1989, Developed Delivery Services Minor Food was the first company to provide home and office delivery. Beginning with pizza delivery service to homes and office, the brand can reach customers without the obstacles of rush-hour crunch and the desire to eat at home. In 1992, Manufacturing Minor Cheese Limited (MCL) and Minor Dairy Limited (MDL) were founded under the consideration of food quality, availability, reliability, and cost control. The major ingredients produced had been delivered to internal franchises and external restaurants. In the same year, it introduced Sizzler, combination",
"-28.651929986430332"
],
[
"the trend of selling desserts that can be made in a pizza oven. Locations While mostly found in the St. Louis area, the franchised pizzerias are also found scattered throughout select locations in the Midwest.\nThere are currently over 90 locations in Missouri, Illinois and Kansas.",
"-28.646094388357596"
],
[
"Pizza di Pasqua Origins According to tradition, the pizza di Pasqua was first made in the Middle Ages by the nuns of the Poor Clares monastery of Santa Maria Maddalena at Serra de' Conti near Ancona. The name crescia (by which it is known throughout the Marche region) refers to the \"growth\" (it. \"crescita\"), that is the dough growth due to the leavening process during baking. The first mention of the preparation of the crescia di Pasqua can be found in a cookbook written by the nuns and dating to 1848, entitled Memorie delle cresce di Pasqua fatte nel 1848",
"-28.632218199170893"
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[
"a microwaveable pizza to its product line, adopting the more common round pizza form. In 2009, the product line expanded further, with the introduction of italian sausage and \"Pepperoni Supreme\" pizza.\nIn 2015, McCain Foods announced the sale of its North American pizza business, including the Ellio's brand and production facility, to Dr. Oetker. The brand has continued to expand its variety. As of 2015, Ellio's is available in 8 different crust and topping configurations. Popularity When McCain foods acquired Ellio's in 1988, the frozen pizza brand was outselling all competitors in the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia markets. ",
"-28.62240593752358"
],
[
"National Pizza Month History This observance began in October 1984, and was created by Gerry Durnell, the publisher of Pizza Today magazine. Some people observe National pizza month by consuming various types of pizzas or pizza slices, or going to various pizzerias. During the month, some pizzerias give away free pizzas or pizza slices to customers or offer reduced-price promotions. Some businesses run fundraising drives, donating proceeds of pizza sales to benefit various organizations or charities. Some pizzerias create unique pizzas that they don't routinely offer. For example, Mamma Mia! Pizza Kitchen in Levelland, Texas created a pizza prepared with",
"-28.620434068725444"
],
[
"United States. Retail goods were seldom sold with shipping any faster than overnight.\nSome online grocers such as AmazonFresh and Webvan, and delivery services operated by grocery stores like Peapod and Safeway have had same-day or next-day delivery windows. Many restaurants have long delivered takeout locally on-demand, and online food ordering services have expanded this to many restaurants that would otherwise not deliver.\nIn the 2010s, various experimental services launched, using online shopping and retail warehouses or chain stores local to the ordering consumer for fulfillment at relatively low cost. The United States Postal Service \"Metro Post\" started in 2012, which by",
"-28.61544013970706"
],
[
"Pizza marinara History It has been stated the pizza marinara was introduced around the year 1735, and was prepared using olive oil, cherry tomatoes, basil, oregano and garlic at that time. Historically, it was known to be ordered commonly by poor sailors, and made on their ships due to it being made from easily preservable ingredients.",
"-28.60236240370432"
],
[
"kitchen. \nAnother advantage of this strategy is that it makes testing out new dishes or menus easier because only a change in the online menu is needed to trial a new dish. Eventually, if the pizza sales were successful, the Mexican burrito restaurant could add them to the menu of their physical restaurant.\nMoreover, setting up a virtual brand does not require extra costs for an existing restaurant. They already have the kitchen space and the staff to prepare the food. They do not need weeks to set up the new brand, as everything needed is available for the restaurant. Delivery",
"-28.5784829937038"
],
[
"Sarpino's Pizzeria History The first Sarpino's pizza delivery store was opened by Gerry Koutougos in 2001 in Victoria, British Columbia. The name has its origins in a vacation that founder Gerry Koutougos took to Italy in 1999, where he visited a restaurant that was operated by a woman named Sarpina. Sarpino's expanded to Singapore in 2002 and to the United States in January 2003 with the opening of a Phoenix, Arizona location. Within a year after opening the first U.S. location, the chain had close to 20 American stores. During that first year, David Chatkin served as the original franchisee",
"-28.563393724441994"
],
[
"the company's executive chef. Since the high-temperature gas-fired pizza oven is the only piece of cooking equipment inside each of the restaurants, the same oven is also used to roast the chicken, cook the Italian sausage and meatballs, and bake some of the desserts. History Blaze Pizza was founded in Pasadena, California by Rick and Elise Wetzel in 2011. The fast-fired, customizable pizza concept debuted with their first location in Irvine, California in August 2012 which was quickly followed two months later by the opening of their second, and flagship, location in October 2012 in Pasadena. In 2014, Zagat noted",
"-28.55796890021884"
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[
"table. With mass production of pizza, the process can be completely automated. Most restaurants still use standard and purpose-built pizza preparation tables. Pizzerias nowadays can even opt for hi tech pizza preparation tables that combine mass production elements with traditional techniques. Crust The bottom of the pizza, called the \"crust\", may vary widely according to style, thin as in a typical hand-tossed Neapolitan pizza or thick as in a deep-dish Chicago-style. It is traditionally plain, but may also be seasoned with garlic or herbs, or stuffed with cheese. The outer edge of the pizza is sometimes referred to as the",
"-28.549688080500346"
],
[
"Hot Lips Pizza History Hot Lips Pizza was founded in 1984 by David Yudkin's father-in-law. Yudkin and his wife, Jeana Edelman, took over the business in 1994. In 2005, Hot Lips started selling fruit sodas made from local fruits. The sodas were featured in The New York Times. In 2011, Hot Lips made its millionth bottle of soda. Environmental practices Many of Hot Lips' ingredients are bought from local farmers, especially from farmers' markets. It also makes all of its packaging compostable. Waste heat from the ovens at their Pearl District location is used to heat the whole restaurant.",
"-28.484976777952397"
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[
"sauce from combining with the dough and producing a crust that can be frozen and reheated without becoming rigid. There are frozen pizzas with raw ingredients and self-rising crusts.\nAnother form of uncooked pizza is available from take and bake pizzerias. This pizza is assembled in the store, then sold to customers to bake in their own ovens. Some grocery stores sell fresh dough along with sauce and basic ingredients, to complete at home before baking in an oven. Cooking In restaurants, pizza can be baked in an oven with stone bricks above the heat source, an electric deck oven, a",
"-28.479979820083827"
],
[
"The Pizza Company History Established in 1980, the company had operated Tricon Global Restaurants’ franchised Pizza Hut brand since its introduction in Thailand, and when their agreement was terminated, The Pizza Company was established as the company's own brand in 2001.\nIn 2004, The Pizza Company began to expand and franchise internationally and today the restaurant has franchises in Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Laos, China and Bahrain. Myanmar and Cambodia. There is also at least one location in Vietnam, on Cau Giay street in Hanoi.\nThe Pizza Company is currently the largest pizza fast food restaurant chain in Thailand.",
"-28.479245605994947"
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[
"a large scale and in this way expanded its delivery range beyond the area immediately close to the pizzeria. Towards the end of the 1960s, the delivery service was further developed thanks to the introduction of heat-insulating bags. Stability and stackability Most packaging for the transport of pizzas is made of cardboard, because this material is cheap and has many useful properties. Both solid fibre board and single wall corrugated board are used. The corrugated cardboard in use is often of the E flute size (micro or fine waves with a flute pitch of 1.0 to 1.8 mm), but thicker B",
"-28.405026365886442"
],
[
"been exported around the world, both through the global expansion of restaurant chains such as T.G.I. Friday's and McDonald's and the efforts of individual restaurateurs such as Bob Payton, credited with bringing American-style pizza to the UK.\nThe first generation of television chefs such as Robert Carrier and Julia Child tended to concentrate on cooking based primarily on European, especially French and Italian, cuisines. Only during the 1970s and 1980s did television chefs such as James Beard and Jeff Smith shift the focus towards home-grown cooking styles, particularly those of the different ethnic groups within the nation. Notable American restaurant chefs",
"-28.39478937711101"
],
[
"Pizza Factory had 115 locations in six states: Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington. Riva hoped to double the number of locations over the next five years. That month, the company announced plans to expand its presence in Twin Falls, Idaho. At that time, while newer pizza chains had focused on Millennials as their target demographic, Pizza Factory remained focused on its concept of a restaurant for family and friends. Riva stated that some of the company's most successful restaurants were located in small towns. As of August 2016, Pizza Factory was the 41st largest chain in the United",
"-28.371993098873645"
],
[
"was developed in 2009 by Italian company Sitos srl. The machine combines water, flour, tomato sauce, and fresh ingredients to make a pizza in approximately three minutes. It includes windows so customers can watch the pizza as it is made. The pizza is cooked in an infrared oven. The device was invented by Claudio Torghele, an entrepreneur in Rovereto, Italy. The vending machine began in Italy and is now spreading into the United Kingdom and becoming popular there. Life insurance From the 1950s until the 1970s, vending machines were used at American airports to sell life insurance policies covering death,",
"-28.333293228643015"
],
[
"Pizza boxes can be recycled with organic waste instead of cardboard. Marketing In 2011 Gabriel Pizza was voted Best Pizza in Ottawa by a CTV readers poll. Flagship Pizza The Orleans Fave stands as the restaurant's most renowned pizza. It sports double cheese, pepperoni and bacon and is best served on a thicker crust to accommodate the heavy toppings. The date of its inception is still unknown but its legacy lives on throughout its many locations.",
"-28.295208050403744"
],
[
"a franchise that originally came from England, and also operates in Australia. Mr Whippy soft-serve ice cream is an iconic symbol of a New Zealand summer to many Kiwis. Argentina In Argentina, vendors sell choripan, a barbequeued sausage served wrapped in French bread, or morcipan, using a blood sausage (morcilla) instead.\nPizza is very popular, in part due to the country's heavy Italian immigration in the early 20th century. Local versions include the fugazzeta, a pizza made with mozzarella cheese and onions, and the fainá: a pizza made with garbanzo bean flour with no toppings, generally served as a side dish",
"-28.282393738336395"
],
[
"Carne pizzaiola Carne pizzaiola or carne alla pizzaiola (roughly translated as \"meat in pizza style\"), sometimes referred to just as pizzaiola, is a dish derived from the Neapolitan tradition that features meat (often less expensive cuts of beef) cooked with tomatoes, olive oil, garlic, and white wine long enough to tenderize the meat. Most versions also include tomato paste, oregano and basil.",
"-28.282106153841596"
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[
"Pizza Factory partnered with the San Jose Sharks, a National Hockey League team. Through the partnership, Pizza Factory became the sole provider of pizza during events at San Jose's SAP Center, beginning the following month. The partnership also planned to raise awareness about the Pizza Factory's \"No Bully Zone\" program, and about men's health issues. As of October 2017, the company has 110 restaurant locations. Products In addition to pizza, the chain also serves calzones, sandwiches, soups, and appetizers, including chicken wings and \"Breadstix.\" Pizzas are made from hand-tossed dough, which is prepared fresh daily at each restaurant. Pizza sizes",
"-28.259112979205383"
],
[
"pizza for use as space food, which was delivered to the International Space Station in 2001. It was vacuum-sealed and about 6 in (15 cm) in diameter to fit in the station's oven. It was launched on a Soyuz and eaten by Yuri Usachov in orbit.\nIn recent years, the chain has seen a downturn in profits. In 2015, the franchise stated it would be pumping more capital into its London branches. Pizza Hut is installing cocktail bars in its London branches as part of a £60 million bid to win back \"the Nando's generation\".\nIn January 2019, Pizza Hut announced it had",
"-28.233260016353597"
],
[
"thin crust, multi-grain crust, whole-grain crust, and a gluten-free crust. Stuffed-crust pizza is also a popular pizza alternative for Canadian customers. It contains pizza toppings of the customer’s choice on a mozzarella-filled crust.\nIn the province of Quebec Pizza-ghetti is a combination meal commonly found in fast food or family restaurants. It consists of a pizza, sliced in half, accompanied by a small portion of spaghetti with a tomato based sauce. Although both pizza and spaghetti are considered staples of Italian cuisine, combining them in one dish is completely unknown in Italy. A popular variant involves using spaghetti as a pizza",
"-28.233252176607493"
],
[
"country. It gained popularity throughout the 1960s, with many pizzerias and restaurants opening across the country. Pizza was mostly served in restaurants and small pizzerias. Most pizza restaurants across Canada also serve popular Italian cuisine in addition to pizza, such as pasta, salad, soups and sandwiches. Fast-food pizza chains also provide other side options for customers to choose from, in addition to ordering pizza, including chicken wings, fries and poutine, salad, and calzones. Pizza Pops are a Canadian calzone-type snack introduced in the 1960s. Pizza chains across Canada can be found in shopping centres, schools, and neighbourhood plazas, with the",
"-28.219022455974482"
],
[
"restaurant. The vegetables are from the local farmer's market. In January 2010, Bianco announced that he was taking some time away from pizza making for health reasons (the wood oven and flour in the air was aggravating his asthma). However, Chris Bianco's brother Marco will continue to make the dough and for the time being Horacio Hernandez, Bianco's assistant for 15 years, will cook the pizzas. Seating Pizzeria Bianco is a small establishment, with a maximum seating capacity of 42. The pizzeria only takes reservations for parties of 6–10. All other patrons are seated on a first",
"-28.211584232281893"
],
[
"after experimenting over several months developed the stuffed pizza. In 1974, they founded Giordano's. Challenges Several commentators have questioned the restaurant's claim about the creation of the stuffed pizza, noting similarities with the origin story of Nancy's Pizza, which had introduced its own stuffed pizza in the same year. Both chains claim to have based the pizza off a family recipe for scarciedda, an Easter dish common to Basilicata and Apulia, two regions of Italy. Due to the similarities commentators have suggested there is a connection between the founders of the two pizza chains. New ownership, new ambition John Apostolou,",
"-28.19804869176005"
],
[
"dough) than traditional Italian style pizza and includes more cheese. Argentine gastronomy tradition, served pizza with fainá, which is a Genovese chick pea-flour dough placed over the piece of pizza, and moscato wine. The most popular variety of pizza is called \"muzzarella\" (mozzarella), similar to Neapolitan pizza (bread, tomato sauce and cheese) but made with a thicker \"media masa\" crust, triple cheese and tomato sauce, usually also with olives. It can be found in nearly every corner of the country; Buenos Aires is considered the city with the most pizza bars by person of the world. Other popular varieties include",
"-28.18733607936474"
],
[
"Sammy's Pizza Early history Sam and Louise Perrella opened their first cafe in Keewatin, Minnesota after Sam was laid off from the local iron mines. Sam had heard war veterans talk of pizza and he visited a friend in Chicago to\nlearn how to make pizza. After much experimentation and recipe development, some new equipment was purchased and the cafe was moved into a larger space at 107 East Howard in Hibbing, MN.\nOriginally called \"La Pizzeria,\" Sam and Louise officially opened as a pizza restaurant on October 2, 1954. Expansion and growth The original store had almost immediate success,",
"-28.17350121506024"
],
[
"Pizza-La History Hidenori Asano, the chairman of Four Seeds Inc. (Pizza-La's parent company), was inspired to create the chain after viewing E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial in which Domino's Pizza featured, though he had previously planned to make it an offshoot of Domino's Pizza itself as a directly managed store, rather than one managed by a franchise. However, the company had already applied for franchising rights in Japan in 1985 and had already started business. Asano decided then to establish his own chain, and in April 1987 the first Pizza-La store was opened in the Mejiro district of Toshima, Tokyo. Its expansion",
"-28.090001385309733"
],
[
"Pizza cutter History The first pizza cutter in its modern form was invented by David S. Morgan which he patented on September 20, 1892. However, it was not directly meant for cutting pizza but for cutting wallpapers. Varieties There are two main types of pizza cutters.\nThe most common uses a wheel that rotates in a circle while a person moves the cutter in a direction that they would like to cut the pizza. Many people might use the wheel pizza cutter for other things, including craft work.\nThe other type is a large curved knife called a mezzaluna (Italian for \"half",
"-28.084798405645415"
],
[
"in the country and has been credited with introducing the concept of home deliveries. Those businesses join existing burger joints and other American fast-food restaurants such as Pizza Hut, KFC, Fatburger and Domino's Pizza. Taco Bell and Burger King are also said to be looking at opening branches in Pakistan. Al Jazeera's feature on 15 Jan 2016 highlighted the 'burger generation' in Pakistan, which are highly influenced by 'American culture'.",
"-28.08328526551486"
],
[
"said pizza. The two men purchased a box of KFC popcorn chicken, a Taco Bell Crunchwrap Supreme, a McDonald's Big Mac and Chicken McNuggets, a Wendy's Baconator and french fries, and an A&W Teen Burger (bacon cheeseburger) and onion rings. Using a plain cheese pizza they also purchased as a base, Morenstein and Perrault stacked the fast food items on top of and covered the entire dish in cheese, and placed it in an oven to melt the cheese and secure the fast food items to the pizza. The entire meal totaled 5,210 calories and 286 grams of fat. It was posted",
"-28.08002643036889"
],
[
"cafe operated almost as a second restaurant, with an à la carte menu featuring pasta, pizza and calzone rather than the table d'hôte / prix fixe style downstairs. In the cafe, one of the first California-style pizzas was made in a prominent wood-fired brick oven, using unusual toppings such as goat cheese and duck sausage. The cafe was built around an open kitchen plan so that patrons could watch the food being prepared. Though the open kitchen plan used to exhibit the preparation of food had been used in several other premium restaurants (such as Johnny Kan's in San Francisco's",
"-28.072943509090692"
],
[
"'stol', a fruit bread with raisins and usually filled with almond paste. It is the same type of bread also eaten as a Christmas bread. Central Italy The pizza di Pasqua (\"Easter Pizza\" in English) is a leavened savory cake typical of some areas central Italy, based on wheat flour, eggs, pecorino and parmesan, traditionally served at breakfast on Easter morning, or as an appetizer during Easter lunch, accompanied by blessed boiled eggs, ciauscolo and red wine or, again, served at the Easter Monday picnic. Having the same shape as panettone, the pizza di pasqua with cheese is a",
"-27.985786963137798"
],
[
"as pasta, pizza, pucheros (stews), croquetas (fritter)s, sauces, embutidos (sausages), and chicken and meat courses brought a wider scope of options to daily menus. Furthermore, the bread-making, dessert, pastry, and dairy industries have achieved considerable development in this region.\nThe above-mentioned dishes have developed a distinctively Argentine nuance. That is why, for example, Argentine pasta includes a wide variety of dishes ranging from spaghetti, fusiles (fusilli), ñoquis (gnocchi), ravioli, cintas (pasta ribbons), and lasagne to the Argentine-made sorrentinos, agnolottis (agnolotti), canelones (cannelloni), and fetuchines (fettuccine).\nPizza—made with very thin, and sometimes thick, high-rising doughs, with or without cheese, cooked in the oven",
"-27.9537025737809"
],
[
"Pizza Hut. The first freestanding Pizza Hut/PastaBravo was opened in Clarksville, Tennessee by franchisee Carreca Enterprises Inc.\nAfter the deal with Yum!, the Pasta Bravo chain was closed within eight years. When the last restaurant closed, in December 2011, Aspel remarked, \"The future wasn't in what I was doing anymore. Over the years, people's tastes ha[d] gone from carbs to proteins.\" Three months later, Aspel switched to a grilled seafood concept with locations of Spike's Fish House.",
"-27.952651050698478"
],
[
"market the pizza with the phrase \"Good to the Very Edge\", which purports to reference the lack of a traditional crust in Sir Pizza pizzas. Specifically the pizza pies are \"virtually flat with cheese, sauce, and toppings loaded all the way to the very edge.\" Sir Pizza is unique in that it does not use more typical sliced pepperoni, rather the topping is ground into crumbles that are spread over the entire pizza, similar to sausage. Indiana There are multiple locations in Muncie, where the chain is based. Several franchises are scattered through mainly Eastern Indiana. Kentucky",
"-27.94358199002454"
],
[
"The Chicago Pizza Pie Factory The Chicago Pizza Pie Factory was a chain of pizza restaurants. The chain originated in Crown Passage (off Pall Mall) as The Chicago Pizza Pie Factory and was started by entrepreneur Bob Payton in 1976-7. The London establishment also had a bar. This was the start of a series of restaurants forming the My Kinda Town chain. The chain opened restaurants in places such as Paris and Barcelona, where they operated successfully for several decades.\nWhen Payton sold the company in 1990 the business was pulling in a turnover of £35m.",
"-27.94030310897506"
],
[
"food produced in some towns, such as Terlizzi, for eating on Fridays generally. The name seems close to \"pizza\", but the kneading is different.",
"-27.931281326978933"
],
[
"bread served at the restaurant) with his diners as a sign of hospitality.\nThe menu was exotic (for the time), featuring a mix of Armenian, Middle Eastern, and African cooking adapted for American palates.\nIn the mid-1980s, a fire destroyed the restaurant.",
"-27.89042481065553"
],
[
"made with milk from water buffalo raised in the marshlands of Campania and Lazio. This mozzarella is protected with its own European protected designation of origin. Other traditional pizzas include pizza alla marinara, which is topped with marinara sauce and is supposedly the most ancient tomato-topped pizza,pizza capricciosa, which is prepared with mozzarella cheese, baked ham, mushroom, artichoke, and tomato, and pizza pugliese, prepared with tomato, mozzarella, and onions.\nA popular variant of pizza in Italy is Sicilian pizza (locally called sfincione or sfinciuni), a thick-crust or deep-dish pizza originating during the 17th century in Sicily: it is essentially a focaccia",
"-27.889828725681582"
],
[
"and pizza, has been the principal cereal crop since the 18th century. It was introduced by the first English colonists and quickly became the main cash crop of farmers who sold it to urban populations and exporters. In colonial times its culture became concentrated in the Middle Colonies, which became known as the \"bread colonies\". In the mid-18th century, wheat culture spread to the tidewaters of Maryland and Virginia, where George Washington was a prominent grower as he diversified away from tobacco. The crop moved west, with Ohio as the center in 1840 and Illinois in 1860. Illinois replaced",
"-27.888719844573643"
],
[
"Chicago-style pizza Deep-dish pizza According to Tim Samuelson, Chicago's official cultural historian, there is not enough documentation to determine with certainty who invented Chicago-style deep-dish pizza. It is often reported that Chicago-style deep-dish pizza was invented at Pizzeria Uno in Chicago, in 1943, by Uno's founder Ike Sewell. However, a 1956 article from the Chicago Daily News asserts that Uno's original pizza chef Rudy Malnati developed the recipe and Michele Mohr from the Chicago Tribune reports that Saverio Rosati opened Rosati's Authentic Chicago Pizza in 1926.\nThe primary difference between deep-dish pizza and most other forms of pizza is that,",
"-27.839846940652933"
],
[
"pizzas are expected to be sold in up to 3,000 grocery stores in America. Corporate and international The company's corporate headquarters are in Houston, Texas. An additional branch office is located in Dubai, UAE.\nIn March 2011, the company announced its intent to franchise 10 units in the UAE over the following decade. It has also awarded franchise right a company in Bahrain to operate Russo's in Bahrain, Qatar and Saudi Arabia.\nIn September 2011, the restaurant chain introduced rebranding with a new logo and menu formats.\nEntrepreneur Magazine ranked it 301st in 2011 in the magazine's list of the top 500 franchises.",
"-27.824340626073536"
],
[
"Ed LaDou Ed LaDou (October 9, 1955 – December 27, 2007) was an American pizza chef, who is credited with popularizing gourmet California-style pizzas. Ed LaDou was the first pizza chef at Wolfgang Puck's Spago restaurant in L.A. He also developed the first menu for the California Pizza Kitchen.\nThe invention of the California-style pizza begins with a Berkeley, California, pizza restaurant, Chez Panisse, and its owner, Alice Waters. Waters was the first to create pizzas with exotic and unusual toppings which were cooked in a wood-burning pizza oven. However, LaDou was a major figure in the development and popularity of",
"-27.819278832321288"
]
] |
2zgk0e | Why can't dentists just paint a clear coat on your teeth to prevent cavities, enamel wear, etc? | [
"We do. They're called [dental sealants]( URL_0 ). But, here's the problem: * They can't cover *all* of your teeth. They won't go below the gumline, for example, and the gumline is still a big part of dental health; * They can still wear down just from the process of using your teeth to eat and chew;",
"Every tooth I had sealed at age 10 developed a cavity by age 13. Subsequent dentists assume that they basically sealed in bacteria. Awesome for me.",
"Sealants must not be anywhere your teeth touch. If there was any material there it would have an effect on your occlusion, or \"bite\". This can cause problems with the jaw muscles. That's why if you get a sealant or a filling or an implant there is so much focus on the new material's \"fit\". The new stuff should never be felt, it should fit in a way that is indistinguishable to the patient.",
"Enamel is one of the hardest naturally-occurring surfaces in nature, and easily the hardest surface in the human body. Anything we'd put on teeth would simply melt away under the stress. Additionally, we do have a form of \"clear coat\" so to speak. Flouride acts as a way to \"seal\" enamel from further wear, as it helps to chemically rebuild \"holes\" in your natural enamel. The problem is that we don't currently have a way to re-grow enamel. However, there is some pretty extensive research going in to this issue right now. I'd expect to see some advances in the next few decades.",
"The next question is - why doesn't my dental insurance cover sealants?",
"While all the people here tell about their healthy teeth, i am sitting here, 20 yrs old with 8 fillings. Dentist says i dont brush wrong and my teeth looks \"clean\" but i have a malacotic enamel, googled it, it means soft tooth or something. Fuck genetics.",
"They do/ used to do the shit where they put some kind of enamel type stuff I the crevasses on the tips of your rear teeth to help I had it done when I was I toddler"
] | [
[
"to use toothpaste that contains fluoride as this has proved to be the most efficient in fighting oral infections and tooth decay. Flossing must be done at least once a day, as well because it is helpful in preventing oral problems by removing the plaque between the teeth, which is not removed when brushing.\nDiabetic patients must get professional dental cleanings every six months. In cases when dental surgery is needed, it is necessary to take some special precautions such as adjusting diabetes medication or taking antibiotics to prevent infection. Looking for early signs of gum disease (redness, swelling, bleeding gums)",
"-30.312347810831852"
],
[
"only conscientious toothbrushing, but also proximal surface cleaning via interdental aids, with dental floss being the most recommended by dental professionals. As toothbrushing alone is ineffective at removing plaque between tooth surfaces when bonded appliances are in place, clinical studies have demonstrated that dental floss, when used correctly, leads to substantial improvements in proximal gingival health.\nAlthough it is clear that orthodontic patients who utilise floss enjoy better gingival health and less plaque retention relative to those who do not, flossing is not always entirely embraced as it can be difficult and more time-consuming, which is shown to discourage a lot",
"-28.720656679361127"
],
[
"removal of dental plaque and food from the teeth, it can aid in the elimination and/or masking of halitosis when tonsil stones are not the cause, and it can deliver active ingredients such as fluoride to prevent tooth and gum (gingiva) disease.\nThere is evidence that the addition of xylitol to fluoride-containing toothpastes reduces incidence of tooth decay by about 13%. Tooth powder Tooth powder (or 'toothpaste powder') is an alternative to toothpaste. It may be recommended for people with sensitive teeth. Tooth powder typically does not contain the chemical sodium lauryl sulphate which can be a skin irritant.",
"-28.70838666079362"
],
[
"used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat gingivitis periodontal disease, although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well. Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque, so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing. Instead, chlorhexidine is more effective used as an adjunctive treatment with tooth brushing and flossing. In the short term, if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain, as may occur in primary herpetic gingivostomatitis, chlorhexidine is used as temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures. It is not suited for use in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis, however. Rinsing with",
"-28.46312158290675"
],
[
"plaque removal above the gum line can affect the ecology of the microbes below the gums and may reduce the number of pathogens in pockets up to 5 mm in depth.\nToothpaste (dentifrice) with fluoride is an important tool to readily use when tooth brushing. The fluoride in the dentifrice is an important protective factor against caries, and an important supplement needed to remineralize already affected enamel. However, in terms of preventing gum disease, the use of toothpaste does not increase the effectiveness of the activity with respect to the amount of plaque removed. Manual tooth brush The modern manual tooth brush",
"-28.42936622945126"
],
[
"are then cut, chopped, milled and bleached (to lighten) into the individual toothpicks. Plastic toothpicks, also called dental pics, are still made in America in Georgia, by Armond's Manufacturing. The Mayo Clinic recommends using a dental pic in lieu of a wooden toothpick to clean one's teeth, as they clean more effectively and one does not risk injuring the gums.\nNowadays other means of dental hygiene are preferred such as dental floss and toothbrushes.",
"-28.365589984343387"
],
[
"tooth whitening were shown to have a beneficial effect in reducing extrinsic stains, irrespective of whether or not a chemical discoloration agent was added. However, the whitening process can permanently reduce the strength of the teeth, as the process scrapes away a protective outer layer of enamel. Herbal and natural toothpastes Companies such as Tom's of Maine, among others, manufacture natural and herbal toothpastes and market them to consumers who wish to avoid the artificial ingredients commonly found in regular toothpastes. Many herbal toothpastes do not contain fluoride or sodium lauryl sulfate. The ingredients found in natural toothpastes vary widely",
"-28.319575225759763"
],
[
"bristled toothbrushes can damage tooth enamel and irritate gums as indicated by the American Dental Association. Toothbrushes are often made from synthetic fibers, although natural toothbrushes are also known in many parts of the world. Those with dentures may also brush their teeth with traditional tooth brushes, specially made denture brushes or denture cleaners. Toothpaste Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used to clean and improve the aesthetic appearance and health of teeth. It is almost always used in conjunction with a toothbrush. Toothpaste use can promote good oral hygiene: it can aid in the",
"-28.272858593671117"
],
[
"very well and are likely to cause abrasion of the denture acrylic resin. If a patient finds it difficult to utilise a toothbrush e.g. patients with arthritis, a brush with easy grip modifications can be used.\nDisclosing solutions can be used at home to make the less obvious plaque deposits more visible to ensure thorough cleaning of plaque. Food dyes can be utilised as a disclosing solution when used correctly.\nInstead of brushing their dentures with soap and water, patients can use pastes designed for dentures or conventional toothpaste to clean their dentures. However, the American Dental Association advises against using toothpaste",
"-28.12132364831632"
],
[
"professionals. Dental sealants have been shown to be more effective at preventing occlusal decay when compared to fluoride varnish applications.\nCalcium, as found in food such as milk and green vegetables, is often recommended to protect against dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent decay of a tooth by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel. Streptococcus mutans is the leading cause of tooth decay. Low concentration fluoride ions act as bacteriostatic therapeutic agent and high concentration fluoride ions are bactericidal. The incorporated fluorine makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and, thus, resistant to decay. Fluoride can be found in either topical or",
"-28.011526483463967"
],
[
"inhibiting build-up of bacteria and food trapped within such fissures and grooves. Dental sealants also provide a smooth surface that is easily accessible for both our natural protective factor, saliva and the toothbrush bristles when cleaning our teeth. Multiple oral health care professionals including dentists, dental therapists, dental hygienists, oral health therapists and dental assistants (in some states in the USA) are able to apply dental sealants to teeth.\nPreventive treatment options for dental caries besides dental sealants, involve promoting and education on toothbrushing technique with fluoride toothpaste, use of fluoride supplements and application of topical fluorides onto tooth surfaces. History",
"-27.916541448095813"
],
[
"treatment is a risk of internal root resorption of the tooth that you are internally bleaching. This may not occur in everyone or every tooth and is difficult to determine prior to completing the treatment. At home At home tooth whitening products are available from dentists or 'over the counter' (OTC). At home whitening methods include; over the counter strips and gels, whitening rinses, whitening toothpastes, and tray-based tooth whiteners. OTC products can be used for milder cases of tooth staining. Strips and gels The plastic whitening strips contain a thin layer of peroxide gel and are shaped to fit",
"-27.501122975110775"
],
[
"Dentifrice Toothpaste Toothpaste is a dentifrice used in conjunction with a toothbrush to help maintain oral hygiene. The essential components are an abrasive, binder, surfactant and humectant. Other ingredients are also used. The main purpose of the paste is to help remove debris and plaque with some marketed to serve accessory functions such as breath freshening and teeth whitening. Tooth powder Tooth powder is an alternative to toothpaste. Modern versions may be sold with or without fluoride.\nTooth powder was historically used among the Romans to clean and whiten teeth, to fix them when loose, to strengthen the gums, and to",
"-27.39900375797879"
],
[
"fluoride and instead favours plaque accumulation. This approach facilitates prevention and early intervention, in order to prevent or stop the dental caries process before it reaches the ends stage of the disease, which is also known as the \"hole\" or cavitation of a tooth. Once the tooth is cavitated, it requires a dental restoration in order to repair the damage, which emphasizes the importance of prevention in preserving teeth for a lifetime of chewing.\nPreventing tooth decay from the pits and fissures of the teeth is achieved by dental sealants providing a physical barricade to protect natural tooth surfaces and grooves,",
"-27.363975690910593"
],
[
"for its remineralizing effects on enamel, often repairing the tooth surface and reducing the risk of caries.\nThe use of fluoridated toothpaste is highly recommended by dental professionals; whereby studies suggest that the correct daily use of fluoride on the dentition of children has a high caries-preventive effect and therefore prevents has potential to prevent ECC. However, it is important to use fluoridated toothpastes correctly; children below the age of two do not usually require toothpaste unless they are already at a high risk of ECC as diagnosed by a dental professional, and therefore it is it is recommended to use",
"-27.273709142915322"
],
[
"more damage to enamel and the dentin, compared to waiting 30 minutes. Flushing the acid away with water or dissolved baking soda could help reduce acid damage exacerbated by brushing. The same response was recommended for acid re-flux and other acidic meals. Toothbrush A toothbrush is an instrument used to clean teeth, consisting of a small brush on a handle. Toothpaste, often containing fluoride, is commonly added to a toothbrush to aid in cleaning. Toothbrushes come in manual and electric varieties. Although there is conflicting evidence as to which is more effective, most evidence points to electric toothbrushes",
"-27.217755963898526"
],
[
"stains. Whitening toothpaste cannot alter the natural color of teeth or reverse discoloration by penetrating surface stains or decay. To remove surface stains, whitening toothpaste may include abrasives to gently polish the teeth or additives such as sodium tripolyphosphate to break down or dissolve stains. When used twice a day, whitening toothpaste typically takes two to four weeks to make teeth appear whiter. Whitening toothpaste is generally safe for daily use, but excessive use might damage tooth enamel. Teeth whitening gels represent an alternative. A recent systematic review in 2017 concluded that nearly all dentifrices that are specifically formulated for",
"-27.092745866422774"
],
[
"teeth. Such stimulators help to increase circulation to the gum line and to clear away bacteria which might not be removed by brushing and flossing alone. Food and drink Foods that help muscles and bones also help teeth and gums. Vitamin C is necessary, for example, to prevent scurvy which manifests as serious gum disease.\nEating a balanced diet and limiting sugar intake can help prevent tooth decay and periodontal disease. The Fédération dentaire internationale (FDI World Dental Federation) has promoted foods such as raw vegetables, plain yogurt, cheese, or fruit as dentally beneficial—this has been echoed by the American",
"-26.93534768078098"
],
[
"the teeth or gums. The less one brushes their teeth, the better chance that bacteria will form plaque, which may potentially cause serious oral health issues.\nDiet has an influence in our oral health as well. Much of the bacteria in our mouths are nourished by simple sugars and carbohydrates. An excess of candy, soda, or other simple sugars is an easy way to let bacteria thrive in our mouths. \nFluoride is extremely effective in protecting enamel on the teeth. “Fluoride, a chemical that appears naturally in groundwater in many areas of the world, quickly bonds with the tooth's enamel to",
"-26.818618489138316"
],
[
"systemic form. Topical fluoride is more highly recommended than systemic intake to protect the surface of the teeth. Topical fluoride is used in toothpaste, mouthwash and fluoride varnish. Standard fluoride toothpaste (1,000–1,500 ppm) is more effective than low fluoride toothpaste (< 600ppm) to prevent dental caries. After brushing with fluoride toothpaste, rinsing should be avoided and the excess spat out. Many dental professionals include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine visits and recommend the use of xylitol and amorphous calcium phosphate products. Silver diamine fluoride may work better than fluoride varnish to prevent cavities. Systemic fluoride is",
"-26.802251942899602"
],
[
"peroxide which help lighten tooth colour however they do not contain bleach (sodium hypochlorite). With continuity of use over time, tooth colour can lighten by one or two shades. Tray-based Tray-based tooth whitening is achieved by wearing a fitted tray containing carbamide peroxide bleaching gel overnight or for two to four hours a day. If manufacturer's instructions are followed, tooth whitening can occur within three days and lighten teeth by one or two shades. This type of tooth whitening is available over-the-counter and professionally from a oral health professional. Baking soda Baking soda is a safe, low abrasive, and effective",
"-26.77354506024858"
],
[
"removal and disease prevention and the American Dental Association reports that up to 80% of plaque can be eliminated with this method. Several reviews, however, have failed to find any clear benefit over toothbrushing alone. History Levi Spear Parmly, a dentist from New Orleans, is credited with inventing the first form of dental floss. In 1819, he recommended running a waxen silk thread \"through the interstices of the teeth, between their necks and the arches of the gum, to dislodge that irritating matter which no brush can remove and which is the real source of disease.\" He considered this the",
"-26.71965382831695"
],
[
"of caries in children (Weintraub, 2001).) Unlike brushing, fluoride leads to proven reduction in caries incidence by approximately 25%; higher concentrations of fluoride (>1,000 ppm) in toothpaste also helps prevents tooth decay, with the effect increasing with concentration up to a plateau. A randomized clinical trial demonstrated that toothpastes that contain arginine have greater protection against tooth cavitation than the regular fluoride toothpastes containing 1450 ppm alone. A Cochrane review has confirmed that the use of fluoride gels, normally applied by a dental professional from once to several times a year, assists in the prevention of tooth decay in",
"-26.670180792105384"
],
[
"in adults twice daily improves the surface hardness of untreated root decay when compared to toothpaste with regular fluoride content.\nFluoridated toothpaste is also available in the form of 0.454% stannous fluoride. It appears to be effective in reducing tooth hypersensitivity. Additionally, brushing twice daily with a toothpaste containing stannous fluoride may reduce gingivitis, gingival bleeding and dental plaque.\nAnti-sensitivity toothpastes with fluoride are also available for those who have sensitive teeth. Some anti-sensitivity toothpastes with fluoride on the market contain the ingredients called strontium chloride or potassium nitrate which help to alleviate tooth sensitivity. Mouth rinses Fluoride mouth rinses can be",
"-26.610505906319304"
],
[
"in reducing plaque or gingivitis. The authors concluded that \"the dental professional should determine, on an individual patient basis, whether high-quality flossing is an achievable goal.\" The review also states that \"routine instruction of flossing in gingivitis patients as helpful adjunct therapy is not supported by scientific evidence\". Two studies found no effect of floss among dental students. One review reported that professional flossing of children reduced dental caries risk, but self-flossing did not. More recent review of the research conducted in 2019 indicates that floss and interdental brushes are an effective aid to toothbrushing in terms of reducing plaque",
"-26.60465431556804"
],
[
"Fluoride varnish Fluoride varnish is a highly concentrated form of fluoride which is applied to the tooth's surface, by a dentist, dental hygienist or other health care professional, as a type of topical fluoride therapy. It is not a permanent varnish but due to its adherent nature it is able to stay in contact with the tooth surface for several hours. It may be applied to the enamel, dentine or cementum of the tooth and can be used to help prevent decay, remineralise the tooth surface and to treat dentine hypersensitivity. There are more than 30 fluoride-containing varnish products on",
"-26.602556877885945"
],
[
"days. If teeth sensitivity is experienced after using a teeth whitening product, taking a break may help. Home treatment At-home treatments include desensitizing toothpastes or dentifrices, potassium salts, mouthwashes and chewing gums.\nA variety of toothpastes are marketed for dentin hypersensitivity, including compounds such as strontium chloride, strontium acetate, arginine, calcium carbonate, hydroxyapatite and calcium sodium phosphosilicate. Desensitizing chewing gums and mouthwashes are also marketed.\nPotassium-containing toothpastes are common; however, the mechanism by which they may reduce hypersensitivity is unclear. Animal research has demonstrated that potassium ions placed in deep dentin cavities cause nerve depolarization and prevent re-polarization. It is not known",
"-26.595655349927256"
],
[
"caries but only if the depth of sulcus has not been compromised. Additional aids include interdental brushes, water picks, and mouthwashes. The use of rotational electric toothbrushes might reduce the risk of plaque and gingivitis, though it is unclear whether they are of clinical importance.\nHowever oral hygiene is effective at preventing gum disease (gingivitis / periodontal disease). Food is forced inside pits and fissures under chewing pressure, leading to carbohydrate-fuelled acid demineralisation where the brush, fluoride toothpaste, and saliva have no access to remove trapped food, neutralise acid, or remineralise tooth enamel. (Occlusal caries accounts for between 80 and 90%",
"-26.514454950782238"
],
[
"films (similar to how the split between two adjacent panes of glass is invisible when facing them).\nWhen toothache results from dental trauma (regardless of the exact pulpal or periodontal diagnosis), the treatment and prognosis is dependent on the extent of damage to the tooth, the stage of development of the tooth, the degree of displacement or, when the tooth is avulsed, the time out of the socket and the starting health of the tooth and bone. Because of the high variation in treatment and prognosis, dentists often use trauma guides to help determine prognosis and direct treatment decisions.\nThe prognosis",
"-26.48802794455696"
],
[
"little gain of minerals over a long period of time, which can ultimately cause what is known as tooth decay.\nDental sealants are a preventive treatment that is part of the minimal intervention dentistry approach to dental care. These sealants are a plastic material placed in the pits and fissures (the recesses on the chewing surfaces) of primary (baby) or permanent (adult) molar and premolar teeth at the back of the mouth. These molar teeth are considered the most susceptible teeth to dental caries due to the anatomy of the chewing surfaces of these teeth, which inhibits protection from saliva and",
"-26.459334626299096"
],
[
"brushing techniques applied can roughen the tooth surface and cause abrasion as well as aggravating the gums. Repetitive irritation to the gingival margin can eventually cause recession of the gums. When the gums recede, the root surface is exposed which is more susceptible to abrasion.\nComparatively, electric toothbrushes have less abrasive tendencies.\nTypes of toothpastes can also damage enamel and dentine due to the abrasive properties. Specific ingredients are used in toothpaste to target removal of the bio-film and extrinsic staining however in some cases can contribute to the pastes being abrasive. \nWhitening toothpastes are found to be one of the",
"-26.457499565469334"
],
[
"of appropriate mouthwash can significantly reduce the number of oral bacteria, including S. mutans and inhibit their proliferation. S. mutans often live in dental plaque, hence mechanical removal of plaque is an effective way of getting rid of them. The best toothbrushing technique to reduce plaque build up, decreasing caries risk, is the modified Bass technique. Brushing twice daily can help decrease the caries risk. However, there are some remedies used in the treatment of oral bacterial infection, in conjunction with mechanical cleaning. These include fluoride, which has a direct inhibitory effect on the enolase enzyme, as well as chlorhexidine,",
"-26.405635791546956"
],
[
"would not allow the back of the mouth to be accessed by fluoride splints or trays. Some may also experience difficulty tolerating toothpastes and mouthwashes for a while due to altered taste and mucosal ulceration.\nIt is also very important that the patient maintains a high level of motivation in taking care of their oral hygiene, and attending dental appointments where a dental practitioner will be able to monitor them during and after radiotherapy. Oral preparations prescribed to aid sore or dry mouth should be fully understood by patients to avoid any preparations which can cause damage to the teeth. Any",
"-26.319495830393862"
],
[
"the teeth. Crest stated that because of the low incidence of staining, there was no need to label Pro-Health mouthwash as a potential tooth stainer. However, after numerous complaints and a federal class-action lawsuit, which was later dismissed, the mouthwash now contains a label warning consumers of its potential to stain teeth. Reducing premature birth The use of Crest Pro-Health mouthwash during pregnancy has been shown to be associated with a decrease in preterm births, presumably because the mouthwash reduces the severity of periodontal disease, which is directly linked to preterm births.",
"-26.286113537993515"
],
[
"walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated by utilizing proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.\nIn some circumstances, less tooth structure can be removed compared to preparation for other dental materials such as amalgam and many of the indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam",
"-26.26149883773178"
],
[
"example to components in toothpastes is the Biotene, which has proved its efficiency in relieving the symptoms of dry mouth in people who suffer from xerostomia according to the results of two randomized clinical trials.\nChlorohexidine mouthwash has been popular for its positive effect on controlling plaque and gingivitis, however, a systemic review studied the effects of chlorohexidine toothpastes and found insufficient evidence to support its use, tooth surface discoloration was observed as a side effect upon using it, which is considered a negative side effect that can affect patients' compliance.\nSodium hydroxide, also known as lye or caustic soda, is listed",
"-26.24987042270368"
],
[
"acts as an oxidising agent that breaks down to produce unstable free radicals. In the spaces between the inorganic salts in tooth enamel, these unstable free radicals attach to organic pigment molecules resulting in small, less heavily pigmented components. Reflecting less light, these smaller molecules create a \"whitening effect\". There are different products available on the market to remove stains. For whitening treatment to be successful, dental professionals should correctly diagnose the type, intensity and location of the tooth discolouration. Time exposure and the concentration of the bleaching compound, determines the tooth whitening endpoint. Natural shade The perception of tooth",
"-26.238954362925142"
],
[
"the number of toothpastes and mouthwashes that already incorporate nano-hydroxyapatite as a desensitizing agent is increasing. In-office treatment In-office treatments may be much more complex and they may include the application of dental sealants, having fillings put over the exposed root that is causing the sensitivity, or a recommendation to wear a specially made night guard or retainer if the problems are a result of teeth grinding.\nOther possible treatments include fluorides are also used because they decrease permeability of dentin in vitro. Also, potassium nitrate can be applied topically in an aqueous solution or an adhesive gel. Oxalate products are",
"-26.213024069729727"
],
[
"fissures and grooves in the chewing surfaces of back teeth, preventing food from becoming trapped and thereby halt the decay process. An elastomer strip has been shown to force sealant deeper inside opposing chewing surfaces and can also force fluoride toothpaste inside chewing surfaces to aid in remineralising demineralised teeth.\nBetween cleanings by a dental hygienist, good oral hygiene is essential for preventing tartar build-up which causes the problems mentioned above. This is done through careful, frequent brushing with a toothbrush, combined with the use of dental floss or interdental brushes to prevent accumulation of plaque on the teeth. Powered toothbrushes",
"-26.154634509817697"
],
[
"tooth brushing can help prevent gum disease and halitosis. A 2011 review of trials concluded that flossing in addition to tooth brushing reduces gingivitis compared to tooth brushing alone. In this review, researchers found \"some evidence from 12 studies that flossing in addition to tooth brushing reduces gingivitis compared to tooth brushing alone\", but only discovered \"weak, very unreliable evidence from 10 studies that flossing plus tooth brushing may be associated with a small reduction in plaque at 1 and 3 months.\"\nA 2008 systematic review of 11 studies concluded that adjunctive flossing was no more effective than tooth brushing alone",
"-26.15143084846204"
],
[
"formation of a smear layer (e.g. from toothbrushing) and dentin sclerosis. These physiologic repair mechanisms are likely to occur with or without any form of treatment, but they take time. Prevention Gingival recession and cervical tooth wear can be avoided by healthy dietary and oral hygiene practices. By using a non-traumatic toothbrushing technique (i.e. a recommended technique such as the modified Bass technique rather than indiscriminately brushing the teeth and gums in a rough scrubbing motion) will help prevent receding gums and tooth wear around the cervical margin of teeth. Non-abrasive toothpaste should be used, and brushing should be carried",
"-26.13329715828877"
],
[
"The longer that plaque stays on the tooth surface, the harder and more attached to the tooth it becomes. That is when it is referred to as calculus and needs to be removed by a dental professional. If this is not treated, the inflammation will lead to the bone loss and will eventually lead to the affected teeth becoming loose. Tooth brushing Routine tooth brushing is the principal method of preventing many oral diseases, and perhaps the most important activity an individual can practice to reduce plaque buildup. Controlling plaque reduces the risk of the individual suffering from plaque-associated diseases",
"-26.12521441449644"
],
[
"peroxide. The Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety of the EU consider gels containing higher fixations can be dangerous.\nAs per European Council guidelines, only a certified dental professional can lawfully give tooth whitening products utilizing 0.1–6% hydrogen peroxide, provided the patient is 18 years of age or older. In 2010, the UK General Dental Council became concerned of the \"risk to patient safety from poor quality tooth whitening being carried out by untrained or poorly trained staff.\" A public attitudes survey, conducted by the GDC, showed that 83% of people support \"policies of regulating tooth whitening to protect patient safety and",
"-26.05003915494308"
],
[
"be applied with the index finger without requiring use of a toothbrush. Mouthwash Mouthwashes come in a variety of compositions, many claiming to kill bacteria that make up plaque or to freshen breath. In their basic form, they are usually recommended for use after brushing but some manufacturers recommend pre-brush rinsing. Dental research has recommended that mouthwash should be used as an aid to brushing rather than a replacement, because the sticky resistant nature of plaque prevents it from being actively removed by chemicals alone, and physical detachment of the sticky proteins is required. Tooth soap Tooth soap cleans gums",
"-25.960417312031495"
],
[
"Preventive dental treatment is also necessary (and often overlooked by the patient), as the lack of saliva associated with xerostomia creates an ideal environment for the proliferation of bacteria that cause cavities. Treatments include at-home topical fluoride application to strengthen tooth enamel and frequent teeth cleanings by a dental hygienist. Existing cavities must also be treated, as cavities that extend into the tooth can not be effectively treated through teeth cleaning alone, and are at a high risk of spreading into the pulp of the tooth, leading to the loss of vitality and need for extraction or root canal therapy.",
"-25.92989045705326"
],
[
"Cleaning between the teeth is called interdental cleaning and is as important as tooth brushing. This is because a toothbrush cannot reach between the teeth and therefore only removes about 50% of plaque off the surface. There are many tools to clean between the teeth, including floss and interdental brushes; it is up to each individual to choose which tool they prefer to use.\n\nSometimes white or straight teeth are associated with oral hygiene, but a hygienic mouth may have stained teeth and/or crooked teeth. For appearance reasons, people may seek out teeth whitening and orthodontics. Tooth cleaning and decay Tooth",
"-25.89594136136293"
],
[
"out no more than twice per day for two minutes on each occasion. Excessive use of acidic conditions around the teeth should be avoided by limiting consumption of acidic foods and drinks, and seeking medical treatment for any cause of regurgitation/reflux of stomach acid. Importantly, the teeth should not be brushed immediately after acidic foods or drinks. A non-abrasive diet will also help to prevent tooth wear. Flossing each day also helps to prevent gum recession caused by gum disease.\nTeeth whitening products can make your teeth sensitive. However, the increased sensitivity is temporary and will go away within a few",
"-25.89163616083715"
],
[
"is used to provide pressure as the tooth is moved back into its corresponding socket, or the tooth is wrapped in gauze and placed in milk or saline to keep it alive while the tooth is being transported or prepared for reinsertion.\nIn film and theatre, gauze is often fashioned into a scrim.\nGauze used in bookbinding is called mull, and is used in case binding to adhere the text block to the book cover.\nModern gauze is also made of synthetic fibers, especially when used in clothing. It can also be made of metal, such as a wire gauze placed on top",
"-25.855405828129733"
],
[
"a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed \"polishing\" action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus.\nThe abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Too high RDA values are deleterious. Some dentists recommend toothpaste with an RDA value no higher than 50 for daily use. Fluorides Fluoride in various forms",
"-25.84017637919169"
],
[
"supplement toothbrushing and interdental cleaning. These include special toothpicks, oral irrigators, and other devices. A 2015 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to determine whether the interdental brushing decreases the levels of plaque when compared to flossing. Professional teeth cleaning Teeth cleaning (also known as prophylaxis, literally a preventive treatment of a disease) is a procedure for the removal of tartar (mineralized plaque) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing, especially in areas that are difficult to reach in routine toothbrushing. It is often done by a dental hygienist. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling and tooth polishing and debridement",
"-25.809246264048852"
],
[
"\nGingivitis: \nThe reversible inflammation of the gums, is easily maintained and easily done by patients alone. After the removal of the inflammatory product, usually plaque or calculus, this allows the gums room to heal. This is done by patients thoroughly cleaning teeth every day with a soft bristle toothbrush and an interdental aid. This can be floss, flosset, pikster or what is preferred by patient. Without patient compliance and constant removal of plaque and calculus, gingivitis cannot be treated completely and can progress in to periodontitis that is irreversible.\nNecrotising ulcerative gingivitis (NUG):\nAlso Acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis and necrotising ulcerative periodontitis,",
"-25.77976847717946"
],
[
"to failure due to both loss of tooth structure and material loss. The enamel can also fracture more easily due to chewing forces. Prevention Prevention is of prior importance at an early developmental age as the defective tooth is more likely to have caries and post-eruptive breakdown due to its increased porosity. Appropriate dietary advice and toothpaste with a fluoride level of at least 1,000 ppm F should be recommended. For treating spontaneous hypersensitivity professional applications of fluoride varnish (e.g. Duraphat 22,600ppm F) or 0.4% stannous fluoride gel may be helpful.\nCasein Phosphopepetide-Amorphus Calcium Phosphate (CPP-ACP) provides a supersaturated environment",
"-25.738233704527374"
],
[
"selection of dentifrice should also be critically analysed and changed to include a less abrasive and gentler paste such as sensitive toothpaste as evidence suggests that a very abrasive toothpaste would lead to loss of tooth structure. A toothpaste containing increased fluoride will also help combat the increased sensitivity and risk to dental decay. Fluoride varnish is known to alleviate hypersensitivity in teeth and can be used as a preventive measure for high risk patients of dental erosion with abrasion because fluoride varnish is reported to have an effect on the surface and subsurface",
"-25.69955759437289"
],
[
"there is also no published evidence that indicates that professionally applied fluoride varnish is a risk factor for enamel fluorosis. The varnish is applied with a brush and sets within seconds.\nFluoride varnish has shown to be effective in reducing initial dental decay lesions in both primary and permanent dentition. Application of fluoride varnish every six months is effective in preventing dental decay in primary and permanent teeth of children and adolescents. Slow-release devices Devices that slowly release fluoride can be implanted on the surface of a tooth, typically on the side of a molar where it is not visible and",
"-25.696014848159393"
],
[
"and possibly promote calcium fluoride deposits to a higher degree than after the use of traditional fluoride containing dentifrices. However, these effects must be balanced with the increased risk of harm at higher concentrations. Surfactants Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) or related surfactants (detergents). SLS is found in many other personal care products as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power. Antibacterial agents Triclosan, an antibacterial agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient in the United Kingdom. Triclosan or zinc chloride prevent gingivitis",
"-25.678320915569202"
],
[
"14 days. The tooth whitening endpoint like that of the whitening strips. Rinses Whitening rinses work by reaction of the oxygen sources such as hydrogen peroxide within the rinse and the chromogens on or within the tooth. It is recommended to use twice a day, rinsing for one minute. To see an improvement in shade colour, it can take up to three months. Toothpastes Whitening toothpastes are different to regular toothpastes in that they contain higher amounts of abrasives and detergents to be more effective at removing tougher stains. Some whitening toothpastes contain low concentrations of carbamide peroxide or hydrogen",
"-25.64019493640808"
],
[
"plaque removal effect\nthan toothpastes without it.\nSodium bicarbonate is also used as an ingredient in some mouthwashes. It has anticaries and abrasive properties. It works as a mechanical cleanser on the teeth and gums, neutralizes the production of acid in the mouth, and also acts as an antiseptic to help prevent infections. Sodium bicarbonate in combination with other ingredients can be used to make a dry or wet deodorant. Sodium bicarbonate may be used as a buffering agent, combined with table salt, when creating a solution for nasal irrigation.\nIt is used in eye hygiene to treat blepharitis. This is done by",
"-25.57702995359432"
],
[
"have the whitening done. The clinician would then debride (clean) the tooth surface with an ultrasonic scaler, hand instruments, and potentially a prophy paste to remove extrinsic stains as mentioned above. This will allow a clean surface for maximum benefits of whichever tooth whitening method the patient chooses. Below will discuss the various types of tooth whitening methods including both internal application of bleaching and external application through the use of bleaching agents. In-office Before the treatment, the clinician should examine the patient: taking a health and dental history (including allergies and sensitivities), observe hard and soft tissues, placement and",
"-25.493377736147522"
],
[
"within the oral cavity is subject to developing caries and is often the result of lack of topical fluoride application, poor diet and poor oral hygiene. Caries can be found at the root face or root surface where gingival recession has occurred. It is important to encourage patients to use a fluoride containing toothpaste over the denture abutments to minimise tooth surface loss and risk further infection.\nBone Resorption\nAnother tissue change that can result from wearing an overdenture is resorption of the alveolar bone. Although retention of a root prevents the alveolar bone from resorbing, at a distant site from the",
"-25.42757760215318"
],
[
"Dental hygienist Periodontal Treatment Gum disease is caused by a sticky film of bacteria called plaque. Plaque is always forming on teeth, but if they aren’t cleaned well, the bacteria in plaque can cause gums to become inflamed. When this happens, the gums pull away from the teeth and form spaces called pockets. Plaque then gets trapped in these pockets and cannot be removed with regular brushing. Untreated gum disease can lead to bone and tooth loss. If the periodontal pockets are too deep a deep cleaning (scaling and root planing) is necessary to remove the plaque in these pockets.\nScaling",
"-25.41445363254752"
],
[
"dental plaque can give rise to tooth decay – the localised destruction of the tissues of the tooth by acid produced from the bacterial degradation of fermentable sugar – and periodontal problems such as gingivitis and periodontitis; hence it is important to disrupt the mass of bacteria and remove it. Plaque control and removal can be achieved with correct daily or twice-daily tooth brushing and use of interdental aids such as dental floss and interdental brushes.\nOral hygiene is important as dental biofilms may become acidic causing demineralization of the teeth (also known as dental caries) or harden into dental calculus",
"-25.384579429519363"
],
[
"scaling, tooth polishing, and, if tartar has accumulated, debridement; this is usually followed by a fluoride treatment. However, the American Dental Hygienists' Association (ADHA) stated in 1998 that there is no evidence that scaling and polishing only above the gums provides therapeutic value, and cleaning should be done under the gums as well. The Cochrane Oral Health Group found only three studies meeting the criteria for inclusion in their study and found little evidence in them to support claims of benefits from supragingival (above the gum) tooth scaling or tooth polishing.\nDental sealants, which are applied by dentists, cover and protect",
"-25.322698070329352"
],
[
"a tooth whitening method that uses 30% more hydrogen peroxide. Such tooth whitening methods can weaken the mechanical properties of dentine and could potentially lead to severe tooth sensitivity. Effects on existing restorations Dental amalgam – exposure to carbamide peroxide solutions increase mercury release for one to two days.\nResin composite – bond strength between enamel and resin based fillings become weakened.\nGlass ionomer and other cements – studies suggest that solubility of these materials may increase. Bleachorexia Bleachorexia is the term that is used to describe an individual that develops an unhealthy obsession with teeth whitening. This condition is similar to",
"-25.321106812665676"
],
[
"and an increased tendency to bleed, suggest an inflammation that is possibly due to the accumulation of bacterial plaque. Overall, the clinical appearance of the tissue reflects the underlying histology, both in health and disease. When gum tissue is not healthy, it can provide a gateway for periodontal disease to advance into the deeper tissue of the periodontium, leading to a poorer prognosis for long-term retention of the teeth. Both the type of periodontal therapy and homecare instructions given to patients by dental professionals and restorative care are based on the clinical conditions of the tissue.\nThe gums are divided anatomically",
"-25.249033627012977"
],
[
"anti-plaque derived from different chemical classes and have different mechanisms of action. Other medications There are also many medications, which are used to treat tooth decay. Fluoride is used to prevent tooth decay in individuals. Fluoride is available in non-prescription form and is available in many different types of toothpaste.\nMuscle relaxants and antifungal medication is also sometimes prescribed within dentistry. Muscle relaxants may be prescribed in order to reduce the patient’s stress levels and/or to help the patient discontinue grinding their teeth. It can also be used to treat TMJ disorders.\nAntifungal medication may be used to treat oral thrush, which",
"-25.21624234173214"
],
[
"pulp of the tooth. Therefore, to protect pulp against potential damage of heat both Sheridan and Zachrissan recommend that water must be used while IPR to reduce any side-effects of this procedure on the dental pulp. IPR has also been known to cause caries and periodontal disease in teeth. However, the association has been a topic of debate for many years now. In fact, an observational study done by Zachrisson which looked at 61 subjects who went through IPR 10 years post-operatively, found that there was no signs of gingival recession or thinning of the labial gingiva in 93%",
"-25.20833036834665"
],
[
"as tooth discolouration becomes a problem due to the lack of nerve supply to that tooth. It is common to have this internal bleaching done on an anterior tooth (a front tooth that you can see when smiling and talking). A way around this is by sealing off the bleaching agent inside the tooth itself and replacing it every few weeks until the desired shade has been achieved. The amount of time in-between appointments varies from patient to patient and operator preference until the desired shade has been achieved. Even though this is a great option, the disadvantages to this",
"-25.162868521758355"
],
[
"is to protect a healthy dental pulp and avoid the need for root canal therapy.\nTo prevent the pulp from deteriorating when a dental restoration gets near the pulp, the dentist will place a small amount of a sedative dressing, such as calcium hydroxide or MTA. These materials, protect the pulp from noxious agents (heat, cold, bacteria) and stimulate the cell-rich zone of the pulp to lay down a bridge of reparative dentin. Dentin formation usually starts within 30 days of the pulp capping (there can be a delay in onset of dentin formation if the odontoblasts of the",
"-25.160134198580636"
],
[
"may be left more vulnerable to decay because the enamel is not able to protect the tooth.\nIn most people, disorders or diseases affecting teeth are not the primary cause of dental caries. Approximately 96% of tooth enamel is composed of minerals. These minerals, especially hydroxyapatite, will become soluble when exposed to acidic environments. Enamel begins to demineralize at a pH of 5.5. Dentin and cementum are more susceptible to caries than enamel because they have lower mineral content. Thus, when root surfaces of teeth are exposed from gingival recession or periodontal disease, caries can develop",
"-25.158233950438444"
],
[
"to the pulp chamber, or accidentally, during caries removal. It is only feasible if the exposure is made through non infected dentin and there is no recent history of spontaneous pain (i.e. irreversible pulpitis) and a bacteria-tight seal can be applied. Once the exposure is made, the tooth is isolated from saliva to prevent contamination by use of a dental dam, if it was not already in place. The tooth is then washed and dried, and the protective material placed, followed finally by a dental restoration which gives a bacteria-tight seal to prevent infection. Since pulp capping is not always",
"-25.145883002056507"
],
[
"stages of demineralisation and remineralisation, the presence of fluoride intake encourages remineralisation and ensures that the enamel crystals that are laid down are of improved quality. Fluoride is commonly found in toothpastes. Fluoride can be delivered to many parts of the oral cavity during brushing, including the tooth surface, saliva, soft tissues and remaining plaque biofilm. \nSome remineralisation methods may work for \"white spot lesions\" but not necessarily \"intact tooth surfaces\". Fluoridated toothpaste Regular use of a fluoridated toothpaste has been shown to provide a significant source of fluoride to the mouth by the means of direct fluoride contact to",
"-25.128488224523608"
],
[
"the lack of pulp pressure in dentinal tubules once the pulp is removed, leading to incorporation of dietary stains in dentin. Amalgam fillings Amalgam fillings often stain the tooth they are placed in. This is most noticeable in very old fillings, as pigment slowly leaches out of the amalgam filling material and its associated corroded surfaces. In addition, metallic fillings cast a shadow that can be visible through the tooth and make it appear darker. Tetracycline and tetracycline-derivatives Tetracycline is a broad spectrum antibiotic, and its derivative minocycline is common in the treatment of acne. The drug is able to",
"-25.12798598088557"
],
[
"the amount of bacteria in the mouth that are responsible for tooth decay. After a wave of empirical studies on the efficacy of Xylitol (a sugar alcohol) a consensus report in the British Dental Journal considered it to give a reduction in the risk of caries. There is also increasing use of newer technologies such as photo-activated disinfection and treating with ozone.\nThere is also an aspect of minimising the effect of the caries to control the symptoms of decay. Constant remineralisation (hardening) with continuous application of fluoride toothpaste is highly common practice that reduces the impact of the caries on",
"-25.125768279045587"
],
[
"is a means of prevention. A sealant is a thin plastic-like coating applied to the chewing surfaces of the molars to prevent food from being trapped inside pits and fissures. This deprives resident plaque bacteria of carbohydrate, preventing the formation of pit and fissure caries. Sealants are usually applied on the teeth of children, as soon as the teeth erupt but adults are receiving them if not previously performed. Sealants can wear out and fail to prevent access of food and plaque bacteria inside pits and fissures and need to be replaced so they must be checked regularly by dental",
"-25.118284882744774"
],
[
"a debridement (clean) or prophylaxis, in the dental office. Below explains in-depth the differences between the two sources of which contribute to such discolouration of the tooth's surface. Methods Prior to proceeding to tooth whitening alternatives, it is advised that the patient comes into the dental office to have a comprehensive oral examination that consists of a full medical, dental, and social history. This will allow the clinician to see if there is any treatment that needs to be done such as restorations to remove caries, and to assess whether or not the patient will be a good candidate to",
"-25.0940072190715"
],
[
"reduction of tooth decay in children’s permanent teeth. After a fluoride mouthrinse treatment, the fluoride in the mouthrinse is retained in the saliva which helps prevent tooth decay.\nFluoride mouth rinses are recommended for use in conjunction with other fluoride therapies, but is usually contraindicated for children under 6 years old as they may swallow the rinse and increase their risk of dental fluorosis. In areas without fluoridated drinking water, these rinses are recommended for children.\nMany brands of topical fluoride exist. They are not recommended if a person is drinking water that already contains sufficient fluoride. Gels/foams There are several",
"-25.0598499806365"
],
[
"chlorhexidine mouthwash before a tooth extraction reduces the risk of dry socket, a painful condition where the blood clot is lost from an extraction socket and bone is exposed to the oral cavity. Other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis in immunocompromised persons, treatment of denture-related stomatitis, mucosal ulceration/erosions and oral mucosal lesions, general burning sensation and many other uses.\nChlorhexidine has good substantivity (the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth). However, chlorhexidine binds to tannins, meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is",
"-25.000136956034112"
],
[
"teeth, exposed root surfaces and areas of demineralization. If polishing does occur on these surfaces, fluoride therapy can minimize the risk of dental caries. Excessive pressure can lead to frictional heat that may cause pulpal discomfort or necrosis of the dental pulp. Restorations Surfaces of restorations may be damaged by conventional tooth polishing with prophylactic paste. Materials such as gold, amalgam, composite, porcelain and titanium implants can be polished by using specifically designed pastes such as those that contain rouge, tripoli, cuttle, emery, coarse pumice to prevent roughened or scratched surfaces. It is important to refer to manufacturer’s directions before",
"-24.967131948826136"
],
[
"most abrasive types of toothpastes, according to the RDA Scale, detailed below. In-home and clinical whitening have been proven to increase the likelihood of an individual experiencing dental abrasion. It is believed that dental abrasion due to the whitening process is caused by a combination of both mechanical and chemical irritants, for example, using whitening toothpaste and at home bleaching kits together. However, if an individual is regimented in their after-whitening care then they can avoid loss of dentine minerals and in turn abrasion can be avoided. (that contribute to developing abrasion).\nAnother factor that can contribute to abrasion is alteration",
"-24.943497357991873"
],
[
"Denture care Dentures, retainers, and other appliances must be kept extremely clean. It is recommended that dentures be cleaned mechanically twice a day with a soft-bristled brush and denture cleansing paste. It is not recommended to use toothpaste, as it is too abrasive for acrylic, and will leave plaque retentive scratches in the surface.\nDentures should be taken out at night, as leaving them in whilst sleeping has been linked to poor oral health. Leaving a denture in during sleep reduces the protective cleansing and antibacterial properties of saliva against Candida albicans (oral thrush) and denture stomatitis; the inflammation and redness",
"-24.921735754352994"
],
[
"curettage, mouth washes containing chlorhexidine or hydrogen peroxide, and flossing. Interdental brushes also help remove any causative agents.\nPowered toothbrushes work better than manual toothbrushes in reducing the disease.\nThe active ingredients that \"reduce plaque and demonstrate effective reduction of gingival inflammation over a period of time\" are triclosan, chlorhexidine digluconate, and a combination of thymol, menthol, eucalyptol, and methyl salicylate. These ingredients are found in toothpaste and mouthwash. Hydrogen peroxide was long considered a suitable over-the-counter agent to treat gingivitis. There has been evidence to show the positive effect on controlling gingivitis in short-term use. A study indicates the fluoridated hydrogen",
"-24.88503595929069"
],
[
"towards preventative care in regards to periodontal disease. Dental diets not only try to combat the buildup of plaque physically, but attempt to reduce plaque build up chemically as well. Chemical compounds such as anti-microbial elements are added to some dental diets to directly target the oral cavity in order to prevent gingivitis. Chemical compounds in kibble Excessive plaque formation can lead to severe inflammation of the gums which may result in the loss of teeth. This plaque is also able to mineralize on the teeth, creating a crystallized calcium phosphate build up known as tartar. Ingredients such as",
"-24.87587744340999"
],
[
"teeth, leading to periodontal disease. In addition, the bacteria can spread to other parts of the body and cause heart and kidney problems. The best prevention is regular brushing of the teeth with a toothpaste formulated specifically for dogs. Human toothpaste is not recommended, because it foams more easily and may be swallowed. Professional teeth cleaning by a veterinarian may also be required to prevent the development of dental problems. Hypoglycaemia Low blood sugar in puppies, or transient juvenile hypoglycaemia, is caused by fasting (too much time between meals). In rare cases hypoglycaemia may continue to be a problem",
"-24.869247878348688"
],
[
"tooth structure. The types of fluoride added to toothpaste include: sodium fluoride, sodium monofluorophosphate (MFP), and stannous fluoride.\nAs stated previously, fluoride has been proven to positively affect the remineralisation process. Therefore, by using an adequately fluoridated toothpaste regularly, this assists the remineralisation process of any hard tooth tissues. Fluoride varnish Fluoride varnishes were developed late 1960s and early 1970s and since then they have been used both as a preventative agent in public health programs and as a specific treatment for patients at risk of caries by the 1980s, mostly in European countries. Fluoride varnishes were developed primarily to overcome",
"-24.856293936667498"
],
[
"results Uneven results are quite common after bleaching. Consuming less foods and drinks that cause surface staining of teeth can contribute to attaining a good result from tooth whitening. Return to original pre-treatment shade Nearly half the initial change in colour provided by an intensive in-office treatment (i.e., one hour treatment in a dentist's chair) may be lost in seven days. Rebound is experienced when a large proportion of the tooth whitening has come from tooth dehydration (also a significant factor in causing sensitivity). As the tooth rehydrates, tooth colour \"rebounds\", back toward where it started. Over-bleaching Over-bleaching, more",
"-24.793688771416782"
],
[
"as an inactive ingredient in some toothpaste, for example Colgate Total. Xylitol Some studies have demonstrated that toothpastes with xylitol as an ingredient are more effective at preventing dental caries in permanent teeth of children than toothpastes containing fluoride alone. Furthermore, xylitol has not been found to cause any harmful effects. Further investigation into the efficacy of toothpastes containing this product is however required as the currently available studies are of low quality and therefore the results of such studies must be applied carefully. Fluoride Fluoride-containing toothpaste can be acutely toxic if swallowed in large amounts, but instances are exceedingly",
"-24.75964504556032"
],
[
"to a dentist also increases the likelihood that problems are detected early and averted before toothache occurs. Dental trauma could also be significantly reduced by routine use of mouthguards in contact sports. Management There are many causes of toothache and its diagnosis is a specialist topic, meaning that attendance at a dentist is usually required. Since many cases of toothache are inflammatory in nature, over the counter non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may help (unless contraindicated, such as with a peptic ulcer). Generally, NSAIDs are as effective as aspirin alone or in combination with codeine. However, simple analgesics may have",
"-24.732282032680814"
],
[
"but often include baking soda, aloe, eucalyptus oil, myrrh, plant extract (strawberry extract), and essential oils. A systemic review in 2014 found insufficient evidence to determine whether the aloe vera herbal dentifrice can reduce plaque or improve gingival health, as the randomized studies were found to be flawed with high risk of bias.\nAccording to a study by the Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, many of the herbal toothpastes being sold in India were adulterated with nicotine.\nCharcoal has also been incorporated in toothpaste formulas; however, there is no evidence to determine its safety and effectiveness. Early toothpastes Since 5000",
"-24.727493424667045"
],
[
"using any product on dental restorations. Soft Tissues Trauma to soft tissues may result from improper technique or prior inflammation of tissues. Particles within the prophylactic paste can go below the gumline and cause inflammation or delayed healing. Environment Aerosols are produced during tooth polishing and may transmit infectious diseases to other people in the dental office. This can become problematic because some microorganisms remain in the air for an extended period of time and can contaminate hard surfaces. Occupational injuries are also possible for the clinician due to improper technique, ergonomics and the weight of the handpiece. Precautions There",
"-24.702538230572827"
],
[
"Fluoride therapy Medical uses Fluoride therapy has been proven to have a beneficial effect on the prevention of dental caries. Robust evidence supports the use of fluoride toothpaste (with concentrations of 1000 ppm and above) and fluoride supplements, in the form of drops and tablets, to reduce the risk of dental caries in school-aged children and adolescents. The ingestion of fluoride as primary teeth are being developed has shown that the teeth have formed stronger and more resistant for caries. Water and milk fluoridation are two forms of systemic fluoride therapy that have been demonstrated to be effective at preventing",
"-24.654791846493026"
],
[
"extrinsic stain is present on the tooth surface. This suggests that tooth polishing should be based on the clients individual needs. Previously, tooth polishing was a service provided at every hygiene appointment, due to this many patients expect this as part of the routine care. This has placed dental professionals into an ethical dilemma on whether or not this service should be provided. Extrinsic Stain Many factors may lead to discoloration of the external layer of the tooth called the enamel. Foods and beverages such as coffee, tea, and red wine can stain the enamel. Chromogenic bacteria found in plaque",
"-24.654289851991052"
],
[
"been evaluated in a number of scientific studies and have been tested for periodontal maintenance, and those with gingivitis, diabetes, orthodontic appliances, and tooth replacements such as crowns, and implants.\nA 2008 meta-analysis of whether oral irrigation is beneficial as an adjunct to tooth brushing concluded that \"the oral irrigator does not have a beneficial effect in reducing visible plaque\", but suggests it may be beneficial to gingival health in addition to regular tooth brushing. A study at the University of Southern California found that a 3-second treatment of pulsating water (1,200 pulses per minute) at medium pressure (70 psi) removed",
"-24.62395714916056"
],
[
"practice. For example, herbal remedies are often recommended in the form of mouthwash and toothpaste in order to prevent or treat certain dental conditions. They are supposedly safer products because they are ‘natural’. However, there is a lack of scientific research which supports such treatments, and in fact herbal remedies have been found to impact the safety of more invasive or prolonged dental procedures, and can lead to additional complications if they interact with a patient’s current medications. However, some traditional herbal dental techniques, such as the use of the Miswak stick has been shown to be of possible effectiveness.",
"-24.606037172081415"
],
[
"children and adolescents, reiterating the importance of fluoride as the principal means of caries prevention. Another review concluded that the supervised regular use of a fluoride mouthwash greatly reduced the onset of decay in the permanent teeth of children.\nIt is claimed that chewing fibre such as celery after eating forces saliva inside trapped food to dilute any carbohydrate like sugar, neutralise acid and remineralise demineralised teeth. The teeth at highest risk for carious lesions are the permanent first and second molars due to length of time in oral cavity and presence of complex surface anatomy.\nProfessional hygiene care consists of regular",
"-24.60577425628435"
],
[
"there are other methods of masking the stain. Bonding, which also masks tooth stains, is when a thin coating of composite material is applied to the front of a person's teeth and then cured with a blue light. A veneer can also mask tooth discoloration.\nIn-chair whitening is faster and more effective in comparison to the take-home bleaching options. Some clinicians also make custom bleaching trays for you, which can take up to a week to create, so that after the whitening treatment is completed, you are able to use these trays in the future for maintenance of your bleaching with",
"-24.58878453221405"
],
[
"Toothbrush sanitizer A toothbrush sanitizer is a device used to disinfect the tooth brush by applying short-wavelength ultraviolet (UV-C) light to kill or inactivate microorganisms. Studies in dental journals demonstrate that UV sanitizers effectively kill bacteria and microorganisms, but other forms of sanitizing, using common household products, were found to be equally or more successful at eliminating microorganisms from toothbrushes.",
"-24.548154156538658"
],
[
"Gingival disease Causes Dental plaque accumulates at the surfaces when proper cleaning and maintaining is not done. There is inflammation due to the bacteria released from the toxins. calculus forms and if not removed, causes this disease.",
"-24.54512093530502"
],
[
"produced a 22% reduction in both dental plaque and gingival inflammation when compared with fluoride toothpastes without triclosan/copolymer. There was weak evidence of a reduction in tooth cavities, and no evidence of reduction in periodontitis.\nA study by Colgate-Palmolive found a significant reduction in gingivitis, bleeding, and plaque with the use of triclosan-containing toothpaste, but an independent review of the Cochrane group suggests that while the reduction in gingivitis, bleeding, and plaque may be statistically significant, it may not be beneficial enough to yield clinical significance. Chemical structure and properties This organic compound is a white powdered solid with a slight",
"-24.534370768895315"
],
[
"they approach their first birthday and to reduce the use of a bottle.\nA low-sugar and high nutritional diet is recommended for both the mother and the child especially during breastfeeding, and it is also recommended to avoid frequent snacking Optimal plaque removal On eruption of the first primary tooth in a child, tooth brushing and cleaning should be performed by an adult. This is important as the plaque that attaches to the surface of the tooth has bacteria that have the ability to cause caries (decay) on the tooth surface. \nIt is recommended to brush children’s teeth using a soft",
"-24.526733784776297"
],
[
"implants) for further treatment may be necessary. Prevention Gingivitis can be prevented through regular oral hygiene that includes daily brushing and flossing. Hydrogen peroxide, saline, alcohol or chlorhexidine mouth washes may also be employed. In a 2004 clinical study, the beneficial effect of hydrogen peroxide on gingivitis has been highlighted. The use of oscillation type brushes might reduce the risk of gingivitis compared to manual brushing.\nRigorous plaque control programs along with periodontal scaling and curettage also have proved to be helpful, although according to the American Dental Association, periodontal scaling and root planing are considered as a treatment for periodontal",
"-24.50858873204561"
]
] |
5x51wd | Why do Britain and other English empire countries still bow to monarchs? What real purpose does the queen serve? | [
"The monarch is head of state, as opposed to head of government (that would be the Prime Minister); in European republics, the monarch is usually replaced by a President, who may have more definite powers and is either directly or indirectly elected. The head of state basically represents the country, while the head of government sets the broad agenda for the legislature and also chairs the cabinet. The US President effectively combines the roles of head of state and head of government, which is sometimes problematic in terms of diplomacy: a recent petition (signed by 1.8 million people) called on the government not to accord President Trump the honour of a full state visit due to controversies surrounding his conduct as head of government. In the last few centuries, the role of monarch has declined, and since Victoria has kept out of party politics altogether -- in public, that is. In private, she has regular audiences with the Prime Minister in which they talk of matters of state. In theory, the most important role the British monarch has is to ensure good governance, but it's unclear how much she can actually do to that end. It's also unclear just how much influence she does have on government policy, since the details of her meetings with the PM are confidential. It is known that Margaret Thatcher, a Conservative, once complained that if the queen could vote, she would vote Liberal Democrat. The murky nature of her exact role, given that she is unelected and accountable only to constitutional law (whatever that may be on a given day), obviously makes a lot of people nervous. On the other hand, given her very long reign (her first Prime Minister was Winston Churchill), her experience may well be extremely useful. Diplomatically, she performs a role that is arguably very important. As head of state, she meets other heads of states, and that certainly helps to oil the complex machinery of international relations. It may be helpful that, since she is a hereditary monarch, she doesn't have to toe the party line or keep one eye on her approval ratings.",
"She's like a living historical monument to all of the monarchs that have ruled before her. You also have to remember that the monarchy creates an additional £300 million/year for the UK. Maintaining the monarchy costs the UK about £50 million/year, BUT because of a hundreds of years old agreement, the monarchy owns land that it lets the UK government collect rent on to the tune of about £350 million/year.",
"Probably because of the following: \"The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. As the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.\" [Sauce]( URL_0 )",
"She had a lot of diplomatic duties. She meets with foreign leaders and dictates broad policy. The Queen is basically the face of Britain. She represents her country in the global scale. She also has religious duties as the head of the Church of England. And she has the public eye. She's basically the world's most famous celebrity. It's a power that can be used to a very strong effect if done right. Like if the British Parliment decides to pass a law she strongly objects to, all she has to do is say something. She can't legally stop it, but she is respected enough that going against her wishes would cause a massive public backlash. So she can use this to subtly influence policy by persuading voters to weigh in on things she wants done or undone.",
"In simplest terms, here's the British Public's relationship with the Queen: We agree to do whatever she says, as long as she agrees to never actually tell us to do anything. As for what actual role the Monarchy actually performs, the Queen is a figurehead, similar to an Ambassador. If a world leader visits the UK and is invited to an audience with the Queen, it's a show of respect. The other part is basically tradition. they're a huge tourist draw and a merchandising empire. They generate about £500m a year for the UK through tourism alone.",
"[Australia had a government shutdown once. In the end, the queen fired everyone in Parliament.]( URL_0 ) It's her royal prerogative as head of state to dissolve Parliament if it's in that country's greater interest. It's the ultimate in checks and balances / separation of power.",
"It is all ceremony and tradition, a way to keep in touch with the grand thousand year history that has revolved around the British Monarchy. The British follow royalty like Americans follow Kardashians, there doesn't have to be much point to it. The monarchy exerts almost no real political power, and should it try to exert what little powers it had against a Commonwealth member's wishes, the country would almost certainly leave the Commonwealth. In practical terms, the monarchy is a significant tourist draw, and by some analyses, it pays for itself.",
"I'll take Sweden as an example. Our king has no real power. He serves only a purpose of representing the country. In the constitution, he is referred to as \"ceremonial power\", to give you an idea. So I guess it's more of a patriotic thing, that honnoring the monarchy is like honoring the history of the country. The only real power he has is to accept the letters of credence (basically authorising the ambassador to be in the country for a diplomatic purpose) from foreign ambassadors coming to Sweden, meaning that in theory he could refuse a person coming for diplomatic purposes to stay in the country.",
"The Queen of Canada (which is separate to her role in the other Realms) is the living embodiment of the Canadian state; politically neutral and a vital check and balance in our parliamentary system of government. The fact that check and balance is practically ceremonial in present day is testament to the stability of Canadian democracy. Read more here if you're interested in the way the Monarchy in Canada works (especially considering most will respond about the Queen's role in her British realm). URL_0 "
] | [
[
"Parliament of England History Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult and seek a measure of acceptance for their policies if they are to enjoy the broad cooperation of their subjects. Early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country. However, under the feudal system that evolved in England after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had",
"-32.839330192800844"
],
[
"was known as Queen Elizabeth's Men.\nLater British monarchs continued the tradition of sponsoring their own theatrical companies until the dissolution of the monarchy, with its subsequent abolition of the theatre, during the Protectorship of Oliver Cromwell. The restoration of the monarchy following the death of Cromwell also resulted in the restoration of the relationship between the monarch and theatre. Modern British command performances At the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837 the command performance was an established part of Britain’s theatrical life. The first Royal Command Performance as we know it today is generally accepted to have been that",
"-32.67405234265607"
],
[
"favourably. In his biography of 1980, Edward Gregg presents the Queen as a woman of invincible stubbornness, who was the central figure of her age. Gregg's argument depicts her reign as: \na period of significant progress for the country: Britain became a major military power on land, the union of England and Scotland created a united kingdom of Great Britain, and the economic and political base for the golden age of the 18th century was established. However, the Queen herself has received little credit for these achievements and has long been depicted as a weak and ineffectual monarch, dominated by",
"-32.62021388037101"
],
[
"Elizabethan government Monarch The monarch of England during the Elizabethan Era was Queen Elizabeth I and her family.\nThe government was very much a personal monarchy with ministers. The monarch's personality determined the style, intensity, and efficiency.\nIn the Elizabethan era, the monarch was a ruler, unlike the modern monarchs who are more like figureheads. The monarch was the ultimate decider and was able to determine issues of national religion, when Parliament would sit and what it would discuss, when and if the country would go to war, matters of education, welfare of the citizens, what food they could eat,",
"-32.39651204203983"
],
[
"of the monarch in de facto government. Queen Victoria was the last monarch truly to attempt to choose the personnel of her government; for instance her hatred of William Gladstone helped Lord Salisbury to retain office. Even at the time her actions were considered to be somewhat constitutionally improper. Although individual ministers (in Britain at least) below the rank of Prime Minister are still formally appointed by the Monarch, from the early twentieth century the head of state has in practice had no discretion to choose individual members of the government, except (occasionally) the Prime Minister. In the latter case",
"-32.23394916928373"
],
[
"Queen has limited powers or a largely ceremonial role. The Queen is head of the established Church of England in the United Kingdom, while the other 15 realms do not have an established church. European monarchies in which the monarch retains more powers The Principality of Liechtenstein and the Principality of Monaco are constitutional monarchies in which the prince retains substantial powers. For example, the 2003 Constitution referendum gave the prince of Liechtenstein the power to veto any law that the Landtag (parliament) proposes, while the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass. The prince can",
"-31.940446875538328"
],
[
"the monarchy stable at around 70% of people, but in 2005, at the time of the wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles, support for the monarchy dipped, with one poll showing that 65% of people would support keeping the monarchy if there were a referendum on the issue, with 22% saying they favoured a republic. In 2009 an ICM poll, commissioned by the BBC, found that 76% of those asked wanted the monarchy to continue after the Queen, against 18% of people who said they would favour Britain becoming a republic and 6% who said they did not",
"-31.485504907381255"
],
[
"the Queen is so fortunate as to provide the State with a Crown-Prince this should be the end of her ambition – she should by no means meddle with the government of an Empire, the care of which is not a task for women... If the Queen bears no sons, she is merely a foreigner in the State, and a very dangerous foreigner, too. For as she can never hope to be looked on kindly here, and must always expect to be sent back whence she came, so will she always seek to win the King by other than natural",
"-31.388122609438142"
],
[
"monarchs – both modern-day and historic.\"\nWhat's so interesting about that is you look at it and you realise that \"Gee, these people who ruled our land up until very recently were actually very creative with their power and abused it and used it in many evil ways.\" Take Henry VIII, let's just go through some of the things this guy did. Rather than say, \"Hey, this marriage is not working out so well,\" he just decided to completely kill off his wives. Not only did he do that, but to do the deed he just got rid of religion and",
"-31.14254259584777"
],
[
"their nations. Sub-national monarchies also exist in a few states which are, in and of themselves, not monarchical, (generally for the purpose of fostering national traditions).\nThe degree to which the monarchs have control over their polities varies greatly—in some they may have a great degree of domestic authority (as in the United Arab Emirates), while others have little or no policy-making power (the case with numerous ethnic monarchs today). In some, the monarch's position might be purely traditional or cultural in nature, without any formal constitutional authority at all. France Wallis and Futuna is an overseas collectivity of the French",
"-31.125798108696472"
],
[
"case of monarchies), became the domain of the monarchs (heads of state) to reward their loyal subjects (citizens) – in other words, the heads of state became their nations' \"fountains of honour\".\nMany of the old-style military knights resented what they considered to be a royal encroachment on their independence. The late British social anthropologist, Julian A. Pitt-Rivers, noted that \"while the sovereign is the 'fount of honour' in one sense, he is also the enemy of honour in another, since he claims to arbitrate in regard to it.\" By the early thirteenth century, when an unknown author composed L'Histoire de",
"-31.03944420366315"
],
[
"a Royal Prerogative that the Monarch held absolute discretion to choose their own ministers, such that the government wasn't really the Prime Minister's (or otherwise) at all. Indeed, during the reign of Queen Anne (just before the development of the office of Prime Minister) her fondness for compromise and consensus frequently led to governments composed by persons who disliked each other and did not integrate. In such period there was no question that the Government was anything other than that of the Monarch.\nThe evolution of the British constitution and reduction in the powers of the Crown gradually reduced the centrality",
"-31.017745735414792"
],
[
"distinct enthusiasm towards the king is matched by an equally apparent coolness towards the queen. Her childlessness doubtless contributed to this, but by itself is not a sufficient explanation.\nThe principal reason appears to lie in Charlotte's perceived reluctance to carry out her public and ceremonial duties as it was felt she should have done. For example, she preferred to celebrate her birthdays in the privacy of Friedrichshafen rather than in visible togetherness with her subjects. She left the king mostly on his own to oversee military parades, and after a few years no longer accompanied him in the public celebration",
"-31.012135813827626"
],
[
"in the Parliament of the United Kingdom and in most Commonwealth realms.\nThese developments symbolise the fact that parliament and government were by no means the same thing by this point. If monarchs were going to impose their will on their kingdom, they would have to control parliament rather than be subservient to it.\nFrom Edward's reign onwards, the authority of the English Parliament would depend on the strength or weakness of the incumbent monarch. When the king or queen was strong he or she would wield enough influence to pass their legislation through parliament without much trouble. Some strong monarchs even",
"-31.01063134081778"
],
[
"know.\nIn February 2011, a YouGov poll put support for ending the monarchy after the Queen's death at 13%, if Prince Charles becomes King. However, an ICM poll shortly before the royal wedding suggested that 26% thought Britain would be better off without the monarchy, with only 37% \"genuinely interested and excited\" by the wedding. In April 2011, in the lead up to the Royal Wedding, an Ipsos MORI poll of 1,000 British adults found that 75% of the public would like Britain to remain a monarchy, with 18% in favour of Britain becoming a republic. In May 2012, in the",
"-31.000810348178675"
],
[
"the self-assurance — and obduracy — of the English version, which had long experience of upsetting monarchs, was an obvious shock. He decided to side-step the whole issue by unilaterally assuming the title of King of Great Britain by a Proclamation concerning the Kings Majesties Stile on 20 October 1604 announcing that he did \"assume to Our selfe by the cleerenesse of our Right, The Name and Stile of KING OF GREAT BRITTAINE, FRANCE AND IRELAND, DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, &c.\" . This only deepened the offence. Even in Scotland there was little real enthusiasm for the project, though the",
"-30.961185729916906"
],
[
"as the reliable Tacitus, made it clear that “the ancient Britons … were extremely jealous of their liberties.” England’s monarchs originally held their throne “solely by grant of parliament,” so the ancient English kings ruled “by the voluntary consent of the people.” After forty pages of such historical discourse, Mayhew reached his major point: the essential rightness of the execution of an English king when he too greatly infringed upon British liberties.\nThe vigor of Mayhew’s sermon established his reputation. It was published not only in Boston, but also in London in 1752 and again in 1767. In Boston, John Adams",
"-30.960487026946794"
],
[
"Willi und die Windzors Synopsis Due to the \"unmoralic behavior\" of the royal family and the high cost of maintaining the royal court, the British parliament passes a bill to abolish the monarchy with immediate effect. Queen Elizabeth II (Irm Hermann, depicted as the stone-hearted head of the family), Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (Brigitte Mira), Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (Charles Brauer), who is shown to have a dysfunctional relationship with his son, Charles, Prince of Wales (Ludger Pistor), as well as Diana, Princess of Wales (Katharina Schubert) (who is shown to blossom out having lost any royal obligations),",
"-30.94873422314413"
],
[
"Queen's English Society The Queen's English Society is a charity that aims to keep the English language safe from perceived declining standards. The president of the Queen's English Society is Bernard Lamb, a former reader in genetics at Imperial College.\nIn June 2012 the Society announced its closure because of declining participation, but it continued to exist, as volunteers filled the committee in September 2012. History The Queen's English Society was founded in 1972 by Joe Clifton, an Oxford graduate and schoolteacher. The Society's meetings were held in Arundel, and members wrote to newspapers and broadcasters, pointing out perceived linguistic errors",
"-30.936208819905005"
],
[
"words remained best-known. Their denunciation of \"foreign tyrants\" [\"haughty tyrants\"?] has some foundation as Great Britain's period of Parliamentary Commonwealth had decisively curbed royal prerogative, leading to the Bill of Rights of 1689 and it was on the way to developing its constitutional monarchy, in marked contrast to the Royal Absolutism still prevalent in Europe. Britain and France were at war for much of the century and hostile in between (see \"Second Hundred Years' War\") and the French Bourbons were undoubtedly the prime example of \"haughty tyrants\", whose \"slaves\" Britons should never be.\nAccording to Armitage \"Rule, Britannia'\" was the most",
"-30.865113231062423"
],
[
"Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.\nIn other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). An elected president, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries.\nElite upper houses of legislatures,",
"-30.82604144111974"
],
[
"to popular belief, her staff and family recorded that Victoria \"was immensely amused and roared with laughter\" on many occasions.\nThrough Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch. In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained \"the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn\". As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in",
"-30.75081811148266"
],
[
"to impose conventional morality. However, English politicians decide that the best course is for England to declare its own independence from the British Empire. At this point the Angel of the Lord appears, declares that the Last Judgement has come, and makes most of the characters disappear because they are useless. News arrives from Britain that large numbers of British politicians have also disappeared, along with most doctors.\nProla and Pra are left alone. Prola says they will begin anew to embrace the future and the force of life itself, since now the whole world is an \"unexpected isle\". Preface The",
"-30.74231417759438"
],
[
"dismiss the other. Grace invokes this law and banishes Donal from her life (“I Dismiss You”). Once again, Grace and Tiernan are free to be together (“If I Said I Loved You”).\nIn England, Elizabeth faces a complex dilemma. As Queen, her most important obligation is to take a consort and produce a child who will be her heir (“The Role of the Queen”). Many ambitious men in England imagine themselves rising to power by marrying Elizabeth, especially Sir Richard Bingham, who suggests that the man who delivers Ireland into her hands will be the best candidate. Bingham is confident, for",
"-30.639490341302007"
],
[
"by Tory politics, which, whilst not openly advocating extreme sectarian attitudes, maintained that the Monarch and the Church of England were at the heart of the Englishman's national identity. Furthermore, attitudes towards the Monarchy were improving, as the public saw Queen Victoria as a better example of the constitutional monarch, not involving herself in politics, which, when combined with Prince Albert's philanthropic activities, in the late 1840s, with education and housing for the poor, resulted in a shift in public opinion and the popularity of the Royal family increased. Finally, the Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 had",
"-30.621800874825567"
],
[
"in the previous centuries. Whereas absolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution through most parts of Europe, institutions ensured property rights and political safety to British people after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain. Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain also contributed, with the country's extensive coastlines and many navigable rivers in an age when water was the easiest means of transportation. Britain also had high quality coal. According to British historian Jeremy Black, \"an unprecedented explosion of new",
"-30.58248499027104"
],
[
"monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual, but one not necessary for a sovereign to reign. By the Interpretation Act of 2005, no incumbent appointee of the Crown is affected by the death of the monarch, nor are they required to take the Oath of Allegiance again, and all references in legislation to previous monarchs, whether in the masculine (e.g. His Majesty) or feminine (e.g. the Queen), continue to mean the reigning sovereign of Canada, regardless of his or her gender. This is because, in common law, the Crown never dies. After an individual ascends the",
"-30.48521813741172"
],
[
"be a monarchy in the United Kingdom in ten years' time, public opinion is rather uncertain about a monarchy still existing in fifty years and a clear majority believes that the monarchy will no longer exist a century after the poll. Public opinion is, however, certain that the monarchy will still exist in thirty years. About 30 per cent are in favour of discontinuing the monarchy after Elizabeth's death.\nThe monarch of the United Kingdom is also the monarch of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms, none of which are in Europe. Some of these realms have significant levels of support for",
"-30.485034419223666"
],
[
"historian John Grigg to describe the King's behaviour in associating himself so prominently with a politician as \"the most unconstitutional act by a British sovereign in the present century\".\nIn May and June 1939, the King and Queen toured Canada and the United States; it was the first visit of a reigning British monarch to North America, although he had been to Canada prior to his accession. From Ottawa, they were accompanied by Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, to present themselves in North America as King and Queen of Canada. Both Governor General of Canada Lord Tweedsmuir and Mackenzie",
"-30.46949644634151"
],
[
"but its foreign policy was controlled by London and it was an integral part of the British Empire. Leadership Prime ministers of the period included: Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord John Russell, Lord Derby, Lord Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Ewart Gladstone, Lord Salisbury and Lord Rosebery. Queen Victoria The Queen gave her name to an era of British greatness, especially in the far-flung British Empire with which she identified. She played a small role in politics, but became the iconic symbol of the nation, the empire and proper, restrained behaviour. Her success as ruler was due to",
"-30.46664506804791"
],
[
"an approval rate in the United Kingdom of 90% in 2012. According to a YouGov poll in January 2014, the Queen was the most admired person in the United Kingdom with 18.74% of respondents reporting that she was the person they most admired, the highest percentage of all candidates. Internationally she was the 17th most-admired person in the world.\nIn 2002, the Queen was ranked 24th in the 100 Greatest Britons poll. In 1997, she and other members of the royal family were perceived in the tabloid press as cold and unfeeling when they did not participate in the public outpouring",
"-30.429066550103016"
],
[
"he was young enough to wait. Isabella herself told the English envoys that she was happy to be Queen of England, because she had been told that this would make her a great lady. She is described as pretty, and reportedly practised in order to be able to perform her role as queen. King Richard travelled to Paris to fetch her, where the wedding was celebrated with grand festivities at the French royal court, before they continued to the English enclave of Calais, where the formal wedding ceremony was performed on 31 October. Queen of England After the wedding, Queen",
"-30.413727116800146"
],
[
"Today, even though all western monarchies are constitutional, with all political power having passed to the people (by referendum or, generally, elections), the traditional phrase \"by the grace of God\" is still included in the full titles and styles of a number of monarchs. In Europe, monarchs still using the style are those of Denmark, Liechtenstein, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.\nIn other Commonwealth realms, who share the same monarch with the United Kingdom, the style is used in Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Solomon Islands, St. Kitts and",
"-30.347982550796587"
],
[
"the Queen and other members of the Royal Family regularly perform public duties in the other fifteen nations of the Commonwealth in which the Queen is head of state. This situation, however, can mean the monarch and/or members of the Royal Family will be promoting one nation and not another; a situation that has been met with criticism. Symbols, associations, and awards The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign herself, described as \"the personal expression of the Crown in Canada,\" and her image is thus used to signify Canadian sovereignty and government authority—her image, for instance, appearing on",
"-30.3395571475412"
],
[
"of regional aristocrats. England, although wracked with an intense civil war (1642–1646), managed to gain strength internationally. Its Royal Navy reigned supreme on the oceans after a series of wars with the Netherlands. As an island nation secure from invasion, it could keep its army small, and invest in subsidies to support the armies of smaller countries to maintain its alliances. Its policy was to use diplomacy and enter wars on the weaker side so as to maintain a balance of power, and to thwart the danger of France maintaining its preeminence. Espionage The 18th century saw a dramatic expansion",
"-30.328991789574502"
],
[
"Monarchs were to unite their two kingdoms and strengthen royal influence to guarantee stability. In pursuit of this, they sought to further unify the laws of their realms and reduce the power of the nobility in certain local areas. They attained this partially by raw military strength, by creating a combined army between the two of them that could outmatch the army of most noble coalitions in the Peninsula. However, it was impossible to change the entire laws of both realms by force alone, and due to reasonable suspicion of one another, the monarchs kept their kingdoms separate during their",
"-30.28663166455226"
],
[
"Parliament, the people still hold power. Monarchy only refers to how the head of state is chosen and not how the Government is chosen. It is only undemocratic if the monarchy holds meaningful power, which it currently does not as government rests with Parliament. However, it was revealed in October 2011 that both the Queen and Prince Charles do have the power to veto government legislation which affects their private interests. The Queen attended a cabinet meeting on 18 December 2012 – the first Monarch to have done so since George III in 1781. Provides a safeguard against government instability",
"-30.253143247697153"
],
[
"serving to some extent as \"mother of the nation\" in times of crises and disasters (such as the 1953 floods). In addition, there is a public holiday called Koningsdag (before 2014: Koninginnedag), during which the royal family pays a visit somewhere in the country and participates in local activities and traditions in order to get closer to the people. Popularity of the monarchy The popularity of the monarchy has changed over time, with constitutional influence, circumstance and economic tides.\nWhen the monarchy was established in 1815, popularity was not a major concern. Still, the Orange family held popular support in around",
"-30.16558292915579"
],
[
"outdated belief in the divine right of kings and unquestioning obedience. He did so by agreeing such safeguards were required for states ruled by an absolute monarch but 'fortunately, Britain was not in that position.' This was because the constitution limited the powers of the Crown and ensured liberty; on the other hand, private jurisdictions endangered it by encroaching on the legal authority of a constitutional monarchy.\nGeorge II, in a speech also written by Hardwicke, praised the Act as measures for \"better securing the liberties of the people there\". The Prime Minister Henry Pelham considered it the most important measure",
"-30.117521439213306"
],
[
"their new Queen — and is finally joined by Sir Thomas More, who is granted permission by Henry to retire from his public office. In Episode 5, Fisher and More's refusal to sign an oath of allegiance recognising Henry's supreme authority as head of the English church eventually leads to their executions.\nIn Episode 6, Thomas Cromwell, who has assumed More's office as Chancellor of England, announces his plans to cleanse England of dissenters to the New Monarchy. Also, England's relationship with France is complicated by King Francis's refusal to unite their kingdoms in marriage, thus causing Henry to question his",
"-30.114727534572012"
],
[
"was seen to present a demeanour of queenly piety, commenting that \"it would be regarded as an indecent thing for a wife to interfere in her husband’s affairs\", she wielded significant influence in both the Portuguese and English courts and was \"actively involved in world affairs\". Surviving letters show that Philippa often wrote to the English court from Portugal and stayed involved in English politics. On one instance, Philippa intervened in court politics on \"behalf of followers of the dethroned Richard II when they appealed for her help after her brother, Henry IV, had usurped the English throne\". ",
"-30.112968800764065"
],
[
"also reported, that in contrast to the monarch himself and the Crown Prince, the Queen and the Crown Princess never lost their calm when the nation was attacked. As she was not the Head of the Royal House, she could show herself in public more than her spouse, who did not wish to show support to the occupation by being seen in public, and she used this to engage in various organisations for social relief to ease the difficulties caused by the occupation. Kaj Munk is quoted to describe the public appreciation of her during World War II with",
"-30.093478828901425"
],
[
"instead of characterizing her as queen-lieutenant and governor, he placed her in a secondary, dependent role. Queens, Eiximenis believed, have a distinct and secondary status because they are female:\n[The queen] owes it to her husband at all times to conserve the peace in the kingdom and ensure swift, righteous, and clear justice to their peoples, and not under any circumstances act as a tyrant, but rather to show herself likable and dear to her people, and take counsel from a small group chosen from among them, and fearing God, and eschewing greed, and who are committed to the common good",
"-30.08684703084873"
],
[
"the one individual being equally monarch of each state and acting as such in right of a particular realm as a distinct legal person guided only by the advice of the cabinet of that jurisdiction. This means that in different contexts the term Crown may refer to the extra-national institution associating all 16 countries, or to the Crown in each realm considered separately. However, though the monarchy is therefore no longer an exclusively British institution, having become \"domesticated\" in each of the realms, it may in the media and legal fields often still be elaborated as the British Crown for",
"-30.082789029431297"
],
[
"the Lords, \"No, I shall not, unless the Devil prompts me!\" The Queen also recorded that though the King greatly enjoyed listening to the debates, he did not himself speak. The King made a point of welcoming British visitors to Hanover and when one Englishwoman told him that she had been lost in the city, the King denied that this was possible, as \"the whole country is no larger than a fourpenny bit.\"\nThe monarchs engaged in one more battle—over jewels left by Queen Charlotte. Queen Victoria, who possessed them, took the position that they belonged to the British Crown. King",
"-29.96852266725182"
],
[
"British royal family Public role The British royal family support Queen Elizabeth II in her state and national duties. Each year the family \"carries out over 2,000 official engagements throughout the UK and worldwide\". Engagements include state funerals, national festivities, garden parties, receptions, and visits to the Armed Forces.\nMembers of the royal family have started their own individual charities. Prince Charles started The Prince's Trust, which helps young people in the UK that are disadvantaged. The Princess Royal started The Princess Royal Trust for Carers, which helps unpaid carers, giving them emotional support and information about benefit claims and disability",
"-29.921976292709587"
],
[
"the importance of the monarch in governance has declined, the term Her Majesty's Government has increased in formality and reduced in daily usage. As a corollary, the rise in power of the office of Prime Minister away from its historical position as primus inter pares (first amongst equals) of cabinet ministers in His/Her Majesty's Government into the driving force of a modern administration has led to governments named after them, and the two naming conventions serve different functions. For example, the reduction in the visibility of the monarch in government has made it an unhelpful description politically. If one were",
"-29.859237142663915"
],
[
"as queen due to her strong-minded mother-in-law Lady Margaret Beaufort, but she was reported to be gentle, kind, and generous to her relations, servants, and benefactors; one report does state that Henry VII chose to appoint Elizabeth's choice for a vacant Bishopric over his mother's choice, showing Henry's affection for, and willingness to listen to, Elizabeth, despite her having very little political influence. When not at official gatherings, she lived a quiet life largely away from politics with three of her children at Eltham Palace. Elizabeth of York enjoyed music and dancing as well as dicing. She also kept greyhounds.\nOn",
"-29.858058140904177"
],
[
"and accused him of the death of Prince Carlos of Asturias. Great Britain The English fear to a Spanish invasion since the Anglo-Spanish War, and the need of Elizabeth I of England to legitimate herself on the throne after 20 years of conspiracies against her stimulated anti-Spanish propaganda.\nThe Catholic monarchs in England, had created religious courts to fight against heresy, the last being created by Mary Tudor. The English monarchs, above all Elizabeth I, preferred to create civil tribunals to repress religious dissidents, above all Catholics, distancing themselves from the previous practices. Catholic heretics were identified as traitors by a",
"-29.857694083861134"
],
[
"reign the position of the king's ministers — who discovered that they needed the support of Parliament to enact any major changes — had become central to the role of British governance, and would remain so ever after.\nDuring the first half of George III's reign, the monarch still had considerable influence over Parliament, which itself was dominated by the patronage and influence of the English nobility. Most candidates for the House of Commons were identified as Whigs or Tories, but once elected they formed shifting coalitions of interests rather than dividing along clear party lines. At general elections the vote",
"-29.826644392691378"
],
[
"popularity during the reign of her spouse, partly as the last member of the old royal house, and partly because of her personal piety. She was aware that this gave her power to influence policy, and when she let her opinion be known, it was often followed. This influence was recognized. During the Riksdag of 1738, for example, the queen expressed her displeasure when Carl Gustaf Tessin was due to be elected to a post, which resulted in public protests which did not quiet down until Tessin had been received at the Royal Palace and allowed to kiss the bare",
"-29.78917581036876"
],
[
"Kingdom ideally into a \"democratic, federal and secular Commonwealth of Britain\", with an elected president, devolution, abolition of the House of Lords as it currently exists, and equality of representation by men and women in parliament. He said in a TV debate before the 2017 United Kingdom general election that abolishing the monarchy is \"not on anybody's agenda, it's certainly not on my agenda\". Foreign affairs and defence Corbyn does not consider himself an absolute pacifist and has named the Spanish Civil War, the British naval blockade to stop the slave trade in the 19th century and the role of",
"-29.778788495026674"
],
[
"parliamentary opposition came to be rooted in the other countries due to their being former British colonies, to which British parliamentary institutions were transported. Thus, the phrase His Majesty's Loyal Opposition existed in some Commonwealth realms even before the title of prime minister. Also, in federal countries, such as Canada and Australia, the phrase Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition is also employed in provincial or state legislatures, in the same fashion as in other parliaments.",
"-29.774724309478188"
],
[
"and put it forward to Parliament. However, she could make Royal Proclamations without Parliament's consent.\nEven with this much power, the monarch was not above the law, and she could be brought to court.\nElizabeth is considered by many to be one of England's best monarchs. She was wise and just, chose good advisers and wasn't dominated by them, dealt with the stubbornly resistant Parliaments without being tyrannous, and was skilled at compromising in both religious and political matters. She ruled for 45 years and was the sixth and last of the Tudor dynasty.\nSir William Cecil (named Lord Burghley",
"-29.740567061817273"
],
[
"can behave herself and she swears to herself not to let anything, including Francis, get in her way of success of the throne.\nAnne, who has heard of the fates of her predecessors, is not sure about being the queen of England but is eager to leave her family, as nobody really cares for her. Her arrival in England goes well until she is surprised by a drunken man (actually Henry VIII in disguise), who plants a sloppy kiss on her; she responds with an angry shove and curses him in German. Although she tries to make amends once she is",
"-29.705061676329933"
],
[
"of the monarchy and remains in use to this day. Modern usage In her capacity as queen of the United Kingdom, Elizabeth II is styled \"Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith\". The title \"Defender of the Faith\" reflects the Sovereign's position as the supreme governor of the Church of England, who is thus formally superior to the archbishop of Canterbury. The original Latin phrase Fidei Defensor is represented on all current British",
"-29.698842190715368"
],
[
"a queen, and by the same title a king also.\" She was the first woman to successfully claim the throne of England, despite competing claims and determined opposition, and enjoyed popular support and sympathy during the earliest parts of her reign, especially from the Roman Catholics of England. \nProtestant writers at the time, and since, have often taken a highly negative view of Mary's reign. By the 17th century, the memory of her religious persecutions had led to the adoption of her sobriquet \"Bloody Mary\". John Knox attacked her in his First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment",
"-29.690384574991185"
],
[
"act as the passive lady of games and tournaments, and to decorate the winner with the award. She did her ceremonial duties, but disliked the vivid lifestyle of the Court around her outgoing spouse. As Queen, she was expected to do a great deal of representation, more than had been expected from previous queens because of her consort's love for representation. On formal occasions, she was at her best: she performed beautifully according to Court etiquette, and was seen as dignified and impressive. On 17 September 1784, for example, she cut the cord to let off the first air balloons",
"-29.622634120256407"
],
[
"monarch for the attendance of the Commons, in the following words:\nMr [or Madam] Speaker, The Queen commands this honourable House [pauses to bow to both sides of the House] to attend Her Majesty immediately in the House of Peers.\nA tradition has developed in recent years for this command to be greeted with a defiant topical comment by republican-leaning Labour MP Dennis Skinner, upon which, with some mirth, the House rises to make their way to the Lords' Chamber. This customary intervention was omitted by Mr Skinner in 2015, claiming that he had \"bigger fish to fry than uttering something\", due",
"-29.595210847910494"
],
[
"the fifth time in five decades that Elizabeth II addressed her British parliament on her own account. The Queen spoke of 50 unforgettable years and the changes to British life and society in that time, and elaborated that the monarchy must change also; Elizabeth said she had \"witnessed the transformation of the international landscape through which [the United Kingdom] must chart its course\" and declared her \"resolve to continue, with the support of [the Royal Family], to serve the people... to the best of [her] ability through the changing times ahead.\"\nFor the Queen's goodwill visits, which commenced on 1 May,",
"-29.59335351998743"
],
[
"in theory, a shared Crown that operates independently in each realm rather than a unitary British Crown under which all the dominions were secondary. The Monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it has often been called \"British\" since this time (in both legal and common language) for reasons historical, legal, and of convenience. The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act, 1927 was the first indication of this shift in law, further elaborated in the Statute of Westminster, 1931.\nUnder the Statute of Westminster, Saint Lucia has a common monarchy with Britain and the other Commonwealth realms, and though",
"-29.593073825315514"
],
[
"the country and the traditions and customs that were in place. England was divided in shires with sheriffs in each enforcing the common law. A justiciar was appointed by the king to stand in his absence when he was on the continent. As the kings of England were more often in France than England they used writs more frequently than the Anglo-Saxon kings, which actually proved beneficial to England. Under William I's rule, Anglo-Saxon nobles had been largely replaced by Anglo-Norman ones who couldn't own large expanses of contiguous lands, because their lands were split between England and France. This",
"-29.559449804015458"
],
[
"on Loyalty (1794) features \"silly Louisa, who admires liberty, Tom Paine and the USA, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy\" and on the influence women can exert on men. Much of 19th-century politics featured a division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism.\nMany countries abolished monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, especially in the wake of World War I and World War II. Advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones. Person of monarch Most",
"-29.55621215130668"
],
[
"He would also have to increase his funding by either increasing taxes, or selling government offices. Many kings did both. Actions taken The rulers of England and France both have to weaken their rivals, the church and nobility, to constrict power to themselves. England did not have as hard a time as France in weakening the nobles because Henry VII comes to power after the War of Roses, which was between two noble families, his family, the House of Lancaster and his rivals, the House of York. His family defeated the House of York thereby weakening the noble class",
"-29.53274472884368"
],
[
"monarchy is the best form of government, because a monarch does not have to form compromises with other persons. Moreover, according to Thomas, oligarchy degenerates more easily into tyranny than monarchy. To prevent a king from becoming a tyrant, his political powers must be curbed. Unless an agreement of all persons involved can be reached, a tyrant must be tolerated, as otherwise the political situation could deteriorate into anarchy, which would be even worse than tyranny.\nAccording to Thomas, monarchs are God's representatives in their territories, but the Church, represented by the popes, is above the kings in matters of doctrine",
"-29.52443591496558"
],
[
"realms this draws on the constitutional statutes at the time of the Glorious Revolution when William III and Mary II were invited to take the throne.\nIn the United Kingdom the remaining powers of the royal prerogative are devolved to the head of the government which for more than two centuries has been the Prime Minister; the benefits, equally, such as mineral rights in all gold and silver ores, vest in (belong to) the government.\nIn Britain, prerogative powers were originally exercised by the monarch acting, without an observed requirement for parliamentary consent (after its empowerment in certain matters following Magna Carta).",
"-29.52280507690739"
],
[
"previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen's use of \"Elizabeth II\", on the grounds that there had never been an \"Elizabeth I\" in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. The prime minister",
"-29.476470772220637"
],
[
"who they would prefer as a monarch after Queen Elizabeth II, three-in-ten Canadians responded by saying there should be no monarch after her. 31% of Canadians also want members of the Royal Family to stop visiting Canada.\nIn June 2010, a national poll by the Association for Canadian Studies found decidedly lukewarm feelings about the concept of monarchy. The survey found that 49% of Canadians had a negative reaction to the word \"monarchy\", compared to just 41% with a positive reaction. In the Maritimes, where the Queen would begin her Canadian visit, the majority 60% registered a negative opinion of monarchy,",
"-29.44444677681895"
],
[
"monarchs for their political and ceremonial role\" in British society. Peter Gordon and Dennis Lawton rated the education of Queen Victoria as good, \"yet in contrast no subsequent monarch (or current heir) has been anywhere near adequately educated\". Ross McKibbin argues that the educations of George V, Edward VIII, and George VI were \"aimless\" and \"narrow,\" leaving them with the equivalent to the educations of \"landed gentry with military connections\".\nAlthough phrenology was largely discredited by the mid-19th century, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert had their children evaluated by a phrenologist. He described her eldest son Edward VII (Queen Elizabeth II's great-grandfather) as having a skull",
"-29.42053428804502"
],
[
"ruling, as they claimed, by the grace of God alone. The crown could also rely on the exclusive use of those functions that constituted the royal prerogative. These included acts of diplomacy (including royal marriages), declarations of war, management of the coinage, the issue of royal pardons and the power to summon and dissolve parliament as and when required. Nevertheless, as evident during Henry's break with Rome, the monarch worked within established limits, whether legal or financial, that forced him to work closely with both the nobility and parliament (representing the gentry).\nIn practice, Tudor monarchs used patronage to maintain a",
"-29.416566264699213"
],
[
"UK, continued to refer to the new sovereign as Queen of Ireland, and the Crown she inherited as being that of \"Great Britain, Ireland and all other His late Majesty's dominions.\" Elizabeth was also proclaimed Queen of Ireland in South Africa.\nChanges of the royal style and title in any realm do not as such change the constitutional status or position of the monarch or the Crown.",
"-29.40606524060422"
],
[
"and 17th century, parliament became particularly able to influence the Crown, while at other points that ability was more limited. As early as the reign of David II, parliament was able to prevent him pursuing his policy of a union of the crowns with England, while the 15th-century Stewart monarchs were consistently influenced by a prolonged period of parliamentary strength. Reverses to this situation have been argued to have occurred in the late 16th and early 17th centuries under James VI and Charles I, but in the 17th century, even after the Restoration, parliament was able to remove the clergy's",
"-29.404105419816915"
],
[
"the King of Ireland in England, over the heads of his representatives in Dublin, effectively meaning that they had to appeal to their sovereign in his role as King of England, a necessity which further disgruntled them.\nFirst from James I, and then from his son and successor, Charles I, they sought a package of reforms, known as The Graces, which included provisions for religious toleration and civil equality for Roman Catholics in return for their payment of increased taxes. On several occasions in the 1620s and 1630s, however, after they had agreed to pay the higher taxes to the Crown,",
"-29.392504744115286"
],
[
"the Royal Family with the monarchy and referred to the latter as \"British\"). Support for abolition of the monarchy was noted as declining.\nA 2005 poll by The Strategic Counsel reported Canadians to be uncertain \"about the legitimacy and role of the British monarchy remaining as Canada's head of state\". The poll found an equal number—47% supporting and 47% opposed—to retention of the \"British monarchy\". Two years later, Angus Reid Strategies reported that 53% of respondents to its survey felt \"Canada should end its formal ties to the British monarchy\", while 35% thought the contrary and 12% were unsure. Angus Reid",
"-29.35388422367396"
],
[
"king had set, the immediate cause of hostilities and, secondly, the triumph of Interest common to all Christendom. That attitude deeply angered England. In Paris, the British Ambassador, Sir Charles Stuart tried to intimidate the Baron in a semi-diplomatic manner. The Minister of the Navy rejected the threats and answered:\nIf you require a diplomatic answer, the President of the Council will oblige. As for me, with all due respect to official language, I am telling you that we do not give a f*** about you!\nHe eagerly continued preparations for the war effort. In all ports of the kingdom, he doubled",
"-29.305802094517276"
],
[
"until 1800. Universal Monarchy While Spain had been the dominant world power in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the English had often sided with France as a counterweight against them. This design was intended to keep a European balance of power, and prevent one country gaining overwhelming supremacy. Key to English strategy was the fear that a universal monarchy of Europe would be able to overwhelm the British Isles.\nAt the conclusion of the English Civil War, the newly formed Republic under Oliver Cromwell, \"the Commonwealth of England\" joined sides with the French against Spain during the last decade of",
"-29.282100148731843"
],
[
"because of her shyness, which caused her to isolate herself and refrain from fulfilling her ceremonial duties, and she disliked society life and representation. Her chief lady in waiting, countess Hedda Piper, reportedly contributed to her isolation by claiming that etiquette banned the queen from engaging in conversation unless introduced by her chief lady in waiting: this was in fact incorrect, but it made the queen dependent on Piper. Frederica found it difficult to adapt to court etiquette and protocol and isolated herself with her courtiers. With the exception of her chief lady in waiting, countess Piper, the king had",
"-29.277040750997003"
],
[
"belief in the divine right of kings and the many religious conflicts that pervaded his reign, triggered the English Civil War in 1642. Parliament deemed the regalia as \"Jewels of the Crown\", vested in the monarch because of his public role as king, and not owned by him personally. To avoid putting his own subjects at risk, Charles and his wife once again raised money by exporting royal jewels at a heavy discount. On learning of the king's scheme, both Houses of Parliament declared traffickers of the Crown Jewels to be enemies of the state. Just two years later, Parliament",
"-29.255397633824032"
],
[
"Her Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition (United Kingdom) Origins The phrase His Majesty's Opposition was coined in 1826, before the advent of the modern two-party system, when Parliament consisted more of interests, relationships and factions rather than the highly coherent political parties of today (although the Whigs and Tories were the two main parties). The phrase was originally coined in jest; in attacking Foreign Secretary George Canning in the House of Commons, John Hobhouse said jokingly, \"It is said to be hard on His Majesty's Ministers to raise objections of this character but it is more hard on His Majesty's Opposition",
"-29.233531091245823"
],
[
"under Elizabeth's reign. They were either public, in which case they applied to all, or private, in which case they only applied to certain people. Only another Parliament could undo one. They required approval by both houses thrice and the queen. However, the queen could make Royal Proclamations without Parliament's consent. Another purpose of Parliament was to advise. Nonetheless, Elizabeth was almost never interested in Parliament's advice.\nElections occurred only for the House of Commons. Who was in Parliament depended mainly on who was supported by the important local people. Only those that were",
"-29.21018141048262"
],
[
"did not have much effect.\nThroughout the 15th century, these trends proceeded apace and central government authority steadily diminished. The monarchy of England was itself thrown into turmoil during the last phase of the Hundred Years' War to 1453, and the Wars of the Roses (1460–85), and as a result, direct English involvement in Ireland was greatly reduced. Successive kings of England delegated their constitutional authority over the lordship to the powerful Fitzgerald earls of Kildare, who held the balance of power by means of military force and widespread alliances with lords and clans. This, in effect, made the English Crown",
"-29.19078210706357"
],
[
"the queen being viewed as an enemy, although she was personally against Austrian claims to French territories on European soil. That summer, the situation was compounded by multiple defeats of the French armies by the Austrians, in part because Marie Antoinette passed on military secrets to them. In addition, at the insistence of his wife, Louis XVI vetoed several measures that would have further restricted his power, earning the royal couple the nicknames \"Monsieur Veto\" and \"Madame Veto\", nicknames then prominently featured in different contexts, including La Carmagnole.\nBarnave remained the most important advisor and supporter of the queen, who was",
"-29.19056577014271"
],
[
"in the Royal Collection. King George suggested that the style favoured earlier by Queen Victoria would enhance her presence. It also came to symbolise the continuing values of the established British monarchy worldwide, after the debacle of the Abdication Crisis, when the uncrowned Edward VIII wanted to marry a twice-divorced American, Wallis Simpson. Having failed to gain the support of the British government, and that of the Dominions, he left for exile and marriage abroad.\nMrs Simpson, subsequently the Duchess of Windsor, was also a London Hartnell client, later patronizing Mainbocher who made her wedding dress. Main Bocher was a friend",
"-29.155173149090842"
],
[
"Grace of God of the United Kingdom, Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith. When composed in 1953, this format was consistent with the monarch's titles in her other realms. However, after 40 years of Elizabeth's reign, only Canada and Grenada retain this title; all others, aside from the UK itself, removed the reference to the United Kingdom.\nThe monarch is typically addressed by the title Queen of Canada and will allude to herself as Queen of Canada when in or acting abroad on behalf of that country. For example, Elizabeth",
"-29.134057902934728"
],
[
"began for England and France, England’s northern rising and France’s civil war. Both countries are able to pull through because of the strength invested during the New Monarchies. Additionally the strength formed during England’s New Monarchies helped withstand the fragile reigns of Edward and Mary, who followed after Henry VIII.",
"-29.125569559575524"
],
[
"Queen threatening to resign if her position was not made easier. The Queen relented, but continued to impose restrictions on Jane's contact with the outside world. Jane's son, who became the 4th Marquess on the death of his father in 1857, was anxious to visit, but the Queen would not allow him to. Instead, he requested an interview with Ponsonby about his mother's arduous duties; Ponsonby accepted, but Jane said “oh no, perhaps the Queen would not like it”. Ponsonby referred to this fear of the Queen as absurd, knowing that the Queen would not be angry with him for",
"-29.09780675562797"
],
[
"show, by examining a segment of our history, from the reign of Elizabeth to the end of the eighteenth century, that England is most happy when the national interest and the government work together, and least happy when our government is controlled by the unseen hand of the foreigner\".\nIn 1929 he published his biography of General Reginald Dyer. He also completed the three volumes on the life of the Irish Unionist leader Sir Edward Carson, the first volume being the work of Edward Marjoribanks.",
"-29.0846926944796"
],
[
"monarch was also monarch of the UK and resident outside the Commonwealth of Australia. Curiously, while the Irish asserted the title King of Ireland by having King George V sign an international treaty on behalf of his Irish realm as early as 1931 (where he was formally advised by the Irish Minister for External Affairs who formally attended His Majesty, with no British minister present), the formal title Queen of Australia was only adopted through the Royal Style and Titles Act 1973. Statute of Westminster 1931 By the mid-1920s, it was accepted by the British government that dominions would have",
"-29.066597183278645"
],
[
"Due to these reasons, the centuries long conflict with France was largely suspended for most of Elizabeth's reign. England during this period had a centralised, organised and effective government, largely due to the reforms of Henry VII and Henry VIII. Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade.\nIn 1585 worsening relations between Philip II of Spain and Elizabeth erupted into war. Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch and permitted Francis Drake to maraud in response to a Spanish embargo. Drake surprised Vigo, Spain, in October, then proceeded to the Caribbean and",
"-29.063292815932073"
],
[
"other types of monarchs in many countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the American Revolution put an end to the \"divine right of kings\". Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of hereditary monarchy.\nThe monarch often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled their kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which they could not",
"-29.03161649967751"
],
[
"UK is automatically also monarch of Barbados. Succession in Britain is, for those born before 28 October 2011, by male-preference primogeniture and, for people born after 28 October 2011, by absolute primogeniture, governed by common law, the Act of Settlement 1701, Bill of Rights 1689, and Succession to the Crown Act 2013. This legislation limits the succession to the natural (i.e. non-adopted), legitimate descendants of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and stipulates that the monarch cannot be a Roman Catholic and must be in communion with the Church of England upon ascending the throne. Though these laws still lie within the",
"-29.017779566638637"
],
[
"functions of the monarchy. It was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs. However, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had a very uneasy relationship. After the execution of Charles I, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords. It declared the people of England \"and of all the Dominions and Territories thereunto belonging\" to be henceforth under the governance of a \"Commonwealth\", effectively a republic. Structure In Pride's Purge, all members of parliament (including most of the political Presbyterians) who would not accept the need",
"-29.014805563681875"
],
[
"1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public. Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of the former Princess of Wales, Diana, though Elizabeth's personal popularity and support for the monarchy rebounded after her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death.\nIn November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state. Polls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for",
"-29.011695247652824"
],
[
"as no strong royal hand is able to govern them, every trifle causes them to be at variance with each other. A little affront or a small matter that happens on account of the boundaries of their fields, raises such animosities between them, that they draw their swords and they keep their words. These continual contests and their self-interestedness, make them conservative, and they keep what they say. Each individual, or several families being the issue of a great man,\nbuild their houses, wherever they find convenient for the sake of their property, or for the purpose of more easily watching",
"-28.989142282807734"
],
[
"Queen\" (b) \"Daughter of ancient Kings\" II – (a) \"The Queen\" – Chorus\nTrue Queen of British homes and hearts\n\n Of guileless faith and sterling worth,\n\nWe yield you ere today departs,\n\n The proudest, purest crown on earth!\n\nWe love you well for England's sake,\n\n True you shall prove, as you have proved;\n\nThe years that come shall only make\n\n Your name more honoured, more belov'd.\n\nOh kind and wise, the humblest heart\n\n That beats in all your realms today\n\nKnows well that it can claim its part\n\n In all you hope, in all you pray.\n\nII – (b) \"Daughter of ancient Kings\" – Chorus \"A Greeting to Her Gracious Majesty, Queen Alexandra\"\n Daughter",
"-28.978075913793873"
],
[
"queen during a famous time period in Portuguese history, when the Portuguese court was one of the richest in Europe, she did not play any significant part as an individual. Serious and pious, she devoted her time to sewing, pious devotion and supervising the education of her children in accordance with the principles of her parents. She maintained a close correspondence with her parents, got along well with her sister-in-law Isabel and the queen dowager Beatrice, and hosted a large court with both Spanish and Portuguese ladies-in-waiting. King Manuel appreciated her pious nature, treated her with respect",
"-28.917086709050636"
],
[
"the Indian landholders to the princes and the Raj, endorsing their power and privilege, revitalising the nobility, and then tying it to the Queen by proclaiming her empress of India. In this way, Britain increased the power of local nobility and made it known to them that their power came from the Queen. \"Many of them [princes] owe their very existence to British justice and arms...The situation of these feudatory States, checker boarding all India as they do, is a safeguard. It is like establishing a vast network of friendly fortresses in debatable territory.\" Also, to appease some of",
"-28.906586597964633"
],
[
"condemned her for her 'irresponsible overturning of a social code') for stepping out of the societal expectations of a widow in sixteenth century England. As a widow, the Duchess gains a new power and independence, which angers her brothers. As a female in a position of power, she is expected to hold the throne and obey the patriarchal figures in the court, specifically her two brothers, the Cardinal and Ferdinand. The Cardinal and Ferdinand are in line to receive the inheritance if the Duchess does not have any children, so controlling her sexual affairs becomes their singular focus. Rather than",
"-28.9046253591805"
],
[
"royal we. Another example, near the end of 1992, which was a difficult year for the British royal family, as the Queen famously quipped \"Annus horribilis\", the tabloid newspaper The Sun published a headline, \"One's Bum Year!\"",
"-28.88476345181698"
],
[
"queen's popularity, but also because the queen had abdicated in favour of the king on the condition that she would succeed him if he should die before her, a condition which made the queen the heir to the throne.\nDuring the Riksdag of 1741, the matter of the king's adultery was, for the second time, raised in parliament by the clergy estate, this time by Bishop Erik Benzelius, who referred to the matter as that \"which the Queen had made it known\" that they should raise, in order to \"set the mourning heart of the Queen to rest\". An official statement",
"-28.87382504931884"
]
] |
27mnqk | If pimples and zits are caused by clogged pores around the body, then why don't we get them on our hands? | [
"Acne is caused by sebaceous glands under the skin that secrete sebum into your pores. I believe there are less glands on your hands and arms which would make zits less likely to occur there. The highest amount of glands are on your face where most acne occurs. Its been a while though since I studied this so someone else should confirm.",
"Your body contains 2 types of glands sebaceous and sudoriferous you dont have sebaceous glands on the soles of your hands and feet which means you do not produce sebum (oil) in those areas",
"I'll actually get one once or twice a year on my thumb. I have Scottish genes, so my leg and arm hair is mightier than most, so I think that is a factor. The pores are tiny there, which makes them very painful and nearly impossible to pop. I'll also get one every once in awhile on my knuckle or finger.",
"I once had a zit right next to my nipple that turned the entire nipple at a 45 degree angle.",
"I've had a couple on my hands before. It doesn't happen as often but it does happen occasionally.",
"Because the main focal point is the face, so it only makes sense to put gigantic, embarrassing zits right where everyone can fucking see them all day.",
"I once popped what I thought was a zit on the inside of my nose. I squeezed it and it erupted on the outside of my nose and I pulled a nose hair out of it."
] | [
[
"Pimple Causes Sebaceous glands inside the pore of the skin produce sebum. When the outer layers of skin shed (a natural and continuous process, normally), dead skin and oily sebum left behind may bond together and form a blockage of the sebaceous gland at the base of the skin. This is most common when the skin becomes thicker at puberty. The sebaceous gland continues to produce sebum, which builds up behind the blockage, allowing bacteria to grow in the area, including the species Staphylococcus aureus and Cutibacterium acnes, which causes inflammation and infection. Other causes of pimples include family history,",
"-33.72214532963699"
],
[
"Platelet plug The platelet plug, also known as the hemostatic plug or platelet thrombus, is an aggregation of platelets formed during the earlier stage of hemostasis in response to blood vessel wall injury. After platelets are recruited and begin to accumulate around the breakage, their “sticky” nature allows them to adhere to each other. This forms a platelet plug, which prevents more blood from leaving the body as well as any outside contaminants from getting in. The plug provides a temporary blockage of the break in the vasculature. As such, platelet plug formation occurs after vasoconstriction of the blood vessels",
"-29.865884900653327"
],
[
"Stylostome The stylostome is a funnel or channel-like structure formed in response to trombiculid mites. The formation is not caused by the mouthparts of the mites, because these mites do not have needle-like mouthparts as other hematophagous animals have been known to have, but have chelicerae, which only pierce the skin. The tube is formed by the digestive enzymes in the saliva, which is the same salivary secretions that break down cells that is causing the surrounding tissue to harden. As the mite feeds longer, the saliva seeps farther down, and digesting more tissue, therefore causes the stylosome to",
"-28.640136630507186"
],
[
"Tinea barbae Signs and symptoms Main symptoms that occur when affected with tinea barbæ is pimple or blister amongst affected area, swelling and redness around infected area, red and lumpy skin on infected area. Crusting around hairs in infected area will occur, hairs on infected area will also be effortless to pull out. Tinea barbæ can be itchy or painful to touch but these symptoms do not always occur. Transmission The transmission of tinea barbæ to humans occurs through contact of an infected animal to the skin of a human. Infection can occasionally be transmitted through contact of infected",
"-28.088383648282615"
],
[
"recurrent infection or inflammation. Polyps arise from the lining of the sinuses. Nasal mucosa, particularly in the region of middle meatus becomes swollen due to collection of extracellular fluid. This extracellular fluid collection causes polyp formation and protrusion into the nasal cavity or sinuses. Polyps which are sessile in the beginning become pedunculated due to gravity.\nIn people with nasal polyps due to aspirin or NSAID sensitivity, the underlying mechanism is due to disorders in the metabolism of arachidonic acid. Exposure to cycloxygenase inhibitors such as aspirin and NSAIDs leads to shunting of products through the lipoxygenase pathway leading to an",
"-27.99867234460544"
],
[
"to remove the pellets that have stuck to her, only to have the pellets spread and bond to a portion of her body.\nJulie decides to seek medical attention to have the metallic substance removed from her body. When she opens the door to her truck more of the pellets bond to her skin. Julie's shoulders and chest are almost completely covered by the metallic substance at this point, and the substance now bears an unknown symbol. When a doctor touches the substance it reacts by removing his fingernail, whereas Julie feels no more than a tingling and some slight",
"-27.944022161856992"
],
[
"(sessile) or be attached to the uterus by an elongated pedicle (pedunculated). Pedunculated polyps are more common than sessile ones. They range in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters. If pedunculated, they can protrude through the cervix into the vagina. Small blood vessels may be present in polyps, particularly large ones. Cervical polyp A cervical polyp is a common benign polyp or tumor on the surface of the cervical canal. They can cause irregular menstrual bleeding or increased pain but often show no symptoms. Nasal polyps Nasal polyps are polypoidal masses arising mainly from the mucous membranes of",
"-27.923761118901893"
],
[
"the hard plastic limbs and pieces that remain in contact with it, including the hip joint/lower torso piece and the ball joints of the shoulders. If measures are not actively taken to prevent it, the soft torso can also cause a ring of chemical melt around the neck hole in Pullip's head. Although chemical melt is the most widely recognized problem with the Type 2 body, it is not known whether environmental conditions (heat, humidity) exacerbate the melt. Other common problems with the Type 2 body are that limbs can fall off or pull apart too easily and that the",
"-27.9230200338352"
],
[
"stress, fluctuations in hormone levels, hair and skincare products, medication side effects, and un-diagnosed or underlying medical conditions. Pimples can be part of the presentation of rosacea.\nSome skin care products, in particular those not labeled as \"non-comedogenic\", \"non-acnegenic\", \"oil-free\" or \"won’t clog pores\", are more likely to cause skin irritation or acne. Over-the-counter medications Common over-the-counter medications for pimples are benzoyl peroxide, salicylic acid, adapalene, and antibacterial agents such as triclosan. These topical medications, which can be found in many creams and gels used to treat acne (acne vulgaris), induce skin to slough off more easily, helping to remove bacteria",
"-27.847082182997838"
],
[
"lump of fluff has appeared in the navel cavity. This lint is an accumulation of cloth fibers that are scraped by body hair. The reasons for its accumulation in the navel are a subject of speculation. A likely hypothesis is that rubbing of navel hairs and clothing contributes to a build-up of static electricity, resulting in the collection of clothing fibers and to a lesser extent, dead skin cells. Pocket lint Pocket lint is debris including bits of fabric as well as small shreds of paper and tissue that are often found in pockets. It may be caused by running",
"-27.79380822821986"
],
[
"in the blood of a patient. Molluscum contagiosum This is a viral infection of the skin that usually presents in children ages 1–10 and immunocompromised patients. The main symptom of this disease is round, hard, flesh colored, painless bumps, with sunken centers that are apparent on the surface of the skin (Figure 1). The bumps are generally less than 6 millimeters and can become red and inflamed or itchy if a person rubs them. They are generally found on the face, neck, armpits, and hands. However, the bumps may also be found on the genitals of adults if the disease",
"-27.77726620475005"
],
[
"a blocked pore adjacent to a body piercing. They are also seen in Gardner's syndrome and Nevoid basal-cell carcinoma syndrome on the head and neck. They can be infected by bacteria and form a pimple-like shape. Diagnosis Epidermoid cysts are usually diagnosed when a person notices a bump on their skin and seeks medical attention. The definitive diagnosis is made after excision by a pathologist based on microscopic appearance of a cystic lesion lined by cornified epithelium containing lamellated keratin without calcifications. They can also be seen as isointense lesions on MRI or hyperintensities on FLAIR. Treatment Cysts can be",
"-27.699172960234137"
],
[
"but important because they are sometimes reversible or curable by surgery, are scotomata due to tumors such as those arising from the pituitary gland, which may compress the optic nerve or interfere with its blood supply.\nRarely, scotomata are bilateral. One important variety of bilateral scotoma may occur when a pituitary tumour begins to compress the optic chiasm (as distinct from a single optic nerve) and produces a bitemporal paracentral scotoma, and later, when the tumor enlarges, the scotomas extend out to the periphery to cause the characteristic bitemporal hemianopsia. This type of visual-field defect tends to be obvious to",
"-27.622182016682927"
],
[
"mandibles. In nasute species of termites (contained within the subfamily Nasutitermitinae), the mandibles have receded. This makes way for an elongated, syringic nasus capable of squirting liquid glue. When this substance is released from the frontal gland reservoir and dries, it becomes sticky and is capable of immobilizing attackers. It is highly effective against other arthropods, including spiders, ants, and centipedes.\nAmong termite species in the Apicotermitinae that are soldierless or where soldiers are rare, mouth secretions are commonly replaced by abdominal dehiscence. These termites contract their abdominal muscles, resulting in the fracturing of the abdominal wall and the expulsion of",
"-27.602864292886807"
],
[
"into pairs, giving the appearance that each segment bears two pairs of legs, while the other three groups have a single pair of legs on each body segment.\nAlthough not generally considered dangerous to humans, many millipedes produce noxious secretions (often containing benzoquinones) which in rare cases can cause temporary blistering and discolouration of the skin. Large centipedes, however, can bite humans, and although the bite may cause intense pain and discomfort, fatalities are extremely rare. Classification There has been much debate as to which arthropod group is most closely related to the Myriapoda. Under the Mandibulata hypothesis, Myriapoda is the",
"-27.52134772980935"
],
[
"the risk of thrombosis, but surgery is usually not helpful since lesions are often patchy and may be located in areas not easily resected. Meconium impactions Meconium, or the first feces produced by the foal, is a hard pelleted substance. It is normally passed within the first 24 hours of the foal's life, but may become impacted in the distal colon or rectum. Meconium impaction is most commonly is seen in foals 1–5 days of age, and is more common in miniature foals and in colts more than fillies (possibly because fillies have a wider pelvis). Foals will stop suckling,",
"-27.509713324019685"
],
[
"sometimes referred to colloquially as chicken fillets. Skin pulling techniques Various methods are used to pull loose skin from the front of each breast towards the centre to create two vertical bulges of skin, then imitation breasts such as mastectomy breast forms are worn outside those skin bulges such that only the inside edges of those bulges are visible past the bra, top or dress. Taping Taping involves the use of some form of adhesive tape applied to towards the bottom of the breasts to pull them together. Types of tape used include surgical micropore tape and athletic tape. Some",
"-27.49743763737206"
],
[
"They are easily adjusted and do not alter the frame as much as other crutches. They have their disadvantages, however: They must be constantly adjusted. This can weaken the metal at the adjustment point, and lead to broken crutches. This crutch is not commonly used and not recommended for moderate to severe cases of the Ptosis condition.\nReinforced Eye-Crutches: These crutches are attached to the ends of the crutch, and are not as adjustable. Due to the double attachment, this crutch is resistant to breaking. This crutch also comes with a clear plastic coating finish, which helps with comfort, as well",
"-27.29094812332187"
],
[
"caused by excess shear stress between the bottom and surface of the skin and the body. The strata of skin around the stratum spinosum are most susceptible to shear. As the stratum spinosum tears away from the connecting tissues below, plasma from the cells diffuses out. This plasma solution helps new cells divide and grow into new connective tissues and epidermal layers.\nThe clear fluid will be reabsorbed as new cells develop and the swollen appearance will subside. Painful blisters located on hands (palmar surface) and feet (plantar surface) are due to tissue shearing deeper in the epidermis, near nerve endings.",
"-27.194112768629566"
],
[
"Keratosis pilaris Signs and symptoms Keratosis pilaris results in small, rough bumps on the surface of the skin. They are skin-colored bumps the size of a grain of sand, many of which are surrounded by a slight pink color in light skinned people and dark spots in dark skinned people. Most people with keratosis pilaris do not have symptoms but the bumps in the skin can occasionally be itchy. Irritation due to scratching KP bumps can result in redness and inflammation.\nThough people with keratosis pilaris experience the condition year-round, the problem can become exacerbated and the bumps are likely to",
"-27.157757298089564"
],
[
"Nummular dermatitis Signs and symptoms Nummular dermatitis is characterized by chronic or relapsing itchy coin-sized ovoid-shaped red plaques. They can occur on the trunk, limbs, face, and hands. Causes Many contact sensitizers or irritants are known to cause contact dermatitis superimposed on nummular dermatitis. Studies have implicated nickel, cobalt, chromate, and fragrance as likely culprits. Xerosis, or dehydration of skin is also a likely cause. Infection with Staphylococcus aureus bacteria or Candida albicans may also play a role. Diagnosis Diagnosis of nummular dermatitis is largely via clinical observation. Biopsies are typically not necessary, and cannot be used to rule out",
"-27.144409134518355"
],
[
"conditions which cause sclerotic bone to form). The clot may be lost because of excessive mouth rinsing, or disintegrate prematurely due to fibrinolysis. Fibrinolysis is the degeneration of the clot and may be caused by the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin and formation of kinins. Factors which promote fibrinolysis include local trauma, estrogens, and pyrogens from bacteria.\nBacteria may secondarily colonize the socket, and lead to further dissolution of the clot. Bacterial breakdown and fibrinolysis are widely accepted as a major contributing factors to the loss of the clot. Bone tissue is exposed to the oral environment, and a localized inflammatory",
"-27.12179373462277"
],
[
"staple, the ends of which pierce the skin and hold the item in place.\nA flesh plate works on the same principle, but has a different shape, resembling a flat plate rather than a staple.\nFlesh pocketing resembles flesh stapling, but instead of staple-like geometry, small \"pockets\" under the skin hold the ends of the jewelry in place. Pocketing has a lower rate of success than stapling. Genital beading and genital ribs Genital beading (also known as yakuza beads, love beads or pearling) is a process in which beads or other small objects are implanted beneath the shaft skin of the penis,\nGenital",
"-27.105848286562832"
],
[
"Granuloma annulare Signs and symptoms Aside from the visible rash, granuloma annulare is usually asymptomatic. Sometimes the rash may burn or itch. People with granuloma annulare usually notice a ring of small, firm bumps (papules) over the backs of the forearms, hands or feet, often centered on joints or knuckles. The bumps are caused by the clustering of T cells below the skin. These papules start as very small, pimple looking bumps, which spread over time from that size to dime, quarter, half-dollar size and beyond. Occasionally, multiple rings may join into one. Rarely, granuloma annulare may appear as",
"-27.07572853937745"
],
[
"microvesicles. Some adenocarcinomas secrete mucin that can interact with selectin found on platelets, thereby causing small clots to form.\nIn patients with malignancy-associated hypercoagulable states, the blood may spontaneously form clots in the portal vessels, the deep veins of the extremities (such as the leg), or the superficial veins anywhere on the body. These clots present as visibly swollen blood vessels (thrombophlebitis), especially the veins, or as intermittent pain in the affected areas.",
"-27.031760636746185"
],
[
"Femoral pore Femoral pores are a part of a holocrine secretory gland found on the inside of the thighs of certain lizards and amphisbaenians which releases pheromones to attract mates or mark territory. In certain species only the male has these pores and in other species, both sexes have them, with the male's being larger. Femoral pores appear as a series of pits or holes within a row of scales on the ventral portion of the animal's thigh.\nFemoral pores are present in all genera in the families Cordylidae, Crotaphytidae, Hoplocercidae, Iguanidae, Phrynosomatidae, and Xantusiidae. They are absent",
"-26.93031145261193"
],
[
"Pustulosis Pustulosis is highly inflammatory skin condition resulting in large fluid-filled blister-like areas - pustules. Pustulosis typically occurs on the palms of the hands and/or the soles of the feet. The skin of these areas peels and flakes (exfoliates). This condition—also referred to as \"palmo-plantar pustulosis\"—is a feature of pustular psoriasis.",
"-26.92877746769227"
],
[
"Scrotal septum The septum of the scrotum is a vertical layer of fibrous tissue that divides the two compartments of the scrotum. It consists of flexible connective tissue. Its structure extends to the skin surface of the scrotum as the scrotal raphe. It is an incomplete wall of connective tissue and nonstriated muscle (dartos fascia) dividing the scrotum into two sacs, each containing a testis.\nHistological septa are seen throughout most tissues of the body, particularly where they are needed to stiffen soft cellular tissue, and they also provide planes of ingress for small blood vessels. Because the dense collagen",
"-26.926347936852835"
],
[
"parts of the body, such as the extremities of the arms or legs. An abnormality or disease of the platelets is called a thrombocytopathy, which can be either a low number of platelets (thrombocytopenia), a decrease in function of platelets (thrombasthenia), or an increase in the number of platelets (thrombocytosis). There are disorders that reduce the number of platelets, such as heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) or thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), that typically cause thromboses, or clots, instead of bleeding.\nPlatelets release a multitude of growth factors including platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), a potent chemotactic agent, and TGF beta, which stimulates the deposition",
"-26.902911499128095"
],
[
"micrometre sized barbs in the skin, later to be manifest by granuloma formation. Attempts to suck out the glochidia are likely to result in their attachment to the tongue. Popular methods of removing glochidia have included spreading adhesive plaster over the area and ripping it off quickly or using melted wax (hot wax sometimes employed for removing hair). Martinez et al. studied various methods of removing glochidia from rabbit skin. They evaluated tweezers, glue, facial mask, adhesive tape, package-sealing tape, and tweezing followed by glue. The most effective single method was tweezing, which removed 76% of the spines. The method",
"-26.873695271089673"
],
[
"the flakes are believed to be a cause of the blockage. PEX flakes by themselves do not directly cause glaucoma, but can cause glaucoma indirectly by blocking the outflow of aqueous humor, which leads to higher intraocular pressure, and this can cause glaucoma. PEX has been known to cause a weakening of structures within the eye which help hold the eye's lens in place, called lens zonules. Causes The cause of pseudoexfoliation glaucoma is generally unknown.\nPEX is generally believed to be a systemic disorder, possibly of the basement membrane of the eye. Researchers have noticed deposits of PEX material in",
"-26.868643291760236"
],
[
"the formation of hard plugs (process known as hyperkeratinization). Many KP bumps contain an ingrown hair that has coiled. This is a result of the keratinized skin's \"capping off\" the hair follicle, preventing the hair from exiting. The hair grows encapsulated inside the follicle. KP is more common in patients affected by atopic diseases such as allergic rhinitis and atopic dermatitis.\nKeratosis pilaris subtypes are occasionally part of genetically inherited syndromes associated with intellectual disability, neuro-cardio-facial-cutaneous syndromes, RASopathies, ectodermal dysplasias, and certain myopathies. Diagnosis Physicians can often diagnose keratosis pilaris simply by examining the skin; tests are usually not needed. However,",
"-26.859797501048888"
],
[
"puncture.\nFor surface piercings, the process is completely different. Rather than puncturing one piece of jewelry into the skin at a time, a surface piercing sends a barbell (piercing) through a hollow tunnel right under the surface of your skin. Just like the micro dermal piercing, there are two methods to this process. One includes the use of a needle, and the other utilizes a scalpel. With a needle, the surface piercing of the hip is done just like any other place on the body such as a nose piercing, or ear piercing. Pinching the skin together allows for a quick",
"-26.824728568812134"
],
[
"Foerster clamp A foerster clamp is a surgical clamp with a round eyelet. Also known as a sponge clamp, or sponge stick. Used for atraumatically grasping lung tissue in thoracic surgery. When grasping a surgical sponge in the jaws, Foerster clamps are commonly used for removing small amounts of fluids from the operative area and applying pressure to sites of bleeding. May also be used for tissue dissection. Invented by David William Foerster of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, who pioneered sex change operations in the United States. Non-medical uses It is commonly used in body piercing, particularly for tongue piercings.",
"-26.8148869863071"
],
[
"Pes anserine bursitis Pathology The pes anserinus is the insertion of the conjoined tendons sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus into the anteromedial proximal tibia. Theoretically, bursitis results from stress to this area (e.g. stress may result when an obese individual with anatomic deformity from arthritis ascends or descends stairs). An occurrence of pes anserine bursitis commonly is characterized by pain, especially when climbing stairs, tenderness, and local swelling. Pathophysiology The etymology of the name relates to the insertion of the conjoined tendons into the anteromedial proximal tibia. From anterior to posterior, the pes anserinus is made up of the",
"-26.548040671274066"
],
[
"Descending perineum syndrome Descending perineum syndrome (also known as levator plate sagging) refers to a condition where the perineum \"balloons\" several centimeters below the bony outlet of the pelvis during strain, although this descent may happen without straining. The syndrome was first described in 1966 by Parks et al. Cause One of the main causes is suggested to be excessive and repetitive straining during defecation. Other causes include weakness of the pelvic floor muscles (secondary to age-related neuropathic degeneration or traumatic injury during pregnancy and labor. Diagnosis Diagnosis is by rectal examination. A specialized tool called a \"Perineocaliper\" can be",
"-26.5220835164655"
],
[
"of the reaction of the body to the surgical wounds of vasectomy, the body produces hard scar-like tissue. Clamping the vas deferens can produce muscle disruption and fibrosis. As the diameter of the vas lumen is less than the thickness of the wall, the thick muscle layers can easily become disrupted, leading to sperm accumulation and extravasation. Cysts often form from the fluid that spreads between the muscle layers.\nNerves can become trapped in the fibrous tissue caused by vasectomy. This pain is often heightened during sexual intercourse and ejaculation because, with arousal and ejaculation, muscles elevate the testis. There",
"-26.50490782049019"
],
[
"still is most commonly used. Types There are several types of crutches: Underarm or axilla Axillary crutches are used by placing the pad against the ribcage beneath the armpit and holding the grip, which is below and parallel to the pad. They are usually used to provide support for patients who have temporary restriction on ambulation.\nWith underarm crutches, sometimes a towel or some kind of soft cover is needed to prevent or reduce armpit injury. A condition known as crutch paralysis, or crutch palsy can arise from pressure on nerves in the armpit, or axilla. Specifically, \"the brachial plexus in",
"-26.423809344356414"
],
[
"human pelvis as a saucepan, with circular/cylidrical walls, but without a base and a flailed upper rim, or wings to which the gluteal muscles (hip bone stabilisers) attach. The pelvic bony cylindrical walls also have a curve, which follows that of the curve of the sacrum, the fused vertebral bones of the lower end of the spine. \nThe pudendal block gets its name because a local anesthetic, such as lidocaine or chloroprocaine, is injected into the pudendal canal where the pudendal nerve is located. This allows quick pain relief to the perineum, vulva, and vagina. A pudendal block is",
"-26.39948056015419"
],
[
"underwires poke the breast under the armpit or if the bra's center panel does not lie flat against the sternum, the cup size is too small. If the band rides up the torso at the back, the band size is too big. If it digs into the flesh, causing the flesh to spill over the edges of the band, the band is too small. If the band feels tight, this may be due to the cups being too small; instead of going up in band size a person should try going up in cup size. Similarly a band might feel",
"-26.376922046314576"
],
[
"Hamartomatous polyps are tumours, like growths found in organs as a result of faulty development. They are normally made up of a mixture of tissues. They contain mucus-filled glands, with retention cysts, abundant connective tissue, and a chronic cellular infiltration of eosinophils. They grow at the normal rate of the host tissue and rarely cause problems such as compression. A common example of a hamartomatous lesion is a strawberry naevus. Hamartomatous polyps are often found by chance; occurring in syndromes such as Peutz-Jegher Syndrome or Juvenile Polyposis Syndrome.\nPeutz-Jeghers syndrome is associated with polyps of the GI tract and also increased",
"-26.372443211410427"
],
[
"red, circular sore (which is known as a chancre) is present where the bacteria first entered the body. There may be multiple sores that are not visible on the body, and they are usually difficult to find. Commonly, these chancres are visible on the penis, anus, rectum, vagina, and cervix; however, they are usually difficult to identify even though it is a localized disease. The sores may go undetected, and it may only be identified after getting tested. The lesion does not induce any pain; however, it can lead to an ulcer that can secrete mucus, swelling, or tenderness in",
"-26.352049939800054"
],
[
"as the thickening caused by nodules forming on the costochondral joints. This appears as a visible bump in the middle of each rib in a line on each side of the body. This somewhat resembles a rosary, giving rise to its name. The deformity of a pigeon chest may result in the presence of Harrison's groove.\nHypocalcemia, a low level of calcium in the blood can result in tetany – uncontrolled muscle spasms. Dental problems can also arise.\nAn X-ray or radiograph of an advanced sufferer from rickets tends to present in a classic way: the bowed legs (outward curve of long",
"-26.334752897324506"
],
[
"Varicocele Signs and symptoms Varicocele might be noticed as soft lumps, usually above the testicle and mostly on the left side of the scrotum. Right-sided and bilateral varicocele does also occur. Men with varicocele can feel symptoms of pain or heaviness in their scrotum. Varicocele is sometimes discovered when investigating the cause of male infertility. Cause There are three main theories as to the anatomical cause; the first has to do with the geometry of the veins, wherein the vein on the left side connects to the larger outflowing vein at a right angle, which tends to fail; the second",
"-26.33004492823966"
],
[
"fascia consists of collagen type I, but in Dupuytren sufferers, the collagen changes to collagen type III, which is significantly thicker than collagen type I. Related conditions People with severe involvement often show lumps on the back of their finger joints (called “Garrod's pads”, “knuckle pads”, or “dorsal Dupuytren nodules”) and lumps in the arch of the feet (plantar fibromatosis or Ledderhose disease). In severe cases, the area where the palm meets the wrist may develop lumps. Severe Dupuytren disease may also be associated with frozen shoulder (adhesive capsulitis of shoulder), Peyronie's disease of the penis, increased risk of several",
"-26.278979493654333"
],
[
"pedicle (\"stalk\"), an extension of the body wall. This has a chitinous cuticle (non-cellular \"skin\") and protrudes through an opening in the hinge. However, some genera such as the inarticulate Crania and the articulate Lacazella have no pedicle, and cement the rear of the \"pedicle\" valve to a surface so that the front is slightly inclined up away from the surface. In a few articulate genera such as Neothyris and Anakinetica, the pedicles wither as the adults grow and finally lie loosely on the surface. In these genera the shells are thickened and shaped so that the opening of the",
"-26.270326230558567"
],
[
"pelvic flexure, but may also occur in the right dorsal colon and the cecum of the large intestines. The sand can cause colic signs similar to other impactions of the large colon, and often causes abdominal distention As the sand or dirt irritates the lining of the bowel it can cause diarrhea. The weight and abrasion of the sand or dirt causes the bowel wall to become inflamed and can cause a reduction in colonic motility and, in severe cases, leads to peritonitis.\nDiagnosis is usually made by history, environmental conditions, auscultation of the ventral abdomen, radiographs, ultrasound, or fecal examination",
"-26.18269112197595"
],
[
"poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence.\nNevertheless, although FODMAPs can cause certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they help to prevent it because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health of the colon.\nFODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops",
"-26.1746325182321"
],
[
"or both of the races. The act of pressing or clamping can also leave brinell marks, especially if the vise or press has serrated jaws or roughened surfaces. Flat pressing plates are often used in the pressing of bearings, while soft copper, brass, or aluminum jaw covers are often used in vises to help avoid brinell marks from being forced into the workpiece. False brinelling A similar-looking kind of damage is called false brinelling and is caused by fretting wear. This occurs when contacting bodies vibrate against each other in the presence of very small loads, which pushes lubricant out",
"-26.174279681406915"
],
[
"and eosinophils). Polyps have virtually no neurons. Therefore, the tissue that makes up the polyp does not have any tissue sensation and the polyp itself will not be painful. In early stages, the surface of the nasal polyp is covered by normal respiratory epithelium, but later it undergoes metaplastic change to squamous type epithelium with the constant irritation and inflammation. The submucosa shows large intercellular spaces filled with serous fluid. Differential diagnosis Other disorders can mimic the appearance of nasal polyps and should be considered if a mass is seen on exam. Examples include encephalocele, glioma, inverted papilloma, and cancer.",
"-26.165778141119517"
],
[
"it manages to bypass the skin and reach deep tissues. The danger arises because M. brevicaulis is a multi-drug resistant, opportunistic pathogen. In the past, these kinds of infections mostly occurred if an individual punctured their skin with a stick or experienced some similar form of trauma that could implant M. brevicaulis below the skin. However, in recent years there has been an increase in the previously rare number of cases of deep tissue infections resulting from M. brevicaulis. In contemporary cases where deep tissue invasion has occurred, the patients are almost always immunocompromised. It is believed that the increasing",
"-26.145676056214143"
],
[
"of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. Such products can cause constipation, because the aluminum ions inhibit the contractions of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract, slowing peristalsis and lengthening the time needed for stool to pass through the colon. Some such products are formulated to minimize such effects through the inclusion of equal concentrations of magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects.",
"-26.143767109984765"
],
[
"mites\". They are also related to the scab mite Psoroptes, also a mite that infests the skin of domestic animals. Sarcoptic mange affects domestic animals and similar infestations in domestic fowls causes the disease known as \"scaly leg\". The effects of S. scabiei are the most well-known, causing \"scabies\", or \"the itch\". The adult female mite, having been fertilized, burrows into the skin (usually at the hands or wrists, but other parts of the body may also be affected), and lays its eggs.\nThe burrowing is carried out using the mouth parts and special cutting surfaces on the front legs. While",
"-26.133117242658045"
],
[
"Bugs' arms he find he is instead biting through a stick of dynamite, which blows up in his face. Now finally done with Crusher, Bugs tries to flex his muscle ... but sees his muscle droop instead. Bugs simply accepts being weak, pushing his drooping muscle like a little swing.",
"-26.120848267149995"
],
[
"maggot. Another treatment discussed in the March 2014 Journal of the American Medical Association is to inject a combination of anaesthetic and epinephrine into the insect's chamber. Less drastically, because larvae of C. anthropophaga have smaller hooked bristles on the cuticle than those of Dermatobia hominis, it often is practical just to push on each side of the hole to squeeze the maggot out, especially after first enlarging the punctum. It is important not to burst the larva to prevent the risk of granulomatous or serious inflammatory reaction.\nPatients should be monitored for additional and subsequent lesions, as development does not",
"-26.113828982342966"
],
[
"form biofilms on the surfaces. Careful sterilization of such objects prevents cross-infection.\nIn addition to objects in hospital settings, other common fomites for humans are door knobs, light switches, handrails, elevator buttons, television remote controls, pens, and other items that are frequently touched by different people and that may be infrequently cleaned.\nResearchers have discovered that smooth (non-porous) surfaces like door knobs transmit bacteria and viruses better than porous materials like paper money because porous, especially fibrous, materials absorb and trap the contagion, making it harder to contract through simple touch. Fomites include soiled clothes, towels, linens, handkerchiefs, cups, spoons, pencils, syringes,",
"-26.08765966624196"
],
[
"Pemphigus vulgaris Signs and symptoms Pemphigus vulgaris most commonly presents with oral blisters (buccal and palatine mucosa, especially), but also includes cutaneous blisters. Other mucosal surfaces, the conjunctiva, nose, esophagus, penis, vulva, vagina, cervix, and anus, may also be affected. Flaccid blisters over the skin are frequently seen with sparing of the skin covering the palms and soles.\nBlisters commonly erode and leave ulcerated lesions and erosions. A positive Nikolsky sign (induction of blistering in normal skin or at the edge of a blister) is indicative of the disease.\nSevere pain with chewing can lead to weight loss and malnutrition. Pathophysiology Pemphigus",
"-26.061884456896223"
],
[
"Trichophyton Effect on humans The anthropophilic varieties cause forms of dermatophytosis, that is, fungal infection of the skin. They are keratinophilic: they feed on the keratin in nails, hair, and dead skin.\nTrichophyton concentricum causes \"Malabar itch\", a skin infection consisting of an eruption of a number of concentric rings of overlapping scales forming papulosquamous patches.\nTrichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton interdigitale cause athlete's foot (tinea pedis), toenail fungal infections (a.k.a. tinea unguium, a.k.a. onychomycosis), crotch itch (a.k.a. tinea cruris), and ringworm (a misnomer, as there is no worm involved; it is also known as tinea corporis). Trichophyton schoenleinii cause favus (tinea",
"-26.057995698298328"
],
[
"to increase the friction and make the surface easier to grip. This process is similar to knurling or checkering, but is often used on complex curved surfaces, such as anatomical grips, where a regular pattern would not fit. Stippling can be cast into plastic objects, or applied with a hammer and punch to wood or metal objects.\nA further use of stipple indicates the damage caused by spider mites which make tiny white spots on plant leaves which can coalesce until the entire leaf appears silvery.\nIn quilt making, the term refers to background quilting in heirloom quilts and all-over",
"-26.015029202855658"
],
[
"foreign object being inserted into the skin. This behavior can be witnessed with other objects such as splinters, road rash, or infections. With surface piercings being closer to the surface of the skin, the tendency to reject is higher, as it is easier for the body to force the jewelry out. Surface piercing rejection rates Surface piercings, such as a navel piercing, Christina piercing, eyebrow piercing, or a nape piercing, tend to have a higher rejection rate than piercings that pass through a deeper area of flesh or have holes on the opposite side of each other. Thus surface piercings",
"-26.006189545209054"
],
[
"because it is noninvasive, widely available, and highly sensitive. By means of this method, it is possible to diagnose priapism and differentiate between its low- and high-flow forms. Peyronie's disease Peyronie's disease is characterized by fibrotic thickening of the tunica albuginea, which can lead to curvature of the penis and difficulty in achieving an erection. Penile fibromatosis (Peyronie's disease) is marked by the formation of fibrous plaques identified as areas where the tunica albuginea is thickened. Although plaques are more common on the dorsum of the penis, they can also be seen on the ventral face, lateral face, or septum.",
"-25.9714453703491"
],
[
"because they do not use their lips to discriminate between materials and they do not completely chew their feed before swallowing. Sharp metallic objects, such as nails or wire, are the common initiators of hardware disease. The object travels into the rumen and is then pushed into the reticulum along with the rest of the feed. In some cases, contractions of the reticulum can push the object through part of the reticulum wall into the peritoneal cavity, where it causes severe inflammation. In rare cases, the metal object penetrates the entire wall of the reticulum and can pierce the heart",
"-25.956209460127866"
],
[
"Intertrigo Cause An intertrigo usually develops from the chafing of warm, moist skin in the areas of the inner thighs and genitalia, the armpits, under the breasts, the underside of the belly, behind the ears, and the web spaces between the toes and fingers. An intertrigo usually appears red and raw-looking, and may also itch, ooze, and be sore. Intertrigos occur more often among overweight individuals, those with diabetes, those restricted to bed rest or diaper use, and those who use medical devices, like artificial limbs, that trap moisture against the skin. Also, there are several skin diseases that",
"-25.95384525274858"
],
[
"Splenic infarction Causes Several factors may increase the tendency for clot formation, such as specific infections (such as infectious mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus infection, malaria, or babesiosis), inherited clotting disorders (thrombophilia, such as Factor V Leiden, antiphospholipid syndrome), malignancy (such as pancreatic cancer) or metastasis, or a combination of these factors.\nIn some conditions, blood clots form in one part of the circulatory system and then dislodge and travel to another part of the body, which could include the spleen. These emboligenic disorders include atrial fibrillation, patent foramen ovale, endocarditis or cholesterol embolism.\nSplenic infarction is also more common in hematological disorders with associated",
"-25.924389293708373"
],
[
"also use a strip of moleskin across under the breasts with tape at the ends to hold it in place.\nTaping can also involve the use of a very thin and flexible self-adhesive tape, shaped like a horseshoe, with which it is possible to position the nipples upwards by several centimeters. These tapes lift the breasts from the top. Most adhesive breast lifts are available in cup A-D.\nUse of the wrong techniques or tape with too strong an adhesive can cause injuries such as rashes, blisters, and skin being torn off. Glued shapes Semi-rigid pieces of material such as plastic can",
"-25.85831074177986"
],
[
"Crutch A crutch is a mobility aid that transfers weight from the legs to the upper body. It is often used by people who cannot use their legs to support their weight, for reasons ranging from short-term injuries to lifelong disabilities. History Crutches were used in ancient Egypt. In 1917, Emile Schlick patented the first commercially produced crutch; the design consisted of a walking stick with an upper arm support. Later, A.R. Lofstrand, Jr. developed the first crutches with a height-adjustable feature making the crutches customizable. Through time, the design of crutches haven't changed much such that the classic design",
"-25.79964180238312"
],
[
"of a fist; most common on the head, neck and shoulders, they may also occur in other locations. Cutaneous fibropapillomas caused by Deltapapillomavirus group have a nodular appearance. Although unsightly, most skin warts rarely cause problems except in show animals. However, large warts may bleed, potentially leading to secondary infections, and florid warts of the teat can cause mastitis and interfere with suckling and milking. Fibropapillomas can be troublesome when present in the genital area, causing pain and sometimes loss of reproductive functions as well as interfering with calving. Chronically immunosuppressed animals may develop extensive papillomatosis in the upper gastrointestinal",
"-25.76021015981678"
],
[
"Herpetic whitlow Symptoms Symptoms of herpetic whitlow include swelling, reddening and tenderness of the skin of infected finger. This may be accompanied by fever and swollen lymph nodes. Small, clear vesicles initially form individually, then merge and become cloudy, unlike in bacterial whitlow, when there is pus. Associated pain often seems largely relative to the physical symptoms. The herpes whitlow lesion usually heals in two to three weeks. It may reside in axillary sensory ganglia to cause recurrent herpetic lesions on that arm or digits. Blistering can occur in severe cases. Causes In children the primary source of infection is",
"-25.743074132944457"
],
[
"suckers. After proper orientation, they start piercing the skin by secreting proteolytic enzymes that widen the skin pores (hair follicles). This process takes about 3–5 minutes and produces itching, but by then, they have penetrated the skin. Their tails are removed during the penetration such that only the head parts enter. When they enter the blood vessels, they are known as schisotomulae. They enter the systemic system to reach the heart and then the liver, and along the way many are killed by the immune cells. Survivors enter the liver within 24 hours. From the liver they enter the portal",
"-25.704531135619618"
],
[
"Granuloma inguinale Symptoms Small, painless nodules appear after about 10–40 days of the contact with the bacteria. Later, the nodules burst, creating open, fleshy, oozing lesions. The infection spreads, mutilating the infected tissue. The infection will continue to destroy the tissue until treated. The lesions occur at the region of contact typically found on the shaft of the penis, the labia, or the perineum. Rarely, the vaginal wall or cervix is the site of the lesion. At least one case in India led to partial autoamputation of the penis. The patient tested positive for HIV-2 and had been infected for",
"-25.673039474244433"
],
[
"Rickettsialpox Signs and symptoms The first symptom is a bump formed by the bite, eventually resulting in a black, crusty scab. Many of the symptoms are flu-like including fever, chills, weakness and achy muscles but the most distinctive symptom is the rash that breaks out, spanning the infected person's entire body. Transmission The bacteria are originally found in mice and cause mites feeding on the mice (usually the house mouse) to become infected. Humans will get rickettsialpox when receiving a bite from an infected mite, not from the mice themselves.\nThe mite is Liponyssoides sanguineus, which was previously known as Allodermanyssus",
"-25.669115183642134"
],
[
"trichomes induce a painful sensation lasting for hours upon human contact. This sensation has been attributed as a defense mechanism against large animals and small invertebrates, and plays a role in defense supplementation via secretion of metabolites. Studies suggest that this sensation involves a rapid release of toxin (such as histamine) upon contact and penetration via the globular tips of said trichomes.",
"-25.648959674872458"
],
[
"blocked for any reason, the mucous secretions can accumulate and cause the pouch to distend, producing a visible and palpable protrusion behind the mandible. The exudate may become contaminated with pathogens. The bacteria Streptococcus equi, the causative agent of strangles, is commonly involved. Mycotic infections can also occur. Some visible symptoms of guttural pouch disease include abnormal head and neck carriage, nasal discharge, painful swelling and occasional abnormal functioning of the structures associated with the pouch. Secondary problems may include inflammation of the middle ear due to migration of the infection along the auditory tube; nasal bleeding caused by damage",
"-25.629130291948968"
],
[
"strong hooks on their manus and the adults either have no lateral sucker series no marginal series of suckers. or they are vestigial. The chitinous rings of the suckers on the arms is smooth, with no teeth. They have photophores in their mantle cavity with a small one placed anteriorly on the ink sac, another near the anus; a large one placed posteriorly on the intestine and a bilobed photophore located on the ventral surface of\neach eye.",
"-25.602740758055006"
],
[
"buccal mucosa. Known as a \"superficial mucocele\", this type presents as single or multiple vesicles and bursts into an ulcer. Despite healing after a few days, superficial mucoceles recur often in the same location. Other causes of bumps inside lips are, aphthous ulcer, Lipoma, benign tumors of salivary glands, submucous abscess and haemangiomas. Diagnosis Microscopically, mucoceles appears as granulation tissue surrounding mucin. Since inflammation occurs concurrently, neutrophils and foamy histiocytes usually are present.\nOn a CT scan, a mucocele is fairly homogenous, with an attenuation of about 10-18 Hounsfield units. Classification Both mucous retention and extravasation phenomena are classified as salivary",
"-25.59561728796689"
],
[
"pinching, grasping, defence and offence.\nThe \"proboscis\" or trunk consists wholly of muscular and membranous tissue, and is a tapering muscular structure of nearly circular cross-section extending proximally from attachment at the anterior nasal orifice, and ending distally in a tip or finger. The length may vary from 1.5 to 2 m (59 to 79 in) or longer depending on the species and age. Four basic muscle masses—the radial, the longitudinal and two oblique layers—and the size and attachments points of the tendon masses allow the shortening, extension, bending, and twisting movements accounting for the ability to hold, and manipulate loads of up",
"-25.575077601650264"
],
[
"because it may interfere with the function of the anus. However, surface piercings of the perineum are easier to care for and much more common.",
"-25.553529644967057"
],
[
"(on one's fingers) poses another complication. When the fungus is spread to other parts of the body, it can easily be spread back to the feet after the feet have been treated. And because the condition is called something else in each place it takes hold (e.g., tinea corporis (ringworm) or tinea cruris (jock itch), persons infected may not be aware it is the same disease.\nSome individuals may experience an allergic response to the fungus called an id reaction in which blisters or vesicles can appear in areas such as the hands, chest, and arms. Treatment of the",
"-25.539130584453233"
],
[
"fused and form a bulge in a manner unusual for cockroaches. The pronotum is large and covers the head and extends sideways to about the width of the body. There are setae on the dorsal surface of the pronotum and different species have different patterning, which may be impressed into the surface. The patterning may be surrounded by an aura which radiates out from the pattern, and at the side of the pronotum, uric acid may be stored in white or pale pink patches.\nThe smallest species is A. pumila at a length of 14 mm (0.55 in), and the largest A. bolliana",
"-25.52906179355341"
],
[
"due to ovarian cysts or pelvic inflammatory disease may be suspected. Examples of tumors in the left lower quadrant include colon cancer and ovarian tumor.\nThe LUQ may be painful or tender in the case of intestinal malrotation. The RUQ may be painful or tender in hepatitis, cholecystitis, and peptic ulcer. The RLQ, in particular the right inguinal region or right iliac fossa may be painful and tender in conditions such as appendicitis.",
"-25.52849377563689"
],
[
"Erythroplakia Signs and symptoms Although often the terms erythroplasia and erythroplakia are used synonymously, some sources distinguish them, stating that the latter is macular (flat) while the former is papular (bumpy).\nErythroplakia of the genital mucosae is often referred to as erythroplasia of Queyrat.\nThe most common areas in the mouth where erythroplakia is found are the floor of the mouth, buccal vestibule, the tongue, and the soft palate. It appears as a red macule or plaque with well-demarcated borders. The texture is characterized as soft and velvety. An adjacent area of leukoplakia may be found along with the",
"-25.50628395890817"
],
[
"of clots in pregnancy, including baseline thrombophillia, cesarean section, preeclampsia, etc. Clots usually develop in the left leg or the left iliac/ femoral venous system. Recently, there have been several case reports of May-Thurner Syndrome in pregnancy, where the right common iliac artery compresses the below left common iliac vein. Edema Edema, or swelling, of the feet is common during pregnancy, partly because the enlarging uterus compresses veins and lymphatic drainage from the legs. Metabolic During pregnancy, both protein metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism are affected. One kilogram of extra protein is deposited, with half going to the fetus and placenta,",
"-25.504151560831815"
],
[
"Pimea Description The genus Pimea is characterized by an expanded anterior end with a musculo-glandular organ in the form of an adhesive pad. The cutaneous longitudinal musculature is partially insunk into the mesenchyma and originates a retractor muscle associated to the musculo-glandular organ. The mesenchymal musculature is weak. The copulatory apparatus lacks adenodactyls and has an intra-antral penis papilla. Etymology The name Pimea comes from a pre-colonial Melanesian clan, the Pime, that lived in an area close to the type-locality. The specific epithet monticola comes from Latin mons, a mountain + -cola, dweller, inhabitant, thus meaning \"mountain dweller\".",
"-25.494215831189194"
],
[
"the triglyceride content in the sebum decreases so does the susceptibility of a person to the fungus. Cases like those are seen in postmenopausal women of whom suffer hormonal changes which can contribute to triglyceride reduction. In addition, increased sweat production as well as the presence of Pityrosporum ovale decreases the ability for M. audouinii to thrive. Pityrosporum ovale is an opportunistic lipophilic yeast that is a part of the human cutaneous flora in adults. In most cases of adult onset Tinea capitis due to M. audouinii, there is at least one predisposing factor such as immunocompromise (e.g., diabetes",
"-25.474517363705672"
],
[
"until we have these glands in our hand and have split them open with a knife, we cannot tell whether they are infected or not. The usual fumbling in the axilla which is practised by surgeons tells nothing. When the glands are a big as walnuts, any first year's student, can tell they are infected; but there is a stage -the earlier stage- when there are certainly affected, and yet to touch through layers of skin fat, nothing amiss, can be felt. As a result of this, I came to the conclusion, about three years ago, that in every case",
"-25.44502435333561"
],
[
"the bleb may be associated with an adjacent blocked sebaceous cyst.\nIts cause may be due to a blocked pore that leads to seepage of milk or serous fluid under the epidermis. This causes a white 'bump' that appears opaque and shiny. If the bleb continues to block the flow of milk out of the breast it may develop into a blocked milk duct or even mastitis.\nA nipple bleb is often treated by the woman herself since a warm saline soak and gentle washing may open the blister and cause it to drain.",
"-25.42503784348446"
],
[
"to require medical intervention.\nLeeches can be removed using a fingernail or other flat, blunt object to break the seal of the oral sucker (at the front end), repeating at the other end, then flicking the leech away.\nCommon, but medically inadvisable, removal techniques are to apply a lit cigarette, salt, soap, or vinegar to the leech. These cause the leech to detach quickly, but also to regurgitate its stomach contents into the wound, with a risk of infection. Leeches normally carry parasites in their digestive tracts, which cannot survive in humans and do not pose a threat; however, bacteria, viruses, and",
"-25.42230740148807"
],
[
"more time consuming and more technically difficult to place in some patients. As a PICC travels through the axilla, it can also become kinked, causing poor function. Tunneled lines While some central lines have their catheter pass through the skin and then directly into the vein, other central lines called \"tunneled catheters\" insert through the skin and then pass or \"tunnel\" a significant distance before inserting into the vein. This reduces the risk of infection, since bacteria from the skin surface are not able to travel directly into the vein. These catheters are often made of materials that resist infection",
"-25.38357728580013"
],
[
"and then slowly use their cilia to dump the lumps onto the lining of the mantle. This has its own cilia, which wash the lumps out through the opening between the valves. If the lophophore is clogged, the adductors snap the valves sharply, which creates a \"sneeze\" that clears the obstructions. In some inarticulate brachiopods the digestive tract is U-shaped and ends with an anus that eliminates solids from the front of the body wall. Other inarticulate brachiopods and all articulate brachiopods have a curved gut that ends blindly, with no anus. These animals bundle solid waste with mucus",
"-25.363253154733684"
],
[
"bursitis (also known as weaver's bottom) is inflammation of the synovial bursa located between the gluteus maximus muscle and the ischial tuberosity, and is usually caused by prolonged sitting on a hard surface. History Adoption of ischium into English-language medical literature dates back to c. 1640; the Latin term derives from Greek ἰσχίον iskhion meaning \"hip joint\". The division of the acetabulum into ischium (ἰσχίον) and ilium (λαγών, os lagonicum) is due to Galen, De ossibus. Galen, however, omits mention of the pubis as a separate bone. Dinosaurs The clade Dinosauria is divided into the Saurischia and Ornithischia based",
"-25.264669338124804"
],
[
"scutes are serrated.\nAdults of Cyclemys also develop a joint in the middle of their plastrons (known as a plastral hinge), enabling them to articulate the front and rear halves to some extent. Unlike the closely related Cuora, which can completely close its shell because of the hinge, Cyclemys plastral hinges only close the shell partially. The plastral hinge may also play a significant role in facilitating egg-laying in adult females.\nA distinguishing characteristic of the genus is the secondary division of the abdominal scutes (the middle pair of scutes in the plastron) due to the development of the plastral hinge as",
"-25.25813200790435"
],
[
"Pediculosis corporis Signs and symptoms Body lice are a nuisance in themselves and cause intense itching. They are also vectors (transmitters) of other diseases and can spread epidemic typhus, trench fever, and louse-borne relapsing fever. Risk factors Body lice are spread through prolonged direct physical contact with a person who has them or through contact with articles such as clothing, beds, bed linens, or towels that have been in contact with an infested person. In the United States, body lice infestations are rare, typically found mainly in homeless transient populations who do not have access to bathing and regular changes",
"-25.225913439047872"
],
[
"women, as repeated shaving can make the skin of the upper lip tougher and harder to pierce. The orbicularis oris (the sphincter muscle around the mouth) is used in the playing of brass and woodwind instruments; as a result, players of these instruments tend to have a larger muscle around the mouth and may experience more discomfort during the piercing process.\nAs with similar piercings, monroes can cause long-term damage to the gums and teeth. The back-disk of metal jewellery worn in this piercing rubs against them, potentially resulting in gum recession or damage to tooth enamel. Plastic labret-studs are available",
"-25.21365654111287"
],
[
"the axilla is often damaged from the pressure of a crutch...In these cases the radial is the nerve most frequently implicated; the ulnar nerve suffers next in frequency.\"\nAn uncommon type of axillary crutches is the spring-loaded crutch. The underarm pad is a curved design that is open in the front with the grips for the hands shaped for maximum comfort and to reduce the prevalence of overuse injuries. These crutches also contain a spring mechanism at the bottom. The idea behind this design is to allow the user to propel themselves further, resulting in quicker movement from place to place,",
"-25.209241999604274"
],
[
"Glochid Reaction to the glochidia Most cacti possess spines, some large enough to cause serious wounds. Glochids however, though smaller, commonly induce more troublesome, more persistent, dermatological manifestations in humans. Though minute, glochids commonly are barbed and once they have penetrated the skin barbed glochids are practically impossible to dislodge without leaving scraps of foreign material in the wound.\nImplantation of glochidia in the skin does sometimes cause immediate irritation, but not always, as one may deduce from the presentation of patients with granulomatous lesions around glochidia, patients who have no recollection of the penetration that caused the acute injury, even",
"-25.202267497836147"
],
[
"identify the extent of muscle damage, as C. perfringens may be at work in deeper fascial layers below the skin. Unlike other anaerobic infections, discharge in these infections is often not purulent (filled with pus). Instead, the discharge is often described as \"sweetly putrid\" or \"dishwater pus\" because it is much thinner than normal pus. This is due to the lysis of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, caused by the lecithinases and other toxins released by Clostridium species.\nSoil-borne anaerobes are particularly well-adapted to surviving harsh conditions. Often, a scarcity of nutrition and competition for resources",
"-25.19403065401275"
],
[
"Rickets Signs and symptoms Signs and symptoms of rickets can include bone tenderness, and a susceptibility for bone fractures particularly greenstick fractures. Early skeletal deformities can arise in infants such as soft, thinned skull bones – a condition known as craniotabes, which is the first sign of rickets; skull bossing may be present and a delayed closure of the fontanelles.\nYoung children may have bowed legs and thickened ankles and wrists; older children may have knock knees. Spinal curvatures of kyphoscoliosis or lumbar lordosis may be present. The pelvic bones may be deformed. A condition known as rachitic rosary can result",
"-25.15221561852377"
],
[
"other symptoms of a large mass inside the pelvis, or until it begins to extend out of the pelvis. Even a relatively large SCT may be missed, if it is internal, because the bony pelvis conceals and protects it. Mediastinal tumors, including teratomas, are similarly concealed and protected by the rib cage.\nSome SCTs are discovered when a child begins to talk at about age 2 years and complains of their bottom hurting or feeling \"poopy\" when they ride in a car seat.\nOther tumors can occur in the sacrococcygeal and/or presacral regions and hence must be ruled out to",
"-25.149287463340443"
],
[
"much like burping, but helps the body pass gas through the anus, not the mouth. Bacteria present in the intestinal tract cause gas to be expelled from the anus. They produce the gas as food is digested and moved from the small intestine. This gas builds up and causes swelling or bloating in the abdominal area before it is released. Constipation A common gastrointestinal problem is constipation—infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, or strain during the movements—which causes serious cases of bloating. Since most cases of constipation are temporary, simple lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and increasing one's intake",
"-25.148482904420234"
],
[
"where the legs attach. In many millipedes, these plates are fused to varying degrees, sometimes forming a single cylindrical ring. The plates are typically hard, being impregnated with calcium salts. Because they lack a waxy cuticle and can't close their permanently open spiracles, millipedes are susceptible to water loss and must spend most of their time in moist or humid environments.\nThe first segment behind the head is legless and known as a collum (from the Latin for neck or collar). The second, third, and fourth body segments bear a single pair of legs each and are known as \"haplosegments\" (the",
"-25.146102517610416"
]
] |
2yar61 | Why are universities horizontal buildings and not towers? | [
"Once you build a building more than 3-4 stories tall each additional floor become far more expensive to build/maintain. In some places where space is very scarce it would be more efficient but most places, particularly in the US it is not so they build multiple 2-4 story buildings.",
"Theories in education show that universities as \"villages\" instead of compounds are better for education. (Source Mary woods Thomas Jefferson and uva) Essentially, the multiplicity of buildings and the quad and gardens are more pleasant to hang out in and more conducive to learning. Also, a second reason, a \"university\" is a collection of \"colleges\". Colleges are specific schools within a larger institution. (Which is why they often have separate names, ie MIT is a university with a \" Sloane school of management \" within, or within \"Harvard university\" there is \"Harvard college\" and \"harvard business school\" and \"Harvard medical school\") Essentially each college is a small self-contained school with its own dean, its own funding, and it's own admissions, etc etc. Therefore, although the university is large, each individual school is not sufficiently large enough to have a tower. Finally, horizontal buildings are easier to enlarge as that part of the school expands. (Imagine if the university tower had biology department on floors 10-12, and then they get a donation to expand that department, they would have to fight with the medical school on floors 13-15 and chemistry which was on for 9. Lastly, imagine trying to move 30,000 students to their individual classes all around the building at the same time... Elevators would be crazy. My own university, SAIC haa several towers. Elevators are a nightmare. Each tower is 8-12 stories, I need to budget at least 15 extra minutes just for elevators. And our school had just 3000 students. Imagine 30000...",
"So that they don't have too much space for parking. Federal law states any university or junior college MUST maintain a 10:1 student to parking space ratio. edit: ok I guess it's not funny to anyone else how shitty most school's parking situation is.",
"As people have said, land and cost efficiency. If you ever go to a school in the middle of a city, you'll find that, as land gets more scarce, buildings get taller. Like, the two buildings I have classes in are both in the 10-15 story range.",
"When land is cheap, it is easier to build out than up. Most university started out on large parcels of land out in the country, only to have cities encroach on them later.",
"It's less expensive to expand horizontally rather than vertically. Besides, you wouldn't want all those college kids jumping out of high windows what with all those loans...",
"Because, tall staircases and elevators are not efficient ways to move many people, traveling in different directions, quickly from one place to another."
] | [
[
"identical high-rise buildings. One striking feature of these buildings is that although their roofs are all at the same apparent height (sky level), the absolute heights of the buildings vary in accordance with their placement on the undulating landscape in which the university is located: the campus is at the edge of a green belt on high ground adjacent to the Ruhr valley.\nThe arrangement of the buildings and the (concrete) paths and bridges between them was originally meant to resemble a \"harbour of knowledge\", with the buildings symbolising vessels, by architect Helmut Hentrich.\nThe campus undergoes heavy modernisation and extension efforts,",
"-32.46090100915171"
],
[
"University Towers University Towers is a tall residential apartment building in Ann Arbor, Michigan. It stands at 536 South Forest Avenue. The building was constructed in 1965 and stands at 19 floors, with 240 units/rooms. The high-rise also contains a fitness center.\nIt was designed in the international architectural style, using concrete and glass as its main materials.\nUniversity Towers started a major renovation project in 2014–2015. Improvements to the lobby, amenities, resident apartments and services have been modernized. Also, for reasons that remain unknown, the 13th floor of the building was removed. The total project completion is estimated for the summer",
"-32.19188595926971"
],
[
"structure is the towers on both side of the entrance, at the western side. These towers, covered with small domes, are used not only for climbing to the second floor but also as bell towers. Such type of twin towers at western sides of the buildings is common until the first years following Christ. These towers, which can also be seen in early Byzantium era churches, have also been integral parts of Romanic, Gothic, and Baroque cathedrals in European architecture since the days of Carolingian Empire. It is also possible to see in Greek churches of 19th century located in",
"-32.010925394599326"
],
[
"on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a steel frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete.\nModern skyscrapers' walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterised by large surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames and curtain walls. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a small surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a tubular structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to",
"-31.859902913914993"
],
[
"on the West. The towers are designed with a load-bearing exterior concrete screen wall. Windows are deeply inset. The buildings are designed so that it looks shorter than its actual length. The University Apartments are in a high density residential community; most of the buildings immediately surrounding the complex were part of Weese's rowhouse project and were built around the same time. Trees line the outer perimeter of the site. The towers, each 469 × 55 × 94 feet (143 × 17 × 29 m), are separated by a 85-foot (26 m) wide central garden court. The garden court has a large pool with a fountain and two rectangular planter",
"-31.33724277591682"
],
[
"for a single tower or towers serving as an exclamation.\nAt the University of Pittsburgh, Charles Klauder was commissioned by University of Pittsburgh chancellor John Gabbert Bowman to design a tall building in the form of a Gothic tower. The Cathedral of Learning (1926–37), a steel-frame, limestone-clad, 42-story skyscraper, is the world's second tallest university building and second tallest Gothic-styled building. The tower also contain a half-acre Gothic hall whose mass is supported only by its 52-foot (16 m) tall arches. It has been described as the literal culmination of late Gothic Revival architecture. It is accompanied by the campus's other",
"-31.133170507615432"
],
[
"have a particularly small surface area of what are conventionally thought of as walls. Because the walls are not load-bearing most skyscrapers are characterized by surface areas of windows made possible by the concept of steel frame and curtain wall. However, skyscrapers can also have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls and have a small surface area of windows.\nThe concept of a skyscraper is a product of the industrialized age, made possible by cheap fossil fuel derived energy and industrially refined raw materials such as steel and concrete. The construction of skyscrapers was enabled by steel frame construction that surpassed",
"-30.8042196535971"
],
[
"and air to reach the streets encouraged a stepped or ziggurat approach to skyscraper design; this \"set-back\" style often made unrestricted use of the 25 percent of the site allowed by law to complete with a very tall tower. This encouraged a diversity of buildings, while maintaining an element of harmony and consistency of style. The Paramount Building and 120 Wall Street, for example, were constructed in the set-back style without towers, partially because the limited size of the sites would have made the towers relatively narrow and – when packed with the necessary elevators and service facilities – economically",
"-30.79237842548173"
],
[
"support their weight, resist wind and earthquakes, and protect occupants from fire. Yet they must also be conveniently accessible, even on the upper floors, and provide utilities and a comfortable climate for the occupants. The problems posed in skyscraper design are considered among the most complex encountered given the balances required between economics, engineering, and construction management.\nOne common feature of skyscrapers is a steel framework from which curtain walls are suspended, rather than load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Most skyscrapers have a steel frame that enables them to be built taller than typical load-bearing walls of reinforced concrete. Skyscrapers usually",
"-30.679600757419394"
],
[
"two small towers located at the ends, on the roofs, which emulate the layout of the original Palace of the Two Towers, on which the current building was erected. They are quadrangular and serve as light bodies, although they have oval vanes that break the linearity of the general layout.\nThe two main facades are projected without relief, except for the covers, the pediments and the cornice that tops the building, on which appears a parapet that hides the roof. These two facades, which have very similar layouts, are the northern, which serves as access, and the southern, which overlooks the",
"-30.392255344544537"
],
[
"floors each named the Humanities building, these blocks have interconnected walkways to the other faculties within the quad. These structures upon completion could be seen as inverted pyramids or huge boats but the design was chosen due to consideration given to the humid tropical climate so that each floor provides protection to the one below.\nThere are pedestrians walkways and pergolas around the campus providing movement within offices around the quadrangle, there are also piazzas, gardens and terraces. The quad is enclosed on each side by roads and beyond the roads are other faculty buildings.\nRoad Two, on the southern end",
"-30.35243421679479"
],
[
"constructed over the transept, rivaling or exceeding in height the towers of the facade.\nThe towers were usually the last part of the Cathedral to be constructed. They were often built many years or decades after the rest of the building. Sometimes, by the time the towers were built, the plans had changed, or the money had run out. As a result, some Gothic cathedrals had just one tower, or two towers of different heights or styles. On the other hand, Laon Cathedral, begun just before Notre-Dame, boasted five towers; two on the facade, two on the transept, and a central",
"-30.23426800942252"
],
[
"towers included many structural engineering innovations in skyscraper design and construction, which allowed the buildings to reach new heights and become the tallest in the world. Traditionally, skyscrapers used a skeleton of columns distributed throughout the interior to support building loads, with interior columns disrupting the floor space. The framed-tube concept, earlier introduced by Bangladeshi-American structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan, was a major innovation, allowing open floor plans and more space to rent. The buildings used high-strength, load-bearing perimeter steel columns which acted as Vierendeel trusses. Although the columns themselves were lightweight, they were spaced closely together, forming a strong,",
"-30.233308880589902"
],
[
"the city center and thus most tenants of skyscrapers are of these classes. Some skyscrapers have been built in areas where the bedrock is near surface, because this makes constructing the foundation cheaper, for example this is the case in Midtown Manhattan and Lower Manhattan, in New York City, but not in-between these two parts of the city.\nToday, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is expensive, as in the centers of big cities, because they provide such a high ratio of rentable floor space per unit area of land.\nOne problem with skyscrapers is car parking. In the largest",
"-30.21274878398981"
],
[
"offices, or shops. There is no clear difference between a tower block and a skyscraper, although a building with fifty or more stories is generally considered a skyscraper. High-rise buildings became possible with the invention of the elevator (lift) and cheaper, more abundant building materials. Their structural system usually is made of reinforced concrete and steel.\nA low-rise building and mid-rise buildings have fewer storeys, but the limits are not always clear. Emporis defines a low-rise as \"an enclosed structure below 35 metres [115 feet] which is divided into regular floor levels.\" The city of Toronto defines a mid-rise as a",
"-30.183287946565542"
],
[
"resist wind, seismic, and other lateral loads. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure, and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, which are sometimes also structurally required. Early skyscrapers In 1857, Elisha Otis introduced the safety elevator, allowing convenient and safe passenger movement to upper floors. Another crucial development was the use of a steel frame instead of stone or brick, otherwise the walls on the lower floors on a tall building would be too thick to be practical. An early development in this area was Oriel Chambers in Liverpool, England. It",
"-30.103779209413915"
],
[
"skyscraper-like forms of their own. Chasin described a 2004 piece from the series in these terms: “A magical reversal thereby takes place: the physical buildings read visually as a darkened background offset by architectural contours from startling blue-hued visions of skyscrapers carved from atmosphere. Sky becomes building; building, sky—or to invoke K. Michael Hays in a different context, ‘not architecture but evidence that it exists.’” Wegner has also often pushed the construction of his works in an architectural direction, presenting paintings in the form of leaning columns, complex lattices, and multi-layered scrims. Huldisch noted that “[h]is stacks, grids, and lattice",
"-30.065828901017085"
],
[
"the building, which only occurs when a cathedral is constructed at the maximum height, the cathedral can be reached without any stress, the cathedral is full, and when there are 2,000 people in the building at that moment.\nAchieving a \"Tower\" status with the Office Building unlocks the possibility of building a \"Commercial Building\". The site permits construction of a higher lobby at the ground floor, but doesn't permit the construction of building offices, condominiums, medical centers, security offices, nor recycling centers, allows up to 3 cinemas in the building (whereas the Office Building only allowed one), as well as a",
"-29.97536662996572"
],
[
"towers is constructed of pre-cast reinforced concrete. The lower sections are faced with polished granite. All aluminum work has a dark anodized finish in a medium gray tone. A glass-enclosed walkway connects the four-story building to the towers. Like the towers, the low building's facade is made of concrete and glass. Overall, the exterior lacks ornamentation, instead displaying a stark functionality. Bands of windows wrap around the towers; corner windows have rounded edges. The bases of the towers have arcades with entrances set back beneath a covered area supported by piers. The tops of the towers are distinguished by metal",
"-29.88462306492147"
],
[
"Mathematics Tower, Manchester Architecture The building was constructed in 1968 and designed by local architect firm, Scherrer and Hicks. The tower had two contrasting façades in juxtaposition; the west-facing side had a concrete brutalist exterior while the east side was clad in windows, which jutted out at varied angles. Both façades represented the current architectural movements of the era; modernism with flush glass panes and brutalism, marked by the use of concrete. History In 2004, the University of Manchester was formed with the merger of the Victoria University of Manchester and University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. The",
"-29.81664449023083"
],
[
"the western end, the walls were supported by buttresses built directly against the walls; in the center, completed later, the walls were supported by two steps of flying buttresses. In the last century of construction, the buttresses were able to cross the same distance with a single stone arch. The towers on the west were more stately and solemn, in the classic Gothic style, while the eastern elements of the Cathedral, with its combination of rose windows, spires, buttresses and pinnacles, belonged to more elaborate and decorative style, called the Gothic rayonnant. \nOther Paris churches soon",
"-29.775795263289183"
],
[
"it can lead to structural weakness. To adjust for this imbalance, the towers on each side of the cathedral were opened by adding windows, reducing the weight they needed to support. The upper portion also features heavy Gothic decoration, a marked contrast to the simple geometric designed common to Tuscan Romanesque architecture.\nWhile most of the sculpture decorating the lower level of the lavish façade was sculpted by Giovanni Pisano and assistant depicting prophets, philosophers and apostles, the more Gothic statuary adorning the upper portion—including the half-length statues of the patriarchs in the niches around the rose window—are works of later,",
"-29.74971496037324"
],
[
"included architects such as Louis Sullivan, William Le Baron Jenney and John Root, whose designs combined architectural aesthetic theory with practical commercial sense. They favoured placing rich, ornate designs on the outside of skyscrapers at the ground level and simpler, plainer ornamentation on the upper levels, with strong vertical lines. The roofs of their skyscrapers typically formed a comprehensible outline and structure when seen at a distance as part of the city skyline. The intent was to draw the observer's eye upwards, celebrating what Sullivan termed the \"lofty\" nature of the skyscraper, but not wasting resources on intricate detailing unlikely",
"-29.73878094984684"
],
[
"measures 3 metres 70 by 3 metres 20. The cathedral towers The cathedral has two towers. The north tower Some have likened the north tower to a dungeon rather than the tower of a cathedral and it retains some parts of the original Romanesque tower. Construction of the tower started in 1520 during the episcopy of Mathurin de Plédran (1504-1521) but the tower was not completed due to a lack of funds. Only four stories were built plus the ground floor. The tower is supported by two large buttresses and each of its four floors is lit by two",
"-29.7236603863239"
],
[
"towers with their characteristic domes are exactly one meter different in height, they are almost equal: the north tower is 98.57 metres (323.4 ft) while the south tower is only 98.45 metres (323.0 ft), 12 centimetres (4.7 in) less. The original design called for pointed spires to top the towers, much like Cologne Cathedral, but those were never built because of lack of money. Instead, the two domes were constructed during the Renaissance and do not match the architectural style of the building, however they have become a distinctive landmark of Munich. With an enclosed space of about 200,000 m³, with 150,000 m³",
"-29.615048503386788"
],
[
"towers are erected and supported by cables anchored in the ground. Temporary cables fly from each side to support arch segments as they are constructed. When the arches are almost complete a jacking bridge is placed over or beneath the gap to force the arches apart, whence the final section is constructed in place or lifted into position.\nIn some cases, this type of arch has been created by constructing cantilevers from each side, with the shoreside ends bolted securely down into heavy piers. The incomplete channel ends are then constructed toward each other and either filled by construction or by",
"-29.60365113604348"
],
[
"allow skyscrapers to take on various shapes, no longer needing to be rectangular and box-shaped. The first building to employ the tube structure was the Chestnut De-Witt apartment building, this building is considered to be a major development in modern architecture. These new designs opened an economic door for contractors, engineers, architects, and investors, providing vast amounts of real estate space on minimal plots of land. Over the next fifteen years, many towers were built by Fazlur Rahman Khan and the \"Second Chicago School\", including the hundred story John Hancock Center and the massive 442 m (1,450 ft) Willis Tower. Other pioneers",
"-29.527799756499007"
],
[
"square towers. They are both three stories high topped with silver domes and a Christian cross on top of these. Both towers have windows at each level. Access to the towers is through either of two small wooden doors located in the interior northwest and southwest corners of the church vestibule.\nEntry to the cathedral is through a tall pair of wooden doors in a style reminiscent of church doors of Middle Ages Europe. There are two round columns to each side of these doors, as well as rectangular wooden windows to both sides. Atop the second level of the",
"-29.52081903014914"
],
[
"towers make sense in a city built on a flat terrain, but Pittsburgh already had a high view from a nearby mountain top\".\nThe stayed-cable design employed by the two bridges was only just coming into vogue in the post-World War II era. Further, the bridges were to be built using segments of pre-stressed concrete, another emerging technology. The expertise for the innovative bridge concepts found in both schemes probably came from Czech engineer Jaroslav Polivka, whom Wright had hired to assist in calculations for the Guggenheim Museum. In 1947–48, Polivka promoted, and was later joined by Wright in developing, an",
"-29.496759322641083"
],
[
"to call attention to the increasingly complex three-dimensional shape of the skyscraper, in contrast to earlier styles which could be critiqued, as historian Larry Ford suggests, as being merely \"short buildings made taller with additional stories\". Windows were de-emphasised in favour of creating a strong sense of shape and mass, the surrounding walls treated as textured fabric, dressing the building underneath. Skyscrapers of this period typically lost their ornamental horizontal divisions, being broken up by physical changes in their shape as one looked up the building, the whole forming a striking silhouette.\nIn New York, the 1916 act to allow light",
"-29.49436075775884"
],
[
"masonry.\nEach tower contains a pair of 33.75-foot-wide (10.29 m) Gothic-style pointed arches, through which the roadways run. The arch openings are 117 feet (36 m) tall. The top of the towers are 159 feet (48 m) above the floor of each arch opening. The floor level of the arches is located 119.25 feet (36.35 m) above mean water.\nThe towers rest on underwater caissons, giant upside-down boxes made of southern yellow pine. The Manhattan side's caisson is slightly larger, measuring 172 by 102 feet (52 by 31 m) and located 78.5 feet (23.9 m) below high water, while the Brooklyn side's caisson measures 168 by 102 feet",
"-29.484211241775483"
],
[
"distinctive pairs of skyscrapers.",
"-29.478714358701836"
],
[
"An unusual feature of the structure is that it faces north-south rather than the traditional east-west direction of most cathedrals. The restricted hillside site was probably the reason for the placement of the building. The site is accessed from the northeast street frontage, and the altar faces southwest.\nThe cathedral is built on a rocky spur of Castle Hill, across from the equally commanding St James Anglican Cathedral, overlooking the central business district of the city. The lower slopes of the hill are covered with grass and small shrubs which cling to the rough terrain. A rock-faced retaining wall edges the",
"-29.477302769199014"
],
[
"Most of the buildings are four and five stories tall with the tallest structure being a 175-foot (53 m) clock tower. Included on the campus are an amphitheater for 3,000 people; parking garages for 12,500 cars; athletic fields, and hiking and biking trails with 6,000 trees that connect to public trails outside the campus. 60 percent of the land area was left green. At the time a Sprint official said Sprint opted for a low rise building rather than a tall structure because \"communication doesn't happen as well when offices are vertical instead of horizontal.\" When it was",
"-29.361646675795782"
],
[
"itself does not assume the typical cruciform shape of most medieval Gothic cathedrals. Conversely, the secondary altars, or side-chapels, divide the cathedral in two down its length, providing a slight outcrop visible from the exterior. The building can be further subdivided down its length by the nine bays framed by the buttresses on the exterior of the building.\nThe cathedral's tower supports a large iron spire located over its west entrance. At its tallest point, the tower reaches 260 feet (79 m) or approximately 26 stories above the ground, surpassing the height of many of the surrounding buildings. The scale of the",
"-29.343550414778292"
],
[
"west side, and below grade on the north side of the building, the variation being due to the shallow slope at the site. The complete structure, including the four external staircases, could be considered five separate buildings, because the stair towers were detached from the main building by about four inches. Earthquake bracing used in the building's second through fifth floors consisted of shear walls, but a rarely used slip joint technique used with the concrete walls at the first floor kept them from being part of that system. Damage to the building, including ceiling tiles, telephone equipment, and elevator",
"-29.324048118083738"
],
[
"the proposed bridge's engineering, it was found that the steel alone could support the towers. It was ultimately decided that the supporting structure of the towers should be made entirely of steel, with the granite serving only as a facade. The towers would have also contained elevators to carry sightseers to the top of each tower. However, the facades were postponed in 1929 during the Great Depression. The entire weight of the bridge was supported by the steel structure, and the purely decorative masonry could be added at a later date.\nEven though the steel towers had been left that way",
"-29.266787462867796"
],
[
"skyscrapers' structural material. Its malleability allowed it to be formed into a variety of shapes, and it could be riveted, ensuring strong connections. The simplicity of a steel frame eliminated the inefficient part of a shear wall, the central portion, and consolidated support members in a much stronger fashion by allowing both horizontal and vertical supports throughout. Among steel's drawbacks is that as more material must be supported as height increases, the distance between supporting members must decrease, which in turn increases the amount of material that must be supported. This becomes inefficient and uneconomic for buildings above 40 stories",
"-29.213684835704044"
],
[
"and cathedrals possess walls which may be up to 12 feet thick. They normally consist of a layered stone exterior and rubble infill.",
"-29.20178496686276"
],
[
"placed at varying locations in the towers, and two-story windows fill the side bays. Widest and tallest are the windows placed in the rear-side projections and above the entrances on the facade. Both towers are topped with pointed roofs, surrounded by ornamental pointed roofs of far smaller sizes, while the roof of the main part of the church is a steep gable. Despite extensive Gothic Revival detailing, such as the pointed-arch windows and doorways, the building also retains some elements of the Romanesque Revival style, including the false buttresses and columns around the main entrance, as well",
"-29.073838172713295"
],
[
"All buildings have two storeys, simply cut segmented arched windows, stepped corners and capital-like recesses.",
"-29.069313475047238"
],
[
"the adjacent Christ the Teacher Chapel by noted architect Pietro Belluschi, particularly in the shape of the cupola.\" He also noted that elements of the tower were designed to blend in with the rest of the campus: \"the tower also echoes the appearance of other, recent buildings at the university with the use of a prominent cornice and belt course.\"\nThe tower has religious elements, including the Latin religious phrase Ave crux spes unica (\"Hail the Cross, our only hope\") that is carved above the base's entrance. The brushed stainless steel cross with a small glass globe in the center, at",
"-29.029326273477636"
],
[
"site. With the exception of the four-storeyed tower, the building is two storeys tall and sits on a base that forms a third storey, visible at the rear and sides.\nAll four facades are composed of variations of the same classically derived elements and motifs and are symmetrical except for the location of the tower. Each facade is divided into three bays, the central bay being larger than the two peripheral bays.\nThe central bay sits proud on the front and rear elevations and recedes slightly on the east and west elevations. Each central bay is further divided into three parts and",
"-28.934008730873757"
],
[
"may be built over a parking garage which have large doors on one side. Hotels may have a tall ground floor to allow for a grand entrance or ballrooms. Office buildings may have retail stores on the ground floor with continuous display windows.\nTraditional seismic design assumes that the lower stories of a building are stronger than the upper stories; where this is not the case—if the lower story is less strong than the upper structure—the structure will not respond to earthquakes in the expected fashion. Using modern design methods, it is possible to take a weak lower story into account.",
"-28.926917377619247"
],
[
"a massive buttress, which stands almost 8 m above the ground level and projects from 6.5–9 m in front of the towers themselves.\nDespite their proximity, the two towers differ greatly in construction, a difference that extends to the breastwork as well, pointing to a construction at different dates. The southern tower is an irregularly quadrilateral two-story structure. Its masonry is very uneven, including several stone pillars that have been inserted into it, often not fully, and its counterfort is made of small, irregularly fitted stones. Its interior arrangement, with its spacious upper story, large windows, and westward-facing balcony, suggests a",
"-28.83874603190634"
],
[
"face, narrow glass block windows and chrome spandrels give an extra sense of height to the tower.\nThis verticality, while no longer as prominent of a feature, can still be seen elsewhere on the school. On the front of building above the main entrance, windows once stretched vertically between the spandrels, but have since been replaced with smaller horizontal windows and the remaining cavity was filled with an insulating stucco material. Between the windows, a band of concrete emblazoned with the school's name extends to the top of the building. Originally, all the windows had a vertical effect, but the replacement",
"-28.8235970853857"
],
[
"Skyscraper A skyscraper is a continuously habitable high-rise building that has over 40 floors and is taller than approximately 150 m (492 ft). Historically, the term first referred to buildings with 10 to 20 floors in the 1880s. The definition shifted with advancing construction technology during the 20th century. Skyscrapers may host offices, residential spaces, and retail spaces. For buildings above a height of 300 m (984 ft), the term supertall skyscrapers can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m (1,969 ft) are classified as megatall skyscrapers.\nOne common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls. These curtain walls either bear",
"-28.808411557460204"
],
[
"consists of a long grouping of structures stretching from east to west: the 105 Street Building (Building 5), the 106 Street Building (Building 6), the 107 Street Building (Building 7), and the Christenson Family Centre for Sport and Wellness (Building 8). Between each of these buildings is grouping of four concrete spires which gives the campus its distinctive look. Each of these groupings of towers forms a terminating vista both when viewed from the north or the south, interrupting the streets after which the buildings are named. The towers which terminate 107 Street also feature public clock between the spires",
"-28.804712264594855"
],
[
"whole with it, but the lower part did not otherwise contain buildings.\nIn the wall that separated the upper and lower parts was a gate that led to the upper part. The upper part did not have buildings, but there remains a pathway to the stairs up to gate IV, which is 2 m (6 ft 7 in) off the ground, right next to tower 3. Towers The first nine towers are 20 to 25 m (66 to 82 ft) high. In all ten towers, the floors and stairs inside were made of wood, while external stairs were made of stone. Half of the towers",
"-28.766889223246835"
],
[
"norm. In England, Germany and Scandinavia this is often the arrangement, but an English cathedral may also be surmounted by an enormous tower at the crossing. Smaller churches usually have just one tower, but this may also be the case at larger buildings, such as Salisbury Cathedral or Ulm Minster in Ulm, Germany, completed in 1890 and possessing the tallest spire in the world, slightly exceeding that of Lincoln Cathedral, the tallest spire that was actually completed during the medieval period, at 160 metres (520 ft). Sculpture and decoration The exteriors and interiors of Gothic cathedrals, particularly in France, were lavishly",
"-28.758039181120694"
],
[
"in the world, the nation, the state/province/prefecture, city, etc., has often been considered something to brag about. Often, builders of high-rise buildings have used transmitter antennas to lay claim to having the tallest building. A historic example was the \"tallest building\" feud between the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building in New York, New York.\nSome towers have an observation deck accessible to tourists. An example is the Ostankino Tower in Moscow, which was completed in 1967 on the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution to demonstrate the technical abilities of the Soviet Union. As very tall radio towers of",
"-28.74851127236616"
],
[
"towers are connected by steel outriggers at four points at levels 39 and 41. Each tower is supported by external walls and internal core walls forming a three dimensional structured frame.\nThe leaning tower has been designed using a distinctive diagrid structure with flat slabs which not only adds structural stability to the building without the need for internal columns but also allows for a permeable surface with large windows. This allows maximum airflow and light which contributes to energy savings in heating and cooling and also provides access to the balcony for an awesome view.\nThe towers will be constructed on",
"-28.717581331031397"
],
[
"14, and 16 which run through campus. Architecture Most campus facilities feature red or brown brick façades with the exceptions of Elliott and Pruis Halls, each made of Indiana limestone. Completed in 1899 as the university's first building, the Frank A. Bracken Administration Building was built in Neoclassical style with a yellow brick façade. Most campus facilities built prior to 1960 feature Collegiate Gothic architecture, including Ball Gymnasium, Burris Laboratory School, Fine Arts Building, and L. A. Pittenger Student Center. Other examples include Burkhardt Building, North Quad Building, and Lucina Hall.\nSeveral modern campus buildings (early-1960s to early-1980s) have been built",
"-28.706226654932834"
],
[
"upper floor. The upper part of the tower is narrower than the lower one, and the width of the walls also decreases to 0.7-0.8 meters. The floors are connected by a wooden ladder. The upper part of the tower ends in a so-called crown with roof. On each side the tower has holes. The Svan towers are either rebuilt into residential buildings or are vacant.",
"-28.687158488930436"
],
[
"located in different parts of the church - on the sides, over the transept and, in very special cases, over the straight section of the apse, as in the churches of the city of Sahagún in León. This placement was because, being built of brick (a material less consistent than stone), the builders had to locate the towers in the strongest, more resistant section (usually at the apses). A façade made up of two towers was not very common and usually seen only in temples of great importance.\nTowers served as steeples, especially in the Romanesque styles in Castile and León,",
"-28.67804099775094"
],
[
"general. Skyscrapers were seen as an expression of rational engineering, the perfect buildings for mankind to live in, as celebrated in artist Louis Lozowick's lithographs. Some other proponents of skyscrapers likened them to medieval cathedrals, symbols of the modern age. Poems depicted skyscrapers as objects of sublime, rational beauty, Ferris describing them as \"buildings like crystals, walls of translucent glass, sheer glass blocks sheathing a steel grill\". At Chicago's Century of Progress exposition in 1933, skyscrapers and technology were portrayed as a solution for America's current and future problems. The French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier acclaimed New York in 1935 as",
"-28.66471358560375"
],
[
"building, with more space provided by a modern addition. The main building consists of a T-shaped tower and its base. The tower is split between the building's cross-bar that serves as the skyscraper's spine, and the rest of the tower which projects from the spine asymmetrically. The office floors are set back from 12th Street about 20 feet (6.1 m) and is set back on its western side about 40 feet (12 m).\nThe tower's facade is made up of vertical piers of limestone and horizontal spandrels of matte buff brick. The piers protrude 15 inches (38 cm) outward from the rest of the",
"-28.655026013497263"
],
[
"require the towers to be 170 meters above the deck. The towers would have been taller than surrounding buildings when the 60-meter deck height was added. This was considered visually overpowering. The span requirements were too long for a conventional girder bridge. A suspension bridge design would have required anchorages that interfered with the foundations of buildings along the sides of the rivers.\nThe selected design combined cable-stayed bridges with a truss girder for both bridges. This option, called partially cable-stayed, \"draws half of its support from the girders and half from a cable-stayed system that can rely on (shorter towers).\"",
"-28.65240609040484"
],
[
"towers support the lights and are a fundamental part of the image of the building. The most striking aspect of the stadium is its night lighting. The towers are covered with translucent plastic sheets and are illuminated in their entirety. In addition, the separation of the glass and metal floors is marked by a series of small lights that surround the façades.",
"-28.641052954626502"
],
[
"cathedral is formed by three towers. The front two form the front, while the third one in the back, the southern tower, is with its 100.65 metres (330.2 ft) height the tallest church tower in Moravia, and the second tallest church tower in the Czech Republic.",
"-28.609502537176013"
],
[
"and lower outer towers are made from a different type of stone and, as stated, the towers have a number of architectural differences, suggesting that they were made specifically for the 'new' Tournament Bridge (See photographs). During work on the central pier it was found that some of the hidden infill work is vermiculate ashlar from the 'old' bridge.\nThe cast iron sections of the arches are numbered and some of the sequence are absent, suggesting that these missing sections may have been damaged previously beyond repair and were not used therefore in the 'new' bridge. The Tournament Bridge and WWII",
"-28.593201876268722"
],
[
"university's governing body). It moved to its present buildings on Elvet Hill in 1964, becoming one of the first of the university's \"Hill\" colleges. The college buildings are in a modernist style, having been designed by architect Sir Basil Spence and arranged in a semi-circular arrangement surrounding a central lawn. The original design was intended to represent the hand of God holding a jewel, with the curved corridors as the fingers, the straight corridors as his thumb, and a small chapel as the jewel. However, financial constraints prevented the chapel from ever being built and later extensions to the straight",
"-28.592950268066488"
],
[
"building is the distinctive Gothic-arch windows, placed in a variety of shapes and\nsizes. The main facades each have a broad three-part central Gothic window, with a single narrow Gothic window to each side. A third elevation has another three-part Gothic window with two single, separate, narrow Gothic windows to one side, and the remaining facade has three single narrow Gothic windows. The tower also has one window. Thirteen of the windows contain stained glass, eight of which are original to the initial construction of the building. The stained glass windows have pointed arch tops with wood molding. The eight\nwindows depict",
"-28.5800948132528"
],
[
"can be recognized by its numerous skyscrapers. Some of these structures, such as the Calgary Tower and the Saddledome are unique to Calgary. Office buildings tend to concentrate within the commercial core, while residential towers occur most frequently within the Downtown West End and the Beltline, south of downtown. These buildings are iconographic of the city's booms and busts, and it is easy to recognize the various phases of development that have shaped the image of downtown. The first skyscraper building boom occurred during the late 1950s and continued through to the 1970s. After 1980, during the recession, many high-rise",
"-28.57060633096262"
],
[
"completed towers (with the exception of that at the central crossing) all consist of two stacked vaulted chambers pierced by lancet openings. They transition from square profiles at their bases to elaborated octagons at their peaks. Medieval artist Villard de Honnecourt made detailed drawings of one of the towers of Laon circa 1230; in his eyes, the towers at Laon perfectly utilized the geometry and \"true measure\" ideally expressed in Gothic architecture. The two western towers contain life-size stone statues of sixteen oxen in their upper arcades, seemingly commemorating the bullocks who hauled equipment and materials during the cathedral's construction.",
"-28.55472995477612"
],
[
"the paired-tower form, unusual in that the towers do not indicate the location of the aisles, but extend well beyond them, screening the dimensions and profile of the building.\nThe west front rises in three distinct stages, each clearly defined by a horizontal course. This horizontal emphasis is counteracted by six strongly projecting buttresses defining the cross-sectional divisions of nave, aisles and towers, and are highly decorated, each having canopied niches containing the largest statues on the façade.\nAt the lowest level of the façade is a plain base, contrasting with and stabilising the ornate arcades that rise above it. The base",
"-28.520697833244412"
],
[
"the towers recall Romanesque solutions.",
"-28.498858941427898"
],
[
"literature, and ballet, seeing the buildings as either positive symbols of modernity and science, or alternatively examples of the ills of modern life and society. Skyscraper projects after World War II typically rejected the designs of the early skyscrapers, instead embracing the international style; many older skyscrapers were redesigned to suit contemporary tastes or even demolished—such as the Singer Tower, once the world's tallest skyscraper. Commercial and social drivers Early skyscrapers emerged in the U.S. as a result of economic growth, the financial organization of American businesses, and the intensive use of land. New York was one of the centers",
"-28.479264672263525"
],
[
"A few early skyscrapers were also constructed in Baltimore, Boston, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, Rochester, and Buffalo, such as the Wainwright Building, Wilder Building, and Guaranty Building. Early examples on the West Coast include the Old Chronicle Building and the Call Building in San Francisco, as well as the Luzon Building in Tacoma, Washington. Architectural challenges The architects of early skyscrapers faced a number of challenges. The most fashionable architectural style in the late 19th century was the French Beaux-Arts movement, sometimes termed the Italian Renaissance style, which applied Classical aesthetic principles to modern buildings. American architects trained in the Beaux-Arts",
"-28.46761226892704"
],
[
"but much of their height is in bell towers and spires which are not. Whether a church or cathedral is a \"building\" or merely a \"structure\" for the purposes of determining the title of \"world's tallest building\" is a subjective matter of definition (this article treats churches and cathedrals as buildings). Determination of height The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat based in Chicago uses three different criteria for determining the height of a tall building, each of which may give a different result. \"Height of the highest floor\" is one criterion, and \"height to the top of any",
"-28.457873297127662"
],
[
"simply a necessary utility, like running water and electricity, but are in fact closely related to the design of the whole structure: a taller building requires more elevators to service the additional floors, but the elevator shafts consume valuable floor space. If the service core, which contains the elevator shafts, becomes too big, it can reduce the profitability of the building. Architects must therefore balance the value gained by adding height against the value lost to the expanding service core.\nMany tall buildings use elevators in a non-standard configuration to reduce their footprint. Buildings such as the former World Trade Center",
"-28.457042684138287"
],
[
"Tower has an elliptical cone shape reducing the cost to make the building resistant to earthquakes and typhoons. Its \"almost Gothic\" facade or exoskeleton is supported by arches. Its office space is meant to be illuminated by natural light. It will also host social spaces, terraces, and atriums.\nThe building was originally proposed to stand 308 meters (1,010 ft) tall but its height was later revised to 275 meters (902 ft). The tower will have 36 floors.",
"-28.452435799463274"
],
[
"Notre-Dame de Paris, 69 meters (226 ft) tall, were intended to be seen throughout the city; they were the tallest towers in Paris until the completion of the Eiffel Tower in 1889. An informal but vigorous competition began in northern France for the tallest Cathedral towers.\nTo make the churches taller and more prominent, and visible from a distance, heir builders often added a flèche, a spire usually made of wood and covered with lead, to the top of each tower, or, as in Notre-Dame de Paris, in the center of the transept. Later in the Gothic period, more massive towers were",
"-28.437965741206426"
],
[
"buildings. By 1925, Bowman had settled on a design by Charles Klauder for the \"tall building\": an attention-getting 535-foot (163 m) tower whose great height, with open spaces all around, would suggest the \"character that ought to be in an educated man.\" The building's \"parallel lines going up and up...would express courage [and] fearlessness\" and it would \"unify Pittsburgh into a community conscious of its character.\" The Cathedral is \"cut off\" flat at the top to suggest that its lines, like education, have no ending. The building was financed by donors and by a campaign to collect dimes from local school",
"-28.388341433979804"
],
[
"University of Notre Dame, University of Sydney and the Sydney Institute of TAFE.\nUTS has a particularly strong presence. The UTS Tower is the tallest structure on Broadway and is a Sydney landmark. Designed in the brutalist style, it has been described as one of Sydney's ugliest buildings. An adjacent building on Broadway designed by Denton Corker Marshall was completed in 2014. There are also plans to redesign the podium of the tower.",
"-28.359480163519038"
],
[
"antenna towers or billboards in which the landowner leases the space, or land, to the cellular provider to build the tower. Antenna towers range between 50 and 300 feet tall. These large, free standing cellular towers can sometimes be “disguised” to blend in with the natural architecture of the building or the surrounding landscape. An example of this is a church property that may have a tower built to resemble, or in some cases built into an existing steeple. Alternatively, a property owner for another type of property may have a monopine or monopalm cellular structure. These are",
"-28.358226342330454"
],
[
"in Brutalist architecture, embracing blank walls and exposed concrete. Examples of this style include the Architecture Building, Bracken Library, and Whitinger Business Building. The Teachers College Building, built in 1968, is the tallest building on campus, at 10 floors and 138 feet (42 m).\nRecent building additions and expansions (early-1990s to present) have shied away from Brutalist designs, and instead, have been built to respect the scale and style of the university's older Collegiate Gothic buildings. While red and brown brick accented by limestone have remained the favored façade materials, large windows have become more commonplace in buildings constructed since the late-1990s",
"-28.347858072724193"
],
[
"height of 387 feet (118 m). The complex was built in 1963-1966. Architecture The building is bounded by Cambridge, Sudbury, and Congress streets. The building consists of twin 26-story high-rise towers, which sit on axis to each other, and a low, 4-story building. This combination of tall towers paired with low buildings is a common Modern form that is used extensively throughout the United States and abroad. The double towers increase the number of offices lit by natural light and decrease the visual bulk that a single monolithic building would create. The building contains 839,000 square feet (77,900 m²).\nThe exterior of the",
"-28.34174870888819"
],
[
"decorative cornice. The columns are decorative only, and appear to serve no structural purpose. The design of the towers creates the impression that the building was once more of a miniature cathedral than a parish church. However, the main body of the church was small and occupied the (now empty) site between the two towers. It was a single story structure with a simple hipped roof and an entrance portico at its centre. This part of Adam's church was demolished in 1870, when the new parish church in New Road was built. The remaining towers are Grade I",
"-28.328838692395948"
],
[
"As a verb, building is the act of construction.\nStructural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on building from street-level. Depending on how they are classified, spires and masts may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not generally included. The definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less is considered low-rise. History A report by Shinichi Fujimura of a shelter built 500 000 years ago is doubtful since Fujimura was later found to have faked",
"-28.320725802332163"
],
[
"corners. While the receding walls of the towers stress the vertical, the long facades of the building express an overall horizontal emphasis. All windows are in slightly recessed planes, with pilasters between openings. The even fenestration pattern and the rusticated first story of the building are common themes in classically inspired architecture. The main entrances in the towers on the south elevation have heavy molded surrounds, ornamental reveals, and shelf heads. Above the shelf are two winged limestone lions holding a plaque.\nStone carving on the exterior-primarily around the entrances and near the tops of the towers-combines classically inspired, Art Deco,",
"-28.295315188006498"
],
[
"(82 ft) high with stone balustrades at the top. (Originally it was intended to add spires to the tops of the towers, but the idea was abandoned given the prevalence of cyclones). The two towers, the buttresses and the surrounds of the doors and windows are in dressed stone (typical of the buildings constructed by the convicts), while the other walls are of rubble masonry mortared with lime. The woodwork and the ogival vaults are in red kauri wood. The roof is made of corrugated metal. Site and contents The cathedral is situated on an elevation dominating the town centre of",
"-28.292045320384204"
],
[
"be substantially similar to the student's more detailed \"Olympic Tower\" design despite differences in the number of sides of each tower that twist, the direction of the twist, and the shape of each tower's ground floor because those differences could be overlooked due to similarities such as the form of the towers and the pattern covering the façade of the towers. Likewise, the court in Bonner v. Dawson held two buildings to be substantially similar, noting that \"[a]lthough there are certain differences between the two buildings such as the building's size, interior layout, exterior stripe color, and some window variations,",
"-28.281798149691895"
],
[
"towers; the center arch is broken to symbolize the partial destruction of the bridge at the time the regiment was there.",
"-28.254303582041757"
],
[
"to its particular form of architecture involving the use of prefabricated concrete and glass, the university is also referred to as a plateglass university.\nThe architect of the campus, Kenneth Capon, took the Tuscan town of San Gimignano with its squares and towers as an inspiration (the university has six residential towers mainly for undergraduates, but the original plan was to build 29).\nThe landmark buildings include the residential towers, The Hexagon and the Albert Sloman library - which was selected as an ‘icon of British design’ by the Victoria and Albert Museum in its 2012 exhibition British Design 1948–2012. The library",
"-28.253123783011688"
],
[
"four out of the ten tallest buildings in the world, and twenty eight out of the fifty tallest in the world, are used primarily as offices.\nA mixed-use tall building contains two or more functions (uses), where each of the functions occupies a significant proportion of the tower's total space. Support areas such as car parks and mechanical plant space do not contribute towards mixed-use status.\nSkyscrapers used primarily or exclusively as hotels or residential space are generally shorter than office and mixed-use buildings, with only a few supertall buildings of the residential or hotel types among the 100 tallest skyscrapers. The",
"-28.247285836187075"
],
[
"reflected in the lower engineering quality of many early skyscrapers in the city. The New York style emphasized stunning height and a somewhat eclectic use of architectural features from other periods, creating an energetic, flamboyant appearance. Towers were common, making best use of the relatively small plots of land in New York. Some New York skyscrapers emulated the tripartite style of Chicago, but others broke their exterior down into many different layers, each with its own style. Proponents argued that this reintroduced a sense of human proportion to these tall buildings; critics felt that the results were confusing and ungainly.",
"-28.245103647746873"
],
[
"and arch bases are finished with a rock face. There have been almost no alterations of the original structures besides a limited attempt at tuckpointing between 1912 and 1915.\nEach bridge is of a different height. The bridge spanning First Street has 14 ft (4.3 m) of clearance, the Second Street bridge, also the tallest, has 15 ft (4.6 m) clearance and the Third Street Bridge has a clearance of 12 ft (3.7 m). Because of its short height the Third Street Bridge is sometimes referred to as \"Little Sister.\" All three bridges have the same arch span, 28 ft (8.5 m), but each has a differing depth. The",
"-28.23039061226882"
],
[
"which leads to the Old Quadrangle. \nThe building includes two medieval tower-like buildings that are joined by an arched walkway, and the pronounced corners of the building’s towers suggest a fortress city. The fifth-floor Common Room, which bridges the two towers, provides excellent views of the City and the University. The two six storey towers are named ‘East Tower’ and ‘West Tower’, and are capped by the sixth story’s projected eaves. The windows of the lower levels are fitted with rounded framed, aluminum sash windows, whereas the equidistant windows of each tower’s upper level appear castellated. Some windows of",
"-28.21121064061299"
],
[
"and space abound. Architects produced what they perceived to be more meaningful buildings with pluralism, double coding, flying buttresses and high ceilings, irony and paradox, and contextualism. Skyscrapers like 1000 de La Gauchetière in Montreal, Brookfield Place in Toronto, and Bankers Hall in Calgary define the style in terms of high-rise corporate architecture. These towers feature combinations of International Style design features with ornamental and potentially symbolic references to past architectural styles such as Art Deco, with pronounced base, middle, and top sections, and prominent atrium common spaces.\nThe Mississauga Civic Centre completed in 1987 is an important example of public",
"-28.203055588994175"
],
[
"plaster and paper panels and insulation resembling feather pillows. Skyscrapers The skyscraper (usually defined as a building over 40 stories high) first appeared in Chicago in the 1890s, and was largely an American style in the mid 20th century, but in the 21st century skyscrapers were found in almost every large city on every continent. A new construction technology, the framed tube structure, was first developed in the United States in 1963 by structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan of Skimore, Owings and Merrill, which permitted the construction of super-tall buildings, which needed fewer interior walls, had more window space, and",
"-28.20258768950589"
],
[
"criticism from the American Institute of Architects and other groups. Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project, describing it and other new skyscrapers as \"just glass-and-metal filing cabinets\". The Twin Towers were described as looking similar to \"the boxes that the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building came in\". Many disliked the twin towers' narrow office windows, which were only 18 inches (46 cm) wide and framed by pillars that restricted views on each side to narrow slots. Activist and sociologist Jane Jacobs argued the waterfront should be kept open",
"-28.181307890452445"
],
[
"university building in the world behind the 36 story, 240 m (including a 57 m spire) Moscow State University main building completed in 1953, and the fourth tallest educational building in the world behind the Moscow State University and Mode Gakuen Cocoon (204 m) and Spiral Towers (170 m), both completed in 2008 and located in Japan. World War II On July 26, 1940, as World War II was starting, a bomb threat was made against the structure with extra guards being posted to secure it and the authorities not ruling out possible wartime sabotage.\nDuring the war effort, the Cathedral",
"-28.171161475368535"
],
[
"across all 20 towers.\nThe bridge was designed by the engineer Octave Chanute and was built by the Phoenix Iron Works, which specialized in producing patented, hollow iron tubes called \"Phoenix columns\". Because of the design of these columns, it was often mistakenly believed that the bridge had been built out of wooden poles. The bridge's 110 sandstone masonry piers were quarried from the hillside used for the foundation of the bridge. The tallest tower had a base that was 193 feet (59 m) wide. The bridge was designed to support a load of 266 short tons (241 t), and was estimated to cost between",
"-28.15767012676224"
],
[
"Inclined tower An inclined tower is a tower that was intentionally built at an incline. Towers are built with an incline in order support the weight of another structure, such as the Tour de Montreal. Some towers are built with an incline due to the steep terrain upon which they stand, or simply for aesthetics. Design Despite the outward appearance of an inclined tower as \"leaning-over\", they are as structurally sound as any non-inclined tower. The mass of the tower's upper section is always equal or less than the mass of the tower's lower section, ensuring the building remains balanced",
"-28.14521860406967"
],
[
"cathedral is quite large within the context of its immediate surroundings; however, when examined in context with the surrounding office towers, the size of the cathedral shrinks considerably. From the exterior, the building maintains a distinctly Gothic appearance characterized by its pointed arches, buttressed walls, stone moulding and sharp iron accents. The building is set-back considerably from the street and features a tall iron fence around its perimeter, which further contributes to the building's sharp appearance. The fence allows the building to maintain a semi-private front yard, featuring a stone-paved roundabout on its west side and a garden along its",
"-28.12552554917056"
],
[
"academic and office buildings are referred to primarily by number while residence halls are referred to by name. The organization of building numbers roughly corresponds to the order in which the buildings were built and their location relative (north, west, and east) to the original center cluster of Maclaurin buildings. Many of the buildings are connected above ground as well as through an extensive network of tunnels, providing protection from the Cambridge weather as well as a venue for roof and tunnel hacking.\nMIT's on-campus nuclear reactor is one of the most powerful university-based nuclear reactors in the United States. The",
"-28.121034980620607"
],
[
"most major cities in the U.S. had built skyscrapers by 1929, frequently as a result of competition between rival cities for status and investment. Cincinnati built the Cincinnati Towers in 1914, followed by the Carew Tower Complex in 1930. In Detroit, the General Motors Building opened in 1920 and the Fisher Building in 1928. Cleveland acquired the Union Trust Building in 1923 and the Terminal Tower in 1929; the latter, built by the Van Sweringen brothers, was, for a short period, the second tallest building in the world. Seattle had built Smith Tower in 1914, and the Los Angeles local",
"-28.120415999466786"
],
[
"two towers. Five stairways and a ramp provide access to the parapet walk over the walls. Within the walls, a number of double staircases provide access to the towers from the parapet walk. Towers Of the original towers, 49 are still intact, and another 39 have partially survived. The towers were built at irregular intervals along the walls. They consist of two storeys and are mostly semicircular; a few are rectangular. The spaces between the towers varies from 5.4 metres (18 ft) to 12.8 metres (42 ft). A mix of materials was used for the construction of the towers. Often the base",
"-28.09394228518795"
],
[
"concrete foundation with 30,000 square metres (320,000 sq ft) of exposed surface. A slight landscaped rise surrounds their base, from which all five circular steel towers rise. The largest and tallest, 258 metres (846 ft) in total height, is surrounded by the other four. The lesser towers reach different heights, with the lowest at 186 metres (610 ft).\nLarge diagonal members connect the lesser towers to the main structure. All the towers widen at their flat-roofed tops to allow the use of the space inside as observation platforms. The lesser tower tops spiral up to the main one. The solid steel exterior parts into latticework",
"-28.088227946253028"
]
] |
30vy1j | How did this person get in to my iphone? | [
"I don't use an iPhone, but my Android has 'emergency contacts' that can be called whilst the phone is locked. Do iPhones have an equivalent of this, that you might have setup in the past and forgotten about?",
"You can use siri when the phone is lock.. Call home, Call dad, Call last etc...",
"if you made a missed call to your iphone, it shows a notification on the screen saying there is a missed call from this number, all they have to do is swipe to the number to the right and it calls it automatically.",
"Why didn't you ask the good citizen that returned your phone instead of Reddit?",
"If you want high security: - disable Siri while locked - disable notification centre while locked - disable control centre while locked - disable lock screen notifications Your phone will be much more secure, though also less convenient. In this case for example, you might not have gotten your phone back. (Turning on Find my iPhone would let you find the finder and send them a message though)",
"Or...you could ask that person after you buy them a coffee for getting your phone back to you."
] | [
[
"hand grenade\" and that he would have been happy to get into a stranger's car.\nIn January 2017, the back of a mobile phone was found close to where the last signal from McKeague's phone was detected. However, as the part contained \"no essential components\", such as a SIM card or any electronic parts, the police said it would be impossible to link it with the disappearance and that no further analysis would be performed. However, police announced they were examining McKeague's activities on swinger websites. His family had provided Suffolk Constabulary with his username for at least one site. Landfill",
"-26.293961229966953"
],
[
"iPhone 5C—owned by the San Bernardino County, California government—that had been issued to its employee, Syed Rizwan Farook, one of the shooters involved in the December 2015 San Bernardino attack. The attack killed 14 people and seriously injured 22. The two attackers died four hours after the attack in a shootout with police, having previously destroyed their personal phones. Authorities were able to recover Farook's work phone, but could not unlock its four-digit passcode, and the phone was programmed to automatically delete all its data after ten failed password attempts.\nOn February 9, 2016, the FBI announced that it was unable",
"-25.804967830532405"
],
[
"iPhone 5C it recovered from one of the shooters who, in a December 2015 terrorist attack in San Bernardino, California, killed 14 people and injured 22. The two attackers later died in a shootout with police, having first destroyed their personal phones. The work phone was recovered intact but was locked with a four-digit password and was set to eliminate all its data after ten failed password attempts. Apple declined to create the software, and a hearing was scheduled for March 22. However, a day before the hearing was supposed to happen, the government obtained a delay, saying they had",
"-25.24091899546329"
],
[
"a lighter at him.\nUpon arriving at his destination, Michael removes Casey from the trunk and finds the phone in her pocket, with 9-1-1 listening on the line. Through the phone, Jordan informs him that his identity is uncovered and advises him to turn himself in and not hurt the girl. Before smashing the phone, Michael responds, \"It's already done\", leading Jordan to realize that Michael is the same culprit who killed Leah six months prior.\nMeanwhile, Paul, accompanied by Officer Jake Devans and others in law enforcement, raid Michael's home, but find only his wife and children. Finding a photo of",
"-24.805846854520496"
],
[
"Drugs Squad. In 1974, Lennon remembered that Ono answered the front door as a female voice had said (over the intercom), that there was a message from the Apple office. Ono opened the door and saw the female with five men, who were all dressed in plain-clothes. She panicked and closed the door, thinking they were Beatles' fans. Meanwhile, at the back window, another person was banging on the window and holding up a search warrant for Lennon to read. As Lennon was also panicking—not knowing at that point that they were all police officers—the raid consisted of seven police",
"-24.80512440833263"
],
[
"a video iPod. The iPod contains footage of many different physical skills for her to learn using her ability.\nAfter her brother gets Micah's backpack stolen, including his comics and his father's medal, Monica tells Micah she knows where the thief lives and takes Micah there. Disguising herself in a black hood, Monica watches a video of parkour on the iPod Bob gave her, then she breaks into the deserted house and easily finds Micah's things. However, the teen and his gang members return. Finding her, they capture her and throw her into the back of a van.\nAs seen in",
"-24.704240681254305"
],
[
"They have five children.\nIn 2015, Krach successfully caught a thief who had taken his iPhone from his hands. As he chased the thief, he was spotted by police officers, who eventually apprehended the thief. Upon confirming Krach's identity, they provided him with a “legal loophole,” which enabled him to recover his phone sooner, rather than having it impounded as evidence. Krach claimed the officers had recently used DocuSign and shared their positive experiences with him.",
"-24.66537327785045"
],
[
"men he was with gave him devices he didn't recognise. They told him to put them in his pocket and wait for their return. When he went into his pocket for coins to purchase raisins from a shopkeeper, he was asked why he had a \"bomb\" in his pocket; the shopkeeper advised him to run and throw the two grenades in the river. It was while running toward the river, yelling at people to move aside because he had a bomb, that Jawad alleges he was \"caught\".\nIn an October 2009 interview, Jawad asserted that his nose was broken during his",
"-24.621105374069884"
],
[
"noting that he went to a convenience store before driving home. However, Keith puts him in a cell, where he is visited by Tim Foyle, and Hank tells him to find the bug that was placed on his phone. Later, Veronica sees Tim breaking into Mars Investigations, trying to find the bug, and Tim effectively enlists Veronica's help. They visit the convenience store with no luck for the time being. Wallace (Percy Daggs III) sees Logan (Jason Dohring) and Parker (Julie Gonzalo) having lunch together and tells Veronica, but she doesn't seem upset. Mindy buys a boat at the local",
"-24.428733559849206"
],
[
"user's contact list, which is disclosed when the app is downloaded on the Android platform.\nIn May 2015, a 15-year-old girl from Bolton, Massachusetts was charged with making a threat on Whisper towards a school, referencing the Columbine shootings; she was tracked down using Whisper and GPS.\nIn July 2018, a 31-year-old man from Toronto, Ontario, Canada allegedly met a 15-year-old girl using Whisper and was charged with luring a child, two counts of sexual assault and other charges, including possession of child pornography. Privacy policy The company's privacy policy reveals that it will turn over information in the case of requests",
"-24.259452936159505"
],
[
"hit a road-block as certain portions of the footage (a prior to the) were found to be missing from the submitted footage. Samuel claimed to have deleted the non-necessary parts of the footage, whilst transferring them to the laptop from his iPhone and to have forgotten the password for the iPhone folder, which contained the cut-out portions. The CBI subsequently contacted Apple Inc. to retrieve the contents of the folder but whilst denying to share the password citing privacy requirements, they confirmed that the entire sting-footage had indeed been shot by an iPhone. Recent developments indicated that the CBI was",
"-24.255514777847566"
],
[
"she did not use either one of her cell phones until she called 911. According to an unnamed Uber source, safety drivers are not responsible for monitoring diagnostic messages. Vasquez also told responding police officers she kept her hands near the steering wheel in preparation to take control if required, which contradicted the driver-facing video, which did not show her hands near the wheel. Police concluded that given the same conditions, Herzberg would have been visible to 85% of motorists at a distance of 143 feet (44 m), 5.7 seconds before the car struck Herzberg. According to the police report, Vasquez",
"-24.23594491952099"
],
[
"was reported by a factory worker, after 31-year old Li Ming jumped to his death off a building in Zhengzhou, where the iPhone X was being manufactured.",
"-24.197717866045423"
],
[
"Max and 99 in this episode, and accidentally kills himself—when stung by an \"electronic mosquito\", he scratches his face with his poisonous fingernail. Gadgets In Get Smart, telephones are concealed in over 50 objects, including a necktie, comb, watch, and a clock. A recurring gag is Max's shoe phone (an idea from Brooks). To use or answer it, he has to take off his shoe. Several variations on the shoe phone were used. In \"I Shot 86 Today\" (season four), his shoe phone is disguised as a golf shoe, complete with cleats, developed by the attractive armorer Dr. Simon. Smart's",
"-24.108052594354376"
],
[
"could not be seen. At 8:28 pm, a call was placed from Joseph McStay's cell phone to his business associate, Chase Merritt, which went to voice mail. Merritt later told police that he ignored it because he was watching a movie. Joseph's cellphone pinged a tower in Fallbrook.\nOver the next several days, relatives of the McStays unsuccessfully tried to contact them. On February 13, Joseph's brother Michael traveled to the McStay residence and, upon finding an open window in back, climbed in and gained entry to the home. Michael McStay did not find any of the family at home, and their",
"-24.060391943668947"
],
[
"a battery pack) and kicks him out, much to the team's annoyance. Roland does say that he can make another device in a month.\nAfter opening the trap door, Michael and T-Bag descend a ladder and arrive at a small underground hallway. Michael states that he is no longer helping T-Bag when Mahone jumps out and knocks out T-Bag. Mahone and Michael then throw T-Bag into a cell and leave him there yelling. Walking out from GATE, Mahone, Self, and Michael hear a cell phone nearby. Michael answers the call and realizes that it is Gretchen, still alive and involved. Reception",
"-23.995364265036187"
],
[
"as well as identification of a possible third gunman who was alleged to have been seen at the scene of the attack by eyewitnesses. The following day, Ramos told the Associated Press that he did not know whether the shooters had compromised the county's infrastructure, but the only way to know for sure was by gaining access to the iPhone. This statement has been criticized by cyber-security professionals as being improbable. FBI withdrawal of request On March 21, 2016, the government requested and was granted a delay, saying a third party had demonstrated a possible way to unlock the iPhone",
"-23.990441096771974"
],
[
"when Mickey Pearce and Jevon enter the Nag's Head With one arm in plaster and a neck collar respectively and tell Del that local crime bosses Tony and Danny (the Driscoll Brothers), are looking for him, and that it was in fact the Driscolls who had supplied Del's phones.\nDel, Mickey and Jevon hide upstairs (as does Trigger, although he does not understand what is going on), and the Driscolls enter but find nothing. Just as it looks like they're safe, Trigger accidentally activates the antenna in Del's cordless phone, causing it to extend right up Del's nose, giving away",
"-23.94514517965581"
],
[
"one. Barry finds Omar and attacks him and swallows the phone's SIM card. However, Barry begins to choke on it, provoking a passer-by to carry out the Heimlich manoeuvre and in the process detonate his bomb, killing them both as Omar flees.\nOmar attempts to buy a phone at a phone shop to talk to Waj but is frustrated that he can't just buy a phone and leaves. Omar spots a work colleague (Craig Parkinson) and borrows his phone. He attempts to talk Waj down, but his call is interrupted when the police charge in and kill a hostage whom they",
"-23.934652991127223"
],
[
"Iván's message and once again rips out the phone and throws the answering machine back out of the window; it lands on Paulina's car. Back in the apartment, Lucía arrives, along with the phone repairman and the police, who have traced Carlos' earlier call. Candela starts to panic, but Carlos comes up with an idea: to serve everyone the spiked gazpacho. The policemen and repairman are knocked out, Carlos and Candela make out on the sofa and also fall asleep, and Lucía grabs the policemen's guns and aims them at Pepa, who figures out that Paulina is the other woman",
"-23.60446925816359"
],
[
"with a person in her/his pocket, via cell phone or other digital device, wherever s/he goes.",
"-23.301174170002923"
],
[
"showing that the girl left her cell phone at the restaurant and he was just trying to give it back to her. After returning, her phone it is revealed that the girl had purposely left her phone at the restaurant for someone else to pick up. She is picked up in a black van, hinting that she may be some sort of criminal/spy. The last scene of the video shows that it was all a daydream. Chris sees the same woman leave the restaurant. At first he decides to follow her, but sees that she left her phone behind. He",
"-23.26369842106942"
],
[
"parked on Torquay Drive, Jason texted Lindsay to ask if she was OK. Lindsay never opened this message.\nAfter 20 minutes had passed since Jason had arrived and seen the couple go back into the house, Jason went to the front door and found it locked when he tried to open it. Through the mottled glass on the front door, he saw Lindsay's shoes in the entrance hall, but there was no sign of movement and no one answered his repeated knocks at the door. At this point, he called 911. While Jason was on the line with the operator, his",
"-23.224363731224003"
],
[
"the phone is Jack, who asks her to give the phone to Adrienne.\nHe congratulates Adrienne on tracking down his new life and reveals that he has kidnapped Mary. Mary traded the necklace to another girl, and Jack instructs Adrienne to retrieve it and meet him at their loft to exchange Mary for the necklace. At the loft, Adrienne asks to see Mary, and Jack explains that she is downstairs playing in the car. When Adrienne tries to go see her, Jack pins her against a wall and demands the necklace first. Adrienne stabs him and flees. After a long chase",
"-23.180734719266184"
],
[
"While Fernando Sucre and Brad Bellick stake out Tuxhorn's office, the rest head to Anaheim to hack into the main server. Sara distracts an officer by claiming that she has \"a job interview with human resources\", sneaking his security badge from desk and passing it to Michael. Michael and Roland find the server room on the first floor and Roland proceeds to retrieve the email. Lincoln, who is observing from afar, spots the officer confronting Sara over his security badge, and calls Michael to warn him. To stall for time, Michael activates the fire alarm. When Roland successfully retrieves the",
"-23.153087013284676"
],
[
"encountered in the second-floor lunchroom by Dallas police officer Marrion L. Baker, who had his gun drawn. The patrolman was accompanied by Oswald's supervisor, Roy Truly. Baker made the mistake of letting Oswald pass after Truly identified him as an employee; Baker and Truly incorrectly assumed that Oswald was not a suspect because he was an employee of the building. According to Baker, Oswald did not appear to be \"nervous\" or \"out of breath\". Truly said that Oswald looked \"startled\" when Baker pointed his gun directly at him. Mrs. Robert Reid, a clerical supervisor at the depository who returned to",
"-23.138954647700302"
],
[
"to his hotel. He notices the concierge is seated where he can see anyone leaving. So he slips out though a side door to the small garage where his car is kept. He finds that a bomb has been strapped underneath and sets it on the car so it will fall. He manages to get out of his garage as well as the adjoining one and then outside to the side of the building. He is shielded behind the building when the bomb explodes, with the thugs thinking him dead when they see the burning wreckage.\nQuiller reaches the secret office",
"-23.094128367258236"
],
[
"account. Carlos sits in his car near the bank. Marta shows up to the bank with another person.\nOn the phone, Carlos is stopped by police and is isolated by a bomb squad. He is then told that he must release Marcos and Sarah, but still believes they are in danger. After negotiation with them, they find out there is only a bomb in the front two seats. Marcos still injured by the explosion in his leg is released, but Sara jumps in the front not wanting to abandon Carlos. \nAfter some time, Sara and Carlos are visited by a",
"-23.09059189411346"
],
[
"friend of Mike's who lets him and Steve leave before the police arrive. The two take off in Mike's car and, per Kovary's instructions, head for a shack in rural Garfield County.\nThe next day, as Steve and Mike hang fliers, Steve tries to make a call via cell phone; while looking for a place with reception, Steve stumbles upon the home of the aforementioned Drake Sabitch - an old school bus with a TV, a hammock, a grill, and several weapons. While trying to find a high-ground to get reception on his phone, Steve accidentally loosens a rock in a",
"-23.04246999172028"
],
[
"about his knowledge.\nDuring his trip to England, Mac seems to be stalked by person or persons unknown; he starts receiving anonymous phone calls (most of which are silent, though some are very short messages from an unidentified caller) from a phone extension of 333 at 3:33 am; the calls continue after he gets back to New York. It appears that whoever is stalking Mac seems to know him intimately, as the calls keep coming despite him transferring to another hotel and changing his cell phone number.\nDuring 4.09 \"One Wedding and a Funeral\", Mac discovers, that the 333 caller has been",
"-22.99481543825823"
],
[
"I was ten, but I only knew him through telephone conversations, his voice was all I knew about him. He then threatened to tell my family about it if I didn’t give him a picture of myself. Months later I asked him to give it back since I got engaged to be married, so we agreed to meet near the City Plaza mall located fifteen minutes away from my house. When we were heading back, a car stopped right in front of his and two men carrying knives came out. I told him not to unlock the doors but he",
"-22.97926928359084"
],
[
"name \"Sylar\" pops up and scrawled there is his New York address. They also find a key in the book.\nThey make their way to his apartment. They knock, but there's no answer. Mohinder produces the key that they found, but it doesn't fit. Therefore, he pulls out a screwdriver and picks the lock. They enter a very neat kitchen, with a teacup resting on the table. Mohinder takes pictures. As they go further into the apartment, they find that the walls are covered with bookshelves packed with books—all impeccably ordered. Eden notices an anatomy book laying open to a page",
"-22.94238676513487"
],
[
"on the phone was abruptly cut off. Shyam desperately starts searching for Ramesh. He informs the police and taps every source which could lead him to Ramesh. In his search, he meets Lata (Padmini), an Indian dancer and comes to know that Lata's sister Shobha (Shashikala) is infatuated with Ramesh. He starts visiting Lata's place frequently, where he meets Shivdas (K. N. Singh), uncle of Lata.\nOne day, Lata, Shobha, Shivdas and Shyam go to the rubber estate for a picnic. At the very first opportunity, Shivdas steals the map leading to the treasure from Shyam's bag. Shobha sees this and",
"-22.934483969118446"
],
[
"with a mysterious scratch on it, and Wallace calls Veronica for help. Veronica talks to the convenience clerk who talked to the bus driver. Veronica asks for the last meal the bus driver had, which was a Slurpee and a bag of peanuts. Veronica notices a phone and thinks that the bus driver probably needed to get change to make a call.\nVeronica goes to the Sheriff's department for access to the phone records. Wallace learns that a blonde driving a green car dented Jackie's car. Wallace investigates one of the suspects. Veronica talks to Jessie again, and she reveals that",
"-22.881971072871238"
],
[
"me yet. The first thing I heard about it was when the newspaper reporters in the hall asked me that question.\" As he was led from the room the question was called out, \"What did you do in Russia?\" and, \"How did you hurt your eye?\"; Oswald answered, \"A policeman hit me.\" Police interrogation Oswald was interrogated several times during his two days at Dallas Police Headquarters. He admitted that he went to his rooming house after leaving the book depository. He also admitted that he changed his clothes and armed himself with a .38 revolver before leaving his house",
"-22.87695136817638"
],
[
"Probably due to heavy traffic, he requested a transfer from the driver and got off two blocks later. Oswald then took a taxicab to his rooming house at 1026 North Beckley Avenue and entered through the front door at about 1:00 p.m. According to his housekeeper Earlene Roberts, Oswald immediately went to his room, \"walking pretty fast.\" Roberts said that Oswald left \"a very few minutes\" later, zipping up a jacket he was not wearing when he had entered earlier. As Oswald left, Roberts looked out of the window of her house and last saw him standing at the northbound Beckley",
"-22.87528032803675"
],
[
"Shelley, a foreman at the depository, also testified that he saw Oswald making a phone call on the first floor between 11:45 and 11:50 a.m. Janitor Eddie Piper also testified that he spoke to Oswald on the first floor at 12:00 p.m. Another co-worker, Bonnie Ray Williams, was eating his lunch on the sixth floor of the depository and was there until at least 12:10 p.m. He said that during that time, he did not see Oswald, or anyone else, on the sixth floor and thought that he was the only person up there. However, he also said that some boxes in the",
"-22.813924508867785"
],
[
"the first one Ionesyan entered when he was in the house (there were no residential premises on the first floor). Ionesyan, who was there, asked if there was anyone else at home, to which the boy answered mechanically: \"Everybody is at home\", although in the apartment, except for him, was only his 70-year-old grandmother and a baby. Probably, because of this, Ionesyan did not attack the boy, but, in hesitation, went into the kitchen and inspected the gas stove, from the handle of which policemen removed the clear fingerprints of his fingers. Teplov's testimony (in particular, that the stranger was",
"-22.813901450950652"
],
[
"all that he got the hit man to tell him what it was he dropped in the cab: on his way to the airport, the hit man dropped his BlackBerry. This was bad for him because his phone had emails between him and Archie, plus photos of Lorber and a diagram of the building. When he realized that he'd left his cell phone behind in the cab, the hit man panicked and called it from a payphone at the airport, and Conrad Stipe answered, explaining how the hit man knew that Stipe had picked up his PDA. Stipe had to",
"-22.81189316464588"
],
[
"Steve in it and the car with the white man and black boy in it. Another example, in the episode \"Da Flippity Flop\", Roger leaves a long series of harassing answering machine messages for Steve, trying to get him to sign up for his gym. In these messages, Roger is also heard snapping on various people, killing three individuals from reckless driving, landing himself in court, and subsequently becoming irate and shooting up numerous people at the city courthouse for being scolded to turn off his mobile phone. Season number discrepancies There are multiple conflicting reports and models as to",
"-22.807370670430828"
],
[
"and quickly finds T-Bag at the Fin Del Camino hotel. He spots two undercover agents surveilling T-Bag. He is then met by Fernando Sucre (Amaury Nolasco) and Brad Bellick (Wade Williams). As Bellick brandishes his gun on Michael, Michael is told by Sucre that he had not posted the message on Europeangoldfinch.net. Michael puts two and two together and realizes the situation is a setup. Bellick and Michael reach a deal; while Bellick will get the money, Maricruz Delgado is to be unharmed and that T-Bag must be captured.\nOn his way to Panama City, Agent Alexander Mahone (William Fichtner) calls",
"-22.80560664634686"
],
[
"and Jason, panicked, runs straight past her out the open door. Jason returns the phone to Holly thinking she'll be impressed but she is annoyed at how he did it. When Patrick sees Holly holding her distinctive pink-cased mobile, he assumes that she was the one who broke into his flat and calls both her and Jason into his office, where Jason admits it was him. Patrick gets the police involved and Jason thinks that he won't be in too much trouble as he only took Holly's phone. However, unbeknownst to him, Maxine falsely claimed to hospital staff that the",
"-22.768150453455746"
],
[
"He tries to load the screen up on his laptop, only to be rumbled by Zak. Zak runs straight into Zoe's room to share his suspicions with her. Zak tries to convince Zoe that Will has \"something to hide\" on his laptop, and suggests he's a stalker. Zoe freaks out and agrees to get the laptop. She later gets the laptop by setting off the college fire alarm and going into Will's room when he's evacuated. It later gets stolen by Michaela McQueen (Hollie-Jay Bowes) and Sonny Valentine (Devon Anderson), who sell it to Gilly, only for it to be",
"-22.73055682098493"
],
[
"his bodyguard and calls Claire. Watching from across the street via binoculars, Doug sees that the FBI are with her as she tells him to come over. He at first thinks she means to betray him, but eventually she gives him a clue to warn him away, which he picks up on. Doug flees instead, donning an MBTA uniform and escaping on a train. Frawley deduces Claire tipped off Doug, but doesn't arrest her because her choice of words is circumstantial. Doug leaves a note under the police radio antenna on Frawley's car, reading \"GO F*CK YOURSELF\". Frawley doesn't disclose",
"-22.68878270080313"
],
[
"of the store around 11:40 pm by a man wearing jeans, a backwards baseball cap and a New York Yankees baseball jersey with the number 23 on the back. The man's hand was at the back of Poirier's neck, and from the way she touched her throat, there might have been a cord tied around her neck. The video was sent to imaging specialists at NASA who were able to enhance the image so more details of the suspect could be seen. The police estimated that the abductor was 5'10\" and weighed around 170 pounds, had long light-colored hair and",
"-22.605406657326967"
],
[
"the car, seat belted. I told him, 'Can I see your license?' And then, he told me he had a firearm. I told him not to reach for it and (sigh) when he went down to grab, I told him not to reach for it (clears throat) and then he kept it right there, and I told him to take his hands off of it, and then he (sigh) he had his, his grip a lot wider than a wallet .... And I don't know where the gun was, he didn't tell me where the fucking gun was, and then",
"-22.57648108981084"
],
[
"that she should try to scratch it like in the movies. Ashley hands Vickey her switchblade. Impressed, Vickey invites Ashley to her house. Vickey tells Ashley she can contact her under the username \"SapphoGirl13\" on her computer. Vickey and Ashley begin kissing when Vickey notices cuts along Ashley’s wrists. Ashley becomes turned on when Vickey touches her wrists, but Vickey becomes disturbed when Ashley wants to use the switchblade and asks her to leave. At home, Ashley contacts Vickey on her computer using the alias \"HomeStarch99\" and they begin to have cybersex however Ashley quickly becomes uninterested, turns off the",
"-22.571576890244614"
],
[
"mobile phone was discovered that robbers Aman Kassaye and Craig Calderwood left in the car after ramming into a black cab. After the collision, in their haste to transfer to a second vehicle, the robbers forgot the mobile phone that was wedged between the driver's seat and the handbrake. Anonymous numbers stored on the mobile phone quickly allowed police to discover the identity of the robber.\nOn 20 August 2009, two men, Craig Calderwood, 26, of no fixed abode, and Solomun Beyene, 24, of Lilestone Road, London NW8, were charged in connection with the robbery. On 21 August, a third man,",
"-22.55250111038913"
],
[
"office. Bourne calls the police to report the sound of gunfire; they arrive just as the second CIA team piles out of their vehicles, guns drawn, in front of the office. When Bourne asks Nicky why she is helping him, Nicky only hints vaguely that they may have had a much more intimate relationship before Bourne's amnesia. While in Tangier, they realize the CIA has sent assassin Desh Bouksani for Daniels. Nicky uses her official clearance access to send Desh a message, telling him to meet her for a new phone. This allows Bourne to follow Desh to his target.",
"-22.54261289606802"
],
[
"as Keith finds diapers in the apartment. A reporter contacts Wallace. Sheriff Lamb goes down to Mexico and asks around for Duncan Kane. Keith confronts Veronica about her actions regarding the baby, angry that she used him and tells her he'll never be able to fully trust her again. The FBI agents search Veronica’s apartment, but Keith has removed the diapers and continues to claim he doesn't know anything. Weevil learns that Felix was dating Molly Fitzpatrick. Sheriff Lamb continues his search before finding his trunk unloaded. Duncan, disguised as a hitchhiker, gets picked up by Vinnie Van Lowe and",
"-22.542580294189975"
],
[
"the bodies and two torn fragments from Rose's letter. After the police arrive, he walks out of Sara's apartment and sees a taxi slowly driving by. In the back seat of the vehicle is the music student, staring at him intently again.\nMark telephones Rose but is unable to hear her clearly. He promises to visit just before the connection fails. Rose sees two shadowy figures preparing to enter her apartment. She leaves through a back door, but is followed. She is grabbed from behind by a clawed assailant and guillotined across the neck with glass from a broken window.\nArriving in",
"-22.505796573357657"
],
[
"the balloon into the air.\nMatthew Applewhite continues to search for Caleb but arrives once again with no sign. On yet another one of hunts for Caleb, instead of searching he joins Danielle Van De Kamp on a park bench where the two talk. Finally, Caleb is discovered by Mike when Bongo sees someone suspicious lurking around who is trying to break into a car. Mike comes from behind and tackles him. Mrs. McCluskey asks if he needs a taser but Mike just asks that she call the police. As the police arrive, Caleb is placed in handcuffs while the entire",
"-22.498933352530003"
],
[
"click her snaps on his phone.\nThe van is traced to belong to 53 year old John-Pierre Trarieux. Upon recognizing the ambush set up by the police at his home, Trarieux makes a narrow escape and drives off to downtown Paris only to be cornered on a bridge. Trarieux jumps off the bridge to his death instead of surrendering. Verhœven finds Alex's pictures on his phone and another picture (in print) of Trariuex's son Pascal posing with another girl. They think of a possible link between Pascal's disappearance and Alex's kidnapping and interrogate the people with whom Trarieux had established communication",
"-22.484414861894038"
],
[
"was shot after charging at police officer Azli Othman with a knife. District Judge Yeo ruled the shooting was without any criminal intent.\nOn 29 July 2008, a man made a phone call to the police about a false bomb threat at 1.07 pm at the concourse area of the station. The man is believed to be in his 40s and is of fair complexion. He was wearing a blue and white polo T-shirt, beige Bermudas and black slippers. He was seen leaving the MRT station with two plastic bags – one red and the other white.\nOn 15 March 2012, more than",
"-22.435450756223872"
],
[
"an ice pick in the elevator. Recalling the last pages of Catherine’s book, Nick runs into the building, only to find Gus' body in a manner similar to the scene described. Beth turns up as if out of nowhere and explains that she received a message to meet Gus. Nick suspects Beth has murdered Gus and, believing she is reaching for a gun, shoots her, but discovers that Beth was only fingering an ornament on her key chain.\nEvidence collected in Beth's apartment points to her as the killer of Boz, Nielsen, Moran, and her own husband, along with collections of",
"-22.417815116175916"
],
[
"the FBI evacuated Hinrichs' building and the four apartment buildings that surrounded it as a precaution. A suicide note was displayed on Hinrichs' open laptop monitor. While detectives were unable to completely retrace Hinrichs' steps that day, they did find that Hinrichs typed \"None of you are worth living with. You can all kiss my ass\" at about 6:15 pm that evening, approximately 75 minutes before he died. The message was on the computer screen when agents entered Hinrichs' apartment.\nHinrichs told friends and fraternity brothers that he liked explosives, and frequently experimented with building and detonating bombs made in or",
"-22.381179399730172"
],
[
"that \"someone has a loud fucking iPhone.\"\nIn October 2010, Coyne created a screen print using his own blood. The poster commemorated The Flaming Lips' appearance at the Austin City Limits Music Festival. It has a picture of a skull drawn in a Wes Wilson style. Coyne printed it using his blood collected in a vial. The print will soon go on auction. The frontman stated, \"We thought it would be silly to use chicken blood or something, they don't need to sacrifice their vital fluids any more than I need to\" Livemusic.fm\nIn February 2017, Coyne debuted an art exhibit at",
"-22.3698353508953"
],
[
"job at Florida State University. While she was talking on her phone to her sister, she saw someone climb over the back seat of her car. It turned out to be Brian.\nHe took her phone away and began yelling directions at her. She did not comply until he showed her a gun. She said later that he claimed this was necessary since she was not taking his calls and was blocking his text messages. Instead of going where he wanted her to, she pulled into a CVS drugstore parking lot, close to the door.\nBrian told her that he was planning",
"-22.36602447158657"
],
[
"to the inspector in the nearby Police station. Padme then visits the station the next day with his nephew, only to find out that such a message was never sent.\nOn his way out, Padme was interrupted by a youth, dressed in white. After getting the confirmation from Padme of his identity, the young man shoots directly at Padme using a revolver many times, one at his head at and a few at his chest. Whilst Padme's young nephew tries to wake the dead body of Padme, the smiling assassin tries to escape by getting onto his motorcycle. However he too",
"-22.364148841472343"
],
[
"to him. Using video camera glasses with an earpiece, Amanda goes to the house of Eddie, a nerd at their school and a rare item collector, to find and obtain a rare red-headed \"Captain Cybertor\" action figure. Her earpiece switches off and, believing she cannot be heard, unknowingly reveals her true nerdy nature to the group (who can still hear her). Ultimately, Eddie lends the toy (and its common counterpart) to Amanda in return for a date with him.\nThe team plans to get the card at the Lakeshore Hotel where Swindell is planning to sell it. After arriving, Savannah then",
"-22.3537153697107"
],
[
"that his earplugs made him immune to the phone's call.\nIn the end, the three surviving protagonists throw the frozen phone overboard on a ship as Sid and Angie kiss. Soundtrack The soundtrack was scored by Bruno Coulais and featured songs from The Elderberries.",
"-22.350088354665786"
],
[
"Individuals\" suffering from \"remote brain experimentation, remote neural monitoring of an entire humans body.\" He asked to be put on the group's \"buddy list\", but he unexpectedly deactivated his account a month later. His mother said he once believed the Central Intelligence Agency was following him. He appeared as a guest on an online show discussing \"Targeted Individuals\", but downplayed his belief that he was being tracked, saying, \"That's just a small aspect of me. It's not a complete picture of who I am.\" However, the show's host, who had frequent phone and email correspondence with Long, claimed that Long",
"-22.337120381067507"
],
[
"sends them to Hank Fillmore (Max Perlich), a friend of Barney.\nThe officers find Hank outside the complex. He reacts diffidently, mistaking them for another acquaintance of his, Harvey; when they present themselves as police officers, Hank asks if they were sent by Harvey and then, upon questioning, tells them that Chip does not possess a phone. Marjorie appears on the staircase, announcing that she has a key. Upon entering the apartment, the officers walk into the bedroom to see a severely damaged head lying in bed, her body under the covers. Meanwhile, Hank calls Harvey believing that he sent the",
"-22.33543081872631"
],
[
"V510210, which Oswald had in his hand when he was arrested in a movie theatre eighty minutes after the assassination, was identified by model and serial number as the one purchased by mail order to the same P.O. Box as the rifle, and also by an \"A.J. Hidell\", with handwriting that matched Oswald's. The Warren Commission concluded that Oswald used the revolver to murder Dallas police officer J.D. Tippit about forty-five minutes after the assassination when Tippit stopped Oswald on a residential street. Shirt In the crevice between the butt-plate and the wooden stock of the Carcano rifle recovered from",
"-22.335294396383688"
],
[
"When the instant messenger comes up on Owen's laptop, they find a piercing stud and blood on Owen's keyboard. Tom blames Regina, who has a recipe for fake blood. When accused, she insists she was on a field trip.\nBelieving Dodger is lying, Owen confronts her. Dodger informs him that she was visiting her mother. Deciding that Randall is behind the odd behavior, Owen tries tracking him down, to no avail. Owen once again seeks out Dodger, and finds her kissing Mr. Walker.\nIn his journalism class the next day, when Owen reaches into his bag for supplies, a hunting knife falls",
"-22.327862066273383"
],
[
"the phone's powers, Sid uses it to get a date with Angie, forcing Virgile's father to give him a racing car, asking Mr. Fritz for time off (killing him in the process) and obtaining a nice suit. However, when Virgile assaults Sid for the theft, the phone kills one of his friends. Following this, Sid and Angie are arrested, but the commissar, after a call, lets them go. Fearing the worst, Sid tries to get rid of the phone, by losing or destroying it, but with little success. The phone then states that Sid is its beloved master, and anyone",
"-22.305456981237512"
],
[
"as he left the bodega and went into an apartment building, reporting over their radio that they saw the \"butt of a gun\" on the teen. No gun was recovered. The officers claimed that they approached Graham when he left the building, identifying themselves as police officers and telling him not to move. Then, the officers stated in their official report, Graham started to run from them toward his home. However, video evidence showed Graham casually walking into his home while officers followed in pursuit.\nAfter officers tried unsuccessfully to kick down the front door of the apartment building, two officers",
"-22.296090663570794"
],
[
"Harris the next morning. In the accidental videos on the phone, he adds, Harris seemed like \"a free man\".\nAfter wandering the area for a few days, including those in which he had been sought, he returned to his car and found it gone, Nyland believes. At that point he either walked away into the woods or towards another town. \"We have no sightings, so he probably got a ride\", the detective says.",
"-22.289691639773082"
],
[
"him how to use it. The thief got the same nosebleed Ryan had when he got the phone then he ordered Ryan to lie flat and not follow him.\nAs the thief reached the road the phone gave out a high-pitched whine then the flying creature went towards him. The thief tried to escape but the creature pushed him onto the main road where he was hit by a car then run over by a van. At the crash site Ryan found the crushed remains of the phone which melted into the tarmac. Colin met him there and the two of",
"-22.280806600290816"
],
[
"and told her, \"Open the door or I'll kill you.\" Frightened, Crane drove away but after approximately 50 feet (15 m) turned her car around and came back. She saw a man running away and found Cosby lying on the ground in a pool of blood next to the driver's side of his dark green Mercedes-Benz. He had been shot in the head. It appeared robbery was a motive, but Cosby was still wearing a Rolex watch and had three $20 bills in his pocket.\nThe Los Angeles Police Department contacted Congresswoman Maxine Waters, a close friend of Bill Cosby for many",
"-22.274514569231542"
],
[
"employee also suffered minor leg wounds from the blast. Investigation and arrests Two hundred and sixty five investigators from multiple agencies were assigned to work on the case. Investigators found a cellphone outside at the scene, which was concluded to have been the one mentioned by Joshua Turnidge in the first call. The phone was traced back to a Walmart, where surveillance videos showed a man purchasing the phone and later driving away in a blue truck. A partial license plate identification showed the truck was owned by Bruce Turnidge, of Jefferson, Oregon. While Turnidge was not the man in",
"-22.254387383698486"
],
[
"blown off. Leah heads outside and releases one of the hostages. She asks Iger who made the phone call to the police. He answers that the message came from the radio, they never received any phone calls. Leah goes back inside to the telephone and listens to the same message being repeated, suddenly recognizing the voice.\nVee escapes through the water pipe. As Michael begins setting the place on fire to cover their escape, Leah lets the hostages go. As she attempts to escape through the water pipe, the masked man and undead hostages attack her. Michael distracts them long enough",
"-22.230941326153697"
],
[
"gets out of his bindings and walks to a seemingly abandoned diner. He is let in by a man and allowed to use the phone. Joe calls 911 again only for it to be answered by Lindsey, who is sitting on the other side of the empty diner. Relieved at seeing an alive and well Lindsey, he rushes to hug her. Lindsey then explains that it was all part of the package and that Ben and Ashleigh were in on it the entire time. Abe and his cronies arrive at the diner along with Ben, Ashleigh and Tom and they",
"-22.220567718381062"
],
[
"the call was treated as a probable misdial and forwarded to Silent Solutions, a 2 minute-long recorded message telling people in need of assistance to dial 55. Investigators then enhanced the recording, and were able to learn that Foster was in the back of a van being driven by a man with a south Asian accent. After identifying seven vans on CCTV footage that may fit the route taken, a public appeal for information was made by the parents on 26 March via Crimewatch.\nA supervisor at Hazlewood Foods identified Kohli, one of the company's drivers as a possible suspect. He",
"-22.218843924463727"
],
[
"Inside (2011 film) Plot 24-year-old Christina Perasso, a tough, resilient girl, wakes up trapped in a room and has no idea where she is being held or who did this to her. She has been left access to her laptop. Through the use of an intermittent Wi-Fi signal, she reaches out to friends, family and a audience through social media. She lists facts, clues, pictures and videos to aid the audience in figuring out where she is, who her captor is, and why she was kidnapped.",
"-22.21141756599536"
],
[
"He claims to be a Soviet Consulate worker with a life-and-death matter. Unable to resist the bait, Pantaloon comes out to talk with him. George gives him a tremendous punch on the nose that lifts him clear off his feet. He then dashes to the car and the two men escape. They drive quickly through the snowy streets but soon realize that they're being tailed. Knowing they can't escape, they stop. Instead of the police, it turns out to be one of the customers. He explains that it was the funniest thing he's ever seen and he happily pays them",
"-22.17560275795404"
],
[
"was wearing a black leather jacket, with his chest hanging out, with some chains and just sweating like a son of a gun. I don't know what the hell he got a hold of, man, but it just whacked him. And the next thing I know, he axed my door down in the Albert Hotel. They said at the reception area that this crazy guy had held an ax to the doorman's head.\" After spending time in the infamous Tombs jail in New York, Spence was committed to New York's Bellevue Hospital, where he spent six months under psychiatric",
"-22.17446269840002"
],
[
"a teen going by the name of Sean Flynn (Callan McAuliffe), is seeking his father, who went missing not long after the robots invaded, sending out hand-drawn lost posters hidden in tennis balls and fruit. Later, Connor, a friend of Sean's, is seen attempting to repair his PlayStation, when Nathan, a young boy, accidentally shocks Connor, while a girl named Alexandra watches. The group discovers that Connor's implant has been turned off by the electrical shock, and then perform the same procedure on each other to stay outside without being tracked down. The group enters a local museum before Sean",
"-22.159687812323682"
],
[
"explaining that someone called him. Gabriel tells him that he made the call. He glances down at the watch on the table and sees the name \"Sylar\" on the face and introduces himself to Brian Davis as \"Gabriel Sylar.\" Brian stares at a mug on Gabriel's desk and manages to slide it across the desk telekinetically, then asking if Gabriel can make it go away, surprising him. Brian tells him he does not know what the ability is, but he doesn't want it. Gabriel then picks up a crystal from the table and kills Brian.\nGabriel meets with Chandra again and",
"-22.15884829830611"
],
[
"cashier. According to the cashier, she did not see or notice anything unusual in the store and not in Kelsey's behavior.\nThere was however strong evidence that Smith had been abducted; surveillance video from Target appeared to show someone forcing Smith into her car. The video at first did not show anything unusual but a careful look once slowed down showed a flash in that screen in the direction of Kelsey and her car. The flash was consistent with someone running when the camera is placed at a distance.\nAccording to the program See No Evil, the Macy's surveillance video showed the",
"-22.142191260005347"
],
[
"them sporting AK-47 assault rifles. A man told those present the following:\n\"Gentlemen, please. Give me a moment of your time. A man is going to come in, the boss. We will ask you to remain in your seats; the doors will be closed and nobody is allowed to leave. You will also not be allowed to use your cellulars. Do not worry; if you do everything that is asked of you, nothing will happen. Continue eating and don't ask for your check. The boss will pay. Thank you.\"\nFollowing this statement, Guzmán entered through the front door of the restaurant and",
"-22.137275622913876"
],
[
"only contact is Henry, another hostage that is also locked in a trunk of a car; both hostages have timers in the trunk with them that counts down. The terrorists have left old radios in the trunk to allow them to communicate with their hostages as well as allowing Jeremy and Henry to talk to one another. Through long conversations, Jeremy learns that the cars are actually bombs, and that they are currently in Maryland traveling towards Washington D.C. The car is almost pulled over by police and a high speed chase ensues but Jeremy is unable to be rescued,",
"-22.1368703993503"
],
[
"Ben asks her to get close to him. As she leaves the motel, Veronica and Logan kiss unexpectedly.\nVeronica gets an invitation to Norris's house, but she doesn't find any weapons. Veronica calls Mac to help her break into the WiFi before she sees Pete in front of the house. The ATF searches Norris's vehicle and finds fertilizer and a rifle, despite Veronica's convictions that he is not the perpetrator. However, Veronica recognizes them as being the same ones Ben was loading into his car earlier. Veronica calls Pete, and she tells him that she knows he falsely implicated Norris (with",
"-22.13399838586338"
],
[
"replies \"They'll never give you Walt\".\nAna Lucia Cortez (Michelle Rodriguez) offers to accompany Jack in his attempt to negotiate with the Others. Ana gives Jack a gun and advises him to take someone with him. \nLocke tries to speak to Henry through the armory door, asking him whether or not he entered the numbers into the computer. However, Henry doesn't respond, only smirking to himself.\nJack and Kate trek through the jungle. Kate notices a doll on the ground, and reaches to pick it up, despite Jack's frantic cries to stop. Kate picks up the doll and both she and Jack",
"-22.12497564399382"
],
[
"thing the doctor sees is his human leg. As the doctor screams for the orderlies, August escapes into the seedy streets of Hong Kong, where he meets an individual, who tells him of a person who can help him, The Dragon (Tzi Ma). When they reach the Dragon's place, August waits outside, then notices a person dropping her cell phone, and when he hands it back to her, it is revealed that the person is none other than Tamara (Sonequa Martin-Green), the woman who became Neal's fiancee. August goes to see the Dragon, then shows him his wooden leg and",
"-22.112180993659422"
],
[
"Veronica is shown stating that she has sent an intern into the house with a camera to rescue the two men and to see what has happened as a whole. The frightened intern ventures into the house but is knocked over and presumably murdered by an unknown person wearing a flannel shirt. During this time the body of Claire Berger is shown on camera, which shows that the Bergers never made it out of the house and were both killed. Veronica frantically implores Frank to break down the door and leave the house, which prompts Frank to once again demand",
"-22.10976751986891"
],
[
"picks up the phone, she experiences a vision of a door. The phone burns a mark on her hand. Julia's version of the video cannot be copied and contains additional images of a mysterious woman: she realizes they must cremate Samara's physical remains.\nGabriel sends them to Sacrament Valley, where Samara was given a proper burial after the residents of Moesko Island refused to accept the remains. He realizes the mark on Julia's hand is Braille, translates it, and goes to warn them. Julia and Holt find an unmarked tomb, but when they break in, they find it empty. They are",
"-22.059217910951702"
],
[
"in the 4th season of Torchwood.\nIt was popularised in South India through the movie Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu, in which Kamal Haasan was seen using the phone. In the computer game Counter-Strike: Source, the character Leet can be seen holding one. In Prison Break Series, Alexander Mahone used the Motorola V3. Also, in the 2006 film The Devil Wears Prada, characters played by Meryl Streep and Stanley Tucci used Moto Razr phones.\nIn the 2017 Square Enix game Life is Strange: Before the Storm, the main character's phone is a Motorola RAZR, decorated with stickers.",
"-22.051433133659884"
],
[
"On a trip to the shopping mall, he sees F speaking to someone off camera, and a menacing man in black appears behind him. When he returns to the apartment, a woman in a yellow jacket is hiding in the stairway outside his door. Inside, he finds F convulsing, and unsuccessfully attempts to feed her. He discovers that twelve seconds of camera footage is missing, and receives a mysterious phone call from a pay phone call warning him that he is in serious trouble.\nAfter being beaten with his camera by a stranger whom he filmed, Masuoka cuts his finger on",
"-22.047830332114245"
],
[
"for the letters, arrived to retrieve the bag when he was confronted by Upshaw. Police were later called to the scene after a resident heard men talking about killing someone. Bobby Hayes was brought into custody and later released on bail, receiving orders not to contact Brandon, Newman or their families.",
"-22.04523617052473"
],
[
"with his suitcase, Douglas is spotted by two men he had befriended in Canada. The two are the same friends who had taken him to the hospital after his burn injuries and had visited him during his recovery. They invite him to share a taxi ride. He declines, but they cheerfully insist, and he goes with them. The taxi soon stops in front of the Seacoast National Bank, his former employer. Now quite nervous, Douglas refuses to go into the building, so his friends suddenly put handcuffs on him, take his suitcase, and escort him at gunpoint to the office",
"-22.02661535795778"
],
[
"talking to a man who then crossed the street and entered a dentist's office. When the man came out, Kletzky followed him and appeared to get into his car.\nAfter examining the videos, police located the dentist, who alerted his receptionist, the wife of community political operative Simcha Eichenstein. She gave them the name and address of the suspect who had come in to pay his bill that day. After midnight on Tuesday, police also managed to identify the car in the surveillance video as a 1990 gold Honda Accord. Forty-five minutes later, two Flatbush volunteers searching for the missing boy",
"-22.025623440160416"
],
[
"roof and stealing the crossbow. She staggers back into the house, removing the bolt from her leg before trying to reload the crossbow. John, Sarah's boyfriend, arrives at Maddie's house searching for Sarah. The man confronts John, posing as a police officer responding to a call, and delivers a story of how he was rendered unconscious by an intruder. He asks for John's phone, faking a call to dispatch for backup. When John asks for his phone back, the man pulls it from his pocket, inadvertantly dropping Sarah's earring to the ground. He moves to cover it with his boot,",
"-22.023941173392814"
],
[
"phone line and report all conversations, believing that his secretary might be leaking confidential business information. Wolfe took the job, but ended it after Archie discovered that the client was not the real Ross.\nOne of Hyatt's staff members finds a man strangled to death in another meeting room; Wolfe and Archie identify him as their client. The city police detain everyone at the scene for questioning, under the direction of Chief of Detectives Leon Groom. Hyatt states that the client had come to see him shortly before the day's meetings were to begin, introduced himself as William A. Donahue, and",
"-22.015379684977233"
],
[
"him, Olivia realizes that someone survived the elevator impact. Now aware of Meegar's identity, they attempt to track him. However, Meegar is captured by Fischer who wishes to perform further tests on him. Walter finds Meegar's Walkman and uses its cassette tape to find a unique electromagnetic signature, then has homing pigeons guide Olivia, Peter, and Charlie to his location. Alerted by the FBI's arrival, Fischer attempts to leave with Meegar, who escapes. After Fischer is apprehended, Meegar attempts to flee, but he's also caught. They send Meegar to a hospital to be examined.\nWalter realizes Olivia is seeing Scott, and",
"-22.001908657723106"
],
[
"on his own, and it wasn't until evening the next day that Goddard became concerned at repeated missed calls, that he decided to check on Button at his home. Upon arriving, Goddard found the keys in the gate to the house. Letting himself in, Goddard found Button's body on the steps leading up to the house.\nThe most likely sequence of events is that at some point between leaving the bar and his car, Button had fallen and hit his head. He had then arrived home, and locked himself out of the house when the gate had shut behind him with",
"-21.98885271680774"
],
[
"Avenue bus stop in front of her house.\nThe Warren Commission concluded that at approximately 1:15 p.m., Dallas Patrolman J. D. Tippit drove up in his patrol car alongside Oswald, presumably because Oswald resembled the police broadcast description of the man seen by witness Howard Brennan who fired shots at the presidential motorcade. He encountered Oswald near the corner of East 10th Street and North Patton Avenue. This location is about nine-tenths of a mile (1.4 km) southeast of Oswald's rooming house — a distance that the Warren Commission concluded \"Oswald could have easily walked.\" Tippit pulled alongside Oswald and \"apparently exchanged words",
"-21.97357718925923"
],
[
"walkie-talkie and talks to an unidentified man on the other end. The man tells her she missed her pickup and they will only pick her up if she brings an \"A\" with her. Anne discovers Gabriel and subdues him. In the episode \"The Obliged\", she prepares to feed Gabriel to a walker but cannot come to do it, but she still tells the man on the other end of the walkie-talkie that she has his \"A\". Gabriel recognizes that Anne has been engaging in human trafficking, but she lets him go while she flees to meet with the helicopter. In",
"-21.971843416278716"
],
[
"taped their mouths with adhesive tape. When the Hills arrived, Connie rang the home's doorbell and was greeted by someone in a green mask she initially thought to be her stepson playing a joke. The intruder grabbed Connie Hill, saying \"This is a robbery.\" She was able to struggle away from him and run down the street. As she ran and called out for help, she heard shots fired. A neighbor heard her cries for help, let her in, and let her call the police. When the police and an ambulance arrived at the Hill home, they found John",
"-21.954418998677284"
],
[
"Mike, Cat and Tank who were Peter's old friends and Jordan, the last person to move to Phoenix.\nWhen Luke gets home, he finds a USB flash drive inside with the initials 'JB' etched onto it. He opens it on his new laptop and sees a random code of letters. There is only one suspect he can think of with those initials: Jordan Burke. Luke is viciously confronted by Jordan who was also given a USB with the initials 'LH' etched onto it. Peter suspects the number combinations from both USBs are a two parts of a bigger file. The",
"-21.939736787229776"
]
] |
4tvyy2 | Drinking or taking drugs "to feel normal". | [
"People who do this say they do it to feel normal. And most of them believe it when they say it. What's actually going on is that the substance they're using dulls the edges in their mind and makes their pain less immediate, less real. For that reason, they come to think that because the substance reduces or eliminates the pain, it makes them \"normal\" again. That logic has holes in it big enough to drive a truck through, but I've heard the same answer from every addict I've talked with.",
"Some substances make you feel like the Super-version of yourself. As time goes on and your tolerance builds, the \"super-you\" dose is less and and less effective. You need more of the substance to achieve \"super-you\". Stopping use all together makes you feel like the worst version of yourself, and you need the substance in moderate amounts just to feel the way you normally would before you ever started using. This was my experience with amphetamines anyway, and my only real experience with the whole \"use to feel normal\" thing.",
"Well it basically means you feel more apt to deal with your world when you are on the drugs. As a drug user; it is never a good sign when someone says this. It is a sign that you are high way too often that sobriety is no longer your regular state of mind",
"I have ADHD and minor OCD. The most of my life Ive been unable to really focus on much of anything and I can easily forget things that most people normally wouldn't. Literally you can tell me \"Don't forget X important thing.\" and I will acknowledge it, then walk away. Soon as I turn away, I've literally forgot what you said and what it was I needed to remember. Back to my concentration: I take Ritalin, and it actually slows down my mind and allows me to actually focus on tasks so that I can get them done rather than starting them and dropping it 5 minutes later because something else got my attention. (Im looking at you Warhammer 40K board....) So by taking the Ritalin, it puts me in a state where I \"feel normal\", because I knew my state before was not.",
"I smoke marijuana It helps with my back pains, period pains, headaches and my anxiety. No complaints here.",
"In truth, people who say that \"taking drugs makes them feel normal\" say this because when they take a particular drug, the way the drug makes them feel, or the effect of the drug, makes them feel how they perceive others who are \"normal\" must feel. For example, \"normal\" people, one might postulate, do not have a constant distraction of a million painful-thoughts running through their heads all the time. On the other hand, there ARE people, who DO suffer with non-stop thoughts: rapid, relentless, repetitive, ruminating thoughts that parce their neurons all day every day. If when a person take a drug, that drug's effect reduces the non-stop, relentless, ruminating thoughts, that person could then suppose, that how they feel while under the \"influence\" of the drug, is how \"normal\" people must feel all the time. If one were to say that \"drugs\" makes them feel normal, they could be articulating that \"drugs\" (take away the relentless, ruminating thoughts) and make them feel \"normal\", and/ or how others must feel without the indications of relentless ruminating thoughts. You can apply this formula & that \"perception of normal\" statement to one of many hundreds of conditions that those who suffer from alcohol and drug addiction seek remission from. Some people seek relief without even understanding why they they do what they do. Achieving relief from a symptom that \"normal\" people do not usually suffer from, is the most logical and the most basic explanation of such a statement. When one states that drugs make them feel normal\" is does not suggest that how they may be \"explaining\" their particular condition is any \"less real\" or a \"bad sign\" because it is the only way they know how to verbalize their experience. Suggestions to the contrary, that all \"addicts\" or people who take \"drugs\" are seeking to achieve anything other than relief from a particular malady, demonstrates a lack of understanding of the disease of addiction and further perpetuates the myths and stigmas associated with mental illness.",
"I have a problem with anxiety, and I also have a problem with abuse. I do not take pills, and I refuse to ever start. My issues begin when I think (or over think) about stressful situations such as work, money, or even family. Smoking marijuana makes my head clear of malicious thinking and forces me to not only focus on something that isn't stressful, but exercising large, spaced out breaths. The feeling of exuberance does not happen as harsh for habitual users, and can often require stronger strains to fully take advantage. It only takes a toke or two to get the stress away, but I fear that I have become too reliant on this method to the point that I may feel like I need it constantly or need something more potent when two tokes no longer works. This ultimately puts a user into either 'chasing the high' or, in the case of cannabis, the inability to elevate oneself to that \"okay I feel better now\" state. This of course, in both situations is easily remedied with taking a break to cripple your body's tolerance. When I choose to pick it back up, I struggle to maintain a healthy balance until I reach a reasonable tolerance to deal with everyday stress- but once that tolerance is shot, feeling normal becomes costly in every way.",
"Alcoholic/former drug addict here. For me, it's been the concept of \"missing out.\" Sure, you're having fun now. Your friends are with you, you're having a great time, but... there's this nagging thought, ever present in the background, that you could be having MORE fun if you were drunk/stoned. Very convoluted, vicious circle.",
"Former drug addict here. It's about coping with life and pretty much hiding from your emotions, problems, etc. it's not so much to feel normal as it is to just escape reality and not have to look inward or face the problems you have."
] | [
[
"make them feel. In the continued use stage, individuals know how the drug makes them feel and is likely to notice that they're not getting “high” as quickly as they use to. In the tolerance stage, the brain and the body have adjusted to the drug and it takes longer to get the “high” an individual is seeking. Tolerance arrives after a period of continued use and is one of the first warning signs of addiction. In the dependence stage, the brain becomes accustomed to the drug and doesn't function well without it. Substance abusers become physically ill without the",
"-32.95774844032712"
],
[
"recall and free association. This is not because alcohol better produces associations, but because the person with alcoholism lives a larger portion of their life under the influence of alcohol. This produces changes in cognition and so when the person with alcoholism drinks, the intoxication primes their brain towards certain associations made in similar states. Essentially, the intoxicated and sober states of the alcoholic are in fact, different from the intoxicated and sober states of the non-alcoholic person, whose body is not as used to processing such large amounts of the substance. For this reason, we see slightly larger effects",
"-32.48354275906968"
],
[
"drugs are getting from friends. Based on the drugs' function which can serve as a cognitive enhancer, common reasons of misuses by college students include better academic performance, creating euphoria, being awake and arousal, peer pressure, and also as which happened more in female for weight loss. Side effects such as mood changes and insomnia are shown differently by people but in severe cases, the misuse could even be associated with sudden death. Middle School Malaise Middle school malaise happens on children during the transition from elementary school to middle school when they encountering a lot of significant biological, psychological",
"-32.377957201963"
],
[
"the user's emotional disposition prior to alcoholic consumption was negative. In these cases, the individual is drinking to cope and is shown to have less control over his/her own use. Alcohol mediates negative feelings by their suppression but also encourages the habituated continuance of positive emotion. Recovering alcoholics often report that the reason for relapse is often related to the impulse to compensate for negative feelings, resulting in a motivation to cope and therefore drink. Evolutionary Mismatch Despite being harmful, drugs such as nicotine, cocaine, alcohol, THC, and opium artificially stimulate the emotions and neural circuits involved in the mesolimbic",
"-32.35929901356576"
],
[
"an addiction also have a psychiatric disorder. When dealing with either a mental illness or a drug addiction some symptoms people will experience are being incapable of controlling their own impulses and mood swings.\nWhen an individual falls victim to drug addiction, they will undergo the five stages of addiction which are the first use, the continued use, tolerance, dependence, and addiction. The first use stage, is the stage where individuals experiment with drugs and alcohol. This is the stage where individuals will partake in drug use because of curiosity, peer pressure, emotional problems etc. They discover how the drug will",
"-32.214186084107496"
],
[
"alcohol, marijuana, opiates, or tobacco). \"Clean and sober\" is a commonly used phrase, which refers to someone having an extended period without alcohol or other drugs in their body.",
"-32.112407618318684"
],
[
"religious people to use drugs (including alcohol) as part of their practices. Quoting St Paul's proscriptions against drunkenness in church, in 1 Corinthians xi, Zaehner makes the point that artificial ecstatic states and spiritual union with God are not the same.\nHolding that there are similarities between the experience on mescaline, the mania in a manic-depressive psychosis and the visions of God of a mystical saint suggests, for Zaehner, that the saint's visions must be the same as those of a lunatic. The personality is dissipated into the world, for Huxley on mescaline and people in a manic state, which is",
"-31.99127129034605"
],
[
"its functions of integrating and control, processes related to judgment and behavior occur in a disorganized fashion and the proper operation of behavioral tasks becomes disrupted.\" In all actuality alcohol weakens a variety of skills that are necessary to perform everyday tasks.\nOne of the main effects of alcohol is severely impairing a person's ability to shift attention from one thing to another, \"without significantly impairing sensory motor functions.\" This indicates that people who are intoxicated are not able to properly shift their attention without affecting the senses. People that are intoxicated also have a much more narrow area of",
"-31.923945379909128"
],
[
"alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence often acts to keep the anxiety disorders going and often progressively makes them worse. Many people who are addicted to alcohol or prescribed benzodiazepines decide to quit when it is explained to them they have a choice between ongoing ill mental health or quitting and recovering from their symptoms. It was noted that because every individual has an individual sensitivity level to alcohol or sedative hypnotic drugs, what one person can tolerate without ill health will cause another to suffer very ill health, and that even moderate drinking in sensitive individuals can cause rebound anxiety syndromes",
"-31.843050460825907"
],
[
"Ecstasy (emotion) Description From a psychological perspective, ecstasy is a loss of self-control and sometimes a temporary loss of consciousness, which is often associated with religious mysticism, sexual intercourse and the use of certain drugs.\nFor the duration of the ecstasy the ecstatic is out of touch with ordinary life and is capable neither of communication with other people nor of undertaking normal actions. The experience can be brief in physical time, or it can go on for hours. Subjective perception of time, space or self may strongly change or disappear during ecstasy. For instance, if one is concentrating on a",
"-31.775527862191666"
],
[
"Recreational drug use Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive drug to induce an altered state of consciousness for pleasure, by modifying the perceptions, feelings, and emotions of the user. When a psychoactive drug enters the user's body, it induces an intoxicating effect. Generally, recreational drugs are in three categories: depressants (drugs that induce a feeling of relaxation and calm); stimulants (drugs that induce a sense of energy and alertness); and hallucinogens (drugs that induce perceptual distortions such as hallucination). Many people also use prescribed and illegal opioids along with opiates and benzodiazepines. In popular practice, recreational",
"-31.710759025512743"
],
[
"4) the secretion of some hormones, especially those dependent on the pituitary gland, is controlled by neurotransmitter systems in the brain. Alcohol Alcohol is a depressant, the effects of which may vary according to dosage amount, frequency, and chronicity. As a member of the sedative-hypnotic class, at the lowest doses, the individual feels relaxed and less anxious. In quiet settings, the user may feel drowsy, but in settings with increased sensory stimulation, individuals may feel uninhibited and more confident. High doses of alcohol rapidly consumed may produce amnesia for the events that occur during intoxication. Other effects include reduced coordination,",
"-31.6473909089691"
],
[
" This is all dependent on the nutritional content which varies from one relaxation drink to another. There are reports of melatonin causing this next-day grogginess feeling.\nPeople with Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been known to use relaxation drinks to substitute for Dexedrine because of the properties to help focus thoughts.\nSome relaxation drinks can cause drowsiness and should not be taken while driving or operating heavy machinery.",
"-31.63765794111532"
],
[
"degree to which alcohol expectations interact with the physiological short-term effects of alcohol, resulting in specific behaviors, is unclear.\nA single study found that if a society believes that intoxication leads to sexual behavior, rowdy behavior, or aggression, then people tend to act that way when intoxicated. But if a society believes that intoxication leads to relaxation and tranquil behavior, then it usually leads to those outcomes. Alcohol expectations vary within a society, so these outcomes are not certain.\nPeople tend to conform to social expectations, and some societies expect that drinking alcohol will cause disinhibition. However, in societies in which the",
"-31.4707054837927"
],
[
"lives of the alcoholics and accepting sobriety comes with its own challenges and understanding of their personality. Despite leaving alcohol and de-addicting themselves, most of their personalities are an embodiment of their drunkard selves. \nThe dry drunk is portrayed with feelings of profound depression and frustration and with the indecisive feeling of wanting a drink that they have given up. Several alcoholics drink for about 10-20 years before maintaining sobriety and get used to their personality and character traits that are embodied by their drunkard selves. During this phase of dry drunk, the addicts face restlessness, frustration, anger, impatience and",
"-31.44396320497617"
],
[
"decide on quitting alcohol or their benzodiazepines. Symptoms may temporarily worsen however, during alcohol withdrawal or benzodiazepine withdrawal. Psychological factors Research has indicated the role of 'core' or 'unconditional' negative beliefs (e.g. \"I am inept\") and 'conditional' beliefs nearer to the surface (e.g. \"If I show myself, I will be rejected\"). They are thought to develop based on personality and adverse experiences and to be activated when the person feels under threat. One line of work has focused more specifically on the key role of self-presentational concerns. The resulting anxiety states are seen as interfering with social performance and the",
"-31.33604396028386"
],
[
"stimulating effect upon the central nervous system, whereas the alcohol has a depressing effect. Consequently, some of the effects of intoxication are masked.\nA Brazilian study conducted in 2006 found that combining energy drinks and alcohol \"appears to show us that the use of energy drinks might predispose people to abuse alcohol when its depressant effects — or at least the perception of such effects — are masked by them.\" Professor Roseli Boergnen de Lacerda, who conducted the study, also warned of another possible effect: \"a higher risk of car accidents because they [people who drank energy drinks with alcohol] felt",
"-31.299281327577773"
],
[
"often are overwhelmed with emotions and painful situations and turn to substances as a coping method. Comorbidity of mental disorders For most of these disorders, in relation to polysubstance dependence, there is a vicious cycle that those with a dependence go through. First, Ingesting the drug creates a need for more, which creates a dopamine surge, which then creates pleasure. As the dopamine subsides, the pleasure adds to the emotional and physical pain and triggers stress transmitters, which in turn creates a craving, which must then be medicated, and thus the cycle begins again. However, the next time they use,",
"-31.114474066256662"
],
[
"in particular triggered you going sober?\" in a 2011 interview, Reynolds replied:\n\nCocaine - just messing with hard drugs and not being able to stop. My drinking was way out of control; I couldn't drink one beer without ending up blacking out and doing drugs. It would happen over and over again. Probably from like seventeen years old to twenty-four, I just didn't know how to control my intake of drugs or alcohol. It just happens to certain people. You are either that way or you aren't that way, you know? I smoked weed like my life depended on it. Then",
"-30.92146003394737"
],
[
"was younger. Welch commented, \"All the drama that I experienced with getting drunk and doing drugs all the time seemed interesting and amusing to write about. That life style is total insanity and I'm glad to be out of it.\" He went on to say that the purpose of the song is to inspire alcoholics and drug addicts to \"get clean\" and that \"if I can encourage even one drug addict or alcoholic to get clean with 'Flush,' then the song has served its purpose.\" Music video The music video for \"Flush\", directed by Frankie Nasso of Nova Entertainment, was",
"-30.734853278147057"
],
[
"reflects their perceived contribution to the user's experience dancing to a beat as lights flash to the music. Club drug users are generally taking the drugs to \"enhance social intimacy and sensory stimulation\" from the dance club experience. Some club drugs' popularity stems from their ability to induce euphoria, lowered inhibition and an intoxicated feeling. Some drugs, such as amphetamine and cocaine, give the dancer hyperactivity and energy to dance all night. Many drugs produce a feeling of heightened physical sensation, and increased libido and sexual pleasure. Some club drugs, such as LSD, DMT, MDMA, 2C-B and ketamine enhance the",
"-30.718830235069618"
],
[
"makes you feel good it must be morally bad\".\nKlerman wrote at a time when there was growing public and governmental concern about American drug use, both legal (tranquilizers) and illegal (cannabis, LSD, etc.)\nIt has been pointed out that, strictly speaking, Klerman misrepresented Calvinist theology in his use of this term.",
"-30.61004210356623"
],
[
"Self-medication Definition Generally speaking, self-medication is defined as \"the use of drugs to treat self-diagnosed disorders or symptoms, or the intermittent or continued use of a prescribed drug for chronic or recurrent disease or symptoms\" Self-medication hypothesis As different drugs have different effects, they may be used for different reasons. According to the self-medication hypothesis (SMH), the individuals' choice of a particular drug is not accidental or coincidental, but instead, a result of the individuals' psychological condition, as the drug of choice provides relief to the user specific to his or her condition. Specifically, addiction is hypothesized to function as",
"-30.46650293591665"
],
[
"present at the same time. If a person is genetically predisposed to be depressed then they are at a higher risk of having polysubstance dependence.\nPossibly the most widely accepted cause of addictions is the self-medication hypothesis, that views drug addiction as a form of coping with stress through negative reinforcement, by temporarily alleviating awareness of or concerns over the stressor. Substance users learn that the effects of each type of drug work to relieve or better painful states. They use drugs as a form of self-medication to deal with difficulties of self-esteem, relationships, and self-care. Individuals with substance use disorders",
"-30.414734641002724"
],
[
"experience, such as when the user reaches new insight into themselves or their beliefs about the nature of the universe, is reportedly quite rewarding. After the trip A sitter may help the drug user to integrate or understand their experiences when the experience is complete. Just as they did before, and during the trip, they may reassure the user about any fears or worries that have occurred. This discussion may take place immediately after the drug's effects have worn off, or they may wait until a later date.",
"-30.3869139541639"
],
[
"pleasant experience. \nOf course, the drug dose does not produce the transcendent experience. It merely acts as a chemical key — it opens the mind, frees the nervous system of its ordinary patterns and structures. The nature of the experience depends almost entirely on set and setting. Set denotes the preparation of the individual, including his personality structure and his mood at the time. Setting is physical — the weather, the room's atmosphere; social — feelings of persons present towards one another; and cultural — prevailing views as to what is real. It is for this reason that manuals or",
"-30.37917490788095"
],
[
"parts; the spouse receives eight; the father, seven; the mother, six; the brothers, five; the sisters, four; and the teachers, three. Alcohol, drugs and tobacco Bahá'ís are forbidden to drink alcohol or to take drugs, except by a doctor's order. The reason being that God has given human beings reason and intoxicants take that away and lead the mind astray. The non-medicinal use of opium and other mind-altering drugs are particularly condemned in the Bahá'í scriptures. Bahá'ís are also asked to try to avoid working in jobs that involve the manufacturing or large-scale sale of alcohol and avoid",
"-30.33456972335989"
],
[
"whereby the musician refers to opiate use during the 19th century:\n\nWe let people have booze, cigarettes, wars ... Why not let them have smack? People used to take it, and it wasn’t seen as a problem. If you lived in 1890 and you were an opium fiend, that was your problem: to take it, and to find out how to stop taking it. It was nothing to do with the law ... Now, I’m not going to sit here and go, “Oh, kids, look what I did to my life because I was a drug addict. Please don’t be like",
"-30.31256244139513"
],
[
"freely after consuming alcohol. Social avoidance motives referred to drinking for the purpose of being accepted and avoiding social exclusion. Cooper's team had each participant keep a diary of each time they drank and tracked it in relation to their motivations and whether the experience of drinking induced pleasure, relief, or worse feelings than beforehand. They observed that self-focused enhancement led drinkers to conceive each progressive drink as more pleasurable than the last. In addition, participants with self-focused avoidance motives conceived each drink to be more relieving. These results provided insight into reasons why people often tend to drink excessively.",
"-30.310806321445853"
],
[
"you're asking a lot of yourself. You're giving up a lot at once.\" Chiba further explained that \"anyone who understands drug abuse knows that you use drugs to hide from your past or sedate yourself from strong, overwhelming feelings. So when you're newly clean and coming off the medications that have been masking all those feelings, that's when you're the most vulnerable.\" Writing for Spin, Liam Gowing also encountered a local musician who claimed Smith had said to him: \"The people who try to intervene, they're good people who genuinely care about you. But they don't know what you're going",
"-30.288231929182075"
],
[
"At a mental health conference in February 2010, Dr. Ronald Peters, Jr., of the University of Texas Health Science Center said of \"Drank\": \"They're taking the name, and they're trying to market it to young people.\" He described the beverage as \"the worst thing I've ever seen on the street since the making of candy cigarettes\".",
"-30.282380355522037"
],
[
"group's norms and attitudes can influence alcohol abuse. Mental illness A person misusing alcohol may be doing so because they find alcohol's effects provide relief from a psychological problem, such as anxiety or depression. Often both the alcohol misuse and psychological problems need to be treated at the same time.\nThe numbing effects of alcohol and narcotics can become a coping strategy for traumatized people who are unable to dissociate themselves from the trauma. However, the altered or intoxicated state of the abuser prevents the full consciousness necessary for healing. Puberty Gender differences may affect drinking patterns and the risk for",
"-30.256182465527672"
],
[
"effect of the drug. Although this approach may be helpful to point out signs and symptoms of alcohol abuse it fails to discourage a person from drinking, responsibly or irresponsibly. The Alternative Approach This approach seeks to find alternatives to drinking. The alternatives have shown to be successful in the replacement of alcohol as long as they're available to the person alternating. This approach though does not do well to change one's drinking attitude or habit, but rather lessens the amount of alcohol consumed. It is also hard to find alternatives to fit in the place of alcohol in some",
"-30.189848737296415"
],
[
"everything perfectly have failed.\" The self-destructive behavior of injecting intoxicating drugs parallels overeating; it permits the user to experience comfort, and to feel punished afterwards.\nIn relationships, many OA members attested trying to control their own lives and those of others. Paradoxically, an OA member's experience of themselves was also characterized by strong feelings of personal failure, dependence, despair, stress, nervousness, low self-esteem, powerlessness, lack of control, self-pity, frustration and loneliness. As part of these feelings, the self was perceived as being both a victim of circumstances and a victim of the attitude of others. Many members viewed this lack of",
"-30.173923294816632"
],
[
"general, medication use can effectively improve an individuals abilities on cognitive tasks, attention, and reducing impulsivity. Furthermore, evidence shows beneficial behavioural effects and an overall benefit to frontal function and cognitive performance. However, the most common side effect can cause an episode of anxiety, mania, and insomnia. Anxiety can inhibit attention and cognition, thus impairing executive functions. Alcohol The influences of alcohol directly, being 'drunk', on an individuals' cognitive abilities are obvious. Indirectly, chronic alcohol consumption can have drastic impacts on ones frontal lobes. Detoxified, chronic alcoholic males showed reduced inhibition and flexibility in planning, rule detection,",
"-30.105396865983494"
],
[
"regular activities like listening to music, engaging in exercise or sporting activities, or being in a particular physical or social environment (milieu), may be referred to as therapy; all sorts of responses and behaviors may be assumed to be symptoms; core adverse effects of drugs may be termed side effects.\nThe former director of a US-based psychiatric survivors organization focused on rights and freedoms, David Oaks, has advocated the taking back of words like \"mad\", \"lunatic\", \"crazy\" or \"bonkers\". While acknowledging that some choose not to use such words in any sense, he questions whether medical terms like \"mentally ill\", \"psychotic\"",
"-30.052933641476557"
],
[
"it.\" This man must have had two souls, one for his sober state, and one for him when drunk.\nResearch shows that individuals are less likely to remember information learned while intoxicated when they are once again sober. However, information learned or memories created while intoxicated are most effectively retrieved when the individual is in a similar state of intoxication.\nAlcoholism can enhance state-dependent memory as well. In a study comparing the state-dependent memory effects of alcohol on both subjects with alcoholism and subjects without alcoholism, researchers found that the alcoholic subjects showed greater effects for state-dependent memory on tasks of",
"-29.99201599211665"
],
[
"experience as: \"complex revelatory insights into the nature of existence… typically accompanied by a sense of certainty that this knowledge is ultimately more relevant and \"real\" than the perceptions and beliefs we share in everyday life.\" The philosopher Alan Watts likened psychedelic experiencing to the transformations of consciousness that are undertaken in Taoism and Zen, which he says is, \"more like the correction of faulty perception or the curing of a disease… not an acquisitive process of learning more and more facts or greater and greater skills, but rather an unlearning of wrong habits and opinions.\"\nThe LSD experience was described",
"-29.969760838896036"
],
[
"some cases, a person might obtain an ecstatic experience 'by mistake'. Maybe the person unintentionally triggers one of the, probably many, physiological mechanisms through which such an experience can be reached. In such cases, it is not rare to find that the person later, by reading, looks for an interpretation and maybe finds it within a tradition.\"\nPeople interpret the experience afterward according to their culture and beliefs (as a revelation from God, a trip to the world of spirits or a psychotic episode). \"When a person is using an ecstasy technique, he usually does so within a tradition. When he",
"-29.874966600706102"
],
[
"labels and diagnoses as well as through other behaviors associated with their mental illness defined as deviant. This stigma may not be as easily understood as alcoholism or addiction because the behavior is more varied and can not be explained by substance use.\nThe objective of NA and AA is not just to help their members stop abusing drugs and alcohol. It is acknowledged in these programs that addiction is more systemic than a \"bad habit\" and is fundamentally caused by self-centeredness. Long term membership in Alcoholics Anonymous has been found to reform pathological narcissism, and those who are sober but",
"-29.82488580176141"
],
[
"alcohol's effects on a person’s behaviors, abilities, and emotions. Some people believe that if alcohol expectations can be changed, then alcohol abuse might be reduced. Men tend to become more aggressive in laboratory studies in which they are drinking only tonic water but believe that it contains alcohol. They also become less aggressive when they believe they are drinking only tonic water, but are actually drinking tonic water that contains alcohol.\nThe phenomenon of alcohol expectations recognizes that intoxication has real physiological consequences that alter a drinker's perception of space and time, reduce psychomotor skills, and disrupt equilibrium. The manner and",
"-29.7575944408527"
],
[
"maturity and dialogue or even simple entraiteinment:\n“Drugs prompt chemical modifications which can also induce solitude, silence, abstinence, pain, fear. Chemically, there is no way to distinguish a person who is under the effects of drugs and under the effects of yoga. Chemically, we are nothing but a set of reactions. The problem is that society tells you that, even if you are chemically the same, that one came in the good way and the other through the backdoor.”\n“Deepening in the rule “Know Thyself”, which follows the Socratic principle, a principle of ethics. It's the rite of passage into adulthood of",
"-29.75329038774362"
],
[
"isolation and displacement. Thus, for example, an analytic patient's love for his father might be quite consciously experienced and openly expressed—while his \"hate\" for the same object might be heavily repressed and only indirectly expressed, and thus only revealed in analysis. A drug addict may feel ambivalently about their drug of choice; they are aware of their drug use as a negative-impact agent in their lives (socially, financially, physically, etc.) while simultaneously seeking and using the drug because of the positive-impact results they receive from the drug's usage (the \"high\"). (More recent discourse of addiction as a mental health",
"-29.7504319572472"
],
[
"The Drugs Don't Work Background and recording Lead singer Richard Ashcroft wrote the song in early 1995. He briefly mentioned it in an interview at the time, relating it to his drug usage: \"There's a new track I've just written [...] It goes 'the drugs don't work, they just make me worse, and I know I'll see your face again'. That's how I'm feeling at the moment. They make me worse, man. But I still take 'em. Out of boredom and frustration you turn to something else to escape.\"\nAshcroft also performed the song when the band was touring in support",
"-29.69383685165667"
],
[
"Addiction psychology History The word 'addiction' has successfully been traced to the 17th century. During this time period, addiction was defined as being compelled to act out any number of bad habits. Persons abusing narcotics were called opium and morphine 'eaters.' 'Drunkard' referred to abusers of alcohol. Medical textbooks categorized these 'bad habits' as dipsomania or alcoholism However, it wasn't until the 19th century when the diagnosis was first printed in medical literature. In the 1880s, Sigmund Freud and William Halsted began experimenting with users of cocaine. Unaware of the drug's powerful addictive qualities, they inadvertently became guinea pigs in",
"-29.68051407817984"
],
[
"Addiction, psychologist Dr. Alex Kwee wrote:\n\"That experiences can be addictive was a prescient notion in 1975 as psychology now embraces the concept of the process (or behavioral) addictions such as pathological gambling, compulsive eating, and sex addiction. But it must surely be to Peele's dismay that instead of rethinking substance addiction as a medical illness, psychology has gone and classified the behaviors as addictions in the same medical sense and yielded the solution into the hands of the 12-Steps.\" Views on alcoholism Peele maintains that, depending on the person, abstinence or moderation are valid approaches to treat excessive drinking. In",
"-29.67449145379942"
],
[
"of a human being. It also demonstrates that a lack of these insights compromises 'normal' functioning. This leads to less healthy functioning. In the autism spectrum, there is a profound deficit in Theory of Mind.\nIn people who identify as alcoholics, there is a belief that the need to control cognition is an independent predictor of alcohol use over anxiety. Alcohol may be used as a coping strategy for controlling unwanted thoughts and emotions formed by negative perceptions. This is sometimes referred to as self medication. Implications Wells' and Matthews' theory proposes that when faced with an undesired choice, an individual",
"-29.628586431965232"
],
[
"upon accounts from De Quincey in Confessions of an English Opium-Eater, Coleridge, or from other users. Schneider writes \"The relaxation of tension and conflict, accompanied by a sense of pleasant ease, occasionally helps to release for a time the neurotic person’s natural powers of though or imagination or (rarely) of action, though it does not give him powers that he did not have or change the character of his normal powers.\" Research has suggested that heavy doses of opium in addicts does result in a lengthy day-dream like trance (often reaching what opiate users describe as a \"nod\", when",
"-29.628013089793967"
],
[
"and many choose against certain things because of this. This can be seen in that people are not forced to drink excessively or smoke every day, but it is within the reach of their own free will that some may choose to do so. Therefore, those with addictive personalities are high in neuroticism and hence choose to engage in riskier behaviors. \nThe theory of addictive personalities agrees that there are two types of people: risk-takers and risk-averse. Risk-takers enjoy challenges, new experiences and want instant gratification. These people enjoy the excitement of danger and trying new things. On the other",
"-29.575433816833538"
],
[
"about the dangers and effects of drinking [alcohol]. [...] \"Infra-Red\"'s about that, when you get very drunk and you've got a bee in your bonnet about something, and this vengeful quality emerges. You start thinking about people who've done you wrong and [want] to set the record straight. Release Meds was released 13 March 2006 worldwide, although it was released three days earlier in Australia and New Zealand. Illegal copies had previously been available on the Internet since 17 January 2006. It reached number 7 in the UK Albums Chart.\nThe album was re-released by Virgin in the United States in",
"-29.56689211318735"
],
[
"swims, private beaches / Rock, paper, scissors. Wait! Best out of three.\"\nThe song references drugs both metaphorically and literally, and innocently delivers a transgressive message through the use of simile: \"I'm going to do you like drugs tonight\". Miguel said of the song's lyrics, \"I have this propensity to just come out and say things. That's how I am in real life. If I wanna know something I just ask. Like, 'Hey, do you like drugs?' Because I do! Sometimes! ... MDMA… on occasion.\" Alex Macpherson of The Guardian observes \"faded psychedelia\" and \"promises of narcotic trysts\" in the song's",
"-29.55212629563175"
],
[
"These experiences which strike at the core of a person's identity and consciousness may cause a person to feel uneasy or anxious. \nFactors that tend to diminish symptoms are comforting personal interactions, intense physical or emotional stimulation, and relaxation. Distracting oneself (by engaging in conversation or watching a movie, for example) may also provide temporary relief. Some other factors that are identified as relieving symptom severity are diet and/or exercise, while alcohol and fatigue are listed by some as worsening their symptoms.\nFirst experiences with depersonalization may be frightening, with patients fearing loss of control, dissociation from the rest of",
"-29.54730851315253"
],
[
"Day Drinking Content \"Day Drinking\" is a mid-tempo song about not wanting to wait until later or needing a reason to have some drinks, so the song's narrator suggests they do a little \"day drinking.\" The song was written by three members of the band (Karen Fairchild, Phillip Sweet, and Jimi Westbrook) with Barry Dean and Troy Verges. Of the song's inception, Fairchild said: \"We didn't know it really, but with 'Day Drinking,' we had a blast that day because we were drinking and writing songs. We left it alone, then a couple of weeks later, Barry Dean and Troy",
"-29.54660261189565"
],
[
"also been argued to fuel perfectionism and feelings of inferiority or insecurity regarding negative evaluation from others. The need for social acceptance or social standing has been elaborated in other lines of research relating to social anxiety. Substance-induced While alcohol initially relieves social phobia, excessive alcohol misuse can worsen social phobia symptoms and cause panic disorder to develop or worsen during alcohol intoxication and especially during alcohol withdrawal syndrome. This effect is not unique to alcohol but can also occur with long-term use of drugs which have a similar mechanism of action to alcohol such as the benzodiazepines which are",
"-29.540021812485065"
],
[
"low emotional adjustment, aggression, sensation seeking and impulsivity\".\nIt is also common for offenders to use drinking as a coping mechanism, not necessarily for social or enjoyment reasons, when they are antisocial in nature and have a father with a history of alcoholism. Offenders who begin drinking at an earlier age for thrills and \"fun\" are more likely to be antisocial later in their lives. The majority of the sample, 72%, came from what is considered more \"normal\" circumstances. This group was older when they began drinking, came from families without a history of alcoholism, were relatively well-behaved as children, were",
"-29.457198375253938"
],
[
"in individuals; such enjoyment motivation often also indicates low conscientiousness, manifesting in lowered inhibition and a greater tendency towards aggression. On the other hand, drinking to cope with negative emotional states correlates strongly with high neuroticism and low agreeableness. Alcohol use as a negative emotion control mechanism often links with many other behavioral and emotional impairments, such as anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem.\nResearch has generally shown striking uniformity across different cultures in the motives behind teen alcohol use. Social engagement and personal enjoyment appear to play a fairly universal role in adolescents' decision to drink throughout separate cultural",
"-29.430291516822763"
],
[
"and fetal damage. Alcohol has also been linked with lowered inhibitions, although it is unclear as to what degree this is chemical or psychological as studies with placebos can often duplicate the social effects of alcohol at either low or moderate doses. Some studies have suggested that intoxicated people have much greater control over their behavior than is generally recognized, though they have a reduced ability to evaluate the consequences of their behavior. Behavioral changes associated with drunkenness are, to some degree, contextual.\nAreas of the brain that are responsible for planning and motor learning are sharpened. A related effect, which",
"-29.42394659598358"
],
[
"physical task, then any intellectual thoughts may cease. On the other hand, making a spirit journey in an ecstatic trance involves the cessation of voluntary bodily movement. Types Ecstasy can be deliberately induced using religious or creative activities, meditation, music, dancing, breathing exercises, physical exercise, sexual intercourse or consumption of psychotropic drugs. The particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually also associated with that individual's particular religious and cultural traditions. Sometimes an ecstatic experience takes place due to occasional contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy, or without any known reason. \"In",
"-29.41410277923569"
],
[
"'addiction', the committee first attempted to clarify existing definitions of addiction and habituation as had been in common parlance since at least 1931:\nDrug addiction is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic). Its characteristics include: (i) an overpowering desire or need (compulsion) to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any means; (ii) a tendency to increase the dose; (iii) a psychic (psychological) and generally a physical dependence on the effects of the drug; and (iv) detrimental effects on the individual and on society.\nDrug habituation (habit) is",
"-29.39141456381185"
],
[
"Participants were then either told what the effects of the drug were or were told nothing, and were then placed in a room with a person they did not know who, according to the research plan, would either play with a hula hoop and make paper airplanes (euphoric condition) or ask the participant intimate, personal questions (angry condition). What they found was that participants who knew what the effects of the drug were attributed their physical state to the effects of the drug; however, those who had no knowledge of the drug they received attributed their physical state to the",
"-29.355404314337648"
],
[
"have found that ingredients found in relaxation drinks can help promote alpha wave brain wave patterns to improve focus. Depending on the formulation, relaxation drinks may promote Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) sleep.\nRelaxation drinks have been known to reduce stress, anxiety and calm nervousness due to their calming effects on the nervous system.\nPeople who are allergic to alcohol, recovering from alcohol abuse or have liver problems have resorted to drinking relaxation drinks because its ability to calm nerves and provides what people call a \"buzz\" however it is alcohol free which does not bring about the well known hangover.",
"-29.33988189016236"
],
[
"system to use for determining the effects of an observed drug. Alcohol While the effects of Alcohol have been studied immensely, even with respect to memory, there is limited research examining the effects of alcohol on procedural memory. Research conducted by Pitel A. L. et al. suggests that alcoholism impairs the ability to acquire semantic concepts. In this study, while semantic concepts were understood, procedural memory was often not automated. A potential reason for this finding is that poor learning strategies are used by alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics. Cocaine It is evident that long-term Cocaine abuse alters brain structures. Research",
"-29.26125013572164"
],
[
"Alcohol abuse Signs and symptoms Individuals with an alcohol use disorder will often complain of difficulty with interpersonal relationships, problems at work or school, and legal problems. Additionally, people may complain of irritability and insomnia. Alcohol abuse is also an important cause of chronic fatigue.\nSigns of alcohol abuse are related to alcohol's effects on organ systems. However, while these findings are often present, they are not necessary to make a diagnosis of alcohol abuse. Signs of alcohol abuse show its drastic effects on the central nervous system, including inebriation and poor judgment; chronic anxiety, irritability, and insomnia. Alcohol's effects on",
"-29.245224038357264"
],
[
"but rather drugs that can help a person become \"more sane\" by, for example, eliminating a fear of death. While promoting his book on TV, he explained that along with LSD and psilocybin, his research included ingesting ayahuasca and 5-MeO-DMT, and that he experienced a dissolution of ego. Other work Pollan is a contributing writer for the New York Times Magazine and a former executive editor for Harper's Magazine. His first book, Second Nature: A Gardener's Education, was published in 1991. \nPollan has contributed to Greater Good, a social psychology magazine published by the Greater Good Science Center at the",
"-29.211457108322065"
],
[
"motives for using drugs, Quaid responded,\n\"Well, you got to put it in context. Back in the late 1960s, early 1970s. That was back during the time where, you know, drugs were going to expand our minds and everybody was experimenting and everything. We were really getting high, we didn't know it. And cocaine at that time was considered harmless. You know. I remember magazine articles in People Magazine of doctors saying it is not addicting. It is just—alcohol is worse. So I think we all fell into that. But that's not the way it was.\"\nWhen asked if he believed he",
"-29.139752095856238"
],
[
"once per week in their own homes.\" Different items were tested to see if they played a role in the decision to drink alcohol, which includes socializing, the expectation that drinking is enjoyable, financial resources to purchase alcohol, and liberation from stress at the work place. The study also focused on two main areas, \"intrapersonal cues\", or internal cues, that are reactions \"to internal psychological or physical events\" and \"interpersonal cues\" that result from \"social influences in drinking situations.\" The two largest factors between tested areas were damaging alcohol use and its correlation to \"drinking urges/triggers.\" Once again different",
"-29.137778870615875"
],
[
"expression, as well as thiamin deficiency. It is possible in some cases that alcohol abuse via a kindling mechanism can cause the development of a chronic substance-induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizophrenia. The effects of an alcohol-related psychosis include an increased risk of depression and suicide as well as psychosocial impairments. However, moderate wine drinking has been shown to lower the risk for depression.\nWhile alcohol initially helps social phobia or panic symptoms, with longer term alcohol misuse can often worsen social phobia symptoms and can cause panic disorder to develop or worsen, during alcohol intoxication and especially during the alcohol withdrawal",
"-29.034268973511644"
],
[
"scientific community to sever its conceptual apparatus from the vocabulary of politics and emotion. \"Addiction,\" like \"narcotics\" and \"drug abuse,\" has a general connotation of evil, suggesting illicit ecstasy, guilt and sin. Because the public image is conditioned more by cultural perceptions than by medical ones, medically-precise meanings simply cannot be harmonized with common parlance. \nAnd in 1975, the WHO further distanced itself from the term 'drug abuse':\n\"Drug abuse\" is a term in need of some clarification. …The term is really a convenient, but not very precise, way of indicating that (1) an unspecified drug is being used in an",
"-29.027650511232196"
],
[
"without delirium. The state of intoxication is often called a “trip”. Onset is the first stage after an individual ingests (LSD, psilocybin, or mescaline) or smokes (dimethyltryptamine) the substance. This stage may consist of visual effects, with an intensification of colors and the appearance of geometric patterns that can be seen with one's eyes closed. This is followed by a plateau phase, where the subjective sense of time begins to slow and the visual effects increase in intensity. The user may experience synesthesia, a crossing-over of sensations (for example, one may “see” sounds and “hear” colors). In addition to the",
"-29.02347347975592"
],
[
"Psychedelic experience Definition A psychedelic experience is a temporary altered state of consciousness induced by the consumption of psychedelic drugs (the best known of which are LSD and psilocybin 'magic' mushrooms). The psychedelic altered state of consciousness is commonly characterised as a higher (elevated or transcendent) state relative to ordinary (sober) experience; for example, the psychologist Benny Shanon observed from ayahuasca trip reports: \"the assessment, very common with ayahuasca, that what is seen and thought during the course of intoxication defines the real, whereas the world that is ordinarily perceived is actually an illusion.\"\nSimilarly, psychologist Stanislav Grof described the LSD",
"-29.016070039826445"
],
[
"or divine union, equated with mysticism or entheogenic ('that which causes God to be within an individual') experiences. In others, the 'entactogenic' qualities of drugs are used to enhance feelings of empathy among congregations. Personal development and exploration Some people believe that altered states of consciousness enable many people to push the boundaries of human experience, knowledge, and creativity. There is thus a moral imperative to experiment with drugs in terms of human progress, teleological development, or just increased artistic creativity; such ideas are central to Cognitive Liberty, Stoned Ape Hypothesis and Aldous Huxley's The Doors of Perception.\n\nIn PiHKAL, Alexander",
"-28.952841132850153"
],
[
"the teenager has been punished for his or her behavior he or she is less likely to stay out past their curfew again, thus decreasing the likelihood of the target behavior. Drugs Certain types of drugs affect self-controls. Stimulants, such as methylphenidate and amphetamine, improve inhibitory control in general and are used to treat ADHD. Similarly, depressants, such as alcohol, represent barriers to self-control through sluggishness, slower brain function, poor concentration, depression and disorientation. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning sometimes referred to as Skinnerian conditioning is the process of strengthening a behavior by reinforcing it or weakening it by punishing it.",
"-28.94617239633226"
],
[
"the inability to control behavior, it creates a dysfunctional emotional response, and it affects the users ability to abstain from the substance or behavior consistently. Psychology Today defines addiction as \"a state that can occur when a person either consumes a substance such as nicotine, cocaine, or, alcohol or engages in an activity such as gambling or shopping/spending.\"\nWhen a non-addict takes a drug or performs a behavior for the first time he/she does not automatically become an addict. Over time the non-addict chooses to continue to engage in a behavior or ingest a substance because of the pleasure the non-addict",
"-28.910763930296525"
],
[
"in alcohol use severity among samples, as the allostatic model of addiction contends that individuals shift from reward to relief drinking as alcohol use disorder progresses. Thus, it is possible that social drinkers and individuals with mild alcohol use disorder may experience the hedonic effects of alcohol as most salient while individuals with more severe alcohol use disorder may consume alcohol for its negative reinforcing properties (i.e., to reduce withdrawal symptoms). The use of retrospective, instead of real time, self-reports of SR as well as differences in ethnicities of samples may further contribute to discrepancies in studies exploring the effects",
"-28.882970083272085"
],
[
"and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicate that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.\n\nOne of the first people to articulate this point of view, set aside from a medicinal context, was American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870) in his book The Hasheesh Eater (1857):\n[D]rugs are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and can thus carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday circumstances of our life into a higher form of reality. It is, however, necessary to understand precisely what is meant by the use of drugs.",
"-28.882785863883328"
],
[
"Is H.R. Pufnstuf just one giant drug reference?\":\nWe've heard that for 35 years. We did not intentionally do anything related to drugs in the story. People thought we were on drugs. You can't do good television while on drugs. People never believe you when you say that, but you can't. The shows were very bright and spacey looking. They may have lent themselves to that culture at the time, but we didn't ascribe that meaning to them, and I can't speak to what adults were doing when they were watching the shows. We just set out to make a quality",
"-28.78272582423233"
],
[
"of drugs on both the body and the soul, or mind, noting that \"diverse states of the soul are always correlated with those of the body.\"",
"-28.781805671344046"
],
[
"Subjective response to alcohol Low Level of Response Model The Low Level of Response Model proposes that individuals who are less sensitive to the effects of alcohol are at greater risk for developing alcohol use disorder. One explanation for this phenomenon is that the experiences of elevated intoxication constitutes a feedback mechanism, which prompts drinking cessation. Low-level responders need to consume more alcohol than high responders to achieve a similar level of intoxication and experience the aversive effects of alcohol; consequently, these individuals must consume more alcohol to trigger the negative feedback loop. Escalating alcohol consumption may ultimately contribute to",
"-28.713284096229472"
],
[
"such an epiphany that someone would want to give me her favorite thing. That stuck with me forever. Every time I'd be thinking 'I have to keep,' I'd remember 'No, you gotta give away instead.' When I started going regularly to [drug and alcohol] meetings, one of the principles I had learned was that the way to maintain your own sobriety is to give it to another suffering alcoholic. Every time you empty your vessel of that energy, fresh new energy comes flooding in.\" Flea's bassline for the song allowed Kiedis to recall this incident and he believed the music",
"-28.688213171903044"
],
[
"a 2008 interview with MTV News, Lil Wayne described the withdrawal as feeling \"like death in your stomach when you stop. Everybody wants me to stop all this and all that. It ain't that easy.\"\nPurple drank is confirmed or suspected to have caused the deaths of several prominent users. Respiratory depression is a potentially serious or fatal adverse drug reaction associated with the use of codeine, but mainly the danger lies in the much more potent and CNS-depressing phenothiazine-related antihistamine promethazine. This depression is dose-related and is the mechanism for the potentially fatal consequences of overdose: respiratory or cardiac arrest.",
"-28.68193697714014"
],
[
"member Andy Huxley was questioned about his reasons for giving up drugs he said \"Because it's irresponsible, and you can't get anything done, and it stifles your creativity, and there's no benefit in it really, apart from its like going on vacation constantly, I can't write any songs when I'm on drugs, I need to be sober\".\nThe band have played at both The Glastonbury Festival and The Reading and Leeds Festivals for several years running. They have also toured and supported many mainstream bands, including; System of a Down, Placebo, Klaxons, Murderdolls, Queens of the Stone Age and Scars on",
"-28.675983532652026"
],
[
"with a history of alcohol abuse and individuals with a history of aggressive behavior or anger are at increased risk of paradoxical effects. Paradoxical reactions are particularly associated with intravenous administration. After nighttime administration of midazolam, residual 'hangover' effects, such as sleepiness and impaired psychomotor and cognitive functions, may persist into the next day. This may impair the ability of users to drive safely and may increase the risk of falls and hip fractures. Sedation, respiratory depression and hypotension due to a reduction in systematic vascular resistance, and an increase in heart rate can occur. If intravenous midazolam is given",
"-28.656680646003224"
],
[
"through his headphones. And the music sounded so decadent and overstimulating, and I woke up in the midst of that dream, in a haze, and immediately said to myself, \"Man, we’re all on drugs!\" And I instantly knew that would be a cool song.\nIn a May 9th, 2005 interview with Y100, Cuomo talked about the song: \"Don't take it literally...I'm singing more about the fact [of] how addicted we all are to stimulating ourselves, and over-stimulating ourselves with music, or whatever it is in our lives. [It's] not necessarily about drugs.\" Reception AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine thought that \"We",
"-28.654091388336383"
],
[
"stated that 'I do enjoy it, I believe it has a purpose [...] there is no better drug than seeing an audience of one or thousands have their lives changed in some very small way by an artwork that you have helped create the space for'.",
"-28.62876757023332"
],
[
"of his subjects associated the word with beer, another third associated it with tiredness, dizziness and so forth. As a result of the study, Vicary's client decided not to use the word. \nIn the early years of psychology, many doctors noted that patients exhibited behavior that they were not in control of. Some part of the personality seemed to have an influence on that person's behavior that was not in his/her conscious control. This part was, by function, unconscious, and became so named the Unconscious. Carl Jung theorized that people connect ideas, feelings, experiences and information by way of",
"-28.62357603016426"
],
[
"experiences. It tells the brain the drug is better than expected. When an individual uses a drug, there may be a surge of dopamine in the midbrain, which can result in the shifting of that individual's pleasure “threshold” (see figures one and two).\nMemory\nThe neurochemical, glutamate is the most abundant neurochemical in the brain. It is critical in memory consolidation. When an addict discovers an addicting behavior, glutamate plays a role by creating the drug cues. It is the neurochemical in motivation which initiates the drug seeking, thus creating the addiction.\nStress\nWhen under stress the brain is unable to achieve homeostasis. As",
"-28.585256999067497"
],
[
"of physicians at an annual conference of the International Doctors in Alcoholics Anonymous reported that 80 percent believe that alcoholism is merely bad behavior instead of a disease.\nThomas R. Hobbs says that \"Based on my experiences working in the addiction field for the past 10 years, I believe many, if not most, health care professionals still view alcohol addiction as a willpower or conduct problem and are resistant to look at it as a disease.\"\nAlcoholics Anonymous says that \"Some professionals will tell you that alcoholism is a disease while others contend that it is a choice\" and \"some doctors will",
"-28.557620190025773"
],
[
"(Johnston et al., 2013). Binge drinking has also, been shown to increase once an individual leaves the home to attend college or live on their own.\nMost youth do not progress towards abusing other drugs after experimentation. Research has shown, when drug use begins at an early age, there is a greater possibility for addiction to occur. Three exacerbating factors that can influence drug use to become drug abuse are social approval, lack of perceived risks, and availability of drugs in the community. Youths from certain demographics are also at higher risk for abuse and addiction. These groups include those suffering",
"-28.555176497764478"
],
[
"allegedly referring to drugs include \"found my way upstairs and had a smoke / somebody spoke and I went into a dream\". A spokesman for the BBC stated: \"We have listened to this song over and over again. And we have decided that it appears to go just a little too far, and could encourage a permissive attitude to drug-taking.\"\nAt the time, Lennon and McCartney denied that there were drug references in \"A Day in the Life\" and publicly complained about the ban at a dinner party at the home of their manager, Brian Epstein, celebrating their album's release. Lennon",
"-28.500159307033755"
],
[
"A drugs.",
"-28.46655237961386"
],
[
"Contact high A contact high is a psychological phenomenon that occurs in otherwise sober people and animals who come into contact with someone who is under the influence of recreational drugs. It involves a supposed transfer of the physiological state of intoxication.\nA glossary of drug users' language from the 1970s describes the term as \"a psychogenic 'trip' without taking drugs by being close to somebody while he or she is on drugs. The term is often incorrectly used to describe the high obtained by inhaling the smoke of other marijuana smokers.\"\nIn Alexander Shulgin's book PiHKAL under the 2C-I entry, a",
"-28.441201359848492"
],
[
"disease, a disorder that affects a person's ability to move as they want to, resulting in stiffness, tremors or shaking, and other symptoms. Some studies suggest that having too little or too much dopamine or problems using dopamine in the thinking and feeling regions of the brain may play a role in disorders like schizophrenia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Dopamine is also involved in addiction and drug use, as most recreational drugs cause an influx of dopamine in the brain (especially opioid and methamphetamines) that produces a pleasurable feeling, which is why users constantly crave drugs.\nSerotonin:\nSimilarly, after some",
"-28.424850221839733"
],
[
"stop or operating under the delusion that the result will be different. The description in the First Step of the life of the alcoholic or addict as \"unmanageable\" refers to the lack of choice that the mind of the addict or alcoholic affords concerning whether to drink or use again.\nThe illness of the spiritual dimension, or \"spiritual malady,\" is considered in all twelve-step groups to be self-centeredness. The process of working the steps is intended to replace self-centeredness with a growing moral consciousness and a willingness for self-sacrifice and unselfish constructive action. In twelve-step groups, this is known as a",
"-28.41172247644863"
],
[
"well-being on weekends due to greater feelings of autonomy, and feeling closer to others (relatedness), in weekend activities. Alcohol use According to self-determination theory, individuals who attribute their actions to external circumstances rather than internal mechanisms are far more likely to succumb to peer pressure. In contrast, individuals who consider themselves autonomous tend to be initiators of actions rather than followers. Research examining the relationship between self-determination theory and alcohol use among college students has indicated that individuals with the former criteria for decision making are associated with greater alcohol consumption and drinking as a function of social",
"-28.391292417421937"
],
[
"it is. People are trying to do that to themselves all the time, maybe not like that literally, but that's what people use drugs for and that's why people exercise--basically to release the pressure that's in them. I think it's something that everybody does in their own way; it's just that this is a particularly interesting way to relieve the pressures in your head.\"",
"-28.35649156878935"
],
[
"Psychoactive drug History Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances (mostly plants) dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years. The chewing of coca leaves, for example, dates back over 8,000 years ago in Peruvian society.\nMedicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug usage. However, some have postulated that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire. Supporters of this belief contend that the history of drug use",
"-28.326719701566617"
],
[
"negative affect and addiction is not unidirectional. That is, while positive affect increases the likelihood of initiation of substance use, the negative affective states produced by withdrawal are the most commonly reported factors for continued use.\nKey to this concept is the Hedonic Hypothesis, which states that individuals initiate use of the substance or behaviour for their pleasurable effects, but then take it compulsively to avoid withdrawal symptoms, resulting in dependence. Based on this hypothesis, some researchers believe that individuals engaging in risky use of substances or behaviours may be over-responsing to negative stimuli, which leads to addiction.\nNegative affect has",
"-28.287795944750542"
],
[
"the user's mind enters a space between waking thought and sleep), and that the euphoria it produces, according to Schneider, merely frees the creativity naturally found within the poet. Opium, real images, and dreaming as a channel A recent argument put forward by Alethea Hayter suggests that opium opens up the individual's mind toward recollecting the raw materials found within one's own life and the dreams, reveries, or hypnagogic visions, and the results are then translated into art. In essence, she states, \"the action of opium may reveal some of the semi-conscious processes by which literature begins to be",
"-28.217347643279936"
],
[
"aid in better understanding and treating drunkorexia.\nOther motivations for drunkorexia include; preventing weight gain, saving money that would be spent on food to buy alcohol, and getting intoxicated faster which also saves money as they won't need to buy as many drinks. Drunkorexia as a diagnosis Co-existing, and self-reinforcing starvation and alcohol disorders are gaining recognition in the fields of dual diagnosis, psychiatry, and addictionology.",
"-28.212705846606696"
],
[
"Bottom of a Bottle Composition and lyrics Contrary to some of the lyrics, the song talks about influencing people to do whatever it is that keeps them going and makes them feel alive, indicating that the word \"drug\" is a metaphor for the same.",
"-28.16537194378907"
]
] |
2xw1bq | How to appreciate abstract modern art. | [
"For this explanation I'll stick with painting, though it applies to art in general. There's two main things you look at when viewing a painting. It's \"form\" and its \"content.\" Form describes the physical stuff about a painting: color, size, what type of paint, thickness of paint, type of canvas, type of brush strokes, and so on. Content describes what the painting is depicting: a house, a person, a group of people, a particular event, a collection of objects, whatever. We'll look at two paintings, one \"normal\" painting and then an abstract one. First up is [Leutze's painting of Washington crossing the Deleware.]( URL_0 ) What are its formal qualities? Well, it's really big, 21 feet long. It's painted in oil paint using brush strokes that aren't really visible unless you're right up close. The colors are natural and a little muted. It's a horizontal rectangle. It's probably very heavy. And I assume it's made out of wood and canvas. Other than the size, there's not much going on as far as form goes. But as far as content is concerned, well... I'll just link you to the [wikipedia article.]( URL_1 ) There's a whole story being told in the piece. There's men in boats, there's a great general, there's an icy river and terrified horses. There's content out the wazoo. **This is the point of most \"normal\" painting**:to depict something, and do it in such a way that the viewer isn't really worried about the how it's painted or the formal elements. It's like when you watch TV, you don't think about all the transistors and LEDs that make the thing function, you just watch your show. Now on to the abstract piece, [Jackson Pollok's Autumn Rhythm No. 30.]( URL_2 ) Where \"normal\" painting is all about content, abstract painting is all about form. This painting is 17 feet long. The paint is thick and applied with a crazy dripping, splattering technique. The canvas is left bare in many places; you can see what its made out of. As far as content goes, there is literally none. The entire point of this painting is the form, how the paint is applied to the canvas. In the absence of any kind of content the viewer is left to simply react to the painting however they'd like. There are no politics in Autumn Rhythm, no story, no reclining nudes, no faces--no content. Going back to the TV metephor: It'd be like if somebody broke your TV down into it's individual components and spread them out on the floor. It's no longer about what it's displaying, it's about what makes the TV work, and what it's made of. Why is abstract art important? Because it's progressive. Since the beginning of civilization most, if not all art was representational. Cavemen painted pictures of mammoth hunts and fertility goddesses on their cave walls, and up until very recently all that anyone in history could really do was paint that hunt a little more realistically. In the twentieth century (arguably a little bit earlier) artists deliberately moved away from representational art and simply tried to capture their feeling of a time and a place. This acceptance of emotion by itself, not attached to any concrete meaning is the essence of the abstract, and reflects a growth in the consciousness of humanity as a species. We're no longer just goofballs staring at the TV, watching whatever is on. We've taken it apart and now we're learning about electricity and transistors and LEDs and wires and the specifics of what makes the whole thing work. So to answer your question: you should appreciate abstract art because of it's formal qualities. Look at the brush strokes. Look at the colors. Look at the size and shape of the work. Ask yourself why the artist made the decisions they made. Think about the feeling the artist was trying to communicate. Think about your own feelings while you look at an abstract piece of work. Is it uplifting? Depressing?Energizing? Chaotic? Orderly? And you should appreciate abstract art because of what it means as a milestone in the grand endevor of human expression. I should add that little reproductions of these works on your computer screen don't compare to the seeing the real deal. **Go out and see art.** edit: formatting",
"I'm a fairly recent convert to abstract and modern art after years of loving Pre-raphaelite stuff. Here's the easy, non-academic way into appreciating it. 1. I started wanting to buy art for my home, but our home is super modern and minimalist. I didn't want too much traditional art especially with clear subjects, like a person or a horse because I thought I'd just get sick of it or immune to it's effect. Abstract art, however, could just create an atmosphere in the room. For example a dark, moody rothko would create a certain feel in a room that's really different to a really energetic Kandinsky. So, I'd think of the atmosphere I wanted to make in the room and find prints to fit that. It started giving me a real appreciation for how subtle an influence totally abstract colours and shapes can have on your mood and therefore what different colours and shapes suggest to you! Suddenly a whole world of understanding and appreciation opened up. Then you look at sculpture by someone like Barbara Hepworth and the smooth, body-like shapes carved in wood and stone are not only impressive in terms of craft, they start getting your imagination going and give (me anyway) a sense of calm, clarity, naturalness and they're pleasant objects to be around. 2. When you go to a gallery to view some modern art, it's best to know a little about the exhibition. Has the exhibition got a certain theme? Or is it for a particular artist? Know a little about them beforehand and it will help although it's not essential. Then take in one piece at a time. The first thing I usually consider is the atmosphere the piece is creating in the room (sometimes i get nothing and that's fine... that could suggest to you it's a bad piece of art if it communicates nothing or maybe just doesn't resonate). Then from getting a sense of the mood or atmosphere you can sometimes see things in the work without trying. When you read the card next to the piece, you might have guessed the artist's intention or you might have come up with your own ideas. Either way, start with the mood/feel of the piece, then look a little longer to see what ideas spring to mind about what it could be. A lot of abstract art is not just a story being told to you, it's about getting your own creative thinking going and making lots of connections in your head. It might seem academic, but if you start from the point of feeling/mood, then it can be a purely creative/enjoyable experience without having to know any facts. Hope this helps!",
"Meekel1 did a great job of characterizing the value of form and the distancing from content in art. Part of the reason for this shift (nowhere close to all of it, but a significant part) was the advent of photography. With the invention of photography, many artists began to feel threatened in their old form, the \"invisible\" kind of form in which an artist attempts to convey reality as closely as possible. Now photography could lay claim to greater reality than any artist could (theoretically) hope to achieve, not only because it could depict reality more accurately than any technical skill could muster, but also because photography was a natural, scientific, physical process of recording an image; a photograph could claim objective reality where every painting was necessarily subjective. So artists began to look for ways in which they could address reality in ways that photography never could - emotional exaggeration of color, shape, and content. So we have this gradual shift away from objectively realistic content (Expressionism and Impressionism), then away from realistic content at all (surrealism), and eventually away from content all together (abstract art). In truly abstract art, the only things that could be argued as content in any form are emotion and, sometimes, historical/ temporal/ personal context. Realistically, you can appreciate any art piece any way you want. Anyone could look at a Pollock painting and decide that it's a reflection on materialism, or the Cold War. There may not be any evidence or argument for such an interpretation, but appreciation is entirely personal and requires no justification. Or you can appreciate it as one might appreciate cloud or star-gazing: looking for familiar shapes, just for the fun of it. Personally, I've looked at modern art pieces to vent emotions during stressful times in my life, and there are a few pieces that, to mean, are about a past relationship I had. Obviously, the artist had no intention to comment on my personal relationships, and no one else would make that same interpretation, but that doesn't stop me from appreciating them as such, and I find a lot of reward appreciating those pieces as I do. What everyone can look to appreciate are the formal elements of the piece - application of paint, balance of the colors and canvas space, and think about the intention behind every stroke of paint. What I like most about abstract art is that there isn't any specific way you need to appreciate it. Unlike more classical art forms, you are in no way limited by specific content of the piece, there is not necessarily a subject tying you down as to what you are supposed to think about or feel. Perhaps as a result of that, many people don't find it easy to appreciate abstract art, which is perfectly understandable. Even among those who do appreciate it, many people don't care for pieces that plenty of others consider brilliant. Modern art has become increasingly subjective, and abstract art is a pretty extreme example of that.",
"After reading many of the comments in this thread i would say don't bother trying. If you like art and are interested in it you'll appreciate it. Otherwise, think of it like video games. There's millions of games out there, some you think are amazing, some you think suck. But I could argue any game at all is \"not fun\" and \"dumb\" and you can't really prove me wrong. You can try to tell me say \"Geometry Wars\" is amazing because it's got a throwback style and takes gaming down to a core level, endless replay value, etc. And i can just say it's dumb and there's too many colors and i can't tell what's going on and how can you argue with that? Unless I have some kind of interest in video games as a whole you can't really convince me why I should appreciate any specific part of it. Same with art. If you don't care about Art as a whole, the history, development, styles, form and function, techniques, etc., then there is no way anyone can convince why you should appreciate anything based on those factors. So maybe you like it purely on a visual level or maybe it speaks to you, but if you don't \"appreciate\" it, then you aren't interested in all those i just mentioned, so just don't worry about it and don't try to appreciate it. And hey, personally, I bet those 5 yr old child scribbles look awesome.",
"I've seen a lot of modern art, including abstract art, so I'll give you the scoop. Does it look cool to you? Good, appreciate it. Does it look sloppy, lazy, or just boring? Good, don't appreciate it. You don't have to appreciate art that doesn't appeal to you, and if more people took that stance, modern abstract art would probably be in a better state than it is now. Go to the rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, look at some of the best examples of dutch golden age art and realism, then go to the NY Moma and be appalled by some of the crap that ends up on its walls. I've seen good abstract art, but a big part of why it was good was because it was interesting to look at, and most modern art just fails to do that for me, and I don't feel a need to appreciate it.",
"Oh man, not a lot of 5-year-old level answers. I like some modern art, and I put it to what I call the [Archer test, of \"Is this neat?\"]( URL_0 ) If it's neat it's neat, and I like it. If it's progressive and loaded with symbolism and a reductive expression of the form but it's not neat, it's crap. The great thing about art is that it's all made up. Like what you like, people can explain, but don't let them sway your opinion. For reference, the piece that got me into modern art: URL_1 ",
"You don't need to understand art history, or technique. Just ask yourself \"Do I enjoy looking at it?\".",
"How much do you know about the history of art? Today's abstract art is a reaction upon a reaction etc. Try to appreciate some Mondriaan or Picasso first to provide some context.",
"You know, the best advice I can give you is this: Don't worry about what you're supposed to like. Abstract art is meant to give you more of an emotional idea or an impression. Usually. You might have to read up on it a bit. For example, there's one abstract work that's just a canvas painted blue. But that was one of the first blue paints that weren't made from incredibly expensive minerals or other such things, and so seeing a bright blue paint - before then an expensive luxury - used for such a simple thing, almost wasting it - was in itself enough to tell a story. That artwork's entire context is now lost to a modern viewer. But, seriously, don't worry too much about it. Just look at a lot of abstract art. Some you'll be completely bored by. A few, you might decide \"actually, I quite like that.\" But, if you can find someone who really loves a piece of abstract art? Ask them about it. Hearing someone explain why they like a particular piece will help you understand it far more than any, well, abstract talk about all abstract art.",
"You reminded me of a movie I saw in school that kinda [answers]( URL_0 ) your question. ps. don't mind the racial bigotry.",
"No kid could make those shapes! Only God can make these shapes!",
"As a musician specializing in contemporary classical music, I want to approach this question as it relates to modern (art) music, such as atonal music like [Xenakis' String Quartets]( URL_0 ) or even more out there compositions like [Stockhausen's Helicopter Quartet]( URL_1 ) which requires each performer to be in a separate helicopter, the sounds of the blades contributing to the bizarre music played by the live performers. In each case the notes played resemble nothing like music people normally here. There is no tonality, or a definite pitch around which the piece will naturally settle, there will rarely be any musical lines that sound like commonly heard genres such as jazz or classic rock, etc, and apart from minimalism have little to no repetition. Often when trying to explain this music to non-musicians, the focus is on technical aspects of the composition. But I find that even when someone will concede that it is clear there is a lot of craftsmanship in these pieces, it's still with a bitter disgust for having said anything good about music that doesn't *feel* good emotionally. For me, the emotional appeal of weird new classical music is that nothing is a cliché. Whereas in a ballad, I know that the music is building towards a resolution, can feel that harmonic motion, can sense the typical resistance in how quickly the cadence is played, and even if I have an emotional reaction to this, it feels like I'm being told how to feel about it, because millions of songs have used the same techniques to achieve the same type of sentimentality. This is not true when the very techniques used are radically different. I often find myself, when I listen to a piece I've never heard, feeling new things that I've never felt before, music or no. Or sometimes I'll hear a piece that seems to perfectly convey a *very specific* memory I have. In either case, the music feels fresh, unique, and genuine. And sometimes even if I can't feel that, the mere energy of a vigorous piece, or the still ethereal soothing of a mellow one, will be engaging merely because I'm connecting on a basic level to very visceral level of very raw feeling. It helps to put aside preconceptions in this case. Many times people like music because it feels comfortable and familiar, not because it is necessarily \"good,\" compared to something else. This is why genres will share 95% of musical characteristics (think simple chord progressions, tonal and conjunct melodies, and common time meters on pop music). If you are willing to step outside of your comfort zone enough to find new feelings and new experiences in music, then the weird stuff becomes a secret gem.",
"Abstract modern art is like instrumental music, since instrumental music *is* abstract art. Listen to classical music. What does it imitate or portray? Are they the sounds of birds, waterfalls, horses, waves? You hear all the melodies and harmonies of Mozart and Beethoven, but do you \"get it\"? Do you know what they represent, what's the meaning of them? Or do you just enjoy the music and the direct feelings it evokes? Instrumental music pretty much is abstract art. Instrumental music just is abstract audio art, whereas said Pollock is abstract visual art. There are certain themes, rules, underlying principles in music. Abstract modern art often tries to seek out and play with stuff like that for our vision. It is probably because as a species we are primarily visual, it is immensely more difficult and complex system to search and find and play what different abstract visual things convey and how we perceive them. Our hearing is much more \"simple\" system so aesthetically pleasing abstract audio art and rules for it is much easier to do. And like studying classical musical theory and history opens new levels of classical music to you, so does studying art and its history open new levels in abstract art. So you just have to dwell into it.",
"This reminds me of an article about why Japanese people listen to music in English. The author said that he enjoyed the music, rhythm, and melodies, even though he didn't need any lyrics/meaning to hold on to. Similarly, with abstract art, the pieces don't need to be about anything specific, and it doesn't matter if \"a four year old could do it.\" If you can enjoy melodies and rhythms without lyrics, you can enjoy shapes, colors, forms, atmospheres, and art pieces without meaning.",
"Usually there is some kind of written guide or a guide in personal instructing you. Afterwards you exchange thoughts. If there isn't that kind of guidance, you just try to get a grasp on how that piece of art touches you or what you feel about it. If you are really open to doing this you will be able to. Some works also need some background information which you should get to know beforehand.",
"I like abstract art because it's a non-committal way to add color to a room. It can be background and a focal point at the same time. it depends on your focus."
] | [
[
"in geometry: the circle, square and triangle become the spatial elements in abstract art; they are, like color, fundamental systems underlying visible reality. Russian avant-garde Many of the abstract artists in Russia became Constructivists believing that art was no longer something remote, but life itself. The artist must become a technician, learning to use the tools and materials of modern production. Art into life! was Vladimir Tatlin's slogan, and that of all the future Constructivists. Varvara Stepanova and Alexandre Exter and others abandoned easel painting and diverted their energies to theatre design and graphic works.\nOn the other side stood Kazimir",
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"transferred.\" On the topic of abstract art, she has said, “It is the act of man’s continual communion with the universe transformed as by magic into substance.\" From this interest, she was also greatly influenced by the art and practices of many Indigenous groups, who she saw as giving form to universal forces. It is in this way that she believed “art has been a summoning of those inexorable universal forces which man seeks but over which he has no control.\"",
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"way of making art in order to express ultimate connectedness, or a way to think about creating art as a synthesis of ideas from many sources. These include the sciences, philosophy, metaphysics, memories, synchronicities, and the imagination. The society suggests that a sense something \"other\" than the visible inhabits a Layered work, and that a Layered work is not distinguished by the technique so much as by \"the mind of the artist who makes it\"; that the Layering is an evanescent, as well as a tangible, metaphor that \"grows like moss from living and learning\".\nMary Carroll Nelson, founder of SLMM,",
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"is understandable that the products of the art called \"abstract,\" in both painting and sculpture, are not abstract at all. On the contrary, all these products are concrete instances of colors and forms for they contain no generalization at all. Therefore, in the best of cases, all paintings of modern art are elementary graphic art, and in the case of sculpture, all the works are examples of industrial design or architecture lacking any utilitarian value.\n4. The fourth chapter criticizes certain conceptions or theories of aesthetics in the twentieth century, which in Avital's view only pretend to extend the concept of",
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"assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art. Purpose Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is \"vague\", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to",
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"artistic therapy, meaning arises exclusively from out of aesthetic material, through which therapist and client step to one another in relation.\nIn 1990 Knill introduced the concept of the ‘incommunicable third’ into scientific discourse in order to indicate that moment in which something new emerges abruptly or unforeseen from out of a therapeutic encounter.\nKnill developed an artistic methodology for work with large communities following the methodology of Expressive Arts Therapy. He calls this methodology “community art”. Institutions In addition to developing the theoretical foundations of Expressive Arts Therapy, Knill has contributed to the foundation of several institutions dedicated to the field.",
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"of post-modern surrealist figuration, Rafael Trelles in conjunction with María Antonieta Ordóñez. According to Manuel Alvarez Lezama, Trelles and Ordóñez have accepted the challenge to turn the human figure into poetry by using plastic as their support to let us see ourselves on plastic, an everyday reality for millions in this technology-oriented society of ours. In Concrete (Urban Graphic) – Documentary (2004) Using a pressurized water hose and plastic stencils as medium for experimental graphic art, Trelles engraves elaborate designs of dirt and grime on walls, sidewalks and lamp-posts which resembles the Moorish heritage of Andalusian tiles as a world",
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"and experimentation in various techniques plastic makes this a unique self-taught artist. His career He has delivered classes in drawing and painting workshops at the Centre for Visual Arts, as part of a group of Paraguayan and foreign artists who devote part of their time to training young apprentices in the art, technique and taste for the aesthetic. His first sample dates back to 1979. Since then, he has raised to great heights his artistic production, which gave him a privileged place among Paraguayan painters, to become one of the most prominent artists of his generation. He has made significant",
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"want to be like that”, “My drawings will continue for some time and then I will shift to another media.”\n“One can enjoy the design sense and interpret the work in one’s own way. My abstract drawing is like music. One need not know the intricacies of laya and raga but its rhythm is appreciated. Like wise, art lovers can enjoy the rhythmic lines and its composition and it is aesthetic too”. Exhibitions Solo Exhibitions\n2000 An Exhibition at Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai.\n1977 The Graphics Prints Exhibition Organised by Alliance Franchise, Bangalore\n1973 Mural Paintings at Kala Bhavan, Hyderabad\n1968 Exhibition of Paintings at",
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"Few artists have experimented and been able to marry both the Classicism and Modernism so wonderfully.\nIn 1987, he was commissioned by The Gardens Mall, located in the City of Palm Beach Gardens, FL., to create a bronze life-size sculptural composition of the Greek Myth huntress Diana. The sculpture's complex composition yet fluid movement is an excellent example of how Wein could manipulate shape and form into three-dimensional magic.\nAlbert Wein said that \"every good work of art is a good abstract composition\" or could at least be represented by one. That the subject, devoid of details and pared down to only",
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"Abstract Expressionism and also with the aesthetics of primitivism. Writer Richard Marshall commented that in their \"rawness, spontaneity and expressiveness, [the pieces] give the impression of having been formed by natural forces. The formal and technical aspects of balance, proportion, and stability – although purposefully planned and controlled – are subsumed by the very presence of the material itself\".\nMason later equipped his studio to prepare, manipulate, and fire monumental sculptures in clay, many of which had to be fired in pieces weighing over a ton in kilns that had already been adapted to serve his large-scale purposes, before being assembled",
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"style, within the modern abstract expressionism. I try to archive situations, shapes, fields, feelings, urban themes as abstractions with vibrant colorization with my own naive and raw shapes. I'm actually unable to specify my own style. Right now I`m very much in love with Abstract expressionism.\" Art analysis, influences and the Fragmented Geometrical Abstract Mancino's work in abstract expressionism and suprematism is mainly based on artworks of earlier appeared great abstract expressionists from the early and middle of the 20th century. On his earlier stage he worked on classical landscapes and still life compositions but at his later stage he",
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"sculptures for private collectors and art museums. He is also widely acclaimed for his work in the creation of glass art and stained glass for synagogues and private homes.\nLangford sees a connection between his art and spirituality, and compares the physical material of glass to the state of seeking a spiritual dimension: “As a person on a spiritual path seeks to refine themselves, working in glass mirrors this process. Glass begins as sand, a lifeless substance. Though a process of heat and pressure, it becomes a bright, light-transmitting, elastic material; transparent but with defined boundaries and borders.” Artistic works •",
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"work is deeply intuitive, ‘working towards reducing the distance between thinking and doing.’ It is not about making a work of art as such but rather about discovering possibilities that take on a life of their own, becoming honed to the precision of a unified whole that feels inevitable.”\n- Deborah Hart, States of Becoming, Drill Hall Gallery, Australian National University, Canberra Collections Aida Tomescu is represented in all Australian major art museums and in many regional galleries, and university and corporate collections within Australia and internationally including; The National Gallery of Australia, The National Gallery of Victoria, The Art Gallery",
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"embryo project aims to give modern art a wider audience in the Arab world. “We are making Qatar the place to see, explore and discuss the creations of Arab artists of the modern era and of our own time” says Sheikha al-Mayassa al-Thani\nIts originator and most fervent defender, Sheikh Hassan bin Mohamed bin Ali Al Thani explains how the museum was aimed at filling a void in modern Arab art in Qatar: \"Since the collection had increased its representation of periods and styles, I began planning to make it part of a specific project. At the time, I did not",
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"now, in the recent days, while I was in Prishtina, I was sure that you created a very nice environment in your modest studio and were continuing with creative intensity as a true artist.\nI think it is very difficult to explain art, not only of oneself but also the art of others, in any case, from what I could see in your worlds during the days I was in Prishtina I think that you are in the warmest blaze of you creativity.\nI don't interpret you art but I feel it necessary to say that current you've been using today in",
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"people in, it lures in people who maybe wouldn’t have looked at it in the first place, and if they only get to that surface level, fine. At least they got there. - Amy Franceshini\nVisualization of abstract ideas\nComplex social and environmental issues are often illustrated through a visual, tactile, or spatial metaphor. Processes that remain invisible or seem very distant from our lives are rendered more present and immediate through a form of recontextualization.\nLocal\nThe issues presented in various projects often pertain to issues affecting a particular locality or a specific community.\nThe power of connection\nTheir art aims to elicit and inform",
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"can only be understood from the need to think and live as an artist”. Concepts found, as put by Tuset, in the essence of art, as it consists of “learning to see, to be aware that we are here, that we are alive”, and art helps to link our inner world with the outside world. Sculpture His sculptures generally represent the human body and its forms are rounded and elegant. Many interpreters compare the undulating shape of their reclining bodies to the landscape of Catalonia.\nHe usually works in terracotta, plaster, bronze, or resin with marble powder, without giving",
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"‘artist’ in the modern sense of the term. In 1988 the graduate title called National Diploma offered by this institute for its five-year course, gave training in Painting, Sculpture and Applied Art. In 2000, the status of this institute was raised and it got affiliated to University of Calicut, started offering four year degree courses ( BFA - Bachelor of Fine Arts) in the above three disciplines.\nArt is a very interesting profession because it deals with human mind and its ways. It is philosophical. It deals with reality. It tries to abstract ideas from the world. It critiques. It also",
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"led to the work he currently creates. It is Carther's aesthetic vision, combined with an understanding and emphasis on the structural qualities of glass, which has enabled him to create sculptural works of unique form and immense scale. His interest in working large, sculpturally and within the architectural environment has led him to develop techniques which produce work that defies categorization and at times, blurs the boundaries between art and architecture. Statement Carther believes that art is an essential component of architecture and that the lives of human beings benefit significantly from art that they encounter in their daily lives.",
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"refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such",
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"the individual elements and manipulate them to form a new permutation within the tradition. \"For art to progress, its unity must be dismantled so that certain of its aspects can be freed for exploration, while others shrink from attention.\" The creative tension between the traditional object and the craftsman becomes visible in these exceptional objects. This in turn allows us to ask new questions about creativity, innovation, and aesthetics. Influence on mainstream art Folk artworks, styles and motifs have inspired various artists. For example, Pablo Picasso was inspired by African tribal sculptures and masks, while Natalia Goncharova and others were",
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"of symbols to color and form, one reduces art to valueless graphic or industrial design.\n3. In the third chapter, Avital presents a survey and analysis of the history of the concept of abstraction over 2300 years, and claims that the fathers of modernism erred completely in their understanding and usage of the term \"abstraction.\" He claims that any art which is called \"abstract art\" is not abstract at all, because abstraction is a bidirectional act of the intellect. On one hand, abstraction contains elimination of the unique characteristics of each of the objects in a certain set of things, but",
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"such as abstract art, stylized human figures, costumbrismo, surrealism, and figurative art. “The aesthetic value of a work of art is based essentially in its composition and outline, the creativity and personal tough that the artist knows how to stamp on his work.”\nAs a painter, Francisco Moreno Capdevila commented that “the work of Miguel Hernández Urbán is an ascetic painting, bare of details, in which space is all. ‘Open to the infinite, the eye is submerged and wanders in the empty space in which form sometimes appears to disappear, being reduced to almost nothing. He frequently conveys a strange",
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"art can also be understood as that of a postcontemporary artist trying to combine speculative questions in philosophy and art and make them accessible to a larger public. To that end, he uses not only classical publication formats in print, film projects, and academic lectures but also art festivals and exhibitions. The 2015 gallery festival “Tomorrow Today / curated by_vienna” for example, was based on Avanessian’s homonymous essay and combined the work of twenty well-known curators with the idea of an actual post-capitalism. Within the framework of the ninth Berlin Biennale, Avanessian conducted a ten-day Young Curators Workshop on alternatives",
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"lyrical acuity all their own. Mozenter's work shows us how Modernism may still be accessed in a postmodern world, for its forms build a relationship in which the art is supported by its references to other media. In that sense, the work is remarkably open and expressive, living as it does between the directness of its own statement and its connection to another work of art.\nMozenter has taught at Pratt Institute (1985-2015), Cooper Union (2001), and at Parsons School of Design (1994-1997). Exhibitions and commissions Mozenter has had solo exhibitions at Lesley Heller Gallery, New York; Garrison Art Center, Garrison,",
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],
[
"to salvage beauty from the banal', while Kenneth Baker, in a feature article on him in ArtForum, declared, 'I know of few abstract painters who have the patience and intelligence to practice their art deliberately enough to let us see painting for the thinking process it is. One of the most accomplished of these is Norman Toynton.' \nIn the 80s, Toynton quit his teaching job and moved to New York City, where he showed his work in a wide variety of venues, including the Brooklyn Museum, the Hunter College Gallery, the Ruth Siegel Gallery, the John Good Gallery,",
"-26.258880288616638"
],
[
"Abstract Art and is known for the unique technique in painting as well as for her Artist's books.\nHer work has been exhibited at the Industry Museum (now renamed \"Bois du Cazier\") of Charleroi in Belgium; the Nagoya Museum; the Toyama Museum; the Osaka Municipal Museum of Art and the Aichi Prefectural Museum of Art in Japan; the Taipei Fine Arts Museum, Taiwan; the Musée des Avelines, Saint Cloud, France; the Swedish American Museum in Chicago; the Museum of Modern Art, Maracaibo, Venezuela; the Sofia Imber Contemporary Art Museum, Caracas, Venezuela; the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Sejong Center in Seoul,",
"-26.248897797762766"
],
[
"an alternative to the abstract art being created in the country: instead of oils, she created drawings on paper; instead of the professional mixing of colors, she used no coloration; instead of Paris, she was influenced by Japan and China, or other individualists (Hans Hartung). Uri's free line influenced younger artists, such as Raffi Lavie.",
"-26.226138226025796"
],
[
"effort to pursue the original and authentic purpose of abstraction: to reveal a portion of truth—not to practice art simply for its own sake but to seek an insight into the nature of reality itself, the nature of that which lies beyond art, of that which lies beyond the appearances that abstract art was devised to dispense with. ...\n\"Abstraction in its true manner is an ambitious artistic project, one that arose during one of the most remarkable periods of intellectual adventure in the history of Western civilization and whose real purpose has been maintained for decades strictly through the devotion",
"-26.184160110686207"
],
[
"Construction of the Me; Literary origins of contemporary thought; Nothingness in contemporary thought; Darian Studies. \n\n4 / The iconological approach to contemporary art and motifs as minimal units of meaning to assume the abstract work as a historical phenomenon readable since his time. In books: Representation: Iconographic problem of contemporary art; Sur-realism; The Scream by Edvard Munch: A paradigmatic case of staging iconic codes of an era; Stéphane Mallarmé and the question of abstract art. \n\n5 / The study of modern and contemporary architecture as an expression not just concrete and practical of using necessities, but also intellectual of formal",
"-26.155834123732348"
],
[
"Manfredi Beninati Biography \"Art reveals mysteries concerning us as individuals and society, whilst philosophy explains why they are there. The moment that an artist turns philosopher (which happens often) then things don’t work anymore. \"\n- Manfredi Beninati in Lowenna Waters' interview. The white review, 2011\nAfter dropping out of both law and film school and collaborating with well-known Italian directors, Manfredi Beninati began working as an artist, devoting himself to drawing. He spent some time in Spain and England and, in 2002, when came back to Italy, he began to make sculptures and figurative paintings that drew directly on real or",
"-26.142940662874025"
],
[
"his emotions. William Zorach and other authors of articles in The Arts discussed an art of \"purely abstract forms and colors\" that, through an elimination \"of everything not vitally necessary,\" produced a true art. The difficulty of judging what is a \"masterpiece\" and what is an \"abortion\" is no different for abstract than it is for representational art: it takes experience, careful study, and \"listening to one's inner response.\"\nIn the years between 1920 and 1926 Gallatin became a member of the modernist Société Anonyme and was introduced to the influential artist-critic Jacques Mauny who soon became his friend and advisor.",
"-26.13011249875126"
],
[
"from the plastic arts or visual arts, insofar as the former uses the artist's own body, face and presence as a medium; the latter uses materials such as clay, metal or paint, which can be molded or transformed to create a work of art.\nPerforming arts institutions include circus schools, dance schools, drama schools and music schools. Plastic or visual arts The plastic arts or visual arts are a class of art forms, that involve the use of materials, that can be moulded or modulated in some way, often in three dimensions. Examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing.\nHigher educational institutions in",
"-26.105405485424853"
],
[
"González uses her drawing as means to explore the hopefulness that modern abstraction brought to youth during the 1950s, along with the political obstacles that have slowly ruined the countries well-being. She comes from a generation in which modernism was not popular in Latin America. Her series reflects on her personal realization of what Venezuela has came to be, through the use of abstract art. Vulvosa tríptico (Vulviform triptych) (1979–81) This series of art explores the biological process of reproduction. It was created on a graphite board with acrylic paint. Her father was a doctor and, for that reason, a",
"-26.09191785146686"
],
[
"the history of art, and especially on his own experience since 1912, such as: \"The primary goal of art has never been exterior imitation\" (p. 31); \"Artworks come from emotion... the product of individual sensibility and taste\" (p. 42); \"The artist is always in a state of emotion, sentimental exaltation [ivresse]\" (p. 43); \"The painting in which the idea of abstract creation is realized is no longer an anecdote, but a concrete fact\" (p. 56); \"Creating a painted artwork is not the emission of an opinion\" (p. 59); \"The plastic dynamism will be born out of rhythmic relations between objects... establishing novel plastic liaisons between",
"-26.07454379844421"
],
[
"Metaphysical aesthetics What is Art? Aesthetics arises when one's own definition of beauty is lead to the question of, what is art? Similar to one's pondering of metaphysical thoughts in which lead to the notions of, 'what is?,' aesthetics allows one to explore the distinctiveness of what makes a form of work classified as art.\nArt can be seen or heard through forms such as music, architecture, paintings, literature, plays and so forth. However, many critics state that humans are too caught up in works of statutes, song and dance to ever notice what lies beyond the surface of this diversity,",
"-26.073832894278894"
],
[
"the art world\" was born in Padua, Italy, on September 21, 1960. With no formal art training, he \"considers himself an 'art worker' rather than an artist.\" Known for his macabre humour and interrogation of social mores, he derives inspiration from the Dadaist and Surrealist movements. His absurdist sculptures and installations often depict celebrities, art historical figures, or taxidermied animals set in surreal scenes. His oeuvre engages controversial subjects such as suicide, anxiety, religiosity, and the decadence of American culture.\nHe has participated in several Venice Biennales, the 2004 Whitney Biennial, and exhibited in numerous solo exhibitions, including at the Solomon",
"-26.06654593689018"
],
[
"an important milestone. Keep painting your dreams, imaginations, memories, and explore the relationship between the medium and the surface. For me, art making (in its countless forms) allows us the freedom to express our humanity and unique selves. Hangama Amiri, 2017",
"-26.04488850341295"
],
[
"20th century, which deemphasizes representation in favor of the abstract. Cordone seeks new content in abstract sculptures. The art historian Uta Gerlach-Laxner stated that his work evolved to often suggest associations with the sensory-organic world, forming a \"symbiosis of the organically grown and the technically constructed.\" According to the art historian Hans Ost, Cordone succeeds in creating “a higher nature,” introducing the viewer to a “new world of visual and spiritual experience.”\nA distinctive characteristic of many of his sculptures flows from his specific use of hard-to-cast alloys and intense workmanship with these materials to reflect light. His technique, which",
"-26.030689528903167"
],
[
"through most people's work, so that it either becomes more and more abstract, or less and less. I'm finding that as mine become less and less abstract in appearance— its shape more obviously derived from common objects— it also gets more thickly surrounded by abstractions, in the sense of associations or ideas it may refer to.\" \nThe artist's solo exhibition at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 2000 examined the work at what proved to be a crucial moment in his career. The show featured monumental new sculptures, including Under the Table, 1994, No title (blue plastic",
"-26.024962247203803"
],
[
"Barrio but rather in the art word itself. Barrio still “views curators and institutions … as completely superfluous to requirements for works of art and exhibitions. In his eyes curators are reduced to the role of logistics co-ordinators and as such, the institution in turn becomes no more than a (temporary) channel for his work.” However it is because of the work of Artur Barrio and many artists like him that Conceptual art and the use of untraditional media in art has become acceptable.\nBarrio now exhibits his work internationally.",
"-25.986491772535373"
],
[
"to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:\nRealistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of painting—the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment—were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.\n After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others.",
"-25.98623394092283"
],
[
"and develop the art aims to evaluate the imaginary world of the common man. This means that those involved in the project believe in themselves to see that what is projected from the imagination can be realized.\nThe transformation of what beauty is negligible in another concept that governs the work of Alejandro Marmo. The artist has a successful production of sculptures and paintings from waste, industrial backwardness or scrap.\nSuch is the case of the \"Bee of Río Tercero\" built in 2001 by Marmo with debris from the explosion of military factory in 1995 in collaboration with students in the career",
"-25.964093367882015"
],
[
"where the canvas is left visible – a technique used in abstract art, and which was not seen elsewhere until 1910.\nIn his short career he produced more than 70 oil paintings and 100 drawings. He is considered one of the principal Uruguayan artists and the first to produce truly modern art.\nHis works can be found in Uruguay in the National Museum of Visual Arts and the Juan Manuel Blanes Museum both in Montevideo, the Pinacoteca Eusebio Giménez Gallery in his home town of Mercedes, and in the Latin American Art Museum of Buenos Aires known as the MALBA.",
"-25.95746952429181"
],
[
"the abstract, a realization that gave a new direction to his future works. Sculptor Following his early training in rigorous academic artistic training with Ramirez and de Zulategui he enrolled in specialized courses at the Cincinnati Institute of Art and then at the University of Miami Night Art Program. After traveling in Italy in 1990s to study Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, he realized that in order to become a master sculptor he needed to have deeper training in drawing and oil painting. In 2003, he joins the Romero and Hidalgo Art Studios in Miami to work and study. Renowned",
"-25.93603615720349"
],
[
"reference to the known world. I prefer to make paintings that are sufficiently individual to be granted their own place.”\n— Stephen Greene, Valley Cottage, New York, 1999. Selected group exhibitions 2014: “Art in the Making: A New Adaptation,” Luther W. Brady Art Gallery, The George Washington University, Washington, DC (May 6–July 17); Reading Public Museum, Reading, PA (August 15–December 18).\n\n2011: “Surface Truths: Abstract Painting of the ‘Sixties,” Norton Simon Museum of Art, Pasadena, CA (March 25–August 15)\n\n2010: “Collecting Biennials,” The Whitney Museum of American Art, New York (January 16 – November 28)\n\n2009: “The Lens and the Mirror: Modern Self-Portraits from the",
"-25.921526005309715"
],
[
"assembling, and of making, that I arrive at a formal composition. Trained as a painter, I was always interested in the way everything comes together through the formal compositional gesture. I am now doing this with objects instead of painting.\" The artist creates installations in which she negotiates and reorganizes architectural space into an abstracted site by using domestic or ordinary materials to reconstitute a space.",
"-25.92096248466987"
],
[
"formula for finding meaning in their work is always the same. \"To be a painter, you have to be able to see yourself and understand,\" she said, \"and this is difficult for any generation.\" Painting career Harwood’s progression toward Hard-edge painting first developed while pursuing her BFA at Syracuse University in the 1950s, where a focus on Abstract Expressionism, classicism, and balance led to her trademark style. In an interview with Geoform, Harwood stated, \"In nature most shapes can be reduced to geometric forms. It seemed to me to be a logical approach to use geometric forms as a basis",
"-25.896249438475934"
],
[
"his studies of Plastic Arts (Université de Vincennes) and History of the Art (École du Louvre).\nIn the same way, his intellectual concerns and his extensive self-taught formation extended to multitude of subjects and disciplines (reading was one of his greatest passions), will lead him to create a work in endless evolution and transformation. In 1974 he was awarded the Güell Painting Foundation Award in Barcelona and in 1985 he was finalist at the 7th Cleveland International Drawing Biennale in England. At the end of the 80's he moves to Madrid, where he will create most of his works, working tirelessly,",
"-25.896034943682025"
],
[
"had enough to construct a sculpture with them. His art is hard to describe because it is a combination of abstract art and figurative that when completed turns into a magical creation. His inspiration comes from his compulsive temper and from literature specifically from words.\nIn 1988, Federico left Colombia and moved to New York where he would study a master in fine arts degree. Throughout those years he was guided by Luis Camnitzer, who taught him essential skills that Federico would later own use for his personal artworks. After years of studying and practicing, Federico has also lived in",
"-25.884050687061972"
],
[
"Art is my religion….reconnection with the Creator of Life (God).\"\n\"Art flows through my mind and hands as luminous messages: paintings, sculptures, books, music, and videos.\"\n\"Art is a tool that young people can use to develop their imagination, to change their life situation and to change the world for the better. I always tell the kids that your imagination will take you anywhere you want to go.\"",
"-25.853001924111595"
],
[
"dramaticism, symbolism, etc…The painting should be constructed entirely from purely plastic elements, that is to say planes and colours.\"\nVan Doesburg's (unsigned) \"commentaries\" followed on pages 2–4 and were dated Paris, January 1930. In them he argued that, after the eras of natural and artistic form, comes the new era of mental form (forme esprit), \"the concretisation of the creative mind. Concrete, not abstract painting, because nothing is more concrete than a line, a colour, a surface. As painters, we think and measure,\" avoiding interpretation and subjectivity. Jean Hélion's \"The Problems of Concrete Art: Art and Mathematics\", dated simply 1930, followed",
"-25.84823006708757"
],
[
"a painter I've tried to put pressure on what a painting is and rethink it in different ways. And that's how I end up with such different ways of looking at various possibilities, especially in terms of abstract painting.\nIn 2003 he started to incorporate photography into his work while maintaining his use of alternative materials acquired from his work as a general contractor in the late 1970s. Technique When asked about his technique as an artist, Hyde says:\nMinimalism is where I really came from, what I looked at, and what I thought about; but I was less interested in the",
"-25.814547728034086"
],
[
"his paintings \"metaphors of experience and feeling... the mind as nature.\"\nCritic Saul Ostrow described Conger's method as \"fluctuating between the rational, the associative, and the subjective.\" Although non-representational, his work connects to the everyday world through signifiers and titles he lets emerge during the painting process, which evoke what he calls \"'as if' places and stories\" without depicting any specific one. He does so based on his contention that abstract work can never be completely non-referential—that intentionally or not, all art generates meaning beyond itself. For Donald Kuspit, the process yields an aesthetically resonant, \"spontaneous means of introspection, even self-analysis\"",
"-25.78993070992874"
],
[
"conurbation of Arc de Seine (92), in the schools of Saint-Mamet (Cantal) and Saint-Martin d'Hères, in kibbutz Yifat (Israel) and in the Lavon Sculpture Garden (Israel), at Sankt Margarethen im Burgenland (Austria) as well as in Portorož (Slovenia). Presentation of the work Achiam explained: \nIf realist sculpture does not satisfy me, abstract sculpture—looking for purely aesthetic forms—doesn’t satisfy me either. I consider that abstract forms which are beautiful by themselves and can be perfect relative to their three dimensions can gain an additional dimension, a ‘fourth’ one, when they express human meaning. For me this is essential because if I",
"-25.78584416519152"
],
[
"art does not strive for individual expression. Instead, \"the concept of group art implies, indeed requires, that artists acquire their abilities, both manual and intellectual, at least in part from communication with others. The community has something, usually a great deal, to say about what passes for acceptable folk art.\" Historically the training in a handicraft was done as apprenticeships with local craftsmen, such as the blacksmith or the stonemason. As the equipment and tools needed were no longer readily available in the community, these traditional crafts moved into technical schools or applied arts schools. Owned by the community The",
"-25.783690519792344"
],
[
"by an artist or with any intention of being art, nor is it unique or hand-crafted. Duchamp's relevance and theoretical importance for future \"conceptualists\" was later acknowledged by US artist Joseph Kosuth in his 1969 essay, Art after Philosophy, when he wrote: \"All art (after Duchamp) is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually\".\nIn 1956 the founder of Lettrism, Isidore Isou, developed the notion of a work of art which, by its very nature, could never be created in reality, but which could nevertheless provide aesthetic rewards by being contemplated intellectually. This concept, also called Art esthapériste (or \"infinite-aesthetics\"),",
"-25.77025748817323"
],
[
"that modern humans rely too heavily on science and logic and would benefit from integrating spirituality and appreciation of the unconscious realm. His work not only triggered analytical work by art historians, but it became an integral part of art-making. Jackson Pollock, for example, famously created a series of drawings to accompany his psychoanalytic sessions with his Jungian psychoanalyst, Dr. Joseph Henderson. Henderson who later published the drawings in a text devoted to Pollock's sessions realized how powerful the drawings were as a therapeutic tool.\nThe legacy of psychoanalysis in art history has been profound, and extends beyond Freud and Jung.",
"-25.76028444619442"
],
[
"range of languages and materials can create an involvement with often unspoken human preoccupations.\" Her practice consists of casting, making, sound recording, filmmaking and drawing resulting in series of works that explore subjects such as prayer, literature, song, ageing and death. Wright's work includes a use of materials that range plaster, tinfoil, video, printmaking, found objects and performance.\nWright's on-going series of figurative sculpture works includes the piece's Child (2011), a Jesmonite cast of the artist's son's feet, painted with water colour, and Sons (2011), a pair of Jesmonite casts of Wright's sons from the chest up. Other sculpture works such",
"-25.751490132766776"
],
[
"\"plastic arts\" long preceded them. The term should not be confused, either, with Piet Mondrian's concept of \"Neoplasticism\". History The oldest known plastic art date to (30,000–34,000 bp). 'Plastic' and the philosophy of arpapaiem In contrast to the limiting of 'plastic arts' to sculpture and architecture by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling in 1807, the German critic August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845) applied the concept not only to visual arts, but also poetry. \nClassical poetry lines he saw utilizing plastic isolation, and rhyme falling under the Romantic (domain). \n\nIn Schlegel's Viennese lectures (1809-1811), published in 1827 as On the Theory",
"-25.750029874725442"
],
[
"became installations. An important part of his creative process is drawing, divided by the artist into three categories: free, working and note. Starting from the 1990s, he introduced a series of works called Fragtors. The term, coined by Łazikowski, and precisely described in his theoretical work Fragtoryzacja świata (Fragtorisation of the World), became the basis for artist's present plastic activities. In his theoretical and constructive works Łazikowski tries to combine discovering reality (science) with creating it (art). Łazikowski describes his aim as to carry out the \"spiritualisation of his corporality (but not of the corpse), and corporalisation of his spirituality",
"-25.744098294446303"
],
[
"experimented with jewel-encrusted columns in 1974-5 and later, intricate furniture pieces, such as a bejeweled mahogany table in 1983.\nTorreano theorizes that all art \"exists somewhere between a totally abstract creation and a total reproduction of physical things in the world.\" He believes that artists are similar to physicists in their use of theoretical models to gain insight into the physical world. Torreano uses the gem to bring together the world of theory and the world of things. Because gems are a geometric form as well as an object of popular culture, his use of fake gems can become real art",
"-25.743523387543974"
],
[
"Egon Schiele, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani, Chaim Soutine and others..\nWassily Kandinsky a Russian painter, printmaker and art theorist, one of the most famous 20th-century artists is generally considered the first important painter of modern abstract art. As an early Modernist, in search of new modes of visual expression, and spiritual expression, he theorized as did contemporary occultists and theosophists, that pure visual abstraction had corollary vibrations with sound and music. They posited that pure abstraction could express pure spirituality. His earliest abstractions were generally titled as the example in the (above gallery) Composition VII, making connection to the work of",
"-25.73090042793774"
],
[
"ensembles with elements borrowed not from the reality of vision, but from the reality of knowledge. It is the tendency of 'pure' painting. The painters Apollinaire places in this category are: Picasso, Braque, Metzinger, Gleizes, Laurencin and Gris.\nThe second, Physical Cubism, is the discipline of constructing painting with elements borrowed mostly from the reality of vision. Its social role is well marked, but it is not a pure art. The 'physicist' who created this trend is Le Fauconnier.\nOrphic Cubism is the art of painting with elements borrowed not from visual reality, but entirely created by the artist and endowed by",
"-25.70801528308988"
],
[
"as Romulo Macció, Anselmo Piccoli, Eduardo Mac Entyre, Luis Felipe Noé, and Luis Seoane co-existed with equal appeal as the most conceptual mobile art creators such as the unpredictable Pérez Celis, Gyula Kosice of the Argentine Madí Movement, and Marta Minujín, one of Andy Warhol's most esteemed fellow Conceptual artists.\nThe emergence of avant-garde genres in Argentine sculpture also featured Pablo Curatella Manes and Roberto Aizenberg, and constructivists such as Nicolás García Uriburu and Leon Ferrari, one of the world's foremost artists in his genre, today. In the 1960s and 1970s, many of these figures' abstract art found their way into",
"-25.702326585174887"
],
[
"any reference points, and fit comfortably within the history of Abstract expressionism. Other semi-abstract pieces are infused with hints of nature, commonly oriented by a feature which directs the viewer's perception. Several abstracts relate to his prospecting in their evocation of rock formations. Themes Hessay's paintings reference a wide spectrum of contemporary and historical material, ranging from the modern city, to scenes inspired by mythology and the Bible, the horrors of war, futuristic visions, and the place of humanity within nature. He liked his pictures to tell a story, but preferred to leave their interpretation up to the viewer. When",
"-25.698502018960426"
],
[
"exhibits some of her geometrical gouache drawings at the Arab Cultural Gallery in 1947, and the exhibition is considered to have been the Arab World's first abstract painting exhibition. After that, Choucair decides to leave Lebanon again in 1948 to head to Paris with her brother-in-law, Fouad, who had to travel there for business. Initially, she did not know much about the global art scene beyond Post-impressionism, which is why she wanted to go to Paris and expose herself to everything that she had found in the news over the years. It is there that she encountered abstract art for",
"-25.66419972923177"
],
[
"not necessarily alter the significance of aesthetic experience. Elaborative, as opposed to descriptive, titles are particularly important in helping viewers assign meaning to abstract art. Descriptive titles increase understanding of abstract art only when viewers are presented with an image for a very short period of time (less than 10 seconds). Because art can have a variety of multi-leveled meanings, titles and other additional information can add to its meaningfulness and consequently, its hedonic value. Applications Discoveries from the psychology of art can be applied to various other fields of study. The creative process of art yields a great",
"-25.66268247034168"
],
[
"by the patron (interactive participation or a set of instructions to follow). Conceptual art, Minimalism, Earth art, and Performance art mingled together to expand the very definition of Art.\nBy the late 1970s, many of the graduates of the school of the arts in Cuba, \"the Facultad de Artes Plasticas of the Instituto Superior de Arte\" (founded in 1976) were going to work as schoolteachers, teaching art to young Cubans across the island. This provided a platform for the graduates to teach students about freedom of expression in medium, message, and style of art. It was this new level of",
"-25.641405574060627"
],
[
"that can be learned by people with a little artistic ability and a lot of patience. Geometric Illusion Art Illusion Art does not have to be pictorial. It also lends itself to geometric works. Sometimes the same illusion can be created in different ways. It is much less successful for abstract art. The brain needs to be able to perceive an image and fill in the gaps, which would be extremely difficult with an abstract design. Exhibitions Illusion Knitting Art is very new, the earliest exhibitions being held in 2010. Artists Artists working in this field include Steve Plummer, Pat",
"-25.64040340691281"
],
[
"the more the art is realistic. Is the artist not imitating, but instead relying on symbolism, or in an important way striving to capture nature's essence, rather than copy it directly? If so the art is non-representational—also called abstract. Realism and abstraction exist on a continuum. Impressionism is an example of a representational style that was not directly imitative, but strove to create an \"impression\" of nature. If the work is not representational and is an expression of the artist's feelings, longings and aspirations, or is a search for ideals of beauty and form, the work is non-representational or a",
"-25.632118156150682"
],
[
"the spring cycle of lectures at ММОМА.\n“The core theme Protey Temen is now working with — that is, researching the environment, analyzing it and fixing it with the plastic language of abstract art and graphics — has remained unchanged for many years, yet the artist’s aesthetics have obviously changed. From the pagan territory of myth and the method of surritualism developed by him, Protey approaches, step by step, a quasi-scientific way of interpreting the world. How does the gaze work, what is information, what are objects made of, why do we see a spot and perceive a symbol in a",
"-25.620170984628203"
],
[
"Abstract Expressionists, they were painterly, treating the paint itself, and not just its color, as a meaningful element. Known for their experimentation with new media, they were also known for their interest in methodology through the ages, thus Zerbe, for example, helped revive the ancient Egyptian medium of encaustic, a mixture of pigment and hot wax, in the 1940s.\nChaet called Bloom the link between Boston Expressionism and Abstract Expressionism. Bloom's Christmas Tree (1945) is an example of one of his more abstract works, barely suggesting the appearance of the original object by its shape. Levine's Street Scene #2 (1938), with",
"-25.59598997118883"
],
[
"the Arts recognizes artistic experimentation, encourages post-disciplinary and temporal exploration, and promotes inquiry of the infinite links among art, technology and design. Every edition called on artists or groups of artists from all over the world to develop proposals for original projects that engage with the concept of time and duration while also interacting with the monumental architecture of the Faena Art Center Buenos Aires in a significant way.",
"-25.565402619060478"
],
[
"object or act as art, not from the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. Installation art An important series of movements in art which have consistently been described as postmodern involved installation art and creation of artifacts that are conceptual in nature. One example being the signs of Jenny Holtzer which use the devices of art to convey specific messages, such as \"Protect Me From What I Want\". Installation Art has been important in determining the spaces selected for museums of contemporary art in order to be able to hold the large works which are composed of vast",
"-25.563153994982713"
],
[
"of the difficulties many people have in approaching contemporary artwork is its diversity—diversity of material, form, subject matter, and even time periods. It is \"distinguished by the very lack of a uniform organizing principle, ideology, or -ism\" that we so often see in other, and oftentimes more familiar, art periods and movements. Broadly speaking, we see Modernism as looking at modernist principles—the focus of the work is self-referential, investigating its own materials (investigations of line, shape, color, form). Likewise, Impressionism looks at our perception of a moment through light and color as opposed to attempts at stark realism (Realism, too,",
"-25.540273145379615"
],
[
"has written about abstract painting, drawing, art theory, education, and the work of Delacroix, Manet, Monet, and Louise Nevelson. He has contributed to publications including Critical Inquiry, Whitewalls, Dialogue, Pulse, The Analytic Press, Neoteric Art, and Chicago/Art/Write, as well as to the books Looking at Art from the Inside Out by Mary Mathews Gedo (1994) and What Do Artists Know by James Elkins (2013).\nHis essay in Linguistic Sciences, \"Abstract Painting and Integrationist Linguistics\" (2011), proposed the idea that visual form and language are inherently interdependent and have been artificially and wrongly separated by art practice and discourse. He applies linguist",
"-25.52687563590007"
],
[
"ideas to sculpture. The many types of abstraction now in close proximity led to attempts by artists to analyse the various conceptual and aesthetic groupings. An exhibition by forty-six members of the Cercle et Carré group organized by Joaquin Torres-Garcia assisted by Michel Seuphor contained work by the Neo-Plasticists as well as abstractionists as varied as Kandinsky, Anton Pevsner and Kurt Schwitters. Criticized by Theo van Doesburg to be too indefinite a collection he published the journal Art Concret setting out a manifesto defining an abstract art in which the line, color and surface only, are the concrete reality. Abstraction-Création",
"-25.500949764231336"
],
[
"Abstract Expressionism in depth.\nMore modern pieces showing styles of abstract expressionism, pop art, and art of the 1970s through the end of the century can also be found represented by artists such as Arshile Gorky, Jackson Pollock, Clyfford Still, and Andy Warhol. Additionally, the gallery is also rich in various pieces of post-war American and European art; their contemporary collection includes pieces by artists such as Kiki Smith, Allan Graham, Georg Baselitz, John Connell, and Per Kirkeby. The museum bought Anselm Kiefer's large-scale Die Milchstrasse (The Milkyway) (1985–87) in 1988 to celebrate its 125th anniversary.\nThe Albright-Knox's current exhibition space can",
"-25.497766112763202"
],
[
"Peterson and Judy Simonian as 'participatory', one of the first uses of the term in relation to art. Ross wrote, \"These artists bear the responsibility to the community. \"\nMaura Sheehan is a community artist who encourages viewers to interact with her art and to help shape it. For example, Sheehan calls her Humanities Gallery of 2013 a 'non-site' like Andre Malraux's 'Museum without Walls' where she has displayed a glass spiral splintered to symbolise broken promises. As visitors walk on the glass path they inevitably break it and contribute to what Sheehan describes as a 'protracted entropic metaphysical disintegration that",
"-25.486164260466467"
],
[
"Art for The World Overview ART for The World is inspired by Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which proclaims creative activity as an essential part of people's well-being (\"Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts...\"). Its mission is to create, through the universal language of art, a meaningful and enduring dialogue among people and cultures in order to encourage tolerance and solidarity and to foster education as a human right.\nART for The World works in close collaboration with the artists' community and with the institutions",
"-25.477282722788914"
],
[
"described by the artist: 'In 1957, when I graduated, my belief was strictly connected to the idea that the perception of things is rather important for the creation act, but being limited, one has to appeal to the subconscious through experiment, challenge and transcendence. My informal was born from hard work and devotion. At that moment, I knew few things about contemporary art, and what I learned in school was just some academic knowledge that was only partially useful. Later on, when I started to travel, I came in contact with the European informal. In the big museums I found",
"-25.47065596806351"
],
[
"canvas, \"although frequently described as a hybrid of painting and sculpture, grew out of the issues of abstract painting and was evidence of the desire of painters to move into real space by rejecting behind-the-frame illusionism.\" .\nFrank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Charles Hinman Ronald Davis, Richard Tuttle, Leo Valledor, Neil Williams, John Levee, David Novros, Robert Mangold, Gary Stephan, Paul Mogenson, Clark Murray, and Al Loving are examples of artists associated with the use of the shaped canvas during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and hard-edge painters may, for example, elect",
"-25.467485099841724"
],
[
"to work with sculpture as a way to supplement his income, turning to painting a few years later. Like most naïve artists, he finds inspiration for his work in the experiences of his daily life: religious rituals and the events and people of his community. Having grown up in a neighborhood of mostly Haitian families, he is well aware of their struggles; he sometimes describes his work as \"polemic\".In January 1997, el estudiante held a one-man show in Santiago de Cuba's largest and most prestigious gallery, Oriente, and continues to take part in exhibitions held by Grupo Bayate. In June,",
"-25.442522227443988"
],
[
"the direction of Abstract Expressionism, Fields continued to create within the realist canon. During the early 1950s he began to work in ceramics, producing small tables and household items such as cups and vases. A short-lived attempt to sell the latter via a small business (Sculpture Products) did not succeed commercially. His ceramic art work, with its richly toned glazes and whimsical shapes, was his only attempt at adopting a semi-abstract idiom.",
"-25.435860240540933"
],
[
"Culture of Uruguay Painting and sculpture Well-known Uruguayan painters include realists such as Juan Manuel Blanes, constructivists such as Joaquín Torres García, nativists like Carlos María Herrera, post-impressionists such as Pedro Figari and Felipe Seade, abstract artists such as Carlos Páez Vilaró, and numerous others.\nWell-known sculptors include realists Pablo Atchugarry, José Belloni, and José Luis Zorrilla de San Martín, as well as contemporary sculptors such as Juan José Calandria, Águeda Dicancro, Hugo Nantes, Claudio Silveira Silva, Mariví Ugolino, and Carlos Páez Vilaró, who created an internationally renowned \"livable sculpture\", Casapueblo. Architecture Due to European migration, new forms of art and",
"-25.4032992181601"
],
[
"through the 1960s.\nBecause of a tendency in Minimalism to exclude the pictorial, illusionistic and fictive in favor of the literal—as demonstrated by Robert Mangold, who understood the concept of the shape of the canvas and its relationship to objecthood—there was a movement away from painterly and toward sculptural concerns. Donald Judd had started as a painter, and ended as a creator of objects. His seminal essay, \"Specific Objects\" (published in Arts Yearbook 8, 1965), was a touchstone of theory for the formation of Minimalist aesthetics. In this essay, Judd found a starting point for a new territory for American art,",
"-25.38355369403871"
],
[
"Plastic arts Plastic arts are art forms which involve physical manipulation of a plastic medium by molding or modeling such as sculpture or ceramics. Less often the term may be used broadly for all the visual arts (such as painting, sculpture, film and photography), as opposed to literature and music. Materials for use in the plastic arts, in the narrower definition, include those that can be carved or shaped, such as stone or wood, concrete, glass, or metal.\nThe term \"plastic\" has been used to mean certain synthetic organic resins ever since they were invented, but the term",
"-25.379724709986476"
],
[
"others, and along with the fluxus movement and postminimalism (a term first coined by Robert Pincus-Witten in the pages of Artforum in 1969) sought to expand the boundaries of abstract painting and minimalism by focusing on process, new materials and new ways of expression.\"\nThis connection is seen most obviously in the connection between the paintings from the late sixties of Peter Young (artist) and the paintings that follow in the early seventies produced in the Papunya Tula.\nPapunya Tula, or Papunya Tula Artists Pty Ltd, is an artist cooperative formed in 1972 that is owned and operated by Aboriginal people",
"-25.37062242408865"
],
[
"affected than painting by geometricizing tendencies. Georges Vantongerloo and Max Bill, for example, are perhaps best known for their geometric sculpture, although both of them were also painters; and indeed, the ideals of geometric abstraction find nearly perfect expression in their titling (e.g., Vantongerloo's \"Construction in the Sphere\") and pronouncements (e.g., Bill's statement that \"I am of the opinion that it is possible to develop an art largely on the basis of mathematical thinking.\") Expressionist abstract painting, as practiced by artists such as Jackson Pollock, Franz Kline, Clyfford Still, and Wols, represents the opposite of geometric abstraction. Relationship with music",
"-25.370095181853685"
],
[
"Gema Alava Gema Alava (b. 1973 Madrid, Spain) is an artist who lives and works in New York City. Her work, in the form of installation, drawing, photography and art projects, deals with what she calls \"contradictory truths\", and the capacity to \"create a maximum by reversing a minimum.\" Álava's art projects, in the form of dialogues, verbal descriptions, rumors and random encounters, explore notions of trust and intimacy, and use language as a medium to investigate the interconnections that exist between public, private, educational and interpretative aspects of art.\" In 2012 she was appointed Cultural",
"-25.359236427786527"
],
[
"artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time.\nAbstract art, non-figurative art, non-objective art, and non-representational art are closely related terms. They are similar, but perhaps not of identical meaning.\nAbstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be slight, partial, or complete. Abstraction exists along a continuum. Even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork",
"-25.35864396148827"
],
[
"ways of connecting with clients, collectors, curators, and other artists. They realized that they weren't the only artists seeking connections, so they created The Arts Map.\"\nThe editor of the fine arts collage trade magazine, Cloth Paper Scissors, led an article about the site with, \"When you’re traveling and want to check out the local arts culture, it's fairly easy to find museums and galleries. But artist studios? Not so much... [Robin Colodzin and Jonathan Talbot] have created an online guide to artists around the world...\". In another fine arts publication, Art Times, another editor advised her readers to take advantage",
"-25.355988588606124"
],
[
"needs to be said about my art. I think of it as being simple, direct response to my life, everything is familiar and recognizable. There are no obscure philosophical or psychological implications; I observe and I interpret. That's all there is to it.",
"-25.355853201064747"
],
[
"these projects he developed ideas and practices that pointed towards a new way of relating to the art object and exhibition making that eventually became manifest in I am a Curator.:\n\"Despite its populist ideals, the Curatorial Market raises complex, insider issues about the relationship between artist and curator. ‘These two disciplines are beginning to mix and merge in ways that some people find appalling and others see as a powerful new development in the history of art making,’ Paul Clay explains. However, abandoning the idea of the autonomous piece of art can be problematic. ‘Having art that relates very strongly",
"-25.35144623533415"
],
[
"only found: it's completely abstract. You see this is the whole thing: I'm not a figure painter at all. I'm an abstract painter where I hope that bringing in the figure brings in certain human or psychological connotations or associations.\nFrom 1980, dynamic situations such as discos, New York City, football, street life or graffiti activate his paintings. His work is characterized by profound attention to color and complex abstract volumes. In the 1980s his work enjoyed a renaissance of attention and influence.\nFrom 1970 to 1991 McNeil made lithographs that he printed on his own press or at the Tamarind Institute,",
"-25.34894732767134"
],
[
"1964, Gussow moved to Long Island City, becoming one of the first artists to take up residence in what was then an industrial section of the Queens neighborhood. Gussow created both his home and sculpture studio inside a former silver plating factory. He resided and worked in Long Island City for the rest of his life. Works Gussow created Infinity, an abstract sculpture, designed by Jose de Rivera, which was dedicated outside the Smithsonian's Museum of History and Technology, now called the National Museum of American History, in 1967. The piece is one of the first abstract sculptures to be",
"-25.347001190151786"
],
[
"Qatari art Development of modern art The art scene in Qatar witnessed substantial development in the mid- and late 1950s. Initially, arts were overseen by the Ministry of Education, with art exhibitions being hosted in its facilities. In 1972, the government started providing increased funding to aid the development of arts within the country. The father of modern artists in Qatar is Jassim Zaini (1943–2012), whose work explored diversity in techniques and documented the changing society from traditional local life to a global style. The Qatari Fine Arts Society was established in 1980 with the objective of promoting the works",
"-25.346240274142474"
],
[
"and modernity, architectural epochs and artistic movements. It appears innovative, or at least evocative, because it is based on original, unexpected appropriations and recontextualisations of styles and trends.\nFornasetti feels close to the discipline described by Eugen Herrigel in his little book \"Zen and archery\", to the idea that one should observe, study and internalise the real in order to be able to consciously forget it and recreate it according to the rules of intellect, imagination and design: \"look at bamboo for years, then forget it, then you can paint bamboo. Internalise, create, produce\". \nIt is from the loss of reference",
"-25.33402878801894"
]
] |
47zuoe | Why would anyone try a very addictive/harmful drug like meth or heroin for the first time? | [
"So, the question is why people try things that are bad for them, even if they feel good? Do you ever drink soda? what about eating fast food? drinking alcohol? they're a lesser extent, but you must be totally aware that's not good for your body. But you make excuses, \"oh only this one time\", \"it cant be THAT bad for you\", etc etc, but the fact remains you're doing something bad for you to feel good.",
"A lot of heroin addicts start using heroin after they've been addicted to prescription opiates--it's surprisingly easy for this to happen even when they're legitimately prescribed. The pill addiction can carry on for a while after their prescriptions are used up and they get their pills on the black market. When they start to run short on money, they'll switch to heroin since it's stronger and cheaper.",
"Desperation and needing to do absolutely anything to escape from reality or to numb some sort of pain. At least that's how I feel when it comes to heroin, the only people that I knew that did meth were bikers and for them it was part of the culture. Other than that it could just be curiosity or, as everyone else has said, peer pressure.",
"Peer pressure can be a powerful force. In the interest of going along with the flow, people will go very far. Check out the [Milgram Experiment]( URL_0 )",
"'Addictive' is a very subjective term; the severity depends from person to person through their biological make up. What may be extremely addictive to some, may not be for others. For example, people that don't have an addictive personality and also have a strong sense of will power may want to try a drug once for the experience. That's just my opinion on the matter. Can confirm anecdotally."
] | [
[
"causes a drain upon society.\nStudies on the effects of prescribing heroin to addicts as practiced in many European countries have shown better rates of success than any other available treatment in terms of assisting long-term users establish stable, crime-free lives. Many patients were able to find employment, some even started a family after years of homelessness and delinquency. Block to research The illegality of many recreational drugs may be dissuading research into new, more effective and perhaps safer recreational drugs. For example, it has been proposed that a drug with many of the same desired effects as alcohol could be",
"-33.72721195562508"
],
[
"from barbiturates or benzodiazepines; using drugs such as baclofen to reduce cravings and propensity for relapse amongst addicts to any drug, especially effective in stimulant users, and alcoholics (in which it is nearly as effective as benzodiazepines in preventing complications); using clonidine, an alpha-agonist, and loperamide for opioid detoxification, for first-time users or those who wish to attempt an abstinence-based recovery (90% of opioid users relapse to active addiction within eight months or are multiple relapse patients); or replacing an opioid that is interfering with or destructive to a user's life, such as illicitly-obtained heroin, dilaudid, or oxycodone, with an",
"-33.13942564964236"
],
[
"stronger, illicit drugs are particularly at risk. People with mental health problems—especially those with schizophrenia—are also prone to abuse the drug, which is self-administered in large doses to treat extrapyramidal symptoms caused by the use of antipsychotics.\nRecreational users report calming effects, mild euphoria, and hallucinations as the desired effects of the drug. Research has shown that antimuscarinic agents, such as diphenhydramine, \"may have antidepressant and mood-elevating properties\". A study conducted on adult males with a history of sedative abuse found that subjects who were administered a high dose (400 mg) of diphenhydramine reported a desire to take the drug again, despite",
"-32.634234868804924"
],
[
"be the primary factor in causing addiction. For other addictive drugs such as the opioid heroin, the increased levels of dopamine in the reward system may only play a minor role in addiction. When people addicted to stimulants go through withdrawal, they do not experience the physical suffering associated with alcohol withdrawal or withdrawal from opiates; instead they experience craving, an intense desire for the drug characterized by irritability, restlessness, and other arousal symptoms, brought about by psychological dependence.\nThe dopamine system plays a crucial role in several aspects of addiction. At the earliest stage, genetic differences that alter",
"-32.03431669966085"
],
[
"more addictive than cannabis, caffeine, ethanol, cocaine, and heroin when considering both somatic and psychological dependence. However, due to the stronger withdrawal effects of ethanol, cocaine and heroin, nicotine may have a lower potential for somatic dependence than these substances. About half of Canadians who currently smoke have tried to quit. McGill University health professor Jennifer O'Loughlin stated that nicotine addiction can occur as soon as five months after the start of smoking.\nIngesting a compound by smoking is one of the most rapid and efficient methods of introducing it into the bloodstream, second only to injection, which allows for the",
"-31.77682965517306"
],
[
"has said, \"people are better off taking ecstasy or amphetamines than those [drugs] we know nothing about\" and \"Who knows what's in [mephedrone] when you buy it? We don't have a testing system. It could be very dangerous, we just don't know. These chemicals have never been put into animals, let alone humans.\" Les King, a former member of the ACMD, has stated mephedrone appears to be less potent than amphetamine and ecstasy, but that any benefit associated with this could be negated by users taking larger amounts. He also told the BBC, \"all we can say is [mephedrone] is",
"-31.683613788802177"
],
[
"usually includes methamphetamine, heroin, cocaine, LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, MDMA and club drugs. In 2015, it was estimated that about 5% of people aged 15 to 65 had used illegal drugs at least once (158 million to 351 million). Reasons for use Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use. Some of the most common theories are: genetics, personality type, psychological problems, self-medication, gender, age, instant gratification, basic human need, curiosity, rebelliousness, a sense of belonging to a group, family and attachment issues, history of trauma, failure at school or work, socioeconomic stressors, peer pressure, juvenile delinquency, availability,",
"-31.63022989372257"
],
[
"the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, confirmed prior research that found no connection between drug use and violent crime, despite prior perceptions of heroin users as more prone to violence. A 1975 study RTI conducted for the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism found that 28 percent of 13,000 teenagers polled were \"problem drinkers,\" despite their age. A 1996 study done by RTI and funded by the Pentagon found that drug abuse in the military had been reduced by 90 percent since 1980.\nRTI in 1975 recommended that the Bureau of the Mint halt expensive production of pennies, and",
"-31.511785973067163"
],
[
"a risk of addiction.\nCocaine addiction is a psychological desire to use cocaine regularly. Cocaine overdose may result in cardiovascular and brain damage, such as: constricting blood vessels in the brain, causing strokes and constricting arteries in the heart; causing heart attacks. The use of cocaine creates euphoria and high amounts of energy. If taken in large, unsafe doses, it is possible to cause mood swings, paranoia, insomnia, psychosis, high blood pressure, a fast heart rate, panic attacks, cognitive impairments and drastic changes in personality. The symptoms of cocaine withdrawal (also known as comedown or crash) range from moderate to severe:",
"-31.496426779194735"
],
[
"notion that chronic opioid use has minor effects on psychomotor, cognitive, or neuropsychological functioning. Addiction Morphine is a highly addictive substance. In controlled studies comparing the physiological and subjective effects of heroin and morphine in individuals formerly addicted to opiates, subjects showed no preference for one drug over the other. Equipotent, injected doses had comparable action courses, with no difference in subjects' self-rated feelings of euphoria, ambition, nervousness, relaxation, drowsiness, or sleepiness. Short-term addiction studies by the same researchers demonstrated that tolerance developed at a similar rate to both heroin and morphine. When compared to the opioids hydromorphone, fentanyl, oxycodone,",
"-31.442972119403123"
],
[
"German study of long-term heroin addicts demonstrated that diamorphine was significantly more effective than methadone in keeping patients in treatment and in improving their health and social situation. Many participants were able to find employment, some even started a family after years of homelessness and delinquency. Since then, treatment had continued in the cities that participated in the pilot study, until heroin maintenance was permanently included into the national health system in May 2009.\nA heroin maintenance programme has existed in the United Kingdom (UK) since the 1920s, as drug addiction was seen as an individual health problem. Addiction to opiates",
"-31.356111314846203"
],
[
"turn to heroin, and 80% of heroin addicts began abusing prescription opioids. Many people addicted to opioids switch from taking prescription opioids to heroin because heroin is less expensive and more easily acquired on the black market.\nMen are more likely to overdose on heroin. Overall, opioids are among the biggest killers of every race.\nHeroin use has been increasing over the years. An estimated 374,000 Americans used heroin in 2002–2005, and this estimate grew to nearly double where 607,000 of Americans had used heroin in 2009–2011. In 2014, it was estimated that more than half a million Americans had an addiction",
"-31.268069412733894"
],
[
"and empathy, \"body high\", and anxiolysis provided by narcotic drugs including the opioids can cause the use of high doses in the absence of pain for a protracted period, which can impart a morbid craving for the drug in the user. Being the prototype of the entire opioid class of drugs means that morphine has properties that may lend it to misuse. Morphine addiction is the model upon which the current perception of addiction is based.\nAnimal and human studies and clinical experience back up the contention that morphine is one of the most euphoric drugs known, and via all but",
"-31.256606026785448"
],
[
"drug. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) report on ecstasy, based on a 12-month study of 4,000 academic papers, concluded that it is nowhere near as dangerous as other class A drugs such as heroin and crack cocaine, and should be downgraded to class B. The advice was not followed. Jacqui Smith, then Home Secretary, was also widely criticised by the scientific community for bullying Professor David Nutt into apologising for his comments that, in the course of a normal year, more people died from falling off horses than died from taking ecstasy. Professor Nutt was later",
"-31.1782833407633"
],
[
"it's therapeutic index of safety is still much better than the corresponding trans isomers because it is more potent compound.\nIn discussing cocaine and related compounds such as amphetamines, it is clear that these psychostimulants cause increased blood pressure, decreased appetite (and hence weight loss), increased locomotor activity (LMA) etc. In the United States, cocaine overdose is one of the leading causes of ER admissions each year due to drug overdose. People are at increased risk of heart attack and stroke and also present with an array of psychiatric symptoms including anxiety & paranoia etc. On removal of the 2C tropane",
"-31.104432992986403"
],
[
"marijuana, and cigarettes early in life, while also abusing a wider array of illicit drugs compared to those who discounted delayed reinforcers less.\"\nEscalation or dysregulation is the next and more severe phase of substance abuse. In this phase individuals \"lose control\" of their addiction with large levels of drug consumption and binge drug use. Animal studies suggest that individuals with higher levels of impulsivity may be more prone to the escalation stage of substance abuse.\nImpulsivity is also related to the abstinence, relapse, and treatment stages of substance abuse. People who scored high on the Barratt",
"-30.932758861366892"
],
[
"some countries, other opioid derivatives such as levomethadyl acetate, dihydrocodeine, dihydroetorphine and even heroin are used as substitute drugs for illegal street opiates, with different prescriptions being given depending on the needs of the individual patient. Baclofen has led to successful reductions of cravings for stimulants, alcohol, and opioids, and also alleviates alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Many patients have stated they \"became indifferent to alcohol\" or \"indifferent to cocaine\" overnight after starting baclofen therapy. Some studies show the interconnection between opioid drug detoxification and overdose mortality. Psychostimulant addiction As of May 2014, there is no effective pharmacotherapy for any form of",
"-30.91225755936466"
],
[
"addict does not commit any other crimes as the result of their addiction). Paternalism, on the other hand, judges that heroin \"isn't good for you\", and feels free to override the judgement of the addicts themselves.",
"-30.78384227445349"
],
[
"lessens the effects of opiates on rat's brain and thus causes them to use more heroin. Paul Armentano, policy analyst for NORML, claimed because the rats were given THC at the young age of 28 days, it is impossible to extrapolate the results of this study to humans.\nIn December 2006, a 12-year gateway drug hypothesis study on 214 boys from ages 10–12 by the American Psychiatric Association was published in the American Journal of Psychiatry. The study concluded adolescents who used cannabis prior to using other drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, were no more likely to develop a substance abuse",
"-30.749764966729344"
],
[
"the effect of drugs on individuals, their families, and their communities as well as the positive results of overcoming addiction.",
"-30.743188253982225"
],
[
"being much more difficult to access.\nAs a result of this, many other illicit drugs have risen and fallen in popularity to fill this void, with prescription temazepam, morphine, oxycodone, methamphetamine and cocaine all being used as a substitute. 2008 has seen a reversal of this trend, with the arrival of Afghan heroin being seen in Sydney for the first time ever. Although anecdotal evidence from illicit drug users reject the claim, some researchers assert that the potency of heroin has since been on the rise, and is nearly comparable to the purity of heroin prior to 2000.\nIn 2001, the Sydney",
"-30.693490084471705"
],
[
"of over 20 people, teachers were unable to confiscate the drug from pupils and the government was too slow to ban the drug. Parallels were drawn between the media coverage of mephedrone and a piece of satire by Chris Morris in 1997 on Brass Eye when he tricked public figures into talking of the dangers of taking the fictional legal drug \"cake\". The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) have suggested that the media coverage of the drug led to its increased usage. Jon Silverman, a former BBC Home Affairs Correspondent, has written two articles discussing how the",
"-30.680707287567202"
],
[
"found that almost 80% of the individuals who test positive for cocaine also test positive for levamisole.\nLevamisole used as an adulterant in cocaine has resulted in 20 confirmed or probable cases of agranulocytosis, including 2 deaths, according to an alert from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.\nThe emergence of fentanyl-laced cocaine has led to an increase in cocaine overdose fatalities in New York City. Marijuana and Hashish Though marijuana is less likely to be adulterated than hard drugs are, it still occurs, and has been reported in several countries.\nIn the Netherlands two chemical analogs of Sildenafil (Viagra) were",
"-30.654083210218232"
],
[
"hard to believe you are under the influence of any drug. Long intensive physical work is performed without any fatigue. This result is enjoyed without any of the unpleasant after-effects that follow exhilaration brought about by alcoholic beverages. No craving for the further use of cocaine appears after the first, or even after repeated taking of the drug.\nIn 1885 the U.S. manufacturer Parke-Davis sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user's veins with the included needle. The company promised that its cocaine products would \"supply the place",
"-30.628779810038395"
],
[
"(including cigarettes and various forms of smokeless tobacco), marijuana, inhalants (volatile solvents including among other things glue, gasoline, aerosols, ether, fumes from correction fluid and marking pens), cocaine, methamphetamine, steroids, club drugs (such as MDMA), and opioids. Community advocacy against substance abuse is imperative due to the significant increase in opioid overdoses in the United States alone. It has been estimated that about one hundred and thirty individuals continue to lose their lives daily due to opioid overdoses alone. Protective and risk factors Environmental and internal are two main factors that contribute to the likelihood of substance abuse. Environmental factors",
"-30.62691830075346"
],
[
"at the Medical Research Council, suggested the ban of mephedrone may lead to more cocaine-related deaths. In the first six months of 2009, the number of cocaine-related deaths fell for the first time in four years, and fewer soldiers tested positive for cocaine in 2009 than in 2008. She suggested this may have been due to users switching to mephedrone from cocaine, but cautioned that before full figures are available for 2009 and 2010, it will be difficult to determine whether mephedrone saved lives, rather than cost them. Other supposedly legal drugs have filled the gap in the market since",
"-30.599342276182142"
],
[
"at Naropa Institute in 1980, where Burroughs claimed that new synthetic opiates would be so powerful that users would become addicts with a single dose. In an interview in Nature Medicine on his lab's discovery of the mechanism by which nicotine filters synaptic noise and can focus attention to tasks, he recalls his father's early death due to smoking, saying \"if some idiot or drug company is going to twist things around, the only thing that would come out of [this research] that I'd be horrified by is if people used it to advocate smoking. I think it would be",
"-30.532502180798474"
],
[
"viewed the drug as less critical than heroin; at one point they released a report stating cocaine \"is not physically addictive ... and does not usually result in serious consequences, such as crime, hospital emergency room admissions or both\".\nThe Cali Cartel leadership comprised Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela El Ajedrecista (\"The Chess Player\"), Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela El Señor (\"The Lord\"), José Santacruz Londoño El Estudiante (\"The Student\") or Chepe Santacruz and Hélmer Herrera Buitrago Pacho. Some top associates were Victor Patiño Fomeque El Quimico (\"The Chemist\") or La Fiera (\"The Beast\"), Henry Loaiza Ceballos El Alacrán (\"The Scorpion\"), ex-guerrilla José Fedor Rey,",
"-30.525201078446116"
],
[
"cravings allow the user to slowly taper off the drug in a controlled manner, decreasing the likelihood of relapse. It is not accessible to all addicts. It is a regulated substance, and requires that each dose be picked up from a methadone clinic daily. This can be inconvenient as some patients are unable to travel to a clinic, or wish to avoid the stigma associated with drug addiction. Buprenorphine Buprenorphine is used similarly to methadone, with some doctors recommending it as the best solution for medication-assisted treatment to help people reduce or quit their use of heroin or other opiates.",
"-30.52346421428956"
],
[
"drug addiction [dependence] whereby a given dose of a drug produces less effect or increasing doses are required to achieve a specified intensity of response. Physical dependence on the drug can also occur, and is characterized by a withdrawal syndrome that usually accompanies drug abstinence. After cessation of drug use, there is a strong tendency to relapse.\"\nNicotine dependence leads to heavy smoking and causes severe withdrawal symptoms and relapse back to smoking. Nicotine dependence develops over time as a person continues to use nicotine. Teenagers do not have to be daily or long-term smokers to show withdrawal symptoms. Relapse should",
"-30.51195976755116"
],
[
"the drug and later became ill. Wood's parents later vehemently campaigned the \"Just Say No\" policy across the country to prevent the tragedy from re-occurring. However, despite state and federal governments investing millions of dollars in anti-drug campaigns, ecstasy use has increased amongst Australians, including young people. 21st century During the 1990s, Australia experienced a heroin \"epidemic\", in which high quality, low priced heroin, imported from South East Asia, was readily available in many metropolitan, suburban and rural areas. However, since 2001, Australia has been experiencing what is being referred to as a \"heroin drought\", with high grade heroin",
"-30.495121324041975"
],
[
"because they are so effective at blocking emotional pain, including anxiety. Similarly to alcohol, people with anxiety disorders are more likely to become addicted to opioids due to their anxiolytic effect. These drugs range from the commonly prescribed hydrocodone, to the often illegal heroin, and all the way to much more potent varieties like fentanyl often used in trauma or end of life pain management. Most people purchasing these drugs illegally are seeking them out to get a euphoric like high, but many others seek them out because they are so effective at reducing both physical pain and",
"-30.451381742248486"
],
[
"off the higher potency forms, for instance with cocaine users buying coca leaves, and heroin users switching to opium.\nThe popular shift from beer to wine to hard liquor during the US Prohibition era has a parallel in the narcotics trade in the late 20th century. Bulky opium was illegal, so refined heroin became more prevalent, albeit with significant risk from blood-borne disease because of injection by needle, and far greater risk of death from overdose. Marijuana was also found too bulky and troublesome to smuggle across borders, so smugglers turned to refined cocaine with its much higher potency and profit",
"-30.433130984485615"
],
[
"its reputation as a dangerous drug used primarily in archaic behavioural therapies. Opioid addiction In his Deposition: Testimony Concerning a Sickness in the introduction to later editions of Naked Lunch (first published in 1959), William S. Burroughs wrote that apomorphine treatment was the only effective cure to opioid addiction he has encountered:\nThe apomorphine cure is qualitatively different from other methods of cure. I have tried them all. Short reduction, slow reduction, cortisone, antihistamines, tranquilizers, sleeping cures, tolserol, reserpine. None of these cures lasted beyond the first opportunity to relapse. I can say that I was never",
"-30.361717338848393"
],
[
"activities and leads to criminal social circle. Institutional patterns The drugs Ritalin (methylphenidate) and Adderall (amphetamine) are stimulants that are prescribed to kids with ADHD yet in college there's an influx of this drug trafficked. These drugs stimulate your nervous system making you awake and attentive. \nPrescribing opioids to patients and related overdose has become a serious problem in the US. Lack of objective information about drugs An important role in the process of discrimination is played by the lack of objective information about drug addiction and drug addicts, caused by legislative barriers to scientific research, the displacement of such",
"-30.34894834109582"
],
[
"finds a strong link between substance abuse and crime. In general, making drugs illegal results in an exponential increase in their price so that addicts must indulge in theft, robbery, and burglary to support their habits. Those people who experience those crimes are indirect victims of the drug sale. The need to fund addiction also drives some into distribution where they are more prone to violent attack and murder. These findings are matched elsewhere. Meier and Geis (1997) confirm that drug dealing is an area where victims are third parties who experience harm only indirectly through, say, losses from drug-related",
"-30.290739608113654"
],
[
"off or declined in the developed world but continue to rise in developing countries. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults.\nThe effects of addiction on society vary considerably between different substances that can be smoked and the indirect social problems that they cause, in great part because of the differences in legislation and the enforcement of narcotics legislation around the world. Though nicotine is a highly addictive drug, its effects on cognition are not as intense or noticeable as other drugs such as cocaine, amphetamines or",
"-30.28209264756879"
],
[
"evidence of increased heroin usage among the compiled studies. In fact, they found that a few studies had participants that reduced their drug usage, or in other studies that it had not changed. A limitation of their study was noted that majority (90%) of reversed overdoses were heroin induced, when a study recruited methadone users specifically. Take-home naloxone programs have also been implemented overseas in Europe, Asia, and Australia, but studies of these programs used uncontrolled study designs. Prevention program report According to the CDC, deaths from drug overdoses have more than doubled since 1999 in the U.S. 43, 982",
"-30.272330827670885"
],
[
"progressively more difficult to administer, which in turn may lead to more injection attempts and more consequences from improperly performed injection.\nAn injected mixture of cocaine and heroin, known as \"speedball\" is a particularly dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, including celebrities such as comedians/actors John Belushi and Chris Farley, Mitch Hedberg, River Phoenix, grunge singer Layne Staley and actor Philip Seymour Hoffman. Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies to study the",
"-30.251087381970137"
],
[
"(commonly sold under the trade names OxyContin and Percocet), hydrocodone (Vicodin, Norco), and a very strong painkiller, fentanyl, which is synthesized to resemble other opiates such as opium-derived morphine and heroin. The potency and availability of these substances, despite their high risk of addiction and overdose, have made them popular both as medical treatments and as recreational drugs. Fentanyl alone, being 50 times stronger than heroin and 100 times stronger than morphine, was causing about 200 overdose deaths per day in 2017.\nIn 2018, over 70,000 Americans died from drug overdoses, with an increasing number of those deaths caused by fentanyl.",
"-30.25026839785278"
],
[
"mutagenic effects. Tolerance Tolerance to LSD builds up with consistent use and cross-tolerance has been demonstrated between LSD, mescaline\nand psilocybin.\nThis tolerance is probably caused by downregulation of 5-HT2A receptors in the brain and diminishes a few days after cessation of use.\nThe NIH comments that LSD is addictive, while other sources state it is not. A 2009 textbook states that it \"rarely produce[s] compulsive use\". A 2006 review states it is readily abused but does not result in addiction. Overdose As of 2008 there were no documented fatalities attributed directly to an LSD overdose. Despite this several behavioral fatalities and suicides",
"-30.201897840852325"
],
[
"reasons. Bejerot agreed with Lindesmith that these therapeutic addicts could be treated as personal health problems. These addicts were often ashamed of their drug abuse and the risk that they should introduce others in drug addiction was low. Bejerot claimed that persons from other, much larger, groups of drug addicts often were those that introduced others in their habit to use drugs (Bejerot studied this issue in his doctor thesis about persons who injected amphetamine). Bejerot claimed that the liberal drug laws that Lindesmith recommended – neglecting smaller amounts of illegal drugs for personal use etc. – therefore would open",
"-30.182911752839573"
],
[
"to and activates mu opioid receptors in the brain, spinal cord, stomach and intestine. Regular use can lead to drug tolerance or physical dependence. Chronic opium addicts in 1906 China or modern-day Iran consume an average of eight grams of opium daily.\nBoth analgesia and drug addiction are functions of the mu opioid receptor, the class of opioid receptor first identified as responsive to morphine. Tolerance is associated with the superactivation of the receptor, which may be affected by the degree of endocytosis caused by the opioid administered, and leads to a superactivation of cyclic AMP signaling. Long-term use of morphine",
"-30.1606659034951"
],
[
"but as a medical condition. Additionally, detoxification alone does not constitute adequate treatment, as the problems with opioid use are frequently social as much as they are physical. Addiction Addiction is a brain disorder characterized by compulsive drug use despite adverse consequences. Addiction is a component of a substance use disorder and represents the most severe form of the disorder.\nOverexpression of the gene transcription factor ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens plays a crucial role in the development of an addiction to opioids and other addictive drugs by sensitizing drug reward and amplifying compulsive drug-seeking behavior. Like other addictive drugs, overuse",
"-30.120867114615976"
],
[
"Some depressants, such as Rohypnol, are dangerous to take while drinking alcohol. \"Ketamine often is taken in \"trail mixes\" of methamphetamine, phencyclidine, cocaine, sildenafil citrate (Viagra), morphine or heroin.\" Injury or death due to risky behaviour Another risk with club drugs is one shared by all drugs, from legal drugs like alcohol to abused over-the-counter drugs (taking large amounts of dextromethorphan cough syrup) and illegal drugs (BZP, amphetamines, etc.): while impaired, the user is more likely to be injured, engage in dangerous or risky behaviour (e.g., unsafe sex) or, if she or he drives, have an accident resulting in injury",
"-30.109045964600227"
],
[
"illegal sex users ('perverts' and 'psychopaths') with the even more ferocious medical-political persecution of illegal drug users.\" Creation of a permanent underclass Penalties for drug crimes among American youth almost always involve permanent or semi-permanent removal from opportunities for education, strip them of voting rights, and later involve creation of criminal records which make employment more difficult. Thus, some authors maintain that the War on Drugs has resulted in the creation of a permanent underclass of people who have few educational or job opportunities, often as a result of being punished for drug offenses which in turn have resulted from",
"-30.077797683363315"
],
[
"cause severe complications in overdose; statistics in England showed that benzodiazepines were responsible for 3.8% of all deaths by poisoning from a single drug. However, combining these drugs with alcohol, opiates or tricyclic antidepressants markedly raises the toxicity. The elderly are more sensitive to the side effects of benzodiazepines, and poisoning may even occur from their long-term use. The various benzodiazepines differ in their toxicity; temazepam appears most toxic in overdose and when used with other drugs. The symptoms of a benzodiazepine overdose may include; drowsiness, slurred speech, nystagmus, hypotension, ataxia, coma, respiratory depression, and cardiorespiratory arrest.\nA reversal agent for",
"-30.076110754482215"
],
[
"use of ecstasy is associated with depression and anxiety, even after quitting the drug. Depression is one of the main reasons for cessation of use.\nAt high doses, MDMA induces a neuroimmune response that, through several mechanisms, increases the permeability of the blood-brain barrier, thereby making the brain more susceptible to environmental toxins and pathogens. In addition, MDMA has immunosuppressive effects in the peripheral nervous system and pro-inflammatory effects in the central nervous system. During pregnancy MDMA is a moderately teratogenic drug (i.e., it is toxic to the fetus). In utero exposure to MDMA is associated with a neuro- and cardiotoxicity",
"-30.068229636293836"
],
[
"doses of cocaine. Addiction Crack cocaine is popularly thought to be the most addictive form of cocaine. However, this claim has been contested: Morgan and Zimmer wrote that available data indicated that \"...smoking cocaine by itself does not increase markedly the likelihood of dependence.... The claim that cocaine is much more addictive when smoked must be reexamined.\" They argued that cocaine users who are already prone to abuse are most likely to \"move toward a more efficient mode of ingestion\" (that is, smoking).\nThe intense desire to recapture the initial high is what is so addictive for many users. On the",
"-30.06590334174689"
],
[
"the past. Between 3 and 35% of deaths among those who use heroin are due to suicide (approximately fourteenfold greater than those who do not use). In adolescents who misuse alcohol, neurological and psychological dysfunctions may contribute to the increased risk of suicide.\nThe misuse of cocaine and methamphetamine has a high correlation with suicide. In those who use cocaine, the risk is greatest during the withdrawal phase. Those who used inhalants are also at significant risk with around 20% attempting suicide at some point and more than 65% considering it. Smoking cigarettes is associated with risk of suicide. There is",
"-30.056199040420324"
],
[
"quantities, to more people. This trend abated in the 1990s as increased police action coupled with a robust economy deterred many potential candidates to forfeit or fail to take up the habit.\nRecent years shows an increase in the consumption of vaporized heroin, methamphetamine and Phencyclidine (PCP). Along with a smaller number of psychedelic drugs such as DMT, 5-Meo-DMT, and Salvia divinorum. Substances and equipment The most popular type of substance that is smoked is tobacco. There are many different tobacco cultivars which are made into a wide variety of mixtures and brands. Tobacco is often sold flavored, often with various",
"-30.038383458857425"
],
[
"pandemic if not curtailed. Prescription drug abuse among teenagers in Canada, Australia, and Europe were comparable to U.S. teenagers. In Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, and in parts of China, surveys found that one in ten students had used prescription painkillers for non-medical purposes. Similar high rates of non-medical use were found among the young throughout Europe, including Spain and the United Kingdom.\nWhile strong opiates are heavily regulated within the European Union, there is a \"hidden addiction\" with codeine. Codeine, though a mild painkiller, is converted into morphine in the liver. \"‘It’s a hidden addiction,’ said Dr Michael Bergin of Waterford",
"-30.025253840256482"
],
[
"having difficult experiences on psychedelic drugs at select festivals such as Burning Man, Boom Festival, and Lightning in a Bottle without medical or law enforcement intervention.\nDrugs such as MDMA (commonly sold by the slang names \"ecstasy\" and \"molly\") are often adulterated. One harm reduction approach is drug checking, where people intending to use drugs can have their substances tested for content and purity so that they can then make more informed decisions about safer consumption. European organisations have offered drug checking services since 1992 and these services now operate in over twenty countries. As an example, the nonprofit organization DanceSafe",
"-30.023040922096698"
],
[
"which only the top chemists have the training to synthesize, most often contain no LSD; instead, they often contain PCP, a veterinary tranquilizer which produces disassociation and hallucinations in humans. In some cases, the dealer has intentionally substituted a less expensive, more available illegal drug for another drug. In other cases, the substitution was made by a higher-level drug cartel or organization, and the dealer may in fact believe that the bogus product is MDMA or LSD. Addiction Not all club drugs are addictive (e.g. nitrous oxide). However, some club drugs are addictive. Amphetamine heavily used in recreational fashion pose",
"-29.994541168329306"
],
[
"result in drug-seeking, drug taking behavior, which in many instances will lead the user to experiment with other pleasurable substances. The risk of progression from marijuana to cocaine to heroin is now well documented.\"\nIn 1995, Partnership for a Drug-Free America with support from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) and the White House Office of Drug Control Policy launched a campaign against cannabis use citing a Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA) report, which claimed that cannabis users are 85 times more likely than non-cannabis users to try cocaine. Additionally, some research suggests that marijuana use is likely",
"-29.954940843919758"
],
[
"form of use as undesirable and harmful to society. This is contrasting to viewpoints of those who stress the disparity in harmfulness among drugs, and would like to distinguish between occasional drug use and problem drug use. Although some harm reductionists also see drug use as generally undesirable, they hold that the resources would do more good if they were allocated toward helping problem drug users instead of combating all drug users. As an example, research findings from Switzerland indicate that emphasis on problem drug users \"seems to have contributed to the image of heroin as unattractive for young people.\"\nOn",
"-29.899725611561735"
],
[
"because of tighter regulations on prescribing narcotics for pain relief. Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its alkaloid constituents, and whether legal or illegal, most current drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as heroin rather than with unrefined opium.\nIntravenous injection of opiates is most used: by comparison with injection, \"dragon chasing\" (heating of heroin on a piece of foil), and madak and \"ack ack\" (smoking of cigarettes containing tobacco mixed with heroin powder) are only 40 percent and 20 percent efficient, respectively. One study of British heroin addicts found a 12-fold excess mortality ratio",
"-29.855558526003733"
],
[
"addiction began by abusing pharmaceutical narcotics, primarily OxyContin\" and drew a direct line between Purdue's marketing of OxyContin and the subsequent heroin epidemic in the U.S.\nIn 2003, the Drug Enforcement Administration found that Purdue's \"aggressive methods\" had \"very much exacerbated OxyContin's widespread abuse.\"\nA 2016, the Los Angeles Times investigation reported that in many people OxyContin's 12-hour schedule does not adequately control pain, resulting in withdrawal symptoms including intense craving for the drug. The journalists suggested that this problem gives \"new insight into why so many people have become addicted.\" Using Purdue documents and other records, they claim that Purdue was",
"-29.819654013146646"
],
[
"their therapeutic potential. They could ease a variety of difficult-to-treat mental illnesses, such as chronic depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and alcohol dependency. MDMA (Ecstasy) has been used for cognitive enhancement in people with Parkinson's disease, and has shown potential in treating posttraumatic stress disorder. Lack of access to controlled medications Under prohibition, millions of people find it very difficult to obtain controlled medications, particularly opiate pain-relievers. The United Nations 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs requires that opiates be distributed only by medical prescription, but this is impractical in many areas.\nAccording to the Transnational Institute, June 2008:\nAccording to the International",
"-29.815448952489533"
],
[
"that they were predominantly female, and that two-thirds of cases had known risk factors for addiction. However, a 1981 study of known opiate addicts and schizophrenia patients found no drug addiction in any of the subjects. In a 1990 study of eight amineptine dependence cases, the gradual withdrawal of amineptine could be achieved without problems in six people; in two others, anxiety, psychomotor agitation, and/or bulimia appeared. Withdrawal Pharmacodependence is very common with amineptine compared to other antidepressants. A variety of psychological symptoms can occur during withdrawal from amineptine, such as anxiety and agitation. Hepatic Amineptine can rarely cause hepatitis,",
"-29.796147412853315"
],
[
"drugs, specifically proglumide, have been shown to slow the development of tolerance to morphine. Overdose A large overdose can cause asphyxia and death by respiratory depression if the person does not receive medical attention immediately. Overdose treatment includes the administration of naloxone. The latter completely reverses morphine's effects, but may result in immediate onset of withdrawal in opiate-addicted subjects. Multiple doses may be needed.\nThe minimum lethal dose of morphine sulfate is 120 mg, but in case of hypersensitivity, 60 mg can bring sudden death. In serious drug dependency (high tolerance), 2000–3000 mg per day can be tolerated. Pharmacology Morphine has classically been divided",
"-29.789743710658513"
],
[
"withdrawal from an addictive drug, and in this context indicates sudden and complete cessation of all nicotine use. In three studies, it was the quitting method cited by 76%, 85%, or 88% of long-term successful quitters. In a large British study of ex-smokers in the 1980s, before the advent of pharmacotherapy, 53% of the ex-smokers said that it was \"not at all difficult\" to stop, 27% said it was \"fairly difficult\", and the remaining 20% found it very difficult. Studies have found that two-thirds of recent quitters reported using the cold turkey method and found it helpful. Cut down to",
"-29.764591798702895"
],
[
"Mephedrone Recreational Users have reported that mephedrone causes euphoria, stimulation, an enhanced appreciation for music, an elevated mood, decreased hostility, improved mental function and mild sexual stimulation; these effects are similar to the effects of cocaine, amphetamines and MDMA, and last different amounts of time depending on the way the drug is taken. Of 70 Dutch users of mephedrone, 58 described it as an overall pleasant experience and 12 described it as an unpleasant experience. In a survey of UK users who had previously taken cocaine, most users found it produced a better-quality and longer-lasting high and was less addictive.",
"-29.744764002331067"
],
[
"a \"poor man's cocaine\" but also amongst users of heroin and crack cocaine. Cases of intravenous use were also reported to be on the increase. Legal status When mephedrone was rediscovered in 2003, it was not specifically illegal to possess in any country. As its use has increased, many countries have passed legislation making its possession, sale and manufacture illegal. It was first made illegal in Israel, where it had been found in products such as Neodoves pills, in January 2008. After the death of a young woman in Sweden in December 2008 was linked to the use of mephedrone,",
"-29.721319076474174"
],
[
"users, cannabis users, and nonuser on both event and time-based prospective memory tasks. Ecstasy users performed significantly worse in comparison to both cannabis only and non-user groups on time-based tasks. Time-based prospective memory is sensitive to regular and even moderate use of ecstasy. More importantly, ecstasy users experience generalized difficulties with prospective memory, demonstrating that these deficits are likely to have important implications for daily functioning. Methamphetamine Methamphetamine more commonly known as crystal meth, is a highly addictive drug. A fair amount of research indicates that the use of methamphetamine is associated with neurocognitive impairment, more recently there has",
"-29.72057584184222"
],
[
"patterns of synthetic marijuana use. These side-effects included panic, vomiting, depression and psychosis and some felt the side effects were serious enough to consider seeking medical assistance.\nAn additional study conducted with the assistance of the UNSW, found that of 1100 self-reported synthetic drug users, 10% of individuals who had admitted to trying synthetic marijuana felt they were going to die, and 75% said they wouldn't try it again.\nPeople who use large quantities of cannabis may become sedated or disoriented and may experience toxic psychosis - not knowing who they are, where they are, or what time it is. High doses",
"-29.703740300145"
],
[
"endorphins – the brain’s naturally occurring opioids. Accordingly, blocking endorphin receptors might help alcoholics resist drinking. In 1983, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted permission to test this theory on patients. With funding provided by the U.S. Veterans Administration Substance Abuse Center in Philadelphia, O’Brien and one of his students, fellow University of Pennsylvania psychiatrist Joseph Volpicelli, and others conducted a study in which all addiction patients received counseling, but half of them also received Naltrexone, while the other half received a placebo. During three months of treatment, those receiving Naltrexone had fewer relapses to heavy drinking and",
"-29.691641272394918"
],
[
"use. While this may provide immediate relief of some symptoms such as anxiety, it may evoke and/or exacerbate some symptoms of several kinds of mental illnesses that are already latently present, and may lead to addiction/dependence, among other side effects of long-term use of the drug.\nSufferers of posttraumatic stress disorder have been known to self-medicate, as well as many individuals without this diagnosis who have suffered from (mental) trauma.\nDue to the different effects of the different classes of drugs, the SMH postulates that the appeal of a specific class of drugs differs from person to person. In fact, some drugs",
"-29.66620555589907"
],
[
"is sometimes considerable and here the licit drugs and medicines – such as alcohol, nicotine and antidepressants – have to be considered in conjunction with the controlled psychoactive substances. The risk level will depend on the dosage level of both substances. If the drugs taken are illegal, they have a chance of being mixed (also known as \"cutting\") with other substances which dealers are reported to do to increase the perceived quantity when selling to others to increase their returns. This is particularly common with powdered drugs such as cocaine or MDMA which can be mixed with relative ease by",
"-29.665397343342192"
],
[
"Cocaine dependence Signs and symptoms Cocaine is a powerful stimulant known to make users feel energetic, cheerful, talkative, etc. In time, negative side effects include increased body temperature, irregular or rapid heart rate, high blood pressure, increased risk of heart attacks, strokes and even sudden death from cardiac arrest. Many habitual abusers develop a transient, manic-like condition similar to amphetamine psychosis and schizophrenia, whose symptoms include aggression, severe paranoia, restlessness, confusion and tactile hallucinations; which can include the feeling of something crawling under the skin (formication), also known as \"coke bugs\", during binges. Users of cocaine have also",
"-29.661877827660646"
],
[
"decision to recreationally use illicit drugs is most commonly free, and with the knowledge that they may lead to an abundance of addictions.\" Health arguments for drug law reform There is evidence that many illicit drugs pose comparatively fewer health dangers than certain legal drugs. The health risks of MDMA (Ecstasy) have been exaggerated for instance, the risks from cannabis use also overstated, and health problems from the use of legal substances, particularly alcohol and tobacco, are greater, even than from cocaine use for example (occasional cocaine use does not typically lead to severe or even minor physical or social",
"-29.64471478604173"
],
[
"work to obtain it. Antipsychotic drugs reduce dopamine levels and tend to cause anhedonia, a diminished ability to experience pleasure. Many types of pleasurable experiences—such as sex, eating, and playing video games—increase dopamine release. All addictive drugs directly or indirectly affect dopamine neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens; these drugs increase drug \"wanting\", leading to compulsive drug use, when repeatedly taken in high doses, presumably through the sensitization of incentive-salience. Drugs that increase synaptic dopamine concentrations include psychostimulants such as methamphetamine and cocaine. These produce increases in \"wanting\" behaviors, but do not greatly alter expressions of pleasure or change levels of",
"-29.640763958799653"
],
[
"consumption of illegal substances. This is in keeping with guidelines issued by the WHO's parent organization, the United Nations, which discourages any recognition of \"recreational\" or \"responsible\" use of drugs.\nResearchers may take note that somewhat less contentious definitions of addiction, dependence, and tolerance (with no speculation as to their roles in the definition of drug abuse) were jointly issued in 2001 by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Society, and the American Society of Addiction Medicine in the publication \"Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain\".",
"-29.64061666635098"
],
[
"Journal of the American Medical Association, followed up by several articles in other journals. They hypothesized that heroin addiction was a metabolic disease, and that methadone could be used as a drug to treat this disease, contradicting earlier beliefs that addiction was purely a personality disorder and that addiction to methadone remained an addiction the treatment of which should lead to abstinence. Dole and Nyswander soon set up a local program for treating addicts with methadone, and similar programs eventually became widespread around the country and around the world.\nNyswander died in 1986 of cancer, possibly caused by her lifelong addiction",
"-29.639585647033527"
],
[
"dose in a controlled, professionally supervised setting, and Narcan (naloxone) is on hand in the case of an accidental overdose. Opiate related overdoses in the U.S. kill around 70,000 people per year.\nHeroin-assisted treatment is fully a part of the national health system in Switzerland, Germany, the Netherlands, Canada, and Denmark. Additional trials are being carried out in the United Kingdom, Norway, and Belgium. History The British have had a system of heroin maintenance since the 1920s. For decades it supplied a few hundred addicts nationwide, most of whom were doctors themselves. It was de-emphasized considerably during the 1960s-1980s as a",
"-29.599390192772262"
],
[
"Combining multiple depressants can be very dangerous because the central nervous system's depressive properties have been proposed to increase exponentially instead of linearly. This characteristic makes depressants a common choice for deliberate overdoses in the case of suicide. The use of alcohol or benzodiazepines along with the usual dose of heroin is often the cause of overdose deaths in opiate addicts.",
"-29.594648788450286"
],
[
"in Zurich in 2001 a 23-year-old who had taken BZP and ecstasy (MDMA) died from a massive cerebral edema 57 hours after hospital admission. Addictive effects One in every 45 (2.2%) last-year users of BZP in New Zealand is classed as dependent upon it, although 97.9% of users said that \"it would not be difficult to stop using legal party pills\", and 45.2% of people who reported using both BZP and illegal drugs such as methamphetamine reported that they used BZP so that they did not have to use methamphetamine, which was perceived as more harmful.\nStill, most of the people",
"-29.579641139920568"
],
[
"\"That illicit drugs are inherently harmful substances is attested by the very nomenclature of the 'harm reduction' movement.\" The U.S. government has argued that illegal drugs are \"far more deadly than alcohol\" saying \"although alcohol is used by seven times as many people as drugs, the number of deaths induced by those substances is not far apart. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), during 2000, there were 15,852 drug-induced deaths; only slightly less than the 18,539 alcohol-induced deaths.\" Ratios of the harms of illicit opiates to licit alcohol and tobacco in Australia are similar, with 2",
"-29.561855064472184"
],
[
"originated in the mid- to late-1990s, as large-scale studies identified significant levels of heroin and crack cocaine use in populations of arrestees (particularly for theft offences). In a large-scale study of drug misuse in arrested populations, Holloway and Bennett identified 466 'drug misusing repeat offenders'. Of these, 80% declared an 'unmet need for treatment' (2004:33)\nContemporaneously, the National Treatment Outcomes Research Study (NTORS) found high levels of acquisitive (money-related) offending in populations of people seeking community treatment for drug problems. In one early NTORS report, Godfrey et al. identified that every £1 spent on drug treatment could yield between £9.50 and",
"-29.556117546831956"
],
[
"effective at treating addiction?\n\nCasal: I believe that it has very likely no bearing whatsoever on the treatment of addiction.\nNarconon asserts that methadone, amphetamines, methamphetamines, morphine, copper, mercury, and other toxins, some consumed years earlier, leave the body by means of sweating. This contrasts with the view of the body's drug retention taken by mainstream science, which has found that most recreational drugs leave the body within a few days (with the exception of cannabis, which in the case of frequent use can remain in the body for up to a month). Niacin According to Narconon, vitamin and mineral supplements are",
"-29.54674099147087"
],
[
"from little known, ineffective substances sold in head shops to powerful substances able to compete with classical drugs on the black market. Mephedrone especially experienced a somewhat meteoric rise in popularity in 2009 and the resulting media panic resulted in its prohibition in multiple countries. Following this there was a considerable emergence of other cathinones which attempted to mimic the effects of mephedrone, and with a newly attracted customer base, plenty of money to drive innovation.\nSubsequently, the market rapidly expanded, with more and more substances being detected every year. In 2009, the EMCDDA's early warning system discovered 24 new drugs.",
"-29.523404374398524"
],
[
"toxic psychoactive drugs, a ban on electroshock (so-called electroconvulsive therapy), and new ways of living with madness and being different, with as much independence from institutions as possible, as well as tolerance, respect and appreciation of diversity at all levels of life. Publications Coming off Psychiatric Drugs: Successful Withdrawal from Neuroleptics, Antidepressants, Lithium, Carbamazepine and Tranquilizers (2004) was originally published in German in 1998 and was the first book on this issue world-wide. Beside family members and professionals, Lehmann primarily addresses people who choose to withdraw from these drugs. He shows detailed accounts of how others came off these substances",
"-29.51754001043446"
],
[
"and 15% of illicit drug users ever become dependent. A crucial determinant of whether a drug user develops drug abuse is the presence or absence of negative reinforcement, which is experienced by problematic users, but not by recreational users. According to Duncan, drug dependence is an avoidance behavior, where an individual finds a drug that produces a temporary escape from a problem, and taking the drug is reinforced as an operant behavior. Specific mechanisms Some mental illness sufferers attempt to correct their illnesses by use of certain drugs. Depression is often self-medicated with alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, or other mind-altering drug",
"-29.508737476891838"
],
[
"or death due to impaired driving. Misrepresentation In many cases, illegal club drugs are misrepresented. That is, a dealer will tell a purchaser that she/he has a certain illegal drug for sale, while in fact the dealer's pills, capsules or bags of powder do not contain that chemical. For example, MDMA (\"ecstasy\") is very hard to synthesize in illegal underground labs, and methamphetamine is much easier (it can be made from household chemicals and over-the-counter cold remedies containing pseudoephedrine). As such, what dealers sell as MDMA is often methamphetamine powder. Similarly, pills sold by drug dealers as LSD, a drug",
"-29.508018010732485"
],
[
"the symptoms of withdrawal from chronic use of both nicotine and morphine in animals, as well as inhibiting the development of tolerance to morphine, raising hope that this drug may be useful for treating drug addiction in humans.\nEglumegad and related drugs are neuroprotective and are synergistic with the neuroprotection produced by N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) antagonist drugs, which may make these drugs useful in aiding recovery from brain injury.\nThis class of drugs also interacts with hallucinogenic drugs, with eglumegad reducing the effects of 5HT2A agonist hallucinogens, while conversely the mGluR2/3 antagonist LY341495 increased the behavioural effects of these drugs. This suggests",
"-29.507021167781204"
],
[
"treatment. According to an epidemiologist at Columbia University: \"Once pharmaceuticals start targeting other countries and make people feel like opioids are safe, we might see a spike [in opioid abuse]. It worked here. Why wouldn't it work elsewhere?\"\nMost deaths worldwide from opioids and prescription drugs are from sexually transmitted infections passed through shared needles. This has led to a global initiative of needle exchange programs and research into the varying needle types carrying STIs. In Europe, prescription opioids accounted for three-quarters of overdose deaths among those between ages 15 and 39. Some worry that the epidemic could become a worldwide",
"-29.474943309818627"
],
[
"treatment for lung diseases. But problems flowing from addiction led many to perceive the drug element of medications to be morally destructive. In the United States, the Supreme Court decisions of Webb et al. v U.S. 249 U.S. 96 (1919) and U.S. v Behrman 258 U.S. 280 (1922) drove the use of narcotics underground and consolidated their criminal status.\nIn the terms adopted by Schur (1965), drug dealing is now victimless because neither the buyer nor the seller is likely to report it. The consumption of some drugs can damage the health of users and, in some cases, cause",
"-29.469830035115592"
],
[
"opium addicts, many of them faced the consequences of being unable to clear their debts from the contracts, and being indebted and bounded even further. Likewise, the same could be said of their engagement in vices like prostitution and gambling, which again came under the purview of the secret societies. These activities often came together with opium consumption and had the similar consequences of causing further indebtedness, as well as in the case of prostitution saw greater health issues such as the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.\nIt thus formed a vicious cycle where the very people employed became consumers",
"-29.405860048238537"
],
[
"and sweating; improvements in alertness, attention, and endurance; increases in pleasure produced by rewarding events; but at higher doses agitation, anxiety, or even loss of contact with reality. Drugs in this group can have a high addiction potential, due to their activating effects on the dopamine-mediated reward system in the brain. However some can also be useful, at lower doses, for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. An important differentiating factor is the onset and duration of action. Cocaine can take effect in seconds if it is injected or inhaled in free base form; the effects",
"-29.39845424995292"
],
[
"over a period of time which can range from six months to several years in more severe cases.\nLonger term and heavier use substance abusers have caused damage to the nervous system, where, after cessation of the primary substance of abuse, the opioid receptors may become favorable to any potential agonist. This places longer term and heavier use substance abusers at risk to become addicted to any other agonist with very little use of the secondary agonist. Abstinence from all agonists, sometimes taking multiple years, is required for full recovery. \nFlumazenil was found to be more effective than placebo in reducing",
"-29.389040214242414"
],
[
"and pethidine/meperidine, former addicts showed a strong preference for heroin and morphine, suggesting that heroin and morphine are particularly susceptible to abuse and addiction. Morphine and heroin were also much more likely to produce euphoria and other positive subjective effects when compared to these other opioids. The choice of heroin and morphine over other opioids by former drug addicts may also be because heroin (also known as morphine diacetate, diamorphine, or diacetyl morphine) is an ester of morphine and a morphine prodrug, essentially meaning they are identical drugs in vivo. Heroin is converted to morphine before binding to the opioid",
"-29.387242993543623"
],
[
"carry packs of syrettes containing 16 milligrams each for use on severely wounded soldiers. No drug has been found that can match the painkilling effect of opioids without also duplicating much of their addictive potential. Modern production and use Opium was prohibited in many countries during the early 20th century, leading to the modern pattern of opium production as a precursor for illegal recreational drugs or tightly regulated legal prescription drugs. In 1980, 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses. Worldwide production in 2006 was 6610 metric tons—about one-fifth the level of production in 1906, since then,",
"-29.382788356451783"
],
[
"Evolutionary models of human drug use The use of psychoactive substances is one of the most perplexing human behaviors. Psychoactive drugs can relieve the symptoms of mental disorders (e.g. lithium) or cause harm to individuals and societies (e.g. heroin). Psychoactive drugs can induce pleasure, increase energy (e.g. chocolate, coffee), relieve pain (Aspirin), or can impose a large social burden in the form of chronic illness (e.g. tobacco) and be a cause of mortality.\nWhy do humans seek out and at times even develop addictions to drugs that harm them? A number of attempts have been made to understand drug use and",
"-29.36218797485344"
],
[
"a Class C, Schedule 3 controlled drug on 10 June 2014, but exempted it from the safe custody requirement. Misuse Illicit use of the drug is thought to be a major factor in the success of the Boko Haram terrorist organization. When used at higher doses, the drug \"can produce similar effects to heroin.\" Said one former member, “whenever we took tramadol, nothing mattered to us anymore except what we were sent to do because it made us very high and very bold, it was impossible to go on a mission without taking it.” Tramadol misuse is also found as",
"-29.355119106796337"
],
[
"can be involved. Dr. Waldman stated that the side effects of withdrawal of drugs are sweating, increase heart rate, nausea, cramp, insomnia, temperature deregulation and tremendous anxiety. It was heard that the addict's biggest fear is that you're not going to respect the amount of discomfort they'll go through during treatment and detoxing process. It was also heard that rapid detox is not a treatment. It uses high levels of sedation intravenously and it is a process that uses general anesthesia to help tolerate the discomfort. It was heard that Dr. Waldman's opinion is that there is evidence to suggest",
"-29.352266430156305"
],
[
"are becoming more common, especially in urban areas. Many drug users begin heroin use by smoking, but later find it more cost effective to inject because of the stronger effect gained from injecting a smaller amount. Sharing injection equipment is common.\nNational policymakers have recently shifted their position and publicly acknowledged the extent and pattern of increasing drug use, which has led to a rapid increase in treatment options for drug users. According to the regulations on the prohibition of narcotics, drug users identified by authorities for the first time are fined or sent to a voluntary detoxification center run by",
"-29.339096376439556"
],
[
"cent more likely to remain in addiction treatment and 40 per cent less likely to take street drugs and commit crimes to support their habit than those given methadone.\nSchechter was also involved as a lead investigator in the follow-up to NAOMI, the Study to Assess Longer-term Opioid Medication Effectiveness (SALOME) funded by Canadian Institutes of Health Research. The SALOME trial established that the licensed analgesic drug, hydromorphone, was as effective as heroin in the treatment of severe opioid dependence, opening another avenue for treatment with injectable medications. In 2013, then Federal Health Minister Rona Ambrose controversially cancelled an approval from",
"-29.317853551037842"
],
[
"through smoking and some multi drug users report intentionally buying marijuana laced with methamphetamine.\nIt is possible that drug users may accidentally purchase a product without knowing that it has been laced with a more potent drug, but psychiatrist Dr Bill MacEwan believes that drug dealers in British Columbia are intentionally lacing cannabis with methamphetamine to make it more addictive. He had some psychiatric patients that claimed they only smoked pot but their drug tests were positive for methamphetamine use. Cocaine The most common adulterants found in 1998 in samples in Rome, Italy were lidocaine and caffeine. Cocaine is sometimes mixed",
"-29.31568257242907"
],
[
"Two teenagers deaths in March 2010 triggered nationwide concern about the drug mephedrone in the UK. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) recommended a ban on 29 March, which was quickly passed into law, but the decision was criticised for being politically rather than scientifically driven and led to the resignation of the ACMD's Eric Carlin, the eighth member of the council to leave in five months in protest at what was seen as political interference. Toxicology reports released later in May 2010 revealed that the boys had never taken the drug.\nProfessor Colin Blakemore, professor of neuroscience",
"-29.28168537118472"
],
[
"cocaine, which makes the scenario of a drug dealer, a person driven by the desire of profit, very unlikely to have accidentally substituted heroin for cocaine once, and much less so multiple times for more than two months.",
"-29.27214874373749"
]
] |
3wb18z | For over a year I've been reading about California being in the midst of an insane, unprecedented drought, but it seems like all the cities there are doing just fine. Where's their water coming from if things are so bad? | [
"We're drinking up our groundwater, as well as shipping it in from other areas like the Colorado River. None of this is sustainable, and something major has to give eventually, but most of our smaller-scale government doesn't really want to talk or think about it much. Our state government will, but only because they have to, and even then in minimal amounts. There's a perception I think that rabble rousing about the drought is political suicide, even if that's the only thing that'll save us from running out of water. The sad thing is, that's not entirely unfounded - last time we rationed water, people got *angry*, and incumbents lost.",
"Cities in california only account for about 10% of the state's water usage. The rest is used for agriculture. Cities have cut back water usage. There are more restrictions on watering lawns, for example. Also, there is a greater emphasis on using recycled water. Golf courses in Los Angeles (for example) are able to stay green by using recycled water. Honestly, though, agriculture will need to cut its water usage because that's where most water is used. Even if you forced cities to use only desalinated ocean water, the state would still be using 90% as much water as was using before.",
"Something to think about that many don't, is that water in California isn't just used by people. Between the Sacramento, Salinas, Central and Imperial Valleys, California grows a large portion of specialty produce that is consumed by the entire world. Crops need water to grow! The water shortage in California isn't just a problem for Californians.",
"Agriculture and industry use the vast majority of water in California, so you're unlikely to see the effects of a drought in the cities. The biggest thing you'll probably notice in cities is the contrast between the underwater, dead grass and the bright green grass kept alive by reclaimed water.",
"Let's say you need 1 gallon of water a month to live, and you have a 20 gallon jug of water that you can't refill (ground water). You also have a 1 gallon cup that you can fill up by putting it outside and collecting rain, which would normally satisfy your thirst. What would happen to your 20 gallon jug when you only get enough water to fill up a portion of your rain collecting cup?",
"The drought is indeed huge, the biggest one they've seen in years, but to be honest not much will change. The immediate effects would be increasing water prices, but they will never get so outlandishly high as to really change California. To address your question: it varies URL_0 "
] | [
[
"the US Drought Monitor analysis showed that 100% of California was already under \"Severe Drought\" or a higher level. The 2014 drought is considered the worst in 1,200 years. As California received additional rainfall in December 2014, this was not expected to end California's drought, and trees were at risk due to weakened roots. Experts also noted that due to the soil's extreme dryness and low groundwater levels, it would take significantly more rain—at least five more similar storms—to end the drought. On December 18, it was revealed that almost all of the Exceptional Drought in Northern California had been",
"-32.972549167709076"
],
[
"December 11, the storm continued pounding California, triggering mudslides, floods, and power outages across the state. At least 24 homes in Camarillo Springs were damaged by a rockslide while over 90,000 customers remained without power. Effects on historic drought in California The storm provided only limited, short-term relief for California's worst drought in 1,200 years. Lake Shasta, the state's largest water reservoir, saw an increase in capacity from 25% to 29% on December 11. A similar increase in water level was reported in Lake Oroville. However, experts noted that due to the soil's extreme dryness and low groundwater levels, it",
"-32.37825423531467"
],
[
"2010–2013 Southern United States and Mexico drought Effects The drought caused severe lack of water in the southern plains and Rocky Mountains as well as numerous wildfires, in particular the 2011 Texas wildfires, the Wallow Fire and Horseshoe 2 Fire in Arizona, the Whitewater-Baldy Complex Fire and Little Bear Fire in New Mexico, and the 2012 Colorado wildfires in Colorado. Mexico also saw serious impact from the drought which decimated crops, killed over a million cattle, and stressed local water and food supplies. The drought has been described as the worst seen in the country in 70 years.\nBy the end",
"-32.08146900861175"
],
[
"mainly in the northern half of the state, while 40% of the state remained in the extreme or exceptional drought levels. 2017 Heavy rains in January 2017 had significant benefit to the state's northern water reserves, despite widespread power outages and erosional damage in the wake of the deluge. Among the casualties of the rain was 1,000 year-old Pioneer Cabin Tree in Calaveras Big Trees State Park, which toppled on January 8, 2017.\nSince then, a very large percentage of the drought has been eliminated in California due to a persistent weather pattern which allowed rounds of storm systems to consistently",
"-31.828956143348478"
],
[
"the overall likelihood of extreme California droughts.\"\nBy February 1, 2014, Felicia Marcus, the chairwoman of the State Water Resources Control Board, claimed the 2014 drought \"is the most serious drought we've faced in modern times.\" Marcus argues that California needs to \"conserve what little we have to use later in the year, or even in future years.\" A 16-year study of how precipitation affects groundwater-dependent vegetation was conducted and the results showed that the alkali meadow vegetation plant community is groundwater dependent and that this characteristic buffers the system from the effects of drought. This means that certain plants are",
"-31.797792255558306"
],
[
"Droughts in California Throughout history, California has experienced many droughts, such as 1841, 1864, 1924, 1928–1935, 1947–1950, 1959–1960, 1976–1977, 2006–2010, and 2011–2017. As the most populous state in the United States and a major agricultural producer, drought in California can have a severe economic as well as environmental impact. Drought may be due solely to, or found in combination with, weather conditions; economic or political actions; or population and farming. Causes Water in California is very closely managed, with an extensive pipeline network to serve the most populated and dry areas of the state. Precipitation is limited, with the vast",
"-31.655475135106826"
],
[
"five had above-average rainfall. However, as of May 2015, drought conditions had worsened and above average ocean temperatures had not resulted in large storms.\nThe drought led to Governor Jerry Brown's instituting mandatory 25 percent water restrictions in June 2015.\nMany millions of California trees died from the drought – approximately 102 million, including 62 million in 2016 alone. By the end of 2016, 30% of California had emerged from the drought, mainly in the northern half of the state, while 40% of the state remained in the extreme or exceptional drought levels. Heavy rains in January 2017 were expected to have",
"-31.080953576292814"
],
[
"1970, 36 years after the EBRPD was founded in 1934. California drought in the 2010s In the early- to mid-2010s, a severe drought struck the California region, including the East Bay; this caused 12 million trees in California to die. The East Bay Regional Park District wrote an article to help with the drought. Flooding in the 2016-2017 winter Shortly after the California drought in the 2010s, Del Valle Regional Park suffered widespread damage from the unusually heavy rains and La Niña that struck the East Bay in early 2017. Much of the damage was around Lake Del Valle, where",
"-30.394995844177174"
],
[
"discussed within the larger framework of the California water crisis in 2015. The use of water for agricultural purposes has been discussed and debated, as approximately 80% of all California water use can be attributed to agricultural needs, most notably in the Central Valley and the rural areas of Imperial County. However, there are indications that Californians are aware of this crisis, and Los Angeles Times reporter Jay Famligietti noted that \"A recent Field Poll showed that 94% of Californians surveyed believe that the drought is serious, and that one-third support mandatory rationing.\" Reflecting these concerns, California Governor Jerry Brown",
"-30.37554357323097"
],
[
"response to drought. 1950s The 1950s drought contributed to the creation of the State Water Project. 1976–77 1977 had been the driest year in state history to date. According to the Los Angeles Times, \"Drought in the 1970s spurred efforts at urban conservation and the state's Drought Emergency Water Bank came out of drought in the 1980s.\" 1986–1992 California endured one of its longest droughts ever, observed from late 1986 through late 1992. Drought worsened in 1988 as much of the United States also suffered from severe drought. In California, the six-year drought ended in late 1992 as",
"-30.342415497094407"
],
[
"seaboard and the Gulf of Mexico. The Appalachian region and the Midwest experience the worst floods, though virtually no area in the U.S. is immune to flooding. The Southwest has the worst droughts; one is thought to have lasted over 500 years and to have hurt Ancestral Pueblo peoples. The West is affected by large wildfires each year. Natural disasters The United States is affected by a variety of natural disasters yearly. Although drought is rare, it has occasionally caused major disruption, such as during the Dust Bowl (1931–1942). Farmland failed throughout the Plains, entire regions were virtually depopulated, and",
"-30.22417262745148"
],
[
"farmers were making the state's drought worse since they used 80 percent of the state's water, often on water-intensive crops such as almonds. Nunes is a third-generation dairy farmer. He said that 50% of California water is actually used for environmental causes while farmers only use 40%. Nunes added that the problem is worse because California lacks adequate water storage facilities due to environmentalist opposition, but that California is still prepared for five years of drought. Fiscal policy On January 27, 2010, Nunes co-sponsored H.R. 4529, Roadmap for America's Future Act of 2010, the Republican Party's budget proposal.\nOn December 2,",
"-30.18229417706607"
],
[
"prevention of drought that would've been likely by the next winter. Because this was a La Niña Modoki, it brought California the wettest December on record and the summer of 2011 was California's wettest. The Pacific Northwest saw 2011 being one of the coolest, wettest years on record, with temperatures still in the 50s and rain/snow mix even in May. The Midwest, Southeastern, and Northeastern United States also experienced an extremely wet 2011, leading to flooding across the Mississippi River, Missouri River, and the Ohio River. Texas fell into major drought with 2010–12 being some of the driest years ever",
"-29.98952916766575"
],
[
"of the Exceptional Drought in Northern California had been reduced to Extreme Drought severity, as a result of the winter storms that brought rain to California during December. After the majority of the moisture from the Pacific Northwest storm moved ashore on December 21 and 22, that storm system was absorbed by another storm on December 24, which promptly moved ashore, which caused some rainfall in California that night and early on Christmas Day. The system moved into the interior United States by Christmas Day on December 25, even as a ridge of high pressure built up off the coast",
"-29.883900444590836"
],
[
"the Ridiculously Resilient Ridge. This significantly limited the number of powerful winter storms that were able to reach California, resulting in historic drought conditions in that state for several years.",
"-29.85441609143163"
],
[
"Buffalo News reported on July 22 that it had become the worst drought in the Buffalo area since their main weather station opened in 1943.\nBy July the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) had placed the entire state in a \"drought watch\". While the drought is not nearly as severe as other droughts that take place in the west and midwestern United States in terms of duration and crop loss, droughts of this magnitude are rare in the temperate climate of Upstate New York. The drought began with a winter that in many areas in the northeast set",
"-29.84494248552437"
],
[
"2017 California floods Background The high-amplitude ridge off the West Coast that characterized the 2011–17 California drought, dubbed the \"Ridiculously Resilient Ridge\", was replaced by a persistent presence of anomalous troughs impacting California. Another feature in the 2013–2015 winters was the extreme temperature contrast between a warm western U.S. and a cold eastern continent. These anomalous temperature and circulation patterns were referred to as the North American winter “dipole”. Figure (a) shows the climatological geopotential height (Z) overlaid with its eddy component, in which the dipole centers are located (indicated by X and +). The dipole basically describes the wintertime",
"-29.768393637656118"
],
[
"2002 North American drought The 2002 North American Drought was an exceptional and damaging drought which impacted the Western United States, Midwestern United States and the Mountain States. Overview The Drought of 2002 began around spring and spread over numerous states, including Nebraska, Iowa, Colorado, Wyoming and Utah. Denver was forced to impose water restrictions for the first time in over 20 years. The Drought of 2002 had a negative impact in many states. Canada The Drought of 2002 also ravaged certain parts of Canada, particularly Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan.",
"-29.456467812102346"
],
[
"the worst droughts; one is thought to have lasted over 500 years and to have decimated the Anasazi people. Large stretches of desert shrub in the west can fuel the spreads of wildfires. Although severe drought is rare, it has occasionally caused some major problems, such as those during the Dust Bowl (1931–1942), which coincided with the Great Depression. Farmland failed throughout the Plains, entire regions were virtually depopulated, and dust storms ravaged the land. More recently, the western US experienced widespread drought from 1999 to 2004.\nIn terms of deaths from heatwaves, 7,415 losses occurred between 1999 and 2010, a",
"-29.380526112829102"
],
[
"actually able to help prevent droughts, but can only do so if groundwater is maintained at a certain level. One of the reasons that the study was conducted was to ascertain whether the Owens Valley region of California could handle any practiced or proposed groundwater extraction.\nIn February 2014, the Californian drought reached for the first time in the 54-year history of the State Water Project to shortages of water supplies. The California Department of Water Resources planned to reduce water allocations to farmland by 50%. California's 38 million residents experienced 13 consecutive months of drought. This is particularly an issue",
"-29.366785350313876"
],
[
"of the regions Central-West and Northeast. This is the worst drought in Brazil in the last 100 years, according to the O Estado de S. Paulo in September 2017. Potential causes The drought situation is not unexpected. São Paulo is experiencing its third consecutive year of diminished rain falls. A drought situation was already experienced in early 2014. Water management is poor, pipes leak, and the infrastructure is old. Past reports by scientists, environmentalists and technical experts were overridden by real estate developers and industrial and agricultural interests. Further, lack of protection of watersheds and reservoirs has polluted water sources",
"-29.260202446661424"
],
[
"a significant benefit to the state's northern water reserves, despite widespread power outages and erosional damage in the wake of the deluge. Among the casualties of the rain was 1,000 year-old Pioneer Cabin Tree in Calaveras Big Trees State Park, which toppled on January 8, 2017.\nThe winter of 2016–17 turned out to be the wettest on record in Northern California, surpassing the previous record set in 1982–83. Floodwaters caused severe damage to Oroville Dam in early February, prompting the temporary evacuation of nearly 200,000 people north of Sacramento. In response to the heavy precipitation, which flooded multiple rivers and filled",
"-29.150886524745147"
],
[
"pressure from built-up floodwaters, with the Sacramento Weir being opened for the first time in eleven years. Numerous areas in Northern California closed roads to flood and mudslide conditions, with U.S. Route 395 temporarily closed heading in both directions. Over 570,000 customers of the Pacific Gas and Electric Company lost power in Northern and Central California during the event. Over 3,000 people in the Guerneville area were evacuated.\nThe high-amplitude ridge off the West Coast that characterized the CA drought was replaced by a persistent presence of anomalous troughs impacting California. Another feature in the 2013–2015 winters was the extreme temperature",
"-29.11164614840527"
],
[
"hammer the state, with the snowpack rising to well above average. By January 24, 2017, not one portion of the state was in \"Exceptional\" drought, the highest category on the Drought Monitor. On February 21, no part of the state was in the next-lower category of \"Extreme\" drought, and over 60% of the state's area was no longer in any level of drought.\nA record year of precipitation in California certainly brought the state out of the bad situation and more or less back to equilibrium. Unexpectedly, this occurred during a La Niña winter because California typically benefits from the El",
"-29.10194963029062"
],
[
"2016 New York drought The 2016 New York Drought was by some measures the worst drought to affect Western New York and parts of the Finger Lakes Region and Southern Tier on record. By the middle of July, the percent of the state by area that was in a D-2 (Severe Drought) according to the United States Drought Monitor was 23.01%, the greatest amount since the weekly reports began in 2000. Nearly 90% of the state was classified as \"Abnormally Dry\" or \"Moderate Drought\". For reference, none of the state has ever been placed in D-3 (Extreme Drought). Furthermore, The",
"-29.008727809705306"
],
[
"reduced to Extreme Drought severity, as a result of the winter storms that brought rain to California during December.\nIn 2014, a study by the UC California Institute for Water Resources was released which found that rainfall has been abnormally high since the late 1800s. According to Professor Scott Stine from Cal State East Bay, California experienced its wettest period in seven thousand years during the 20th century, according to his study of tree stumps around Mono Lake, Tenaya Lake and other parts of the Sierra Nevada. Stine is quoted as saying in the National Geographic Magazine, \"What we have come",
"-28.86324631239404"
],
[
"a significant El Niño event in the Pacific Ocean (and the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991) most likely caused unusual persistent heavy rains. 2007–2009 2007–2009 saw three years of drought conditions, the 12th worst drought period in the state's history, and the first drought for which a statewide proclamation of emergency was issued. The drought of 2007–2009 also saw greatly reduced water diversions from the state water project. The summer of 2007 saw some of the worst wildfires in Southern California history. 2011–2017 The period between late 2011 and 2014 was the driest in California history since record-keeping",
"-28.818109440937405"
],
[
"the Hudson Valley were back into D-3 Extreme Drought category, as part of an ongoing drought in the tri-state (New York-New Jersey-Connecticut) New York metropolitan area that was also expected to last through winter. Winter Early winter in western New York saw several snowstorms as well as several inches of rain, though according to the drought monitor, much of the region where the drought was worst was still classified as abnormally dry or even moderate drought, though topsoil conditions were soggy. The Cheektowaga office of the National Weather Service reported an above average 6.17 inches of rain from December first",
"-28.7222626224102"
],
[
"likely continue indefinitely, for anywhere from several years to several decades to come. As of February 2017 the majority of the Valley experienced a reprieve from the drought. However, as of February 2018, much of the Valley appears to be headed back into drought along with much of the rest of the State.\nIn August 2015, the Director of the California Department of Water Resources stated, \"Because of increased pumping, groundwater levels are reaching record lows—up to 100 feet lower than previous records.\" \nResearch from NASA shows that parts of the San Joaquin Valley sank as much as 8 inches (0.20 m)",
"-28.657217258485616"
],
[
"to 5,000. An additional 16,000 job losses in the Central Valley were attributed to the drought California had been experiencing in recent years.",
"-28.578496562229702"
],
[
"of the world including South Africa, Spain and Portugal. United States The inconsistency of California's rainfall is due to the variability in strength and quantity of these storms, which can produce strenuous effects on California's water budget. The factors described above make California a perfect case study to show the importance of proper water management and prediction of these storms. The significance atmospheric rivers have for the control of coastal water budgets juxtaposed against their creation of detrimental floods can be constructed and studied by looking at California and the surrounding coastal region of the western United States. In this",
"-28.289488742040703"
],
[
"of water rights but was inadequate to supervise the distribution of water and left many unresolved issues. Challenges to water availability in California Though much of the state receives ample precipitation, there are several important spatial and temporal issues complicating the distribution of water. Due to the state's predominantly Mediterranean climate regime, precipitation is nearly entirely confined to the months between October and April, meaning that water sources can be intermittent from year to year. Furthermore the extremely fertile agricultural regions of the San Joaquin Valley and Southern California receive relatively little precipitation, while the coastal urban nexuses of Los",
"-28.276289058485418"
],
[
"Connecticut October 29, 2012. Sandy's winds drove storm surges into streets and cut power to 98% of homes and businesses, with more than $360 million in damage.\nOn December 14, 2012, Adam Lanza shot and killed 26 people at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, and then killed himself. The massacre spurred renewed efforts by activists for tighter laws on gun ownership nationally.\n\nIn the summer and fall of 2016, Connecticut experienced a drought in many parts of the state, causing some water-use bans. As of November 15, 2016, 45% of the state was listed at Severe Drought by the US Drought Monitor, including",
"-28.275044685578905"
],
[
"2006–08 Southeastern United States drought The 2006–08 Southeastern United States drought was a crippling drought that struck the southeast of the U.S. Several reasons, including an unusually strong Bermuda high pressure and La Niña in the eastern Pacific Ocean (which causes dry conditions across the southern U.S.) were responsible for the drought. 2007 was particularly dry across the region, with rivers and lakes dropping to record-low levels and in some areas, the worst drought in over 500 years. Formation The drought was set in motion by the weather phenomenon La Niña which developed during 2005. La Niña caused dry weather",
"-28.262025060947053"
],
[
"temperature that accompanied the recent drought may have been amplified due to human-induced global warming. This was confirmed by a 2015 scientific study which estimated that global warming \"accounted for 8–27% of the observed drought anomaly in 2012–2014... Although natural variability dominates, anthropogenic warming has substantially increased the overall likelihood of extreme California droughts.\"\nIn February 2014, the Californian drought effects caused the California Department of Water Resources to develop plans for a temporary reduction of water allocations to farmland by up to 50% at the time. During that period California's 38 million residents experienced 13 consecutive months of drought. This",
"-28.23105085735733"
],
[
"information. Drought in Texas In 2011, Texas farmers and ranchers are experiencing one of the worst droughts on record. As of August 2011, the state's economic losses to agriculture totaled $5.2 billion as a result of extreme drought conditions. The 2011 Southern US drought has spread across the entire lower-third of the United States, and in Texas, 213 of the 254 counties have been declared primary natural disaster areas. Scarce water supplies are destroying crops and livestock herds throughout the region.\nExtreme drought conditions also have spurred wildfires, which have burned almost 3.5 million acres (14,000 km²) of land in Texas since the",
"-28.21390792983584"
],
[
"the Gulf of Mexico flows freely, and west of which the drier air from the Mexican deserts prevails. The forest lands, of course, mostly lie to the east of this line though pockets of woodland can be found in the mountains to the west. Texas is periodically subjected to extreme droughts that can last several years, even as much as a decade. The most severe example in modern history was the 1950s drought that reshaped the state's economy. These drought periods are known to dramatically reduce the forests. The severe drought of 2011, for example, is estimated to have killed",
"-28.161755187844392"
],
[
"Tribe, Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate and Standing Rock Sioux Tribe.\n\"There's been winters this bad before, but not with rain so bad it freezes the power lines and snaps the poles\", said Joseph Brings Plenty, the 38-year-old chairman of the Cheyenne River Sioux tribe. The worst day was on the 28th, when a Native American froze to death in his home after running out of fuel.\nThe reservations were further buffeted by the February 5–6, 2010 North American blizzard, which further depleted foodstocks and exacerbated the power problems.\n25 Nepalese people, mostly children, died as a blizzard swept over most of Nepal on January 7.",
"-28.04707751033129"
],
[
"levels of rainfall significantly below average over a prolonged period. Hot dry winds, shortage of water, high temperatures and consequent evaporation of moisture from the ground can also contribute to conditions of drought. Droughts result in crop failure and shortages of water.\nWell-known historical droughts include the 1997–2009 Millennium Drought in Australia led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. As a result, many desalination plants were built for the first time (see list). In 2011, the State of Texas lived under a drought emergency declaration for the entire calendar year and severe economic losses. The drought caused",
"-28.008490061300108"
],
[
"2011–2017 California drought 2013 In 2013 the total rainfall was less than 34% of what was expected. Many regions of the state accumulated less rainfall in 2013 than any other year on record. As a result of this, many fish species were threatened. Streams and rivers were so low that fish couldn't get to their spawning grounds, and survival rates of any eggs that were laid were expected to be low. Lack of rainfall had caused the mouths of rivers to be blocked off by sand bars which further prevented fish from reaching their spawning grounds. Stafford Lehr, Chief of",
"-27.9048111482698"
],
[
"grown beyond their capacities to sustain themselves. Crowded cities were facing problems such as high crime rates, traffic jams, severely overcrowded schools, and overtaxed public services; the report noted that water shortages were ironic, given the 53 inches (130 cm) of rain the region received annually.\nIn 1999, an evaluation of the C&SF was submitted to Congress as part of the Water Development Act of 1992. The seven-year report, called the \"Restudy\", cited indicators of harm to the ecosystem: a 50 percent reduction in the original Everglades, diminished water storage, harmful timing of water releases from canals and pumping stations, an 85 to",
"-27.898845341704543"
],
[
"that evening's storm to bring from 4 to 12 inches of rain, severe mudslides, a few tornadoes, and heavy mountain snow ranging from 6 to 15 feet across the Sierra Nevada mountain range.\nCalifornia state water officials warned on January 21 that one week of heavy rain and snow was not enough to end the drought, which was entering its fourth year by 2010, though the precipitation from the storms had significantly reduced the severity of the drought. According to measurements on Thursday, January 21, the average water content of state's mountain ranges' snowpacks, considered the state's biggest de facto 'reservoir', was",
"-27.88750997898751"
],
[
"the northeastern Pacific on February 20, 2017. The report said that this AR brought a \"stunning\" end to the American West's 5-year drought with \"some parts of California received nearly twice as much rain in a single deluge as normally falls in the preceding 5 months (October–February)\". NASA Earth Observatory's Jesse Allen created the front cover visualization with the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) data on the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite.\nAccording to a May 14, 2019 article in San Jose, California's The Mercury News, atmospheric rivers, \"giant conveyor belts of water in the sky\", cause the moisture-rich",
"-27.885902662840635"
],
[
"is in the floodplain of the American River, would accommodate the natural meandering of the river. Since the construction of Folsom Dam, flow into the lower American River has been controlled. Because of this controlled release, the river no longer reaches its historic floodplains. Today the water in Bushy Lake is supplied by groundwater pumped from Cal Expo, in accordance with the Bushy Lake Preservation Act.\nCalifornia's Mediterranean climate, consisting of cool, wet winters and warm, dry summers is also connected to drought conditions, which cause many locations in California to be prone to fire. Bushy Lake is",
"-27.849870597041445"
],
[
"water restrictions. Some towns went completely dry and had to transport water in by truck or rail. The city of Dallas' reservoirs ran so low that water had to be pumped from the Red River, whose high salt content caused further trouble by damaging water pipes and plants. Corsicana experienced 82 days of temperatures over 100 °F or 37.8 °C, peaking at 113 °F or 45 °C. \nWest Texas was hit especially hard by the drought, particularly the city of San Angelo, where President Dwight D. Eisenhower visited in 1957 to assess the effects of the drought just before it ended.\nFreeport, Texas, one of",
"-27.830560093051645"
],
[
"capital city. A 2002 World Bank study suggested that the average water availability deficit was approximately 18% in the wet season, and rose to 45% during the dry season.\nLocal news stories from the past ten years are full of periodic coverage of forced rationing and shortages caused by seasonal drought, weather patterns (i.e.El Nino), and natural disasters (i.e.Hurricane Mitch). Supply problems are further complicated by other important factors, including: urban and agricultural contamination of watersheds; competition between agricultural uses (i.e. irrigation) and city uses (i.e. domestic, industrial, commercial water users); and Honduras’ dependence on hydroelectric power for more than two",
"-27.776802998059793"
],
[
"sees cycles of drought years and flood years, with large parts of west and south experiencing more deficits and large variations, resulting in immense hardship particularly the poorest farmers and rural populations. Dependence on erratic rains and lack of irrigation water supply regionally leads to crop failures and farmer suicides. Despite abundant rains during July–September, some regions in other seasons see shortages of drinking water. Some years, the problem temporarily becomes too much rainfall, and weeks of havoc from floods. Surface and ground water storage India currently stores only 6% of its annual rainfall or 253 billion cubic metres (8.9×10¹² cu ft), while",
"-27.75286291145312"
],
[
"California starting on September 10. Victorville and Hesperia, started on September 8 had knocked out electricity. Flooding and rock slides prompted numerous road closures. One person drowned in the San Bernardino National Forest. Moisture from the hurricane's remnants partially contributed to an enhanced monsoon across the Southwestern United States, combining with a seasonable upper-level trough to bring above-average rainfall to many areas. Strong winds from a thunderstorm on September 14 knocked five rail cars off their track, costing insurance companies $1.2 million. On September 15, Los Angeles received 2.39 in (61 mm) of rain, contributing to the city's second-wettest September day since records began in 1877",
"-27.69312722379982"
],
[
"June and July and the hottest August on record for Rochester, the drought was worse than rainfall data would suggest, making it possibly the worst drought on modern record when the two factors were considered together. Fall The drought continued through the middle of October, with about 5% of the state in the Finger Lakes still under D-3 Extreme Drought as of October 18. However, a several day pattern of rainy weather later that week dropped up to 6 inches (150 mm) of rain in some areas, and several inches over much of the affected central New York area. The record",
"-27.67033738832106"
],
[
"has suffered a severe drought for many years, and researchers claim this could be a major reason for the poor water quality observed in many parts of California today. The heat and low flows of water lead to stagnant, toxic bodies of water that are warm in temperature and low in oxygen. Along with an increase in salinity in the water, these complications pose a serious threat to the marine life. However, the issue of water pollution in California is not limited to rivers and the ocean. Some counties are notorious for having toxic chemicals found in their water supply.",
"-27.59982048634265"
],
[
"majority of rain and snowfall occurring in the winter months, in the northern part of the state. This delicate balance means that a dry rainy season can have lasting consequences. Lack of new infrastructure Very few large-scale water projects have been built since 1979, despite the population doubling since that year. Inefficient distribution systems Because much of California's water network relies on a system of pumps to move water from north to south, large volumes of water are often lost to the Pacific Ocean during winter storms when river flow exceeds the capacity of the pumps. This is further complicated",
"-27.59956174972467"
],
[
"severe ecological damage for the whole Murray-Darling basin if it did not receive sufficient water by October of that year. Water restrictions were in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages resulting from the 2008 drought. In 2004 paleontologist Tim Flannery predicted that unless it made drastic changes the city of Perth, Western Australia, could become the world's first ghost metropolis – an abandoned city with no more water to sustain its population. However, with increased rainfall in recent years, the water situation has improved.\nIn 2019 the drought and water resources minister of",
"-27.561510668030678"
],
[
"been replaced as Superintendent of Indian Affairs for California.\nFinally, the winter of 1861—1862 was very wet causing Great Flood of 1862. It did break the 5-year drought, so the Reservation's Indians planted larger fields of grain, and there was a productive harvest during 1862. Additional Indians were encouraged to settle at the Sebastian Reservation, beyond the thirteen hundred that already lived there.\nDuring the 1863 drought year, all the crops were lost except for 30 tons of hay. Settlers encroached on the Tejon Reservation's unsurveyed and unfenced land, with their cattle and sheep eating reservation crops. Demise Meanwhile, by 1863 former",
"-27.56106684340193"
],
[
"of Sacramento to east of Bakersfield, which typically peak between April and July. Snowmelt is also the primary water source for the Colorado River which supplies southern California.\nCalifornia precipitation and snowpack is measured by the state of California by \"water year\", which runs from October 1 to September 30. Desalination In response to water shortages in the state, some water districts are looking to desalination as a way to provide water for residents. Supporters view seawater desalination as a safer water source, since it draws its water from the ocean and thus, is not affected by periods of drought like",
"-27.551014389366173"
],
[
"restrictions in June 2015.\nIn response to heightening drought conditions, California has tightened fishing restrictions in many areas of the state. Streams and rivers on the northern coast have unprecedented amounts of fishing bans. In February 2015 the California Fish and Game Commission voted unanimously to further tighten regulations on both recreational and commercial fishing. The U.S. Endangered Species Act has listed steelhead as threatened and coho salmon as endangered. 2016 Many millions of California trees died from the drought—approximately 102 million, including 62 million in 2016 alone. By the end of 2016, 30% of California had emerged from the drought,",
"-27.50370718697377"
],
[
"its extensive population and agriculture is to store water in numerous reservoirs and use pipes, tunnels, pumps and canals to distribute it where it is needed when it is needed. Beginning before 1900, California has built extensive water projects costing many billions of dollars to store and move water where it is needed. California water comes primarily from snowfall in the Sierra Nevada in the northern part of the state during the relatively short winter from about October to March. The rest of the year typically has very little rainfall or snowfall. California weather is also prone to extended droughts",
"-27.502436606224364"
],
[
"Drought in Canada Prolonged, large-area droughts are among Canada’s costliest natural disasters having major impacts on a wide range of sectors including agriculture, forestry, industry, municipalities, recreation, human health, society and ecosystems. They frequently stress water availability by depleting soil moisture, reducing stream flows, lowering lake and reservoir levels, and diminishing groundwater supplies. This ultimately affects several economic activities including for example, decreased agricultural production, less hydro-electric power generation, and increased freshwater transportation costs. Droughts also create major environmental hazards such as reduced water quality, wetland loss, soil erosion and degradation, and ecological habitat destruction.\nAlthough most regions of Canada have",
"-27.48043838095964"
],
[
"record, though it did not account for widespread rainfall of one half to two inches that took place on Wednesday August 10. Nonetheless, the drought continued as many locations were at a nearly 10 inch deficit for the year. The August 16 drought monitor report showed that while the severe drought area declined slightly, six percent of the state was upgraded to D4 (Extreme Drought), a first for the state during the summer (about 3% of state around New York City saw D4 drought in spring 2002) The area was a long narrow strip from Lake Erie to the northern",
"-27.465273335667007"
],
[
"rainfall effectively quelled the severe drought at least at surface level; however, the vast majority of the state remained \"abnormally dry\" or \"moderate drought\", with the Finger Lakes region and Western New York, as well as downstate, still in a substantial drought. The drought at this point was expected to last through January. After the first week of November, about 80% of the state was considered to be in a moderate drought, and about 23% in a D-2 Severe Drought, mainly in the southeastern Finger Lakes and downstate and central Long Island areas. By the mid November report, parts of",
"-27.464347113738768"
],
[
"mistake can lead to huge wildfires due to the drier-than-normal climate. 1841 The drought was so bad that \"a dry Sonoma was declared entirely unsuitable for agriculture\". 1863–1864 This drought was preceded by the torrential floods of 1861–1862. 1924 This drought encouraged farmers to start using irrigation more regularly. Because of the fluctuation in California weather, the need for consistent water availability was crucial for farmers. 1929–1934 This drought occurred during the infamous Dust Bowl period that ripped across the plains of the United States in the 1920s and 1930s. The Central Valley Project was started in the 1930s in",
"-27.430480011811596"
],
[
"Tamil Nadu had recorded a 23% rainfall deficit in that season. A major heat wave in India from May to June 2019 further exacerbated the problem by evaporating any water still left in reservoirs. Government mismanagement Government mismanagement and unplanned construction has also been a factor to blame for this crisis. Impact Millions of people are without consistent access to water. A lack of rainwater and groundwater has left four of the reservoirs that supply the city completely dry. The inability to meet demand for water has forced businesses like hotels and restaurants to close. Water tankers from areas of",
"-27.427254194801208"
],
[
"agricultural and municipal water consumption has reduced the present rate of outflow to about 17 million acre feet (21 km³) for the Sacramento and 3 million acre feet (3.7 km³) for the San Joaquin; however, these figures still vary widely from year to year. Over 25 million people, living both in the valley and in other regions of the state, rely on the water carried by these rivers. In popular culture A documentary about the decline of the United States' infrastructure, The Crumbling of America, was commissioned by the U.S. A&E network in the late 2000s. The documentary is typically shown on the History",
"-27.360900603438495"
],
[
"Niño winters, which were occurring in the recent precious years. \nOn April 7, 2017, Governor Jerry Brown declared the drought over. However, according to the United States Drought Monitor the state was not entirely drought-free until March 12, 2019. Mitigation Beginning in 2008, millions of floating plastic shade balls were dropped on reservoirs to prevent evaporative losses and enhance water quality. An instance of this was performed on the Los Angeles reservoir in 2014. The shade balls were supposed to be the most cost-effective way to cover the body of water amongst all the available options. One",
"-27.339708894345677"
],
[
"California, respectively (the 1982–83 El Niño event, one of the strongest in history, brought record precipitation to the state), but climate data show scant evidence for such a relationship. The very wet 2010–2011 season occurred during a strong La Niña phase, while the 2014–16 El Niño event, which surpassed 1982–83 in intensity, did not bring an appreciable increase of precipitation to the state.\nThe 2012–15 North American drought was caused by conditions of the Arctic oscillation and North Atlantic oscillation which removed storms from the U.S. in the winter of 2011–2012. Climate change According to the NOAA Drought Task Force report",
"-27.328366048954194"
],
[
"Droughts and water shortages have occurred in multiple states across India and Pakistan, worsening heat wave conditions. In Chennai, millions of people are without consistent access to water. A lack of rainwater and groundwater has left four of the reservoirs that supply the city completely dry. The inability to meet demand for water has forced businesses like hotels and restaurants to close. Water tankers from areas of Tamil Nadu unaffected by drought have been bringing water into some areas of the city. However, government tankers can take up to a month to appear after requested, so some wealthy residents and",
"-27.31387246196391"
],
[
"into the sea with agricultural return flows, which originates largely from Imperial Valley farms.\"\nWith the post-World War II population growth in Southern California, there has been an increasing demand for water sources to supply both urban and existing agricultural areas. The Colorado River currently supplies approximately a quarter of the water for these areas. Along with increased water demand, a protracted drought throughout the state has complicated the debate about effective water control and usage policies.\nIn 2003, California suffered from an extended drought, and there was considerable discussion and debate about how much water each water district was entitled",
"-27.307838233635266"
],
[
"began. In May 2015, a state resident poll conducted by Field Poll found that two out of three respondents agreed that it should be mandated for water agencies to reduce water consumption by 25%.\nThe 2015 prediction of El Niño to bring rains to California raised hopes of ending the drought. In the spring of 2015, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration named the probability of the presence of El Niño conditions until the end of 2015 at 80%. Historically, sixteen winters between 1951 and 2015 had created El Niño. Six of those had below-average rainfall, five had average rainfall, and",
"-27.297672844390036"
],
[
"70% of the state was experiencing exceptional drought conditions, a level at which it persisted until August 18, 2011. Most of the drought conditions subsided by the end of summer, when rain returned to various parts of Texas.\nThe first major rain in the state after the Days of Prayer came 168 days later on October 9, 2011.",
"-27.28470573897357"
],
[
"2006, and left area lakes very low. The drought finally began to abate significantly after the 2009 Atlanta floods, when some areas got up to 20 inches (500 mm) of rain in a week, with half of that falling in just 24 hours near the end of the period. The USGS calculated it to be a greater-than-500-year flood. Environment The area's prolific rains are drained by many different streams and creeks. The main basin is that of the Chattahoochee River, running northeast to southwest. The further northwestern suburbs drain into the Etowah River via the Little River and Lake Allatoona. The",
"-27.252225028321845"
],
[
"lost power after muddy floodwaters entered a substation. Throughout Oaxaca, at least a dozen homes lost their roofs due to high winds. Portions of Colima, Chiapas, Michoacán and Jalisco experienced heavy rains; however, in many areas, the rain proved beneficial in mitigating a severe drought.",
"-27.2430296222592"
],
[
" of the Southeast in D4 or the worst category of drought, known as exceptional. 2007 would be the second-driest year as a whole over the region. North Carolina had its driest calendar year ever; several towns nearly ran out of water.\nRecovery\nThe Bermuda High retreated out into the Atlantic and heavy winter rains during 2007–08 helped alleviate drought, a wet 2008 improved drought across most of the region; however, parts of Western North Carolina remained in drought until 2009. Aftermath It is estimated that the drought caused an economic loss over the region at $1.3 billion and water shortages caused",
"-27.20559124930878"
],
[
"2014 during the drought, Parkwood was one of 28 small California communities that cycled onto and off of a list of \"critical water systems\" that the State Water Resources Control Board determined could run dry within 60 days.",
"-27.20282442792086"
],
[
"century, agricultural diversion of the Kern River eventually dried out these lakes. Today, only a fragment of Buena Vista Lake remains as two small lakes Lake Webb and Lake Evans in a portion of the former Buena Vista Lakebed Climate The San Joaquin Valley has hot, dry summers and has historically enjoyed cool rainy winters characterized by dense tule fog. Its rainy season normally runs from November through April, but since 2011 when a drought became evident it generally received minimal to no rain at all. The drought was still extant by mid-August 2014 with scientists saying it would",
"-27.195599626371404"
],
[
"better predict and forecast the future of water disturbances. In the context of recent droughts in California, Ajami sees them as an opportunity to refine policies and redefine water management practices. She believes that California has the potential to emerge as a work leader in water similar to the progress made within the energy sector. Some of her most recent research explored the ways in which social media impacts perception and memory of drought and how it influences individual water use practices. Needless to say, her research is groundbreaking in its implications and practical uses for the future development of",
"-27.1897359626455"
],
[
"result, certain environmental restrictions have been in place since the 1990s to limit pumping during the spring chinook run (March-April). This has led to frequent low water levels at San Luis Reservoir; in late summer 2016 it fell to 10 percent of capacity, the lowest since 1991.\nThese restrictions have been criticized by water agencies as too stringent, especially since California is in a long-term drought. During winter 2016 at least 180,000 acre feet (220,000,000 m³) of water was allowed to drain from the Delta into the Pacific instead of being pumped into San Luis Reservoir. In December 2016, Congress passed a bill",
"-27.181334627399337"
],
[
"of Southern California had some serious problems as well. The increased use and misuse of resources by miners, loggers and livestock owners had devastated the lands. Wildfires caused the worst damage due to the Mediterranean climate of long, hot and dry summers which turned fires into infernos, leaving behind burned and bare hillsides, resulting in erosion and flooding during the rainy season.\nAmong the different species of trees Lukens studied, the knobcone pine was the best choice he believed, for its fire-resistant properties. The cones, which are embedded in the tree, only open and release seeds after a wildfire. He learned",
"-27.13027885268093"
],
[
"private ownership, and water sales profit from this taxpayer-developed resource infrastructure while California suffers under drought is controversial.\nIn an effort to make their impact on the region more positive, the Resnicks have invested in the growth of the local economy and nutrition centers. As the New York Times notes, \"in Lost Hills there are new health centers, new pre-K facilities, new housing projects, new gardens, new sidewalks and lights, a new community center and a new soccer field.\" They have partnered with the Central Valley Project and the State Water Project to bring water to Kern County spending $35 million",
"-27.04744742011826"
],
[
"water impacts agriculture first, but it also has economic, social, and environmental ramifications. Drought is now an integral part of the Northeastern environment and various episodes throughout history have caused serious damage to its states, though they are often forgotten once they pass. Agriculture and pasture outputs go back to normal, giving people a brief sense of security before the next drought arrives. This recurrence of events and behavioral stagnation was named “hydroillogical cycle” by Professor Donald Wilhite of the University of Nebraska. \nAt the time of the Great Drought, agriculture in the Northeast consisted mostly of sugarcane,",
"-27.039025956248224"
],
[
"Because the water would only be a temporary supply, farmers were advised to use it for seasonal crops (such as alfalfa or hay) rather than permanent crops such as orchards. Nevertheless, many farmers used the water to develop new permanent crops, creating a dependency on SWP water that is technically part of Southern California's entitlement, This is now causing tensions as Southern California continues to increase its use of SWP water, decreasing the amount of surplus available to the system, especially in years of drought.\nIn dry years, water pumped from the Delta creates a hazard to spring-run salmon. As the",
"-26.97710153992375"
],
[
"quality than any other region in the San Joaquin Valley, while the Sacramento region and Stanislaus County have the worst. Water Pollution Less water is used for irrigation than in the early 20th century due to Federal restrictions on shallow water irrigation. This results in seasonal run-off in wetter winters concentrated with fertilizer and contaminants from the air. Such run-off poses a biohazard without water treatment in the agricultural ditches themselves. Lack of such irrigation is also an economic burden as it restricts food production capability in the valley. In areas of endorheic evaporation of seasonal watercourses and of the",
"-26.962535890015715"
],
[
"the United States include droughts in the West, water scarcity, pollution, a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows. Culture The United States is home to many cultures and a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values. Aside from the Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Native Alaskan populations, nearly all Americans or their",
"-26.922163936280413"
],
[
"2016 California wildfires Events In June, the United States Forest Service estimated that over 26 million trees had died across 760,000 acres (310,000 ha) in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. This brought the number of dead trees to over 66 million during the past four years of drought.\nOn August 15, the National Interagency Fire Center showed the state leading the nation in the quantity, size and intensity of wildfires. A day later, on August 16, San Bernardino County announced that nearly 85,000 people were evacuated because of the Blue Cut Fire near Cajon Pass. Authorities arrested a 40-year-old man in connection to",
"-26.911127340688836"
],
[
"quarter of normal with the drought being the worst in at least a half century. On August 3 the DEC, under direction of governor Andrew Cuomo, moved the entire Western portion of the state to drought warning, while the rest of the state remained under a drought watch.\nStatistically, it was the fifth driest spring-summer (March–July) period in Buffalo (9.07 inches) since record keeping began in 1871, with 1941 (9 inches), 1915 (8.92 inches), 1898 (8.34 inches), and 1934 (7.75 inches) eclipsing it. However, this does not account for the mild winter or the above average temperatures and low humidity of",
"-26.89807147081592"
],
[
"the Climate Program Office.\nAt the time that this legislation was being consider in committee, there were serious on-going water shortages in the United States. A drought that started in 2012 caused \"some of the Great Lakes to drop to record lows,\" hurt farms, and effected shipping on the Mississippi River. Provisions of the bill The National Integrated Drought Information System Reauthorization Act of 2013 would amend the National Integrated Drought Information System Act of 2006 to specify that the National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS) Program's purpose shall be to better inform and provide for more timely decisionmaking to reduce",
"-26.872112883778755"
],
[
"reside in Beverly Hills, California. Criticism Growing water-intensive nut tree crops in the Central Valley (a single almond requires 1.1 US gallons [4.2 l] of water) has drawn criticism during California's ongoing drought. According to Forbes Magazine Wonderful Company uses \"at least 120 billion gallons [450 million m³] a year, two-thirds on nuts, enough to supply San Francisco's 852,000 residents for a decade.\" In addition the Resnicks own a majority stake in the Kern Water Bank, \"one of California's largest underground water storage facilities. It is capable of storing 500 billion gallons [1.9 billion m³] of water. The acquisition, continuing",
"-26.85607575801305"
],
[
"on December 9, 1861, the second on December 23–28, the third on January 9–12, and the fourth on January 15–17. Native Americans knew that the Sacramento Valley could become an inland sea when the rains came. Their storytellers described water filling the valley from the Coast Range to the Sierra. Northern California Fort Ter-Waw, located in Klamath Glen, California, was destroyed by the flood in December 1861 and abandoned on June 10, 1862. Bridges were washed away in Trinity and Shasta counties. At Red Dog in Nevada County, William Begole reported that from December 23 to January 22 it rained a",
"-26.848454831713752"
],
[
"of Water and Sanitation gazetted water restrictions for urban and agricultural use. Significant droughts in other parts of South Africa ended in August 2016 when heavy rain and flooding occurred in the interior of the country, but the drought in the Western Cape remained. 2017 The City increased water restrictions to Level 3B on 1 February 2017 and by the end of the dry season in May 2017, the drought was declared the City's worst in a century, with storage in dams being less than 10 percent of their usable capacity. Level 4 water restrictions were imposed on 1 June",
"-26.84286730288295"
],
[
"1983 United States drought The 1983 United States drought, also known as the US Drought of 1983, was an extreme drought that was accompanied by heat waves across several portions of the United States. Overview The United States Drought of 1983 started in late spring. It involved numerous states in the Midwest and the Great Plains. In many states, from June to September, incredibly intense heat happened in which temperatures were over 100 °F (38 °C) or higher in multiple areas. Midwestern States Almost all the counties in the State of Indiana and many in Illinois were given a drought disaster declaration",
"-26.84024624300946"
],
[
"Drought Mitigation Center, the United States Department of Agriculture and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, as of late November 2012, about 4 percent of Texas remained in “extreme” or “exceptional” drought, the two most severe categories.\nThe drought caused billions of dollars in losses throughout the state economy. Farmers and ranchers were among those hardest hit. The Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service estimates that Texas agricultural producers lost nearly $7.6 billion due to the drought.\nDrought and unprecedented heat made 2011 the worst year for wildfires in Texas history. From Nov. 15, 2010 through Sept. 29, 2011, Texas saw 23,835 fires",
"-26.833489968063986"
],
[
"in summer and fall. Severe droughts have occurred in the Yellowstone Watershed lasting several years. Droughts have occurred in the basin in 1929-42, 1948–62 and 1976-82. The 1977 drought affected most the western United States and lead to decreased streamflows in the watershed. The reduced flow increased dissolved solids concentrations in the basin. Water quality varies across the various rivers in the basin. In mountainous areas, suspended sediment and dissolved solid concentrations are lower than in basin and plain areas. Human activities, including agriculture and mining, along with natural sources contribute to suspended sedimentation levels in plain areas.",
"-26.825863707868848"
],
[
"or semi-arid and a highly variable interannual rainfall Mexico is also prone to droughts, especially in the northern areas.\nThe most severe droughts in Mexico in recent decades coincide with the variations in Pacific sea-surface temperatures associated with El Niño. The economic and social and environmental impacts of droughts in Mexico are notable. In 1996, four years of below normal rainfall produced farms losses estimated at US$1 billion and interstate political between Sonora and Sinaloa. External cooperation The World Bank is currently contributing with US$28.5 million, to an Adaptation to Climate Change Project in the Gulf of Mexico (). This project",
"-26.82530850500916"
],
[
"slow-moving tropical storm remnants, or sometimes from unusually heavy and persistent winter rains during El Niño years. Other droughts have also ended in lesser floods, including in 1989. The flooding has also ended as of 2010. Environmental issues In 2007, the American Lung Association ranked Atlanta as having the 13th highest level of particle pollution in the United States. The combination of pollution and pollen levels, and uninsured citizens caused the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America to name Atlanta as the worst American city for asthma sufferers to live in. However in 2010, all counties in the Atlanta",
"-26.802631842590927"
],
[
"had losses between 30 and 90 percent. Even irrigated crops had losses up to a third. Longer frost-free growing seasons and warmer temperatures create the need for increased rainfall to balance water loss. For legal and disaster loan purposes, the drought officially began on July 12, 2016 and included the counties of Allegany, Broome, Cattaraugus, Cayuga, Chautauqua, Chenango, Cortland, Erie, Genesee, Livingston, Madison, Monroe, Niagara, Onondaga, Orleans, Oswego, Steuben, Tioga, Tompkins and Wyoming.",
"-26.77590718835563"
],
[
"2013 drought in Maharashtra The 2013 drought in Maharashtra in India came about after the region received lower rainfall during the monsoon season June to September 2012. It is considered as the region's worst drought in 40 years. The worst-hit areas in Maharashtra were Solapur, Parbhani, Ahmedabad, Latur, Pune, Satara, Beed and Nashik. Residents of Latur, Osmanabad, Nanded, Aurangabad, Jalna, Jalgaon and Dhule districts were also affected by this famine.",
"-26.753905904857675"
],
[
"California drought manipulation conspiracy theory The California drought manipulation conspiracy theory is promoted by a number of independent researchers, self-proclaimed scientists, and alternative news outlets. The theory proposes that the 2011–2017 drought was a deliberate, man-made phenomenon, created by weather modification. The theory has been dismissed by the scientific community and mainstream media as fringe science or pseudoscience. Key claims and components The 2011–2017 drought inspired alarm among many, leading to the emergence of alternative theories, or \"conspiracy theories\", purporting to explain its cause.\nMany of the proponents claim that chemtrails are used to affect storm clouds, in a manner of",
"-26.748977310373448"
],
[
"2019 California wildfires Early projections Fire behavioral experts and climatologists have warned that heavy rains from months early in the year have produced an excess of vegetation that would become an abundance of dry fuel later in the year as the fire season gets underway. According to the US Forest Service and Interior Department officials, early projections indicated that the fire season would possibly be worse than the year prior, stating that \"if we're lucky, this year will simply be a challenging one.\" This assessment was written on the basis of noting that the state has recently been seeing consistently",
"-26.742674294079734"
],
[
"quickly. To keep hydrated during the drier months, Mexico City imports water from other regions but mainly just pumps from underground, which causes land subsidence, which makes flooding worse.\nCurrently in Mexico, agriculture accounts for 77% of water use, industry 10% and domestic uses account for 13%. As a consequence of the 1980 economic crisis, the Mexican irrigation infrastructure became a victim of underinvestment and neglect. Of the 82 irrigation districts present, 42 are in a state of slow deterioration, exacerbating an inefficient usage of water. Furthermore, in a water-saving tax Tarifa 09, the biggest users of water by far -",
"-26.666106372664217"
],
[
"helped to stabilize and build on top of the once flooded city. Southern California In Southern California, beginning on December 24, 1861, it rained for 28 days in Los Angeles. In the San Gabriel Mountains the mining town of Eldoradoville was washed away by flood waters. The flooding drowned thousands of cattle and washed away fruit trees and vineyards that grew along the Los Angeles River. No mail was received at Los Angeles for five weeks. The Los Angeles Star reported that:\nThe road from Tejon, we hear, has been almost washed away. The San Fernando mountain cannot be crossed except",
"-26.649623498960864"
],
[
"as the remaining third receives more than 2000 mm of rain all year. Most of the areas with limited access to clean water obviously fall under the arid and semi-arid regions. Droughts Considering most of the Country experiences arid and/or semi-arid conditions, droughts are one of the most common natural disasters in Mexico. Droughts happen when the there are low levels of rainfall in a certain area. As a result, droughts significantly impact agricultural production systems that any people all over the world depend on. Droughts are also impacted by high temperatures that dries up pieces of land. Droughts very",
"-26.6495340737456"
],
[
"the present day, with Texas water authorities using the effects of the drought's severity to create water plans. Popular culture The 1950s Texas drought has been written about by a number of Texans who experienced it, including Elmer Kelton, renowned Western novelist and agricultural journalist, whose novel The Time It Never Rained is still regarded as the best account of the period.",
"-26.63311319585773"
]
] |
77nkwm | Why do you not feel like you're going fast while in an airplane, when in fact you're traveling 600+ MPH? | [
"There aren't any forces acting on your body that would make you feel that way, except for when you are accelerating to/from that speed. Every part of the airplane -- your seat, the floor, the air in the cabin -- is moving at the same speed as you are, so there is no way for your body to tell.",
"The Earth is hurtling through the air at many times that speed. We feel acceleration and deceleration, a change in speed, and you definitely feel the acceleration for the first 20 minutes of the flight or so as you take off and ascend. That's why you stay in your seat! Your seat is attached to the plane so it's *pushing* you up to the speed. They get to that speed gradually so it's not too uncomfortable. But once you're at cruising speed and altitude, everything in the plane is moving at the same speed as the plane, so it's like your not moving at all. Speed is relative.",
"The human body is not great at sensing speed in general, only acceleration. We have a bunch of senses that all work together to let us know when we're changing speed or direction, but we have to rely on context clues to get a sense of constant speed. The next time you're in a car (as a passenger) close your eyes while the driver is going a constant speed on a straight road. You'll notice that it won't feel different from sitting in a parked car. Your sense of speed in a car is largely dependent on seeing objects in the distance and seeing how you move relative to those objects. When you're in a plane, you don't get that kind of feedback. Even with a window seat, objects are so far away that we don't have a good concept of how fast we're traveling. When you're landing and taking off, you start to gain a sense of speed.",
"Also parallax; all the items moving relative to you are either so foreign (clouds) or so far away (ground), it's difficult to judge how fast you're moving relative to them.",
"You and the air inside the craft all accelerate with the aircraft. As long as the aircraft maintains a relatively steady speed, there are no forces acting on you that would indicate you are travelling fast. Then looking out the window at altitude, objects on the ground are so distant that you don't have a good reference to know how fast you are travelling. The best time to see how fast you are travelling as at takeoff and landing when you have a better reference as to your speed with objects on the ground.",
"Because you don't feel velocity. You could be going a million miles an hour and you wouldn't know it. What you feel is acceleration, a change in velocity. On an ordinary plane flight, this occurs at the beginning (during takeoff) and at the end (during landing). You also feel it when the plane changes direction, which also requires a chance in velocity.",
"Speed doesn't create a force - acceleration creates a force. That's also the reason why you don't feel the force of the earth rotating on its axis, or revolving around the sun at 30 km/second. What creates a force is a *change* in speed, which is what acceleration is. Picture yourself in a stopped car. You're going 0 miles an hour. Do you feel any forces? Not really, you're sitting still, things are good. Now imagine you slam on the gas pedal, going up to 60 mph. Now you feel a *force* because your speed is changing - your body is pressed backwards against the seat by that force. Now you hit 60 and you ease off the gas, maintaining a nice freeway speed. Do you feel any force while you're on the freeway? No, you feel just about the same as you did parked - if you opened a window you could feel the air moving, but inside of your car, everything is just the same as if you were going 0. Except now, slam on the brakes. You're decelerating and changing speed - a force pushes you forward, straining against the seatbelt. Once you hit 0, that force is gone. An airplane works the same way - you accelerate up to 600 mph slowly, so that the force isn't too overwhelming, but once you hit that speed and stop accelerating, it feels just the same as being still on the ground. Aside from any bumps or turbulence, which (just like in a car) change your acceleration by a little bit and affect you as forces.",
"In an airplane, you don't have much of a frame of reference. The cabin is usually sealed off, so you don't experience the sensation of plane moving through air. Planes try to keep a pretty steady path. Which means you experience few forces due to acceleration once away from the airport. Planes fly pretty high off the ground. If you look out the window, you might be able to make out a few houses or cars at the ground level, moving pretty slowly across your massive plane of view. Their movement means nothing to you, thousands of feet above the ground or any other stationary object."
] | [
[
"about 5% greater speed for only 1% less range.\nOf course, flying higher where the air is thinner will raise the speed at which minimum drag occurs, and so permits a faster voyage for the same amount of fuel. If the plane is flying at the maximum permissible speed, then there is an altitude at which the air density will be what is needed to keep it aloft while flying at the optimal angle of attack. The optimum altitude at maximum speed, and the optimum speed at maximum altitude, change during the flight as the plane consumes fuel and becomes lighter.",
"-30.385797267081216"
],
[
"\"The trouble about a slow aeroplane with a really low wing loading is the way it insists on wallowing about in turbulent air ... One of the reasons why seven times as many people fly to Paris to-day, compared with 1931, is that the incidence of airsickness in modern aircraft is only one-hundredth of that in the pre-War types.\" Another writer remembered \"I had quite often been landed in a '42' at Lympne to take on sufficient fuel to complete the flight (from Paris) to London against a headwind – 90 mph was its normal cruising speed.\" However, 90 mph was",
"-30.277723275357857"
],
[
"decreases with altitude (until the tropopause), the speed of sound also decreases with altitude. (See the International Standard Atmosphere for more on temperature as a function of altitude.)\nA given airspeed, divided by the speed of sound in that air, gives a ratio known as the Mach number. A Mach number of 1.0 indicates an airspeed equal to the speed of sound in that air. Because the speed of sound increases with air temperature, and air temperature generally decreases with altitude, the true airspeed for a given Mach number generally decreases with altitude.\nAs an airplane moves through the air faster, the",
"-30.075250599649735"
],
[
"The normal landing speed was 170 miles per hour (274 km/h). Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the \"back side\" of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload.\nThe only thing that tells you that you're moving is that occasionally when you're flying over the subsonic aeroplanes you can see all these 747s 20,000 feet below you almost appearing to go backwards, I mean you are going 800 miles",
"-29.96193039148784"
],
[
"we bounced and it woke me up. Then the next flight I had the same pilot and the plane went down so smooth. So I asked the pilot why, and he said when you land a plane smooth, you get the plane elevated to the lowest position you can and then you smooth it in. Same with sliding ... If you dive when you're running straight up then you have a long distance to get to the ground. But the closer you get to the ground the less time it will take ... I was hitting the dirt so smooth,",
"-29.951376474346034"
],
[
"to speed up and slow down as it travels around the aircraft's structure. When the aircraft's airspeed reaches the critical Mach number, the speed of the airflow in some areas near the airframe reaches the speed of sound, even though the aircraft itself has an airspeed lower than Mach 1.0. This creates a weak shock wave. As the aircraft exceeds the critical Mach number, its drag coefficient increases suddenly, causing dramatically increased drag, and, in an aircraft not designed for transonic or supersonic speeds, changes to the airflow over the flight control surfaces lead to deterioration in",
"-29.932749731699005"
],
[
"9/11, many people refused to fly because they felt a heightened sense of fear or peril, even though, statistically, most of them \"were not at significantly more risk after the attacks than they were before.\" Indeed, those who chose to drive long distances instead of flying thereby put themselves at an increased risk, given that driving is the less safe form of transportation. Legal ramifications In a 2001 paper, Sunstein addressed the question of how the law should respond to the neglect of probability. He emphasized that it is important for government to \"create institutions designed to ensure that genuine",
"-29.924978922121227"
],
[
"and Track: The light and tactile steering, combined with supple suspension and a weird, physics-defying sense of zero weight transfer in corners, provides a sensation akin to flying just over the ground. I'm convinced there's a powerful pleasure center in the brain that remains untapped until you drive an Elan. It's almost a drug.\nMotor Sport: The tremendously responsive steering and handling requires similar qualities from the driver and the speeds achieved round corners and on the straight are deceptively fast. This, therefore, calls for a lot of concentration on the driver's part. Once mastered, however, the Elan is the nearest",
"-29.84103183562911"
],
[
"speeds close to the stall speed the aircraft's wings are at a high angle of attack.\nAt higher altitudes, the air density is lower than at sea level. Because of the progressive reduction in air density, as the aircraft's altitude increases its true airspeed is progressively greater than its indicated airspeed. For example, the indicated airspeed at which an aircraft stalls can be considered constant, but the true airspeed at which it stalls increases with altitude.\nAir conducts sound at a certain speed, the \"speed of sound\". This becomes slower as the air becomes cooler. Because the temperature of the atmosphere generally",
"-29.735378601122648"
],
[
"got into the passenger’s seat. I honestly didn’t feel the least wee bit nervous. On the contrary, the feeling I was most conscious of was one of pleasurable excitement. And, do you know, the first feeling, once away, was how simple and safe it was. I’d somehow pictured aviators as having to be tied in, or having to hold on tight. On the Britannia I never even thought about being frightened, or of being anything else but comfortable and pleased. The machine left the ground so easily, and we mounted into the air so naturally,",
"-29.643735112113063"
],
[
"reach zero airspeed before falling earthwards; the wing is generating no lift and so does not stall. In straight, climbing flight at constant airspeed, thrust exceeds drag.\nIn straight descending flight, lift is less than weight. In addition, if the aircraft is not accelerating, thrust is less than drag. In turning flight, lift exceeds weight and produces a load factor greater than one, determined by the aircraft's angle of bank. Aircraft control and movement There are three primary ways for an aircraft to change its orientation relative to the passing air. Pitch (movement of the nose up or down, rotation around",
"-29.462299518636428"
],
[
"also warned not to fly too low, because seawater would ruin the lift in his wings. Flying too low is even more dangerous than flying too high, because it feels deceptively safe.\"",
"-29.449473835004028"
],
[
"\nwhich in turn changes with altitude.\nTherefore, indicated airspeed is not entirely adequate to\nwarn the pilot of the impending problems. Mach number is\nmore useful, and most high-speed aircraft are limited to a maximum operating Mach number, also known as MMO.\nFor example, if the MMO is Mach 0.83, then at 30,000 feet (9,144 m) where the speed of sound under standard conditions is 590 knots (1,093 km/h; 679 mph), the true airspeed at MMO is 489 knots (906 km/h; 563 mph). The speed of sound increases with air temperature, so at Mach 0.83 at 10,000 feet (3,048 m) where the air is much warmer than at 30,000 feet (9,144 m), the",
"-29.41001586004859"
],
[
"is travelling along with the air inside the aircraft. This effect is basic to all Newtonian dynamics, which says that everything from sound to the trajectory of a thrown baseball should all remain the same in the aircraft flying (at least at a constant speed) as if still sitting on the ground. This is the basis of the Galilean transformation, and the concept of frame of reference.\nBut the same was not supposed to be true for light, since Maxwell's mathematics demanded a single universal speed for the propagation of light, based, not on local conditions, but on two measured properties,",
"-29.387866320903413"
],
[
"the liminal qualities. Flying Airplane travel is inherently liminoid-suspended in the sky, neither here nor there and crossing thresholds of time and space, it is difficult to make sense of the experience of flying. Flights shift our existence into a limbo space in which movement becomes an accepted set of cultural performances aimed at convincing us that air travel is a reflection of reality rather than a separation from it.",
"-29.3275245577679"
],
[
"caused by banking and pitching maneuvers. Similarly, the specific altitudes at which the stall speed meets the critical Mach number will differ depending on the actual atmospheric temperature. Consequences When an aircraft slows to below its stall speed, it is unable to generate enough lift in order to cancel out the forces that act on the aircraft (such as weight and centripetal force). This will cause the aircraft to drop in altitude. The drop in altitude may cause the pilot to increase the angle of attack by pulling up on the stick, because normally increasing the angle of attack puts",
"-29.205296669213567"
],
[
"\nThe lack of objective airspeed reading available to the crew on approach due to mechanical errors upon depressurization of the cabin when reaching a low altitude.\nFlying at too slow a speed at a dangerous rate of climb, 25-35 km/h below the recommended parameters, which, with insufficient forward speed, led to the impossibility of performing a normal leveling and a rough blow to the runway surface, exceeding the design load and destroying the aircraft.\nThe erroneous actions by the crew were flying at too slow a speed while landing in difficult conditions with not enough time or altitude to solve the issue.",
"-29.205235393717885"
],
[
"while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity, the laws of physics do not change as a result of its motion. If a person riding within the vehicle throws a ball straight up, that person will observe it rise vertically and fall vertically and not have to apply a force in the direction the vehicle is moving. Another person, observing the moving vehicle pass by, would observe the ball follow a curving parabolic path in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle. It is the inertia of the ball associated with its constant velocity in the",
"-29.142169332008052"
],
[
"the illusion and does not level the wings, the airplane will continue turning left and losing altitude. Because an aircraft tends to lose altitude in turns unless the pilot compensates for the loss in lift, the pilot may notice a loss of altitude. The absence of any sensation of turning creates the illusion of being in a level descent. The pilot may pull back on the controls in an attempt to climb or stop the descent. This action tightens the spiral and increases the loss of altitude.\nThe solution, of course, is for the pilot to consciously override the brain's imperative",
"-28.997967817034805"
],
[
"maintain a constant altitude (similar to mountain waves), because pushing the stick can cause his airspeed to increase to the point of hitting the yellow arc (on the airspeed indicator). An airspeed this high is not permissible in turbulent conditions and may lead to break-up of the aircraft. Indeed, when the pilot exits the updraught zone, he will encounter very strong turbulence due to the shear between rising and sinking air. If the airspeed is too high at this point, the airplane will break apart. The crash of Flight AF 447 is indirectly related to this situation: the pilot, being",
"-28.969797526486218"
],
[
"Speed to fly Speed to fly is a principle used by soaring pilots when flying between sources of lift, usually thermals, ridge lift and wave. The aim is to maximize the average cross-country speed by optimizing the airspeed in both rising and sinking air. The optimal airspeed is independent of the wind speed, because the fastest average speed achievable through the airmass corresponds to the fastest achievable average groundspeed. The idea is usually attributed to Paul MacCready, although an early version of the theory was first described by Wolfgang Späte in 1938.\nHowever Späte may not have considered",
"-28.926702546101296"
],
[
"maintained at the knees, hips, and shoulders. To move around, the flyer redirects the airflow in the opposite direction the jumper wants to go. Newtonian mechanics then push the flyer in the desired direction. Fall rate changes (descending faster or slower) can also be made. Head down A person falling in the head down position has less cross-sectional area exposed to the air while falling, which results in much faster fall rates. Average speeds while flying head down are around 260 km/h (160 mph). Due to the increased speed, every movement made can cause the skydiver to become unstable or disoriented;",
"-28.82087554500322"
],
[
"safe feeling in the flight (fly in peace). Even in turbulent conditions, the wing retains largely stoic and does not detract from the good feeling of flight. The glide of the Eden 6 is at the top of the current B segment. The manufacturer claims a glide ratio of 10+. This seems to be no dreamy optimism, but is according to our experience, corresponding to the reality.\"",
"-28.78358891251264"
],
[
"light aircraft to descend more quickly without increasing forward speed, but it is practically never executed in large jet airliners outside of rare circumstances like those of this flight.\nComplicating matters yet further was the fact that with both of its engines out, the plane made virtually no noise during its approach. People on the ground thus had no advanced warning of the impromptu landing and little time to flee. As the gliding plane closed in on the decommissioned runway, the pilots noticed that there were two boys riding bicycles within 1,000 feet (300 m) of the projected point of impact. Captain",
"-28.68889592094638"
],
[
"through the air, the air flowing over the top surface accelerates to a higher local speed than the air flowing over the bottom surface. When the aircraft speed reaches its critical Mach number the accelerated airflow locally reaches the speed of sound and creates a small shock wave, even though the aircraft is still travelling below the speed of sound. The region in front of the shock wave generates high lift. As the aircraft itself flies faster, the shock wave over the wing gets stronger and moves rearwards, creating high lift further back along the wing. This rearward movement of",
"-28.551842336797563"
],
[
"A chart of velocity versus load factor (or V-n diagram) is another way of showing limits of aircraft performance. It shows how much load factor can be safely achieved at different airspeeds.\nAt higher temperatures, air is less dense and planes must fly faster to generate the same amount of lift. High heat may reduce the amount of cargo a plane can carry, increase the length of runway a plane needs to take off,\nand make it more difficult to avoid obstacles such as mountains. In unusual weather conditions this may make it unsafe or uneconomical to fly, occasionally resulting in the",
"-28.533698418410495"
],
[
"supersonic flight.\nIn subsonic flight, the plane pushes the air ahead of it out of the way as it moves. When a plane is traveling faster than the speed of sound (i.e. faster than air molecules normally travel) the air ahead of it is not pushed out of the way: the air remains still until the plane has approached to within half an inch, at which point the air is forced aside in a few millionths of a second. This creates extreme local compression and heating, and a shockwave spreads outwards in a cone. This pressure wave extends as much as",
"-28.5334727360314"
],
[
"and that as a result, along with adverse winds and the drag of the damaged engine, the plane will eventually run out of fuel and be forced to ditch.\nUnassuming fisherman José Locota disarms Agnew and confiscates the gun, compelling him to sit quietly. Broadway producer Gustave Pardee, who up until now has made no secret of his fear of flying, inspires calm in his terrified fellow passengers. Dan calmly explains the situation, trying to lessen their anxiety, but warns that their chances of making the coast are \"one in a thousand.\" The passengers rally around each other and find changed",
"-28.48338103023707"
],
[
"aircraft is in flight, it is moving relative to the body of air through which it is flying; therefore maintaining an accurate ground track is not as easy as it might appear, unless there is no wind at all—a very rare occurrence. The pilot must adjust heading to compensate for the wind, in order to follow the ground track. Initially the pilot will calculate headings to fly for each leg of the trip prior to departure, using the forecast wind directions and speeds supplied by the meteorological authorities for the purpose. These figures are generally accurate and updated several times",
"-28.392563692119438"
],
[
"mistakenly believes they are flying with the wings level, but with a descent indicated on the altimeter and vertical speed indicator. This usually leads to the pilot \"pulling up\" or attempting to climb by pulling back on the control yoke. In a banking turn, however, the airplane is at an angle and will be scribing a large circle in the sky. Pulling back on the control yoke has the effect of tightening that circle and causing the airplane to lose altitude at an increasing rate, like water swirling in a drain or funnel. An increasing component of the lift being",
"-28.331912115594605"
],
[
"Pilots must know their aircraft's corner speed, as well as optimum angles of bank (AOB) and angles of attack (AOA), without consciously thinking about them. At the same time, pilots must remain conscious of the angle between the opponent's velocity vector and their own, called the track crossing angle (TCA), which is important when aligning or avoiding a firing solution. Most importantly, the pilot must remain aware of the angle off tail (AOT), which is the angle between flight paths. A high AOT causes a high rate of closure, but makes achieving a suitable guns solution nearly impossible. Acquiring a",
"-28.250309955212288"
],
[
"is experienced on board, and it determines the necessary speeds for take-off and landing. Aircraft carriers generally steam directly upwind at maximum speed, in order to increase apparent wind and reduce the necessary take-off velocity. Land-based airport traffic, as well as most mid-sized and large birds generally take off and land facing upwind for the same reason.",
"-28.200498226098716"
],
[
"are all a little bit more contemplative about what it means to get into an airplane. So I think that has a resonance to me that is a little more understated and meditative than some of the other pieces.",
"-28.181841113371775"
],
[
"as the PAL-V are currently being explored. Safety Although statistically, commercial flying is much safer than driving, unlike commercial planes personal flying cars might not have as many safety checks and their pilots would not be as well trained. Humans already have problems with the aspect of driving in two dimensions (forward and backwards, side to side), adding in the up and down aspect would make \"driving\" or flying as it would be, much more difficult; however, this problem might be solved via the sole use of self-flying and self-driving cars. In mid-air collisions and mechanical failures, the aircraft could",
"-28.16642936365679"
],
[
"the car in the corners. The increased traction makes the car faster and easier to control.\nThe wing also affects safety. The added downforce lessens the likelihood of going airborne. When cars do go airborne, the wings frequently break off or crumple upon hitting the ground, lessening the impact on the driver. Due to the reasons mentioned above, winged cars are safer to drive and the wings are sometimes referred to as \"aluminum courage.\" In some cases, the wing protects the car as well. If a winged car rolls over, the massive roof mounted wing hits first, lessening the chance for",
"-28.164736994513078"
],
[
"many jet aircraft to help slow down just after touch-down, redirecting engine exhaust forward instead of back. Some propeller-driven airplanes also have this feature, where the blades of the propeller are re-angled to push air forward instead of back using the 'beta range'. Environmental factors Factors such as crosswind where the pilot will use a crab landing or a slip landing will cause pilots to land slightly faster and sometimes with different aircraft attitude to ensure a safe landing.\nOther factors affecting a particular landing might include: the plane size, wind, weight, runway length, obstacles, ground effects, weather, runway altitude, air",
"-28.121817049919628"
],
[
"in winds ranging between 23 mph and 40 mph.\nWhen he flew downwind he later estimated that his airspeed reached 100 mph during the flight. When he flew directly into the wind, however, one of the stronger gusts he encountered drove him backwards. This was reported as the first time people ever saw an aeroplane fly in reverse. According to one local historian, the incident came about to fulfill his promise to fly given to the Tsar’s cousin and his wife with whom he had dined the previous night. Newspaper reporters dubbed him ‘King of the Air’, in a similar way that the",
"-28.10464313358534"
],
[
"feel it fit into a notch, then pull it sharply, releasing your hold of the handle the minute you feel you have pulled it over the resisting point....on no account press down on the handle – always pull it upwards smartly. If it is pressed down the possibility of backfire is greater – and a broken arm may result.\nChanging Speed – In changing speed always remember to throttle slightly... Never change from first to top speed without using the intermediate speed. The first speed on these little cars is 0–9 miles an hour, the second is 9–18 and the top",
"-28.098372115782695"
],
[
"of visibility caused pilots to often drift away from the lead plane to avoid a crash. This caused many pilots to have their bearings off and flying just a few degrees off course, which added up when this was done for several miles.",
"-28.036535299543175"
],
[
"accelerated\nair can, and does, reach supersonic speeds, even though the\nairplane itself may be flying at a subsonic airspeed (Mach number < 1.0). At some\nextreme angles of attack, in some airplanes, the\nspeed of the air over the top surface of the wing may\nbe double the airplane’s airspeed. It is, therefore, entirely\npossible to have both supersonic and subsonic airflows\non an airplane at the same time. When flow\nvelocities reach sonic speeds at some locations on an\nairplane (such as the area of maximum camber on\nthe wing), further acceleration will result in the\nonset of compressibility effects such as shock wave\nformation, drag increase, buffeting, stability, and\ncontrol",
"-28.01700434409213"
],
[
"roll and a dive so fast the airplane couldn't measure its airspeed.\nHad the crew not been able to exceed the plane's flight envelope, the crew might not have been successful. American Airlines Flight 587 American Airlines Flight 587, an Airbus A300, crashed in November 2001, when the vertical stabilizer broke off due to large rudder inputs by the pilot.\nA flight-envelope protection system could have prevented this crash, though it can still be argued that an override button should be provided for contingencies when the pilots are aware of the need to exceed normal limits. US Airways Flight 1549 US Airways",
"-28.006728306581863"
],
[
"(his true airspeed was in the range of 0.96-0.99 Mach, just below the speed of sound). At that speed, the little research plane stopped responding to all elevator control inputs, leaving the pilot unable to change his pitch angle, or to raise or lower the plane's nose in flight. When speed decreased slightly, the problem abruptly disappeared. Analysis suggested that a shockwave was forming along the elevator's hinge line, leaving it ineffective. Ridley determined in that speed range, the elevator itself could safely be dispensed with and the X-1's entire horizontal stabilizer, which could be adjusted for trim changes, be",
"-27.997907919409045"
],
[
"occurs during a low-speed final approach, the pilot could stall the aircraft. Visual Visual illusions are familiar to most of us. Even under conditions of good visibility, one can experience visual illusions. Linear perspective This illusion may make a pilot change (increase or decrease) the slope of their final approach. They are caused by runways with different widths, upsloping or downsloping runways, and upsloping or downsloping final approach terrain. Pilots learn to recognize a normal final approach by developing and recalling a mental image of the expected relationship between the length and the width of an average runway. An example",
"-27.95423597874469"
],
[
"hold the plane aloft, called the \"stall speed.\" As the speed drops, the pilot holds the plane as level as possible in both the longitudinal direction (lengthwise) and the lateral direction (wing-wise). When the stall speed is reached, the plane will lose lift and begin to fall. Due to the low speed and high angle of attack (the angle of the wings to the relative wind), the aircraft loses its boundary layer, making the control surfaces barely responsive to pilot inputs. Therefore, the controls are usually pushed to their maximum limit to get the plane to respond.\nAs the aircraft stalls,",
"-27.926536626240704"
],
[
"will feel forces on their body, and get pushed toward the outside of the cars. This happens when the ride starts lowering to the ground in a non-wavelike manner. When the ride moves in this way, it acts like a Himalaya / Musik Express ride.\nBoth the Trabant and Wipeout move forwards and backwards. Because the forces experienced on the ride can cause a rider to move sideways and potentially slip under the lap bar if riding alone, riders must be seated in pairs (sharing a lap bar). Most parks and carnivals require that riders be a minimum of",
"-27.88048372650519"
],
[
"left turn continues (~20 seconds or more), the pilot will experience the sensation that the airplane is no longer turning to the left. At this point, if the pilot attempts to level the wings this action will produce a sensation that the airplane is turning and banking in the opposite direction (to the right), a sensation commonly known as \"the leans\". If the pilot believes the illusion of a right turn (which can be very compelling), he/she will re-enter the original left turn in an attempt to counteract the sensation of a right turn. If the pilot fails to recognize",
"-27.860663718311116"
],
[
"to the bottom like he could, and that was really beneficial for him through traffic, and I kind of had to just part throttle it through the center and grind the tires away through the center to the corner and just hope that they were going to lift, but he was able to get those huge runs up off the exit of the corner and just stayed one step ahead of me through traffic I felt like, and in clean air we probably were a little faster, but it didn't really matter. I had to be in front of",
"-27.844358855392784"
],
[
"amounts of lift. At a high enough speed, the lift force will exceed the weight of the aircraft, and the aircraft will become capable of sustained flight. Since the aircraft must reach flight speed using only its own engines for power, a long runway is required so that the aircraft can build up speed. On an aircraft carrier, the flight deck is so short that most aircraft cannot reach flight speed before reaching the end of the deck. Since lift is less than gravity, the aircraft will lose altitude after the wheels leave the flight deck and possibly fall into",
"-27.83651418311638"
],
[
"in particular during takeoff and landing, this can lead to an upset from which recovery is not possible. (\"Light\" and \"heavy\" are relative terms, and even smaller jets have been rolled by this effect.) Air traffic controllers attempt to ensure an adequate separation between departing and arriving aircraft by issuing wake turbulence warnings to pilots.\nIn general, to avoid vortices an aircraft is safer if its takeoff is before the rotation point of the airplane that took off before it. However care must be taken to stay upwind (or otherwise away) from any vortices that were generated by the previous",
"-27.83589584065703"
],
[
"was never a very outstanding pilot. I always seemed unable to shake off a vague apprehension and, that morning, in addition to my usual uneasiness, I was rather excited. I climbed into the cockpit, accelerated the motor, and felt the power from the jet thrust straining the plane forward. I gave the signal to remove the wheel blocks, and the plane started moving slowly ahead. I had anticipated that I would not attempt to fly today, but would make only ground tests on the small field at Issy-les-Moulineaux. The controls seemed too loose to me, so I injected fuel into",
"-27.824766018195078"
],
[
"A second flight, during which Uwins pushed the speed up to 100 mph, revealed that the problem became worse as speed increased. Uwins was unable to observe the wing's behaviour (He had a damaged neck thanks to an aircraft accident). It was decided that the aircraft was safe enough to carry an observer if the speed was kept down, and Russell, who had recently been working on measuring the deflection of the aircraft's wing spars under load, was given the job. The rear gun position gave an excellent view of the wing. Uwins and Russell agreed on a simple system of",
"-27.814300278725568"
],
[
"of sound is approached. There are two effects in particular, wave drag and critical mach.\nWave drag is a sudden rise in drag on the aircraft, caused by air building up in front of it. At lower speeds, this air has time to \"get out of the way\", guided by the air in front of it that is in contact with the aircraft. But at the speed of sound, this can no longer happen, and the air which was previously following the streamline around the aircraft now hits it directly. The amount of power needed to overcome this effect is considerable.",
"-27.794500375486678"
],
[
"Calibrated airspeed is typically within a few knots of indicated airspeed, while equivalent airspeed decreases slightly from CAS as aircraft altitude increases or at high speeds.\nWith EAS constant, true airspeed increases as aircraft altitude increases. This is because air density decreases with higher altitude, but an aircraft's wing requires the same amount of air particles (i.e., mass of air) flowing around it to produce the same amount of lift for a given AOA; thus, a wing must move faster through thinner air than thicker air to obtain the same amount of lift.\nThe measurement and indication of airspeed is ordinarily accomplished",
"-27.782921810885455"
],
[
"and the Coriolis illusion. The leans This is the most common illusion during flight, and can be caused by a sudden return to wings-level flight following a gradual application of bank that had gone unnoticed by the pilot. The reason a pilot can be unaware of such an attitude change in the first place is that human exposure to a rotational acceleration of ~1 degrees per second² or lower is below the detection threshold of the semicircular canals. Rolling wings-level from such an attitude may cause an illusion that the aircraft is banking in the opposite direction. In response to",
"-27.758759621688114"
],
[
"a stop). At one point during the sequence, the plane's speed reached 119 knots (137 mph; 220 km/h).\nWhen interviewed, the first officer told investigators that he was unaware of any problem until the plane was traveling between 87 and 90 knots (100 and 104 mph; 161 and 167 km/h), when it moved away from the runway's centerline and made a \"sudden left turn\". He indicated that the captain, who was too badly injured to interview with officials when the investigation began, was flying at the time. Both the captain and first officer had clean safety records when the crash occurred and were experienced pilots.\nWheel",
"-27.72849280491937"
],
[
"particularly if the wheels of the other cars are not visible. A similar illusion can happen while taxiing an aircraft. Repeating pattern This is when an aircraft is moving at very low altitude over a surface that has a regular repeating pattern, for example ripples on water. The pilot's eyes can misinterpret the altitude if each eye lines up different parts of the pattern rather than both eyes lining up on the same part. This leads to a large error in altitude perception, and any descent can result in impact with the surface. This illusion is of particular danger to",
"-27.523364984081127"
],
[
"needs to be flying fairly fast before it will work at all. Transonic flight Airflow can speed up or slow down locally at different points over an aircraft. In the region around Mach 1, some areas may experience supersonic flow while others are subsonic. This regime is called transonic flight. As the aircraft speed changes, pressure waves will form or move around. This can affect the trim, stability and controllability of the aircraft, and the designer needs to ensure that these effects are taken into account at all speeds. Hypersonic flight Flight at speeds above about Mach 5 is often",
"-27.51765410954249"
],
[
"flying will prevent her from going.",
"-27.509663430217188"
],
[
"backwards) of the pilot's head while the aircraft is turning. This can occur when tilting the head down (to look at an approach chart or to write on the knee pad), up (to look at an overhead instrument or switch), or sideways. This can produce an overpowering sensation that the aircraft is rolling, pitching, and yawing all at the same time, which can be compared with the sensation of rolling down a hillside. This illusion can make the pilot quickly become disoriented and lose control of the aircraft. Vestibular/somatogravic Somatogravic illusions are caused by linear accelerations. These illusions involving the",
"-27.508673007774632"
],
[
"a (non-free) fall in which air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration, until constant terminal velocity is reached. At terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards. For the same reason a skydiver, upon reaching terminal velocity, does not feel as though he or she were in \"free-fall\", but rather experiences a feeling similar to being supported (at 1 g) on a \"bed\" of uprushing air.\nAcceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second (m/s²), in the cgs unit gal (Gal), or popularly in terms of standard gravity (g).\nFor the practical purpose of",
"-27.477395421723486"
],
[
"aircraft. This is typically sloped in the same manner as the stall line due to air resistance getting lower at higher altitudes, up to the point where an increase in altitude no longer increases the maximum speed due to lack of oxygen to feed the engines.\nThe power needed varies almost linearly with altitude, but the nature of drag means that it varies with the square of speed—in other words it is typically easier to go higher than faster, up to the altitude where lack of oxygen for the engines starts to play a significant role. Velocity vs. load factor chart",
"-27.471669949474744"
],
[
"Ground effect (aerodynamics) In fixed-wing aircraft, ground effect is the increased lift and decreased aerodynamic drag that an aircraft's wings generate when they are close to a fixed surface. When landing, ground effect can give the pilot the feeling that the aircraft is floating. When taking off, ground effect may temporarily reduce the stall speed. The pilot can then fly just above the runway while the aircraft accelerates in ground effect until a safe climb speed is reached. Principle of ground effect When an aircraft flies at a ground level approximately at or below the half length of the aircraft's",
"-27.430711367778713"
],
[
"(FLCH, or Flight Level Change) which, without the captain's awareness, resulted in the autothrottle no longer controlling airspeed. The aircraft then descended below the desired glidepath with the crew unaware of the decreasing airspeed. The attempted go-around was conducted below 100 feet, by which time it was too late. Over-reliance on automation and lack of systems understanding by the pilots were cited as major factors contributing to the accident.\nThe NTSB further determined that the pilot's faulty mental model of the airplane's automation logic led to his inadvertent deactivation of automatic airspeed control. In addition, Asiana's automation policy emphasized the full use",
"-27.424096486211056"
],
[
"indication that anything has changed. The pilot's \"down\" sensation continues to be with respect to the bottom of the airplane, although the aircraft actually has increasingly rolled off the true vertical. Under VFR conditions, the pilot corrects for this deviation from level automatically using the true horizon, while it is very small; but in IMC or dark conditions it can go unnoticed: the roll will increase and the lift, no longer vertical, is insufficient to support the airplane. The nose drops and speed increases: the spiral dive has begun. Recovery A diving aircraft has more kinetic energy (which",
"-27.419096053461544"
],
[
"Aircraft use Aircraft have a much lower ratio of tyre contact patch to vehicle weight, and operate at much higher speeds. For these reasons, it is much easier to enter a skid in an aircraft through the over-application of brakes, and threshold braking is essentially impossible as the skid develops so rapidly. This makes landings in marginal conditions very difficult, and leads to many common weather conditions precluding flying. Slippery conditions from heavy rain, or even light snow or ice, will close a field.\nIn early testing on the Avro Canada CF-100, the Maxaret allowed landings to be safely made on",
"-27.40680854191305"
],
[
"A note from the pilot's handbook reads: \"If the engine quits in instrument conditions or at night, the pilot should pull the control column full aft and keep the wings level. The leading-edge slats will snap out at about 64 km/h (40 mph) and when the airplane slows to a forward speed of about 40 km/h (25 mph), the airplane will sink at about a parachute descent rate until the aircraft hits the ground.\" As such, pilots of the An-2 have stated that they are capable of flying the aircraft in full control at 48 km/h (30 mph) (as a contrast, a modern Cessna four-seater light",
"-27.396948866313323"
],
[
"as the airplane falls, it could gain speed and then structural failure could occur, typically due to excessive g forces during the pullout phase of the recovery.\nAs an airplane approaches its coffin corner, the margin between stall speed and critical Mach number becomes smaller and smaller. Small changes could put one wing or the other above or below the limits. For instance, a turn causes the inner wing to have a lower airspeed, and the outer wing, a higher airspeed. The aircraft could exceed both limits at once. Or, turbulence could cause the airspeed to change suddenly, to beyond the",
"-27.396448865009006"
],
[
"were made. At speeds of 950 to 1,000 km/h (590 to 620 mph) the air flow around the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, and it is reported that the control surfaces no longer affect the direction of flight. The results vary with different airplanes: some wing over and dive while others dive gradually. It is also reported that once the speed of sound is exceeded, this condition disappears and normal control is restored.\nThe comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document. However, it is not clear where",
"-27.381983661507547"
],
[
"Maneuvering speed In aviation, the maneuvering speed of an aircraft is an airspeed limitation selected by the designer of the aircraft. At speeds close to, and faster than, the maneuvering speed, full deflection of any flight control surface should not be attempted because of the risk of damage to the aircraft structure.\nThe maneuvering speed of an aircraft is shown on a cockpit placard and in the aircraft's flight manual but is not commonly shown on the aircraft's airspeed indicator.\nIn the context of air combat maneuvering (ACM), the maneuvering speed is also known as corner speed or cornering speed. Implications",
"-27.34070825370145"
],
[
"at this speed, the angle of attack must be increased to prevent any loss of altitude or gain in airspeed (which corresponds to the stall angle described above). The pilot will notice the flight controls have become less responsive and may also notice some buffeting, a result of the turbulent air separated from the wing hitting the tail of the aircraft.\nIn most light aircraft, as the stall is reached, the aircraft will start to descend (because the wing is no longer producing enough lift to support the aircraft's weight) and the nose will pitch down. Recovery from the stall involves",
"-27.318418298324104"
],
[
"than 350 miles (500 km), so the time spent on taxiing, taking off, and landing virtually eliminates a competing jet's speed advantage. Marketing According to Bombardier marketing, the aircraft breaks even with about a third of its seats filled (or a quarter with more closely spaced seats), making it particularly attractive on routes with varying passenger numbers where many seats would be empty on some flights. For example, Island Air in Hawaii calculated that the use of a 50-seat regional jet would break even at 45 passenger seats compared to the Q400's 35–36 seats (around 55% breakeven load factor).\nIn 2013, Bombardier",
"-27.30924798658816"
],
[
"that three of the legs swing together while the other three remain stationary, or in stance. Variability around the tripod configuration appears to be continuous, meaning that flies do not exhibit distinct transitions between different gaits. At fast walking speeds (15–30 mm/s), the walking configuration is mostly tripod (3 legs in stance), but at low walking speeds (0–15 mm/s), flies are more likely to have four or five legs in stance. These transitions may help to optimize static stability. Because flies are so small, inertial forces are negligible compared with the elastic forces of their muscles and joints or the viscous forces",
"-27.27458008081885"
],
[
"flight crew's failure to maintain adequate airspeed, which led to an aerodynamic stall from which they did not recover.\" The final two radar readings detected the airplane traveling at or just below its predicted stall speed given conditions at the time of the accident. Aviation experts speculated the pilots might have lost situational awareness because they were lost and looking for the airport. They had been off course for several minutes and \"clicked on\" the runway lights, something not usually done in good visibility. There was a problem with the airport's VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) navigational beacon. According to Minnesota",
"-27.253708541276865"
],
[
"airspeed The true airspeed (TAS; also KTAS, for knots true airspeed) of an aircraft is the speed of the aircraft relative to the airmass in which it is flying. The true airspeed and heading of an aircraft constitute its velocity relative to the atmosphere. Uses of true airspeed The true airspeed is important information for accurate navigation of an aircraft. To maintain a desired ground track whilst flying in a moving airmass, the pilot of an aircraft must use knowledge of wind speed, wind direction, and true air speed to determine the required heading. See wind triangle.\nTAS is the true",
"-27.2432876223902"
],
[
"at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy.\nThere is an absolute limit on an individual's speed of walking (without special techniques such as those employed in speed walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the centre of mass during a stride – if it's greater than the acceleration due to gravity the person will become airborne as they vault over the leg on",
"-27.212261184788076"
],
[
"retuning. Thain was anxious to stay on schedule and suggested opening the throttle even more slowly would suffice. This would mean that the plane would not achieve take-off velocity until further down the runway, but with the runway almost 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) long, he believed this would not be a problem. The passengers were called back to the plane 15 minutes after leaving it.\nA few of the players were not confident fliers, particularly Liam Whelan, who said, \"This may be death, but I'm ready\". Others, including Duncan Edwards, Tommy Taylor, Mark Jones, Eddie Colman and journalist Frank Swift, moved to",
"-27.175766025291523"
],
[
"are trained to avoid stalls during aerobatic maneuvering and especially in combat, as a stall can permit an opponent to gain an advantageous position while the stalled aircraft's pilot attempts to recover.\nThe speed at which an aircraft is capable of its maximum aerodynamic maneuverability is known as the corner airspeed; at any greater speed the control surfaces cannot operate at maximum effect due to either airframe stresses or induced instability from turbulent airflow over the control surface. At lower speeds the redirection of air over control surfaces, and thus the force applied to maneuver the aircraft, is reduced below the",
"-27.17413332645083"
],
[
"was to regain speed at the top of the loop. The speed was too low, and the aircraft ended up in an inverted (upside-down) deep stall, and started to descend slowly. The inadequate response to the low-speed warning may have been due the flight manual being unclear, and to the pilot being out of practice after flying a low number of flight hours per year.\nWhen the airplane is stalled, the flight control software enters an automatic recovery mode which automatically tries to roll level, cancel spin, and reduce angle of attack. However, this mode can not handle deep stalls. Theoretically,",
"-27.157769118537544"
],
[
"track of plane's altitude and rate of descent and reacted too late before the aircraft hit the runway. Neither pilot had more than a few hundred hours flying time in the aircraft.",
"-27.107960912311682"
],
[
"task of monitoring the flight instruments. The situation was worsened by the crew attempting to fly at 126 knots (233 km/h; 145 mph) when the aircraft was not configured for that speed. These factors created a situation in which neither pilot was monitoring the altitude. There was also a shortcoming in the approach chart, which did not display a minimum altitude at Del Rey Intersection. This would have given the pilots an opportunity to correct the aircraft's altitude.\nThe commission classified the accident as survivable because the impact forces varied along the fuselage. The tail-first impact was caused by the first officer's last-second",
"-27.07180281559704"
],
[
"highly probable scenario where the airplane's engine quit due to issues with fuel contamination which caused the pilots to panic and put the airplane in an unusual attitude. The unusual attitude could be one that was to either steeply bank the airplane back to the airport or a stall the aircraft, which eventually caused the airplane to spin and plummet to towards the water at a high speed.\nPrior to this accident, there were numerous red flags within the school among expat pilots that the airplane had a strong tendency to fall into a spin under full stall or full departure",
"-27.01805715696537"
],
[
"fastest airspeed relative to the airfoil is very close to the leading edge, on the upper surface. In this region of high local airspeed, skin friction (viscous force) is very high and the boundary layer arriving at the slot on the upper wing has lost much of its total pressure (or total mechanical energy) due to this friction. In contrast, the air passing through the slot has not experienced this high local airspeed or high skin friction, and its total pressure remains close to the free-stream value. The mixing of the upper surface boundary layer with air",
"-27.008686829343787"
],
[
"a noisy burst of flying while expending amounts of energy that they prefer not to. To make this an easier task, they will attempt to approach the branch from an uphill location so as to not need to gain as much altitude in flight. This technique is also used when they need to vacate quickly to avoid danger, in that they will fly downhill, so as to be able to cover greater distances before the need to touch down. When roosting they will not grip the branch with their toes, but rest on their folded legs. This is the reason",
"-27.00292000841"
],
[
"shows that, below a certain airspeed, maintaining airspeed counterintuitively requires more thrust as speed decreases, rather than less. The consequences of being \"behind the curve\" in flight are important and are taught as part of pilot training. At the subsonic airspeeds where the \"U\" shape of this curve is significant, wave drag has not yet become a factor, and so it is not shown in the curve. Wave drag in transonic and supersonic flow Wave drag (also called compressibility drag) is drag that is created when a body moves in a compressible fluid and at speeds that are close to",
"-26.987765415615286"
],
[
"For this reason airliners normally climb during long flights (see Step climb).\nThe speed for maximum endurance (i.e., time in the air) is the speed for minimum fuel flow rate, and is less than the speed for greatest range. The fuel flow rate is calculated as the product of the power required and the engine specific fuel consumption (fuel flow rate per unit of power). The power required is equal to the drag times the speed.",
"-26.960754884989"
],
[
"(Even if I am flying).",
"-26.899865398794645"
],
[
"crash to pilot error on the approach – for example the maximum flap setting of 40 degrees was never applied, which meant that the aircraft's speed was 10 knots (19 km/h) higher than VREF as it crossed the runway threshold. This, combined with the fact that the aircraft 'floated' from the turbulent winds in the area, meant that it was already 2,300 feet (700 m) down the runway at the point of touchdown. The pilots did not act quickly enough on the brakes and proceeded to go full-throttle three seconds after touchdown. However, they were unable to reach take-off speed",
"-26.857327826000983"
],
[
"generates what is referred to as lift induced drag which without increased power, means the aircraft will lose speed. Parallax error based on pilot seat position This applies to cockpits with two seats (usually Pilot & Co-Pilot) arranged horizontally or abreast. Assuming the pilot performing the manoeuvre is positioned in the left seat (command seat) when a steep turn to the right is performed, the nose will appear to fall. Conversely, a steep turn to the left will make it seem like the nose is rising against the horizon. This is parallax error based purely on the pilot's vantage point",
"-26.8514117639279"
],
[
"raising it to 1,132 mph (1,811 km/h) or Mach 1.73. This achievement exceeded the prior recorded airspeed record by 310 mph, or 37 per cent; never before had the record ever been raised by such a vast margin. The achievement had also made the Fairey Delta 2 the first jet aircraft to exceed 1,000 mph (1,600 km/h) in level flight. At this speed, when flying westward the aircraft flies faster than the apparent motion of the sun, making the sun appear to move backwards in the sky; Peter Twiss thus became the first man to fly faster than the rotation of the earth.\nNews of the",
"-26.84238612651825"
],
[
"increased the pitch-up attitude and reduced power in order to lower the plane's airspeed. The co-pilot's ASI was giving a correct reading of 200 knots (370 km/h; 230 mph) and decreasing, yet the aircraft started to give multiple contradictory visible and audible warnings that it was flying too fast, including rudder ratio, Mach airspeed, and overspeed.\nThe autopilot reached the limits of its programming and disengaged. After checking the circuit breakers for the source of the warnings, the crew reduced thrust to lower the speed of the plane. This action immediately triggered the 757's stick-shaker stall alert, warning the confused pilots that the",
"-26.796814106979582"
],
[
"in straight and level flight long enough to allow it to settle.\nShould the pilot be unable to complete a leg – for example bad weather arises, or the visibility falls below the minima permitted by the pilot's license, the pilot must divert to another route. Since this is an unplanned leg, the pilot must be able to mentally calculate suitable headings to give the desired new track. Using the flight computer in flight is usually impractical, so mental techniques to give rough and ready results are used. The wind is usually allowed for by assuming that sine A = A,",
"-26.78839789567428"
],
[
"pushing on it. As the pilots had inadvertently left the engines on at full takeoff power, which caused the plane to accelerate at high speed, there was further pressure on the stabilizer. The pilots' attempts to manually crank the stabilizer back into position failed. Three minutes into the flight, with the aircraft continuing to lose altitude and accelerating beyond its safety limits, the captain instructed the first officer to request permission from air traffic control to return to the airport. Permission was granted, and the air traffic controllers diverted other approaching flights. Following instructions from air traffic control, they turned",
"-26.78522915163194"
],
[
"decreased. In this situation, if speed is maintained at or above the published VMCA, as determined for the critical engine, safe control can be maintained. Ground If an engine fails during taxiing or takeoff, the thrust yawing moment will force the aircraft to one side on the runway. If the airspeed is not high enough and hence, the rudder-generated side force is not powerful enough, the aircraft will deviate from the runway centerline and may even veer off the runway. The airspeed at which the aircraft, after engine failure, deviates 9.1 m from the runway centerline, despite using maximum rudder but",
"-26.77824861992849"
],
[
"landing to give the aircraft a lower stall speed so the approach to landing can be flown more slowly, which also allows the aircraft to land in a shorter distance. The higher lift and drag associated with fully extended flaps allows a steeper and slower approach to the landing site, but imposes handling difficulties in aircraft with very low wing loading (i.e. having little weight and a large wing area). Winds across the line of flight, known as crosswinds, cause the windward side of the aircraft to generate more lift and drag, causing the aircraft to roll, yaw and pitch",
"-26.773786282799847"
],
[
"It has been widely misunderstood that flight below maneuvering speed will provide total protection from structural failure. In response to the destruction of American Airlines Flight 587, a CFR Final Rule was issued clarifying that \"flying at or below the design maneuvering speed does not allow a pilot to make multiple large control inputs in one airplane axis or single full control inputs in more than one airplane axis at a time\". Such actions \"may result in structural failures at any speed, including below the maneuvering speed.\" Design maneuvering speed VA VA is the design maneuvering speed and is a",
"-26.73769873182755"
],
[
"seems incorrect because if an aircraft is climbing it seems lift must exceed weight. When an aircraft is climbing at constant speed it is its thrust that enables it to climb and gain extra potential energy. Lift acts perpendicular to the vector representing the velocity of the aircraft relative to the atmosphere, so lift is unable to alter the aircraft's potential energy or kinetic energy. This can be seen by considering an aerobatic aircraft in straight vertical flight (one that is climbing straight upwards or descending straight downwards). Vertical flight requires no lift. When flying straight upwards the aircraft can",
"-26.734197165736987"
],
[
"standards and check rides.\nA steep turn increases the load factor of an aircraft. Simply put the aircraft feels heavier due to the effect of centrifugal force. At a 45 degree bank angle the load factor of an aircraft is 1.4 i.e. the aircraft effectively becomes 40% heavier. This requires the pilot to exert backward pressure on the flight stick or column to raise the nose, thereby creating more lift to maintain altitude. In the event that backward pressure is not exerted on the stick / column, the aircraft will tend to lose altitude. This increase in the lift required also",
"-26.716126091603655"
],
[
"direction of the vehicle's motion that ensures the ball continues to move forward even as it is thrown up and falls back down. From the perspective of the person in the car, the vehicle and everything inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction of the vehicle. Since there is no experiment that can distinguish whether it is the vehicle that is at rest or the outside world that is at rest, the two situations are considered to be physically indistinguishable. Inertia therefore applies equally well",
"-26.691693660832243"
],
[
"into the flight, the captain asked the controller for permission to return to the airport as there were flight control problems. About eight minutes into the flight, data transmitted automatically by the aircraft showed it had descended to about 5,000 feet (1,500 m) but its altitude continued to fluctuate. The mean value of the airspeed data transmitted by Flight 610 was around 300 knots (560 km/h; 350 mph), which was considered by experts to be unusual, as typically aircraft at altitudes lower than 10,000 feet (3,000 m) are restricted to an airspeed of 250 knots (460 km/h; 290 mph). Ten minutes into the flight, the",
"-26.67409176120418"
],
[
"slow speed three-point landings are quite difficult because there is not enough elevator authority to bring the tail down to the correct three-point attitude. This means that the tail needs to be brought down sharply at just the right speed in order for the angular momentum to carry it down sufficiently.\nThe open cockpit allows pilots to move their heads over the side to see the runway during approach and landing. As the aircraft is a tail dragger, it is essential to land it straight with no sideways movement, to avoid ground loops.\nOne often undocumented feature is that the carburettor de-icing",
"-26.664280408382183"
]
] |
7vrgbb | Why do some diets (like Paleo) say beans are unhealthy, toxic or have "antinutrients"? Are there toxins or antinutrients in cooked beans? | [
"There is no such thing as an ‘antinutrient’. Also, don’t ever listen to anyone who uses the word ‘toxin’.",
"A lot of cereals and brans and legumes contain phytic acid, which impairs the absorption of iron and calcium. BUT phytic acid also help against kidney stones and some cancers. Basically if you soak your beans ahead of time you’ll be fine.",
"There is no such thing as an \"antinutrient\" and the word \"toxins\" doesn't have a specific biological meaning. These words are buzzwords for fad diets that make them sound more scientific when they are not. There are certain chemicals that can inhibit your body's ability to process nutrients, but few of these are significant or harmful in any way, and lots of them have helpful effects themselves. Almost anything you eat can be toxic in the right quantities (like water!) and most of the \"harmful\" elements in food are processed away by your liver and kidneys. Apple seeds are a good example - they actually contain a tiny amount of a chemical called amygdalin, which can convert into cyanide when eaten. Cyanide is a very deadly poison to humans, but the quantity in a few apple seeds isn't enough to harm you - you'd have to eat a few cups worth of seeds to cause any damage, and that's never going to happen if you're eating a couple of apples a day. But nobody would say that apples contain \"toxins.\" Paleo is a fad diet with no real scientific backing that spreads because people latch on to pseudo-scientific buzz words like \"natural\" or \"toxin.\" Now that doesn't mean that paleo diets are necessarily bad - I actually cook pretty close to it at home (mostly seafood, meats, veggies, fruits, and pretty few grains or carbs). But they aren't a magic ticket to weight loss or to healthy living, there's no solid research to back up the claims that they make, and there are a million ways to eat paleo and still be unhealthy.",
"Because fad diets are dumb, based on nonsense, and attract hucksters, con-men, and true believers in crazy woo along with people who just want to get skinny.",
"There are substances *which can be toxic* in everything, even water. That being said, unless you are sampling random poisonous plants from the countryside (or a victim of your country's failing plumbing infrastructure), it is unlikely you are being exposed to dangerous amounts of them in your run of the mill diet. That doesn't prevent idiots and new age sages and guys who just want to make money off you from saying \"There's cyanide in apples!\" (there is) and that you need to eat their expensive diet or apples will kill you (they won't)."
] | [
[
"Edible seeds include cereals (corn, wheat, rice, et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils, et cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil), sesame, et cetera.\nSeeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food. However, not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, while seeds from cherries and apples contain cyanide which could be poisonous only if consumed in large volumes.\nFruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals",
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"An anti-oligosaccharide enzyme is necessary to properly digest these sugar molecules. As a normal human digestive tract does not contain any anti-oligosaccharide enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are typically digested by bacteria in the large intestine. This digestion process produces flatulence-causing gases as a byproduct. Since sugar dissolves in water, another method of reducing flatulence associated with eating beans is to drain the water in which the beans have been cooked.\nSome species of mold produce alpha-galactosidase, an anti-oligosaccharide enzyme, which humans can take to facilitate digestion of oligosaccharides in the small intestine. This enzyme, currently sold in the United States under the",
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"liver\", eggs \"feed the viral explosion\", corn is no longer nutritious due to genetic modification, wheat \"feeds pathogens\", canola oil destroys the lining of the stomach, veins, and heart, and finally that food additives described or labeled as \"natural flavors\" are actually a neurotoxin called MSG which, he claims, destroys brain and nerve cells over time. Celery juice Anthony William is the self proclaimed originator of the celery juice diet, and journalistic research has led others to conclude that he is the primary source. William claims that \"the science behind the healing powers of celery juice is just yet to",
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"making phytic acid an anti-nutrient. There is a lot of concern with phytic acids in nuts and seeds because of its anti-nutrient characteristics. In preparing foods with high phytic acid concentrations, it is recommended they be soaked in after being ground to increase the surface area. Soaking allows the seed to undergo germination which increases the availability of vitamins and nutrient, while reducing phytic acid and protease inhibitors, ultimately increasing the nutritional value. Cooking can also reduce the amount of phytic acid in food but soaking is much more effective.\nPhytic acid is an antioxidant found in plant",
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"There have been many outbreaks of disease from bacterial contamination, often by salmonella, listeria, and Escherichia coli, of beansprouts not thoroughly cooked, some causing significant mortality. Antinutrients Many types of bean contain significant amounts of antinutrients that inhibit some enzyme processes in the body. Phytic acid and phytates, present in grains, nuts, seeds and beans, interfere with bone growth and interrupt vitamin D metabolism. Pioneering work on the effect of phytic acid was done by Edward Mellanby from 1939. Nutrition Beans are high in protein, complex carbohydrates, folate, and iron. Beans also have significant amounts of fiber and soluble",
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"component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. Citric acid is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. Oxalic acid is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in carambola and rhubarb; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin for the human body and is present in such foods as amla (Indian gooseberry), lemon, citrus fruits, and guava.\nMany acids can be found in various kinds of food as additives, as they alter their taste and",
"-34.76272203421104"
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"and oligosaccharides) in foods such as legumes (beans and peanuts) and cruciferous vegetables (cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage, and brussels sprouts, among others). The enzyme breaks those complex sugars into simple sugars, making these foods somewhat more digestible, and reducing intestinal gas.\nThe polysaccharides and oligosaccharides found in these foods might otherwise pass through the small intestine unaffected. Once in the large intestine, those sugars may be metabolized by intestinal flora, fermenting to produce the gases that cause discomfort and flatulence.\nTwo randomized controlled trials show reduction in gas by subjects taking oral α-GAL. Another study indicates it may interfere with the diabetic medication",
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"oxidants like convicine, isouramil, divicine and vicine in quantities sufficient to lower glutathione levels in G6PD-deficient persons to cause favism disease. At least broad beans also contain the lectin phytohemagglutinin and are somewhat poisonous if eaten raw. Split common vetch seeds resemble split red lentils (Lens culinaris), and has been occasionally mislabelled as such by exporters or importers to be sold for human consumption. In some countries where lentils are highly popular – e.g., Bangladesh, Egypt, India and Pakistan – import bans on suspect produce have been established to prevent these potentially harmful scams. Etymology 'Vicia' means ‘binder’ in Latin;",
"-34.45832427106507"
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"phytochemicals include all nutritional and non-nutritional components of edible plants. Included as nutritional constituents are provitamin A carotenoids, whereas those without nutrient status are diverse polyphenols, flavonoids, resveratrol, and lignans – often claimed to have antioxidant effects – that are present in numerous plant foods. A number of phytochemical compounds are under preliminary research for their potential effects on human diseases and health. However, the qualification for nutrient status of compounds with poorly defined properties in vivo is that they must first be defined with a Dietary Reference Intake level to enable accurate food labeling, a condition not established for",
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"as an example of a food or dietary supplement susceptible to rancidification over various periods of storage, two reviews found effects only on flavor and odor, with no evidence as of 2015 that rancidity causes harm if a spoiled product is consumed. Prevention Antioxidants are often used as preservatives in fat-containing foods to delay the onset or slow the development of rancidity due to oxidation. Natural antioxidants include ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and tocopherols (vitamin E). Synthetic antioxidants include butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), TBHQ, propyl gallate and ethoxyquin. The natural antioxidants tend to be short-lived, so synthetic antioxidants",
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"for example, of the relative abundance of feces produced by cereals as compared to that produced by a diet of meat. The conclusion of recent studies on the harmful effect of excessive amounts of carbohydrates in the form of sugar and bread, have led some to see the Taoist abstinence from cereals as the result of an ancient empiricism in matters of diet. (Schipper 1993:167) \nSome contemporary researchers (such as Yan et al. 2002) are clinically investigating bigu fasting.",
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"Phytate is, however, not directly bioavailable to humans in the diet, since it is not digestible. Some food preparation techniques partly break down phytates to change this. However, inositol in the form of glycerophospholipids, as found in certain plant-derived substances such as lecithins is well-absorbed and relatively bioavailable.\nmyo-Inositol (free of phosphate) was once considered a member of the vitamin B complex, called Vitamin B₈ in this context. However, because it is produced by the human body from glucose, it is not an essential nutrient. Phytic acid in plants Inositol hexaphosphate, also called phytic acid or IP6, is the principal storage",
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"rather than the acidity of the food, foods such as citrus fruits that are generally considered acidic are actually considered alkaline producing in this diet. Research Recent systematic reviews have been published which have methodically analyzed the weight of available scientific evidence, and have found no significant evidence to support the acid-ash hypothesis in regard to prevention of osteoporosis. A meta-analysis of studies on the effect of dietary phosphate intake contradicted the expected results under the acid-ash hypothesis with respect to calcium in the urine and bone metabolism. This result suggests use of this diet to prevent calcium loss",
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"to the better flavour that results. Improper preparation of bitter lupins with insufficient soaking allows pharmacologically significant amounts of the anticholinergic alkaloids to remain in the beans, and poisoning symptoms result.\nWhile the alkaloids found in raw and dried beans are bitter and unpalatable to many, with soaking the level is reduced. There are several references in medical literature to poisoning caused by errors in lupini preparation.\nSymptoms of lupin bean poisoning (from excess alkaloid in cooked food) include dilated unresponsive pupils, confusion, slowed thought and disorientation, flushed face and/or fever, high heart rate and blood pressure, tremors, difficulty with or slurred",
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"foods. Metabolism myth Ehret maintained new tissue was built primarily from simple sugars in fruits, not metabolised from protein and fat-rich foods. Ehret only favored nuts and seeds during transition to the ideal fruit diet, and even then, only \"sparingly\", condemning high-protein and fat-rich foods, as \"unnatural\"; further writing that \"no animals eat fats\" and \"all fats are acid forming, even those of vegetable origin, and are not used by the body\" Later editions of his Mucusless Diet Healing System published by Fred S. Hirsch, claimed nuts were \"mucus-free\". Ehret specifically renounced meat, eggs, milk, fats, cereals, legumes, potatoes and",
"-34.1687775036462"
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"beans, with tough cell walls protecting the protein, have a far lower digestibility than the purified, unprotected, soy bean protein extract. As a foodstuff far more protein can be absorbed from the extract than the raw beans, however the BV will be the same.\nThe exclusion of digestibility is a point of misunderstanding and leads to misrepresentation of the meaning of a high or low BV Advantages and disadvantages BV provides a good measure of the usability of proteins in a diet and also plays a valuable role in detection of some metabolic diseases. BV is, however, a scientific variable determined",
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"Phytic acid Significance in agriculture Phosphorus and inositol in phytate form are not, in general, bioavailable to nonruminant animals because these animals lack the digestive enzyme phytase required to hydrolyze (break) the inositol-phosphate linkages. Ruminants are readily able to digest phytate because of the phytase produced by rumen microorganisms.\nIn most commercial agriculture, non-ruminant livestock, such as swine, fowl, and fish, are fed mainly grains, such as maize, legumes, and soybeans. Because phytate from these grains and beans is unavailable for absorption, the unabsorbed phytate passes through the gastrointestinal tract, elevating the amount of phosphorus in the manure. Excess phosphorus excretion",
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"nutritious food or by infections such as intestinal worms. They may also be caused or exacerbated when illnesses (such as diarrhoea or malaria) cause rapid loss of nutrients through feces or vomit. Plants In plants a micronutrient deficiency (or trace mineral deficiency) is a physiological plant disorder which occurs when a micronutrient is deficient in the soil in which a plant grows. Micronutrients are distinguished from macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium and magnesium) by the relatively low quantities needed by the plant.\nA number of elements are known to be needed in these small amounts for proper plant growth and",
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"disease, chronic constipation, chronic hepatitis C infection, eczema, NSAID intolerance, respiratory complaints, including asthma, rhinitis and headache, functional dyspepsia, eosinophilic esophagitis\nand ENT illnesses. Causes Reactions to chemical components of the diet may be more common than true food allergies, although there is no evidence to support this. They are caused by various organic chemicals occurring naturally in a wide variety of foods, animal and vegetable, more often than to food additives, preservatives, colourings and flavourings, such as sulfites or dyes. Both natural and artificial ingredients may cause adverse reactions in sensitive people if consumed in sufficient amounts, the degree",
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"2010 review of scientific evidence concerning the possible health benefits of eating foods claimed to have \"antioxidant properties\" due to anthocyanins, the European Food Safety Authority concluded that 1) there was no basis for a beneficial antioxidant effect from dietary anthocyanins in humans, 2) there was no evidence of a cause and effect relationship between the consumption of anthocyanin-rich foods and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage, and 3) there was no evidence generally for consumption of anthocyanin-rich foods having any \"antioxidant\", \"anti-cancer\", \"anti-aging\", or \"healthy aging\" effects. As of 2019, there are no substantial clinical trials",
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"In comparison, the indigestible polysaccharide cellulose is also a beta-glucan, but is not soluble because of its (1→4)-beta-D-linkages. The percentages of beta-glucan in the various whole oat products are: oat bran, having from 5.5% to 23.0%; rolled oats, about 4%; and whole oat flour about 4%. Fat Oats, after corn (maize), have the highest lipid content of any cereal, i.e. greater than 10% for oats and as high as 17% for some maize cultivars compared to about 2–3% for wheat and most other cereals. The polar lipid content of oats (about 8–17% glycolipid and 10–20% phospholipid or a total of",
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"of purine-rich foods is not associated with increased risk of gout. Other uses Bean leaves have been used to trap bedbugs in houses. Microscopic hairs (trichomes) on the bean leaves entrap the insects.\nFrom ancient times, beans were used as device in various methods of divination. Fortune-telling using beans is called favomancy.",
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"deficiency in experimental animals (Gontzea and Sutzescu, 1968, as cited in Chavan and Kadam, 1989). The latter authors state that the sprouting of cereals has been reported to decrease levels of phytic acid. Similarly, Shipard (2005) states that enzymes of germination and sprouting can help eliminate detrimental substances such as phytic acid. However, the amount of phytic acid reduction from soaking is only marginal, and not enough to counteract its anti-nutrient effects Canavanine Alfalfa seeds and sprouts contain L-canavanine, which can cause lupus-like disease in primates.",
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"in their food, saying: \"Most of their food was contaminated with genetically modified cooking oil, corn oil, and they were using genetically modified ingredients in their tortillas. Even in the black beans there was GMO soybean oil. You couldn't even order vegetarian and avoid it. It was really unfortunate. Then, when I saw their flour tortillas' package, it said that they use trans-fat. That's crazy.\" After she published her blog post, Chipotle set up a meeting with Hari where she urged them to publish their ingredients publicly. In March 2013, Chipotle's Communications Director emailed Hari with a link to a",
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"endecaphylla.\nCucurbitacins impart a bitter taste in plant foods such as cucumber, zucchini, melon and pumpkin. Research and toxicity Cucurbitacins are under basic research for their biological properties, including toxicity and potential pharmacological uses in development of drugs for inflammation, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes, among others.\nThe toxicity associated with consumption of foods high in cucurbatincs is sometimes referred to as \"toxic squash syndrome\". In France in 2018, two women who ate soup made from bitter pumpkins became sick, involving nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, and had hair loss weeks later. Another French study of poisoning from bitter squash consumption found",
"-33.54244445488439"
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"trade names Xenical and Alli) is a diet pill that works by blocking the enzymes that digest fat. As a result, some fat cannot be absorbed from the gut and is excreted in the feces instead of being metabolically digested and absorbed, sometimes causing oily anal leakage. Vytorin (ezetimibe/simvastatin) tablets can cause steatorrhea in some people. Excess whole nuts in diet There are anecdotal reports on the internet describing oily droplets in feces after eating large amounts of cashews or other whole nuts.\nThey agree with studies showing that stool lipids are greatest when whole nuts are eaten, compared to their",
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"eating foods containing moderate or high levels of purines may make the condition worse. The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) recommends that gout sufferers limit consumption of soy products (although also suggesting that soy may have health benefits by reducing the risk for heart disease). Previous research found little or no association between consumption of purine-rich vegetables (including beans) and gout.",
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"in some fruits and spices. Caffeic acid is also a digestive break-down product of chlorogenic acid, high in coffee and some fruits and vegetables.\nIn addition to fats, the type or amount of protein in the diet may also affect bile acid levels. Switching from a diet with protein provided by casein to a diet with protein provided by salmon protein hydrolysate led to as much as a 6-fold increase in levels of bile acids in the blood plasma of rats. In humans, adding high protein to a high fat diet raised the level of deoxycholate in the",
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"(carbonic acid), jams and fruit juices (citric acid), pickles (acetic acid), condiments, and frogurt toppings. It is also used as a preservative in medicines and cosmetics. Under these conditions it is converted into benzoic acid (E210), which is bacteriostatic and fungistatic. Benzoic acid is generally not used directly due to its poor water solubility.\nConcentration as a food preservative is limited by the FDA in the U.S. to 0.1% by weight. Sodium benzoate is also allowed as an animal food additive at up to 0.1%, per the Association of American Feed Control Officials.\nSodium benzoate has been replaced by potassium sorbate in",
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"sprouts, can contain toxins or anti-nutritional factors, which can be reduced by soaking, sprouting and cooking (e.g., stir frying). Joy Larkcom advises that to be on the safe side \"one shouldn’t eat large quantities of raw legume sprouts on a regular basis, no more than about 550g (20oz) daily\".\nPhytic acid, an anti-nutritional factor, occurs primarily in the seed coats and germ tissue of plant seeds. It forms insoluble or nearly insoluble compounds with many metal ions, including those of calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc, reducing their dietary availability. Diets high in phytic acid and poor in these minerals produce mineral",
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"gelatin.\nOther ingredients commonly found in candy that are not suitable for vegetarian or vegan diets include carmine, a red dye made from cochineal beetles, and confectioner's glaze, which contains shellac, a resin excreted by female lac bugs. Cavities Candy generally contains sugar, which is a key environmental factor in the formation of dental caries (cavities). Several types of bacteria commonly found in the mouth consume sugar, particularly Streptococcus mutans. When these bacteria metabolize the sugar found in most candies, juice, or other sugary foods, they produce acids in the mouth that demineralize the tooth enamel and can lead",
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"heated soybean oil \"grossly induced atherosclerosis and marked liver damage were histologically and clinically demonstrated.\" However, Fred Kummerow claims that it is not dietary cholesterol, but oxysterols, or oxidized cholesterols, from fried foods and smoking, that are the culprit.\nRancid fats and oils taste very bad even in small amounts, so people avoid eating them.\nIt is very difficult to measure or estimate the actual human consumption of these substances. Highly unsaturated omega-3 rich oils such as fish oil are being sold in pill form so that the taste of oxidized or rancid fat is not apparent. The health food industry's dietary",
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"metabolism, and overall buffering and renal acid load also includes anions such as bicarbonate, organic ions, phosphorus and chloride as well as cations such as ammonium, titrateable acid, magnesium, potassium and sodium. The study of Potential Renal Acid Load (PRAL) suggests that increased consumption of fruits, vegetables and cooked legumes increases the ability of the body to buffer acid from protein metabolism, because they contribute to a base forming potential in the body due to their relative concentrations of proteins and ions. However, not all plant material is base forming, for example, nuts, grains and grain products add to the",
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"enzymes, which can digest certain complex sugars, are effective in reducing the volume and frequency of flatus. The enzymes alpha-galactosidase, lactase, amylase, lipase, protease, cellulase, glucoamylase, invertase, malt diastase, pectinase, and bromelain are available, either individually or in combination blends, in commercial products.\nThe antibiotic rifaximin, often used to treat diarrhoea caused by the microorganism E. coli, may reduce both the production of intestinal gas and the frequency of flatus events. Smell Bismuth\nSmell from flatulence is commonly treated with bismuth subgallate, available over-the-counter in the US as Devrom. Bismuth subgallate is commonly used by individuals who have had ostomy surgery, bariatric",
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"industry since they can combine with secondary amines to form nitrosamines, which are carcinogenic. Nitrites are linked to an increase risk in cancer and heart disease. Sulfite is another additive that is commonly avoided due to people having a sensitivity to sulfites. Yeast and mold are not fully inhibited by IMF processing because these microorganisms can tolerate water activity as low as 0.80. Browning can occur during storage of Intermediate moisture fruits and vegetables. Finally, sugar used commonly added as a humectant increases the caloric value of the food.",
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"to encompass food-combining; stating that incorrect combinations of foods would cause even alkaline foods to leave a less desirable acidic digestion end-product.\n\"Any carbohydrate foods require alkaline conditions for their complete digestion, so must not be combined with acids of any kind, as sour fruits, because the acid will neutralise. Neither should these be combined with a protein of concentrated sort as these protein foods will excite too much hydrochloric acid during their stomach digestion.\" - William Hay, How to Always Be Well\nThe Hay System promoted eating three meals per day with meal one being what the diet considers to be",
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"seed pod rather than 12\" brown seed pod. Chemistry The presence of cyclopropenoid fatty acids in the nuts has been used to state that the nuts are not edible and not suitable for human consumption, despite the nut being eaten or used in medicine. At least one review indicates that CPFA are carcinogenic, co-carcinogenic, and have medical and other effects on animals; according to this review, \"CPFA in food is dangerous to human health\". Out of 6 rats tested in a study of P. aquatica, 5 died after consuming the nuts. The surviving rat had enlarged organs including the stomach,",
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"the large intestine. Intestinal gas can be reduced by fermenting the beans, and making them less gas-inducing, or by cooking them in the liquor from a previous batch. For example, the fermented bean product miso is less likely to produce as much intestinal gas. Some legumes also stand up to prolonged cooking, which can help break down the oligosaccharides into simple sugars. Fermentative lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus plantarum reduce flatulence in the human intestinal tract.\nProbiotics (live yogurt, kefir, etc.) are reputed to reduce flatulence when used to restore balance to the normal intestinal flora. Live",
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"highly colorful packaged breakfast cereals, can cause unusual coloring of feces if eaten in sufficient quantities.\nUndigested objects such as seeds can pass through the human digestive system, and later germinate. One result of this is tomato plants growing where treated sewage sludge has been used as fertilizer. Analysis of E. coli bacteria in water sources A quick test for fecal contamination of water sources or soil is a check for the presence of E. coli bacteria performed with the help of MacConkey agar plates or Petri dishes. E. coli bacteria uniquely develop red colonies at temperature of approximately 43 °C (109 °F)",
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"of the total amount of amino acids absorbed. On starch-poor diets, they also provide the predominant source of glucose absorbed from the small intestinal contents. Under conditions of ruminal acidosis, when the environment of the reticulorumen has become too acidic (usually due to excessive fermentation of starches and sugars into VFA and lactate), microbes that favor a lower pH may start to dominate the ecosystem of the reticulorumen. This gives rise to rumen acidosis and often feed intake of the ruminant will drop. Human uses The feed contained within the reticulorumen, known as \"paunch waste\", has been studied as",
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"as well. These advocates propose that diets high in acid-producing elements will generally lead the body to become acidic and thereby foster disease. This proposed mechanism, in which the diet can significantly change the acidity of the blood, goes against \"everything we know about the chemistry of the human body\" and has been called a \"myth\" in a statement by the American Institute for Cancer Research because it is \"virtually impossible\" to create a less acidic environment in the body. While a selectively alkaline diet may change the pH level in the urine, it has not been shown to",
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"considered to be a neglected and underutilized food source in Benin. Culinary use The seeds are used for food and beverage because of their high protein content and for digestive system applications. The entire plant is known for soil improvement because of nitrogen fixation. In West Africa, the nuts are eaten as a snack, roasted and salted, processed into cake, or as a meal, boiled similar to other beans.\nIn South Eastern Nigeria, particularly in Enugu, the dried bambara beans are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with palm oil, water and pumpkin leaves and then poured into banana leaf",
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"For example, a teaspoon of paprika contains about 1133 IU of Vitamin A, which is over 20% of the recommended daily allowance specified by the US FDA.\nMost herbs and spices have substantial antioxidant activity, owing primarily to phenolic compounds, especially flavonoids, which influence nutrition through many pathways, including affecting the absorption of other nutrients. One study found cumin and fresh ginger to be highest in antioxidant activity. These antioxidants can also act as natural preservatives, preventing or slowing the spoilage of food, leading to a higher nutritional content in stored food. Standardization The International Organization for Standardization addresses spices and",
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"some parts of Africa to improve the nutritional value of beans by removing toxins. Inexpensive fermentation improves the nutritional impact of flour from dry beans and improves digestibility, according to research co-authored by Emire Shimelis, from the Food Engineering Program at Addis Ababa University. Beans are a major source of dietary protein in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. Bacterial infection from bean sprouts It is common to make beansprouts by letting some types of bean, often mung beans, germinate in moist and warm conditions; beansprouts may be used as ingredients in cooked dishes, or eaten raw or lightly cooked.",
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"are offered include banana, papaya, apple, apricot, and orange. Eggs, whether scrambled or boiled (along with the shell), are an excellent source of protein and calcium. Hemp, roasted soybeans, potatoes, green peas, strawberries, coconut, pumpkin seed, alfalfa, and sunflower seeds are other foods that are consumable. It is good to offer different foods to keep the diet balanced, and it keeps them from getting bored. Toxic foods Owners should avoid feeding their birds anything high in salt, sugar, and fat. \nCommon toxic foods include avocado and guacamole, substances containing caffeine (such as tea and coffee), fruit pits and apple seeds",
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"alkaline diet one of the \"top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018\", branding it as \"nonsense\".\nBecause the alkaline diet promotes excluding certain families of foods, it could result in a less balanced diet with resulting nutrient deficiencies such as essential fatty acids and phytonutrients. Many websites and books promoting this diet sell courses of supplements and foods which are unnecessary to purchase even under the diet's own terms. The level of effort needed to use this diet is considered \"high\" as there are many foods that need to be excluded. Proposed mechanism According to the traditional acid ash",
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"high in simple sugars should be avoided. The BRAT diet (bananas, rice, applesauce, toast and tea) is no longer recommended, as it contains insufficient nutrients and has no benefit over normal feeding.\nSome probiotics have been shown to be beneficial in reducing both the duration of illness and the frequency of stools. They may also be useful in preventing and treating antibiotic associated diarrhea. Fermented milk products (such as yogurt) are similarly beneficial. Zinc supplementation appears to be effective in both treating and preventing diarrhea among children in the developing world. Antiemetics Antiemetic medications may be helpful for treating vomiting in",
"-32.631808187114075"
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[
"onions, garlic, spring onions, leeks, turnips, swedes, radishes, sweet potatoes, potatoes, cashews, Jerusalem artichokes, oats, wheat, and yeast in breads. Cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts and other cruciferous vegetables that belong to the genus Brassica are commonly reputed to not only increase flatulence, but to increase the pungency of the flatus.\nIn beans, endogenous gases seem to arise from complex oligosaccharides (carbohydrates) that are particularly resistant to digestion by mammals, but are readily digestible by gut flora – microorganisms (methane-producing archaea; Methanobrevibacter smithii) that inhabit the digestive tract. These oligosaccharides pass through the upper intestine largely unchanged, and when they reach",
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],
[
" The seeds of the strychnine tree are also poisonous, containing the poison strychnine.\nThe seeds of many legumes, including the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), contain proteins called lectins which can cause gastric distress if the beans are eaten without cooking. The common bean and many others, including the soybean, also contain trypsin inhibitors which interfere with the action of the digestive enzyme trypsin. Normal cooking processes degrade lectins and trypsin inhibitors to harmless forms.\nPlease see the category plant toxins for further relevant articles. In religion The Book of Genesis in the Old Testament begins with an explanation of",
"-32.571442487300374"
],
[
"adding sugars. They are odorless and moderately astringent.\nAlthough approved to color foods and beverages in the European Union, anthocyanins are not approved for use as a food additive because they have not been verified as safe when used as food or supplement ingredients. There is no conclusive evidence that anthocyanins have any effect on human biology or diseases. Coloration In flowers, the coloration that is provided by anthocyanin accumulation may attract a wide variety of animal pollinators, while in fruits, the same coloration may aid in seed dispersal by attracting herbivorous animals to the potentially-edible fruits bearing these red, blue,",
"-32.568315803888254"
],
[
"servings of B₁₂ and have abnormally low blood concentrations of vitamin B₁₂. This is because, unless fortified, plant foods do not contain reliable amounts of active vitamin B₁₂.\nIt is essential, therefore, that vegetarians consume adequate amounts of dietary supplements or foods that have been fortified with B₁₂, such as nutritional yeast or other yeast extracts, vegetable stock, veggie burger mixes, textured vegetable protein, soy milks, vegetable and sunflower margarines, and breakfast cereals. B₁₂ used in these foods or supplements is typically grown from vegan sources (such as bacteria). Soybeans and barley seeds from plants grown in soils amended either",
"-32.563798383955145"
],
[
"variables to consider, such as a person's physiology, status, environment, and other factors. Precipitating nutritional factors Numerous nutritional substances, compounds, and foods have some degree of antioxidant capacity. High-capacity antioxidants include, but not limited to, vitamins C and E, resveratrol and flavonoids (e.g. wine), Sangre de grado (Croton lechleri) aka Dragons Blood, green and black teas, cloves, cinnamon, most commonly used spices and herbs, mints, several berry and nut species, coffee and chocolates.\nNormal intake of antioxidants, traditionally considered staples of healthy food, may exert beneficial properties towards some disease states such as neurological disorders, inflammatory conditions, and depression. However, chronic",
"-32.49926237529144"
],
[
"that traditional foods contain many toxic or carcinogenic chemicals and that existing diets were never proven to be safe. This lack of knowledge re conventional food means that modified foods may differ in anti-nutrients and natural toxins that have never been identified in the original plant, possibly allowing harmful changes to be missed. In turn, positive modifications may also be missed. For example, corn damaged by insects often contains high levels of fumonisins, carcinogenic toxins made by fungi that travel on insects' backs and that grow in the wounds of damaged corn. Studies show that most Bt corn has lower",
"-32.486063580203336"
],
[
"carbohydrates.\nHowever, vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients which interfere with the absorption of nutrients. These include α-solanine, α-chaconine, enzyme inhibitors (of cholinesterase, protease, amylase, etc.), cyanide and cyanide precursors, oxalic acid, tannins and others. These toxins are natural defenses, used to ward off the insects, predators and fungi that might attack the plant. Some beans contain phytohaemagglutinin, and cassava roots contain cyanogenic glycoside as do bamboo shoots. These toxins can be deactivated by adequate cooking. Green potatoes contain glycoalkaloids and should be avoided.\nFruit and vegetables, particularly leafy vegetables, have been implicated in nearly half the gastrointestinal infections caused by",
"-32.476150540227536"
],
[
"hypothesis underlying this diet, acid ash is produced by meat, poultry, cheese, fish, eggs, and grains. Alkaline ash is produced by fruits and vegetables, except cranberries, prunes and plums. Since the acid or alkaline ash designation is based on the residue left on combustion rather than the acidity of the food, foods such as citrus fruits that are generally considered acidic are actually considered alkaline producing in this diet.\nAdvocates propose that since the normal pH of the blood is slightly alkaline, the goal of diet should be to mirror this by eating a diet that is alkaline producing",
"-32.451230703503825"
],
[
"compounds, often binding irreversibly to coenzyme A, carnitine and carnitine acyltransferases I and II, reducing their bioavailability and consequently inhibiting beta oxidation of fatty acids. Glucose stores are consequently depleted leading to hypoglycemia and a condition called Jamaican vomiting sickness. These effects occur only when the unripe fruit is consumed.\nThough ackee is used widely in traditional dishes, research on its potential hypoglycin toxicity has been sparse and preliminary, requiring evaluation in well-designed clinical research to better understand its pharmacology, food uses, and methods for detoxification. Economy The ackee fruit is canned and was once a significant export product from",
"-32.43119488316006"
],
[
"Brie cheese contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes are adulterated. There are two exceptions to this general rule. First, if the poisonous substance is inherent or naturally occurring and its quantity in the food does not ordinarily render it injurious to health, the food will not be considered adulterated. Thus, a food that contains a natural toxin at very low levels that would not ordinarily be harmful (for instance, small amounts of amygdalin in apricot kernels) is not adulterated.\nSecond, if the poisonous or deleterious substance is unavoidable and is within an established tolerance, regulatory limit, or action level, the food will not",
"-32.42734503559768"
],
[
" It is found in the lipids of cell membranes. It is abundant in many nuts, fatty seeds (flax seeds, hemp seeds, poppy seeds, sesame seeds, etc.) and their derived vegetable oils; comprising over half (by weight) of poppy seed, safflower, sunflower, corn, and soybean oils.\nThe consumption of linoleic acid is vital to proper health, as it is an essential fatty acid. In rats, a diet deficient in linoleate (the salt form of the acid) has been shown to cause mild skin scaling, hair loss,\nand poor wound healing. However, chronic consumption of high levels of LA may be",
"-32.39252486580517"
],
[
"as a precursor for other compounds, such as phytosterols and steroidal glycoalkaloids, with cholesterol remaining in plant foods only in minor amounts or absent. Some plant foods, such as avocado, flax seeds and peanuts, contain phytosterols, which compete with cholesterol for absorption in the intestines, reduce the absorption of both dietary and bile cholesterol. A typical diet contributes on the order of 0.2 gram of phytosterols, which is not enough to have a significant impact on blocking cholesterol absorption. Phytosterols intake can be supplemented through the use of phytosterol-containing functional foods or dietary supplements that are recognized as having potential",
"-32.36958436202258"
],
[
"Gari and beans Nutritional Significance Gari and beans is very nutritious, Gari is starch rich and serves as source of energy. Beans has a considerable amount of iron and protein.The staple make up a complete protein providing the body with essential minerals.",
"-32.33573287363106"
],
[
"food or water, and the eating of raw meat. Foods implicated in campylobacteriosis include raw or under-cooked poultry, raw dairy products, and contaminated produce. Campylobacter is sensitive to the stomach's normal production of hydrochloric acid: as a result, the infectious dose is relatively high, and the bacteria rarely cause illness when a person is exposed to less than 10,000 organisms. Nevertheless, people taking antacid medication (e. g. people with gastritis or stomach ulcers) are at higher risk of contracting disease from a smaller number of organisms, since this type of medication neutralizes normal gastric acid.\nIn humans, the sites of tissue",
"-32.30924191942904"
],
[
"studies have shown that diets high in glucosinolate-containing vegetables such as dietary brassicas have been associated with lower risks of heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. Isothiocyanates have been shown to induce phase II detoxification enzymes involved in the xenobiotic metabolism of carcinogens. There has been increasing evidence to suggest that a myrosinase-like enzyme may also be present in members of the human gut microbiome. Although myrosinase, like many enzymes, will be denatured at high temperatures and thus lose its activity when cooked, a gut microbe capable of catalyzing the same hydrolysis of glucosinolates would be able to activate ingested",
"-32.30650297807006"
],
[
"leaves it high on the list of antioxidant-rich foods.",
"-32.30595722979342"
],
[
"many essential nutrients. It is a good source of protein, phosphorus and manganese, and very high in dietary fiber and folate.\nRice and pinto beans served with cornbread or corn tortillas are often a staple meal where meat is unavailable. This combination contains the essential amino acids necessary for humans in adequate amounts: corn complements beans' relative scarcity of methionine and cystine and beans complement corn's relative scarcity of lysine and tryptophan.\nStudies have indicated pinto beans can lower the levels of both HDL and LDL cholesterol. Pinto beans have also been shown to contain the phytoestrogen coumestrol, which has a variety",
"-32.30411783076124"
],
[
"Elemental diet An elemental diet is a diet that proposes the ingestion, or in more severe cases use of a gastric feeding tube or intravenous feeding, of liquid nutrients in an easily assimilated form. It is usually composed of amino acids, fats, sugars, vitamins, and minerals. This diet, however, lacks whole or partial protein due to its ability to cause an allergic reaction in some people. Effectiveness There is no good evidence that elemental diets are effective in treating chronic pouchitis.\nThere is some evidence that an elemental diet may be useful in inducing remission in people with small intestinal bacterial",
"-32.298873165855184"
],
[
"hypothesis on the effects of cholesterol on coronary heart disease. She further agrees with the book's claims linking soy with several ailments. However Schenck disagrees that vegetarians are necessarily unhealthy, believing each individual has different abilities to synthesize the needed nutrients from different foods. Criticism Sami Grover, referencing \"Jason V\", says Keith's book is filled with \"factual errors and fallacious thinking\". Furthermore, Jason V writes that Keith fallaciously uses her ex-vegan status in an attempt to depict herself as an authority on the subject.\nPatrick Nicholson writes that the book misinterprets scientific articles, cherry-picks facts, uses strawman arguments and relies heavily",
"-32.29809588668286"
],
[
"nuts and fruits. Cooked cereals and vegetables are not necessarily excluded, although the exclusion of all cooked foods, should means and knowledge permit, will lead to better results. For this dietary it will be noticed that not only is flesh and meat omitted, but also the animal products milk and eggs. The use of these products by vegetarians has long been one of the chief objections to vegetarianism, especially in medical circles\".\nDugald stated, to make the point about 'Lacto-Vegetarianism' stated that he had never tasted cheese, and therefore it could not be considered as an essential 'binding agent' for body",
"-32.23846305394545"
],
[
"per day of macadamia nuts, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol and not resulting in increased intake of saturated fat or calories may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. See nutrition information for fat [and calorie] content.” It is important to note that this is a \"qualified health claim\" and not meeting the rigorous standard of \"significant scientific agreement\".",
"-32.233376950607635"
],
[
"products, meat products, dairy products, wine, beer, vegetables, fruits, nuts and chocolate. In non-fermented foods the presence of biogenic amines is mostly undesired and can be used as indication for microbial spoilage. In fermented foods, one can expect the presence of many kinds of microorganisms, some of them being capable of producing biogenic amines.\nThey play an important role as source of nitrogen and precursor for the synthesis of hormones, alkaloids, nucleic acids, proteins, amines and food aroma components. However, food containing high amounts of biogenic amines may have toxicological effects. Determination of biogenic amines in wines Biogenic amines are naturally",
"-32.20975476686726"
],
[
"Academy of Sciences, as well as other scientific publications, which have stated foods high in potassium and magnesium such as fruits and vegetables may decrease the risk of osteoporosis through increased alkaline ash production. However, this acceptance of the acid-ash hypothesis as a major modifiable risk factor of osteoporosis by these publications was largely made without significant critical review by high quality systematic analysis.\nIt has also been speculated that an alkaline diet may have an effect on muscle wasting, growth hormone metabolism or back pain, though there is no conclusive evidence to confirm these hypotheses. Given an aging population, the",
"-32.205592621001415"
],
[
"Health benefits Oatmeal and other oat products were the subject of a 1997 ruling by the Food and Drug Administration that consuming oat bran or whole rolled oats can lower the risk of heart disease when combined with a low-fat diet via the effect of oat beta-glucan to reduce levels of blood cholesterol. A similar conclusion was reached in 2010 by the European Food Safety Authority. United States In the United States oatmeal is often served as a porridge with milk or cream and a sweetener, such as brown sugar or honey. It may include additional ingredients such as peanut",
"-32.18853299165494"
],
[
"in a way that permits stomach acids to enter the esophagus. Theobromine poisoning is an overdosage reaction to the bitter alkaloid, which happens more frequently in domestic animals than humans. However, daily intake of 50–100 g cocoa (0.8–1.5 g theobromine) by humans has been associated with sweating, trembling and severe headache. Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have physiological effects in humans, but the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, such as dogs and cats.\nChocolate and cocoa contain moderate to high amounts of oxalate, which may increase someone's risk for kidney stones. During cultivation",
"-32.13911494391505"
],
[
"Chemical and nutritional composition It is most common to eat the marama beans as mature beans when the seeds are surrounded by a hard and woody seed coat, which has a reddish to brownish color. But the beans can also be eaten when they are still immature green beans. Moisture The marama bean has a very low moisture content as the dry matter content ranges from 93.4% to 98.7%. The moisture content may also vary due to external factors. Lipids It was reported that the content of lipids ranges between 24% and 42%. This high amount of lipids is an",
"-32.109227404842386"
],
[
"nutritional value because of the artificial processing, people consume less fried dace with salted black beans. Moreover, they would store a few cans at home for rainy days. On the other hand, fried dace with salted black beans became widely commercialized. It is mass-produced by different food companies and sold as a product on the shelf in supermarkets. It is now usually purchased in cans instead of being cooked at home because of efficiency and convenience.",
"-32.10318428883329"
],
[
"may also help decrease the rate of spoilage. Acidity in foods creates a less favorable environment for the survival of microorganisms, thus inhibiting the growth of bacteria and molds. Foods that have a pH of less than 4.6 are considered high-acid foods, and apples in general have a pH of 3.7. Some recipes may include the addition of vinegar as a way to further bring down the pH and preserve the quality of the end product.\nSometimes, commercial brands of apple butter can be found with other ingredients and food additives. High fructose corn syrup is a preservative that has",
"-32.10302090602636"
],
[
"contaminating flour and other foods, including milk from cows feeding on these plants. Plant types and causes Pyrrolizidine alkaloidosis is caused by the consumption of one or more of the 200 known plant species containing the toxic pyrrolizine alkaloids found all over the world today. Established as the most common source of this illness are plants such as ragwort (Senecio jacobaea), woolly groundsels (Senecio redellii, Senecio longilobus), rattleweed (Crotalaria retusa), and seeds of yellow tarweed (Amsinckia intermedia). There are 30 known pyrrolizidine alkaloids that are hepatotoxic, meaning they cause injury to the liver. Although animals",
"-32.09736921294825"
],
[
"challenging. When the soybeans are bound together by the white mycelium, the fungus releases enzymes that make this heavily protein-rich product more digestible for humans. Tempeh-like foods (black oncom) can also be created from cereal grains such as wheat and rice. Many times, a good inoculum for this new fermentation actually comes from tiny pieces of old tempeh that have already been fermented. Uses of tempeh Tempeh has the potential to be used in many high-protein foods due to its mild flavor when fried in vegetable oil. Containing more than 40% protein, tempeh is often used as a meat-substitute. This",
"-32.0924693926645"
],
[
"of such nutrients included. Simply using the terms \"antioxidants\" and \"phytochemicals\" is not specific enough for food nutrient labeling requirements because phytochemicals in pomegranate juice have not yet been defined with actual physiological properties in humans.\nOn September 27, 2010, the Federal Trade Commission issued an administrative complaint against POM Wonderful saying it had made \"false and unsubstantiated claims that their products will prevent or treat heart disease, prostate cancer, and erectile dysfunction.\" The complaint is a legal order intended to prevent future law violations by POM Wonderful.\nPOM is quoted as responding that \"all statements made in connection with POM products",
"-32.08023510198109"
],
[
"is \"rich in red meat, dairy products, processed and artificially sweetened foods, and salt, with minimal intake of fruits, vegetables, fish, legumes, and whole grains.\"\nAn unhealthy diet is a major risk factor for a number of chronic diseases including: high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, abnormal blood lipids, overweight/obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer.\nThe WHO estimates that 2.7 million deaths each year are attributable to a diet low in fruit and vegetables. Globally such diets are estimated to cause about 19% of gastrointestinal cancer, 31% of ischaemic heart disease, and 11% of strokes, thus making it one of the leading preventable",
"-32.07249880162999"
],
[
"Jordan, Syria, Palestine, and Israel, salty and chilled lupini beans are called termos and in Hebrew turmus (תורמוס) and are served as part of an apéritif or a snack. Other species, such as L. albus (white lupin), L. angustifolius (narrow-leafed lupin), and L. hirsutus (blue lupin) also have edible seeds. Toxicity and allergenicity Some lupins contain certain secondary compounds, including isoflavones and toxic alkaloids, such as lupinine and sparteine. With early detection, these can be removed through processing, although lupins containing these elements are not usually selected for food-grade products.\nA risk of lupine allergy exists in patients allergic to peanuts.",
"-32.07146477769129"
],
[
"brand-names Beano and Gas-X Prevention, can be added to food or consumed separately. In many cuisines beans are cooked along with natural carminatives such as anise seeds, coriander seeds and cumin.\nOne effective strategy is to soak beans in alkaline (baking soda) water overnight before rinsing thoroughly. Sometimes vinegar is added, but only after the beans are cooked as vinegar interferes with the beans' softening.\nFermented beans will usually not produce most of the intestinal problems that unfermented beans will, since yeast can consume the offending sugars.",
"-32.03694461690611"
],
[
"Health effects of phenols and polyphenols Because of the large structural diversity and extensive metabolism of dietary polyphenols, their fate in vivo and possible health effects remain undetermined as of the early 21st century. Although polyphenols are speculated to be part of the health-promoting effects of consuming fruits and vegetables, no evidence exists to date that dietary polyphenols actually provide health benefits. Bioavailability Polyphenols have poor bioavailability, indicating that most of what are consumed are extensively metabolized and excreted. Gallic acid and isoflavones may show absorption of about 5%, with amounts of catechins (flavan-3-ols), flavanones, and quercetin glucosides even less.",
"-32.02890689740889"
],
[
"a temperature well below boiling may not destroy toxins. A case of poisoning by butter beans used to make falafel was reported; the beans were used instead of traditional broad beans or chickpeas, soaked and ground without boiling, made into patties, and shallow fried.\nBean poisoning is not well known in the medical community, and many cases may be misdiagnosed or never reported; figures appear not to be available. In the case of the UK National Poisons Information Service, available only to health professionals, the dangers of beans other than red beans were not flagged as of 2008.\nFermentation is used in",
"-32.01979174994631"
],
[
"(which contain amounts of cyanide), persimmons, onions (prolonged exposure can lead to a blood condition called hemolytic anemia), mushrooms (cause digestion problems and can induce liver failure), dried/uncooked beans (contain hemaglutin, toxic to birds), the stems, vines, and leaves of tomatoes (the actual fruit is fine), and eggplant.",
"-32.01779935180093"
],
[
"Ifood iFood (isotopic food) contains nutritients in which some atoms are replaced with their heavier non-radioactive isotopes (such as ²H or ¹³C). Biomolecules that incorporate heavier isotopes give rise to more stable molecular structures with increased resistance to damages associated with ageing or diseases. Medicines with some hydrogen atoms substituted with deuterium are called deuterated drugs, while substances that are essential nutrients can be used as food constituents, making this food \"isotopic\". Consumed with food, these nutritients become building material for the body. The examples are deuterated polyunsaturated fatty acids (iFat), essential aminoacids, DNA bases such as cytosine, or",
"-32.005953268613666"
],
[
"one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose. While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars, so contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals, comparable to the disaccharide trehalose. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes, producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane.\nSince soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the whey and are broken down during fermentation, soy",
"-31.990542178667965"
],
[
"because of its solubility, powdery texture, or reduced sweetness (50%) compared to more common sugars.\nInositol is also used as a stand-in film prop for cocaine in filmmaking. Nutritional sources myo-Inositol is naturally present in a variety of foods, although tables of food composition do not always distinguish between lecithin, the bioavailable form, and the unavailable phytate form in grains. Foods containing the highest concentrations of myo-inositol (including its compounds) include fruits, beans, grains, and nuts. Beans, nuts and grains, however, contain large amounts of phytate.",
"-31.97128059627721"
],
[
"Microalbuminuria Causes Higher dietary intake of animal protein, animal fat, and cholesterol may increase risk for microalbuminuria, and generally, diets higher in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains but lower in meat and sweets may be protective against kidney function decline.",
"-31.969921285955934"
],
[
"are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not \"essential\" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.\nVitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions: goiter,",
"-31.969595319387736"
],
[
"used for the seeds of leguminous plants.\nPulses supply proteins and form chief source in vegetarian food. Leguminous plants fix nitrogen in root nodules - produced with the help of nitrogen fixing bacteria.\nSeeds, pods, leaves and the shoots also contain a high proportion of protein e.g. Red gram, black gram, green gram. Oils and oilseeds Important both for consumption and industrial purposes.\nIn the human diet, the fat portion is supplied by oils, which give the necessary energy for metabolism, besides adding taste to the food.\nMedicinal Value\nIndustrial uses: preparation of soaps, cosmetics and lubrication Pastures The grasses and legumes which are",
"-31.95379634515848"
],
[
"common in the area where it was produced. Thus, its sale is now prohibited by law; clandestine manufacture continues, however, due to the popular flavor. The problem of contamination is not encountered with bean and grain tempeh, which have a different composition of fatty acids that is not favorable for the growth of B. gladioli, but encourages growth of Rhizopus instead. When bean or grain tempeh has the proper color, texture and smell, it is a very strong indication the product is safe. Yellow tempeh bongkrèk is always highly toxic due to toxoflavin, but tempeh bongkrèk with a normal coloration",
"-31.947897933947388"
],
[
"those whose diet was primarily of corn, \nand argued that therefore the exclusive food use of corn could not be the main and only cause of the disease. Lussana challenged this on the basis that the level of protein in the plant is modified by the climate and soil fertilization, with a comparative study shows that the corn of Vertova and Gandino also showed lower values than the French, \nreiterating that the lack of albumin in food was the cause of the pellagra endemic in some areas. Other scientific works In his booklet \"Coffee\" (1872) Lussana traces the history of",
"-31.944915473475703"
],
[
"is not a carbohydrate thus it is an ideal sweetener for diabetics.\nIn Nigeria, the leaves are used for boiling foods such as beans pudding (moi-moi) and beans (adalu), and for wrapping foods such as locust beans (iru), ofada rice (a particular type of rice which is made only in the south-western part of Nigeria; precisely Ogun state), pounded yam (iyan), ekuru (beans pudding without peper), pap (eko), and so on. Due to its phytoconstituents, it imparts a particular characteristic taste into foods associated with it. It is richly endowed in essential oils.\nResearch exploring the benefits which could be derived from",
"-31.93731104017934"
],
[
"to be obtained from the top. Nutritional information Fruits are a significant source of carbohydrates, as they contain 66.8% carbohydrates.\nThe seeds are sufficiently nutritious, although they do lack some essential nutrients, notably lysine and threonine. The seeds have significant levels of protein (25% of dry matter) and carbohydrates (60%). In these regards, seeds outperform local staple cereals such as sorghum and millet. Additionally, seeds are rich in zinc, iron, methionine, tryptophan, B-vitamins and linoleic acid (essential fatty acid). Seeds contain 3.6 times the World Health Organization (WHO) ideal level of tryptophan.\nLeaves have high antioxidant capacity (nearly 1.5 times that of",
"-31.932111564892693"
],
[
"in cereal, legumes, and oilseeds. These are the main components of animal feed, but monogastric animals and humans are unable to digest phytate completely and do not benefit from the phosphate. Extra phosphorus needs to be added into feed to desphosphorylate the phytic acid because it forms insoluble complexes with some metal ions, making them unavailable for nutrition. There is therefore an interest in the use of phytases to break down the phytic acid and avoid this extra step. Chitinase Four putative chitinase encoding genes have been identified in T. lanuginosus. Chitinases are glycosyl hydrolases that break down the β-1,4",
"-31.919574402156286"
],
[
"the source soybeans. It also contains potassium, calcium, niacin. Most of the soybean isoflavones are left in okara, as well as vitamin B and the fat-soluble nutritional factors, which include soy lecithin, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, phytosterols, tocopherol, and vitamin D.\nOkara contains some antinutritional factors: trypsin inhibitors (mostly destroyed by cooking), saponins, and soybean agglutinins, which cannot be easily digested.\nFermentation (by proper species of bacteria) of okara is conducive to digestion and absorption of okara nutrients, and it further improves the nutritional value. It can eliminate the bean’s odor, increase the amount of edible fiber, free amino acids, sugars,",
"-31.914605468256923"
],
[
"kidney beans in slow cookers.\nThe primary symptoms of phytohaemagglutinin poisoning are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Onset is from one to three hours after consumption of improperly prepared beans, and symptoms typically resolve within a few hours. Consumption of as few as four or five raw, soaked kidney beans can cause symptoms. Canned red kidney beans, though, are safe to use immediately.\nBeans are high in purines, which are metabolized to uric acid. Uric acid is not a toxin as such, but may promote the development or exacerbation of gout. However, more recent research has questioned this association, finding that moderate intake",
"-31.910169654453057"
],
[
"the effect of gas in the digestive tract associated with consuming beans.\nIn Persian cuisine, the petals are used in the spice mixture advieh to flavor rice dishes, as well as in chicken, Fish and bean dishes.\nThe tender leaves and leaf stalks can also be pickled (known as golpar torshi). Public health and safety The sap of the Tromsø palm contains furanocoumarins, which in combination with ultraviolet light, leads to phytophotodermatitis. There is some anecdotal evidence that H. persicum may be less dangerous than H. mantegazzianum with respect to phototoxicity. Control measures Known ways to fight Tromsø palm are the constant cutting of",
"-31.90852247364819"
],
[
"processed with machines that have previously processed celery, making avoiding such foods difficult.\nIn contrast with peanut allergy being most prevalent in the US, celery allergy is most prevalent in Central Europe. In the European Union, foods that contain or may contain celery, even in trace amounts, must be clearly marked as such. Chemistry Polyynes can be found in Apiaceae vegetables like celery, and their extracts show cytotoxic activities.\nCelery contains phenolic acid, which is an antioxidant.\nApiin and apigenin can be extracted from celery and parsley. Lunularin is a dihydrostilbenoid found in common celery.\nThe main chemicals responsible for the aroma and taste",
"-31.881356762722135"
],
[
"standard of digestate produced by anaerobic digestion can be assessed on three criteria, chemical, biological and physical aspects. Chemical quality needs to be considered in terms of heavy metals and other inorganic contaminant, persistent organic compounds and the content of macro-elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Depending on their source, biowastes can contain pathogens, which can lead to the spreading of human, animal or plant diseases if not appropriately managed.\nThe physical standards of composts includes mainly appearance and odour factors. Whilst physical contamination does not present a problem with regards to human, plant or animal health, contamination (in the",
"-31.87981524434872"
]
] |
355m22 | how can a steak be matured for 28 days, but have an expiration date of 3 days when on the store shelf | [
"Steak needs to be matured without moisture. This is done either by hanging it in a dry room (the traditional way of doing it, but time consuming), or in a vacuum-sealed bag (quicker, and more common). [Source]( URL_0 ). When you keep steak at home, you can't control the atmosphere the way it's controlled by the producer. Because of this, it will go off much sooner.",
"Aged steaks are usually aged as a whole primal cut, not as individual steaks, so the surface area to mass ratio is low. The outside quickly dries and inhibits bacterial growth. It's also kept in a temperature and humidity controlled environment, which also prevents spoilage. The outer layer of dried out aged steak which might have spoilage is cut away before it's cut into serving size steaks.",
"I thought it was matured still uncut, in a large carcass pieces before being carved up into steak sizes?"
] | [
[
"aromatic crust is formed as quickly as possible obtaining the so-called Maillard reaction, then after the first minute it must be raised to a gentler fire.\nPut on top of the meat without seasoning, a fundamental operation to prevent it from hardening, it should be turned once, cooking it about 3-5 minutes per side, no more. Finally, it should be cooked \"standing\" on the side of the bone (the steak must be thick enough to stand alone), for 5/7 minutes, no longer, until the traces of blood disappear from the bone (which actually is not blood, but myoglobin, a protein).",
"-29.494763711252062"
],
[
"Steak au poivre Preparation and ingredients The peppercorn crust itself is made by placing the steak in a bed of cracked black (or mixed) peppercorns. Typically, the steak is seared in a hot skillet with a small amount of butter and oil. The steak is seared at a high temperature to cook the outside quickly and form the crust while leaving the interior rare to medium-rare. The steak is then left to rest for several minutes and then served.\nSteak au poivre is often served with pan peppercorn sauce consisting of reduced cognac, heavy cream, and the fond from the bottom",
"-28.6861195336096"
],
[
"status on January 15, 2018. Product description According to inventor Gene Gagliardi, Steak-umm was created after putting beef through a grinder multiple times, mixing and molding it, freezing it, softening it, then ultimately slicing it.\nIn the 2012 lawsuit, Judge Lawrence Stengel described the product as \"chopped and formed emulsified meat product that is comprised of beef trimmings left over after an animal is slaughtered and all of the primary cuts, such as tenderloin, filet, and rib eye, are removed. . . . The emulsified meat is pressed into a loaf and sliced, frozen and packaged.\"",
"-28.403460204368457"
],
[
"\"Whoever eats that much again in my restaurant, he gets it for free.\" Those who take on the 72oz steak challenge are required to pay for the meal in advance and, if they are successful, their money is refunded. The steak is cooked to the participant's preference, and the challenge takes place at a table for six on a raised platform in the middle of the main dining room.\nThe record for the shortest time to finish the entire 72oz steak challenge had been held by competitive eating champion Joey Chestnut (at 8 minutes and 52 seconds), breaking Frank Pastore's",
"-28.25987247409796"
],
[
"opened, shelf life is 2 years. Once after the seal of the jar is broken and the Churna needs to be finished before two months.",
"-28.159880893406807"
],
[
"Charles Ranhofer, the former chef at Delmonico's Restaurant described the exact cut of meat for his preparation method as being the center cuts of the beef tenderloin, found inside the short loin. This center loin is described by Ranhofer as having been given the name Chateaubriand. In this 1893 method, a twenty-ounce (pound and a quarter) tenderloin center is flattened to 1 and 1/4 inch and broiled over a slow but steady fire for 16 minutes for exceptionally rare, 18 minutes for properly done,and twenty minutes for well done. The finished steak is served with maître d'hôtel butter or gravy.",
"-28.104938607662916"
],
[
"not sold by most supermarkets in the U.S. today, because it takes time and there is a significant loss of weight during the aging process. Dry-aging can take from 15 to 28 days, and typically up to a third or more of the weight is lost as moisture. This type of beef is served in higher-priced steakhouses and by select restaurants. \nDry-aging can be done at home under refrigeration by three means: open air, with the presence of salt blocks, and with the use of a moisture permeable drybag to protect the meat while it is aging. Since the mid-2010s,",
"-28.099740453180857"
],
[
"Steak-umm Steak-umm is an American brand of thin-sliced frozen steaks of The Steak-Umm Company, LLC. Steak-umms are sold in supermarkets throughout the United States and are used for making homemade Philadelphia-style cheesesteaks. The company claims to be \"the best-known sandwich steak brand in America\" and to have \"helped turn the regional 'Philly Cheese Steak' Sandwich into standard fare on America's dinner tables over four decades ago\". The company also produces ready-to-cook hamburger patties that are available in \"Original\" and \"Sweet Onion\" varieties.\nSteak-Umm had been previously owned by Gagliardi Bros., H.J. Heinz (under the Ore-Ida brand), and Pomfret, Connecticut-based TriFoods International.",
"-27.867761854839046"
],
[
"when the cheese is unwrapped, and stored in a cold room, at 10 °C (50 °F), with between 40% to 60% relative humidity. Farmers and dairy producers can allow the “tome” to mature, or sell to cheese aging specialists.\nThe affinage (maturing process) starts for a duration of a minimum of 28 days, according to the specification (reduced to 21 days for the “petit-Saint-Nectaire”). In general, it takes five to six weeks to a farmstead cheese, but it can last up to two or three months, for a cheese to mature. In the meantime, the cheeses are washed several times with salted water,",
"-27.84657844476169"
],
[
"have a significant amount of marbling. To make it more marketable, the steak, which has the fascia dividing the infraspinatus within it, has increasingly been cut as two flatter steaks, each corresponding to one muscle, with the tough fascia removed. Steaks that are cross cut from this muscle are called top blade steaks or patio steaks. As a whole cut of meat, it usually weighs around two to three pounds; the entire top blade usually yields four steaks between eight and 12 ounces each.\nIn the North American Meat Processor (NAMP) meat buyers guide, it is item #1114D Beef Shoulder, Top",
"-27.551144964119885"
],
[
"is half of the vertebral foramen. Preparation T-bone and porterhouse steaks are suited to fast, dry heat cooking methods, such as grilling or broiling. Since they contain a small amount of collagen relative to other cuts, longer cooking times are not necessary to tenderize the meat. The bone also conducts heat within the meat so that it cooks more evenly and prevents meat drying out and shrinking during cooking. The meat near the bone will cook more slowly than the rest of the steak, and the tenderloin will tend to reach the desired temperature before the strip. Bistecca alla fiorentina",
"-27.351331275334815"
],
[
"deeply tannic and during excellent vintages can take up to 20 years to mature.\nThe 1990, 2009, and 2010 vintages were rated 100 points by Robert M. Parker, Jr.",
"-27.24371256201266"
],
[
"Diane, Bordelaise, mushroom, Hollandaise, au poivre (peppercorn), or Béarnaise. Other vegetables such as peas or a green salad can also be served. Various types of mustard are sometimes offered as a condiment. United States In the United States, a restaurant that specializes in beef steaks is known as a steakhouse. The more expensive steakhouses serve the highest grades of beef in the USA, and can offer beef dry-aged for flavor for long multi-week periods, as opposed to typical un-aged supermarket beef. The combination of well-aged beef and very high-heat grills and broilers produce a steak difficult to emulate in a",
"-27.149184659007005"
],
[
"typically matures around 30 days before being placed in the \"fossa\", a pit dug into the ground and lined with straw. The pit is prepared by burning straw inside to remove moisture and sterilize the space. The cheese is wrapped in cloth bags and placed in the pit, which is then closed off entirely while the cheese matures for an additional 80 to 100 days. The sealing of the pit limits the oxygen available to the cheese, enabling a process of anaerobic fermentation. After being removed from the pit, the cheese is allowed to ripen for an additional three months.",
"-26.939427618906848"
],
[
"Escoffier French chef Georges Auguste Escoffier gave names to different steak cuts. Tournedos were the name given for the kernels of the fillet, cut into rounds. For the thickest part of the beef fillet he gave the name; Chateaubriand. Escoffier states; \"Chateaubriands are obtained from the centre of the trimmed fillet of beef, cut two or three times the thickness of an ordinary fillet steak. However, when it is to be cooked by grilling the Chateaubriand should not be more than 500 g ( 1 lb 2 oz) in weight as, if larger than this, the outside tends to become",
"-26.85929767845664"
],
[
"be eaten within 60 days but the mature cheese must remain for at least 60 days and sometimes may be left for up to 4 months. Characteristics This is a cheese with a strong flavour, it has a lacteal base, slightly salty and a little peppery. It is buttery to the palate from the high level of fat it contains. The flavour may vary a little depending on the time of year it was made. The fresh cheese is a little sweeter and more milky. It is not recommended that this cheese is eaten after about 9 months due to",
"-26.557199175236747"
],
[
"strip steak, a striploin steak, a wing steak, a club steak, a Delmonico steak, a New York strip steak, or a Kansas City strip steak. As well, if the contre-filet is left on the bone with the filet, the entire steak is called a Porterhouse steak (as the term is understood in the United States and Canada) or a T-bone steak.",
"-26.44635790621396"
],
[
"Beef aging Dry-aged beef Dry-aged beef is beef that has been hung or placed on a rack to dry for several weeks. After the animal is slaughtered and cleaned, it is hung as a full or half carcass. Primal (large distinct sections) or sub primal cuts, such as strip loins, rib eyes, and sirloin, are placed in a refrigerator unit, also known as a \"hot box\". This process involves considerable expense, as the beef must be stored near freezing temperatures. Subprimal cuts can be dry aged on racks either in specially climate-controlled coolers or within a moisture-permeable drybag. Moreover, only",
"-26.275362011394463"
],
[
"invented the steak sandwich. Pat gave the first half of one to a cab driver for free.\nBy 1933, they rented space to open a restaurant at the same spot that they had their stand. The two brothers worked at the restaurant for 15 to 18 hours a day for the next few decades while the restaurant was open 24 hours a day.\nIn 1965, Pat retired to southern California after a family dispute. Death Pat died in 1970. His son Herbert Olivieri disputed ownership of the business with Harry Olivieri and his children. Harry's grandson Frank Jr. now runs the business.",
"-26.206172296922887"
],
[
"Blade Steak. This variation on the original flat iron cut was identified in 2002 as part of a National Cattlemen's Beef Association initiative, in conjunction with the University of Nebraska and the University of Florida to find lower-priced cuts which could be trimmed into steaks and roasts.",
"-26.158085988354287"
],
[
"well as to act as a preservative so the cheese does not spoil through the process of brine salting or dry salting for 24–48 hours. The final step is ripening the cheese by aging it. When the cheese is freshly made, there is little to no blue cheese flavour development. Usually, a fermentation period of 60–90 days are needed before the flavour of the cheese is typical and acceptable for marketing.\nDuring this ripening period, the temperature and the level of humidity in the room where the cheese is aging is monitored to ensure the cheese does not spoil or lose",
"-26.11872150731506"
],
[
"of different cheese cultures. After being prepared in 40 pounds (18 kg) blocks and aged for approximately one year, the Flagship—unlike cheddars—lacks a rind, is moister, resembles butter visually, and carries a milky aroma due to being aged in plastic bags. A variant called \"Flagship Reserve\" is aged in cheese cloth in 18 pounds (8.2 kg) sizes on racks in open air, and is rubbed with butter while being turned daily. This preparation method causes the Reserve to lose up to 12% of its initial weight by the time it is completed. The Reserve is aged for a shorter amount of time,",
"-26.054504189174622"
],
[
"Texas Steakhouse steaks are USDA Choice grade and aged for a minimum of 21 days. Programs Texas Steakhouse & Saloon is an active supporter of the US Military, offering 10% discounts for all active duty and retired military. One dollar of every purchase of its Grandma's Shortcake dessert is given to the Wounded Warrior Project.\nTexas Steakhouse & Saloon provides some coupons or small gifts as rewards for customers who would like to share their valuable feedback through Texas Steakhouse & Saloon customer survey, since the candid suggestions will help it do better. Usually, the small surprise will be a $5",
"-25.902052773395553"
],
[
"with the common expiry date. Products that spoil quickly, such as minced meat, have to be given a Verbrauchsdatum and are barred from sale upon expiry. Other products are given Mindesthaltbarkeitsdatum, which is set by the individual producers of said product and do not bar the product from being sold past the date determined. Products with an expired MHD may be sold if the seller is satisfied that the goods are in perfect condition. Accordingly, it follows that the customer is not entitled to compensation if he unintentionally acquires a product with an expired shelf life, provided that the product",
"-25.871709242695943"
],
[
"or swollen. High-acid canned foods (tomatoes, fruits) will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months; low-acid canned foods (meats, vegetables) for 2 to 5 years.\n\"Sell by date\" is a less ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an \"expiration date\". Most food is still edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and",
"-25.859780435624998"
],
[
"is deboned before curing.\nA leg of pork is deboned and divided into large sections called \"baffe\", and then cured in salt and one of various spice combinations, which may include garlic, bay leaves, juniper berries, nutmeg, and other spices, and then rested for a period of several weeks. After this, the smoking process begins.\nTyrolean Speck is cold-smoked slowly and intermittently for two or three hours a day for a period of roughly a week using woods such as beech at temperatures that never exceed 20°C (68°F). It is then matured for five months. Uses Tissue-thin slices of speck can also",
"-25.764584340446163"
],
[
"(39 °F) or even lower. The cheese should be kept in a tightly sealed container or plastic wrap to avoid contact with moisture and food-spoilage bacteria which will reduce the shelf life and freshness of the product. The companies that produce this cheese usually recommend that their cheese be consumed before the best-before date and no later than a week after. Although the cheese can still be consumed at this time, the quality of the cheese is believed to be reduced substantially. In the case that blue or green mold appears to be growing on the cheese, it must no longer",
"-25.725341736950213"
],
[
"the higher grades of meat can be dry aged, as the process requires meat with a large, evenly distributed fat content. Because of this, dry-aged beef is seldom available outside of steak restaurants and upscale butcher shops or groceries. The key effect of dry aging is the concentration and saturation of the natural flavour, as well as the tenderization of the meat texture.\nThe process changes beef by two means. Firstly, moisture is evaporated from the muscle. The resulting process of desiccation creates a greater concentration of beef flavour and taste. Secondly, the beef's natural enzymes break down the connective tissue",
"-25.717861448705662"
],
[
"about 12 minutes. The pizza is cut into strips, as opposed to being cut in slices. An average 16-inch pizza has about 14 strips, and a 10-inch pizza has about 10 strips.",
"-25.562896742951125"
],
[
"Outback Steakhouse Bloomin' Onion The Bloomin' Onion is a signature Outback item. It is a one-pound onion cut to 'bloom' open, breaded, deep-fried and served with mayonnaise-horseradish sauce. Other restaurants offer items similar to the Bloomin' Onion, as in Chili's Awesome Blossom (discontinued) and Lone Star Steakhouse & Saloon's Texas Rose. Many of the Bloomin' Onions have come under fire for high-calorie counts, sometimes going over 1,500 calories. Other Menu Items Outback also features a variety of steaks, seafood, and other America chain restaurant menu items from burgers to salads. Community Outback Steakhouse has a program to support the communities",
"-25.53464768419508"
],
[
"usually only open for about three to four months, from late June until early October.",
"-25.450995339473593"
],
[
"used as a crust with no egg being used as a binder. Steak can also be cooked using a similar method rather than broiling it and risk the loss of its juices. Coating a pan with salt and cooking the steak, ideally approximately an inch thick or less, on top yields a more moist and flavourful cut. The pan is heated until the salt crackles and steaks cooked with this method usually involves a crispy crust made of the salt. This is a key difference to other salt crusts as usually it is discarded but in this case it is",
"-25.408070859441068"
],
[
"in the muscle, which leads to more tender beef.\nThe process of dry-aging usually also promotes growth of certain fungal (mold) species on the external surface of the meat. This does not cause spoilage, but rather forms an external \"crust\" on the meat's surface, which is trimmed off when the meat is prepared for cooking. These fungal species complement the natural enzymes in the beef by helping to tenderize and increase the flavor of the meat. The genus Thamnidium, in particular, is known to produce collagenolytic enzymes which greatly contribute to the tenderness and flavor of dry-aged meat.\nDry-aged beef is typically",
"-25.376892466665595"
],
[
"its own weight. It remains there until a solid mass is formed (about 24 hours). Then it is usually turned twice, so that the excess whey can drain. The mass is taken out of the mold, rubbed with salt (sometimes with paprika) and matured in the cellar. After about 3 weeks, the cheese rind is washed off, the cheese loaves are placed on wooden cheese racks and ripened in a further 4 to 6 weeks in the ripening room at 18 to 20°C. During this time, the \"Muffna\", the glassy, greasy bark of the sour cheese, grows thicker with age",
"-25.373592546391592"
],
[
"last around 175 days, and they yield around 150 l of milk. Kids that have reached around 45 days old can be slaughtered for their meat.",
"-25.366953880293295"
],
[
"Clochette Life cycle Clochette cheese is created mainly during the summertime, from March to sometime in fall. It is mold-ripened and matures for two weeks before heading off to be sold. It only lasts for 45 days, so it has to sell fast. The older it gets, the more wrinkly it gets, until finally it is too old and can no longer be eaten. A typical bell A typical bell weighs around 9 oz (260 g).",
"-25.3424930308247"
],
[
"\"lump\" which must be mixed with water before use) as well as a pre-mixed liquid and a gel form. The solid is believed to have the longest shelf life, though all liver of sulfur tends to rapidly decompose with time. Modern gel forms contain stabilizers that allow the reactivity to last much longer. Liver of sulfur that is kept dry, sealed from air, out of the light, and in a freezer will last many times longer than that kept in any other condition.\nThe highest quality liver of sulfur in solid form is a dark yellow, almost \"liver\"",
"-25.328214315581135"
],
[
"tool can cause the leakage of precious \"juices\" that give flavor to the meat.\nThere is a third way of cooking, called \"reverse searing\", consisting in heating the piece of meat (in the Bbq or in a conventional oven) up to a temperature of about 50° at the heart; then place the steak in a grill or pan (preferably in cast iron) previously heated (they must be hot) to create a brown crust and tasty, the reaction of Maillard. Finally, let the steak rest for 4/5 minutes and then serve, trying to cut against fiber.\nTraditional accompaniment are the cannellini beans dressed",
"-25.324641677274485"
],
[
"is salted, drained, and pressed into the desired form. The remaining product may be cured if the original dairy products were not pasteurized. A common method of curing is to dry the cheese on racks for about a week, then to wax it and place it in coolers until the time of consumption. Taste Granular cheese is rich and tangy. Although unpasteurized granular cheese is ready to eat after 60 days of curing, it has a very mild flavor unless aged further to increase sharpness. The cheese is sharpest after 12 months of aging, after which it is usually sold.",
"-25.303088326836587"
],
[
"scheduled to close after 30 years.",
"-25.243793919391464"
],
[
"restaurants at the Drake and Sherry-Netherland hotels and The Colony, one of which may have originated it. It is often attributed to Chef Beniamino Schiavon, 'Nino of the Drake'. Preparation Steak Diane is similar to steak au poivre.\nThe steak is cut or pounded thin so that it will cook rapidly. It is seasoned with salt and pepper, quickly sautéed in butter, and set aside. A sauce is prepared from the pan juices with various additions, which may include butter, thinly sliced mushrooms, mustard, shallots, cream, truffles, meat stock, A1 Steak Sauce, or Worcestershire sauce. The sauce is flambéed",
"-25.184148241532966"
],
[
"long tons; 3.7 short tons).\nA remeasurement conducted by Newbrey et al. (2013) found that C. mantelli and C. agassizensis reached sexual maturity at around four to five years of age and proposed a possible revision to the measurements of the growth rings in FHSM VP-2187. The lifespan of FHSM VP-2187 and maximum lifespan of C. mantelli was also proposed to be revised to 18 and 21 years respectively using the new measurements. A 2019 study led by Italian scientist Jacopo Amalfitano briefly measured the vertebrae from two C. mantelli fossils and found that the older individual died at around 26",
"-25.16239343408961"
],
[
"Trichinella britovi Prevention To prevent trichinellosis, an official European directive recommends the freezing of meat at −25 °C (−13 °F) for at least 10 days for pieces of meat less than 25 cm (10 in) in thickness. Patients froze wild boar steaks at −35 °C (−31 °F) for seven days, but this freezing time appears insufficient to kill larvae, since T. britovi is a species relatively resistant to freezing.\nThus according to the International Commission on Trichinellosis, meat should be heated at 65 °C (149 °F) for at least 1 minute to kill Trichinella larvae; larvae die when the color of the meat at the core changes from pink to",
"-25.134025494975504"
],
[
"two different aging processes makes Amontillado wines extraordinarily complex and intriguing. Serving Amontillado is usually served slightly chilled and may be served either as an apéritif or as an accompaniment to food such as chicken or rabbit. Classically it was served with a fine, or thin, soup, such as a beef consommé. Storing Due to its oxidative ageing and preparation, amontillado is more stable than fino and may be stored for a few years before opening. After opening, it can be kept for up to two weeks, if corked and refrigerated.",
"-25.11772939551156"
],
[
"bones (with or without meat still attached) that may have already been cooked, vegetables, and herbs and spices. Stock is simmered for four to six hours, allowing for enough to achieve the goal of extraction of collagen. It is this that causes stock to form a jelly like consistency when cooled, and is also known as gelatin. Stock is not traditionally consumed on its own, but rather added to gravy, soups or other dishes. \nBone broth is cooked for the longest time of the three liquids, anywhere between 24 and 48 hours. It is made of the same ingredients as",
"-25.08916095062159"
],
[
"Sirloin steak The sirloin steak is cut from the sirloin where the T-bone, porterhouse, and club steaks are cut. The sirloin is actually divided into several types of steak. The top sirloin is the most prized of these and is specifically marked for sale under that name. The bottom sirloin, which is less tender and much larger, is typically marked for sale simply as \"sirloin steak\". The bottom sirloin, in turn, connects to the sirloin tip roast.\nIn a common British, South African, and Australian butchery, the word sirloin refers to cuts of meat from the upper middle of",
"-25.074857420811895"
],
[
"table at the former Perrier and Scarduzio establishment Brasserie Perrier. Table 31 closed in 2013, amid a dispute among its owners, and was replaced by another upscale steakhouse, named \"Chops\".",
"-25.067004830460064"
],
[
"only a few days and there is no moisture loss, so any given piece of meat sold by weight will have a higher value than a dry aged piece where moisture loss is desired for taste at the expense of final weight. The beef is usually kept for a period of 4 to 10 days in wet aging. Modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP) is usually employed for the vacuum packaging of meat; typically between 60 and 80 percent oxygen to retain its appetizing color, with red meat such as beef needing a higher oxygen level than less vividly colored meat such as",
"-25.044757845287677"
],
[
"to 70% within four years after the restaurant is opened.",
"-24.981304618529975"
],
[
"20–30 minutes to 3–5 minutes.\nPenicillium is then added to the finished product, which produces its characteristic green veins.\nAfter the rounds of cheese are made by hand, the cheese is aged in specially designed caves where they are exposed to high humidity and cool temperatures.\nAs of 2017 the cheese continued to be made by hand with milk from local dairy farms. Results The process produces cheese with more uniform color, flavor, and texture than previous processes, resulting in a consistent product. Recall Maytag issued three recalls with the FDA in February 2016 \"due to possible contamination with Listeria monocytogenes\".\nAccording to its",
"-24.97198527387809"
],
[
"varieties, with different aged profiles, and an organic version of the cheese is also sold. There is a special variety that is produced only in summer on the Swiss Alps: the Le Gruyère Switzerland AOC Alpage.\nGenerally, one can distinguish the age profiles of mild/doux (minimum 5 months old) and réserve, also known as surchoix (minimum 10 months old). In Switzerland, other age profiles can be found, including mi-salé (7–8 months), salé (9–10 months), vieux (14 months), and Höhlengereift (cave aged), but these age profiles are not part of the AOC.\nThe French Le Brouère cheese, made in nearby Vosges, is considered",
"-24.927327045938"
],
[
"The Big Texan Steak Ranch 72oz Steak Challenge The Big Texan is best known for its 72 ounce (4.5 pounds or 2.04 kg) steak. The steak is free to anyone who, in one hour or less, can eat the entire meal, consisting of the steak itself, a bread roll with butter, a baked potato, shrimp cocktail, and a salad; otherwise, the meal costs $72. Those who have successfully consumed the 72oz steak challenge have their names recorded and posted at the restaurant. As of February 2018, over 9,500 people out of about 62,000 people who attempted this challenge have",
"-24.917837231536396"
],
[
"Mac's Steak in the Rough History Started in 1949 by Dave McCarty in Portales, New Mexico. They opened their first Albuquerque restaurant in the 1960s. They are now owned by the New Mexico-based company, Fresquez Companies. Today The restaurant continues to sell its \"steak in the rough\", which is deep-fried steak fingers with french fries and white gravy, which come with a green onion. Reception The restaurant was selected as one of the best drive-in restaurants in the United States by Thrillist.",
"-24.88476297550369"
],
[
"an \"exuberant\" menu, which includes a 38-ounce steak for $129 that \"looks like something Fred Flintstone might have slapped on the grill\"; in October 2016 it was announced that it would be closing as a full-time restaurant in favor of catering and occasional \"pop up\" restaurants. The owner, Eric Korn, was also opening a traditional pizza shop on the same block. Also on Main Street is \"La Chinita Poblana\", which also opened in 2014, a strong, un-\"kitschy\" Mexican restaurant decorated with paintings by Diego Rivera, and \"Chutney Masala\", a Tandoori restaurant, which moved in 2016 from the Irvington waterfront",
"-24.807738644536585"
],
[
"from the second barrel has an average age of 2.5 years (at the end of year 2, after barrel transfers, it was half 2-year old wine, half 1-year old wine, for an average age of 1.5 years; at the end of year 3, before barrel transfers, it will have aged another year for an average age of 2.5 years). The second bottling will then be half 3.5 years old and half four years old (the wine left in the last barrel at the previous cycle), for an average age of 3.75 years. The third bottling will be an average",
"-24.778717722627334"
],
[
"below 12 °C (54 °F), and summer temperatures seldom exceed 34–35 °C (<100 °F). As a result of these conditions, whisky is ready to be bottled after 4–5 years of barrel-ageing. According to Kumar, the whisky starts \"reaching its peak in four years\", after which it has to be tasted regularly because \"by five years it starts to get too much tannin\". The fraction lost to evaporation during aging, known as the angels' share, is also higher in India, at 11–12% per year, than in Scotland, where the annual evaporative loss is about 2%. Most of the angel's share is water due to Bangalore's",
"-24.734016423404682"
],
[
"meat into a long ribbon trailing from the bone, or the meat can be removed from the bone entirely and cut into thin 0.125-to-0.25-inch (0.32 to 0.64 cm) slices. Short ribs marinated in ganjang (a Korean soy sauce) and then rapidly grilled are known as galbi. Short ribs prepared in the galbi style, but slow-cooked or steamed along with spices and vegetables is known as galbijjim.\nA specific type of short rib dish which originated in Hawaii is known as Maui-style ribs. In this dish, flanken-cut ribs are marinated in soy sauce, brown sugar, and ginger, and then swiftly grilled.\nThe \"Royal short",
"-24.699769061087864"
],
[
"Popeseye steak Butchery One first begins with a cut of rump steak. Then, thinly slice the rump steak across the widest face of the rump steak (shown as the top of the steak in the illustration). Slice width varies; one Scotch Beef butcher sells slices that \"typically weigh around 6oz\" each. Characteristics Popeseye steak is very tender, and, due to its relative thinness compared to other steaks, cooks quickly, particularly if used as a pan frying steak. Cooking of this cut should stop as soon as it is brown on each side.",
"-24.6903157698398"
],
[
"medium-rare steak.",
"-24.685621448035818"
],
[
"or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.\nEvaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and",
"-24.67700487413822"
],
[
"Montasio Aging It is typically aged for a minimum of two months, and some preparations are aged for a year or more. The rind is typically stamped with the date of its production.",
"-24.6496963853715"
],
[
"Freshly Chopped History The first Chopped opened on Baggot Street, Dublin in May 2012, founded by Brian Lee and Andy Chen. They began to franchise in 2016. In 2019 the company expanded to the United Kingdom and Cyprus. Food Freshly Chopped serve salads, cut with their signature mezzaluna knives.",
"-24.617037849035114"
],
[
"brand was still sold at select restaurants during 1998 and 1999. On August 18, 2000, the Arch Deluxe was finally discontinued, and is no longer found at McDonald's stores today.\nIt is estimated that McDonald's spent over $300 million on the research, production, and marketing for the Arch Deluxe. The company stated in 2003 that some of its initial research into adult marketing was recycled in the development of its successful line of salads.",
"-24.613201029598713"
],
[
"and then the wines are placed into oak barrels (50% new) for 18 months of aging.",
"-24.602838175254874"
],
[
"rotisserie for 45 minutes or an hour; the result was well-received, and Schultz began marketing the cut as \"tri-tip\".\nIt became a local specialty in Santa Maria in the late 1950s. Today, it is seasoned with salt, pepper, fresh garlic, and other seasonings, grilled directly over red oak wood to medium-rare doneness. Alternative preparations include roasting whole on a rotisserie, smoking in a pit, baking in an oven, grilling, or braising in a Dutch oven after searing on a grill. After cooking, the meat is normally sliced across the grain before serving.\"\nSometimes labeled \"Santa Maria steak,\" the roast is quite popular",
"-24.60187003208557"
],
[
"texture. These qualities are sometimes enjoyed—cheese curds are eaten on their own—but normally cheeses are left to rest under controlled conditions. This aging period (also called ripening, or, from the French, affinage) lasts from a few days to several years. As a cheese ages, microbes and enzymes transform texture and intensify flavor. This transformation is largely a result of the breakdown of casein proteins and milkfat into a complex mix of amino acids, amines, and fatty acids.\nSome cheeses have additional bacteria or molds intentionally introduced before or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already present in the",
"-24.590785149572184"
],
[
"hours. Then the rounds are wrapped laterally with plastic bands (which put the brand Asiago around the entire form) and are placed in a room called \"Frescura\" for two to three days to dry.\nAt this point the bandages are removed to allow one last curing by a bath in brine for a period of two days. Then the forms are allowed to rest in a dry environment for a period ranging from 20 to 40 days. The finished cheese has a cylindrical shape with a diameter of 30–40 cm (12–16 in) and height about 15 cm (5.9 in). The average weight of a wheel",
"-24.587229554781516"
],
[
"half-ton is selected, it is harvested and taken to a micro crush facility to be vinified. The minimal half-ton size makes one barrel for aging. Harvest proceeds as the taste fully develops, and is normally complete with six-eight bins harvested over a two-week period. Wines Andesite Vineyard's three-acre annual production is about 150 cases.",
"-24.58165324246511"
],
[
"age of 4.25 years (one half wine that was left over from the second bottling - average age 4.75 years, and one half wine transferred from the second barrel after the second bottling - average age 3.75 years). After 20 years, the output of the solera would be a mix of wine from 3 to 20 years old, averaging very slightly under five years. The average age asymptotically converges on five years as the solera continues. Solera production The output of the solera is the fraction of the last scale taken off for bottling each cycle. The amount of",
"-24.539947666227818"
],
[
"the process thus far may take place in modern industrial units, DO regulations stipulate that final maturity be achieved by further curing in a natural limestone cave, typical of the geology of the Liébana region, for a minimum of two months. Maturation in this cool, high-humidity environment develops the particular taste and brevibacterium-infested crust typical of many blue cheeses. Characteristics The finished cylindrical cheese may be between 7 and 15 cm (2.8 and 5.9 in) high and have a diameter of 15 to 20 cm (5.9 to 7.9 in), weighing anything between 700 g (1.5 lb) and 2.8 kg (6.2 lb). The rind is thin and grey to",
"-24.514568154976587"
],
[
"Fourme de Montbrison Manufacture The curd is salted and placed into a mould before being removed and placed on racks made from spruce wood. The cheese is then turned by hand, ninety degrees at a time, over a period of twelve hours. The cheese is injected with penicillium roqueforti spores, and later injected with air to form pockets in the pâte to encourage spore development.\nThe cheese must be aged for at least 28 days, though more often it is left for around 8 weeks. Around 20–25 L (4.4–5.5 imp gal; 5.3–6.6 US gal) of milk are used to make each cheese. By regulation the",
"-24.51133515901165"
],
[
"expand by feeding upon the rice and sugar, and the use of salt prevents the meat from rotting.\nNaem typically has a short shelf life, which can be extended through refrigeration. The sausage can be time-consuming and labor-intensive to prepare. It is typically stored at room temperature, which gives it a shelf life of around one week. It is produced all over Southeast Asia in slight variations.\nNaem is often consumed raw, (after fermentation has occurred), and is often accompanied with shallot, ginger, bird's eye chili peppers and spring onions. It is used as an ingredient in various dishes such as naem",
"-24.50793043494923"
],
[
"distillery was then known as the George T. Stagg Distillery. Today the distillery is known as the Buffalo Trace Distillery.\nThe original 101-proof ten-year-old non-single-barrel bourbon has been discontinued as of March 2005. Current brand expressions Currently, two basic varieties of Eagle Rare are produced. The first is aged for ten years (in charred new oak barrels, as with all bourbons), and bottled at 90-proof. \nThe second variety is aged seventeen years and is called part of an \"Antique Collection\". It is also 90-proof, but aged much longer than the other version (and far longer than most bourbons).",
"-24.49738543771673"
],
[
"as the Chateaubriand steak and beef Wellington. The tail, which is generally unsuitable for steaks due to size inconsistency, can be used in recipes where small pieces of a tender cut are called for, such as beef Stroganoff.",
"-24.484508724417537"
],
[
"well into 20 years. Some of the Sauvignon blanc based wines like Sancerre buck this trend and instead stay more low key till their third year when they mature and develop their full assortment of flavors before they eventually fade around their 7-10th year. However the best made examples in top vintages can often live much longer. Some classic examples of Vouvray can even reach the levels of longevity commonly associated with Port. Wineries Historically the wineries of the Loire Valley have been small, family owned operations that do a lot of estate bottling. The mid 1990s saw an increase",
"-24.48202065739315"
],
[
"also added to the curd.\nThe mixture is then placed in a round form measuring 10 centimetres (3.9 in) high and 13 to 15 centimetres (5.1 to 5.9 in) in diameter. The cheese in this form weighs about 8 to 12 kilograms (18 to 26 lb). The crust is thin, elastic, compact, and edible. Inside, the cheese has a yellowish color like wheat. After aging for about two months, the cheese is ready for the table, and provides a delicate flavor, slightly bitter, becoming more intense with greater aging. Mushrooms Mushrooms, gathered in the wild, are a very popular delicacy of the town. There",
"-24.46106234346371"
],
[
"the most recent revision of the production code released in 2010 goes further, categorically excluding valley floors, humid and flat areas, areas without sufficient sunlight, and areas with full-on northern exposures. Barolo is often described as having the aromas of tar and roses, and the wines are noted for their ability to age and usually take on a rust red tinge as they mature. Barolo needs to be aged for at least 38 months after the harvest before release, of which at least 18 months must be in wood. When subjected to aging of at least five years before release,",
"-24.427502331789583"
],
[
"consumed at a younger age. A group of Barolo producers, led by the house of Ceretto, Paolo Cordero di Montezemolo, Elio Altare, and Renato Ratti, started making more modern, international styles of Barolos by using shorter periods for maceration (days as opposed to weeks) and fermentation (usually 48–72 hours or at most 8–10 days), less time aging in new small oak barrels and an extended period of bottle aging prior to release. By using modern technology, including specialized tanks that allow the wine to be pumped out from underneath the cap of skins and then pumped over, they found ways",
"-24.410576434689574"
],
[
"to dry for 15 days in the dairy where they were shaped, and then transferred to the cellar to mature.",
"-24.406695487792604"
],
[
"Teviotdale cheese Description The cheeses are cylindrical in shape with a white coating, a yellow smooth paste and a salty flavour. Production Milk is heated to 32 °C and after rennet is added, left to incubate for 90 minutes at a temperature between 25°C and 32°C. An hour later, the curds are cut and settle for 20 minutes before being moulded and mechanically pressed. The cheeses are left in brine at 13°C for 9 hours after which they are removed to mature. They are dried for 4 days and left to mature for 15 days, whilst being turned",
"-24.374466688139364"
],
[
"Steve's Prince of Steaks History Steve's Prince of Steaks was established in 1980 by Steven Iliescu. In 2015, the Steve's along with Amoroso's Bakery broke the world record for longest cheesesteak creating a sandwich measuring approximately 480 ft (146.3 m), overtaking the previous world record set in 2011 of 426 ft (129.8 m).\nIn 2013, Steve's expanded to Center City, Philadelphia. Ratings The eatery is a popular favorite among Philadelphia residents and has received mostly positive reviews from food critics. Philadelphia Magazine awarded Steve's Prince of Steaks best cheesesteak in Philadelphia in 1992 and 2007. Liz Clayton of Serious Eats described the Steve's cheesesteaks as",
"-24.371140204253606"
],
[
"they offer to the growers higher yields and better resistance to disease. Old cultivars have been preserved in germplasm collections.\nThey are grown outdoors with plantings starting in May and running until June. Production starts in mid-July and ends in September. Uses The flesh of uncut melons is juicier and softer if kept at room temperature one or two days before serving. Once ripened or cut, it should be refrigerated in plastic. An excellent keeper, this hardy melon can be kept up to six weeks longer than other varieties.",
"-24.365259122336283"
],
[
"of crushed meat and eggs...\") in his 1875 novel Michael Strogoff. Origins of the name In the early twentieth century, what is now generally known as \"steak tartare\", was in Europe called steack à l'Americaine. One variation on that dish included serving it with tartar sauce; the 1921 edition of Escoffier's Le Guide Culinaire defines \"Steack à la tartare\" as steack à l'Americaine made without egg yolk, served with tartar sauce on the side. \"Steack à la tartare\" (literally meaning \"served with tartar sauce\") was later shorted to \"steak tartare\" Over time, the distinction between steack à l'Americaine and its",
"-24.363167220094226"
],
[
"and can be cut off in the desired amount for cooking. Using either of these techniques, the herbs should be used within a year. Meat Unpreserved meat has only a relatively short life in storage. Perishable meats should be refrigerated, frozen, dried promptly or cured. Storage of fresh meats is a complex discipline that affects the costs, storage life and eating quality of the meat, and the appropriate techniques vary with the kind of meat and the particular requirements. For example, dry ageing techniques are sometimes used to tenderize gourmet meats by hanging them in carefully controlled environments for up",
"-24.356723783974303"
],
[
"cheap steak cafeteria, received \"This cow should be ashamed\" The Associated Press and The Oklahoman wrote positive reviews of the steaks, but also noted the high pricing. The Palm Beach Post panelists best rated the Angus-certified and prime-graded bone-in rib-eye against choice-graded bone-in rib-eyes and prime-graded Publix, giving the steaks an \"A\" and writing \"Trump isn't kidding. Our panelists could barely believe how flavorful and tender the 16-ounce bone-in rib-eye was.\" However, the high price of the steaks was also noted (the others were $9-$16 per pound). Gourmet magazine opined, \"these steaks are wholly mediocre\". 2016 U.S. presidential election",
"-24.34095024101407"
],
[
"see for themselves that he was grinding steaks into the hamburger meat. Later, patrons were assured that Steakburgers were still made from these ingredients \"at our own commissary\" for shipment to the restaurants, where the open grill line remains \"in sight\" to customers.\nFollowing the success of the original restaurant, Belt purchased a chain of \"Goal Post\" restaurants throughout central Illinois, converting them into Steak 'n Shake restaurants. He also added curb service at this point. After Gus Belt Steak 'n Shake continued to expand throughout Illinois following the death of its creator in 1954, with ownership passing through many hands,",
"-24.328504888671887"
],
[
"whey to drain evenly from the cut curds; after 48 hours, each mold contains a flat, cylindrical, solid cheese mass weighing generally 250 grams (about 9 oz). At this point the fresh cheese is hard, crumbly, and bland.\nThe surface of each cheese is then sprayed with an aqueous suspension of the mold Penicillium camemberti, and the cheeses are left to ripen for a legally required minimum of three weeks. This affinage produces the distinctive bloomy, edible rind and creamy interior texture characteristic of the cheese. Once the cheeses are sufficiently ripe, they are wrapped in paper and may be placed",
"-24.322796312422724"
],
[
"cuttings, layering and from seed. Seed must be sown fresh and should germinate within two weeks. The seedlings grow vigorously, and may flower within two or three years. Plants grown from cuttings may take up to five years or longer to flower.",
"-24.31900435552234"
],
[
"of August 2019, sandwiches were US$3.50, a pound of meat US$7.00 and a pint of sauce US$3.00. \nThe diner opens at 6 a.m. six days a week and closes whenever it sells out, often by 11 a.m. According to The Chicago Tribune, \"On a summer Saturday, that could happen before 10 a.m.\" There are only two tables, providing seating for at most ten. \nAs of 2010 the restaurant offered smoking service to hunters who would bring their catches in. Recognition In 2012 the James Beard Foundation named it an American Classic, making it Arkansas' only Beard Award winner. According to The",
"-24.274159660679288"
],
[
"possible, and contract as they dry. They will last around 40 years.",
"-24.260012595215812"
],
[
"to early March— are washed, drained, and salted with coarse sea salt for about ten days. The salted fish are then rinsed, cut into bite-size pieces, mixed with cooked foxtail millet and chili powder, and let to age. After four days, thickly julienned and salted radish slices mixed with chili powder are added, and the sikhae can be eaten after another ten days of aging.",
"-24.18010319559835"
],
[
"ends, then twisting it to form the final shape. It is around 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long with a diameter of roughly 4 mm (0.2 in). The average cooking time is 10 to 15 minutes.\nIn Italian cuisine, it is most typically served with a pesto sauce.",
"-24.158567461709026"
],
[
"in August 2012.\nWhen CB Steaks purchased the restaurant, they began releasing limited time offer menu items, and will do so for two years, to give a more holistic sampling of real Texas cuisine.\nAll restaurants required upgrades to kitchens to prepare for new food items. Along with the expanded menu, changes from store decor to staff uniforms and other upgrades are in the pipeline. Cuisine Texas Steakhouse & Saloon serves Texas-style cuisine, notably steaks, ribs and seafood which are prepared over live mesquite grills. The Texas Steakhouse menu also includes burgers, salads and classic southern-style foods such as chicken fried chicken.\nAll",
"-24.154603583854623"
],
[
"cheeses are then salted in brine for a maximum of 20 hours. Finally they are left to mature for a minimum of sixty days and sometimes much longer. Flavour Both the fresh cheese and the cured cheese have a light goat flavour with a slight saltiness and slight acidity, not a complex flavour. Texture The fresh cheese is soft but firm to cut, of a very white colour and usually without cavities.\nThe cured cheese is firm to the cut, has a white to light cream colour and may have very few, small cavities. Rind The fresh cheese has almost no",
"-24.15432130417321"
],
[
"Galbi-tang Preparation About five hours are needed to cook the whole dish. Slits are made in the top of the inner bones with a sharp knife before the ribs are cut to make the flesh separate easily from the prepared beef rib. The ribs are chopped into pieces of 5–6 cm in length, and a whole radish is inserted into a pot with water over a high heat at first. As time goes by, the heat is lowered to a medium temperature. Once the beef becomes soft after being simmered for about four to five hours, the radish is taken",
"-24.148486470337957"
],
[
"turned over daily. Finally the cheeses are given another pressing to give them an aesthetic appearance and the decoration and the mark of the manufacturer is added on the rind. They are left a further 2 more days in the ventilating room. The final maturation takes place in a room between 8–10 °C (46–50 °F) and a humidity of 80%. A period of 2 months is necessary between the coagulation of the milk and final maturity.\nThe cheese is wrapped before sale to protect the surface of the cheese as it is intended that all the cheese will be eaten. It can",
"-24.135135265831195"
],
[
"have expressed concerns about plant closures that occurred after the product received significant news media coverage. Production and content Finely textured meat is produced by heating boneless beef trimmings to 107–109 °F (42–43 °C), removing the melted fat by centrifugal force using a centrifuge, and flash freezing the remaining product to 15 °F (−9 °C) in 90 seconds in a roller press freezer. The roller press freezer is a type of freezer that was invented in 1971 by BPI CEO Eldon Roth that can \"freeze packages of meat in two minutes\" and began to be used at Beef Products Inc. in 1981. The lean",
"-24.109464609762654"
],
[
"served on ceramic plates heated to 500° Fahrenheit (260 °C). Half an ounce (1 Tbsp) of butter is added just before the plates leave the kitchen in order to create the signature 'sizzle'. Fertel firmly believed that the success of her steaks was due as much to the sound and smell of the 'sizzle' as well as the taste. \"You hear that sizzle, and you think, 'I wonder if that's my steak'\", she commented in an interview shortly before her death.\nIn addition to steaks, the restaurant also serves entrees of chicken, lamb, fish, shrimp and lobster.\nPortions generally are large enough to",
"-24.099037158681313"
],
[
"weeks refrigerated. Frozen juice will keep for up to six months. It is possible to freeze slices of the fruit, though the limonin content may cause the pulp to taste bitter over time. This can be avoided by submerging the slices in sweet syrup within an airtight glass jar.",
"-24.082800289033912"
],
[
"is about 2%. This leaves a hogshead with only 150 bottles left in it, after three years, compared to around 350 in a Scotland. Michael D'souza describes it this way, \"Whisky matured at these temperatures simply cannot be aged for the kind of time expected with Scotch, even trying to mature our whisky for just 10 years would leave barely a bottle of liquid in the barrel. Fortunately, the heat actually speeds up the maturation process considerably. As a result, whisky that has been matured for just 4-5 years – as is the case with Paul John Edited and Brilliance",
"-24.082215728114534"
]
] |
5sqm5j | Why can't we just breed more bees until there are enough to sustain the population? | [
"Bees don't reproduce very quickly. You can't just \"breed more\" because it would take a while. It would also not solve the underlying problems, so you would have a lot of bees and then you would go to having very few bees very quickly.",
"According to my beekeeping friend: Domesticated bees have a huge list of genetic health problems as well as a high susceptibility to disease and are sensitive to the environment. They die easily. Breeding them takes a while too.",
"Bee populations are recovering from colony collapse disorder. There were multiple factors (mostly pollution and pesticides) that caused it.",
"So with the rise of colony collapse disorder, beekeepers have compensated for the loss of hives by doing something called hive splitting which is essentially almost like cloning the colony. Its done, more or less, by taking away a representative portion of a colony and, giving it a new queen and then poof, new hive. In reality its a lot more difficult than that and it sometimes doesn't work very well but depending on your breed of bees and their hardiness, beekeepers can split tons of new hives. The upper limits is of course how fast the hives can build up for another splitting which can take time (remember the queen is only laying one eggs at a time). There are obvious downsides to this mitigating strategy, a big one being a lack of genetic diversity. Colony collapse disorder is on the mend right now and populations are recovering. That is due in part to new understanding about some pesticides such as neonicotinoids which are suspects of playing a part in the colony collapse disorder phenomenon. URL_0 "
] | [
[
"from two males that are not related. This is only able to occur because workers have maintained their ancestral abilities of being able to breed independently, which has direct fitness benefits for the worker through reproduction and indirect fitness benefits by being able to help relatives. This is why, in larger colonies, workers are more likely to reproduce as it increases the genetic diversity of the nest allowing for a better proliferation of the species. Diet Although pollen protein content is commonly considered the most important factor for bees, different pollens are known to vary widely by many nutritional factors.",
"-36.66554515797179"
],
[
"important for agriculture due to the decline in population of honey bees, there are new efforts to sustain and promote these species. Some farmers are now raising native plants that these bees feed from in order to ensure that their farming practices do not negatively affect the native bee population.",
"-35.1392787710065"
],
[
"a new queen but keep all the bees in the colony together, he maximizes his chances of a good harvest. It takes many years of learning and experience to be able to manage all these aspects successfully, though owing to variable circumstances many beginners often achieve a good honey harvest. Colony reproduction: swarming and supersedure All colonies are totally dependent on their queen, who is the only egg-layer. However, even the best queens live only a few years and one or two years longevity is the norm. She can choose whether or not to fertilize an egg as she lays",
"-32.800539288902655"
],
[
"towards the growth of the current colony members versus reproduction. If too much energy is expended on the maintenance of an adult colony, the bees will lose the chance to expand through reproduction but they will have older workers who specialize in nectar resources for energy (honey.) If too much energy is spent on reproduction, such a colony will be less equipped to survive drastic seasonal changes because they have younger workers who specialize in pollen for feeding the brood, not energy storage. Evolution of life history strategies These two strategies have been adopted by the European and African bees,",
"-32.47689989567152"
],
[
"a presumption that native pollinators may reclaim the niche, typically being better adapted to serve those plants (assuming that the plants normally occur in that specific area).\nHowever, even though on a per-individual basis, many other species are actually more efficient at pollinating, on the 30% of crop types where honey bees are used, most native pollinators cannot be mass-utilized as easily or as effectively as honey bees—in many instances they will not visit the plants at all. Beehives can be moved from crop to crop as needed, and the bees will visit many plants in large numbers, compensating via saturation",
"-32.011068048654124"
],
[
"compared to farms without wildflower habitat. While most farms use managed bees, from either their own hives or rented, to pollinate their crops, wild bees can meet 100% of their pollination needs so long as they are plentiful. By maintaining wildflowers near their crops, farms would be able to resource natural pollination. The act of providing pollinators with more nutrient rich habitats, while having the benefit of \"free\" crop pollination, is a simple way to aid in the reduction of pollinator decline. Air pollution Researchers at the University of Virginia have discovered that air pollution from automobiles and power plants",
"-31.86548071517609"
],
[
"to bees), and competition between native and introduced or invasive species. Decline Pollinators, which are necessary for 75% of food crops, are declining globally in both abundance and diversity. Bees, in particular, are thought to be necessary for the fertilization of up to 90% of the world's 107 most important human food crops.\nThe decline in bee numbers has attracted much public attention. Members of the British Beekeepers' Association have issued numerous warnings in the 21st century that the country's bees are in rapid decline. Writing in 2013, Elizabeth Grossman noted that the winter losses of beehives had increased in recent",
"-31.695217333734035"
],
[
"US. Loss of habitat and forage Bees and other pollinators face a higher risk of extinction due to loss of habitat and access to natural food sources. The global dependency on livestock and agriculture has rendered no less than 50% of the earth's landmass uninhabitable for bees. The agricultural practice of planting one crop (monoculture) in a given area year after year leads to extreme malnourishment. Regardless if the planted crop does flower and provide food for the bee, the bee will still be malnourished because a single plant cannot meet its nutrient requirements. Furthermore, the crops needed to support",
"-31.404815226444043"
],
[
"only permit breeding with the preferred individuals plants. This may be achieved through the use of pollination bags. Improving pollination in areas with suboptimal bee densities In some instances growers’ demand for beehives far exceeds the available supply. The number of managed beehives in the US has steadily declined from close to 6 million after WWII, to less than 2.5 million today. In contrast, the area dedicated to growing bee-pollinated crops has grown over 300% in the same time period. Additionally, in the past five years there has been a decline in winter managed beehives, which has reached an unprecedented",
"-31.31705120177503"
],
[
"5,715-$7,135 per hectare additionally. Not only will there be a cost increase but also an decrease in colony fitness, leading to a decrease in genetic diversity, which studies have shown has a direct link to the long term survival of the honey bee colonies.\nAccording to a study, there are over 50 plants that are dependent on bee pollination, many of these being key staples to feeding the world. Another study conducted states that as a direct result of a lack of plant diversity, will lead to a decline in the bee population fitness, and a low bee colony fitness has",
"-31.091399957891554"
],
[
"actually healthier than \"rural bees\" because there are fewer pesticides and greater biodiversity in the urban gardens. Urban bees may fail to find forage, however, and homeowners can use their landscapes to help feed local bee populations by planting flowers that provide nectar and pollen. An environment of year-round, uninterrupted bloom creates an ideal environment for colony reproduction.\nUrban beekeepers are testing modern types of beehives, testing for urban contest and ease of use. In 2015 the FlowHive appeared and in 2018 Beeing, a hive made in Italy, that allows the beekeeper to extract honey without having contact with the bees.",
"-30.6599102627315"
],
[
"are only dependent on honeybees to enhance their capacity to produce better and healthier fruits. Honeybees also help plants to reduce time between flowering and fruit set, which reduces risk from harmful factors such as pests, diseases, chemicals, weather, etc. Specialist plants that require honeybees will be at more risk if honeybees decline, whereas generalist plants that use other animals as pollinators (or wind pollinating or self-pollinating) will suffer less because they have other sources of pollination.\nWith that said, honeybees perform some level of pollination of nearly 75% of all plant species directly used for human food worldwide. Catastrophic loss",
"-30.645191813469864"
],
[
"plant in Newfoundland, Canada, non-native bee species have been imported. Since these bees are not from the area and are farm raised, they are infected by diseases and parasites that the native bees don’t have a defense against. This has caused a decline in all Bombus species in the area and unfortunately, many of the indigenous plants rely on these native species for pollination. With the decrease in natural pollinators, these plants may end up being replaced by plants that are favored by the imported bees. This change in plant life may in turn decrease the diversity of birds and",
"-30.53580275271088"
],
[
"bees as female workers attempt to increase the propagation of their genes by biasing their queen-rearing efforts in favor of virgin queens sharing the same father. Although female worker bees do possess ovaries and can essentially produce viable eggs, this potential is almost never realized as long as the colony is ruled by a dominant queen. Therefore, the probability of personal reproduction by a worker bee is exceedingly low. “Worker policing,” which is the mutual prevention of reproduction by workers, could be the reason behind the conscious non-reproduction of female worker bees. In other words, their fertility is controlled by",
"-30.491904422349762"
],
[
"daughters produced will be fertile. This is likely because with colder and shorter breeding seasons, the bee does not have enough time to produce two brood. In warmer climates with longer breeding seasons, having two broods, with the first brood caring for the second, can be more efficient Parasitic Bees exhibit parasitism by laying their eggs the host bee's brood cells. Eggs of parasitic bees are often small in size compare to solitary and communal bees to avoid detection by the host",
"-30.447753217536956"
],
[
"and regions where CCD occurs. Economic and ecological impact Honey bees are not native to the Americas, therefore their necessity as pollinators in the U.S. and other regions in the Western Hemisphere is limited to strictly agricultural and ornamental uses, as no native plants require honey bee pollination, except where concentrated in monoculture situations—where the pollination need is so great at bloom time that pollinators must be concentrated beyond the capacity of native bees (with current technology).\nThe phenomenon is particularly important for crops such as almond growing in California, where honey bees are the predominant pollinator and the crop value",
"-30.233402756637588"
],
[
"clover plant population was restored when bumblebees were imported from Europe to help with the pollination. Maintaining red clover population in New Zealand at the time was critical to the country's crop production rate. However, in North America, bee population is on the decline due to many factors, which include colony mortality and a decline in the number of beekeeping professionals. This has led to challenges for farmers from the east to the west coast of the United States and Canada to find alternate ways to help plants such as berries pollinate at a steady pace.\nOne of the most common",
"-29.983530443452764"
],
[
"longer, bees can fly and forage for longer hours increasing the production. Migrating beekeepers also take advantage of local bloom of agricultural plants or wild flowers and trees. In mountainous regions a beekeeper may migrate up the mountain as the spring and summer bloom progresses.\nIt has been shown that a larger bee colony will produce relatively more honey. Therefore, the early buildup and spring feeding and subsequent prevention of swarming are of high priority. Several different methods such as the Demaree method, Checkerboarding and opening up the brood nest have been advocated to prevent swarming. Techniques",
"-29.971651007188484"
],
[
"of honeybees could have significant impact, therefore; it is estimated that seven out of the 60 major agricultural crops in North American economy would be lost, and this is only for one region of the world. Farms that have intensive systems (high density of crops) will be impacted the most compared to non-intensive systems (small local gardens that depend on wild bees) because of dependence on honeybees. These types of farms have a high demand for honeybee pollination services, which in the U.S. alone costs $1.25 billion annually. This cost is offset, however, as honeybees as pollinators generate 22.8 to",
"-29.963523149956018"
],
[
"generation. Maintenance The population is grown repeatedly and possibly changes due to natural selection. Each year seeds are saved after harvest, and used as seed for the next growing season. Plants that are successful under the prevailing growing conditions will give more seeds and contribute more to the next generation, compared to less successful plants. Disease will cull susceptible plants and the population will over time become resistant to the common diseases, but only if the initial population has resistance genes present. Pros When genotypes grown together in a diverse population have different profiles of resource use they complement each",
"-29.65134731377475"
],
[
"impacts on the fitness of plant ecosystem diversity. By allowing for bee pollination and working to reduce anthropogenically harmful footprints, bee pollination can increase flora growth genetic diversity and create a unique ecosystem that is highly diverse and can provide a habitat and niche for many other organisms to thrive. Due to the evolutionary pressures of bees being located on six out of seven continents, there can be no denying the impact of pollinators on the ecosystem diversity. The pollen collected by the bees is harvested and used as an energy source for winter time, this act of collecting pollen",
"-29.58006424312771"
],
[
"requires about 30,000 hives; Maine's blueberry crop uses about 50,000 hives each year. The US solution to the pollinator shortage, so far, has been for commercial beekeepers to become pollination contractors and to migrate. Just as the combine harvesters follow the wheat harvest from Texas to Manitoba, beekeepers follow the bloom from south to north, to provide pollination for many different crops.\nIn America, bees are brought to commercial plantings of cucumbers, squash, melons, strawberries, and many other crops. Honey bees are not the only managed pollinators: a few other species of bees are also raised as pollinators. The alfalfa leafcutter",
"-29.515203406102955"
],
[
"genetic diversity there would be a lack of traits for natural selection to act on for the survival of the plant species. Seed dispersal is also important for plant fitness because it allows plants the ability to expand their populations. More than that, it permits plants to escape environments that have changed and have become difficult to reside in. All of these factors show the importance of pollinators for plants, which are the a significant part of the foundation for a stable ecosystem. If only a few species of plants depended on Loss of pollinators is especially devastating because there",
"-29.48817597620655"
],
[
"district to India and neighbouring countries show an increase, proving the potential for income generation for poor and disadvantaged Nepalese farmers.\nHoney is considered one of the most effective and inexpensive home remedies. Richness of bees and floral resources offer good potential for niche market. Due to lack of education, Nepali farmers are often unable to meet the quality specified by buyers for their honey. Farming bees in Nepal requires minimal start up investment and generally yields profits within the first year of operation. Assurance of quality is key to improving access to international markets. Honey processing in the case of",
"-29.37835155709763"
],
[
"plant individuals. Therefore, being able to get pollen from only one flower may have helped lead this species to the endangerment of being extinct. Distribution This endangered solitary bee is present in most of Europe and in the Near East. It is mainly found in Sweden but is threatened in several European countries. The overall population sizes of this bee are small.\nWith the specific conditions in which a nest must be made could have aided in bringing this species closer to being endangered of being extinct. Furthermore, this species is endangered as these bees are often infected by a host",
"-29.24077326839324"
],
[
"types of honey bees (workers, nurse bees, larvae) depending on their life cycle stage. During the phoretic stage, Varroa prefer to attach to nurse bees as this results in higher fitness leading into the reproductive stage. The mites then feed on larvae during their reproductive stage and increased fitness leads to an increase in mite fecundity (number of female offspring). Due to Varroa's ability to feed on all types of honey bees, they are one of the biggest threats to colonies, especially over winter. Israeli acute paralysis virus In 2004, Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), was discovered in Israel and",
"-29.17661509872414"
],
[
"German honey bee subspecies (A. m. mellifera) previously used for beekeeping indicate that a queen can live up to eight years. Because a queen's store of sperm is depleted near the end of her life, she begins laying more unfertilized eggs; for this reason, beekeepers often replace queens every year or two.\nThe lifespan of workers varies considerably over the year in regions with long winters. Workers born in spring and summer will work hard, living only a few weeks, but those born in autumn will remain inside for several months as the colony clusters. On average during the year, about",
"-29.1584491499234"
],
[
"and it will be profitable because the yield of their main produce will remain stable.\nNot all regions are suitable for agriculture. The technological advancement of the past few decades has allowed agriculture to develop in some of these regions. For example, Nepal has built greenhouses to deal with its high altitude and mountainous regions. Greenhouses allow for greater crop production and also use less water since they are closed systems.\nDesalination techniques can turn salt water into fresh water which allows greater access to water for areas with a limited supply. This allows the irrigation of crops without decreasing natural fresh",
"-29.148852888734154"
],
[
"around the country to pollinate crops, where they intermingle with other bees from all over, helps spread viruses and mites among colonies. Additionally, such continuous movement and re-settlement is considered by some a strain and disruption for the entire hive, possibly rendering it less resistant to all sorts of systemic disorder. Selective commercial breeding and lost genetic diversity in industrial apiculture Most of the focus on CCD has been toward environmental factors. CCD is a condition recognised for greatest impact in regions of 'industrial' or agricultural use of commercially bred bee colonies. Natural breeding and colony reproduction of wild bees",
"-29.088179265134386"
],
[
"have a higher resilience to pests and diseases and allows scientists access to a more diverse genome than can be found in highly selected crops. The breeding of monocultural crops steadily reduces genetic diversity as desirable traits are selected, and undesirable traits are removed. Farmers can increase within-crop diversity to some extent by planting mixtures of crop varieties; they can further increase in-field diversity by polycultural practices such as intercropping and companion planting. Ecological effects Agricultural ecosystems function effectively as self-regulating systems provided they have sufficient biodiversity of plants and animals. Apart from producing food, fuel, and fibre, agroecosystem functions include recycling",
"-29.08040121861268"
],
[
"is a complex and highly selective process, leading to a diverse genetic makeup in large within-colony populations of bees, which might not be reproduced in commercially bred colonies. Malnutrition In 2007, one of the patterns reported by the CCD Study Group at Pennsylvania State was that all producers in a preliminary survey noted a period of \"extraordinary stress\" affecting the colonies in question prior to their die-off, most commonly involving poor nutrition and/or drought. This was the only factor that all of the cases of CCD had in common in the report; accordingly, there appeared to be at least some",
"-28.967499771300936"
],
[
"resources because they cannot afford to be selective. Honey bees that are genetically inclined towards resources high in sucrose like concentrated nectar will not be able to sustain themselves in harsher environments. The noted PER to low sucrose concentration in Africanized honey bees may be a result of selective pressure in times of scarcity when their survival depends on their attraction to low quality resources. Morphology and genetics The popular term \"killer bee\" has only limited scientific meaning today because there is no generally accepted fraction of genetic contribution used to establish a cut-off. Morphological tests Although the native African",
"-28.920362903358182"
],
[
"have any specific timing for building new nests or breeding. New nests are based on a cost-benefit system for individual females. A colony can be potentially reused for years as long as it is not destroyed by weather or natural predators. Because new nests are energetically costly, most females become queens by waiting on their turn in the age hierarchy. More than 50% of individual female foundings fail, so it is more beneficial to either stay and become a helper or to become a floater and find a new established nest. This is possible because Liostenogaster flavolineata has a ranking",
"-28.849224881254486"
],
[
"thereby neither feeding on nor being fed honey. Water requirement In addition to food requirements for diet, water also plays a key role in the growth and development of adult bees. In fact, the form of food has little to no influence on the longevity and life expectancy of the bee as long as there is still ready availability of water. This idea was further supported through experimental means concerning queen bees isolated in separate cages. Both groups were fed sugar candy as a control measure; however, the group that was fed water in addition to the sugar candy lived",
"-28.800932105630636"
],
[
"respectively. European bees must survive the winter, an annual event with predictable mortality outcomes. Trying to meet the energetic needs of the colony and reproduction might decrease their overall survival during the winter and it is more evolutionarily favorable for them to store nectar and honey. African bees are more vulnerable to less predictable times of scarcity or attack and it is therefore to their advantage to produce as many young as possible, increasing the likelihood that some or even many will survive. Such circumstances would have favored the worker bees who preferred harvesting nectar in European colonies and pollen",
"-28.787420341279358"
],
[
"it is known that there is a correlation in butterfly diversity and plant diversity. Food security and pollinator decline Besides the imbalance of the ecosystem caused by the decline in pollinators, it may jeopardise food security. Pollination is necessary for plants to continue their populations and 3/4 of the world's food supply are plants that require pollinators. Insect pollinators, like bees, are large contributors to crop production, over 200 billion dollars worth of crop species are pollinated by these insects. Pollinators are also essential because they improve crop quality and increase genetic diversity, which is necessary in producing fruit",
"-28.771225619246252"
],
[
"are infertile due to enforced altruistic kin selection, and thus never reproduce. Workers are nevertheless considered female for anatomical and genetic reasons. Genetically, a worker bee does not differ from a queen bee and can even become a laying worker bee, but in most species will produce only male (drone) offspring. Whether a larva becomes a worker or a queen depends on the kind of food it is given after the first three days of its larval form. Gut bacteria The workers perform different behavioural tasks in the colony that cause them to be exposed to different local environments. The",
"-28.75798948481679"
],
[
"the colony size by bringing resources for growth. Thus, workers that hatch later in the year, around midsummer, tend to be larger than initial worker bees. The hives continue to grow, and in late summer there can be more than 200 worker bees. At the point when the size of the hive is sufficient, the queen stops production of a chemical that prevents ovarian production of certain females leading to specify the production of queen bee eggs and male eggs.\nCertain female workers may produce their own eggs, but the queen will usually get rid of them. The constant battle between",
"-28.751966309326235"
],
[
"seen in populations that lack genetic diversity. Polygamy in less genetically diverse populations is a means of avoiding fertilization between beetles that are closely related since they may be genetically incompatible. The more partners that a male or female has, the higher the chances that at least one of the matings is with an unrelated partner and the greater the genetic diversity in the offspring. In this way, genetic incompatibility is reduced and diversity is increased in a population. For this reason, females copulate with more males when genetic diversity is low in order to attain fertilization success and also",
"-28.741972389863804"
],
[
"from crops to them and predatory insects and arachnids that feed upon pest insects will be better-supported by these more naturalized areas. They additionally have the beneficial aspect of supporting pollinators, unlike many field crops such as maize. Moreover, being untreated with pesticides and providing more diversity, plants growing in more wild areas adjacent to farms produce more insects that attract and support birds which can also feed on pests that would harm crops. Insect production is especially high for beetle banks that have enough plants that serve in the role of host plant for immature insects, rather than just",
"-28.67860106844455"
],
[
"estimated at close to $200 billion in 2005. Shortages of bees in the US have increased the cost to farmers renting them for pollination services by up to 20%.\nIn the six years leading up to 2013, more than 10 million colonies were lost, often to CCD, nearly twice the normal rate of loss. In comparison, according to U.N. FAO data, the world's beehive stock rose from around 50 million in 1961 to around 83 million in 2014, which is about 1.3% average annual growth. Average annual growth has accelerated to 1.9% since 2009. Honey producing colonies in the United States",
"-28.65231833886355"
],
[
"that because Bombus bees are parasitized they may have developed polyandry, but this is not the case. Instead they mate singly with a low mating frequency. B. pratorum do not appear to require multiple matings to produce enough sperm to fertilize eggs because as it is, only a couple hundred of the workers contribute sperm anyway. At the end of the colony cycle there is not much reduction in sperm left over in the queen's spermatheca, suggesting that she has enough. Hibernation Since bumblebees have an annual colony cycle, only the young queens survive and go on to start a",
"-28.63235162559431"
],
[
"wild populations. Crops Crops refer to groups of plants grown for consumption. Despite domestication over many years, these plants are not so far removed from their wild relatives that they could reproduce if brought together. Many crops are still grown in the areas they originated and gene flow between crops and wild relatives impacts the evolution of wild populations. Farmers can avoid reproduction between the different populations by timing their planting of crops so that crops are not flowering when wild relatives would be. Domesticated crops have been changed through artificial selection and genetic engineering. The genetic make up of",
"-28.598372866981663"
],
[
"are given a single food source such as corn syrup (high-fructose or other), sugar and pollen substitute. In summer, they may only pollinate a single crop (e.g., almonds, cherries, or apples). The monoculture diet is attributed to bee rentals and migratory bee keeping. Honey bees are only being introduced to select commercial crops such as corn. These single pollen diets are greatly inferior to mixed pollen diets. However, there are a few pollens that are acceptable for honey bees to be introduced to exclusively, including sweet clover and mustard.\nA study published in 2010 found that bees that were fed pollen",
"-28.575001299963333"
],
[
"plant that is very competitive with its roots. In addition to this data, new research implies that whatever genes are enabling the roots to beat out the competition are homogeneous in nature (therefore more easily passed down through generations) and is the reason the species is as dominant. Once these genes become identified, agriculturalists can seek to implement them into genetically modified versions of wheat species to create a more durable and successful domesticated wheat species in our limited environment.\nToday, researchers can annotate important functional genes that may be valuable for human use in the field of agriculture. This can",
"-28.554607099387795"
],
[
"indicates these bees return to the same nest site, though most, if not all, of the original workers might be replaced in the process because workers usually live for less than two months. Furthermore, these bees build small combs that serve as temporary nests during their long migrations.\nIn Bornean rainforests, Apis koschevnikovi and Apis dorsata are the only honeybees that appear frequently at flowering canopy trees or baits. Even though they share most of the same rain forest habitat, they are still able to coexist. Their difference in size and tongue length help separate their resource use. Colony initiation There",
"-28.543718934757635"
],
[
"most native plants have some native pollinator that is far more effective at pollinating that species. When honey bees are present as an invasive species in an area, they compete for flowers with native pollinators, which can actually push out the native species. Claims of human dependency Western honey bees are often described as being essential to all human food production, leading to claims that without their pollination, all of humanity would starve, or even die out. Einstein is sometimes misquoted as saying If bees disappeared off the face of the earth, man would only have four years left to",
"-28.48095609844313"
],
[
"pollination for what they lack in efficiency. The commercial viability of these crops is therefore strongly tied to the beekeeping industry. In China, hand pollination of apple orchards is labor-intensive, time consuming, and costly.\nIn regions of the Old World where they are indigenous, honeybees (Apis mellifera) are among the most important pollinators, vital to sustain natural habitats there in addition to their value for human societies (to sustain food resources). Where honeybee populations decline, there is also a decline in plant populations. In agriculture, some plants are completely dependent on honeybees to pollinate them to produce fruit, while other plants",
"-28.36596252862364"
],
[
"expected. As such, the workers are less likely to cooperate with the queen based on maximizing their own fitness. To get the workers to remain with the nest and continue to aid her own offspring, the queen often cedes reproduction to alien workers. These workers can produce males or gynes and have high rates of reproduction. They do not, however, overwinter, nor are they morphologically similar to a queen or gyne. The length of lifespan for the queens may be a factor that leads to more reproductive workers in southern climes that have longer breeding seasons; in northern climes, where",
"-28.33036991301924"
],
[
"flies, beetle mites, moths, ants, and robber stingless bees. There has specifically been noted an infestation of mantisflies of the M. subnitida colonies in Northeastern Brazil. Apiculture This species is known for easy handling and produce good honey. Artificial colonies can be maintained by bee-keepers. It is common to farm this species within urban environments in its native range.\nNew colonies can be formed by division of already existing colonies, which can be done up to four times a year if conditions are adequate and enough food is artificially provided, avoiding the bees expending extra effort finding food for themselves. Honey",
"-28.326913810451515"
],
[
"of honey and wax have become vastly used throughout the world. The sudden disappearance of bees leaving empty hives or colony collapse disorder (CCD) is not uncommon. However, in 16-month period from 2006 through 2007, 29% of 577 beekeepers across the United States reported CCD losses in up to 76% of their colonies. This sudden demographic loss in bee numbers is placing a strain on the agricultural sector. The cause behind the massive declines is puzzling scientists. Pests, pesticides, and global warming are all being considered as possible causes.\nAnother highlight that links conservation biology to insects, forests, and climate",
"-28.272443233290687"
],
[
"bee is an important pollinator for alfalfa seed in western United States and Canada. Bumblebees are increasingly raised and used extensively for greenhouse tomatoes and other crops.\nThe ecological and financial importance of natural pollination by insects to agricultural crops, improving their quality and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new financial opportunities. The vicinity of a forest or wild grasslands with native pollinators near agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or coffee can improve their yield by about 20%. The benefits of native pollinators may result in forest owners demanding payment for their contribution in",
"-28.256613273872063"
],
[
"genetic mutations and variation in cultivated specimens.\nGenetic material from other parts of Europe is being avoided, so no trees are being introduced from the mainland European population.\nThe conservation of the species involves attempting to increase the genetic diversity and so it is hoped that some mutations will take place with the cultivated stock which it is hoped will allow them to breed more successfully (Pears are self-sterile, so clones cannot breed easily with other clones).\nThe species suffers from low seed fertility caused by the inbreeding of the two, British populations and conservation efforts are attempting to combat this.\nThe two populations",
"-28.25089295466023"
],
[
"the eggs, larvae, and pupae left unprotected by the bumblebees, sometimes destroying large parts of the nest. Agricultural use Bumblebees are important pollinators of both crops and wildflowers. Because bumblebees do not overwinter the entire colony, they do not stockpile honey, and therefore are not useful as honey producers. Bumblebees are increasingly cultured for agricultural use as pollinators, among other reasons because they can pollinate plants such as tomato in greenhouses by buzz pollination whereas other pollinators cannot. Commercial production began in 1987, when Roland De Jonghe founded the Biobest company; in 1988 they produced enough nests to pollinate 40",
"-28.25015587476082"
],
[
"the degradation of agricultural land, simply planting more crops is no longer a viable option. New varieties of plants can in some cases be developed through plant breeding that generate an increase of yield without relying on an increase in land area. An example of this can be seen in Asia, where food production per capita has increased twofold. This has been achieved through not only the use of fertilisers, but through the use of better crops that have been specifically designed for the area. Breeding for increased nutritional value Plant breeding can contribute to global food security as",
"-28.219978267210536"
],
[
"of Agriculture formed a task force to address the issue. In the six years leading up to 2013, more than 10 million beehives were lost, often to CCD, nearly twice the normal rate of loss. However, according to Syngenta and the F.A.O., the total number of beehives worldwide continues to grow. An insecticide produced by Syngenta was banned by the European Commission in 2013 for use in crops pollinated by bees. Syngenta together with Bayer is challenging this ban in court. Genetic and physio-pathological predictions Before the symptomatic manifestation of Colony Collapse Disorder, there are physio-pathological traits which serve as",
"-28.210937076131813"
],
[
"with sufficient nutrition. Crops need to be able to mature in multiple environments to allow worldwide access, which involves solving problems including drought tolerance. Global solutions are achievable through the process of plant breeding, with its ability to select specific genes allowing crops to perform at a level which yields the desired results. Increased yield without expansion With an increasing population, the production of food needs to increase with it. It is estimated that a 70% increase in food production is needed by 2050 in order to meet the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security. But with",
"-28.154094354365952"
],
[
"human food supply depends on pollination by insects, birds and bats, most of which is accomplished by bees, whether wild or domesticated. Over the last half century, there has been a general decline in the species richness of wild bees and other pollinators, probably attributable to stress from increased parasites and disease, the use of pesticides, and a general decrease in the number of wild flowers. Climate change probably exacerbates the problem.\nContract pollination has overtaken the role of honey production for beekeepers in many countries. After the introduction of Varroa mites, feral honey bees declined dramatically in the US, though",
"-28.15064666524995"
],
[
"before being successfully inseminated.\nAlthough multiple mating events may result in an increased likelihood for finding genetically compatible sperm, genetic compatibility cannot always be considered a major fitness advantage for polyandrous behavior. The increased viability of embryos—due to increased genetic compatibility—did not significantly increase the number of adult beetles over time, and therefore, did not play a significant role in the fitness of the overall population. However, increased genetic compatibility could increase the genetic diversity of the population, which maybe useful in various different environments. High genetic diversity within a population can lead to high phenotypic variation, which can subsequently enable",
"-28.133817591820844"
],
[
"rate of colony losses at near 30%. At present, there is an enormous demand for beehive rentals that cannot always be met. There is a clear need across the agricultural industry for a management tool to draw pollinators into cultivations and encourage them to preferentially visit and pollinate the flowering crop. By attracting pollinators like honey bees and increasing their foraging behavior, particularly in the center of large plots, we can increase grower returns and optimize yield from their plantings. ISCA Technologies, from Riverside California, created a semiochemical formulation called SPLAT Bloom, that modifies the behavior of honey bees, inciting",
"-28.100993898930028"
],
[
"pass on more of their offspring to the next generation. In longer growing seasons, however, there may be enough time for most plants to produce seeds before the season ends regardless of damage. In this case, plants that can shorten the phenological delay are not any more tolerant than those that cannot as all plants can reproduce before the season ends (Tiffin 2000). Stored reserves and resource reallocation Resource allocation following herbivory is commonly studied in agricultural systems (Trumble et al. 1993). Resources are most often allocated to reproductive structures after damage, as shown by Irwin et al. (2008) in",
"-28.08575308293075"
],
[
"The remnant colony, after having produced one or more swarms, is usually well provisioned with food. But, the new queen can be lost or eaten by predators during her mating flight, or poor weather can prevent her mating flight. In this case the hive has no further young brood to raise additional queens, and it will not survive. A cast swarm will usually contain a young virgin queen.\nThe propensity to swarm differs among the honey bee races. Africanized bees are notable for their propensity to swarm or abscond. Absconding is a process where the whole hive leaves rather",
"-28.067570624203654"
],
[
"pruinosa, but this bee has declined, probably at least in part to pesticide (imidacloprid) sensitivity. Ground-based bees such as squash bees and the eastern bumblebee are better suited to handle the larger pollen particles that pumpkins create, but today most commercial plantings are pollinated by hives of honeybees, which also allows the production and sale of honey that the bees produce from the pumpkin pollen. One hive per acre (4,000 m² per hive, or 5 hives per 2 hectares) is recommended by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. If there are inadequate bees for pollination, gardeners often have to hand pollinate. Inadequately",
"-28.06198562553618"
],
[
"low mortality rate during the initial stages of life because they do not leave the nest. Death of individuals becomes significant after approximately 15 days and continues increasing until about 40 days. Unlike the worker bees, the queen bees can live for multiple years, averaging a longer lifespan. Male Production Male production depends on the season. Production of males is restricted during food shortages, creating short periods of male production with longer periods of female production. Males are produced by unfertilized eggs laid by the workers. Communication Scaptotrigona postica communicate to recognize nest-mates, identify the caste of any individual bee,",
"-28.044870716483274"
],
[
"Buzz about Bees Contents Imagine a world without bees. Not only would it be less colourful — with fewer wildflowers and flowering plants — it would be less fruitful as well. A world without bees would mean a world where the food supply would be significantly diminished. Global bee researcher Laurence Packer estimates that bees are responsible for 1/3 of our food supply.\nAccompanying information about the history, social structure and science behind the world of bees and honey are conservation activities to make the world a place where hives of bees can thrive.",
"-28.031432669144124"
],
[
"being Bombus bifarius). When fertile queens and drones from the same colony meet during the mating period, they tend to avoid each other. In other bees inbreeding is avoided because females and males from the same colony are not so likely to encounter each other. In general, inbreeding is not common in bees. Diet Bombus frigidus feed on the nectar of plants with their medium short tongue. For bees on the eastern half of North America, the nectar usually comes from Cirsium (thistles), Epilobium, Geranium, Mertensia (bluebells), Taraxacum officinale (dandelion), and Trifolium (clovers). For bees on the western half,",
"-28.03094091778621"
],
[
"in that they seem to show a higher resistance to several health issues including parasites such as Varroa destructor, some fungal diseases like chalkbrood and even the mysterious colony collapse disorder which is currently plaguing beekeepers. So despite all its negative factors, it is possible that the Africanized honey bee might actually end up being a boon to apiculture. Queen management in Africanized bee areas In areas where Africanized bees are well established, purchased and pre-fertilized (i.e. mated) European queens can be used to maintain a hive's European genetics and behavior. However, this practice can be expensive since these queens",
"-27.945712184766307"
],
[
"this method include the lack of pollinators, keeping control of cross-pollination between varieties grown together, and creating specific hybrids. Examples of this are vanilla plants, which are transported to areas where its natural pollinator doesn't exist, or plants grown in greenhouses, urban areas, or with a cover to control pests, where natural pollinators cannot reach them. Pollinator decline and the concentrated pollination needs of monoculture can also be a factor. However, these are not the only reasons, and variable techniques for hand-pollination have arisen for many specialty crops. For instance, hand-pollination is used with date palms to avoid wasting space",
"-27.93350996208028"
],
[
"the improved crop results – a simple example of the economic value of ecological services. Farmers can also raise native crops in order to promote native bee pollinator species as shown with L. vierecki in Delaware and L. leucozonium in southwest Virginia.\nThe American Institute of Biological Sciences reports that native insect pollination saves the United States agricultural economy nearly an estimated $3.1 billion annually through natural crop production; pollination produces some $40 billion worth of products annually in the United States alone.\nPollination of food crops has become an environmental issue, due to two trends. The trend to monoculture means that greater",
"-27.92145199123479"
],
[
"that is quite drought resistant. They can be relatively easily intercropped with cereals such as maize or rice. Nepal imports a huge amount of rice from India, therefore intercropping with chickpeas could be a more economical option for a subsistence farmer, rather than purchasing these products from overseas.\nResearch has shown that seed priming can have massive effects on chickpea production in rice fallows, increasing chickpea yield by 41% by seed priming alone. Due to chickpeas high water efficiency, it can be planted after rice in the dry season, using the residual moisture to grow. This also keeps the farmers' land",
"-27.910140717867762"
],
[
"development of a bee from egg to adult takes about three weeks. The queens daily laying rate will decline if contaminated materials are brought back to the hive such as pesticides.31.6% of exposed honey bees will fail to return to their colony every day while the rest will bring back contaminated pollen which in turn will not only affect the worker bees but also the queen. As a consequence there will be an upset in colony dynamics.\nColony Collapse Disorder has more implication than the extinction of one bee species; the disappearance of honeybees can cause catastrophic health and financial impacts.",
"-27.89738769289397"
],
[
"winter. The amount of honey stored and the length of time for which it is stored show variation in different years, providing evidence that honey storage depends on changing factors in the environment. Effect of supplementation and starvation on the colony If a colony is supplemented with extra honey, it will not affect its long-term survival, but it will change the colony's demographics. Colonies that receive extra honey tend to build more cells in their nests and produce more pupae. However, the total count of adult females does not show significant change. Honey-supplemented colonies produce more offspring overall, but more",
"-27.87501890724525"
],
[
"more eggs than the optimum will most likely have fewer fledglings (young that successfully fly from the nest) because the parent birds will be unable to collect enough food for them all. Evolutionary biologist George C. Williams notes that the argument applies also to organisms other than birds, both animals and plants, giving the example of the production of ovules by seed plants as an equivalent case. Williams formalised the argument to create a mathematical theory of evolutionary decision-making, based on the framework outlined in 1930 by R. A. Fisher, namely that the effort spent on reproduction must be worth",
"-27.830406301884068"
],
[
"of bees, which makes them difficult to locate. However, queen and workers work together to make individual cells and honey pots out of wax stores. In terms of their hibernating habitat, little information is known. B. affinis queens overwinter, but they most likely will live underground or burrow into rotting logs during the winter to survive. While B. affinis' habitat used to be highly prevalent, a large decline has occurred in recent years, possibly due to increased land development and agricultural use.\nUntil the 1980s, it was one of the most common species of bumblebee in",
"-27.81101060390938"
],
[
"aggressive bees, their nests are regularly spaced to avoid unnecessary competition. It has been shown that their colonies have a density of 1.0 colonies/ha. Colony cycle A new colony is started when a virgin queen from one colony mates with a male of a neighboring colony. They will then create a new colony close to the nest of the virgin queen. New nests are created by the new queens but workers from the old nest must shuttle materials back and forth until the nest is complete. Additionally,many workers from the old nest must join the new queen in colonizing her",
"-27.795244135370012"
],
[
"concentrations of pollinators are needed at bloom time than ever before, yet the area is forage poor or even deadly to bees for the rest of the season. The other trend is the decline of pollinator populations, due to pesticide misuse and overuse, new diseases and parasites of bees, clearcut logging, decline of beekeeping, suburban development, removal of hedges and other habitat from farms, and public concern about bees. Widespread aerial spraying for mosquitoes due to West Nile fears is causing an acceleration of the loss of pollinators.\nIn some situations, farmers or horticulturists may aim to restrict natural pollination to",
"-27.787316942514735"
],
[
"colony cycle of honeybees involves migration, swarming, and absconding. A. florea migrate seasonally from one habitat to another. This might increase colony fitness, as the honeybees search for new territories, resources, or a reduction in parasites. Once a colony has outgrown its hive space, it will reproduce via swarming. During warmer seasons like spring and summer, ambient temperatures allow honeybees to forage actively, and they will reproduce frequently. During the colder seasons of autumn and winter, colonies diminish in size because they depend on food stores. Before swarming, the colony will build queen cells in order for virgin queens to",
"-27.782443660049466"
],
[
"bees, and when fields are planted in new areas, the bees take several seasons to build up. Honey bees are still trucked to many of the fields at bloom time.\nB. affinis is important to the agricultural industry, as well as for the pollination of alfalfa. It is known that members of this species pollinate up to 65 different species of plants, and it is the primary pollinator of key dietary crops, such as cranberries, plums, apples, onions, and alfalfa.\nM. rotundata was unintentionally introduced into the United States during the 1940s, and its management as a pollinator of alfalfa has led",
"-27.732549171661958"
],
[
"seed dressings, using neonicotinoids such as Clothianidin, Imidacloprid and Thiamethoxam. From 2013 the European Union restricted some pesticides to stop bee populations from declining further. In 2014 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report warned that bees faced increased risk of extinction because of global warming. In 2018 the European Union decided to ban field use of all three major neonicotinoids; they remain permitted in veterinary, greenhouse, and vehicle transport usage.\nFarmers have focused on alternative solutions to mitigate these problems. By raising native plants, they provide food for native bee pollinators like Lasioglossum vierecki and L. leucozonium, leading to less",
"-27.72861709946301"
],
[
"to survive and form new nests, a high amount of cooperation is required. This might explain why new nests are formed by new queens at the end of the reproductive period. During this time, the number of queens is low and the relatedness of the nest is high. So new queens will be able to found new nests with more closely related relatives. This ensures that at the new nests, there is likely to be many sister queens, all of which aids in cooperation. Potential predator behavior While Polybia emaciata are much less aggressive as a group than other species",
"-27.683208528673276"
],
[
"evident from this that plant breeding is vital for future agriculture to survive as it enables farmers to produce stress resistant crops hence improving food security.\n\nIn countries that experience harsh winters such as Iceland, Germany and further east in Europe, plant breeders are involved in breeding for tolerance to frost, continuous snow-cover, frost-drought (desiccation from wind and solar radiation under frost) and high moisture levels in soil in winter. Participatory plant breeding Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is when farmers are involved in a crop improvement programme with opportunities to make decisions and contribute to the research process at different stages.",
"-27.66588499257341"
],
[
"just by growing crops but it lose its fertility due to accumulation of unwanted and depletion of wanted inorganic salts from the soil by improper irrigation and acid rain water (quantity and quality of water). The fertility of many soils which are not suitable for plant growth can be enhanced many times gradually by providing adequate irrigation water of suitable quality and good drainage from the soil.",
"-27.646697070915252"
],
[
"nest until new generations of workers are born. Nests can exist for over 20 years, showing the extreme longevity of colonies. In a nest found in Panama, it was discovered that 91% of the bees in the nest were workers, 8% were males and <1% were virgin queens. Since nests are built around exposed branches, T. corvina nests are often damaged or knocked down in the absence of natural causes, indicating attack by large animals. Unfortunately for the bees, this results in colony loss. Caste system Trigona corvina colonies are founded by a single virgin queen who rapidly mates with",
"-27.643232427770272"
],
[
"hive) for pollination of conventional, seeded varieties for commercial plantings. Seedless hybrids have sterile pollen. This requires planting pollinizer rows of varieties with viable pollen. Since the supply of viable pollen is reduced and pollination is much more critical in producing the seedless variety, the recommended number of hives per acre (pollinator density) increases to three hives per acre (1,300 m² per hive). Watermelons have a longer growing period than other melons, and can often take 85 days or more from the time of transplanting for the fruit to mature.\nFarmers of the Zentsuji region of Japan found a way to grow",
"-27.622053003229667"
],
[
"1995 there were 64 populations known. Because the plant usually reproduces vegetatively by sprouting from its rhizome, creating clones, what appears to be a large population may actually be relatively few genetic individuals with many cloned stems above the ground. Environmental Issues The main threat to the species is the loss and degradation of its habitat. Much of the land in the region has been developed, the wetlands drained and dried to create land for residential, industrial, and recreational purposes. Habitat that remains is improperly managed, becoming degraded as the natural fire regime is prevented. As fire suppression practices have",
"-27.61914515506942"
],
[
"Populations of honey bees have sharply declined in recent years, and numerous species of pollinator insects have filled their ecological niche.",
"-27.592854656279087"
],
[
"of resources affects the cyclic advancement of the colony. The cycle begins in February and ends around November or December. Female bees can yield eggs without the need for mating, a process known as haplodiploidy. Unfertilized eggs develop into males, whereas fertilized eggs develop into female workers or queen bees. The reproductive cycle begins in July/August, when a male mates with a freshly hatched queen. The fertilized queen stays in hibernation until spring of the next year, waiting for the optimal conditions to search for a nest. In March, the queen bee gathers pollen and nectar, as a source of",
"-27.467851167195477"
],
[
"of species that pollinate plants, including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder, in which worker bees from a beehive or western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Application of pesticides to crops that are in bloom can kill honeybees, which act as pollinators. The USDA and USFWS estimate that US farmers lose at least $200 million a year from reduced crop pollination because pesticides applied to fields eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in the US and harm an additional 15%.\nOn the other side, pesticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including poor root hair development, shoot yellowing",
"-27.416646089506685"
],
[
"produced from a hive of bees, but many others have surpassed that record. Single colonies of bees occasionally produce some spectacular crops. This is sometimes a combination a multiple queens in a hive (see two-queen beekeeping management), excellent weather conditions, or extraordinary good luck.\nIn 1979, Earl Emde of Big River, Saskatchewan, had several colonies produce over six hundred pounds each, though Guinness was never employed to substantiate the production. Many other beekeepers in Canada, Australia, North Dakota, Florida, and the mid-west have seen similar results on rare occasions. However, a Mr. Rob Smith of Australia surely holds the world’s",
"-27.39374615426641"
],
[
"of the nest. This correlation likely evolved as a defense against disease transmission, as increased genetic variability has been shown to reduce disease transmission within nests and could prevent a nest from dying out. On the other hand, as nests get larger, there are increased numbers of individuals and therefore increased nest defense. For this reason, larger nests have better defense against predators and human intervention. Worker queen conflict Since queen females have few morphological differences from worker females, they must use behavioral means to prevent them from laying eggs. As each queen selfishly wants to have as many offspring",
"-27.391632963670418"
],
[
"food gland development in migratory bees resulting in improper feeding of brood. North Carolina State University news states that providing bees access to huge amount of food while on road may ease stress due to transportation \nMigratory bees are usually released in a very large farm for a few weeks to pollinate a single crop. Long term diet of one type of nectar makes the bee vulnerable to diseases. Recent studies have shown that the lifespan of migratory bees are less than that of stationary bees. Symptoms A drop in the hive activity level is the primary indicator that food",
"-27.352311432085116"
],
[
"adopt a restocking scheme for re-population and also for \"importation of (resistant) Queen bees for re-sale at reduced prices\", many of the local bee Associations had already begun to import their own stocks, having chosen not to wait on the government assistance. The majority of the bees were Dutch A. m. mellifera, with their characteristic swarminess. Modern DNA analysis has shown that the majority of Irish bees in Ireland are Dutch A. m. mellifera with the second largest group of A. m. mellifera originating from France, and smaller amounts of DNA originating from Norway and Switzerland. In 1921 the cause",
"-27.348203750210814"
],
[
"can increase the quality of the honey produced. Depending on the nectar and pollen sources in a given area, the maximum number of hives that can be placed in one apiary can vary. If too many hives are placed into an apiary, the hives compete with each other for scarce resources. This can lead to lower honey, flower pollen and bee bread yields, as well as higher transmission of disease and robbing.\nThe size of an apiary is determined by not only the resources available but also by the variety of honey being cultivated, with more complex types generally cultivated in smaller productions. For more specific details on varieties see the classification",
"-27.34342268644832"
],
[
"work or own only a few hives. Their main attraction is an interest in ecology and natural science. Honey is a by-product of this hobby. As it typically requires a significant investment to establish a small apiary and dozens of hours of work with hives and honey equipment, hobby beekeeping is seldom profitable outside of Europe, where the lack of organic bee products sometimes causes buoyant demand for privately produced honey.\nA sideline beekeeper attempts to make a profit keeping bees but relies on another source of income. Sideliners may operate up to as many as 300 colonies of bees, producing",
"-27.328029504278675"
],
[
"the two sexes and the metabolic costs involved in development. Bees that undergo diapause and emerge in the spring must endure the long winter, and thus require more food stores. As a result, they will be larger when they mature. Another explanation has been that smaller bees mature faster and thus are able to mate more quickly when they emerge in the summer to avoid the cold, harsh conditions of the winter.\nThe sex ratio of the offspring also depends on the distance between nesting and foraging sites. Females have been observed and determined to bias their offspring sex ratio to",
"-27.25289440533379"
],
[
"of kilometers apart to mix via mating. Brood provisioning The female bees of this species can control whether their male offspring are large (major) or small (minor). They control this by differential provisioning – the female will invest more in terms of food and cell size for the major bees.\nIn the beginning of the flight season when resources are abundant, the females will produce major males almost to the exclusion of minor males. Alternatively, towards the end of the season, when resources are low and foraging times have increased, females produce minor males almost exclusively.\nAdditionally, when females create doublet brood",
"-27.243341772817075"
],
[
"vitro has been used on a commercial scale.\nSeeds\n\nSeed multiplication may be used for the development of new cultivars or to increase the yield of native species. Seeds are generally sown in early summer in seedbeds, and then transplanted to larger containers. They require warmth, frequent watering, and should not be given a dormant period. Seeds do not breed true. Plants obtained from seeds take about six years to bloom.\nBulbils\n\nHome propagation is best performed by using offset bulbils. Commercially, only cultivars that produce at least three bulbils on the mother bulb are used for this form of propagation. Plants grown from",
"-27.24149256086821"
],
[
"their role on human food systems is less well known, with one journalist writing \"Though poorly known, radiation breeding has produced thousands of useful mutants and a sizable fraction of the world's crops...including varieties of rice, wheat, barley, pears, peas, cotton, peppermint, sunflowers, peanuts, grapefruit, sesame, bananas, cassava and sorghum.\" In Canada crops generated by mutation breeding face the same regulations and testing as crops obtained by genetic engineering. Mutagenic varieties tend to be made freely available for plant breeding, in contrast to many commercial plant varieties or germplasm that increasingly have restrictions on their use such as terms of",
"-27.21141150558833"
],
[
"may be caused by changes in agricultural practices. The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available, and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced. Benefits and problems Since common starlings eat insect pests such as wireworms, they are considered beneficial in northern Eurasia, and this was one of the reasons given for introducing the birds elsewhere. Around 25 million nest boxes were erected for this species in the former Soviet Union, and common starlings were found to be effective in controlling the grass grub Costelytra",
"-27.198570951935835"
],
[
"special circumstances. An example of non-viable parthenogenesis is common among domesticated honey bees. The queen bee is the only fertile female in the hive; if she dies without the possibility of a viable replacement queen, it is not uncommon for the worker bees to lay eggs. This is a result of the lack of the queen's pheromones and the pheromones secreted by uncapped brood, which normally suppress ovarian development in workers. Worker bees are unable to mate, and the unfertilized eggs produce only drones (males), which can mate only with a queen. Thus, in a relatively short period, all the",
"-27.1949331809883"
]
] |
6ff3qs | Why are a significant amount of the best opera singers fat? | [
"Actual opera singer here. The same reason why anyone gains weight when they are in a high-stress job that requires a lot of travel. It's a stressful job with intense hours during production periods, and it gets really easy to neglect exercise and just eat crappy foods, especially because you usually celebrate after performances with your friends/colleagues/family. You often don't get a lot of sleep, and that can also mess with your overall health. As far as actual singing goes, there's actually no evidence that being overweight makes your voice bigger, lets you sing louder/over an orchestra, or anything like that at all. If anything, vocal scientists are finding that being in better physical shape actually IMPROVES vocal stamina and quality, just as being in shape improves performance in any physical activity. HOWEVER, being fat has some \"advantages\" when learning to sing classically. Some of the most common phrases to singers is that they need \"to be grounded,\" \"sing from their diaphragm\", \"have low-breath,\" etc. When you're carrying around a lot of extra belly weight, you have a constant tugging-down feeling. You have extra weight physically pulling the breath mechanism downwards. It can help in learning to sing. Also, until recently, it didn't matter if you were fat and unhealthy. If you had a god-like voice, you could look however you want and still perform and get good work. Opera used to be (and, IMO, SHOULD still be) about the voice and music over anything else. Now that there is a big push for opera singers to LOOK like the roles they play (nobody wants to see a 300 lb Juliet anymore), many professional singers have taken to losing weight in unhealthy, crash diets. They lose weight so quickly, they are unable to feel the changes that happen in their body and take time to make proper adjustments. They no longer feel \"grounded\" because they don't have the weight actually \"grounding\" them. So their technique suffers, their voice gets \"lighter\", they have an existential crisis, say they can only sing when at a certain weight, and eat themselves into oblivion again. Those who lose weight responsibly and healthily rarely, if ever, have any problems singing. **TL;DR It's a big, mental game. Some singers think they can only sing at a certain weight and size, and actively try to stay large.**",
"In short, no one really knows for sure why, but there are a few theories. Opera singing requires extensive use of the diaphragm. Some theories suggest that the singers' bodies undergo changes over time due to this (such as expanded ribs). Another theory suggests that a larger mass (mouth, lungs, chest, really everything) helps project the voice over the orchestration. This seems to be backed up by the singers who insist that when their weight fluctuates, their voices suffer. For singers, in general, it's a propagated cautionary tale that weight loss surgery ruins the voice. Additionally, opera houses currently think that slimmer singers will heighten the interest in opera (here's looking at you, Patricia Petibon). However, the opera houses often insist that it is very difficult to find slim people who have powerful voices. But on a totally different note, a lot of studies show that a larger body mass doesn't necessarily mean that the voice resonates better. So, a lot of people now say that stomach fat must help pull on the diaphragm and thus helps support the voice.",
"This is just a fun story to add to the discussion. I can't offer any scientific evidence. Only an anecdote told to my by my opera singer professor back in group voice. She said that different bodies sometimes just produce different qualities of sound. She talked of a very large opera singer who had a large voice with \"girth\" to it. She said her voice had this immense warmth and depth to it that utterly entranced audiences. But due to health issues she absolutely had to lose weight. When she dropped a significant amount of weight, her voice's timbre seemed to have changed from deep and warm to somewhat brighter. Perhaps it was a hormonal change that caused this. Being healthier might have balanced out her hormones and maybe taken some pressure off her throat and various core muscles and organs. She was by no means any less talented, nor was her voice any less beautiful and graceful. However it had shifted in its previous qualities. I'm thinking that finding an ideal weight for oneself is most important. Breath control and health don't just spring from nowhere. You must be healthy to sing well and for long periods of time, and must practice all the time. And health is probably definitely most important nowadays. Perhaps being an abundant opera singer was a sign of decadence and wealth and maturity? Who knows.",
"I don't have specific data to refer to, but your body composition has much to do with the tone of your voice. Those with larger torsos will have different properties to their voice than someone who is much smaller.",
"A significant amount of the best opera singers are not young. At 30 years old, your only at the very beginning of your career. A succesfull pop singer can be 17 and thin as a stringbean. Not in opera.",
"Are they though? Isn't this an old stereotype?",
"This isn't the primary reason but just an interesting thought, what if it has to do with the opera culture that makes you gain weight? After parties, hours spent signing(not excersizing the body), etc. Maybe being in the opera makes you fat, not being fat makes you good at the opera"
] | [
[
"anyway in order to do a good job. There is the old expression that \"in opera, great voices often come in large packages\" and the well-worn saying about opera that \"It ain't over till the fat lady sings\". She was headlined in the British tabloid press as \"The show ain't over till the fat lady slims.\" There was also an outcry because, it seemed at the time, that high culture performing arts, such as opera, should not emulate low culture Hollywood images of thin female stars.\nBy a strange twist of fate, the incident may have helped her in the long",
"-31.312393265689025"
],
[
"Janai Brugger Janai Brugger (born January 3, 1983) is an American operatic soprano who has won several major music competitions and appeared in leading roles with several American opera companies. In 2014, music critic F. Paul Driscoll described her in Opera News as \"gifted with a supple, beautifully shaded lyric soprano.\" Education and early career Born in Chicago, Illinois, Brugger earned a Bachelor of Music degree in 2005 from DePaul University in Chicago, which she attended through scholarships provided by the National Society of Collegiate Scholars. That same year, she won first place in the National Association of Teachers of",
"-29.93368077231571"
],
[
"to Lanza during a worldwide concert tour, saying of him, \"If I'm an opera singer, it's thanks to Mario Lanza.\" His equally outstanding colleague Plácido Domingo echoed these comments in a 2009 CBS interview with, \"Lanza's passion and the way his voice sounds are what made me sing opera. I actually owe my love for opera ... to a kid from Philadelphia.\"\nEven today \"the magnitude of his contribution to popular music is still hotly debated,\" and because he appeared on the operatic stage only twice, many critics feel that he needed to have had more \"operatic quality time\" in major",
"-29.791118662915324"
],
[
"soap opera is $1,038 for a one-hour show, and $778 for a ¹⁄₂-hour show. The pay rate for a background actor on a soap opera is $150 for a 1-hour show, and $115 for a ¹⁄₂-hour show. Under-five work An under-five role can be a stepping stone to bigger roles. However, with the general decline of American soap operas, the number of under-fives, extras, and even day players employed has declined, due to reductions of production budgets.",
"-29.547782893234398"
],
[
"operatic singer who was one of the greatest and most sought-after singers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Unfortunately he lived a very difficult and rather unhappy life, having had many challenges and problems with Italian opera houses, but gained more fame and success in the United States.\nCaruso was born to a poor family in Naples. He was often involved with women, and had several love affairs with prominent married women in the performing arts, which often ended badly. His longest and most passionate love affair was with the married Ada Giachetti, with whom he had two sons.",
"-29.425094816542696"
],
[
"of festivals and concert/opera seasons, as well as interviews with performers and industry figures. A number of interviews have sparked interest in the general media, including soprano Lisette Oropesa's statement that she needed to lose weight in order to be cast in the roles she wanted, and tenor Stuart Skelton's comments about English National Opera.",
"-29.374113914964255"
],
[
"impressive roster of singers have performed with the Opera Company of Boston (OCB). Even from the beginning years at the Donnelly, Caldwell was able to attract first rate artists, most notably Beverly Sills and Joan Sutherland, to the company's roster. She also had an eye for emerging talent with singers like James Billings getting their start with the company. Other notable singers to have sung in OCB productions include Eunice Alberts, John Alexander, Richard Cassilly, Plácido Domingo, Donald Gramm, Marilyn Horne, Eva Likova, Elaine Malbin, Éva Marton, Sherrill Milnes, Magda Olivero, Renata Tebaldi, Norman Treigle, Shirley Verrett, Anja Silja, and",
"-28.951433656395693"
],
[
"a busy and highly acclaimed career that lasted for more than three decades. During that time, he appeared in more than 50 different operas and sang at almost every important theatre in Europe, South America and the United States. He also had the distinction of participating in eight premiere performances of new or substantially refashioned operatic works by significant composers such as Verdi, Ponchielli and Leoncavallo. While not a sophisticated actor or a flawless musician, his huge voice and volcanic renditions of the most forceful tenor roles in the Italian and French repertoires had a tremendous impact on audiences, enabling",
"-28.89756608292737"
],
[
"about the world of opera: \"I am giving 17 performances in 25 days. Ask me how much I get for that...For 30 years we have given in blood the best of our lives and our careers. You think we don't deserve money?\" Carreras, for his part, stressed how little they made compared to many athletes, pop singers, and movie stars. Legal issues The success of the Three Tenors led to antitrust action by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission against Warner Bros. and Vivendi Universal. It found that they had conspired not to advertise or discount the albums of the Rome",
"-28.87946299969917"
],
[
"and TV Guide ranked it as the greatest show of all time. A 2015 The Hollywood Reporter survey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people named The Sopranos as their #6 favorite show. In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked it first on the magazine's list of 100 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 2019, The Guardian placed it first on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century.\nCertain episodes have frequently been singled out by critics as the show's best. These include the pilot, titled \"The Sopranos\", \"College\" and \"I Dream of Jeannie Cusamano\"",
"-28.78000139581127"
],
[
"of virtuosity and range. Despite this, no other singer apart from Senesino and Anna Maria Strada performed so often in Handel's operatic works.",
"-28.724285457989026"
],
[
"number of recordings that display the beauty and flexibility of her voice and the excellence of her technique. She is considered by opera historians and critics to have been one of the finest sopranos of the 20th century.",
"-28.7234926695387"
],
[
"audiences and critics were divided over whether she was a \"true\" soprano. Nonetheless, she sang major soprano roles at most major opera houses around the world up until the end of her operatic career in the 1990s—singing Turandot at the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden (London) in 1993, for example. Her operatic career spanned from 1960 (her debut in Paris as Amneris) to 1997 (as Klytämnestra, in Lyon, France). Early life and career Grace Bumbry was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the third child of Benjamin and Melzia Brumby. They were a family of modest means,",
"-28.670099247043254"
],
[
"that, \"Vocally and musically The Great Caruso ...has helped many young people discover opera and even become singers themselves.\"He added that, \"I can think of no other tenor, before or since Mario Lanza, who could have risen with comparable success to the challenge of playing Caruso in a screen biography.\" The film has also been cited by tenors Plácido Domingo and José Carreras as having been an inspiration for them when they were growing up and aspiring to become singers. Soundtrack A tie-in record album (though not an actual film soundtrack), also called The Great Caruso was issued by",
"-28.654663968030945"
],
[
"her talent, receiving titles such as \"Queen of the Concert Stage.\" An example of the critical acclaim she received in the U.S. was when she performed in Houston in 1930 with well known local pianist, Ernestine Covington. Critics in the Informer wrote the following about her performance, \"[it was] the greatest operatic soprano the race has ever produced\" and called her \"among the greatest singers the world has ever known.\" So loved was she in the Los Angeles community, she also gained the title of \"Our Divine Florence.\"\nIn June 25, 1953, the National Negro Opera Guild, founded by Mary Cardwell",
"-28.595536150533007"
],
[
"of opera. However, it and the subsequent Three Tenors concerts brought Carreras a fame that went far beyond the opera house. It is estimated that over a billion people around the world watched the television broadcast of the 1994 Three Tenors concert in Los Angeles. By 1999, the CD from the first Three Tenors concert in Rome had sold an estimated 13 million copies, making it the best-selling classical recording of all time. The early 1990s also saw Carreras serving as the Musical Director for the opening and closing ceremonies of 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games, and performing in a worldwide",
"-28.56439747762488"
],
[
"repertory find that her recordings of classical and operatic standards often compare very favorably to those made by revered singers who had substantial stage careers. In 1957 Aida Favia-Artsay, a knowledgeable and perceptive critic of operatic singing, gave this assessment.\nAfter a few turns of a Marsh disc, it becomes apparent that ... she could have had a brilliant operatic career. As far as voice goes, hers had all the requisites; and as for its production – a little more work in the chest register would have brought it up to par. Otherwise, she was musical, intelligent, resourceful, and obviously",
"-28.300538139035325"
],
[
"sing a single part at sight, and with a voice that was more powerful than sweet, he became the most useful and favourite singer of his time, on the stage, at Ranelagh, at all concerts; and in Handel's oratorios he had always a capital part, being by his knowledge of music the most steady support of the choruses, not only of Handel, but in the odes of Green and Boyce\".",
"-28.229854319710284"
],
[
"opera could have made a singer who had for 25 years enjoyed the fame of the opera stage, steeped in the conventions of opera seria, confused or even insecure. Overall, there were only three full da capo arias provided for him, none in the last act; his only duet with the leading soprano was short and formally somewhat unusual; and he was not allowed to participate in the main ensemble number, the trio at the end of the first act. Although he had in the great \"mad scene\" at the end of the second act nearly ten minutes with",
"-28.205828275473323"
],
[
"Dion was not as relaxed as she should be, and at times, it was hard to find the singer among the excessive stage ornamentation and dancers. However, he noted that the show had become more enjoyable over the course of its run, because of her improved stage-presence and simplified costumes.\nThe show was well-received by audiences, despite the complaints of expensive tickets; it routinely sold out until its end in late 2007. Ticket prices averaged $135.33. According to Pollstar, Dion sold 322,000 tickets and grossed US$43.9 million in the first half of 2005, and by July 2005, she had sold out 315",
"-28.168426554155303"
],
[
"lofty purpose of actual drama'. Moreover, opera is enjoyed specifically because of its superficial sensationalism. In a critique which lies at the heart of much of his writings at this period and thereafter, (and which is a clear dig at composers such as Giacomo Meyerbeer), Wagner complains:\nThere are even many of our most popular artists who do not in the least conceal the fact, that they have no other ambition than to satisfy this shallow audience. They are wise in their generation; for when the prince leaves a heavy dinner, the banker a fatiguing financial operation, the working man a",
"-28.099366614089377"
],
[
"she would have made a successful operatic soprano. He also wrote that she had once received an offer from the Liceu for a contract to sing operatic roles there, but declined because she was already a zarzuela star at the time. After her death, music critic Antonio Fernández-Cid praised her \"warm and sweet 'spinto' soprano voice with contralto-like qualities.\"\nIn 1993, her son created the Pepita Embil Domingo Prize of Zarzuela in her honor, as part of his worldwide Operalia singing competition. Each year since then, a female singer has received the $10,000 prize for the quality of her performance during",
"-28.086176302247623"
],
[
"quality of her work over a period of forty years was never in doubt as evidenced by the unusually lavish praise that consistently greeted her performances, from her student days in the early 1960s onwards, whether as soprano or mezzo. In 1983 the Financial Times asked: \"Why do we not hear more of this bold and interesting singer?\" Wide-ranging and eclectic repertoire A particular feature of her work was her wide-ranging and eclectic repertoire. Gifted with a voice of immense range and power combined with agility, she was able to tackle repertoire as diverse as the great dramatic Verdi roles,",
"-28.081482198555022"
],
[
"sopranos with large voices, which tend to sit less at the very top of their range. This part has a relatively low tessitura, going no higher than Bb, and only a few times at that, but requires great vocal power, and is a meaty and challenging one to tackle on a dramatic level – especially during the work's so-called \"Recitation\" and death scene. Famous Adrianas of the past 75 years have included Claudia Muzio, Magda Olivero, Carla Gavazzi, Leyla Gencer, Montserrat Caballé, Renata Tebaldi, Raina Kabaivanska, Renata Scotto, Mirella Freni, and Joan Sutherland. Angela Gheorghiu tackled the role at the",
"-28.035642362989165"
],
[
"500-seat Amphitheatre under the Opéra Bastille. The company's annual budget is in the order of 200 million euros, of which 100 million come from the French state and 70 million from box office receipts. With this money, the company runs the two houses and supports a large permanent staff, which includes the orchestra of 170, a chorus of 110 and the corps de ballet of 150. Each year, the Opéra presents about 380 performances of opera, ballet and other concerts, to a total audience of about 800,000 people (of whom 17% come from abroad), which is a very",
"-28.00276208500145"
],
[
"sometimes confused with the soprano sfogato, a singer (often mezzo-soprano) capable, by sheer industry or natural talent, of extending her upper range to encompass some of the coloratura soprano tessitura, though not the highest range above high F.",
"-27.992758478227188"
],
[
"more than 30 years\". According to American Bass Paul Plishka, Masiello \"was one of the great, great people who influenced generations of singers in her lifetime. I was very upset at the New York Times obituary, which was very brief and gave the impression that she was merely an opera coach. You could have written an entire book about her work, and she deserved front page coverage. She was, a profound inspiration in my career and in so many others.\"",
"-27.900519986083964"
],
[
"opera star, though his mother continues to support his hopes of becoming a star of Italian opera because she feels something \"in her heart\" when she hears him sing. Pavarotti continues to develop his voice with hopes of becoming an accomplished singer.\nWhen he auditions for his first major role, Pavarotti singles himself out by his ability to hit a high 'C' with command and authority during his performance. After the audition, he is cast in an opera that allows him to hit the high 'C' several times in one performance. This sufficiently impresses the audience that they applaud his",
"-27.876244608007255"
],
[
"He was a fine figure of a singer, a convincing actor on stage, praised by all the most exacting critics on two continents.\nHe was very much a baryton-noble in the tradition of such legendary Paris Opéra singers as Jean-Baptiste Faure (painted so masterfully by Degas) and Jean Lassalle. His voice was a luxury item of great beauty and almost ideal richness and weight for any rôle in the French operatic repertory. To Italian and German parts he brought an elegance and nobility nurtured in the school of dramatic declamation of the Académie nationale de musique, related to that of the",
"-27.823583465913543"
],
[
"Opera should be bursting with pride at the high level of quality extending across every aspect of this presentation... Among as strong a cast of vocalists as I’ve heard at NYCO in 20 years or more, the standout appropriately was Elizabeth Caballero as Florencia.\" Similarly, The Wall Street Journal opined that \"Ms. Caballero is a find.\"",
"-27.775163327067276"
],
[
"list of \"The 100 Outstanding Pop Vocalists.\"\nRegarding her voice type, Carey said that she is an alto, though several critics have described her as a Coloratura soprano. The singer claims that she has nodules in her vocal cords since childhood, due to which she can sing in a higher register than others. However, tiredness and sleep deprivation can affect her vocals due to the nodules, and Carey explained that she went through a lot of practice to maintain a balance during singing.\nJon Pareles of The New York Times described Carey's lower register as a \"rich, husky alto\" that extends to",
"-27.75734333647415"
],
[
"of powerful competition from the likes of Mattia Battistini, Antonio Magini-Coletti, Giuseppe Campanari, Mario Ancona, Giuseppe Pacini, Antonio Scotti, Eugenio Giraldoni, Riccardo Stracciari, Titta Ruffo, Domenico Viglione Borghese, Pasquale Amato and Carlo Galeffi.\nHe taught singing after retiring from the stage and died in Milan. Recordings Sammarco possessed a strong voice with a powerful upper register; but of all the celebrated singers preserved on early recordings, Sammarco's are regarded as the most disappointing. The technical quality of his singing disappoints and the timbre of his voice can sound rough; at best he is merely dull. On record, according to Scott and",
"-27.733021640131483"
],
[
"one of the finest Italian baritones of the 20th century, owing to the beauty of his voice during its peak period, his imposing interpretive style and his first-rate vocal technique. America's foremost soprano of the post World War I-era, Rosa Ponselle, was an enthusiastic admirer of Stracciari's singing.\nHe also became a distinguished teacher at the music conservatories of Naples and Rome. Among his most notable students were Raffaele Arié, Paolo Silveri, Giulio Fioravanti, Zdeněk Otava, Mario Laurenti, Louis Quilico and Boris Christoff. He died in Rome aged 80.",
"-27.704275985684944"
],
[
"the most renowned singers and composers of the time. In the early period, it saw famous opera singers such as Alboni, Frezzolini, Marietta Gazzaniga, Rosina Penco, Giulia Grisi, Giorgio Ronconi, Italo Gardoni, Mario de Candia and Antonio Selva among many others. In 1863, Giuseppe Verdi visited the theatre for the Spanish premiere of his La forza del destino. At its peak, in the last quarter of the 19th century, the Teatro hosted world renowned artists such as Adela Borghi, Marie Sasse, Adelina Patti, Christina Nilsson, Luisa Tetrazzini, Mattia Battistini, Julián Gayarre, Angelo Masini, Francesco Tamagno and Enrico Tamberlick. In 1925,",
"-27.691120569914347"
],
[
"Antonio Superchi Antonio Superchi (11 January 1816 – 5 July 1893) was an Italian operatic baritone who had an active international career from 1838–1858. He appeared at most of the major opera houses in Italy and Spain, and at Her Majesty's Theatre in London.\nThe Times reviewed the quality of his voice in 1847 (22 April): \"It is impossible for a singer to be more free than Superchi from this defect of his predecessor (Luciano Fornasari, who never surmounted his tremulousness). His notes are as firm as possible, and his flow of song is in the highest degree smooth and even\".\nBorn",
"-27.680167588114273"
],
[
"at the Met on March 2 of that year, as Radames in Aida; but his performances there were not deemed a success due to the effects of poor health. Thereafter, La Scala became his operatic base and his career tailed off during World War II.\nHe was renowned for his vocal strength, penetrating tone and incisive diction. These qualities enabled him to tackle a wide operatic repertory, ranging from bel canto works through verismo roles to heroic parts such as Verdi's Otello. Other famous operas that he appeared in included, among others, William Tell, Il pirata, Il trovatore, La forza del",
"-27.670723833944066"
],
[
"opera showed a jump in ratings and recorded its highest since debut, 10940 Impressions (Urban+Rural) thereby becoming the second most-watched show in India for the week, the first being its sister show Kumkum Bhagya. In Week 40, 2017 (30 September – 6 October), the soap opera recorded 11216 Impressions (Urban+Rural) and continued to be the second most watched show in India for the week.\nIn November Kundali Bhagya took the top spot and maintained it in November and December 2017. The show topped TRP charts in January 2018 with staggering 7889 viewership in urban markets. The show got 12.5 million viewership",
"-27.628978069347795"
],
[
"valuable insight into the life and times of the international opera singer of his day and source of much first-hand information regarding the state of the vocal art and especially a singer's repertoire of the era.\nHis legacy lives on in the form of gramophone recordings of songs and arias, some of which have been reissued on CD. He also paved the way for such outstanding American baritones of later generations as Clarence Whitehill, Richard Bonelli, Arthur Endreze, John Charles Thomas, Lawrence Tibbett, Leonard Warren and Robert Merrill.",
"-27.585579773194695"
],
[
"most famous heroic tenor of his age, Tamagno performed in a total of 26 countries, gaining renown for the power of his singing, especially in the upper register. Critics likened the sound of his voice to that of a trumpet or even a cannon. (Italians call this rare type of singer a \"tenore robusto\" or \"tenore di forza\".) Tamagno's vocal range extended up to high C-sharp during his prime, but he was no mere 'belter' of high notes; for his recordings provide evidence of his ability, even at career's end, to sing softly when required, modulating the dynamic levels of",
"-27.57148176431656"
],
[
"seems to be changing, there are still few opportunities for singers to create new roles, or to present operatic singing in contexts outside the concert hall or opera house.\"\n\"Back at the turn of the century, poor Italian immigrants flocked to the opera,\" says Stern. \"The classical tradition is totally valid, I think, but not when it becomes a class thing... we're trying to create an operatic atmosphere that's for everyone.\" Awards ASCAP Concert Division Panel award recognizing creative contributions to American music (September 2011). Current Projects In March 2015, Stern's newest project, independent production company Hungry Opera Machine, debuted its",
"-27.53221682664298"
],
[
"Angeles Opera company, Orchestra del Teatro Comunale di Bologna, Sinfónica del Teatro Petruzzelli and the Orquestra del Teatro de Bellas Artes among others. She has performed with other singers such as tenor Francisco Araiza. She currently performs with Ramón Vargas, Plácido Domingo, Andrea Bocelli, Rolando Villazón, Piotr Beczala, Leonardo Capalbo among others. She says her main model is soprano Mirella Freni.\nIn her opinion, because opera must compete with more popular forms of entertainment, singers must break the stereotype of rotund performers and for this reason, she works to maintain her figure as a way to make her work as an",
"-27.475184760216507"
],
[
"range which is marked by his high-pitched screams and strong vibrato. However, with age, his lower range has matured and become more powerful. Along with Ronnie James Dio and Bruce Dickinson, Halford is one of the pioneers of the pseudo-operatic vocal style later to be adopted by power metal vocalists and regularly appears near the top in lists of the greatest rock vocalists/front-men of all time.\nHalford describes himself as \"a huge Queen fan\" since they began and saw their very early shows. He has called Freddie Mercury, the late lead singer of the band, his \"ultimate hero\" and expressed regret",
"-27.426975149610826"
],
[
"Robert White (tenor) Robert White (born October 27, 1936) is an American tenor and voice teacher who has had an active performance career for eight decades. If he is not better known to the general public, it is because his career, confined to art song and the concert stage, has not brought him the wider renown of singers who make their careers in opera; but he has long been cherished by connoisseurs of vocal music for the pure lyric sweetness of his voice and his scrupulous musicianship.\nHe began performing Irish songs on the radio in 1942 at the age of",
"-27.426908234301663"
],
[
"so she found that she was able to fill the house without losing pitch or beauty of timbre. She spent the next decade working on expanding the size of her voice and gradually began working in heavier roles into her performance repertoire.\nNielsen became a major presence at the world's best opera houses during the 1980s and 1990s. She was a regular guest performer at the Vienna State Opera, Milan's La Scala; the Royal Opera, Covent Garden; and also the opera houses of Munich, Hamburg, Berlin, Paris, Zurich, Barcelona as well as New York, Buenos Aires, Florence and Bologna. She sang",
"-27.417149740853347"
],
[
"high cost of opera productions, enabling a further increase in the size of the orchestra, to 48 players. Among the singers in the opera company were Joan Cross and Edith Coates. In the 1930s, the company presented standard repertoire operas by Mozart, Verdi, Wagner and Puccini, lighter works by Balfe, Donizetti, Offenbach and Johann Strauss, some novelties, among which were operas by Holst, Ethel Smyth and Charles Villiers Stanford, and an unusual attempt at staging an oratorio, Mendelssohn's Elijah.\nIn November 1937, Baylis died of a heart attack. Her three companies continued under the direction of her appointed successors: Tyrone Guthrie",
"-27.41645079920636"
],
[
"Joan Sutherland, Sherrill Milnes, and Birgit Nilsson to perform in lead roles.\nOpera Memphis is widely respected for its education and outreach programs, which currently reach over 25,000 children and adults per season. From 1993-95, the company was the recipient of an Arts Plus Grant from the National Endowment for the Arts, which resulted in student written and produced operas at three Memphis City high schools. Current program offerings include the Artist-in-Residence Tour, Opera 101, Black Roots of Opera, Student Dress Rehearsals and Summer Conservatory.\nIn March 2004, the company completed a very successful $7.3 million capital drive for the creation and",
"-27.403054749047442"
],
[
"The Three Tenors in Concert 1994 Reception The AllMusic reviewer wrote that the singers displayed \"vitality and pizzazz\" during the concert. The reviewer remarked on the oddity of a concert by classical musicians held in a sports stadium, but nonetheless believed that the popularity of the tenors made the venue less \"ludicrous\". The reviewer also found them to be in \"fine form\" in regard to their singing and singled out certain numbers for praise: Domingo's \"Granada,\" Carreras' \"O souverain, o juge, o père,\" and Pavarotti's \"Nessun dorma\", as well as \"La donna è mobile\" and \"Libiamo ne' lieti calici\", which",
"-27.370206489635166"
],
[
"No. 7 Top Singer of All Time.\nMatsuda still holds annual concerts, Christmas dinner shows and New Year's Eve Countdown shows. Despite the high ticket prices (her dinner show tickets are the most expensive among female artists) for many years and to this day, she always performs to a sold-out crowd. Matsuda is also listed as second only behind Eikichi Yazawa as an artist to have performed many concerts at the Nippon Budokan.\nMatsuda made a guest appearance on one of Fox Broadcasting Company's popular TV dramas \"Bones\" in 2010. In 2011, she was invited to performed in American music producer Quincy",
"-27.360469251172617"
],
[
"appeal is based on image. Whatever the assessment of his voice, it has often been overshadowed by showmanship and appearance in the media; many preferred to watch him perform than to listen to him. These criticisms diminished by the second decade of Rouvas' career; his technical skills (range, power and versatility in particular) and expression are better appreciated.\nRouvas has a tenor vocal range; although he can also sing low, in the F-clef range, he prefers to sing higher and can reach notes beyond the typical tenor high without falsetto, varying his dynamics from whispers to belts. His vocal power was",
"-27.281221869394358"
],
[
"number of top-quality recordings of operatic arias and songs in 1925-1930, mainly for HMV but also for the Victor label. They consist of pieces by Gounod, Meyerbeer, Massenet, Donizetti, Verdi, Puccini, Giordano and Mascagni, and by Spanish composers such as Gaztambide, Vives and Serrano. (These recordings are now available on CD reissues, most notably those produced by the Pearl and Preiser companies.)\nFor a public performer, Cortis possessed a comparatively reserved personality. This natural reticence may have prevented him from making the most of career opportunities when they presented themselves. Nevertheless, music critics consider his potent, dark-coloured voice to be one",
"-27.265750621678308"
],
[
"making a classification, maestro Kent Nagano remarked, \"All you just sang was full lyric soprano\", after Dion auditioned with two solos from Carmen, wanting to know if she could sing opera. Her timbre has been described as \"thin, slightly nasal\" with a \"raspy\" lower register and \"bell glass-like high notes\".\nShe is often praised for her technical virtuosity. Jim Santella of The Buffalo News writes \"Like an iron fist in a velvet glove, the power of Celine Dion's voice is cloaked in a silky vibrato that betrays the intensity of her vocal commitment.\" Jeff Miers, also of The Buffalo News, says",
"-27.256445658858865"
],
[
"Michael Trimble Michael Trimble (sometimes spelled Michael Trimbel) (March 15, 1938, Texarkana, Texas) is an American operatic tenor, voice teacher, and writer on music. He had an active international career singing leading roles with opera houses during the 1960s and 1970s. His singing career was cut short due to health concerns, and he has since had an active career as a voice teacher both privately and at the Cleveland Institute of Music, the University of Texas at Austin, and the Aspen Music Festival and School. Several of his students have had successful international opera careers, including Metropolitan Opera star Tonio",
"-27.249687477131374"
],
[
"of their ardent interpretations. The results could be exciting in the theatre but such a strenuous mode of singing was not a recipe for vocal longevity. Some prominent practitioners of full-throttle verismo singing during the movement's Italian lifespan (circa 1890 to circa 1930) include the sopranos Eugenia Burzio, Lina Bruna Rasa and Bianca Scacciati, the tenors Aureliano Pertile, Cesar Vezzani and Amadeo Bassi, and the baritones Mario Sammarco and Eugenio Giraldoni. Their method of singing can be sampled on numerous 78-rpm gramophone recordings. See Michael Scott's two-volume survey The Record of Singing, published in London by Duckworth in 1977/79, for",
"-27.236723790701944"
],
[
"public performances but continued to practice and record in her home studio at Estepona in the Costa del Sol region. Stardom and controversy Kimera, with her five-octave range and novel approach to operatic singing, has intrigued and fascinated many. Millions have embraced her unique opera-pop fusion embodied in various albums starting with The Lost Opera, which sold more than 10 million copies, followed by Opera Express and seven additional albums.\nHer music style was that of pop opera, similar to pop symphony yet with more techno and High N-R-G beats. Her debut album was released in 1985, titled, The Lost Opera.",
"-27.23032739451446"
],
[
"sex and race. It is the most-performed opera in the United States, where its rank as Number 1 in Opera America's list of the 20 most-performed operas in North America. This popularity only helps to perpetuate the notion of the dominant white male over the subjugated East Asian female who can be cast aside and treated as easily dispensable according to Sheridan Prasso in her book, The Asian Mystique: Dragon Ladies, Geisha Girls, & Our Fantasies of the Exotic Orient published in 2005.\nA contemporary example would be Miss Saigon, a 1989 musical by Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil, a modern",
"-27.22666836301505"
],
[
"and his voice was not overly large. It was sweet-toned, stylish and supple, with excellent high notes and an easy high C. He sang with what at the time would have been considered a standard vibrato, though later generations (until our own) preferred a slower one.",
"-27.225181657719077"
],
[
"operatic stage; the better \"also-rans\" sang in cathedral or church choirs, but because of their marked appearance and the ban on their marrying, there was little room for them in society outside a musical context.\nThe castrati came in for a great amount of scurrilous and unkind abuse, and as their fame increased, so did the hatred of them. They were often castigated as malign creatures who lured men into homosexuality. There were homosexual castrati, as Casanova's accounts of 18th-century Italy bear witness. He mentions meeting an abbé whom he took for a girl in disguise, only later discovering that \"she\"",
"-27.2250744048215"
],
[
"the only soprano, or at least an opera which has no other role equal or superior to hers.\"\nDraneht was in a bad position: the opera was completely cast, and, as the artist's fees had been exceptionally high, the budget for singers had been expended. In order to hire another singer for the role, Draneht would need the approval of the Viceroy of Egypt. The Viceroy, who had hired Italian architects to build the Cairo Opera House in six months in 1869, was underwriting the entire cost of the Aida production. His tendency to spend lavish amounts of money on inessential",
"-27.223251236547185"
],
[
"was voted one of the five greatest singers ever in a Rolling Stone Magazine readers' poll and is noted for maintaining a powerful singing voice into his late 60s. He has attributed his longevity to avoiding coffee, alcohol, cigarettes, and dairy products, as well as ensuring proper sleep, diet, and exercise. He is also noted as being rather soft-spoken in order to refrain from overworking his voice. Personal life In 1970, Colm married Deirdre, whom he describes as a source of constant and essential support over the past four decades. They started their life as a married couple in",
"-27.221824922404494"
],
[
"received praise for her stage presence and voice during live performances. Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post placed her at number one on her list of the Five Best Singer/Dancers. According to Barbara Ellen of The Guardian Beyoncé is the most in-charge female artist she's seen onstage, while Alice Jones of The Independent wrote she \"takes her role as entertainer so seriously she's almost too good.\" The ex-President of Def Jam L.A. Reid has described Beyoncé as the greatest entertainer alive. Jim Farber of the Daily News and Stephanie Classen of The StarPhoenix both praised her strong voice and",
"-27.195295124547556"
],
[
"Karan Armstrong Karan Armstrong (born December 14, 1941, Havre, Montana) is an American operatic soprano, who is celebrated as a singing-actress. Biography Originally trained as a pianist, Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Music degree from Concordia College in 1963. She later studied with Lotte Lehmann in Santa Barbara, California. She made her operatic debut in 1965 with a secondary company in San Francisco, as Musetta in La bohème. She made her first appearance with the San Francisco Spring Opera the following year, as Elvira in L'italiana in Algeri.\nIn 1966, Armstrong won the Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions, which led",
"-27.17608112106973"
],
[
"perhaps even more by real opera cognoscenti than by the public in general. One of the former, Lord Mount Edgcumbe, left a detailed description of the singer's many merits:\nPacchierotti's voice was an extensive soprano, full and sweet in the highest degree: his powers of execution were great, but he had far too good taste and good sense to make a display of them where it would have been misapplied, ... conscious that the chief delight of singing and his own supreme excellence lay in touching expression and exquisite pathos. Yet he was so thorough a musician that nothing came amiss",
"-27.170607819760335"
],
[
"indeed secretly received $1.5 million that the other two tenors, who were not under contract to Decca, did not receive. For subsequent concerts and recordings, the singers were much more careful in assuring financially advantageous contractual terms for themselves. Criticism The Three Tenors phenomenon was applauded by many for introducing opera to a wider audience, but some opera purists rebuked them. Domingo responded to critics in a 1998 interview: \"The purists, they say this is not opera. Of course it's not opera, it doesn't pretend to be an opera. It's a concert in which we sing some opera, we sing",
"-27.168577079132774"
],
[
"well-schooled soprano. She is the kind of honest, solidly reliable singer, definite in intention and definite about the actual notes, that is becoming increasingly rare.\" After comparing her versatility to that of soprano Florence Easton, Porter noted that \"there is not much sensuous allure in Barlow's firm, strong tone, and no trace of dainty charm in her heroic manner. Yet I feel that I could go to hear her even in so apparently inappropriate a role as Verdi's Violetta or Puccini's Mimi with the assurance that nothing would be fudged or shirked. She drew long, clear lines. She plainly",
"-27.15250142354489"
],
[
"fullness and beauty when she grew older, enabling her to excel in weightier fare. Patti, however, turned into a conservative singer in the final phase of her operatic and concert career. She knew what suited her aging voice to perfection and she stuck to it. Typically, her recital programs during the 1890s featured an array of familiar, often sentimental, not-too-demanding popular tunes of the day, which were sure to appeal to her adoring fans.\nBut during her mature prime in the 1870s and '80s, Patti had been a more enterprising singer, proving to be an effective actress in those lyric roles",
"-27.148164773701865"
],
[
"a rich banker, in the recording of Die Fledermaus, with Clemens Krauss conducting the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, issued by London Records LLP 305.\nAlthough he did not possess the most powerful of voices, it had a distinctive and attractive timbre and was used with such style, intelligence, charm and musicianship, and with such dramatic conviction, as to warrant a very high place among the operatic singers of his time. He was the very effective partner of Kathleen Ferrier in the recording of Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde under Bruno Walter, issued by Decca Records in 1952.\nHe was awarded the Lilli",
"-27.111135174287483"
],
[
"cities including Stuttgart and Hamburg. Perhaps the only important opera house where he did not sing was Teatro alla Scala, Milano, although a role in I Vespri siciliani was discussed. Vocal characteristics and career Moldoveanu’s voice had a vibrant timbre, consistent with the characteristics of the lyric tenor that he considered himself. However, he had a steady and strong acute register, which allowed him to successfully approach roles more typically associated with spinto tenors (Calaf, Don Carlo, Don José, Manrico), as well as dramatic roles (Radames, Dick Johnson). His voice, sometimes compared to those of great past tenors such as",
"-27.08660086657619"
],
[
"Benita Valente Benita Valente (born October 19, 1934), is a distinguished American soprano whose long career has encompassed the operatic stage as well as performance of lieder, chamber music and oratorio. She is especially lauded for her interpretations of Mozart and Handel, but she also excelled in certain Verdi roles. The New York Times once referred to her \"as gifted a singer as we have today, worldwide.\"\nBenita Valente was born in Delano, California. She studied voice at the Music Academy of the West in Santa Barbara with Lotte Lehmann and Martial Singher. She later studied with Margaret Harshaw",
"-27.071402686764486"
],
[
"Francesco Marconi Francesco Marconi (14 May 1853 [or 1855] – 5 February 1916) was an operatic tenor from Rome who enjoyed an important international career. In 1924, a reputable biographical dictionary of musicians called him 'one of the most renowned and esteemed singers of the last 50 years'. Along with his great contemporary Francesco Tamagno (1850–1905), he is the earliest Italian tenor to have left a representative legacy of acoustic recordings. Life & singing career Born of humble origins in Rome, \"Cecco\" Marconi worked as a carpenter during his youth. The promising quality of his voice came to the attention",
"-27.06309222451455"
],
[
"\"normal\" male voices in lead roles, and retained their position as primo uomo for about a hundred years; an Italian opera not featuring at least one renowned castrato in a lead part would be doomed to fail. Because of the popularity of Italian opera throughout 18th-century Europe (except France), singers such as Ferri, Farinelli, Senesino and Pacchierotti became the first operatic superstars, earning enormous fees and hysterical public adulation. The strictly hierarchical organisation of opera seria favoured their high voices as symbols of heroic virtue, though they were frequently mocked for their strange appearance and bad acting. In his 1755",
"-27.061261056922376"
],
[
"The Three Tenors The Three Tenors were a popular operatic singing group during the 1990s and early 2000s, consisting of Spaniards Plácido Domingo and José Carreras and Italian Luciano Pavarotti. The trio began their collaboration with a performance at the ancient Baths of Caracalla in Rome, Italy on 7 July 1990, the eve of the 1990 FIFA World Cup Final. Zubin Mehta conducted the orchestra of Maggio Musicale Fiorentino and the orchestra of Teatro dell'Opera di Roma. The image of three tenors in formal evening dress singing in a World Cup concert captivated the global audience. The recording of this",
"-27.026782696295413"
],
[
"Roberta Peters Roberta Peters (May 4, 1930 – January 18, 2017) was an American coloratura soprano.\nOne of the most prominent American singers to achieve lasting fame and success in opera, Peters is noted for her 35-year association with the Metropolitan Opera Company in New York, among the longest such associations between a singer and a company in opera. She was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1998. Early life and career Peters was born Roberta Peterman in The Bronx, New York City, the only child of Ruth (née Hersch), a milliner, and Solomon Peterman, a shoe salesman. Her family",
"-27.011555235338164"
],
[
"for voices of a wider range. Even classically trained singers need to have a \"pop timbre and color\" in their voices.\nIn Katharina von Bora we can find an infusion of pop style. Many melodic lines and harmonies evoke the simplicity of pop concert songs. Often during the performance, we hear modern rhythms of \"light\" music. In some songs we feel a strong beat which is very seldom found in classical music where the beat is more discrete and delicate, but clearer. However, the very complex orchestration determines the nature of the opera. Running time Without any cuts, the entire opera",
"-27.005428051656054"
],
[
"is considered by many to be the greatest German lyric soprano of the twentieth century and one of the finest Mozart singers of all time, with an \"indescribably beautiful\" voice.\nSchwarzkopf's entry in The Grove Book of Opera Singers concludes: \"Although she dismissed her [Nazi Party] membership as a professional necessity, her reputation has remained tarnished by what seems to have been an active party membership.\"",
"-26.986881551340048"
],
[
"he devoted himself to teaching singing.\nHe was a spirited actor, and had a full, finely-toned, and commanding voice. According to Charles Burney, his voice was one of the sweetest yet most powerful tenors he ever heard; to which, according to Carlo Gervasoni, he added a very rare truth of intonation, great power of expression, and the most perfect method, both of producing the voice and of vocalisation. His wife had as bad a temper as himself, and they were, therefore, a most inharmonious couple. It is said that, when singing together in Italy, if one were more applauded than the",
"-26.979333607709123"
],
[
"halls in America, Europe, Asia and the Soviet Union, with command performances at the Vatican and the White House. His operatic repertoire includes more than 1,000 performances of over 110 major roles. He has shared the stage with the world's greatest singers, including Joan Sutherland, Kiri Te Kanawa , Birgit Nilsson, Beverly Sills, Montserrat Caballé, Roberta Peters, Jerome Hines, Leonie Rysanek, Leontyne Price, Fedora Barbieri, Marilyn Horne, Carlo Bergonzi, Alfredo Kraus, Luciano Pavarotti, Juan Pons, Simon Estes, Ferruccio Furlanetto, Plácido Domingo, and Ethel Merman performing regularly on the stages of the Chicago Lyric, San Francisco, Metropolitan, Santa Fe, Houston Grand,",
"-26.973691374761984"
],
[
"musical heroes and critics. As well, Elvis Presley idolized him and Slim inspired Elvis.\nAccording to Bill Mitchell, Slim \"was a good entertainer\" who put on a \"pretty lively show,\" primarily \"love songs with comedy. The people really enjoyed it.\"",
"-26.97158578480594"
],
[
"Brian Mulligan Brian Mulligan is an American operatic baritone who has performed in major opera houses and concert halls all over the world. \nMulligan's diverse repertoire currently includes over 60 roles in seven languages. He regularly performs the standard works of Puccini, Verdi, and Wagner, yet also sings the music of living composers such as John Adams, Dominick Argento, and Gregory Spears. \nIn September 2018, The Washington Post wrote \"Mulligan is a big man with a big voice. His baritone is almost embarrassingly rich in its low and middle registers, with a high range and head voice",
"-26.969443614128977"
],
[
"concerts and operas. Jacobs wrote in his autobiography, \"some of them, such as Stéphane Degout and Sunhae Im, were among the best actor-singers I know.\" She also interpreted lesser known works by composers including Terradellas, Soler, Gassmann, and Conti.\nIn addition to Baroque and Classical music, her repertoire includes Renaissance (such as works by Byrd), Bel canto (Rossini and Donizetti), Romantic (Mendelssohn, Schumann, Fauré, and Mahler), and modern classical music (Poulenc and Schulhoff). For example with the conductor Manfred Honeck, she performed Mahler's Symphony No. 2 and No. 4, Poulenc's Dialogues of the Carmelites (as Sister Constance), Bach's St John Passion,",
"-26.960296868986916"
],
[
"still holds a great admiration for Fats, for those are the musicians whom true artistry is infinitely more important than technical virtuosity.\nHis band repertoire of 150 or so pieces is composed almost entirely of New Orleans standards, while his solo repertoire consists mainly of Jelly Roll’s blues and stomps, Joplin rags, and a few opf his own compositions, the latter showing that Jelly’s maxim of originality has not fallen on stony ground.\nHis greatest achievement to date? When he played Shreveport Stomp in an otherwise strictly classical competition, and missed first place by only one mark.\"",
"-26.93340949114645"
],
[
"information about those persons who are undoubtedly the most important to the performance of opera.\"\nThe fourth edition, published in 2003, contains around 20,000 biographies of singers from the 16th century to the modern era. The articles usually list names, voice part, dates and locations of birth and death, family, education, performing locations and development of repertory. The third edition also appeared as a CD-ROM. The fourth edition comes with an e-book.",
"-26.925092771751224"
],
[
"Dramatic soprano A dramatic soprano is a type of operatic soprano with a powerful, rich, emotive voice that can sing over, or cut through, a full orchestra. Thicker vocal folds in dramatic voices usually (but not always) mean less agility than lighter voices but a sustained, fuller sound. Usually this voice has a lower tessitura than other sopranos, and a darker timbre. They are often used for heroic, often long-suffering, tragic women of opera. Dramatic sopranos have a range from approximately low A (A₃) to \"high C\" (C₆). Some dramatic sopranos, known as Wagnerian sopranos, have an exceptionally big voice",
"-26.924998337461147"
],
[
"opera itself, when many in the world dismissed opera as a bygone luxury of the rich. The new \"low cost model\" also gave access in regions of the world that otherwise had little hope of having opera.\nUnder McCormic, the opera workshop performed locally, toured, and did broadcasts in radio and TV often with near quality of a reputable professional company.\nWhen the Dallas Opera was founded in 1957, the UNT Opera Workshop and Vocal Studies provided a steady supply of singers for the Dallas Opera Chorus.\nIn 1966, McCormic retired and moved to Amarillo to make her home with her widowed sister-in-law,",
"-26.916359553535585"
],
[
"cast members, with Lauren Conrad saying \"I've always been a huge Mariah fan, and she's just so beautiful and talented'. Whitney Port and Audrina Patridge referred to Carey as \"an amazing singer\", while claiming to have listened to her music from a young age. On April 12, 2008, Carey made an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show. Winfrey interviewed the singer on her weight loss, E=MC², and even showed footage of Carey in her New York apartment, showing off her lingerie closet. Following the interview, Carey performed a live rendition of \"Bye Bye\" for the audience, with three background vocalists",
"-26.9161188279395"
],
[
"funny because my favourite thing to do is imitate opera singers, but I've never had a singing lesson. Oh, I had a lesson just to teach me how to breathe better, but I never really had a singing lesson.\nWill Hermes of Rolling Stone compared her voice to that of Dolly Parton, stating that her upper register was dazzling whilst also complementing her skill in vocal multi-layering. Megan Farokhmanesh of Paste magazine stated \"Goulding has a lovely voice, but occasionally her soprano-strung vocals hit a note that rubs the eardrums the wrong way\" although she praised Goulding overall for her \"talent",
"-26.909302893502172"
],
[
"expense of their mellow but less penetrant lower notes. Initially at least, the singing techniques of 19th-century contraltos and basses were less affected by the musical innovations of Verdi, which were built upon by his successors Amilcare Ponchielli (1834–1886) and Arrigo Boito (1842–1918). Bel canto and its detractors One reason for the eclipse of the old Italian singing model was the growing influence within the music world of bel canto's detractors, who considered it to be outmoded and condemned it as vocalization devoid of content. To others, however, bel canto became the vanished art of elegant, refined, sweet-toned musical utterance.",
"-26.898469144420233"
],
[
"there was an increase in audience for Cantonese opera. They can recite line by line and verse by verse of these legacy titles of Yam. These veteran audiences are not craving for run-of-the-mill low-quality performances with famous titles. They know better than even columnists (nationwide or not) or academics (worldwide or not) who are mostly motivated or paid to be biased if not just recycle second hand information or pull it out of thin air. Accommodation for entourage, including Trojan horse (二五仔), ends at water edge as always.",
"-26.893920381276985"
],
[
"is better than the source material.\nOther celebrity fans include actors Laurence Fishburne, Richard Dreyfuss, June Squibb, Amanda Peet, Zach Braff, Patton Oswalt, Elijah Wood, Mindy Kaling, Dax Shepard, Kristen Bell, Elizabeth Banks, Anna Kendrick, Kerry Washington, Dylan McDermott and Jennifer Lawrence. Singers T-Pain, Kelly Clarkson, Snoop Dogg, Ed Sheeran, Madonna and Joe Jonas (who is married to Sophie Turner, who played Sansa Stark on the show), and comedians Kevin Smith, Seth Rogen, Aziz Ansari. Ryan Reynolds and his wife Blake Lively are also both fans of the show.\nAuthor Stephen King is also a fan of the series. Jay-Z and Beyoncé",
"-26.887393435114063"
],
[
"SoundScan era, with over 52 million copies sold. Carey was ranked first in MTV and Blender magazine's 2003 countdown of the 22 Greatest Voices in Music, and was placed second in Cove magazine's list of \"The 100 Outstanding Pop Vocalists.\" Aside from her voice, she has become known for her songwriting. Yahoo Music editor Jason Ankeny wrote, \"She earned frequent comparison to rivals Whitney Houston and Celine Dion, but did them both one better by composing all of her own material.\" According to Billboard magazine, she was the most successful artist of the 1990s in the United States. At the 2000",
"-26.87655575403187"
],
[
"musicians, technical staff, and dancers (at the Scuola di Ballo del Teatro alla Scala, one of the Academy's divisions).\nAbove the boxes, La Scala has a gallery—called the loggione—where the less wealthy can watch the performances. The gallery is typically crowded with the most critical opera aficionados, known as the loggionisti, who can be ecstatic or merciless towards singers' perceived successes or failures. For their failures, artists receive a \"baptism of fire\" from these aficionados, and fiascos are long remembered. For example, in 2006, tenor Roberto Alagna left the stage after being booed during a performance of Aida. This forced his",
"-26.859043457661755"
],
[
"Fan Club' in America also stimulated interest.\nMost importantly the operas themselves have been revived and recorded, although despite the efforts of such champions as Dame Joan Sutherland, who took part in performances of, and recorded, Les Huguenots, they have yet to achieve anything like the huge popular following they attracted during their creator's lifetime. Recordings are now available of all the operas from Il crociato onwards, for many of the earlier Italian operas, and for other pieces including his songs and the incidental music for Struensee.\nAmongst reasons often adduced for the dearth of productions in the 20th century were the",
"-26.835924194499967"
],
[
"and who had clearer and lighter, and therefore more agile, voices than those of the proper baritenors. After still using a basically central and slightly virtuoso writing for the tenor in his early comic operas, Rossini elevated the tenor's tessitura to extremely hard high pitches of virtuosity and coloratura as soon as singers' abilities allowed it. Such was the case of Serafino Gentili, the first performer of Lindoro in L'Italiana in Algeri, of the cited David, the first performer of Don Narciso in Il turco in Italia, of Giacomo Guglielmi, the first performer of Don Ramiro in La Cenerentola",
"-26.834950944554294"
],
[
"rich operatic career was compiled in musical records, pictures, and, paintings. Upon her death, her husband donated a large amount for the creation of Sopranos' scholarships at the Paris Opera, the theater that first gave fame to Guiglia's voice.\n\nOne of her daughters with Mario, Cecilia Maria de Candia, became a recognized writer and married an English gentleman, Godfrey Pearse, and in 1910 published the book The Romance of a Great Singer – A Memoir of Mario.",
"-26.82018907936981"
],
[
"Giulini, Roberto Benzi, Bruno Maderna, Robert Stolz, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Rudolf Schock and Arnold van Mill. Versatility In addition to her singing career she was one of the first Dutch classical singers who regularly performed with singers and artists from the popular genre. The many television and radio broadcasts makes this versatile singer very popular with a broad audience. Her impressive professional career spans a period of more than 50 years.",
"-26.81995481636841"
],
[
"partner, initiating the so-called \"Golden Age of Opera\". Most of the greatest operatic artists in the world then graced the stage of the Metropolitan Opera House in Italian as well as German and French repertory. Notable among them were the brothers Jean and Édouard de Reszke, Lilli Lehmann, Emma Calvé, Lillian Nordica, Nellie Melba, Marcella Sembrich, Milka Ternina, Emma Eames, Sofia Scalchi, Ernestine Schumann-Heink, Francesco Tamagno, Francisco Vignas, Jean Lassalle, Mario Ancona, Victor Maurel, Antonio Scotti and Pol Plançon. Henry Abbey died in 1896, and Maurice Grau continued as sole manager of the Met from 1896 to 1903.\nThe early 1900s",
"-26.807133016729495"
],
[
"Ileana Cotrubaș Ileana Cotrubaș ([iˈle̯ana kotruˈbaʃ] (listen); born June 9, 1939) is a Romanian opera soprano whose career spanned from the 1960s to the 1980s. She was much admired for her acting skills and facility for singing opera in many different languages.",
"-26.793550227688684"
],
[
"singing that was necessary to perform the innovative works of Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901) with maximum dramatic impact. Tenors, for instance, began to inflate their tone and deliver the high C (and even the high D) directly from the chest rather than resorting to a suave head voice/falsetto as they had done previously – sacrificing vocal agility in the process. Sopranos and baritones reacted in a similar fashion to their tenor colleagues when confronted with Verdi's drama-filled compositions. They subjected the mechanics of their voice production to greater pressures and cultivated the exciting upper part of their respective ranges at the",
"-26.79158419626765"
],
[
"the best episodes of The Sopranos. Chicago Tribune journalist Maureen Ryan said that it was an \"intelligently made character drama\". In his four star review, Adam Buckman of New York Post described it as \"stunning\" and suggested that Mad Men \"just happens to be the finest new TV series of the summer and possibly the entire year\". Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle and Brian Lowry of Variety lauded the episode for its historical accuracy; \"Just because they're on the cusp of a new decade does not mean they can see what viewers already know is around the corner,\"",
"-26.77513823478148"
],
[
"but still possesses a youthful quality. There are a wide variety of roles written for this voice, and they may sing soubrette, baroque and other light roles as well. Full lyric soprano A full-lyric soprano has a more mature sound than a light-lyric soprano and can be heard over a bigger orchestra. This more mature sound may make a full-lyric less suitable for some of the lighter roles. Occasionally a full lyric will have a big enough voice that she can take on much heavier roles, using volume in place of vocal weight. This is done when a more lyric",
"-26.77189902797545"
],
[
"prime capable of effortless soaring from a smoky mezzo to the pure soprano gold of a perfectly spun high C.\"\nA lirico spinto (Italian for \"pushed lyric\") soprano, she was considered especially well suited to roles in operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Giacomo Puccini, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.\nAfter her retirement from opera, she continued to appear in recitals and orchestral concerts until 1997.\nAmong her many honors are the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1964), the Spingarn Medal (1965), the Kennedy Center Honors (1980), the National Medal of Arts (1985), numerous honorary degrees, and 19 Grammy Awards for operatic and song recitals and full",
"-26.770652208913816"
]
] |
8x3hom | With all the wireless technologies we use (Wi-fi, satellites, cellphone towers etc), isn't it a concern that it might get "congested" and cause the tech to fail? | [
"In the US there is an organization called the \"FCC\" or the Federal Communications Commission which regulates the frequencies which wireless devices can employ in order to prevent such interference and failures. Other countries have similar bodies.",
"It does get congested. If you live in apartment with lots of people with their own networks there can be a lot of interference on certain channels. Usually, wifi devices will just pick up your router's signal but if the unit next to you uses the exact same channel you could run into issues.",
"There is a concern which is why most of the radio spectrum is regulated and licensed out. If you have an application that needs to work then you have to buy a chunk of the spectrum for the area and then you get exclusive rights to it For stuff like WiFi and Bluetooth which are in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz band, we regularly encounter congestion issues especially if you have several WiFi networks in range of each other. To help deal with this, the power of devices operating in the unlicensed band is limited. Bluetooth and WiFi transmitters are restricted to 1 W of power, this reduces the range at which they will cause interference and keeps your network from shouting over one from across town.",
"Wireless technologies are allocated frequency bands and within those bands, there are typically multiple channels available. As an example, WiFi has 2.4Ghz and 5Ghz bands. The 2.4G band has 11 channels. 5G has many more. Radio signals have a limited range and so the bands and channels can be re-used, given some geographical separation. Most devices are able these days to change channels on their own to avoid congestion. But yes, given enough devices in a small geographical area, congestion can be a significant problem."
] | [
[
"on the computational power available to them. These constraints often make them unable to directly use basic security measures such as implementing firewalls or using strong cryptosystems to encrypt their communications with other devices - and the low price and consumer focus of many devices makes a robust security patching system uncommon.\nInternet of things devices also have access to new areas of data, and can often control physical devices, so that even by 2014 it was possible to say that many Internet-connected appliances could already \"spy on people in their own homes\" including televisions, kitchen appliances, cameras, and thermostats. Computer-controlled",
"-33.19773715893825"
],
[
"technology have increased as the service has become more popular and the technology more commonly available. Today there are a great number of security risks associated with the current wireless protocols and encryption methods, as carelessness and ignorance exists at the user and corporate IT level. Hacking methods have become much more sophisticated and innovative with wireless. Modes of unauthorized access The modes of unauthorised access to links, to functions and to data is as variable as the respective entities make use of program code. There does not exist a full scope model of such threat. To some extent",
"-32.33507631796806"
],
[
"networks relatively easy to break into, and even use wireless technology to hack into wired networks. As a result, it is very important that enterprises define effective wireless security policies that guard against unauthorized access to important resources. Wireless Intrusion Prevention Systems (WIPS) or Wireless Intrusion Detection Systems (WIDS) are commonly used to enforce wireless security policies. The air interface and link corruption risk There were relatively few dangers when wireless technology was first introduced, as the effort to maintain the communication was high and the effort to intrude is always higher. The variety of risks to users of wireless",
"-31.895178172097076"
],
[
"designed to work within predefined standards. Wireless access points are also often close to people, but the drop off in power over distance is fast, following the inverse-square law. However, wireless laptops are typically used close to people. WiFi had been anecdotally linked to electromagnetic hypersensitivity but research into electromagnetic hypersensitivity has found no systematic evidence supporting claims made by sufferers.\nThe HPA's position is that \"... radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones.\" It also saw \"... no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment.\" In October 2007,",
"-31.828361619012867"
],
[
"phones has lagged behind traditional computer media, largely due to problems over the proprietary nature of devices.\nFocus has also shifted onto internet crime, particularly the risk of cyber warfare and cyberterrorism. A February 2010 report by the United States Joint Forces Command concluded:\nThrough cyberspace, enemies will target industry, academia, government, as well as the military in the air, land, maritime, and space domains. In much the same way that airpower transformed the battlefield of World War II, cyberspace has fractured the physical barriers that shield a nation from attacks on its commerce and communication.\nThe field of digital forensics still faces",
"-31.811377159090625"
],
[
"and limited storage, compared to desktop PCs.\nEven if mobile terminals are stationary, obstacles around the mobile terminals can affect the received signal and cause packet loss. Packets delivered through the wireless link are exposed to a variety of signal degradation such as shadowing, fast/slow fading, etc.\nBecause it is currently not possible to deploy wireless networks to cover all geographical areas with no \"dead spots\", services are restricted in some areas. However, by adopting vertical handovers (hand-overs between different networks), the coverage issue can be mitigated.\nThe characteristics of the wireless link can vary due to a variety of causes, and the",
"-30.733122750301845"
],
[
"And now we look to the network to defend us against loneliness even as we want it to control the intensity of our connections\". Privacy and surveillance of the technoself Computer networking and smart technologies such as radio frequency identification (RFID), geographical information systems (GIS), and global positioning systems (GPS) are providing new tools and techniques for monitoring individuals and their behavior. The rise in these types of technologies has raised concerns over the invasion of privacy, and the misuse of information. That is because the networked identity of technoselves can be exploited by third parties who may want",
"-30.658416056918213"
],
[
"adopting digital technology in recent years, but they remain less likely than nonrural adults to have home broadband, smartphones and other devices. This is not necessarily because of a financial issue, but because of the lack of access and the poor internet connection due to the lack of towers and phone lines. Mobile technology use among rural adults has risen rapidly, however they are still leaps and bounds behind Americans in larger cities that have more access. As of 2016, approximately 11.5% of the total U.S. population did not have internet access. Out of the 324,118,787 Americans, there were 286,942,362",
"-30.65064190654084"
],
[
"Wireless security Background Anyone within the geographical network range of an open, unencrypted wireless network can \"sniff\", or capture and record, the traffic, gain unauthorized access to internal network resources as well as to the internet, and then use the information and resources to perform disruptive or illegal acts. Such security breaches have become important concerns for both enterprise and home networks.\nIf router security is not activated or if the owner deactivates it for convenience, it creates a free hotspot. Since most 21st-century laptop PCs have wireless networking built in (see Intel \"Centrino\" technology), they don't need a third-party",
"-30.48085083515616"
],
[
"(SNR) between access points. In addition interference can be caused by overlapping channels in the 802.11g/b spectrum. These issues can become a problem in high-density areas, such as large apartment complexes or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access points. Wi-Fi 6 has greatly improved power control, and suffers less from interference in congested areas.\nOther devices use the 2.4 GHz band: microwave ovens, ISM band devices, security cameras, ZigBee devices, Bluetooth devices, video senders, cordless phones, baby monitors, and, in some countries, amateur radio, all of which can cause significant additional interference. It is also an issue when municipalities or other large",
"-30.453471812885255"
],
[
"a problem as design techniques have improved, such as integrated power factor correction.\nMost countries have legal requirements that mandate electromagnetic compatibility: electronic and electrical hardware must still work correctly when subjected to certain amounts of EMI, and should not emit EMI, which could interfere with other equipment (such as radios).\nRadio frequency signal quality has declined throughout the 21st century by roughly one decibel per year as the spectrum becomes increasingly crowded. This has inflicted a Red Queen's race on the mobile phone industry as companies have been forced to put up more cellular towers (at new frequencies) that then cause",
"-30.358441225529532"
],
[
"access to the internet and have the wireless devices to access it. It is no surprise that wireless is the fastest growing broadband service. There is also an increase in the number of users that rely solely on wireless instead of wired connections. Wireless service providers are constantly competing to create the best network with the best service and quality. With more towers and increased advanced technologies, wireless has become a convenient and widely accessible mode of communication. The negative, however, is the technology which wireless Internet uses. As previously stated, the spectrum itself is limited and wireless data networks",
"-30.346787261107238"
],
[
"Wi-Fi link.\nAlternatively, users with unpatched devices can disable their wireless network connection and use a wired alternative – though this may not be practical for many scenarios, such as mobile devices or tablets. Continued vulnerability In October 2018, reports emerged that the KRACK vulnerability was still exploitable in spite of vendor patches, through a variety of workarounds for the techniques used by vendors to close off the original attack.",
"-30.34473683370743"
],
[
"been proven to generate significant amounts of electromagnetic interference that can interfere with any Bluetooth devices a user has connected to the same computer. Various strategies can be applied to resolve the problem, ranging from simple solutions such as increasing the distance of USB 3.0 devices from any Bluetooth devices to purchasing better shielded USB cables. Car alarm Certain car manufacturers use the 2.4 GHz frequency for their car alarm internal movement sensors. These devices transmit on 2.45 GHz (between channels 8 and 9) at a strength of 500 mW. Because of channel overlap, this will cause problems for channels 6 and 11,",
"-30.021704268991016"
],
[
"technology. The broad range of potential benefits to the health sector that the simple functions of mobile phones can provide should not be understated.\nThe appeal of mobile communication technologies is that they enable communication in motion, allowing individuals to contact each other irrespective of time and place. This is particularly beneficial for work in remote areas where the mobile phone, and now increasingly wireless infrastructure, is able to reach more people, faster. As a result of such technological advances, the capacity for improved access to information and two-way communication becomes more available at the point of need. Mobile phones With",
"-30.007267799650435"
],
[
"will hinder their widespread deployment. But if the messages originate from a source where the user is enrolled in a relationship/loyalty program, privacy is not considered violated and even interruptions can generate goodwill.\nThe privacy issue became even more salient as it was before with the arrival of mobile data networks. A number of important new concerns emerged mainly stemming from the fact that mobile devices are intimately personal and are always with the user, and four major concerns can be identified: mobile spam, personal identification, location information and wireless security. Aggregate presence of mobile phone users could be tracked",
"-29.970178083778592"
],
[
"leaving the computer open to possible attack from external sources. The user's only option in this scenario is to risk connecting to the Internet unprotected, or install a different firewall product. Network topology A common complaint from more advanced users is the complete lack of user-configurable options in the Wi-Fi USB Connector software and installer. For the novice user this is seen as a much-welcomed advantage of the Wi-Fi USB Connector over a traditional wireless router, but for those users who wish to use the device in a more complicated network environment, it can be an insurmountable obstacle.\nFor example, the",
"-29.96592149186472"
],
[
"data stored on the device. Moreover, they can be used to commandeer the phone to make calls or send messages at the owner's expense.\nMobile phones used to have proprietary operating system unique only to the manufacturer which had the beneficial effect of making it harder to design a mass attack. However, the rise of software platforms and operating systems shared by many manufacturers such as Java, Microsoft operating systems, Linux, or Symbian OS, may increase the spread of viruses in the future.\nBluetooth is a feature now found in many higher-end phones, and the virus Caribe hijacked this function, making Bluetooth",
"-29.961403868044727"
],
[
"world was about 1.26 billion. The number of landline subscribers continuously decreases due to upgrades in digital technology and the conveniences that come with switching to wireless (cellular) or Internet-based alternatives. Fixed phone A fixed phone line (a line that is not a mobile phone line) can be hard-wired or cordless and typically refers to the operation of wireless devices or systems in fixed locations such as homes. Fixed wireless devices usually derive their electrical power from the utility mains electricity, unlike mobile wireless or portable wireless, which tend to be battery-powered. Although mobile and portable systems can be used",
"-29.94667259400012"
],
[
"M2M communication in industrial applications. Such industrial applications often have specific security requirements. Hence, it is important to understand the characteristics of such applications and evaluate the vulnerabilities bearing the highest risk in this context. Evaluation of these vulnerabilities and the resulting vulnerability catalogs in an industrial context when considering WLAN, NFC and ZigBee are available. The mobility advantage Wireless networks are very common, both for organizations and individuals. Many laptop computers have wireless cards pre-installed. The ability to enter a network while mobile has great benefits. However, wireless networking is prone to some security issues. Hackers have found wireless",
"-29.906598977104295"
],
[
"a wireless interface to a networked computer using an open USB port, they may create a breach in network security that would allow access to confidential materials. However, there are effective countermeasures (like disabling open switchports during switch configuration and VLAN configuration to limit network access) that are available to protect both the network and the information it contains, but such countermeasures must be applied uniformly to all network devices. Threats and Vulnerabilites in an industrial (M2M) context Due to its availability and low cost, the use of wireless communication technologies increases in domains beyond the originally intended usage\nareas, e.g.",
"-29.87252773134969"
],
[
"features in your building, can all interfere. Electrical devices such as motors, lighting fixtures and transformers can cause noise. There may be concerns about privacy since conversations may be picked up on a scanner, baby monitor, cordless phone, or a similar device on the same frequency. Encrypted wireless intercoms can reduce or eliminate privacy risks, while placement, installation, construction, grounding and shielding methods can reduce or eliminate the detrimental effects of external interference. The United States and Canada have several frequency ranges for wireless intercom systems and other wireless products. They are 49 MHz, FM band (200–270 kHz), 494–608 MHz, 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5.8 GHz,",
"-29.82723475396051"
],
[
"as their Nexpaq case. Challenges Critics point out that the phone will need to have connections durable enough so that a modular phone will not fall apart when dropped, put in a pocket or sat upon. Project Ara is using latches and electropermanent magnets to achieve this. Existing phones are highly optimized for physical space, making pluggable modules that are highly space-optimal difficult, and configuration and regulatory approval of the radio hardware becomes more complicated. Another risk is that consumers will be overwhelmed by too many choices, or prefer pre-packaged phones. It will be unclear how viable the secondary component",
"-29.79626154404832"
],
[
"periods than for mobile phones and the strength of wireless devices is not significantly less. Whereas a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) mobile phone can range from 21 dBm (125 mW) for Power Class 4 to 33 dBm (2W) for Power class 1, a wireless router can range from a typical 15 dBm (30 mW) strength to 27 dBm (500 mW) on the high end.\nHowever, wireless routers are typically located significantly farther away from users' heads than a mobile phone the user is handling, resulting in far less exposure overall. The Health Protection Agency (HPA) says that if a person spends one",
"-29.76825791259762"
],
[
"ground-based communication such as fiber optics or cable lines, geostationary satellite communications experience higher latency than that of ground-based communications due to the signal having to travel 22,000 miles out into space to a satellite in geostationary orbit and back to Earth again. Limitations The signal delay can be as much as 900 milliseconds or more, which makes most satellite-based Internet service unusable and unstable for applications requiring real-time user input, such as online games or remote surgery. The functionality of live interactive access to a distant computer can also be subject to these problems caused by high latency. These",
"-29.712828327552415"
],
[
"in the event that the customer's network device is inaccessible to terminate the call.\nThe susceptibility of phone service to power failures is a common problem even with traditional analog service in areas where many customers purchase modern telephone units that operate with wireless handsets to a base station, or that have other modern phone features, such as built-in voicemail or phone book features. Security The security concerns of VoIP telephone systems are similar to those of other Internet-connected devices. This means that hackers with knowledge of VoIP vulnerabilities can perform denial-of-service attacks, harvest customer data, record conversations, and compromise voicemail",
"-29.682808626879705"
],
[
"showed that about two-thirds of smartphone owners used their personal devices for enterprise-related activities. Supporting a wide variety of device types and operating systems can introduce security risks and added costs for businesses.\nA 2011 survey showed that three quarters of U.K. and U.S. CIOs surveyed considered mobile technology to be a significant security problem, although consumers were generally less concerned. Security Because mobile devices are easily lost or stolen, data on those devices is vulnerable. Enterprise mobility management is a set of systems intended to prevent unauthorized access to enterprise applications and/or corporate data on mobile devices. These can include",
"-29.682460689378786"
],
[
"access and other solutions used to prevent the use of contraband cell phones should be enacted.\nAs of 2016, only California, Maryland, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas had tested managed access systems. Drawbacks Managed access systems are unable to stop the use of contraband devices using Wi-Fi to connect to the internet. Deployment of managed access systems requires FCC approval as well as consent from cellular network carriers. The devices can also cause interference outside of the prison if they are not properly implemented.",
"-29.662468215232366"
],
[
"had to be developed.\nFrom the 1980s on the explosive growth in mobile communications and broadcast media channels put huge pressure on the available airspace. Regulatory authorities began squeezing band allocations closer and closer together, relying on increasingly sophisticated EMC control methods, especially in the digital communications domain, to keep cross-channel interference to acceptable levels. Digital systems are inherently less susceptible than analogue systems, and also offer far easier ways (such as software) to implement highly sophisticated protection and error-correction measures.\nIn 1985 the USA released the ISM bands for low-power mobile digital communications, leading to the development of Wi-Fi and remotely-operated",
"-29.61077379118069"
],
[
"effects Because the communication standards used provide more bandwidth than is required for power control, side effects of meeting reliability and security requirements would include the availability of additional bandwidth for other services (burglary, fire, medical and environmental sensors and alarms, ULC and CCTV monitoring, access control and keying systems, intercoms and secure phone line services running over AC power lines). Services such as radio, TV and general Internet could also run over the same infrastructure as their security needs are far less demanding than power or alarm systems. However, standardizing the tariffs or interfaces for non-power-control applications",
"-29.56376382950839"
],
[
"of retrofitting a building for a wired intercom system is high. Another reason is the increased portability of a wireless system. With battery-powered radio frequency wireless intercom units, a person can carry a station as they walk around.\nOne of the challenges of a wireless system is the possibility of interference. Radio frequency wireless systems may get interference from other wireless devices. Some wireless intercom designs reduce this interference by using \"digital spread spectrum\". Encrypted wireless Wired intercom is inherently private, so long as the wiring system isn't tapped by outside parties. Wireless intercom is not inherently private; conversations on a",
"-29.52044283907162"
],
[
"their neighbours or the general public or may be intimidated by the knowledge and effort required to secure their network while making it available to their own laptops. Some wireless networking devices may not support the latest security mechanisms, and users must therefore leave their network unsecured. For example, the Nintendo DS and Nintendo DS Lite can only access wireless routers using the discredited WEP standard, however, the Nintendo DSi and Nintendo 3DS both support WPA encryption. Given the rarity of such cases where hosts have been held liable for the activities of piggybackers, they may be unaware or unconcerned",
"-29.515636793803424"
],
[
"personnel to either break the code themselves or to get the code from the phone's owner. Because the Snowden leaks demonstrated that American agencies can access phones anywhere in the world, privacy concerns in countries with growing markets for smart phones have intensified, providing a strong incentive for companies like Apple to address those concerns in order to secure their position in the global market.\nAlthough the CALEA requires telecommunication companies to build into their systems the ability to carry out a lawful wiretap, the law has not been updated to address the issue of smart phones and requests for access",
"-29.492900759913027"
],
[
"reported that wireless-transmission failure rates are three times higher for non-rugged notebooks compared to rugged units. This difference is attributed to the greater experience of rugged-notebook vendors at integrating multiple radios into their products. Each transmission failure leads to five to ten minutes in lost productivity as the user has to re-login to the company network through a VPN.\nSince enterprises are turning to cellular networks to enable full-time connectivity for their users, major vendors of rugged computers offer both built-in wireless LAN and wireless WAN capabilities, and partner with cellular carriers, such as Verizon and AT&T, as part of their",
"-29.42003063700031"
],
[
"revenue In the first quarter of 2016 came from 802.11ac devices. Interference Wi-Fi connections can be disrupted or the Internet speed lowered by having other devices in the same area. Wi-Fi protocols are designed to share channels reasonably fairly, and often works with little to no disruption. However, many 2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g access-points default to the same channel on initial startup, contributing to congestion on certain channels. Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive number of access points in the area, can prevent access and interfere with other devices' use of other access points as well as with decreased signal-to-noise ratio",
"-29.33963690829114"
],
[
"of scientific research.\" Other less stringent recommended approaches are prudent avoidance principle and as low as reasonably practicable. Although all of these are problematic in application, due to the widespread use and economic importance of wireless telecommunication systems in modern civilization, there is an increased popularity of such measures in the general public, though also evidence that such approaches may increase concern. They involve recommendations such as the minimization of cellphone usage, the limitation of use by at-risk population (e.g., children), the adoption of cellphones and microcells with as low as reasonably practicable levels of radiation, the wider use of",
"-29.281692045231466"
],
[
"the data acquisition through mobile phones holds more difficulties. On one hand there are high costs for Incentives and an intensive recruitment by the institutes. On the other hand, the participants of the survey have to pay the costs for the internet usage via mobile phone. However, more and more respondents do not pay the internet access based on the time spent on Internet and more and more places proposes free Wi-Fi, making this issue less and less relevant for respondents. Additionally, there are also technical difficulties that may occur. The high number of different and not-compatible software or the",
"-29.248434650187846"
],
[
"of the number of devices designed to utilize it. According to Pew Research, 59% of adults access the Internet wirelessly through some type of wireless device. Again, this is an increase from the 51% in April 2009. Internet access has become a critical part of our lives. The deployment and development of wireless broadband as well as other technologies is critical to ensuring this reliable and ubiquitous service is available to Americans. Impact on health matters and other public uses Some have not only considered personal or business related uses of national wireless, but the health related uses for hospitals",
"-29.242986845230917"
],
[
"networking would be the primary means of communication among smart grid and home devices, the bits may not reach the home via Broadband over Power Lines (BPL) initially but by fixed wireless. IT companies disrupting the energy market Smart grid provides IT-based solutions which the traditional power grid is lacking. These new solutions pave the way of new entrants that were traditionally not related to the energy grid. Technology companies are disrupting the traditional energy market players in several ways. They develop complex distribution systems to meet the more decentralized power generation due to microgrids. Additionally is the increase in",
"-29.23306429060176"
],
[
"adding Wi-Fi to smaller devices has accelerated, and it is now possible to find printers, cameras, scanners and many other common devices with Wi-Fi in addition to other connections, like USB.\nThe widespread adoption of Wi-Fi in new classes of smaller devices made the need for ad hoc networking much more important. Even without a central Wi-Fi hub or router, it would be useful for a laptop computer to be able to wirelessly connect to a local printer. Although the ad hoc mode was created to address this sort of need, the lack of additional information for discovery makes it difficult",
"-29.222523209813517"
],
[
"and emergency networks. The promoters and supporters of OPM claim that the technology may make wireless communications ultimately scalable and affordable; and once it potentially becomes ubiquitous, the commercial impact could be big as comparable to: 1) what packet-switched network technology (Internet) has brought to personal communications; 2) what mobile communication technology (cellular) has brought to telephony.",
"-29.21805492216265"
],
[
"deployment. Supporting natural monopolies The status quo only benefits powerful telecommunications companies. In the interest of reducing waste, limited support to a monopoly universal service provider for each territory has been considered. Wireless technology is increasingly favored by consumers, and can cover a single territory often for less than landline technology. However, wireless has traditionally been a competitive industry, which has resulted in a variety of innovative services for consumers, but means that supporting wireless companies requires a complex understanding of how to allocate funding on a shared basis, in order to avoid injury to the positive forces of competition.",
"-29.2038560046567"
],
[
"of products. So-called \"Evil Maid\" attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples. Systems at risk The growth in the number of computer systems, and the increasing reliance upon them of individuals, businesses, industries and governments means that there are an increasing number of systems at risk. Financial systems The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for cyber criminals interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains. Web sites and apps that accept or store credit card",
"-29.165678044431843"
],
[
"wireless access point from a neighboring company's overlapping network, the user may not even know that this has occurred. However, it is a security breach in that proprietary company information is exposed and now there could exist a link from one company to the other. This is especially true if the laptop is also hooked to a wired network.\nAccidental association is a case of wireless vulnerability called as \"mis-association\". Mis-association can be accidental, deliberate (for example, done to bypass corporate firewall) or it can result from deliberate attempts on wireless clients to lure them into connecting to attacker's APs. Malicious",
"-29.12795557094796"
],
[
"to use in practice.\nAlthough systems like UPnP and Bonjour provide many of the needed capabilities and are included in some devices, a single widely supported standard was lacking, and support within existing devices was far from universal. A guest using their smart phone would likely be able to find a hot spot and connect to the Internet with ease, perhaps using Protected Setup to do so. But the same device would find streaming music to a computer or printing a file might be difficult, or simply not supported between differing brands of hardware.\nWi-Fi Direct can provide a wireless connection to",
"-29.115868165972643"
],
[
"connections are offloaded based on physical distance to cell towers.\nConsumers and small businesses benefit from greatly improved coverage and signal strength since they have a de facto base station inside their premises. As a result of being relatively close to the femtocell, the mobile phone (user equipment) expends significantly less power for communication with it, thus increasing battery life. They may also get better voice quality (via HD voice) depending on a number of factors such as operator/network support, customer contract/price plan, phone and operating system support. Some carriers may also offer more attractive tariffs, for example discounted calls from",
"-29.102706086123362"
],
[
"problem because typically the hidden nodes are the clients (e.g. laptops, mobile devices), not the access point itself, and the clients will still not be able to hear each other. Increasing transmission power on the access point is actually likely to make the problem worse, because it will put new clients in range of the access point and thus add new nodes to the network that are hidden from other clients. Omnidirectional antennas Since nodes using directional antennas are nearly invisible to nodes that are not positioned in the direction the antenna is aimed at, directional antennas should be",
"-29.061585171861225"
],
[
"of electronics can devise interference devices to cause the smart meter to report lower than actual usage. Similarly, the same technology can be employed to make it appear that the energy the consumer is using is being used by another customer, increasing their bill.\nThe damage from a well-executed, sizable cyberattack could be extensive and long-lasting. One incapacitated substation could take from nine days to over a year to repair, depending on the nature of the attack. It can also cause an hours-long outage in a small radius. It could have an immediate effect on transportation infrastructure, as traffic lights and",
"-28.978101750224596"
],
[
"connection. Such \"piggybacking\" is usually achieved without the wireless network operator's knowledge; it may even be without the knowledge of the intruding user if their computer automatically selects a nearby unsecured wireless network to use as an access point. The threat situation Wireless security is just an aspect of computer security; however, organizations may be particularly vulnerable to security breaches caused by rogue access points.\nIf an employee (trusted entity) brings in a wireless router and plugs it into an unsecured switchport, the entire network can be exposed to anyone within range of the signals. Similarly, if an employee adds",
"-28.95747229043627"
],
[
"and Bluetooth, favored because they don't need a direct line of sight and can therefore support hardware like mice and keyboards. It is still used in some environments where interference makes radio-based wireless technologies unusable.\nAn attempt was made to revive IrDA around 2005 with IrSimple protocols by providing sub-1-second transfers of pictures between cell phones, printers, and display devices. IrDA hardware was still less expensive and didn't share the same security problems encountered with wireless technologies such as Bluetooth. For example, some Pentax DSLRs (K-x, K-r) incorporated IrSimple for image transfer and gaming.",
"-28.9538950669521"
],
[
"of the mobile device. Nevertheless, interference is still considered as a disadvantage, particularly with respect to the impact of timeliness, relevance, and appropriateness of the messages in addition to information overload.\nIn Australia, receivers of text messages for promotional purposes must opt-in.",
"-28.932498814712744"
],
[
"over any home wiring (power lines, phone lines or coaxial cables). Latency The latency inherent in the use of satellite Internet is often held up as reason why satellites cannot be successfully used for IPTV. In practice, however, latency is not an important factor for IPTV, since it is a service that does not require real-time transmission, as is the case with telephony or videoconferencing services.\nIt is the latency of response to requests to change channel, display an EPG, etc. that most affects customers’ perceived quality of service, and these problems affect satellite IPTV no more than terrestrial IPTV. Command",
"-28.824926504283212"
],
[
"email, Customer Relationship Management (CRM), and Intranets.\nOne of the more serious negative implications of consumerization is that security controls have been slower to be adopted in the consumer space. As a result, there is an increased risk to the information assets accessed through these less trustworthy consumerized devices. In a recent CSOOnline article by Joan Goodchild she reported a survey that found \"when asked what are the greatest barriers to enabling employees to use personal devices at work, 83 percent of IT respondents cited \"security concerns\" This shortcoming may soon be remedied by the chip manufacturers with technologies such as",
"-28.740431991347577"
],
[
"smartphones, or other networked devices. Users can remotely control connected home systems whether they are home or away. This allows for more efficient energy and electric use as well as ensuring your home is secure. Smart home technology contributes to health and well-being enhancement by accommodating people with special needs, especially older people . Smart home technology is now being used to create Smart cities. A Smart city functions similar to a Smart home, where systems are monitored to more efficiently run the cities and save money. Vulnerabilities Smart home technology systems were exploited in order to carry out the",
"-28.73984354775166"
],
[
"have found it more profitable to internally exploit the many weak personal and work computers than to attack through heavily fortified perimeters. One common example is stealing small business's online banking account access. Solutions To eliminate the end node problem, only allow authenticated users on trusted remote computers in safe environments to connect to your network/cloud. There are many ways to accomplish this with existing technology, each with different levels of trust.\nMany companies issue typical laptops and only allow those specific computers to remotely connect. For example, the US Department of Defense only allows its remote computers",
"-28.73800236125095"
],
[
"example, to connect a stationary device like a TV or a network-attached storage device), or is not desired (due to security concerns) or is not feasible (for example, due to limited range of wireless signals). Consumer electronics Consumer electronics (CE) products can support Internet connectivity using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or Ethernet. Many products not traditionally associated with computer use (such as TVs or Hi-Fi equipment) provide options to connect to the Internet or to a computer using a home network to provide access to digital content.\nG.hn is intended to provide high-speed connectivity to CE products capable of displaying",
"-28.67519992074085"
],
[
"Wireless). A wireless network therefore requires a scheduler (as part of the MAC functionality) to minimize such interference. Hence any gains from network coding are strongly impacted by the underlying scheduler and will deviate from the gains seen in wired networks. Further, wireless links are typically half-duplex due to hardware constraints; i.e., a node can not simultaneously transmit and receive due to the lack of sufficient isolation between the two paths.\nAlthough, originally network coding was proposed to be used at Network layer (see OSI model), in wireless networks, network coding has been widely used in either MAC layer or PHY",
"-28.64566818770254"
],
[
"Autonomic networking Increasing size and complexity The ever-growing management complexity of the Internet caused by its rapid growth is seen by some experts as a major problem that limits its usability in the future.\nWhat's more, increasingly popular smartphones, PDAs, networked audio and video equipment, and game consoles need to be interconnected. Pervasive Computing not only adds features, but also burdens existing networking infrastructure with more and more tasks that sooner or later will not be manageable by human intervention alone.\nAnother important aspect is the price of manually controlling huge numbers of vitally important devices of current network infrastructures. Autonomic",
"-28.629169612264377"
],
[
"cities embraced the smart city concept to tackle problems such as traffic congestion, crime, encouraging economic growth, responding to the effects of climate change and improving the delivery of city services. However, by 2018 it has become clear that the private sector could not be relied upon to build up city-wide wireless networks to meet the smart city objectives of municipal governments and public utility providers. Finance The construction of municipal wireless networks is a significant part of their lifetime costs. Usually, a private firm works with local government to construct a network and operate it. Financing is usually shared",
"-28.61848207008734"
],
[
"ready to request that the 40 cities involved help cover more of the cost, which has raised concerns that the project will ultimately be too slow to market to be a success. Advances in technology in 2005–2007 may allow wireless community network projects to offer a viable alternative. Such projects have an advantage in that, as they do not have to negotiate with government entities, they have no contractual obligations for coverage. A promising example is Meraki's demonstration in San Francisco, which already claims 20,000 distinct users as of October 2007.\nIn 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo also provided free wireless to",
"-28.5521995702984"
],
[
"inverse-square law.\nThe position of the United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency (HPA) is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones.” It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment.” In October 2007, the HPA launched a new “systematic” study into the effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time\". Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not",
"-28.524028040934354"
],
[
"networking gear, argue telecom providers should have the ability to provide preferential treatment in the form of tiered services, for example by giving online companies willing to pay the ability to transfer their data packets faster than other Internet traffic. The added income from such services could be used to pay for the building of increased broadband access to more consumers.\nOpponents say that net neutrality would make it more difficult for Internet service providers (ISPs) and other network operators to recoup their investments in broadband networks. John Thorne, senior vice president and deputy general counsel of Verizon, a broadband and",
"-28.498513538972475"
],
[
"infrastructure, a national wireless broadband network would not benefit the country. George Ford from the Phoenix Center commented that a reasonable target for broadband would be 95% Internet availability to Americans in five years and questioned the need for coverage across the entire country. There has been a large permeation of Internet users over the last five years. However, there are still reasons to have wired networking. As stated by Brendan Greeley, call centers and data storage facilities placed in smaller towns need the speed and capacity that a wired fiber optic network can provide. Wireless networks pose challenges that",
"-28.4357027032529"
],
[
"network conforming to 802.11k, if the AP having the strongest signal is loaded to its full capacity, a wireless device is connected to one of the underutilized APs. Even though the signal may be weaker, the overall throughput is greater because more efficient use is made of the network resources.",
"-28.42534036487632"
],
[
"techniques that protect communications from third parties are also important. Different standards have been developed to protect wireless communications: 2G, 3G and 4G standards for communication between mobile phones, base stations and base stations controllers; standards to protect communications between mobile devices and wireless routers ('WLAN'); and standards for local computer networks. One common weakness in these designs is that the transmission points of the wireless communication can access all communications e.g., the telecommunications provider. This vulnerability is exacerbated when wireless protocols only authenticate user devices, but not the wireless access point.\nWhether the data is stored on a device, or",
"-28.419454333212343"
],
[
"to outside networks. Many computers, even when they are not plugged into a wired network, have a wireless network interface controller (WiFi) and are connected to nearby wireless networks to access the Internet and update software. This represents a security vulnerability, so air-gapped computers either have their wireless interface controller permanently disabled or physically removed. To move data between the outside world and the air-gapped system, it is necessary to write data to a physical medium such as a thumbdrive, and physically move it between computers. Physical access is easier to control than an electronic network",
"-28.37984853173839"
],
[
"frequencies are available, how noisy those frequencies are, how many aerials are used and whether a directional antenna is in use, whether nodes employ power control and so on.\nCellular wireless networks generally have good capacity, due to their use of directional aerials, and their ability to reuse radio channels in non-adjacent cells. Additionally, cells can be made very small using low power transmitters this is used in cities to give network capacity that scales linearly with population density. Safety Wireless access points are also often close to humans, but the drop off in power over distance is fast, following the",
"-28.3587510723155"
],
[
"Digital omnivore The impact of connected devices on digital consumption Increased Wi-Fi availability and mobile broadband adoption are changing the way people are going online today. \"In August 2011, more than a third (37.2%) of U.S. digital traffic coming from mobile phones occurred via a Wi-Fi connection while tablets, which traditionally required a Wi-Fi connection to access the Internet, are increasingly driving traffic using mobile broadband access.\" Tablet owners Tablets, while not yet widely adopted, already contribute nearly 2% of all web browsing traffic in the United States. This traffic is driven almost exclusively by the iPad, which accounted for",
"-28.349985247754375"
],
[
"was not recognized as a priority. Some have argued that the benefits of public approach may exceed the costs, similar to cable television.\nIn the early 2010s concerns were articulated that a considerable percentage of the world population did not have access to affordable Internet access. Despite the growing digitalization of business and government services, 37 percent of the European and 22 percent of the north American population did not have affordable access to the Internet in 2009. Because local governments and municipalities in rural economiess either could not fund wireless networks or did not consider it a priority, numerous communities",
"-28.34761558140599"
],
[
"satellite systems are less competitive in urban environments because of their large round-trip delay times, but are attractive in rural areas and other environments with insufficient or no deployed terrestrial infrastructure.\nAnalogous to HFC, fiber in the loop (FITL) technology is used by telephone local exchange carriers to provide advanced services to telephone customers over the plain old telephone service (POTS) local loop.\nIn the 2000s, telecom companies started significant deployments of fiber to the x (FTTX) such as passive optical network solutions to deliver video, data and voice to compete with cable operators. These can be costly to deploy but they",
"-28.344341050600633"
],
[
"the user and the intellectual property of the company.\nAll smartphones are preferred targets of attacks. These attacks exploit weaknesses related to smartphones that can come from means of wireless telecommunication like WiFi networks and GSM. There are also attacks that exploit software vulnerabilities from both the web browser and operating system. Finally, there are forms of malicious software that rely on the weak knowledge of average users.\nDifferent security counter-measures are being developed and applied to smartphones, from security in different layers of software to the dissemination of information to end users. There are good practices to be observed at all",
"-28.33785605346202"
],
[
"to video and audio streaming applications. In addition to smart phones, laptops with 3G access capabilities are also seen as a major source of mobile data traffic. Additionally, Wi-Fi is typically much less costly to build than cellular networks. It has been estimated that the total Internet traffic would pass the 500 exabytes/year milestone in 2013. Annual growth rate of 50% is expected to continue and it will keep out phasing the respected revenue growth. Alternatives Wi-Fi and femtocell technologies are the primary offload technologies used by the industry. In addition, WiMax and terrestrial networks (LAN) are also candidates for",
"-28.332746688101906"
],
[
"of workers and decrease the chance of ever losing a belonging if the receiver or transmitter is worn on the body. The low power Bluetooth technology can make this link between device and receiver longer and not worry about the misplacement of personal articles. Disadvantages Respective power consumption with the receiver depends on the mode of communication. With international standard WLAN (IEEE 802.11) and with industrial standard Bluetooth V2.0 (international standard IEEE 802.15.1) the battery of the phone used as receiver may be exhausted much faster than without leashing. Power consumption with the mobile phone unit is comparable to wireless",
"-28.31101968854"
],
[
"of false alarming.\nA wireless ad hoc network is an autonomous and self organizing network without any centralized controller or pre-established infrastructure. In this network randomly distributed nodes forms a temporary functional network and support seamless leaving or joining of nodes. Such networks have been successfully deployed for military communication and have lot of potential for civilian applications, to include commercial and educational use, disaster management, road vehicle network etc.\nA wireless sensor network can use cooperative relaying to reduce the energy consumption in sensor nodes, hence lifetime of sensor network increases. Due to nature of wireless medium, communication through weaker channels",
"-28.28967034375819"
],
[
"communications, global maritime issues, protect frequencies for Earth-exploration satellites to monitor resources, emergencies, meteorology and climate change. Telecom services are converging and actors in the ICT world must adapt to all- IP (all data) networks. Data usage over wireless networks is rapidly increasing as more consumers surf the web, check email, and watch video on mobile devices. Moreover, according to Cisco, the surging growth in global mobile data traffic is projected to rise by sixty-six times by 2013, with video accounting for the lion’s share of this increase in traffic. The evolution in data traffic foresees",
"-28.28206246543573"
],
[
"reliably. A wireless system can be moved to a new home easily, an advantage for those who rent or who move frequently. The more important wireless connection for security is the one between the control panel and the monitoring station. Wireless monitoring of the alarm system protects against a burglar cutting a cable or from failures of an internet provider. This full wireless setup is commonly referred to as 100% wireless.\nHybrid systems use both wired and wireless sensors to achieve the benefits of both. Transmitters can also be connected through the premises' electrical circuits to transmit coded signals to the",
"-28.281744263367727"
],
[
"Mobile computing Security issues involved in mobile Mobile security has become increasingly important in mobile computing. It is of particular concern as it relates to the security of personal information now stored on the smartphone.\nMore and more users and businesses use smartphones as a means of planning and organizing their work and private life. Within companies, these technologies are causing profound changes in the organization of information systems and therefore they have become the source of new risks. Indeed, smartphones collect and compile an increasing amount of sensitive information to which access must be controlled to protect the privacy of",
"-28.25473772342957"
],
[
"traditional computer counterparts, which can allow for them to be hijacked for DDoS-based attacks by botnets like Mirai. Another possibility is the infection of internet-connected industrial controllers, like in the case of Stuxnet, without the need for physical access to the system to spread the worm.\nAdditionally, IIoT-enabled devices can allow for more “traditional” forms of cybercrime, as in the case of the 2013 Target data breach, where information was stolen after hackers gained access to Target's networks via credentials stolen from a third party HVAC vendor. The pharmaceutical manufacturing industry has been slow to adopt IIoT advances because of security",
"-28.24951314207283"
],
[
"so many different types of state and non- state agencies actually lessened security. Cyber Risks Ports use a variety of sensors, such as Wi- Fi and satellite- based Internet systems which are increasingly automated. Such systems are vulnerable to penetration and manipulation and risk being misused for hacktivism and by terrorists. Not only can this affect port security in terms of the parameters of the surface of the port, but a possible hacking of data can be used to trace ships and mislead them for hijacking purposes. Liquefied Natural Gas Trade Technological developments coupled with the US Shale Revolution has",
"-28.23831514887206"
],
[
"entities (such as universities) seek to provide large area coverage.\nTo minimise collisions with Wi-Fi and non Wi-Fi devices, Wi-Fi employs Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA), where transmitters listen before transmitting, and delay transmission of packets if they detect that other users are active on the channel. Nevertheless, Wi-Fi networks are still susceptible to the hidden node and exposed node problem.\nThese bands are can be used by low power transmitters without a license, and with few restrictions. However, while unintended interference is common, users that have been found to cause deliberate interference (particularly for attempting to locally monopolise these",
"-28.227664235091652"
],
[
"spatial coding) not only to enhance the signal power at the destination terminal but also to diminish the interfering power at interference terminals. As a human does, the advanced IA terminal is given to know that occurring high interference to other terminals will eventually degrade the performance of the associated wireless network.",
"-28.21378630011168"
],
[
"Internet Explorer pre-loaded onto the phone. Vulnerability to viruses As more complex features are added to phones, they become more vulnerable to viruses which exploit weaknesses in these features. Even text messages can be used in attacks by worms and viruses. Advanced phones capable of e-mail can be susceptible to viruses that can multiply by sending messages through a phone's address book. In some phone models, the USSD was exploited for inducing a factory reset, resulting in clearing the data and resetting the user settings.\nA virus may allow unauthorized users to access a phone to find passwords or corporate",
"-28.213021839792418"
],
[
"settings. Wi-Fi client devices typically connect to the access point that can provide the strongest signal within that service set. Network security The main issue with wireless network security is its simplified access to the network compared to traditional wired networks such as Ethernet. With wired networking, one must either gain access to a building (physically connecting into the internal network), or break through an external firewall. To access Wi-Fi, one must merely be within the range of the Wi-Fi network. Most business networks protect sensitive data and systems by attempting to disallow external access. Enabling wireless connectivity reduces security",
"-28.193393683293834"
],
[
"latency problems, faced by terrestrial IPTV networks with insufficient bandwidth as their customer base grows, may be solved by the high capacity of satellite distribution.\nSatellite distribution does suffer from latency – the time for the signal to travel up from the hub to the satellite and back down to the user is around 0.25 seconds, and cannot be reduced. However, the effects of this delay are mitigated in real-life systems using data compression, TCP-acceleration, and HTTP pre-fetching.\nSatellite latency can be detrimental to especially time-sensitive applications such as on-line gaming (although it only seriously affects the likes of first-person shooters while many",
"-28.180794247058657"
],
[
"for long distances and is the main source of Internet in most homes and businesses. Types of wireless interconnects include Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. The problem with these networks is that they don't have unlimited connection span. To expand the reach there are wide area interconnects such as satellite and cellular networks. Also, there are long-distance interconnects which need backhaul to move the data back and forth and last mile to connect the provider to the network.",
"-28.05176188488258"
],
[
"more convenient for users. The foremost priority for the Internet has always been to better communication, and it does provide easy and fast communication through email, chat rooms, and online communities; it is also interactive in these ways. There are, however, disadvantages of this medium which do not exist in other electronic media: potential theft of personal information, spamming, and unwanted explicit content. However, as all of these disadvantages can be blocked through the use of protection software, they are not enough to override its advantages. For this reason, the Internet seems to be a healthy and thriving medium to",
"-28.030921543278964"
],
[
"XDSL and LTE networks. Natural disasters and access Natural disasters disrupt internet access in profound ways. This is important—not only for telecommunication companies who own the networks and the businesses who use them, but for emergency crew and displaced citizens as well. The situation is worsened when hospitals or other buildings necessary to disaster response lose their connection. Knowledge gained from studying past internet disruptions by natural disasters could be put to use in planning or recovery. Additionally, because of both natural and man-made disasters, studies in network resiliency are now being conducted to prevent large-scale outages.\nOne way natural disasters",
"-28.017870682524517"
],
[
"in a peer-to-peer environment are the communication costs, not enough users and threats of potential malicious users hiding in the community. Mobile environments Mobile devices have been considered as an essential tool for communication, and mobile computing has thus become a research interest in recent years. From online purchase to online banking, mobile devices have frequently been connected to service providers for online activities, and at the same time sending and receiving information. Generally, mobile users can receive very personal services from anywhere at anytime through location-based services. In mobile devices, Global Positioning System(GPS) is the most commonly used component",
"-28.012382563378196"
],
[
"mobile device users form microcrowds based on a specific crowdsensing activity. Resource limitations Mobile crowdsensing potential is limited by constraints involving energy, bandwidth and computation power. Using the GPS, for example, drains batteries, but location can also be tracked using Wi-Fi and GSM, although these are less accurate. Eliminating redundant data can also reduce energy and bandwidth costs, as can restricting data sensing when quality is unlikely to be high (e.g., when two photos are taken in the same location, the second is unlikely to provide new information).",
"-27.97538668748166"
],
[
"of insufficient capacity will refuse new connections while carrying the remainder without impairment, while the quality of real-time data such as telephone conversations on packet-switched networks degrades dramatically. Therefore, VoIP implementations may face problems with latency, packet loss, and jitter.\nBy default, network routers handle traffic on a first-come, first-served basis. Fixed delays cannot be controlled as they are caused by the physical distance the packets travel. They are especially problematic when satellite circuits are involved because of the long distance to a geostationary satellite and back; delays of 400–600 ms are typical. Latency can be minimized by marking voice packets as",
"-27.971521555562504"
],
[
"technology was moved away from the wired network and led into a wireless technology. The most noticeable difference between the Matrix in the 2070s and the earlier editions is that wireless technology has become completely ubiquitous. Communications and Matrix access is provided through Wi-Fi nodes placed throughout the infrastructure of just about every city on Earth, fulfilling a service similar to contemporary cell sites—but as these nodes are as numerous as telephone poles, only a tiny percentage of their range is necessary. The nodes of all electronic devices a person carries are connected in a similar manner, creating a Personal",
"-27.926487320240994"
],
[
"that wireless networks are not essentially interference limited.\" This led to the adoption of interference alignment in the design of wireless networks.\nJafar explained:\nMy research group crystallized the concept of interference alignment and showed that through interference alignment, it is possible for everyone to access half of the total bandwidth free from interference. Initially this result was shown under a number of idealized assumptions that are typical in theoretical studies. We have since continued to work on peeling off these idealizations one at a time, to bring the theory closer to practice. Along the way we have made numerous discoveries through",
"-27.875436297974375"
],
[
"or satellite facilities. The ability would still be there to shut down those physical facilities to disrupt telephony networks. The whole idea on these cyber-attacks is to cut people off from one another, to disrupt communication, and by doing so, to impede critical information being sent and received. In cyberwarfare, this is a critical way of gaining the upper-hand in a conflict. By controlling the flow of information and communication, a nation can plan more accurate strikes and enact better counter-attack measures on their enemies. Transportation Transportation infrastructure mirrors telecommunication facilities; by impeding transportation for individuals in a city or",
"-27.87168104799366"
],
[
"Also, mobile applications that do not rely on internet connection to make VOIP calls are immune to such attacks. Default security settings Hardphones (a.k.a. VoIP phones) are smart devices. They are more of a computer than a phone, and as such they need to be well configured. In some cases, Chinese manufacturers are using default passwords for each of the manufactured devices which leads to vulnerabilities. VOIP over WiFi While VoIP is relatively secure, it still needs a source of internet, which in most cases is a WIFI network. And while a home/office WIFI can be relatively secure, using public",
"-27.832732665119693"
],
[
"Smartphone ad hoc network Threats to telcos The ad hoc networking technology operating on Wi-Fi ad hoc mode, at the unlicensed ISM band of 2.4 GHz may result in profit loss by cellular carriers since ISM band is free and unlicensed while cellular carriers operate on licensed band at 900 MHz, 1200 MHz, 1800 MHz, etc. This has the potential to threaten telecommunication operators (telcos). Smart phone mobile ad hoc networks can operate independently and allow communications among smart phones users without the need for any 3G or 4G LTE signals to be present. Wi-Fi ad hoc mode was first implemented on Lucent WaveLAN",
"-27.823884284007363"
],
[
"the technology itself. Michael Powell stated Americans benefit most when policies enable consumers and businesses to fully utilize the benefits of emerging technology. Public safety Public safety has been mentioned in terms of the spectrum use and cost. Public safety is also important in regards to public interest. With the implementation of national wireless broadband, this initiative helps improve public safety communications. The Commission for 9/11 has noted that our homeland security is vulnerable due to lack of interoperable wireless communication among first responders. The plan would allow all public safety officials to be on the same network, and get",
"-27.812266655033454"
],
[
"from server systems and making it available to the mobile workforce at the decision point.\nEven though the wireless network is quite ubiquitous, this type of client application requires built-in procedures to deal with any network unavailability seamlessly, without interfering with application core functionality. Pervasive broadband, simplified wireless integration and a common management system are technology trends driving more organizations toward an unwired enterprise due to lowering complexity and greater ease of use.\nUnwired enterprises may include office environments in which workers are untethered from traditional desktop clients and conduct all business and communication from a wide variety of wireless devices. In",
"-27.794635497281888"
],
[
"including information manager Stephen Lewis, describe the causes primarily in terms of the technology \"infrastructure\", leading to a \"conundrum\" whereby the Internet could eventually be carved up into numerous geopolitical entities and borders, much as the physical world is today. Commercial lock-in The Atlantic magazine speculates that many of the new \"gadgets have a 'hidden agenda' to hold you in their ecosystem\". Writer Derek Thomson explains that \"in the Splinternet age, ads are more tightly controlled by platform. My old BlackBerry defaulted to Bing search because (network operator) Verizon has a deal with Microsoft. But my new phone that runs",
"-27.770334823311714"
],
[
"or satellite receiver's internal software, and offered for download on the internet as a firmware upgrade. This allows access to the encrypted channels by those who do not even own a smart card. In recent times, many underground forum websites dedicated to the hobby of satellite piracy and encryption emulated Free To Air (FTA) receivers have been set up, giving up-to-date information on satellite and cable piracy, including making available firmware downloads for receivers, and very detailed encryption system information available to the public.\nUpon gaining the knowledge that their system has been compromised, the smart card providers often have several",
"-27.75252589386946"
],
[
"infrastructure and health information systems. The second factor is the recent rapid rise in mobile phone penetration in developing countries to large segments of the healthcare workforce, as well as the population of a country as a whole. With greater access to mobile phones to all segments of a country, including rural areas, the potential of lowering information and transaction costs in order to deliver healthcare improves.\nThe combination of these two factors has motivated much discussion of how greater access to mobile phone technology can be leveraged to mitigate the numerous pressures faced by developing countries' healthcare systems. Both factors",
"-27.74799724125478"
]
] |
3y8qwe | The warm weather in eastern North America | [
"Mr. El Niño is especially angry this year and there's a meandering jet stream bringing up warm wet air across the eastern US. Expect the entire winter to be wet and mild. I imagine some wet snow in January/February once the cold really does set in a bit more and we get those days that range around 30 - 40. Basically think of this as nothing more than a warm front coming through what is already going to be a mild winter due to El Niño. Soon enough the cold front will arrive and we'll have our days about 30 degrees colder lol.",
"This also happened in [1982, 1996, ] ( URL_0 ) and [1955]( URL_2 ) and [2007 and 1984]( URL_1 ). As well as probably other years, but I found these 3 sites in the matter of seconds just searching for other warm Christmas days. I can't quite answer the queston, but this is hardly a new occurrence.",
"El Nino is making it warmer and it should keep this way for the winter. The polar vortex is also around and it keeps cold air in the north, which could change.",
"Winter is busy heading to Westeros, well see it back in about 10 years when George finishes the last 2 novels.",
"Northern Midwesterner here who lives in an ice-fishing town, can confirm lakes aren't even frozen yet... There is probably something to this global warming thing, but I'm no scientist.",
"Came from California to Pennsylvania, am disappointed to find the weather is more pleasant. I would guess its el niño and some climate change.",
"You can look [here]( URL_1 ) at a picture that basically shows how dense the air is above the US. The yellow colors mean that the air is more dense while the pink colors mean that it is less dense. The more dense the air is, the colder it is. You can also tell from that picture which way the wind is blowing overall in the atmosphere. It blows along those black lines and from west to east. As you can see the wind goes strongly from north to south in the west and carries cold air with it. Then it goes from south to north, doing the opposite. On top of this, there is a cycle that happens to the water in the Pacific Ocean between South America and Indonesia called ENSO. Sometimes, the surface water is warmer in the west and sometimes further east. Right now the warm water is further east towards South America. This cycle effects the weather around the world, as shown by [this picture]( URL_0 ). As you can see, it makes the NE warmer than usual and makes the south a bit wetter (e.g. snowier). One thing we CANNOT say here is that climate change is at fault. This event is too short of a time scale to be considered climate. We would have to average over several decades. While climate change is happening, this is a case of some crazy weather. (Edit: Feel free to ask questions, whether to dumb this down or expand on it. This stuff is cool. I study it.)",
"Should I get my motorbike out of winter storage?"
] | [
[
"warm front, most of the Hudson Valley and Western New England were under a cool and stable marine air mass, as a result of southeast winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Around 8 am, the warm front was located roughly over the Mohawk River to central and northern Massachusetts, producing powerful thunderstorms. After the warm front's passage, sunshine broke out and strong heating commenced across the Northeast with temperatures quickly rising from the 50s through the 70s into the 80s, and dewpoints skyrocketing from the lower 40s into the upper 60s. surface winds began blowing from the southeast at around 30 mph, while",
"-38.51662028679857"
],
[
"1911 Eastern North America heat wave Description Throughout June, the temperature had been consistent with what normally was felt during New England summers, but starting in July, dry air which originated from the southern great plains began to flow into Canada before being swept south toward the east coast. The hot wind suppressed cooler ocean breezes, and this caused the temperature to rise so suddenly and dramatically that in Providence there was an 11 degree rise in temperature in a half hour.\nThe area between Pennsylvania to Maine was reportedly most affected by the heat. During the 11 days, temperature records",
"-38.356367267202586"
],
[
"2001 Eastern North America heat wave A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States (with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July.\nIt began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying. It waned in most areas by the middle of the month, and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves, it was very intense at its peak.",
"-37.11778298462741"
],
[
"the coldest winters on record. Events The heat wave started in late June, when temperatures across the United States exceeded 100 °F (38 °C). The Midwest experienced some of the highest June temperatures on record. Drought conditions worsened. In the Northeast, temperatures climbed to the mid 90s °F (around 35 °C). The South and West started to heat up as well, and also experienced drought. The heat wave began to extend into Canada. Moderate to extreme drought covered the entire continent. The dry and exposed soil contributed directly to the heat (as happens normally in desert areas), as the extreme heat entered the air",
"-37.113251442904584"
],
[
"2007 North American heat wave The 2007 North American heat wave started at the end of July and lasted into the first weeks of August. It was associated with severe drought over regions of the southeastern United States and parts of the Great Lakes region. History The major heat wave of 2007 lasted from 3 to 25 August across eastern United States, while a second wave hit the Midwest and California in October.\nTemperatures surpassed 100 °F (37.8 °C) as far north as Kansas City, MO and St. Louis, MO. Dew points reached the mid-region of 70 °F (21.1 °C), creating heat index values of",
"-37.07460718747461"
],
[
"rain and snow as well as surges of both warm and cold air.\nThe basic climate of the Northeast can be divided into a colder and snowier interior (Pennsylvania, New York State, and New England), and a milder coast and coastal plain from southern Rhode Island southward, including, New Haven, CT, New York City, Philadelphia, Trenton, Wilmington, Baltimore...etc.). Annual mean temperatures range from the low 50s F from Maryland to southern Connecticut, to the 40s F in most of New York State, New England, and northern Pennsylvania. Wildlife The Northeast has 72 National Wildlife Refuges, encompassing more than 500,000 acres (780 sq mi;",
"-37.000768760975916"
],
[
"majority of the northern United States, including a region spanning from the northern Rocky Mountains to the eastern Great Lakes in addition to the Ohio Valley, Hawaii, and western and northern Alaska. Drier conditions were anticipated across the entire southern United States. Above-average temperatures were favored across the southern two-thirds of the contiguous United States and along the east coast, as well as in Hawaii and the northern and western parts of Alaska. The outlook favored below-average temperatures in the northern tier, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest region as well as southeastern Alaska. The remainder of the country was",
"-37.000105883867946"
],
[
"its course, allowing cold air usually confined to the poles to reach further into the mid latitudes.\nThis jet stream instability brings warm air north as well as cold air south. The patch of unusual cold over the eastern United States was matched by anomalies of mild winter temperatures across Greenland and much of the Arctic north of Canada, and unusually warm conditions in Alaska. A stationary high pressure ridge over the North Pacific Ocean kept California unusually warm and dry for the time of year, worsening ongoing drought conditions there.\nResearch has led to a good documentation of the frequency and",
"-36.97149116743822"
],
[
"point with a warm front and cold front near the northern end of Lake Superior. The warm front extended southeast across New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, and over the course of the day moved northeast, bringing warm, moist, unstable air into the New England area, including Massachusetts. In the mid-atmosphere, the elevated mixed layer was still in place, keeping storms from forming earlier in the day before maximum temperatures were reached. By afternoon, temperatures in Worcester had reached 80 °F (27 °C), with a dew point of 66 °F (19 °C); in combination with cold air aloft, this meant that atmospheric conditions were",
"-36.94247152196476"
],
[
"2011 North American heat wave The 2011 North American heat wave was a deadly summer 2011 heat wave that affected the Southern Plains, Midwestern United States, Eastern Canada, Northeastern United States, and much of the Eastern Seaboard, and had Heat index/Humidex readings reaching upwards of 131 °F (55 °C). On a national basis, the heat wave was the hottest in 75 years. July 2011 Before the start of the heat wave, two derecho events took place; one on July 11 over most of the central Plains, the lower Great Lakes and the Appalachian region; the other on July 17 over eastern Ontario,",
"-36.88790471618995"
],
[
"148,600 Climate The Atlantic Northeast region is known to have all four seasons. In the New England region of the United States summers are hot with an average temperature of 80-85 degrees Fahrenheit in late June through August. In the fall the air is cool with temperatures from 45-50 degrees Fahrenheit and in the spring, it tends to be rainy with temperatures from 40-60 degrees Fahrenheit. In the winter there tends to be a lot of snowfall averaging around 35 inches per year. The typical temperature in this area during the winter is around 25 degrees Fahrenheit. The Canadian Maritimes",
"-36.823054702195805"
],
[
"humidity levels.\nManitoba and several states in the Central U.S. had heavy thunderstorms with a severe tornado hitting Northfield, Minnesota, on July 16. The heat wave ended in most of Canada and was reduced by thunderstorms in much of the United States.\nThe heat continued through the second half of July but extreme heat was mostly confined to the Southeastern United States, giving relief to the Northeast and Upper Midwest as it had early in the month. The intense heat build-up again occurred over much of Plains states, Upper South and Lower Midwest; temperatures surpassed 40 °C (104 °F) in many locations.",
"-36.536925657746906"
],
[
"the general west to east flow of weather in the middle latitudes that much of the USA is controlled by and the position and movement of the subtropical highs. Summers are normally warm in northern areas to hot in southern areas. In summer, the building Bermuda High pumps warm and sultry air toward the Northeast, and frequent (but brief) thundershowers are common on hot summer days. In winter the subtropical high retreats southeastward, and the polar jet stream moves south bringing colder air masses from up in Canada and more frequent storm systems to the region. Winter often brings both",
"-36.39932964957552"
],
[
"on record with an all time July record of 101 °F on July 7th. \nOn July 8, the heat eased across the east as the high pressure center shifted west, causing hot weather once again build in the mountain states and the southwest U. S. Heat continues in Great Plains, spreads into New England After some modification in the heat during the past week over the midwest and northeast, the jet once again moved further north into Canada allowing intense heat to build across eastern North America. On July 15, Temperatures reached 109 °F (42.8 °C) in Pierre, South Dakota.\nOn July 17, the",
"-36.15170466079144"
],
[
"of the cold fronts, which usually move in a west to east direction are moderated as they pass over the Pacific Ocean. As such, cold temperatures are not as extreme as they are in the northern hemisphere. Similar to the rest of Patagonia the climate is characterized by strong winds throughout the year, which also leads to higher evapotranspiration, another factor in the province being mostly dry. Temperature The western parts of the province are the coldest with an annual mean temperature of 8 °C (46.4 °F) owing to the higher elevations while the coastal areas are the warmest with an annual",
"-36.13865879026707"
],
[
"is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are becoming more frequent in the western portions. General The eastern part of the contiguous United States east of the 98th meridian, the mountains of the Pacific Northwest, the Willamette Valley, and the Sierra Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation, with average rainfall exceeding 30 inches (760 mm) per year. The drier areas are the Desert Southwest, Great Basin, valleys of northeast Arizona, eastern Utah, and central Wyoming. Increased warming within urban heat islands leads to an increase in rainfall downwind of cities.",
"-36.09700724796858"
],
[
"contrast between a warm western U.S. and a cold eastern continent. These anomalous temperature and circulation patterns were referred to as the North American winter “dipole”. Figure (a) shows the climatological geopotential height (Z) overlaid with its eddy component, in which the dipole centers are located (indicated by X and +). The dipole basically describes the wintertime stationary waves over North America, which contribute to the mean temperature difference between the climatologically warmer western U.S. and colder eastern half. Therefore, an amplification of the stationary wave would enhance such a temperature difference, like in 2013–2015 winters, while a weakening of",
"-36.08713069817168"
],
[
"March 2012 North American heat wave In March 2012, one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America. Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region, and subsequently spread eastward. The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin. Once this warm surge inundated the area, a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued.\nNOAA's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March.",
"-36.08138884179061"
],
[
"temperate climate that is very similar to other coastal areas of the Northeastern United States; it has warm, humid summers and cold winters, but the Atlantic Ocean helps bring afternoon sea breezes that temper the heat in the warmer months and limit the frequency and severity of thunderstorms. However, severe thunderstorms are not uncommon, especially when they approach the island from the mainland (Bronx, Westchester and Connecticut) in the northwest. In the wintertime, temperatures are warmer than areas further inland (especially in the night and early morning hours), often causing a snowstorm further inland to fall as rain on the",
"-35.94831193151185"
],
[
"increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics. The eastern half of the contiguous United States east of the 98th meridian, the mountains of the Pacific Northwest, and the Sierra Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation, with average rainfall exceeding 30 inches (760 mm) per year. The drier areas are the Desert Southwest, Great Basin, valleys of northeast Arizona, eastern Utah, central Wyoming, eastern Oregon and Washington and the northeast of the Olympic Peninsula. The Big Bog on the island of Maui receives, on",
"-35.76809153924114"
],
[
"latitudes in the northern hemisphere. Spring and autumn are transition seasons that generally feature mild weather.\nMany regions have different, often contrasting, microclimates. In general, northern parts of the country are characterized by hot, humid, rainy summers and mild winters with periodic droughts. Mesopotamia, in the northeast is characterized by high temperatures and abundant precipitation throughout the year with droughts being uncommon. West of this lies the Chaco region, which is the warmest region in Argentina. Precipitation in the Chaco region decreases westwards, resulting in the vegetation changing from forests in the east to shrubs in the west. Northwest Argentina is",
"-35.76017402228899"
],
[
"North America by large vessels from Asia. They are a serious problem because they have nearly eliminated the native clam population in Platte Lake and many other bodies of water in the area. Climate The climate around the lake is pretty steady. Winters are dreadfully cold filled with a large amount of snow, and the summers are pretty warm but never too hot. During the winter the average low is 17 degrees F and the average high is 31 degrees F. In the summer the average low is 55 degrees F and the average high is 78 degrees F. It",
"-35.70136176608503"
],
[
"in the Northern Plains, while above-average temperatures were favored in New England, the South-Central, Southeastern, and Southwestern United States, and western Alaska. The remainder of the country fell into the outlook's \"equal chance\" category, with an equal chance of above-average, below-average, and near-average temperatures and/or precipitation. October storm complex The first winter storm of the season, a significant system, was forecast by the National Weather Service, which issued a Blizzard Warning on October 3 preceding the storm. The storm occurred as an early season blizzard, and, according to the Weather Prediction Center, was an event of a magnitude unseen for",
"-35.53803535050247"
],
[
"the Younger Dryas cooling impacted New England and parts of maritime Canada more rapidly than the rest of the United States at the beginning and the end of the Younger Dryas chronozone. Proxy indicators show that summer temperature conditions in Maine decreased by up to 7.5ᵒC. Cool summers, combined with cold winters and low precipitation, resulted in a treeless tundra up to the onset of the Holocene, when the boreal forests shifted north.\nVegetation in the central Appalachian Mountains east towards the Atlantic Ocean was dominated by spruce (Picea spp.) and tamarack (Larix laricina) boreal forests that later changed rapidly to",
"-35.4718677346882"
],
[
"by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, which transports warm water from the Equator towards the North Pole, in turn thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh, cold water from North America to the Atlantic.\nThe Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change, but the effects were complex and variable. In the Southern Hemisphere and some areas of the Northern Hemisphere, such as southeastern North America, a slight warming occurred. General description and context The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the LGM interval has been known",
"-35.469150302844355"
],
[
"food, supplies, etc. Heatwave The derecho that crossed into Ontario and Quebec was the result of a warm and very humid airmass that had plagued much of Central and Eastern Canada and the vast majority of the continental U.S. \nTemperatures in Toronto, Ottawa, Windsor and Montreal were approaching 35 °C (95 °F) for a few days including the day of the storms, while Heat Index values were exceeding well over 40 °C (104 °F) in some areas. Temperatures hit 100 °F (38 °C) at LaGuardia Airport in New York on July 18 and in St. Louis, Missouri on July 19, before storms pummeled those metropolitan areas.",
"-35.417990150406695"
],
[
"north and central parts of the country, it leads to more frequent and intense warm spells in the last months of the year. In other regions, El Niño events lead to more frequent and intense warm spells in Northwest Argentina (during autumn), northeast Argentina (during spring) and central Argentina (during summer). Cold air anomalies arising from El Niño events are observed during spring and are the result of an increase in rainfall that lead to reductions in insolation. For the southern parts of the country, El Niño events are associated with more intense and frequent cold spells during the coldest",
"-35.39799375948496"
],
[
"and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream.\nIn the Northern Hemisphere summer, the subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland. In the Atlantic Ocean, the Bermuda High creates a south-southwest flow of tropical air masses over the southeastern, south-central and central United States - resulting in hot temperatures, high humidity and frequent intense (but usually brief) showers and/or thunderstorms as the heat builds in the afternoon. In the Northern Hemisphere summer, high pressure in the Pacific Ocean builds toward the California coast, resulting in a northwesterly airflow, creating the",
"-35.3450529325637"
],
[
"wind into the east, setting up the pattern for the bitterly cold February that followed. February 1986 February 1986 was an exceptionally cold month, the coldest since January 1963 with an average temperature of −1.1 °C (30.0 °F). It was also the 5th coldest February since records began in 1659. Throughout the month, snow cover was widespread as temperatures did not get high enough for it to melt away. It was also very dull in the east with Cupar, Fife only recording 41 hours of sunshine all month. Conversely, in the west it was an exceptionally dry and sunny month with Anglesey",
"-35.306966457283124"
],
[
"Interior Highlands most commonly from Oklahoma and across the Ohio Valley. During mid-summer when a hot and muggy air mass covers the north-central U.S., they will often develop farther north into Manitoba or Northwestern Ontario, sometimes well north of the Canada–US border.\nNorth Dakota, Minnesota, and upper Michigan are also vulnerable to derecho storms when such conditions are in place. They often occur along stationary fronts on the northern periphery of where the most intense heat and humidity bubble exists. Late-year derechos are normally confined to Texas and the Deep South, although a late-summer derecho struck upper parts of the New",
"-35.20566429832252"
],
[
"Administration's Climate Prediction Center issued its U.S. Winter Outlook. Due to a strengthening El Niño, winter weather was expected to be affected by this. Warmer-than-average temperatures were favored across much of the western and central U.S., especially in the north-central states from Montana to Wisconsin. Below-average temperatures were expected across the Southeast and mid-Atlantic from southern and eastern Texas to southern Pennsylvania and south through Florida. Above-average precipitation is expected in the southern border states, especially Texas and Florida. Recent rainfall and the prospects of more should improve current drought conditions in central and southern Texas. The rest of the",
"-35.14211619677371"
],
[
"midwestern United States, is home to some of the largest temperature extremes in the world. The region has four distinct seasons. Spring is the wettest season and produces erratic severe weather ranging from tornadoes to winter storms. Summers are hot and humid with only occasional and brief respite, and the humidity often makes the heat index rise to temperatures feeling well above 100 °F (38 °C). Fall is mild with lower humidity and can produce intermittent bouts of heavy rainfall with the first snow flurries usually forming in late November. Winters are cold with periodic snow and temperatures often below freezing, however",
"-35.10574961511884"
],
[
"City was experiencing an unseasonably warm \"Indian summer\". A cold front from Canada brought clean air to the city on November 19, but the cold front was held in place by pressure from the higher atmosphere. An anticyclonic temperature inversion—in other words, a warm, mostly stationary air mass located atop a cooler air mass—formed over the East Coast on November 20.\nUnlike atmospheric convection—the ordinary process of lower, warm air rising—inversions leave cooler air suspended below warm air, preventing the lower air from rising and trapping airborne pollutants that would ordinarily disperse in the atmosphere. Such weather events are common, but they",
"-35.062647447455674"
],
[
"freezing mark. More extreme humid continental climates found in northeast China, southern Siberia, the Canadian Prairies, and the Great Lakes region of the American Midwest and Central Canada combine hotter summer maxima and colder winters than the marine-based variety. Associated precipitation Within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent western subtropical Atlantic. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate (f), while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation, which increases the chances of a wintertime drought (w). Snowfall occurs in all areas with",
"-35.06137129588751"
],
[
"of the Appalachians, except in Virginia where the Shenandoah valley opens up. Climate While the southern coast of the United States is located in similar latitudes of Southern Spain and Morocco, the climate is dominated by weather patterns moving overland as opposed to the oceanic weather patterns that dominate Western Europe. Due to this the east coast of North America is cooler than the regions congruent to it in the \"Old World\", with climate in the United States being roughly equivalent to climates 40-60 degrees latitude in Europe. During the time of colonization this effect was even more pronounced as",
"-35.05319222423714"
],
[
"Northern and Midwest United States. Factors such as warm temperatures and lack of Precipitation increases their range. Cold temperatures, major precipitation, and unsuitable environmental conditions are factors that will stop migration to continue more north. In late summer, cold fronts start to appear sending cues for them to leave. As they leave they get caught up in these fronts which carry them south to southwest to their overwintering range. Winter Due to their inability to tolerate the cold winter temperatures they must migrate south. Adults overwinter on hosts in the pine and mixed hardwood forests along the Gulf of Mexico",
"-35.01473598531447"
],
[
"Western Hemisphere Warm Pool The Western Hemisphere Warm Pool (WHWP) is a region of sea surface temperatures (SST) warmer than 28.5°C that develops west of Central America in the spring, then expands to the tropical waters to the east.\nThe WHWP includes the tropical Atlantic Ocean (TNA) east of the Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and eastern north Pacific Ocean (ENP).\nA WHWP heating cycle begins with warmth in the eastern North Pacific in the spring. A dipole pattern off Central America appears due to surges of cooler, drier air through the gap at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. During spring,",
"-34.95401922246674"
],
[
"winter. Southern Plains/Lower Midwest/Middle East Coast The region from the southern Plains, to the lower Midwest, eastward to the central East Coast (the New York City/coastal Connecticut region southward to Maryland) has a humid subtropical climate with cool to cold winters and hot, humid summers. This climate abuts the humid continental climate farther to the north. Daytime highs range from 80 to 90 °F (27 to 32 °C) in summer to 35 to 50 °F (2 to 10 °C) in winter. Lows range from the 60 °F (16 °C)s in summer to 25 to 35 °F (−4 to 2 °C) in winter. Cities in this region include Wichita,",
"-34.88947989765438"
],
[
"each year over 90 °F, while the northern portions typically see only 10 to 20 days above 90 °F. It's the air masses that come in from all directions that bring this variable climate.\nEach air mass type brings in different temperature and moisture properties. The continental polar air mass brings in cold and dry air from central Canada, traveling south across the region. The continental tropical air mass comes in from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, bringing in hot and dry air while moving north. The maritime tropical air mass comes from the southwest United States and Northern Mexico, and",
"-34.889370827702805"
],
[
"upper Midwest, Great Lakes and New England states. \nAcross the central states from late fall to spring, \"Panhandle hook\" storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas, then northeast toward the Great Lakes. They generate unusually large temperature contrasts, and often bring copious Gulf moisture northward, resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track, and warm conditions, heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously. Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward, \"Alberta clipper\" storms track east and",
"-34.87983355479082"
],
[
"degrees warmer than today, during summer months, temperatures in the Arctic region were about 2-4 °C higher than today. The warmest peak of the Eemian was around 125,000 years ago, when forests reached as far north as North Cape, Norway (which is now tundra) well above the Arctic Circle at 71°10′21″N 25°47′40″E. Hardwood trees such as hazel and oak grew as far north as Oulu, Finland.\nAt the peak of the Eemian, the Northern Hemisphere winters were generally warmer and wetter than now, though some areas were actually slightly cooler than today. The hippopotamus was distributed as far north as the rivers Rhine",
"-34.789955727232154"
],
[
"1901 eastern United States heat wave The 1901 eastern United States heat wave was the most severe and deadly heat wave in the United States prior to the 1930s Dust Bowl. Although the heat wave did not set many still-standing daily temperature records, it was exceptionally prolonged – covering without interruption the second half of June and all of July – and centered upon more highly populated areas than later American heat waves. The heat wave accompanied a major drought in the Ohio Valley and Upper Midwest, with Illinois recording what remains its driest calendar year since records have been",
"-34.724752870504744"
],
[
"in Quebec indicate cold temperatures, and anomalous tree rings and cooling in Idaho have been linked to the eruption as well. 1601 saw the coldest temperature in a Seward Peninsula, Alaska record of the last 600 years, as well as in other places of northwestern and southeastern Alaska. Noticeable cooling has been inferred for the Western US from tree ring data. In addition, weather in the Arctic Archipelago of Canada was unusually wet.\nThe Huaynaputina eruption was followed by a drought in the Eastern US and may have hindered the establishment of the colony in Jamestown, Virginia, where mortality from malnutrition",
"-34.692908925251686"
],
[
"March 2010 nor'easter Synoptic conditions The winter storm that would impact the Northeastern United States evolved when an area of low pressure moved northeastward from Texas to the Great Lakes region on March 10 and 11. A secondary low pressure center developed near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina and drifted northward to a position south of Cape Cod, Massachusetts by March 14. The system contained abundant moisture feeds from the tropical Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. Unlike the previous three winter storms that affected the region in February, there was a lack of cold air with this",
"-34.67024497885723"
],
[
"eastern areas are more influenced by moist air from the Atlantic Ocean than the west, resulting in the vegetation transitioning from forests and marshes to shrubs. Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry, hot, and subtropical although its rugged topography results in a diverse climate.\nCentral Argentina, which includes the Pampas to the east, and the Cuyo region to the west, has a temperate climate with hot summers and cool, drier winters. In the Cuyo region, the Andes obstruct the path of rain-bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean; moreover, its latitude coincides with the subtropical high. Both factors render the region dry. With",
"-34.64273453725036"
],
[
"northern and western United States. Synoptic overview The cold wave was initiated by a storm system which dropped southward from Canada on January 11 into Colorado on January 12 and onward into the Great Lakes on January 13. The subsequent cold wave extended all the way into the citrus growing areas of southern California. The cyclone led to a blizzard across Nebraska, North Dakota, and Minnesota. After a recent warm spell, many people were caught off guard by the cold and snow. Hundreds of adults and children alike fell victim, while thousands of cattle died during the event. Severity of",
"-34.61659669491928"
],
[
"in the east and a semi-arid one in the west. Precipitation generally decreases from east to west and from north to south. Being characterized by large thermal amplitudes, the climate of the province has continental characteristics, particularly in the west where thermal amplitudes are much larger. The general atmospheric circulation is one of the most important factors that influence the climate on a regional scale. During summer, the South Atlantic High is displaced to the southeast, which brings hot and humid air masses from the north and northeast. The South Pacific High in summer is responsible for bringing cooler air",
"-34.61575633805478"
],
[
"the east and inland areas, due to the influence of the Atlantic currents, and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea. The highest official temperature recorded was 32.9 °C (91.2 °F) at Greycrook, on 9 August 2003.\nFor the last 100 years, the coldest winter was in 1963 (average temperature 0.19 °C or 32.34 °F) and the mildest was in 1989 (average 5.15 °C or 41.27 °F). The warmest summer was in 2003 (average 14.07 °C or 57.33 °F) and the coolest was in 1922 (average 10.64 °C or 51.15 °F). Rainfall Rainfall totals vary widely across Scotland— the western highlands of Scotland is one of the wettest places in",
"-34.50996359682176"
],
[
"Great Lakes Storm of 1913 Background The immense volume of water in the five Great Lakes holds heat that allows the lakes to remain relatively warm for much later into the year and postpones the Arctic spread in the region. During the autumn months, two major weather tracks converge over the area. Cold, dry air moves south/southeast from Alberta and northern Canada; warm, moist air moves north/northeast from the Gulf of Mexico, along the lee of the central Rocky Mountains. The collision of these masses forms large storm systems in the middle of the North American continent, including the Great",
"-34.48027578636538"
],
[
"in landform, while farther south the Gran Chaco and Pampas are broad lowlands. Climate The climate of the Americas varies significantly from region to region. Tropical rainforest climate occurs in the latitudes of the Amazon, American cloud forests, Florida and Darien Gap. In the Rocky Mountains and Andes, dry and continental climates are observed. Often the higher altitudes of these mountains are snow-capped.\nSoutheastern North America is well known for its occurrence of tornadoes and hurricanes, of which the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the United States' Tornado Alley, as well as in the southerly Dixie Alley in the North",
"-34.48001488979207"
],
[
"Eastern Seaboard issued extreme heat alerts, with the temperature being forecast to rise well beyond 30 °C in some areas on the 5th.\nThe American northeast was severely affected as New York City saw a record temperature of 103 °F (39.4 °C) on July 6, and the heat hit 100.4 °F (38.0 °C) in Boston, and 40.6 °C in Baltimore on the same day, breaking the standing Baltimore record from 1983.\nNew York City saw temperatures as high as 35 °C in some areas and it was predicted to reach 38 °C the next day. A report released by the Wall Street Journal on July 7 stated that June saw",
"-34.42721732056816"
],
[
"the East Coast of the United States and began to rapidly grow into a powerful nor'easter. Up to 18 inches (46 cm) of snow as well as blizzard conditions were recorded in some of the hardest hit areas before the system moved away from the coastline early on February 10. Mid-March blizzard and cold wave A major blizzard struck the Northeastern United States around the timeframe of March 13–15, burying some places under 3–4 feet (36–48 in) of snow. The storm system resulted from the combination of two areas of low pressure that coalesced into one large system that paralleled the",
"-34.41337871251744"
],
[
"north-east. Government organisations predict the area will experience a rise in temperature and become the hottest region in the United Kingdom.\nInland areas of low altitude experience the least amount of precipitation. They have the highest summer maxima temperatures, but winter minima are lower than those of the coast. Snowfalls are more frequent in comparison to the coast, but less so in comparison to higher ground. They experience the lowest wind speeds and the total sunshine hours are between those of the coast and the moors. This typical climate of inland areas is more noticeable the further north-east into the region.\nIn",
"-34.31989348147181"
],
[
"cold, moist air masses originating in Patagonia leading to cold temperatures and frost, particularly during winter. Summers feature more stable weather than winter since the South Atlantic and South Pacific highs are at their southernmost positions, making the entrance of cold fronts more difficult. Precipitation Mean annual precipitation ranges from 1,200 mm (47 in) in the eastern parts of Formosa Province to a low of 450 to 500 mm (18 to 20 in) in the west and southwest. Most of the precipitation is concentrated in the summer and decreases from east to west. Summer rains are intense, and torrential rain is common, occasionally",
"-34.30244073760696"
],
[
"February 2007 North American blizzard Prior to the storm In sharp contrast to the mostly mild weather in the first few weeks of winter, the eastern half of the continent was under the influence of cold temperatures. Numerous areas had substantial snowfall deficits before this storm. After several weak Alberta clippers crossed the eastern half of the continent and brought occasional light snowfalls, a large dip in the Northern branch of the jet stream favored a more active pattern, which, as it connected with the southern branch, led to the development of the storm.\nAn area of low pressure tracked across",
"-34.29990040736811"
],
[
"pressure shifted to the west, causing the core of the hot weather to the build in the Mountain States and the southwest U.S. shifting eastwards again by mid-July. By early August, the core of the heat remained over the Southern Plains. Cause The heat wave formed when high pressure aloft over the Baja of Mexico strengthened and moved over the southern plains around June 20–23 and then spread east and northward, remaining fixed over the center of North America through July 2012.\nThe direct cause of the heat is that, under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface. This",
"-34.272302571858745"
],
[
"summers and cool winters. The Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River have a significant moderating effect in this ecozone, which is in a major North American storm belt. Warm air fronts from the Gulf of Mexico and US south- and mid-west often collide with cold polar air masses, providing abundant precipitation in some areas. Annually, the region receives between 720 and 1,000 mm of precipitation. Most areas receive close to 150 cm of snowfall but snowbelt areas can receive well over 300 cm during a typical winter.\nSummers average about 23 °C in July in the southwestern end of the zone, to 18 °C in the",
"-34.24484383815434"
],
[
"Niño A study of climate records has shown a relationship between El Niño and the Western Hemisphere Warm Pool (WHWP). During a normal Northern Hemisphere winter, diabatic heating over the Amazon drives a Hadley cell with descending air over an anticyclone north of 20°N in the subtropical North Atlantic and associated northeast trade winds between Africa and the Caribbean. An El Niño weakens the Amazonian cell, the anticyclone and the easterly tradewinds, causing the tropical North Atlantic to warm more than usual in the spring. About half of El Niño events persist sufficiently into the spring months for the warm",
"-34.23868209659122"
],
[
"south can bring cooler temperatures. An extreme example of this was in November 2007, when cold polar air from the south brought temperatures down to 2.5 °C (36.5 °F) on the morning of November 15. The same polar air affected many parts of the country, bringing cold temperatures and snow in coastal parts of Patagonia. In contrast, hot humid air from the north produces sultry days; the highest temperature recorded in spring is 36.8 °C (98.2 °F) on 27 November 1955. In some cases, heat waves, can occur, particularly in November. Summer Summers are hot and humid. On average, mornings and afternoons are hot",
"-34.22447974269744"
],
[
"of North America, such as in Mexico, and areas of the Southwestern United States, and sections of South America such as the sertão, the Gran Chaco, and on the poleward side of the arid deserts, where they typically feature a Mediterranean precipitation pattern, with generally rainless summers and wetter winters. Cold semi-arid climates Cold semi-arid climates (type \"BSk\") tend to be located in elevated portions of temperate zones, typically bordering a humid continental climate or a Mediterranean climate. They are typically found in continental interiors some distance from large bodies of water. Cold semi-arid climates usually feature warm to hot",
"-34.21075722522801"
],
[
"detach, and become low-strength cyclones and anticyclones, respectively, and are responsible for day-to-day weather patterns at mid-latitudes. The action of Rossby waves partially explains why eastern continental edges in the Northern Hemisphere, such as the Northeast United States and Eastern Canada, are colder than Western Europe at the same latitudes. Poleward-propagating atmospheric waves Deep convection (heat transfer) to the troposphere is enhanced over very warm sea surfaces in the tropics, such as during El Niño events. This tropical forcing generates atmospheric Rossby waves that have a poleward and eastward migration.\nPoleward-propagating Rossby waves explain many of the observed statistical connections",
"-34.21010554465465"
],
[
"ridge to the north. The intense heat buildup occurs where high pressure is highly dominant in the upper levels of the atmosphere over the tropics and subtropics of Australia in summer allowing for a huge area of stable atmospheric conditions to predominate.\nOn occasion, a strong cold front will develop in summer and bring the westerlies further north than their mean summer position. On these occasions, north-west winds will develop ahead of the cold front's passage and sometimes these can be very strong, even gale force. When this occurs the hot air from the inland is dragged right down over south-east",
"-34.198518285294995"
],
[
"stream pushing southward, bringing record cold temperatures across the Eastern U.S. During the cold wave, which extended from December 6–10, over 150 daily precipitation records and close to 100 daily snowfall records were broken across the northeastern, southeastern and south central United States. Numerous airline flights were canceled and there were reports of power outages. Early December winter storm On December 2, a Pacific storm system entered the Western United States, and it spread heavy rain and snow from the Pacific coast to the Rocky Mountains. As the storm continued to move east, high snow totals fell in its wake.",
"-34.18969338119496"
],
[
"record high temperature of 112 °F (44 °C). The Southwestern United States had near high temperatures from September 26 to October 2, and even hotter than that in some regions. The Western United States also experienced record high/near record high temperatures from late September to mid-October. By the end of October, temperatures within the United States returned to near-average, as the anticyclones weakened and then dissipated.",
"-34.18704688543221"
],
[
"are enhanced over the central Pacific and winter temperature are mild along much of the North America west coast but cooler than usual over Eastern Siberia and the United States South-West, precipitations are higher than usual over Alaska and the Great Plains.\n\nThe NPGO is the oceanic expression of the NPO.",
"-34.13822686520871"
],
[
"comes from the castle built shortly after the conquest in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conqueror's eldest son. Climate North East England has an oceanic climate with narrower temperature ranges than the south of England. Summers and winters are mild rather than extremely hot or cold, due to the strong maritime influence of the North Atlantic Current of the Gulf Stream. The Met Office operates several weather stations in the region and are able they show the regional variations in temperature and its relation to the distance from the North Sea. The warmest summers in the region are found",
"-34.13799490060046"
],
[
"east) and cooler zones (north). Peak and often intense heat tends to arrive in September much later than the rest of the nation or state.",
"-34.13217160438944"
],
[
"the warmest, wettest climate.\nThe northern region has warm, humid summers, with days between 28 and 32 °C (82 and 90 °F) and nights between 16 and 20 °C (61 and 68 °F), pleasant falls, cool, drier winters with highs between 13 and 18 °C (55 and 64 °F) and nights between 2 and 5 °C (36 and 41 °F), and windy, variable springs. Heat waves may bring days with temperatures over 38 °C (100 °F), but these do not usually last very long, as cold fronts bring thunderstorms and cooler days, with night temperatures often falling down to 12 °C (54 °F). Winter cold waves may bring days with highs about 8 °C",
"-34.11112291144673"
],
[
"marine west coast climate zone of western North America. Most weather fronts originate in the Pacific Ocean, and travel northeast toward the Olympic Mountains. As fronts approach, they are forced upward by the peaks of the Olympic Range, causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall (Orographic lift). As a result, the Olympics experience high precipitation, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud",
"-34.10924449257436"
],
[
"has also shattered all of the temperature records throughout the Ontario tobacco belt along with the rest of Southern Canada and parts of North America. This heat wave has extended itself into the summer months. During August 2012, only parts of South America and Northern Australia experienced temperatures that were cooler than usual. The heat wave officially ended in early November 2012 when local temperatures plunged below 10 °C or 50 °F.\nBetween December 2012 and April 2013, temperatures managed to return to normal seasonal levels for the Ontario tobacco belt along with most of Ontario. While May and June 2013 has seen",
"-34.10819230219931"
],
[
"plains community.\nNorth America extends to within 10° of latitude of both the equator and the North Pole. It embraces every climatic zone, from tropical rain forest and savanna on the lowlands of Central America to areas of permanent ice cap in central Greenland. Subarctic and tundra climates prevail in north Canada and north Alaska, and desert and semiarid conditions are found in interior regions cut off by high mountains from rain-bearing westerly winds. However, most of the continent has temperate climates very favorable to settlement and agriculture. Prairies, or vast grasslands cover a huge amount in mountain ranges. Hydrography and",
"-34.07773724576691"
],
[
"is required to increase relative humidity values to 100% at higher temperatures (or to get the temperature to fall to the dew point). Periods of warmth quicken the pace of fruit and vegetable production, increase evaporation and transpiration from plants, and worsen drought conditions. El Niño Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the Amazon River Basin, Colombia, and Central America during El Niño events. Winters during the El Niño are warmer and drier than average conditions in the Northwest, northern Midwest, and northern Mideast United States, so those regions experience reduced snowfalls. Conditions are also",
"-34.074830508296145"
],
[
"fronts is more common in the south than in the north, and occurs more in winter than in summer. The movement of warm, subtropical air into the region occurs frequently in summer up to 46ᵒS. When warm subtropical air arrives in the region, the air is dry, resulting in little precipitation, and causes temperatures to be higher than those observed in northeast Argentina. Precipitation The influence of the Pacific Ocean, general circulation patterns, and the topographic barrier caused by the Andes, results in one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world. Precipitation decreases steeply from west to east, ranging",
"-34.04797925351886"
],
[
"and the Great Plains, and warmer, moist air moves north from the Gulf of Mexico, all that is needed is a movement of cold polar air moving south to form potential blizzard conditions that may extend from the Texas Panhandle to the Great Lakes and Midwest. A blizzard also may be formed when a cold front and warm front mix together and a blizzard forms at the border line.\nAnother storm system occurs when a cold core low over the Hudson Bay area in Canada is displaced southward over southeastern Canada, the Great Lakes, and New England. When the rapidly moving",
"-34.03622256463859"
],
[
"the mid- to upper 70s °F (23–25 °C), almost always accompanied by high humidity. Mainly due to the proximity of large bodies of water, the official high temperature has never hit 100 °F (37.8 °C) – the all-time record high temperature is 99 °F (37 °C), recorded on June 5, 1985. Afternoon thunderstorms, usually generated by the interaction of the Gulf and Atlantic sea breezes, are such a regular occurrence during the summer that the Tampa Bay area and nearby inland areas of Central Florida are recognized as the \"Lightning Capital of North America\". Afternoon thundershowers occasionally intensify into a severe thunderstorm, bringing heavy downpours, frequent",
"-34.022369162368705"
],
[
"States and southern Canada as 1911/12, 1935/36, 1977/78 and 1978/79 resulted from blocks in the Gulf of Alaska or to the east of the Mackenzie Mountains directing very cold Arctic air with a long trajectory as far as the American South, as did the Western cold waves of 1889/90 and January 1950. In Northern and Western Europe, cold winters such as 1683/84, 1739/40, 1794/95, 1829/30, 1894/95, 1916/17, 1941/42, February 1947 and 1962/63 are almost always associated with high-latitude Atlantic blocking and an equatorward shift of the polar jet stream to Portugal and even Morocco. Over Central Asia, unusually cold winters",
"-34.014311265040305"
],
[
"conditions to the eastern U.S. and the possibility of the Madden-Julian oscillation contributing to heavy-precipitation events along the West Coast. The temperature outlook favored warmer-than-normal conditions across the northern and western U.S. with the highest probabilities from the Pacific Northwest to the northern Plains and in Alaska. Such conditions were also favored in Hawaii. The outlook also noted that the Tennessee and Ohio Valleys, the Mid-Atlantic region, and the U.S. Southeast had equal chances of either above-, below-, or near-average temperatures. The outlook did not delineate any areas likely to experience below-average conditions. The precipitation outlook noted an elevated probability",
"-34.0096784637426"
],
[
"century. South America Tree-ring data from Patagonia show cold episodes between 1270 and 1380 and from 1520 to 1670, contemporary with the events in the Northern Hemisphere. Eight sediment cores taken from Puyehue Lake have been interpreted as showing a humid period from 1470 to 1700, which the authors describe as a regional marker of the onset of the Little Ice Age. A 2009 paper details cooler and wetter conditions in southeastern South America between 1550 and 1800, citing evidence obtained via several proxies and models. ¹⁸O records from three Andean ice cores show a cool period from 1600–1800.\nAlthough only",
"-33.985769441584125"
],
[
"near 18 inches (460 mm) were recorded across northern Indiana, and additional accumulations occurred downwind from the major Great Lakes. This storm was accompanied by some of the coldest temperatures to affect the Central and Eastern United States in 20 years. Upper flow which was meridional all the way up to the Arctic Circle provided a direct path for cold air advection to occur southward to the United States. The average temperature of the contiguous United States was 17.9 °F (−7.8 °C), the coldest day since January 12–13, 1997 and the 40th-coldest day in the United States since 1900. During the event, wind",
"-33.96991879155394"
],
[
"Climate The Eastern Plains have a semi-arid climate and receive little rainfall. Much of the area relies on irrigation to survive. Summers are typically hot and dry, often bringing thunderstorms, which are often severe, to the area, with some occasionally forming landspouts and tornadoes. Eastern Colorado winters are cold and dry, with significant snowfalls and icy conditions. Temperatures can sometimes fall to -40 to -30 degrees Fahrenheit in extreme cold waves, although this is rare. Native Americans Eastern Colorado was once home to many Native American tribes. The Plains Indians that lived in the region included the Arapahoe, Cheyenne,",
"-33.948388705350226"
],
[
"area, leaving large parts of India arid and dry. The sudden end of pre-monsoon rain showers, an uncommon trend in India, has contributed to the heat waves. Additionally, the monsoon season is later and further south than the normal trend. This weather pattern, coupled with the El Niño effect, which often increases temperatures in Asia, combined to create the record high temperatures. High humidity compounded the effects of the temperatures on residents. The Loo, a dry wind originating from Pakistan and northwest India, has contributed to increasing the temperature in India. Relief efforts The government of Andhra Pradesh announced ₹100,000",
"-33.94176794437226"
],
[
"temperate, more broad-leaf tree forest conditions at the end of the Younger Dryas period. Conversely, pollen and macrofossil evidence from near Lake Ontario indicates that cool, boreal forests persisted into the early Holocene. West of the Appalachians, in the Ohio River Valley and south to Florida rapid, no-analog vegetation responses seem to have been the result of rapid climate changes, but the area remained generally cool, with hardwood forest dominating. During the Younger Dryas, the Southeastern United States was warmer and wetter than the region had been during the Pleistocene because of trapped heat from the Caribbean within the North",
"-33.86910723085748"
],
[
"powerful blizzard struck the Northeast again, bringing strong winds and more heavy snowfall. Afterwards, as the storm exited, it ushered in the coldest air to impact the Northeast in decades, with temperatures dipping as far as 30–40 °F (17–22 °C) below average. Several places broke record lows for February, and temperatures even dipped below 0 °F (−18 °C) in a good part of the Northeast.\nSeveral more winter storms followed afterwards, but one of the more notable ones was the one that occurred from February 25–26. This particular storm took an unusual track into the Southeastern United States as the jet stream along with the",
"-33.83521369722439"
],
[
"predominantly dry and hot although the rugged topography makes it climatically diverse, ranging from the cold, dry Puna to thick jungles. The center of the country, which includes the Pampas to the east and the drier Cuyo region to the west has hot summers with frequent tornadoes and thunderstorms, and cool, dry winters. Patagonia, in the southern parts of the country has a dry climate with warm summers and cold winters characterized by strong winds throughout the year and one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world. High elevations at all latitudes experience cooler conditions, and the mountainous zones",
"-33.792326372873504"
],
[
"front was an area of hot, dry air: the high temperature for the day at Eau Claire was 93 °F (34 °C) and 93 °F (34 °C) in the Twin Cities. South of the front was very humid, hot air: Cedar Rapids, Iowa had a high temperature of 98 °F (37 °C).\nAs the afternoon progressed, the warm front moved into the drier air to the north, pulling with it the moist air over the dry air. Regional meteorologists were aware of the potential for thunderstorms because of the low pressure system and the intense heat and moisture. The storm system formed in eastern Minnesota during the",
"-33.76277487643529"
],
[
"the Great Lakes through March 23–25, along with bringing a significant ice storm to parts of New England, with accumulations of 0.25–0.75 inches (6.4–19.1 mm) of ice in some areas.\nEven though winter was officially over, it felt like winter somewhat in the Northeast. An unusual cold blast occurred at the beginning of April, bringing temperatures 10–15 °F (−12 – −9 °C) below average in the afflicted areas. It was cold enough for snow in parts of New England, and as a result, several Alberta clippers began to track their way to the East Coast. The first clipper brought mainly high winds and snow showers",
"-33.758415953750955"
],
[
"(on the northwestern edge) to 62 mm (2.4 in) per year. Mid-summer highs in excess of 45 °C (113 °F) are common in the central sand sea. Mid-winter lows of less than 10 °C (50 °F) are rare. Winds are controlled in part by the position and strength of the Sonoran Low in summer, creating southerly winds, and by the Great Basin High in winter, with north-to-northeasterly winds. Paleoclimate The well-documented pluvial epochs which occurred over much of the southwestern United States during the most-recent (Wisconsin) ice age may not have extended as far south as the Gran Desierto. It appears that the climatic regime of",
"-33.7372175384553"
],
[
"and a post-monsoon period (October–December).\nThe Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.\nSummer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30 °C (86 °F) coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert area",
"-33.72007230221061"
],
[
"of the event. The late winter to early spring of 1925 was warmer and drier than normal over much of the central United States. There apparently was persistent ridging in the western U.S. with a troughing pattern over the central U.S.\nThe extratropical cyclone that would set the synoptic stage for the outbreak was centered over northwestern Montana at 7 am CST on March 17. Meanwhile, a diffuse area of surface low pressure was centered near Denver, Colorado in association with a lee trough. Occluded fronts lay from Hudson Bay southwestward into the northern Plains states and into the lee trough.",
"-33.6775969126611"
],
[
"the country, as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and American Samoa. Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.\nThe El Niño–Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the West, Midwest, the Southeast, and throughout the tropics. There is also evidence that global warming",
"-33.65911558343214"
],
[
"2011 North Indian cold wave North Indian Cold Wave (2011) is the cold snap affected across northern parts of India in the winter of 2011, killing more than 130 people. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana were the northern states badly hit by the cooling of the air.",
"-33.656052434351295"
],
[
"land air-masses they feature more extreme temperatures in each respective season, with summers getting as hot as those of subtropical or tropical climates and winters as cold as in subpolar climates. They are almost exclusively found only on the northern hemisphere, because this is where there is a large enough landmass to generate extremes in seasonal temperatures. This climate type is found in northeast Asia, the north-central and north- eastern United States and southern Canada, and Eurasia, in eastern, central and northern Europe. Subpolars These are temperate climates that opposite to the subtropicals are on the poleward edge of the",
"-33.65566447027959"
],
[
"and Midwest. The second one affected the Midwest, Southeast, and Northeast.\nThe two days subsequent from Presidents' Day in the Eastern United States featured a record warm spell, breaking record highs in places from the Gulf Coast to New England.\nWeather forecasters had forecasted a slow transition to spring, unlike the year before. After the record-warmth came in February, a block that formed in Greenland that dominated between late-February and late-March claimed responsibility for four nor'easters and making it the snowiest month of March on record in certain places of the Northeastern United States. After February 21, it would not",
"-33.6424484777599"
],
[
"Province to 9 °C (48 °F) in Tierra del Fuego. Winters have a more uniform temperature distribution. In July, mean temperatures are above 0 °C (32 °F) in all of extra–Andean Patagonia, ranging from 7 °C (45 °F) in the north to around 0 °C (32 °F) in Ushuaia.\nBeing exposed to strong westerly winds can decrease the perception of temperature (wind chill), particularly in summer. The wind lowers the perception of the mean annual temperature by 4.2 °C (7.6 °F) throughout the region. The annual range of temperatures in Patagonia is lower than in areas in the Northern Hemisphere at the same latitude owing to the maritime influences of the",
"-33.62466688564746"
],
[
"climates of the American East, although closer to the first ones, with a center characterized by the steppes and medium precipitation marking the east limit of the group B of dry climates (except for the hot versions on the subcontinent) for the 99.9 °W meridian. From the climatic map of the University of Melbourne, Gettysburg is the easternmost city in North America with a semi-arid cold climate (Köppen: Bsk). The average high temperature is 12.7 ° C and the low average is -0.4 ° C, which makes temperatures below the freezing point predominate for at least part of the year.",
"-33.61511080735363"
],
[
"and above-average temperatures existed in the Ohio and Tennessee Valleys, with wetter-than-average conditions favored, resulting in an enhanced potential for storms and flooding. Equal chances for below, near, and above-average precipitation and temperatures existed in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic states. The outlook noted that winter weather in this region often driven by the Arctic Oscillation rather than La Niña, and as such, if enough cold air and moisture were to coalesce, areas north of the Ohio Valley and into the Northeastern U.S. could expect above-average snowfall. Colder and wetter-than-average conditions were favored in the Great Lakes region, and above-average temperatures",
"-33.608551950223045"
],
[
"found in the United States during the spring and summer months (warm season), the Indian monsoon region, the West Pacific and throughout Africa and South America. In particular, the heavy rainfall from MCCs accounts for a significant portion of the precipitation during the warm season in the United States. As the warm season progresses, the favorable regions for MCC formation shift from the southern plains of the United States northward. By July and August, the north-central states become the most favorable. The mid-level low pressure areas of MCCs have also been tracked to the origin of some tropical cyclones,",
"-33.6073340420844"
],
[
"the climate of the province is characterized by strong westerlies, which also enhances evapotranspiration. In general, the southern parts of the province are colder than the north. Temperatures The mean temperatures for the province are relatively cold for its latitude due to the cold Falkland Current. The extreme northeast coast is by far the mildest area, with annual temperatures around 8 to 9 °C (46.4 to 48.2 °F) with temperatures inland being slightly 1 °C to 2 °C lower. The coldest temperatures are found in the southern parts of the province with an annual mean of 6 °C (42.8 °F) although in the western parts of",
"-33.57145150110591"
],
[
"of the Río de la Plata, flooding coastal areas. The South Pacific High is the origin of polar air masses that are responsible for the coldest temperatures and result in clear and very dry conditions. These air masses originate from the South Pacific high and move in a northeastern direction during winter towards Buenos Aires by passing. Although it is polar maritime (this is a cool, moist air mass that forms from oceans located in the subantarctic and antarctic regions at the southern tip of South America), it becomes modified as it passes over the South American continent, becoming drier",
"-33.565445180109236"
],
[
"North Atlantic Ocean to the country's southwest. It lies between latitudes 4° and 9°N, and longitudes 7° and 12°W.\nThe landscape is characterized by mostly flat to rolling coastal plains that contain mangroves and swamps, which rise to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast.\nTropical rainforests cover the hills, while elephant grass and semi-deciduous forests make up the dominant vegetation in the northern sections. The equatorial climate, in the south of the country, is hot year-round with heavy rainfall from May to October with a short interlude in mid-July to August. During the winter months of November to March,",
"-33.55096882561338"
]
] |
1nk94k | Do people who learn to speak a second language think in that language as well as there original? | [
"Second hand knowledge here: a friend was fluent in three languages and told me that when he thinks, they all blend together, but it still makes sense to him.",
"I moved to the US from the Philippines when I was 10 and am now 28. I'm still fluent in both languages but English has become my primary. I only think in English now, but don't have to translate Tagalog when I hear it. I just instantly understand it. Unlike German and Spanish which I'm only partially fluent in and have to translate statements in my head to English.",
"Was born and raised in Montreal, QC. My parents seperated when I was 2 and my mom raised me in English and my dad in French. If I am at work, where French is the only language, I'll think in French. (Although I'll occasionally catch myself thinking in English). When I'm at school, I'll think in English because I go to an English university. It's pretty messed up, really. I think it really depends on the environment you are in. Most of my dreams are bilingual.",
"I'm Danish, but I've lived outside of Denmark most of my life, so ENglish has pretty much become my first language. To answer your question, at least for me, it really depends. It is actually really strange now that I think about it. It usually ends up being one the following: * Think in English 60% of the time and Danish the rest * One sentence in my mind is English, the next is Danish * This weird mix of English and Danish in a single sentence. * If I am working in a particular language I will almost only think in that. It sounds very confusing, overly complicated and strange, but I've never actually thought about it before. It seems to work. It only sometimes becomes annoying of you are writing or saying something in Danish while thinking in English, due to the fact that there are quite a few English words and phrases that simply do not exist in Danish. This sometimes makes me say something that would make perfect sense in English, \"It's pouring down outside\", but makes absolutely no sense in Danish. That's my take on it, hope it helps",
"I mix Mandarin and English pretty regularly, it all makes sense.",
"I am a native U.S. English speaker, but lived in Brazil for two years and studied and learned to speak Portuguese fluently. It has been nearly 6 years since I returned to the United States from Brazil. When I first got to Brazil, I didn't know any Portuguese. I studied a ton, practiced daily, and was immersed in their culture. I rarely had the time or opportunity to speak in English. It was more or less a sink or swim situation, and was very difficult at first. I would have to think in my head what I wanted to say, try to compute whether or not I had the vocabulary to do it, then modify what I wanted to say based on my Portuguese vocabulary, and then translate my English thoughts as they traveled from my mind to my mouth. It was often a very slow and surprisingly exhausting thing to do all day. Over the course of several months, certain phrases, words, and ideas that I expressed often would begin to flow more easily. The time it took for me to translate and speak my English thoughts in Portuguese became easier and quicker. I'd say that around 5-7 months I was pretty good at being able to communicate almost any idea I had in Portuguese, although my grammar, accent, and vocabulary very clearly indicated I still had lots to learn. Throughout this time and process, there is no clear, \"ah ha!\" moment when you wake up and realize, \"I can speak and think fluently in Portuguese!\" It's so gradual that you don't really notice it, and I cannot clearly pinpoint a time when I can say I \"became fluent\" and could \"think in Portuguese\" from that point on. The process was too gradual. Through this learning process, even from early on, there would be times when I would \"think in Portuguese\" naturally, even if it was in small phrases or sentences, or even single words. My brain would just think that way without me thinking about it. I would sometimes realize, \"Hey! I just had that tiny thought in Portuguese!\" The more fluent I became, the more frequent and fluid the Portugese thoughts were. It was often a mix of the two through this learning period. After a year or more in Brazil, I would converse so well and so often that my entire day would be spent thinking in Portuguese. I knew the language, it was how I spoke, and it was what I read. When thinking, English words would naturally fill in the gaps sometimes when I didn't know the word in Portuguese. The more I learned, the less my brain would plug in English. My mind would naturally shift to English if I were placed in a situation where I was presented with English, usually when reading or speaking with other English speakers. As soon as those activities were done, my mind would naturally revert to thinking in Portuguese. The same goes for me and English now. Although my Portuguese has deteriorated from lack of practice, my mind will quickly begin thinking in Portuguese when I read or watch a movie in Portuguese. My mind will keep thinking that way for a bit afterwards (like 10-40 minutes), but will then quickly revert to English since that's what I'm surrounded by in the U.S.",
"I took a language acquisition course of which a portion was based on this. I also have first hand experience. What happens when we speak is that ideas/concepts come to mind and specific words are \"activated.\" Often, some words can be \"primed\" to be more readily spoken by using similar sounds before the word you're trying to induce. This priming function is what helps us to choose specific words when we speak unrehearsed. Often the word we chose is easier to say, but it can also often be the wrong word - a word that sounds like what we meant to say but is actually very different in meaning. Studies have found that after a certain point of familiarity of a word in a language, it will be about as likely to pop up when we try to activate a word for a concept as other words, given ideal circumstances (no predictable priming, etc). This is true for words in languages other than the one the person is primarily fluent in. Perhaps this is how we learn synonyms in the same language. Languages can be primed for circumstances. We often compartmentalize this. I grew up speaking in my native language to my grandparents, even though one of them was quite adept in English. I often speak in French with some of my friends who also took it in high school because that's the mindset I'd adopted back then and I still stick to it. During the course of becoming fluent or learning, we learn to think in a language deliberately. From talking with my professor, it seemed that there's a lot of interest in the idea of the inner monologue. Many people say they think in complete sentences. I grew up speaking two languages, and learned two more while in school, and two more in college. I can never remember thinking in complete sentences unless I forcibly slowed down and deliberately thought things out. Or when I'm reading. When I'm searching for words - even when in my head - any language I'm fluent in its more or less about as likely to have its weird pop up as any other. I also code switch a lot (switching between multiple languages in the same sentence, beyond just substituting a word) and love doing it deliberately when I can (when the multiple languages will be understood). I'd argue from what I learned and my own experience that - all else being equal - we really think in concepts. For people who speak one language, that's really the only thing that's primed so we often don't notice. For people who speak more, I think because of the simple fact we can choose which language to force ourselves to think in, we're aware of the abstract nature of thought. Some will likely have more words primed than concepts and vice versa, and context is especially important, but, in a complicated and beautiful way, we think in a variety of the languages we know and sometimes bare concepts devoid of the associated words from any of those languages.",
"Almost fluently Norwegian here, originally from Belgium When i'm in Norway and hear Norwegian i think in Norwegian. But when i'm in Belgium and i hear Flemish, i think in Flemish. And when i'm reading on reddit i think in English.",
"I speak Latin, so when I think, the languages blend together to create a streamlined language \"I need to see pater nam he has money mihi\".",
"I think in whatever language I'm currently using as my primary. While I'm in the states I think in English, Mexico I think in Spanish, Montreal=French.",
"I'm fluent in danish and english and I honestly think more in english than in my native (danish)",
"I find myself thinking in different languages depending on how I feel or what I'm thinking about. For most things I think in English but when I'm thinking about more emotional things or about my family, I tend to think in my first language. My first language, Afrikaans, is more visceral and emotional, while English is more intellectual. (To me at least.)",
"I learned Romanian as a second language but I rarely find myself thinking in it, if at all. The only time i may think in Romanian, or speak it out of instinct is curses to be honest haha",
"I speak English, Italian and Portuguese fluently. The language of my thoughts depends on the context that I'm in. I.e, if I'm watching a Brazilian film, I'll think in Portuguese etc. It also changes when I go visit any of those countries. For instance: I live in the UK now so I usually think in English (though not always); however if I go see my buddies in Italy, I will have to translate from Italian, to English (for listening) then back to Italian to speak. Then after a while, I'll start thinking in Italian, dreaming in Italian etc. then no translation happens (unless I need to speak English or whatever). Generally, however, my thoughts are usually one language with expressions/swear words etc. from the others thrown in. When I speak with my family, it can be a strange mixture of words from those three languages in a sentence structure from one (English, usually) (Weird thing: One time I was in a car with a Brazilian person and my Italian friend. Neither could speak the other's language. My brain got so confused that I ended up not being able to say anything coherently. It's as if my brain tied itself into a knot)",
"Raised in three languages here (English, Thai and Danish - what happens when only *one* of your parents is an immigrant)! My language of thought depends on what I'm thinking of. I go to a Danish university, thoughts on that are in Danish, thoughts of personal and family matters are mostly in English. I exclaim stuff in Thai and English when I get surprised - and if there are Danes around, I elaborate in Danish. So I'd say it depends on the situation - although I had to think about my answer. In my case the language of thought is selected on a subconscious level, meaning I'm not instantly aware of the language I'm thinking in. My dreams are in pretty much every language I've ever learnt - even those I'm not fluent in.",
"After studying it for a four years, I went to Egypt to improve my Arabic. I lived with two Arabs, and by the sixth month I was dreaming in Arabic and would think of some things in their Arab words first. By the end, it depended what I was thinking about. If I was thinking about my internship (which was in Arabic), I would think about it in Arabic. If I was thinking about a joke I read on Reddit, the thought would be in English",
"Speaking a few languages, Norwegian, English, Russian and some talk-see German, I've found that I change the language I think in depending on what I use the most at the time. When I haven't communicated, read or heard anything for an hour or two I either revert back to my native Norwegian or stick to the language most relevant to my current train of thought.",
"For myself as a German, i also speak english and a decent amount of spanish. Especially when it comes down to speaking with friends in english (Got several friends in the UK amd elsewhere, I actually have to think in english then, otherwise I end up in totally losing the direction my conversation is going.",
"I never actually learned English, I just kept playing videogames refusing to switch them to russian. Then I started to watch movies in English as well. I do often think in English, yes, even though I wouldn't say my English is much good. It's fine, I suppose, but far from perfect.",
"I live right on the border with the United States , English is my second language and I would say I think in English like 75 % of the time. Sometimes it does blend and I have like this combination of the two.",
"As someone who speaks 2 languages, but have never lived outside Denmark, I only think in Danish. On the other hand, my moms new husband, who has lived in London for a couple of years says he began to think in English",
"I have lived in Japan for 10 years. Although I am not \"fluent\" I think in both English and Japanese. Sometimes I will have dreams in Japanese but no understand what is being said.",
"I sometimes dream in Spanish, and when I spend time in a Spanish-speaking country, sometimes I catch myself thinking in Spanish. But both of those things are rare.",
"I speak mainly english but I believe spanish was my first language. Its kinda of a mix of both but obviously it depends on who I'm around.",
"I usually think in three different languages depending on my mood, that way i practice and dont forget what i've learned",
"i originally speak danish but when i learned english i slowly began to think in english which i now do",
"I believe you meant \"their original\" instead of \"there\"",
"I am fluent in 3 languages and dabble in 2 others. I think and speak in the other languages and in my mother tongue, depending on the situation. Sometimes, it takes some adjustment time to make a full switch to thinking in a different language (so, like if I travel from England to France, I can speak French upon setting foot in France, but I might forget a word or two, or conjugate my verbs incorrectly for the first, say, 24 hours, depending on how long it's been since I've spoken French). If I stay in an immersion situation long enough, I'll also start dreaming in the language of immersion - this is actually how I can tell I've internalized the language's fundamental sounds and structures, even if I'm not necessarily fluent in my waking life and just need more practice time). EDIT: I should add that when I'm not traveling and I'm in a multi-lingual environment (which in Toronto is frequently), I have no trouble understanding the different conversations happening in the different languages I have knowledge in. Sometimes, though, I'll have trouble speaking because I start to mix up vocabulary. Working in a mono-lingual environment is not as mentally taxing.",
"I had an SO who was born overseas. She always mesmerized me with how well she could switch back and fort between languages depending on who she was speaking to at the time. To me, she would speak English. Her mom calls, and BOOM Spanish and French. Back to English. So I always was inquisitive about this very question. When I asked her, she told me that she 'thinks' in English, because she primarily speaks in English. However, when she is in deep conversation or angry or stressed her brain defaults back to French. I also asked about numbers and when she counts or equates figures, to which she responded English. The interesting thing is that she learned math in French (primarily), but her brain works in English. I have seen and observed her 'slip' as well. When she was super mad or upset (at me) she would curse me in French or Spanish (or both). She would also occasionally choose to mix the three languages when she could not find the right word based on the context in which she spoke. This was always amusing to observe.",
"I'm a native English speaker who has learned Arabic and Korean and yes I think in all 3 languages at different times. Sometimes there is just a better way to express an idea in one language compared to the others or sometimes the language you learned the concept in is the way that you think about it. I have dreams in all 3 languages, I randomly think of certain words or objects in the different languages. I have inner monologue as well in them. With that said though, I predominantly think in English but it is definitely common for me to think in my other languages as well. It also depends on the environment, when I'm in Korea I think a lot in Korean and when I'm in the states I obviously think mostly in English.",
"Well, I don't know how to put it in ELI5, I can only share with you my personal experience. I spoke and was exposed to Spanish and only Spanish until I was 16. My family then moved to a different country where English is the only language spoken and Spanish is not used at all and there is a negligible Spanish speaking population. I am in my 30s now and although I can still speak Spanish, English is my main language and I think in English most of the time, the only time when I think in a mix of Spanish and English is when I have been speaking in Spanish for a while, say a couple of days, which doesn't happens often.",
"I am fluent in Mandarin and English, and I can understand [Cantonese]( URL_0 ) and [Hokkien]( URL_1 ) (dialects of Mandarin). Where I am from (Singapore), we study both our mother tongue (Mandarin, Malay, Tamil) and English once we get into school. And yes I do think in both languages, sometimes mixing them up. And people here pretty much mix English and their mother tongue when they speak. We have had meetings which started in English and ended in Mandarin. Our local colloquialism is a mixed pot of languages from English to almost all the Mother Tongue of the 4 major races in Singapore.",
"For me it depends on the situation. In some cases some ideas are easier to express in one language than on the other. I also tend to think in English about stuff that I got into after I learned the language, while I tend to think in Spanish about stuff that I used to do before learning English. For example when talking about soccer I think about terms and conversations in Spanish, whereas when I am say talking about stuff I learned in class last week I think about it and process it in English. Dreams are a random mix of both though.",
"So, here's my personal experience. Until I was about six years old I spoke nothing but Greek. Now, living in Canada would cause this to be a bit of a problem and so my family stopped speaking in Greek to me and I started learning both English and French. I'm fluent in all three languages, with Greek being my first language learned, French second and English third. That being said, my English is far superior to the other two (since I grew up in different parts of Ontario) and I definitely think in English. I hope that sufficiently answered your question.",
"I spoke only my native language until I was 3. English was the second language I learned but I did all my education in English which essentially made me think in English. Now as a 23 year old who's lived in a predominantly English speaking environment for 2 years, I can't complete sentences in Tamil without shifting to English mid-sentence. I've also heard that bilingual people dream in the language that they prefer. Not sure how true that is but it has been in my case.",
"Anecdotal, but back when I was reasonably fluent in Spanish, before 10 years of not using it set in, I used to occasionally dream in Spanish. I never \"thought\" in it per se, though I could if I exerted the effort to do so. The real breakthrough moment for me was actually when I stopped having to think of what I wanted to say in English first, before speaking it aloud in Spanish. I'm not sure if that counts as \"thinking in Spanish\" or not.",
"I taught myself Hindi, and although I'm not totally fluent, I have some friends with whom I always watch English movies, but we discuss the subtext between ourselves in Hindi, or I explain plot points or translate dialogue to them in Hindi. Now I find that whenever I'm watching a movie in any language I think about the subtext in Hindi and sometimes start speaking Hindi instinctively to other people if they ask a question. So I guess that's kind of contextual.",
"My family is Afrikaans, but I went to English schools. I speak more English and come into contact with more English speakers; I speak English better than Afrikaans and; I think in English. English probably became my \"thought language\" when i was around 11/12. EDIT: although as other posts say, when I'm around people who speak only Afrikaans, I'll think in Afrikaans as it's easier than translating what I want to say from English to Afrikaans.",
"I live in Lithuania, but I learned English, spend almost my entire day typing English, watching English, listening to English, reading in English, and thinking in English. I know English better than I do Lithuanian.",
"Do you think differently with languages too? If you speak Hindi there's like 9 words for love. Does that affect how you perceive things at all when you're thinking in that language?",
"Im german and also speak english and french. English with such frequency that my thougts are a horrible mixture of english and german. It macht me shudder.",
"I speak multiple languages (English, German, French) and occasionally catch myself thinking in those languages, without knowing. It's really cool that I don't notice it at times.",
"I know Spanish, French, and Chinese.when I'm bored I just combine the 3 and have conversations with myself because I can. Other than that,I think in English.",
"I speak three languages, english being my second, I think mainly in English because I will sooner or later have to speak my mind.",
"I dream in English, Mandarin, and Japanese. Usually when Japanese shows up it has to do with me struggling to understand it though.",
"I can speak, think, and dream in 4 different languages. I just can't do math in 3 of them",
"I'm Swedish but I mostly think in English. I just like English better for some reason."
] | [
[
"by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision making skills. A study published a year later found that switching into a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness. In 2014, another study has shown that people using a foreign language are",
"-31.430498236011772"
],
[
"with first-language acquisition Adults who learn a second language differ from children learning their first language in at least three ways: children are still developing their brains whereas adults have mature minds, and adults have at least a first language that orients their thinking and speaking. Although some adult second-language learners reach very high levels of proficiency, pronunciation tends to be non-native. This lack of native pronunciation in adult learners is explained by the critical period hypothesis. When a learner's speech plateaus, it is known as fossilization.\nSome errors that second-language learners make in their speech originate in their first language.",
"-31.20077831888557"
],
[
"English is an example of positive language transfer. It is important to note that not all errors occur in the same ways; even two individuals with the same native language learning the same second language still have the potential to utilize different parts of their native language. Likewise, these same two individuals may develop near-native fluency in different forms of grammar.\nAlso, when people learn a second language, the way they speak their first language changes in subtle ways. These changes can be with any aspect of language, from pronunciation and syntax to the gestures the learner makes and the language",
"-30.504036340236667"
],
[
"of our perceptions of the objective world:\n\"People do not think in English or Chinese or Apache; they think in a language of thought. This language of thought probably looks a bit like all these languages;...But compared with any given language, mentalese must be richer in some ways and simpler in others.\"\n— Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct, p. 72\n \nChomsky marshaled evidence that a child's rapid mastery of the complexity of language indicated an innate ability programmed into the development of the human mind from birth that could not be explained by the \"blank slate\" view of the infant mind. Rather,",
"-30.47183654573746"
],
[
"and develop their second language better. This approach does not support the idea that there is a certain critical age where someone needs to learn a second or third language. It also does not support the idea that innate cognitive ability has any emphasis on learning a second language. As a result of this, the Foreign Based approach was later challenged by a L1 Based Approach. Snow states that this approach researches and supports what the Foreign based model didn't. It explains that many of the characteristics of a first language are part of learning a second language. Which supports",
"-30.27738046684499"
],
[
"is notable for originating the Automatic Language Growth (ALG) approach to language teaching, which claims that adults can effortlessly become near-native or native-like in second languages if they learn them implicitly through experience, without consciously practicing speaking. Brown came to believe that, contrary to the critical period hypothesis that adults have lost the ability to learn languages as children do, adults actually retain this ability but obstruct it by using abilities they have gained to consciously study, practice, and analyze language.\n\"[Brown's] goal had always been to find a way for an adult to become native in their second language,\" says",
"-30.112870951403238"
],
[
"Samarin, \"with application a student ought to be able to speak the language in about three months.\" However, reaching true fluency takes much longer, as with any other language.\nFor English-speakers there are two main difficulties. One must remember not to split double consonants: Bambari, for example, must be pronounced ba-mba-ri, not bam-ba-ri. Also, as with any other tonal language, one must learn not to vary the tone according to the context. For example, if one pronounces a question with a rising tone as in English, one may inadvertently be saying an entirely different and inappropriate Sango word at the end",
"-29.931911283736554"
],
[
"their claim that how quickly and adequately a learner learns his/her first language affects how fast and efficiently they can learn a second language. How learners master their language is explained by different methods of learning--what strategies they use, how they're taught by their parents--carry onto their second language acquisition which could be an advantage or disadvantage. However some children or people are not given good learning strategies or are raised by parents that don't particularly speak their own language well which could hinder a children's second language development, let alone first language.\nFollowing the development of two of the four",
"-29.688369128612976"
],
[
"with any aspect of language, from pronunciation and syntax to gestures the learner makes and the things they tend to notice. For example, French speakers who spoke English as a second language pronounced the /t/ sound in French differently from monolingual French speakers. Also, advanced English users of French judged the grammaticality of English sentences differently from English monolinguals. In addition, when shown a fish tank, Chinese speakers of English tend to remember more fish and less plants than Chinese monolinguals. This evidence suggests that language systems inside a person's mind cannot be viewed as completely separate from one another.",
"-29.620194631234426"
],
[
"language first, it often leads to situations where the language learner might understand the general gist of the language, but lack the ability to speak it. This phenomenon may be attributed to the fact that the brain is a complex entity that allows for the resources to compartmentalize different cognitive skills, as is clearly evident in the ability to learn the meaning of a language first before speaking it.\nWinitz founded the International Linguistics Corporation in 1976 to supply comprehension-based materials known as The Learnables; several positive articles have been published testing these picturebooks with their accompanying audio recordings, mostly with",
"-29.613298108609342"
],
[
"one language will be more successful in learning other languages than learners who have only ever understood one language. This approach focuses a lot on the cognitive factors such as the L1 based approach but does not look into other factors that affect learning like the social aspect. This is why Snow brings up the social linguistic research. This approach emphasizes the idea of social context on second language development. This method also supports that learning a second language is tied to personal identity, culture, nation, ethnic pride and many other factors like those given. This also ties into the",
"-29.576912637523492"
],
[
"of specific nerve cells.\nA series of experiments on more than 300 people from the U.S. and Korea found that thinking in a second language reduced deep-seated, misleading biases that unduly influence how risks and benefits are perceived.\nOther research has shown that early exposure to a second language increases divergent thinking strategies, helping not only in language-related tasks, but also in areas such as math. Children early on have different ways of expressing themselves, such that they better understand there is more than one way to look at a problem and that there is more than one solution. Acquisition versus",
"-29.536622826684834"
],
[
"first language affecting the second, has long been known. More recent research has also shown that the second language also affects the first in various subtle ways. There is also evidence that people who learn other languages gain general cognitive benefits.\nUnder multi-competence, the second language speaker is seen as more than the sum of the languages he speaks. This is in contrast with the assumption in much of second language research that the ideal model of a language is the monolingual native speaker. Setting the native speaker as the golden standard implies that second language speakers are somehow deficient in",
"-29.50439249239753"
],
[
"Noam Chomsky, children will bridge the gap between input and output by their innate grammar because the input (utterances they hear) is so poor but all children end up having complete knowledge of grammar. Chomsky calls it the Poverty of Stimulus. And second language learners can do this by applying the rules they learn to the sentence-construction, for example. So learners in both their native and second language have knowledge that goes beyond what they have received, so that people can make correct utterances (phrases, sentences, questions, etc) that they have never learned or heard before. Emotionality Bilingualism has been",
"-29.427555435904083"
],
[
"plurilingualism seem to become greater the more languages someone learns. Second language learners Historically during the formal learning of a second language, it has been common practice to maintain a clear division between the first and second language. The division involves not speaking the first language while learning the second, as well as avoiding any reference to the elements of the first language. By not referencing the first language, instructors hope to develop in their students the same control of the language that native speakers have. This separation, referred to as a hard boundary, contrasts the soft boundary that comes",
"-29.318069910737222"
],
[
"basic bilingual approaches, two more arose--a psycho-linguistic and social linguistic. Snow explains that a psycho-linguistic approach perceives second language development as a special kind of information process. It is understood that the concept of learning and understanding a language is no different from one another. Analytic and auditory skills were utilized allowing learners to develop their second language to the best of their ability. The focus was on the raw cognition and development skills of learners and how these aspects give advantages to them in learning other languages. This approach supports the claim that learners that already know more than",
"-29.2990775040671"
],
[
"L1 based approach--learning a second language has the same characteristics of a first language learner--however more strategies and social habits are exploited within their second language environment to get a better understanding of it. This approach has findings which show that more children grow up learning two languages rather than just one which results in a higher probability of developing another language. However this approach could imply that within a social environment where only one language is spoken, it can be very difficult to learn another language--especially when a language learner is in an environment where there is more than",
"-29.273821186158784"
],
[
"that language is innate that occurs through development instead of feedback from the environment. As a result, should a child not hear any language during this period, the child would not be able to learn nor be able to speak. This hypothesis is also said to explain why adults do not acquire languages as well as children.\nEvidence for the critical period hypothesis can be seen in the case of Genie. When discovered, she was without language. Genie's subsequent language acquisition process was studied, whereby her linguistic performance, cognitive and emotional development was deemed abnormal. Genie was said to have right-hemisphere",
"-29.15531171546536"
],
[
"the perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first in order to accommodate the second (Hakuta, 1990). The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of the first language (Hakuta, 1990). How this hypothesis holds under different types of languages such as Romance versus non-Western languages has yet to undergo research.\nAnother new development that has influenced the",
"-29.14105426768151"
],
[
"first- or second-language processing relates to linguistic development and how language in the monolingual and multilingual language user is situated within human cognitive architecture in general. What exactly happens, even in milliseconds, when someone is exposed to the sights and sounds of a new language? How do we explain what gets noticed and what gets regularly ignored? What about the fixed stages that people seem to pass though? How is it that we have so little conscious control over what we are attempting to acquire? Why do children appear to be worse language learners in the short run and much",
"-29.11162060510196"
],
[
" Do you know how to speak English? In Altaic languages The following are examples of A-not-A questions in Korean, an Altaic language. In Korean There are three salient morphological varieties of A-not-A question in Korean. Like all A-not-A questions, the questions can be answered with an affirmative, 네, ney, or negative 아니요, anyo. Pre-predicate negation Both an and mos can precede the predicate in A-not-A questions. An Example (26) illustrates the use of an, short form for ani-, which expresses simple negation. Here A",
"-29.030416846260778"
],
[
"dispute over whether children should be explicitly taught to read by decoding the sounds of words from their spelling (loosely known as \"phonics\") or whether they can develop it instinctively by being immersed in a text-rich environment (often called \"whole language\"). I tipped my hand in the paragraph in [the sixth chapter of the book] which said that language is an instinct but reading is not. Like most psycholinguists (but apparently unlike many school boards), I think it's essential for children to be taught to become aware of speech sounds and how they are coded in strings of letters. English",
"-29.027427138544226"
],
[
"another at some point during childhood, are referred to as sequential bilinguals. People often assume that a sequential bilingual's first language is their most proficient language, but this is not always the case. Over time and experience, a child's second language may become his or her strongest. This is especially likely to happen if a child's first language is a minority language spoken at home, and the child's second language is the majority language learned at school or in the community before the age of five. Proficiency for both simultaneous and sequential bilinguals is dependent upon the child's opportunities to",
"-29.02028480556328"
],
[
"the grammar and composition of the first language, for it is claimed that knowledge of the first language aids the acquisition of knowledge in the second language; they may also be instructed in the language arts of both first and second languages simultaneously. Instruction in reading in the second language doesn't typically begin until students meet the standards for reading in their first language. The students' primary language is used to a lesser extent in the instruction of other subjects. As students make progress in the second language, it becomes increasingly incorporated into the curriculum, gradually taking the place of",
"-28.88630743120075"
],
[
"discovering the nature that language must have in the abstract in order to be learned in such a fashion. Some of the driving research questions in studying how the brain itself processes language include: (1) To what extent is linguistic knowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficult for adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infants to acquire their first-language?, and (3) How are humans able to understand novel sentences?\nThe study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning of words and whole sentences. Linguistics often divides",
"-28.868095796202397"
],
[
"immigrant monolingual children to learn a second language by allowing them to take part in 'conversations'. Imitation related processes aids the storage of overheard words by putting them into speech based short- and long-term memory. Language learning The ability to repeat nonwords predicts the ability to learn second-language vocabulary. A study found that adult polyglots performed better in short-term memory tasks such as repeating nonword vocalizations compared to nonpolyglots though both are otherwise similar in general intelligence, visuo-spatial short-term memory and paired-associate learning ability. Language delay in contrast links to impairments in vocal imitation. Speech repetition and phones Electrical",
"-28.8147331966029"
],
[
"progression of these stages is not clean; learners may use language features correctly in some situations but not in others, or they may exhibit U-shaped learning, in which native-like use may temporarily revert to non-native-like use. None of these findings sit well with the idea that students will learn exactly what you teach them, when you teach it. \nIn a review of the literature comparing instructed with uninstructed language learning, Long found a clear advantage for instructed learning in both the rate of learning and the ultimate level reached. An important finding that supported Long's view came from French language",
"-28.779559741460616"
],
[
"led by Stephen Krashen suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning.\nRod Ellis quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of pronunciation. European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to the interconnectedness with neighbour countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the European Union.\nBased on the research in Ann Fathman's The Relationship between age and second language productive ability, there is a difference",
"-28.7238315923737"
],
[
"lie or deceive. When using language, humans can make false or meaningless statements.\nReflexiveness\nHumans can use language to talk about language.\nLearnability\nLanguage is teachable and learnable. In the same way as a speaker learns their first language, the speaker is able to learn other languages. It is worth noting that young children learn language with competence and ease; however, language acquisition is constrained by a critical period such that it becomes more difficult once children pass a certain age. Design features in animal communication Hockett distinguished language from communication. While almost all animals communicate in some way, a communication system",
"-28.7100588567082"
],
[
"in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but that the order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age.\nIn second language class, students will commonly face the difficulties on thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and culture patterns. Robert B. Kaplan thinks that in second language classes, the foreign-student paper is out of focus because the foreign student is employing rhetoric and a sequence of thought which violate the expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures",
"-28.68223069434407"
],
[
"have made” (Pratt 35). Due to such factors, learning foreign languages at an early age may incur one’s perspective of his or her native country. Speed Acquiring a second language can be a lifelong learning process for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a second language will never become fully native-like in it, although with practice considerable fluency can be achieved. However, children by around the age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language with the exception of vocabulary and a few grammatical structures, and the process is relatively very fast because language is a very",
"-28.680672752075225"
],
[
"Second language Second-language acquisition The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by Stephen Krashen (1982) as part of his Monitor Theory. According to Krashen, the acquisition of a language is a natural process; whereas learning a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the study of how a second language is learned/acquired is referred to as second-language acquisition (SLA).\nResearch in",
"-28.659864171203026"
],
[
"language itself. Grammar is not taught explicitly but can be learned from the language input. TPR is a valuable way to learn vocabulary, especially idiomatic terms, e.g., phrasal verbs.\nAsher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing young children learning their first language. He noticed that interactions between parents and children often took the form of speech from the parent followed by a physical response from the child. Asher made three hypotheses based on his observations: first, that language is learned primarily by listening; second, that language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain; and third, that",
"-28.56577734983921"
],
[
"complex skill. Moreover, if children start to learn a second language when they are 7 years old or younger, they will also be fully fluent with their second language in a faster speed comparing to the speed of learning by adults who start to learn a second language later in their life. Correction In the first language, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language, which is a significant difference between input and output. Children are exposed to a language environment of errors and lack of correction but they end",
"-28.553147177522987"
],
[
"states that in learning a second language there are many exceptions, noting that five percent of adult bilinguals master a second language even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood—long after any critical period has presumably come to a close. The critical period hypothesis holds that first language acquisition must occur before cerebral lateralization completes, at about the age of puberty. One prediction of this hypothesis is that second language acquisition is relatively fast, successful, and qualitatively similar to first language only if it occurs before the age of puberty. To grasp a better understanding of",
"-28.539403826666785"
],
[
"from a native, unknown language into a familiar one, but among every language. This holds also for languages which are quite similar, like German and Dutch, and even for speakers of the same language. One cannot with certainty say, what exactly his/her conversational partner refers to, when that person is talking about a rabbit. We commonly use the homophonic rule in those cases, i.e., if one utters rabbit, we assume s/he uses it in the same way we do. But, as has been shown, there are multiple possibilities which can be indistinguishable from one another. This also applies in our",
"-28.53140396357412"
],
[
"and knowledge. On the other hand, linguistic empiricism is a perspective where language is entirely learned. These data-driven theorists also support that children do not have linguistically-specific knowledge at birth. Language and grammar are only learned through exposure and accumulated experience. This is also called the \"nurture\" perspective as opposed to the \"nature\" perspective (linguistic nativism).\nAgainst Chomsky's Innateness Hypothesis, philosopher John Locke insisted that our knowledge, including language, cannot be innate. Instead, all ideas are derived from experience. Geoffrey Sampson also showed the same stand by stating that \"Our languages are not inborn but are learned wholly with experience.\" ",
"-28.467539919227193"
],
[
"indeed full languages, with common properties like syntax and grammar. They both also use the same area of the brain in the left hemisphere. For years it was known that the left hemisphere dealt with speech, but now it is specifically the details of language organization that seem to be processed here.\nThe deaf brain develops at the same rate as the hearing brain when learning language. Deaf babies babble on their hands the same way hearing babies babble with their mouths, and they acquire language in the same timeframe. This is true neurologically and behaviorally. In both areas they hit",
"-28.46560835613127"
],
[
"of learning to read supports character reading. Learning a second language Charles Perfetti and colleagues conducted a study called High Proficiency in a second Language is characterized by Greater Involvement of the First Language Network: Evidence from Chinese Learners of English to examine the processes of learning a second language. The first thing he does is talk about the assimilation and accommodation hypothesis that involve the process of learning a second language. The assimilation hypothesis argues that second language is learned through the brains access of networks used to process the native language. Accommodation hypothesis argues that learning of a",
"-28.46095890399556"
],
[
"rare, people who experience somniloquy may sometimes speak in another language. This phenomenon known only as \"different-language sleep-talk\", is currently under extensive research in numerous locations, though many are unknown, some are known to be located in New York City and San Diego inside the United States. This occurrence will most times be in a language that the person has obtained earlier on in one's life, although it is also possible to different-language sleep-talk a second language that one has learned later in one's childhood or pre-adulthood. It is impossible for someone experiencing different-language sleep-talk to speak in a language",
"-28.378178158302944"
],
[
"children. Language is also integrally related to thought and the identity of a person. Multilingualism and Multiculturalism are interrelated and its history and culture go a long way in developing the language better. It has been learnt that if a child is exposed to say four languages simultaneously, then the process of learning all four languages will be similar for the child. After two decades of working at developing proficiency levels in two major languages Hindi (regional) and English, it has now being understood that it is possible to learn new languages at the same time nurturing the home language.",
"-28.37717199832332"
],
[
"compose them or by using whole language learning and teaching methodology. Some argue that this competes with phonics and synthetic phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to impair learning to spell.\nOther methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat controversial.\nLearning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different process than learning to read a native language in childhood.\nThere are cases of very young children learning to read without having been taught. Such was the case with Truman Capote who reportedly taught himself to read and write at the",
"-28.35157825171791"
],
[
"stating that adults can in fact become fluent in acquiring a second language. For instance, reading and writing skills in a foreign language can be acquired more easily even after the primary language acquisition period of youth is over.\nSo although it is often assumed that young children learn languages more easily than adolescents and adults, the reverse is in fact true; older learners are faster. The only exception to this rule is in pronunciation. Young children invariably learn to speak their second language with native-like pronunciation, whereas learners who start learning a language at an older age only rarely reach",
"-28.29501611874639"
],
[
"learning There is often a distinction between acquisition and learning in linguistic and pedagogic literature. Children are described as 'acquiring' their native language, where there is no previous information and knowledge in their mind. On the other hand, adults are said to 'learn' a non-native language. Acquisition is viewed as a natural, unconscious, untaught, and probably unteachable process, while learning is somewhat artificial, usually conscious and possibly dependent on instruction and study.\nThe distinction between acquisition and learning can be used in this discussion, because the general conditions in the case of second language offer opportunities for acquisition, because it is",
"-28.28530397279519"
],
[
"for ideologically motivated linguistic prescriptivism. The hypothesis states that language use significantly shapes perceptions of the world and forms ideological preconceptions.\nIn people-first language, preconceptions judged to be negative arise from placing the name of the condition before the term \"person\" or \"people\", such as \"white person\" or \"Jewish people\". Proponents of people-first language argue that this places an undue focus on the condition which distracts from the humanity of the members of the community of people with the condition.\nIn a 2008 publication about an experiment on teen's perception of people with disabilities, scientists gathered evidence to prove why people-first language,",
"-28.265100156169865"
],
[
"use of language is very similar to that of an adult. From the age of about three children can indicate fantasy or make-believe linguistics, produce coherent personal stories and fictional narrative with beginnings and endings. It is argued that children devise narrative as a way of understanding their own experience and as a medium for communicating their meaning to others. The ability to engage in extended discourse emerges over time from regular conversation with adults and peers. For this, the child needs to learn to combine his perspective with that of others and with outside events and learn to",
"-28.24670084760146"
],
[
"models The most common alternative to person-first language is usually called identity-first language, as it places the identifying condition before the personal term. For example, while someone who prefers person-first language might ask to be called a \"person with autism\", someone who prefers identity-first language would ask to be called an \"autistic person\". Others have proposed \"person-centered language\", which, instead of being a replacement linguistic rule, promotes prioritizing the preferences of those who are being referred to and argues for greater nuance in the language used to describe people and groups of people. Rationale The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is the basis",
"-28.2350858759346"
],
[
"speak. Perhaps, then, it is an innate effect, evolved to \"prepare\" us to learn to speak. But Kuhl (1987) found that chinchillas also have \"speech CP\" even though they never learn to speak, and presumably did not evolve to do so. Lane (1965) went on to show that CP effects can be induced by learning alone, with a purely sensory (visual) continuum in which there is no motor production discontinuity to mediate the perceptual discontinuity. He concluded that speech CP is not special after all, but merely a special case of Lawrence's classic demonstration that stimuli to which you learn",
"-28.227995178080164"
],
[
"children who speak vocally, deaf children go through the same critical period. Deaf children who acquire their first language later in life show lower performance in complex aspects of grammar. At this point, it is usually a second language that a person is trying to acquire and not a first.\nAssuming that children are exposed to language during the critical period, it is almost never missed by cognitively normal children—humans are so well prepared to learn language that it becomes almost impossible not to. Researchers are unable to experimentally test the effects of the sensitive period of development on language acquisition,",
"-28.184037487003934"
],
[
"Individual variation in second-language acquisition Individual variation in second-language acquisition is the study of why some people learn a second language better than others. Unlike children who acquire a language, adults learning a second language rarely reach the same level of competence as native speakers of that language. Some may stop studying a language before they have fully internalized it, and others may stop improving despite living in a foreign country for many years. It also appears that children are more likely than adults to reach native-like competence in a second language. There have been many studies that have attempted",
"-28.17073280952036"
],
[
"therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of the world. A 2013 study published in PLoS ONE found that rather than an emotion-based explanation, switching into the second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness. Hyperpolyglots While many polyglots know up to six languages, the number drops off sharply past this point. People who speak many more than this—Michael Erard suggests eleven or more—are sometimes classed as hyperpolyglots. Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, for example, was",
"-28.160624767344416"
],
[
"infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily). Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned readily. A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over time. It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn more.\nThe field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain damage. Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the",
"-28.127042865235126"
],
[
"second language depends on brain structures not involve in process of the native language. Two test these hypothesis, Perfetti and colleagues examined a group of Chinese speakers who happened to be late learners with various levels of proficiency in English. The experiment was divided into 3 groups. The (ce group), (cc group) and (ee group) consisted of Chinese speaking participants who performed an English word rhyming judgment task while fMRI was performed. Assimilation was analyzed by comparing the cc group to the ce group while accommodation was analyzed by comparing the (ee group). The study involved participants deciding whether two",
"-28.12702924560392"
],
[
"of the language, including the correct pronunciation, before attempting to speak that language. This may be due to a reluctance to mispronounce the words or to misapply the language while attempting to speak it. Advantages An advantage of the comprehension approach of language learning is the fact that when the learner eventually understands the meaning and the correct application of the words, the language will sound more effortless when he or she speaks it in contrast to other forms of language learning, which may result in more stilted efforts. Since the comprehension approach requires a deliberate effort to understand the",
"-28.126942206246895"
],
[
"be mistaken for a native speaker over the phone, unlike his native English, he had to consciously monitor his production to speak Thai correctly. \"When I speak Thai, I think in Thai,\" he wrote. \"When I speak English, I think only in thought—I pay no attention to English.\" Brown claimed that, in contrast, the ALG approach of implicit learning without study or practice can produce adults who fluently speak a second language like a native speaker without conscious attention to language.",
"-28.091196340570605"
],
[
"productive atmosphere. By learning with native speakers each person will get a better understanding of the language as they are learning from someone who has knowledge and background in the language, whereas, learning from someone who has learnt the language later on in their life may not be correct in what they are teaching.\nAnother benefit is that people are learning faster when they have a one-on-one connection with the \"teacher\". Many people choose to learn one-on-one but struggle try to find a teacher. People like this are highly motivated to learn a new language. The native speakers whom are helping",
"-28.082222870179976"
],
[
"time, but can learn to carry out if assisted by an able adult. Syntax, morphology, and generative grammar As syntax began to be studied more closely in the early 20th century, in relation to language learning, it became apparent to linguists, psychologists, and philosophers that knowing a language was not merely a matter of associating words with concepts, but that a critical aspect of language involves knowledge of how to put words together—sentences are usually needed in order to communicate successfully, not just isolated words. A child will use short expressions such as Bye-bye Mummy or All-gone milk, which actually",
"-28.041518381760397"
],
[
"People-first language Definition People-first language is a type of linguistic prescription in English. It aims to avoid perceived and subconscious dehumanization when discussing people with disabilities and is sometimes referred to as a type of disability etiquette. People-first language can also be applied to any group that is defined by a condition rather than as a people: for example, \"those that are homeless\" rather than \"the homeless\".\nRather than using labels to define individuals with a health issue, it is more appropriate to use terminology, which describes individuals as being diagnosed with an illness or disorder. People first language puts the",
"-28.036518674211038"
],
[
"language. In this case, the child would be attempting to produce an age appropriate amount of language, but that language would be difficult or impossible to understand. Conversely, since a child with a language delay typically has not yet had the opportunity to produce speech sounds, it is likely to have a delay in speech as well. Effects Studies show that children diagnosed with speech delay are more likely to present with behavioral and social emotional problems both in childhood and as adults. Decreased receptive language, reading, and learning skills are common side effects for children that suffer from",
"-28.02135263132709"
],
[
"to explore among all possible human grammars, yet at the time there was no evidence that children receive sufficient input to learn all the rules of their language (see poverty of the stimulus). Hence, there must be some other innate mechanism that endows a language ability to humans. Such a language faculty is, according to the innateness hypothesis, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication.\nThe field of linguistics and psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and con. The pro view still holds that the human",
"-28.002821590312124"
],
[
"or she is ultimately able to use language. However, there may be an age at which becoming a fluent and natural user of a language is no longer possible; Penfield and Roberts (1959) cap their sensitive period at 9 years old. Our brains may be automatically wired to learn languages, but the ability does not last into adulthood in the same way that it exists during development. By the onset of puberty (around age 12), language acquisition has typically been solidified and it becomes more difficult to learn a language in the same way a native speaker would. Just like",
"-27.9959664567898"
],
[
"sounds. It is still possible, though, for late learners to acquire the ability to perceive contrasts that are not part of their first language.\nConsider a study of Japanese-English speakers: Japanese speakers with minimal English exposure were asked to listen to the sounds /r/ and /l/ and discriminate between them. Because there is no contrast between these sounds in Japanese participants did not show an ability to make the discrimination. Japanese speakers who had frequent English exposure were able to discriminate /r/ and /l/ much more effectively, nearly at the rate of native speakers. Consider also a study of Spanish monolingual,",
"-27.99442370813506"
],
[
"modern technology has made it more practical for second language learners to actually practice speaking. One approach is use a video-call technology such as Skype to pair off two students who wish to learn each other's native language. One obvious advantage of using such technology is that there is no need for the two students to be geographically close. Though if they are in very different time-zones, finding a suitable time can be a challenge.\n\nAnother approach is to use speech recognition software. In the past the hardware costs alone were so high that this was not a viable option in",
"-27.971787670948743"
],
[
"by the child, they learn words at the same rate. She did, however, find strong predictive power in the child's vocabulary at 13 and 20 months old and their grammatical complexity at 2 years old. Bates finds that language learning comes from the neural plasticity in the brain; therefore, children can and are able to learn a language, even with brain trauma. Domain-Specificity, Modularity and Neural Plasticity in Language Processing Bates and colleagues also showed that after brain injury, adult aphasic patients' deficits were not specific to linguistic structures theorized to be localized to specific brain areas, or even restricted",
"-27.96462075568047"
],
[
"a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as a native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation the parents will speak their",
"-27.942933078422357"
],
[
"how the human brain processes its native language), one debate among 20th-century linguists revolved around whether small children learn all verb forms as separate pieces of vocabulary or whether they deduce forms by the application of rules. Since a child can hear a regular verb for the first time and immediately reuse it correctly in a different conjugated form which he or she has never heard, it is clear that the brain does work with rules; but irregular verbs must be processed differently. A common error for small children is to conjugate irregular verbs as though they were regular, which",
"-27.932701385453583"
],
[
"a second language, there must be an adaption. Where the learner’s abilities can flourish under different learning conditions.\nA meta-analysis brought to light that the importance of aptitude is an overestimate when it comes to grammatical capability. In specific conditions, language aptitude is a conscious construct which affects learning results. Language aptitude can be useful in predicting the beginning stages of second language learning, when it comes to grammatical competence, but it is not a reliable way to learning stages.\nTests of language aptitude have proven extremely effective in predicting which learners will be successful in learning. However, considerable controversy remains about",
"-27.8404073851234"
],
[
"have a receptive vocabulary of up to 500 words, but they do not yet speak their second language. Not all learners go through a silent period. Some learners start speaking straight away, although their output may consist of imitation rather than creative language use. Others may be required to speak from the start as part of a language course. For learners that do go through a silent period, it may last around three to six months.\nThe second of Krashen's stages of acquisition is early production, during which learners are able to speak in short phrases of one or two words.",
"-27.83657590164694"
],
[
"segmentations, similar to beads on a string, which differentiate words allowing the context to be fully understood. However, for non-native listeners, even if they have studied the particular second language, they have a difficult time segmenting words causing them to simply run together. For example, the authors explain stress (loudness, pitch, and duration) on certain syllables is different between English and French and although listeners can discern some prosodic cues of a foreign language, lack of language power hampers competent understanding. adult learners of a non-native language depend on lexical information that is already ingrained in their native language. Non-native",
"-27.81119123395547"
],
[
"use one singular style, but will use a mix in their teaching. This provides a more balanced approach to teaching and helps students of a variety of learning styles succeed. Effect of age The defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age the person learned the language. For example, linguist Eric Lenneberg used second language to mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are",
"-27.802961055686865"
],
[
"a strict critical period is also found in the work of Pallier et al. (2003) who found that children adopted to France from Korea were able to become native-like in their performance of French even after the critical period for phonology. Their experiment may represent a special case where subjects must lose their first language in order to more perfectly acquire their second.\nThere is also some debate as to how one can judge the native-like quality of the speech participants produce and what exactly it means to be a near-native speaker of a second language. White et al. found that it is possible for non-native speakers of a language",
"-27.77524187384188"
],
[
"still be present in the way they both speak and write. Adult learners will most likely not enter the functional stage until they have been in the new country for 10 years. They will also remain native language preferent. Formal vs Informal Learning Informal L2 learning takes place in naturalistic contexts while formal L2 learning takes place in classrooms, and L2 learning that involves a mixture of these settings and circumstances. For example, when a Japanese child goes to United States, the child will informally learn English through interaction and attending class with English-speaking citizens. Whereas when a Russian student",
"-27.73503234464897"
],
[
"responses through further speech. This creates a positive feedback loop between the parent's speech and the child's actions. Asher also observed that young children typically spend a long time listening to language before ever attempting to speak, and that they can understand and react to utterances that are much more complex than those they can produce themselves.\nFrom his experiences, Asher outlined three main hypotheses about learning second languages that are embodied in the total physical response method. The first is that the brain is naturally predisposed to learn language through listening. Specifically, Asher says that learners best internalize language when",
"-27.69701628284747"
],
[
"can result in a kind of technical, or analytical, advantage over native (monolingual) speakers of a language. For example, second-language speakers of English whose first language is Korean have been found to be more accurate with perception of unreleased stops in English than native English speakers who are functionally monolingual because of the different status of unreleased stops in Korean from English. That \"native-language transfer benefit\" appears to depend on an alignment of properties in the first and the second languages that favors the linguistic biases of the first language. Proactive interference and negative transfer in psychology During the 1950s,",
"-27.663446598085102"
],
[
"little from the same general structure and children seamlessly acquire language, humans must have some intrinsic language learning capability that allows us to learn language. This intrinsic capability was hypothesized to be embedded in the brain, earning the title of language acquisition device (LAD). According to this hypothesis, the child is equipped with knowledge of grammatical and ungrammatical types, which they then apply to the stream of speech they hear in order to determine the grammar this stream is compatible with. The processes underlying this LAD relates to bootstrapping in that once a child has identified the subset of",
"-27.639779017320507"
],
[
"is taken as evidence that we learn and process our native language partly by the application of rules, rather than, as some earlier scholarship had postulated, solely by learning the forms. In fact, children often use the most common irregular verbs correctly in their earliest utterances but then switch to incorrect regular forms for a time when they begin to operate systematically. That allows a fairly precise analysis of the phases of this aspect of first language acquisition.\nRegular and irregular verbs are also of significance in second language acquisition, and in particular in language teaching and formal learning, where rules",
"-27.611308191631906"
],
[
"a native-like level. Second-language acquisition in adults The process of learning a second language or \"L2,\" among older learners differs from younger learners because of their working memory. Working memory, also connected to fluency because it deals with automatic responses, is vital to language acquisition. This happens when information is stored and manipulated temporarily. During working memory, words are filtered, processed, and rehearsed, and information is stored while focusing on the next piece of interaction. These false starts, pauses or repetitions found in fluency assessments, can also be found within one's working memory as part of communication.\nThose with education at",
"-27.605346848438785"
],
[
"SLA, it is essential to consider linguistic, cognitive, and social factors rather than age alone, as they are all essential to the learner's language acquisition.\nOver the years, many experimenters have tried to find evidence in support or against the critical periods for second language acquisition. Many have found evidence that young children acquire language more easily than adults, but there are also special cases of adults acquiring a second language with native-like proficiency. Thus it has been difficult for researchers to separate correlation from causation.\nIn 1989, Jacqueline S. Johnson and Elissa L. Newport found support for the claim that second languages are more easily acquired before puberty, or",
"-27.598595774292335"
],
[
"native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in the parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context, and/or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or the other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of \"code-switching\" in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency",
"-27.570902092986216"
],
[
"conscious or unconscious. Consciously, learners or unskilled translators may sometimes guess when producing speech or text in a second language because they have not learned or have forgotten its proper usage. Unconsciously, they may not realize that the structures and internal rules of the languages in question are different. Such users could also be aware of both the structures and internal rules, yet be insufficiently skilled to put them into practice, and consequently often fall back on their first language. The unconscious aspect to language transfer can be demonstrated in the case of the so-called \"transfer-to-nowhere\" principle put forward by",
"-27.55241030465004"
],
[
"even its dominance in relation to the environment. However, all three criteria lack precision. For many children whose home language differs from the language of the environment (the 'official' language), it is debatable which language is their \"native language\". Multilingualism One can have two or more native languages, thus being a native bilingual or indeed multilingual. The order in which these languages are learned is not necessarily the order of proficiency. For instance, if a French-speaking couple have a child who learned French first but then grew up in an English-speaking country, the child would likely be most proficient in",
"-27.518724799283518"
],
[
"Importance of error S. Pit Corder was probably the first to point out and discuss the importance of errors learners make in course of their learning a second language. Soon after, the study and analysis of learners’ errors took a prominent place in applied linguistics. Brown suggests that the process of second language learning is not very different from learning a first language, and the feedback a L2 learner gets upon making errors benefits him in developing the L2 knowledge.",
"-27.51315771976988"
],
[
"and even dialects adults consider \"difficult\" to learn are spoken with ease by children at age five or six. He reasoned that if children have the skill to acquire their native language, they have the necessary ability to become proficient on a musical instrument. \nHe pioneered the idea that preschool age children could learn to play the violin if the learning steps were small enough and the instrument was scaled down to fit their body. He modeled his method, which he called \"Talent Education\" (才能教育 sainō kyōiku), after his theories of natural language acquisition. Suzuki believed that every",
"-27.492625781766037"
],
[
"it is enough relevant it is on your head.\nHowever, VanPatten considers that in learning language, first, you have to process language by hearing and reading in order to get enough data to build up over time the linguistic system. To exemplify this theory, VanPatten mentions that you just have to give people a couple of chunks of language and make them do something with them so that they have to process language somehow, thus to see how language grows in the brain.",
"-27.481246353785536"
],
[
"talk typically found within game-play situations and the text-based medium of interaction. Without this social interaction, many students may be less willing to practice their new skills which would enhance their abilities in the language they are learning. Rankin, Morrison, Mckenzie, McNeal, Gooch and Shute found found that English as a second Language (ESL) students were able to acquire more language skills through the social communication that they had with the native speakers of English.\nLearning language from video games, it is argued, is a contextual process. Gamers playing a game that has text and audio in a language other",
"-27.428568459396047"
],
[
"Second-language attrition Second-language attrition is the decline of second-language skills, which occurs whenever the learner uses the second language to an insufficient degree (de Bot & Weltens 1991:43) or due to environmental changes the language use is limited and another language is becoming the dominant one (Olshtain 1989: 151). Definition A German researcher, Schöpper-Grabe, once expressed that, \"Almost everybody who has learned a foreign language shares the experience of forgetting the acquired language skills once the period of formal instruction is over\" (Schöpper-Grabe 1998: 231). This relates to how second-language attrition can be defined as the \"non-pathological decrease in a",
"-27.42603903790223"
],
[
"acquire one's first language. Researchers found that people who passed the \"critical period\" would not acquire their first language fluently.\nSome researchers differentiate between 'strong critical periods' and 'weak critical periods' (a.k.a. 'sensitive' periods) — defining 'weak critical periods' / 'sensitive periods' as more extended periods, after which learning is still possible. Other researchers consider these the same phenomenon.\nFor example, the critical period for the development of a human child's binocular vision is thought to be between three and eight months, with sensitivity to damage extending up to at least three years of age. Further critical periods have been identified for",
"-27.425192121407235"
],
[
"style is used and must be spoken in a slow, soft voice. An extreme case of avoidance behavior is found in the Umpila, in which a man and his mother-in-law may not speak at all in each other’s presence.\nChildren in these cultures acquire avoidance speech forms as part of their normal language development, learning with whom to use them at a fairly young age. Additionally, a few languages have another style, called a \"secret language\" or \"mystic language\", that is taught to boys as part of initiation rituals, and is only used between men.\nThere is also the tradition of avoiding",
"-27.361511651077308"
],
[
"ability to comprehend spoken language, as well as to speak it. However, if the person loses hearing ability later in life, most can still maintain a normal level of verbal intelligence. This is thought to be because of the brain's feed forward mechanism still helping to fix speech errors, even in the absence of auditory feedback. Generation Generation of written language is thought to be closely related to speech generation, relying on Broca's area for early processing and on the inferior frontal gyrus for semantic processing. However, writing differs in two major ways. First, instead of relating the thought to",
"-27.33783159550694"
],
[
"difficult for the brain to reorganize information contrary to the initial information, because the previous information was processed first. This phenomenon becomes a struggle for adults who are trying to learn a different language. Once an individual has learned a language fluently, they will be heavily influenced by the grammatical rules and pronunciations of their first language they learned, while learning a new language.\nAn emerging effective way of measuring the proficiency of a heritage speaker is by speech rate. A study of gender restructuring in heritage Russian showed that heritage speakers fell into two groups: those who maintained the three-gender",
"-27.332079836902267"
],
[
"without thinking, but found that these had no effect on real language use.\nDuring the 1970s, Brown was influenced by thinkers such as William T. Powers, taking from his Perceptual Control Theory \"that language learning must consist of looking and listening, not practicing,\" and Timothy Gallwey, from whose Inner Game writings he \"saw that thinking just got in the way of performance.\" Nevertheless, he persisted with trying to achieve fluency in language through conscious practice. While studying physics at the University of Utah, Brown studied Japanese with drills and practice of speeches, but found that \"[n]ot a single sentence was ever",
"-27.318885714394128"
],
[
"in their mind. Learner language Learner language is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second-language acquisition research. Much research in second-language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in the mind of the learner, and in how those representations change over time. It is not yet possible to inspect these representations directly with brain scans or similar techniques, so SLA researchers are forced to make inferences about these rules from learners' speech or writing. Variability Although second-language acquisition proceeds in discrete sequences, it does",
"-27.316879295076433"
],
[
"each language that they speak, whereas multi-competence sees them as having gained from learning a second language.\nTo avoid implying deficiency on the part of second language speakers, Cook prefers the term L2 user to L2 learner. An L2 user is anyone who knows a second language and uses it regularly, irrespective of their language level. Knowledge of the second language People learning a second language rarely reach the same level of competence as native speakers. In fact, by definition, they can never become a native speaker of another language. Very few L2 users are at a level where they can",
"-27.29884850909002"
],
[
"learning the other one for bilinguals.\nLexical development in children who learn their second language when their first language is already developed is different from that of children who grow up in a bilingual environment (i.e. simultaneous bilingualism). The beginning step of learning words in the second language is translation, or learning the definitions. This is different from how they learned their first language which involves inputting the information of semantic and formal entities together. When accessing these newly learned words, the basic language semantic system will be activated, which means when a second language word is activated,",
"-27.29686245425546"
],
[
"French/English, and Hebrew/English, which are essentially undetectable in normal language use\" (Cook 2003: 13). First language attrition Researchers, Levy, McVeigh, Marful, and Anderson studied the idea of a new acquired language inhibiting the first, native language. They discussed how \"travelers immersed in a new language often experience a surprising phenomenon: Words in their native tongue grow more difficult to recall over time\" (Levy 2007: 29). They suggest that the lapses in native-language words can possibly be attributed to \"an adaptive role of inhibitory control in hastening second-language acquisition\" (Levy 2007: 29). First-language attrition is often worse during second-language immersion. During",
"-27.280476758165605"
],
[
"can identify many objects and pictures, but cannot put their language skills to good use. Spontaneous language is lacking and their pragmatic speech is delayed. Hyperlexic children often struggle with Who? What? Where? Why? and How? questions. Between the ages of 4 and 5 years old, many children make great strides in communicating.\nThe social skills of a child with hyperlexia often lag tremendously. Hyperlexic children often have far less interest in playing with other children than do their peers. Non-English Studies In studies in Cantonese and Korean, subjects were able to read non-words in their native orthography without a",
"-27.277914790674913"
],
[
"and persistence in research (in other words, it gives behavior strength, purpose, and sustainability).\nLearning a new language takes time and dedication. Once you do, being fluent in a second language offers numerous benefits and opportunities. Learning a second language is exciting and beneficial at all ages. It offers practical, intellectual and many aspirational benefits.\nIn learning a language, there can be one or more goals – such as mastery of the language or communicative competence – that vary from person to person. There are a number of language learner motivation models that were developed and postulated in fields such as linguistics",
"-27.275940709998395"
],
[
"that children are unable to acquire a language with positive evidence alone. In addition, under degeneracy, it is stated that children are often exposed to linguistic data that are erroneous. This is supported by Zohari that states that in adult speech, erroneous utterances that include speech slips, ungrammatical sentences, incomplete sentences etc. are often observed. Furthermore, the linguistic data each child is exposed to is different (i.e. idiosyncrasy) and there are many utterances that a child might not have heard (i.e. incompleteness). However, despite the properties mentioned above, children would eventually be able to deliver a linguistic output that is",
"-27.270346219909698"
],
[
"the basic language word with the same meaning is also activated. It can be said that learners are still thinking in basic language but try to represent in second language by translation as more semantic and syntax knowledge is learned for the second language. This new language is gradually independent from the basic language. Learners began to access the language without translation with semantic knowledge for that language. As learns gain more and more exposure to the new language, they will complete the development of second language when they can access and use the language from",
"-27.26962369971443"
],
[
"The four major components in the acquisition of a language are namely; listening, speaking, reading and writing. While most people have no difficulties in exercising these skills in their native language, doing so in a second or foreign language is not that easy. In the area of writing, research has found that foreign language learners find it painstaking to compose in the target language, producing less eloquent sentences and encountering difficulties in the revisions of their written work. However, these difficulties are not attributed to their linguistic abilities.\nMany language learners experience foreign language anxiety, feelings of apprehensiveness and nervousness, when",
"-27.243116809384446"
]
] |
63bnod | Why are we STILL discovering Egyptian pyramids, shouldn't these giant structures all be discovered by now? | [
"Sand dunes buried most of them. All the ancient Egyptians were dead by then and the area wasn't that populated, so people lost track of where they all were. Sometimes the wind blows the sand away, and poof, there is the top of a pyramid.",
"The big, solid, well-built pyramids we tend to think of as pyramids were only built for a short period, probably because they were a big drain on the economy. For a while, later pharaohs who weren't as powerful but still wanted to emulate their predecessors resorted to piling up mounds of dirt and debris and then throwing a layer of bricks over that. Understandably, this didn't survive as well, and today it's not obvious what's the remains of one of these pyramids and what's a natural hill.",
" > In the news today Some links for the lazy... URL_2 URL_0 URL_1 ",
"Another thing to consider is Egypt is a single city country for the most part. 1/5 of their citizens live in the metro area of Cairo, and 1/2 of their total population live in the Nile Delta area which is only 15k square miles. There just aren't a ton of people making use of a lot of the land they have so nothing is just being stumbled on, especially outside of the cities and tourist areas.",
"I do not think you realize how vast some deserts are or how much is buried under all that sand..."
] | [
[
"believed that there was no prehistory, von Däniken put forward that there is nothing known about how, when, or why these pyramids were built.\nVon Däniken also claims that Egyptians built perfect pyramids from the beginning, but numerous pyramid precursors survive, showing the errors made, and corrected, by Egyptian architects while they were perfecting the technique. These include simple mastabas, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, and the so-called Bent Pyramid.\nIn his book, he says that there is no evidence of Egyptian workers at the pyramid site; however, archaeologists have found evidence of buildings where workers would have lived, with bakeries and",
"-34.14024495037302"
],
[
"round. As of 2008, some 135 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. At 481ft, it was the tallest building in the world until Lincoln Cathedral was finished in 1311 AD. The base is over 52,600 square metres (566,000 sq ft) in area. The Great Pyramid of Giza is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is the only one to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians covered the faces of pyramids with polished white limestone, containing great quantities of fossilized",
"-33.919547038654855"
],
[
"modern list of pyramids – now known as the Lepsius list of pyramids – in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. As of November 2008, 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.\nThe location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the \"Headless Pyramid\", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands after Lepsius's survey. It was found again only during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008.\nMany pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than",
"-33.91380976396613"
],
[
"of 1,000 feet (300 m), more than twice as high as any of the Egyptian pyramids, may have been exaggerated, because most of the Chinese mounds of that area are built relatively low. The location, reported 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Sian, is in an area of great archaeological importance, but few of the pyramids have ever been explored.\"\nSome of the pyramids of Xi'an are currently tourist attractions, such as for example the Han Yang Ling Mausoleum of the Western Han Dynasty, and several of them have museums attached to them.",
"-33.636408619995564"
],
[
"mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures.\nThe most recent pyramid to be discovered was that of Sesheshet at Saqqara, mother of the Sixth Dynasty pharaoh Teti, announced on 11 November 2008.\nAll of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid of Zawyet el-Amwat (or Zawyet el-Mayitin), are sited on the west bank of the Nile, and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below. Abu Rawash Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly",
"-33.584834840585245"
],
[
"because the pyramid was not completed.\nMud bricks were found at the base of the pyramid, which are not associated with the pyramid itself, but are interpreted as remnants of a construction ramp. Substructure The disposition of the substructures of the layer pyramid is extremely similar to that found in the Buried Pyramid of Sekhemket. Consequently, Mark Lehner and others suggest that the two pyramids must have been constructed very close in time.\nThe entrance to the subterranean structures lies on the east, a disposition which would be unparalleled until the construction of the pyramid of Senusret II, almost 1000 years later.",
"-33.25300832989524"
],
[
"Granaries, and they have it written thus in their chronicles. On the other hand, if they were tombs, they would not be empty inside, nor would they have entrances for going inside, nor are tombs ever made of such a large size and such a height—which is why it is not to be believed that they are tombs.\"\nDuring the 15th century opinion was more evenly split as to the nature of the Pyramids. An anonymous traveler in 1420 speaks of going \"to see the most marvelous fourteen granaries of Pharaoh, five or six miles distant from Cairo.\" ",
"-33.037925023094886"
],
[
"not use modern machinery, but conclude it is still unknown exactly how the Great Pyramid was built. As Dr. Craig Smith of the team points out:\nThe logistics of construction at the Giza site are staggering when you think that the ancient Egyptians had no pulleys, no wheels, and no iron tools. Yet, the dimensions of the pyramid are extremely accurate and the site was leveled within a fraction of an inch over the entire 13.1-acre base. This is comparable to the accuracy possible with modern construction methods and laser leveling. That's astounding. With their 'rudimentary tools,' the pyramid builders of",
"-32.79591664941108"
],
[
"pyramids. Hartwig Hausdorf speculated it was built by aliens, and Philip Coppens repeated this theory.\nDespite claims to the contrary, the existence of these pyramid-shaped tomb mounds was known by scientists in the West before the publicity caused by the story in 1947. Shortly after the New York Times story, Science News Letter (now Science News) published a short item saying: \"The Chinese pyramids of that region are built of mud and dirt and are more like mounds than the pyramids of Egypt, and the region is little travelled. American scientists who have been in the area suggest that the height",
"-32.771778656542665"
],
[
"was told was the tomb of Argives killed in a battle around 669/8 BC. Neither of these still survive and there is no evidence that they resembled Egyptian pyramids.\nThere are also at least two surviving pyramid-like structures still available to study, one at Hellenikon and the other at Ligourio/Ligurio, a village near the ancient theatre Epidaurus. These buildings were not constructed in the same manner as the pyramids in Egypt. They do have inwardly sloping walls but other than those there is no obvious resemblance to Egyptian pyramids. They had large central rooms (unlike Egyptian pyramids) and the Hellenikon structure",
"-32.64819685674229"
],
[
"of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. Egypt The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian — huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the world's largest constructions. They are shaped as a reference to the rays of the sun. Most pyramids had a polished, highly reflective white limestone surface, to give them a shining appearance when viewed from a distance. The capstone was usually made of hard stone – granite or basalt – and could be plated with gold, silver, or electrum and would also",
"-32.50937275722754"
],
[
"(121 ft). The pyramid was constructed with a mudbrick core and a limestone outer casing with its backing stones. These and the limestone casing were both quarried by stone robbers, which left the core unprotected. The core fared very badly with time and the pyramid now stands only one meter tall due to the its disintegration.\nA fragmented black granite pyramidion was discovered on the east side of the complex and has been restored by G. Jéquier. It is now on display at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The pyramidion is decorated by reliefs showing Khendjer making offerings and is inscribed with the",
"-32.35581655455462"
],
[
"through the renewed excavations of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago under the direction of S. Harvey to have actually formed the lowest courses of a brick pyramid, the last queen's pyramid to have been built in Egypt. Portions of the limestone pyramidion or capstone were discovered as well, demonstrating conclusively that this structure was pyramidal in form. Magnetic survey also revealed a brick enclosure some 70 by 90 meters in scale, a feature not detected by earlier archaeologists. These accordingly may now be identified as the features described in Ahmose's stela found within: a pyramid and an enclosure, built",
"-32.21344876725743"
],
[
"of the Great Pyramids.\nPopular culture leads people to believe that Pyramids are highly confusing, with many tunnels within the pyramid to create confusion for grave robbers. This is not true. The shafts of pyramids are quite simple, mostly leading directly to the tomb. The immense size of the pyramids attracted robbers to the wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed relatively soon after the tomb was sealed in some cases. There are sometimes additional tunnels, but these were used for the builders to understand how far they could dig the tomb into the crust of the",
"-32.19753319173833"
],
[
"discovered is new and larger than the known cavities, and we’ll continue in our scientific steps”.\nOther Egyptologists have welcomed the discovery. Yukinori Kawae told National Geographic “This is definitely the discovery of the century...There have been many hypotheses about the pyramid, but no one even imagined that such a big void is located above the Grand Gallery.”\nPeter der Manuelian, from Harvard University, said that “This is an exciting new discovery, and potentially a major contribution to our knowledge about the Great Pyramid.” Physicists reactions Lee Thompson, an expert in particle physics at the University of Sheffield (UK) told Science: \"The",
"-32.1089742075128"
],
[
"constructions of man and that the earliest of them are nearly 1,500 years older than the first of the pyramids of Egypt.\" The Neolithic henges of Avebury and Stonehenge are two of the largest and most famous megalithic monuments in the world. The structure is an annual calendar, but the reason for the massive size is unknown with any certainty, suggestions include agriculture, ceremonial use and interpreting the cosmos. With other nearby sites, including Silbury Hill, Beckhampton Avenue, and West Kennet Avenue, they form a UNESCO World Heritage Site called Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites.\nNumerous examples of Bronze Age",
"-32.08914390544305"
],
[
"notable fact about the pyramid at Abu Rawash is that the upper most part of the pyramid has seemingly disappeared, revealing the internal passage that runs down into the bedrock. Explanations to why this pyramid is missing its top vary. The second point of interest that this pyramid provides is that it is built on top of a hillock. The builders faced the colossal task of not only hauling megalith stones up a pyramid but also up a hillock. Detail Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying — which began in Roman",
"-32.04873019597653"
],
[
"Egyptian pyramids Historical development By the time of the Early Dynastic Period, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas.\nThe second historically-documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser. Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other, creating an edifice composed of a number of \"steps\" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Pyramid of Djoser, which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which",
"-32.04370361415931"
],
[
"closely, often entering the great Pyramid, rather than simply viewing them from a distance. The French traveler Greffin Affagart (Seigneur de Courteilles) visited the Pyramids in 1533 and noted that \"some call [them] the granaries of Pharaoh, but this is wrong because they are not hollow on the inside, rather they are sepulchers of some kings of Egypt.\" The French explorer and naturalist Pierre Belon of Mans, a careful observer, records in 1546 that the great Pyramid \"was the sepulcher of the King of Egypt.\" Another French explorer André Thevet, who visited three years later writes: \"The",
"-32.04025866033953"
],
[
"better-known pyramids at Teotihuacan. Inside the pyramid are some five miles (8 km) of tunnels excavated by archaeologists. Pyramid The pyramid consists of six superimposed structures, one for each ethnic group that dominated it. However, only three have been studied in any depth. The pyramid itself is just a small part of the greater archaeological zone of Cholula, which is estimated at 154 hectares (0.59 sq mi). Building of the pyramid began in the Preclassic Period and over time was built over six times to its final dimensions of 450 metres on each side at the base and 66 metres tall. This base,",
"-32.020227669898304"
],
[
"of earth fill. The current conical shape of the pyramid was once thought to represent nearby volcanoes or mountains, but recent work by Rebecca Gonzalez Lauck has shown that the pyramid was in fact a rectangular pyramid with stepped sides and inset corners, and the current shape is most likely due to 2500 years of erosion. The pyramid itself has never been excavated, but a magnetometer survey in 1967 found an anomaly high on the south side of the pyramid. Speculation ranges from a section of burned clay to a cache of buried offerings to a tomb. Complex B South",
"-31.941079995296604"
],
[
"Great Pyramid of Giza History and description Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as \"Cheops\") and was constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian Royal cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and the absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the",
"-31.90566924275845"
],
[
"means that less material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing down from above. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures.\nCivilizations in many parts of the world have built pyramids. The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. For thousands of years, the largest structures on Earth were pyramids—first the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and then the Great Pyramid of Khufu, both in Egypt—the latter is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still remaining. Mesopotamia The Mesopotamians built",
"-31.866156144278648"
],
[
"of ancient monuments and megalithic ruins such as the Giza pyramids of Egypt, Machu Picchu in Peru, or Baalbek in Lebanon, the Moai of Easter Island and Stonehenge of England. Supporters say that these stone structures could not have been built with the technical abilities and tools of the people of the time and further argue that many could not be duplicated even today. They suggest that the large size of the building stones, the precision with which they were laid, and the distances many were transported leaves the question open as to who constructed these sites.\nThese ideas are categorically",
"-31.84253043301578"
],
[
"Turin papyrus shows the plan of one such mine in Nubia.\nThe Egyptians are known for building pyramids centuries before the creation of modern tools. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the Egyptian pyramids were built using three of what is called the Six Simple Machines, from which all machines are based. These machines are the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is 481 feet (146.7 meters) high.\nEgyptian",
"-31.817294020009285"
],
[
"used this humorously as a name for the Egyptian monuments, possibly because, when seen from a distance, they resembled large cakes.\"\nAnother interesting etymological conundrum that may have some relevance here is the origin of the Arabic word for pyramid, haram (هرم). Years ago, when noting the identification of the Pyramids with granaries, Charles Clermont-Ganneau speculated: \"It is not impossible that this strange legend had originated in a kind of pun on ahrâm (أهرام), pyramids, and ahrà (أهراء), barns/granaries,\" noting that it is a \"word that does not appear to have Arabic ties and is perhaps simply the Latin horreum.\"",
"-31.812680937386176"
],
[
"was in Atlantis, while Grafton Elliot Smith claimed Egypt, writing: \"Small groups of people, moving mainly by sea, settled at certain places and there made rude imitations of the Egyptian monuments of the Pyramid Age.\" Ancient astronauts Several proponents of ancient astronauts claim that the Great Pyramid of Giza was constructed by extraterrestrial beings, or influenced by them (e.g., through their advanced technology). Proponents include Erich von Däniken, Robert Charroux, W. Raymond Drake, and Zecharia Sitchin. According to Erich Von Däniken, the Great Pyramid has advanced numerological properties which could not have been known to the ancient Egyptians and so must have",
"-31.81062024546918"
],
[
"who discovered the pyramid in 1843. Owing to the ruined state of the structure, it is known in Arabic as the \"Headless Pyramid\", a name that has been retained. The pyramid was lost under shifting sands in the early 20th century and its attribution to Menkauhor was consequently debated. Instead, it was proposed that the Headless Pyramid was that of Merikare, a structure dating to the First Intermediate Period and which has yet to be found. In 2008, the structure identified by Lepsius was rediscovered by a team of archaeologists under the direction of Zahi Hawass, and excavations at the",
"-31.807515227952535"
],
[
"that nature produces pyramidal shapes and suggested that the main formation seen today may have been a natural hill shaped into a pyramid by human efforts. He described his own results as inconclusive. The very same blocks were inspected by British archaeologist Anthony Harding shortly afterwards, who concluded they did not constitute evidence of pyramids.\nThe 2006 dig uncovered fractured conglomerate and sandstone plates, which are naturally occurring. Following a visit to the site, American geologist Robert Schoch concluded that these were common natural geological formations of little interest. He accused the workers of carving the hillside to make impressions",
"-31.779948614159366"
],
[
"as various pyramids and circular structures made out of massive, smooth blocks of stone that resembled hewn granite. Zalitzki said \"It's a really wonderful structure which really looks like it could have been a large urban centre. However, it would be totally irresponsible to say what it was before we have evidence.\"\nAfter studying the images, National Geographic senior editor John Echave said: \"They are interesting anomalies, but that's as much as anyone can say right now, but I'm no expert on sonar and until we are able to actually go down there and see, it will be difficult to characterize",
"-31.75450349757375"
],
[
"Al-Muqaddasi (d. 991), a great contemporary geographer, confirms the identification: \"Varying accounts have been given me about both structures [the two great pyramids], some saying that they are both talismans, others that they were the granaries of Joseph; others say no, rather, they are their burial grounds.\" Etymology There were additional reasons that may have made the notion of the Pyramids being granaries seem plausible to people in the past. First, there was the murky issue of the etymology of the word pyramid (Ancient Greek: πυραμίς, romanized: pyramis, lit. 'pyramid'). Writing in ca. 390 CE, the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus",
"-31.69404964194473"
],
[
"pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one)— the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.\nIts location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying, which began in Roman times, has left little apart from about 15 courses of",
"-31.667088262889592"
],
[
"point out that it would be surprising for a royal pyramid to have been completely destroyed less than 300 years after its construction, only to be re-used for simple rock-cut tombs. Additionally, he points to the unusual geographic position of the pyramid: Old Kingdom pyramids were commonly built on high grounds, while the pyramid Lepsius I lies on a flat plain. Thus, the dating of this monument to the late 3rd dynasty no longer seems tenable. Cultic step pyramids Several small step pyramids along the Nile river are also credited to Huni. Those small pyramids had a cultic function and",
"-31.603455719159683"
],
[
"Voyage to Atlantis: The Lost Empire, which aired June 10, 2001.\nDiscussing the Bosnian pyramid with Steven Novella, Feder stated that it does not make sense that Visočica is anything other than a natural formation. \"It's all about physical evidence... ancient pyramids don't build themselves.\" Feder claimed that pseudoarcheologists lack the training to do a professional job evaluating items they may find.\nFeder's book Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology addresses popular myths, by attempting to provide easily understood explanations for why some inaccuracies are perpetuated. In his book, Feder also attempts to delineate the differences between findings that are questionable from \"outright frauds.\"",
"-31.567001011688262"
],
[
"the country to Alexandria and the western sea ... They say that King Pharaoh caused the towers to be built during the lean years, and kept them full of corn. That is why they are called the Kassa Pharaonis. But I could find no entrance. Some say that they are the tombs of the old kings of Egypt.\"\nThere were also a number of travelers that saw difficulties with viewing the Pyramids as granaries. Anselmo Adorno traveled from Bruges in 1470 and gives a number of arguments against the prevailing view: \"Facing Babylon, beyond the Nile, towards",
"-31.54051611664545"
],
[
"few objects belonging to the foundation deposits have been found, but none of the finds bears any name. Hypogeum The hypogeum is remarkable for its size and complexity, and is the largest and most elaborate of all known pyramids dating from the late 12th and 13th dynasties. The passageway changes directions and level several times, and was planned to contain four portcullises, more than any other pyramid from that period. Entryway The pyramid entrance is on the east side. A long descending staircase passes through the alcove where the first portcullis was intended to be put. The corridor turns left and",
"-31.52176284834968"
],
[
"most influential civilizations in the world with its architectural monuments, which include the pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx—among the largest and most famous buildings in the world.\nThe most famous pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids—huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans. Pyramids functioned as tombs for pharaohs. In Ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as mer, literally \"place of ascendance.\" The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The base is over 13 acres (53,000 m²) in area. It",
"-31.47717427268799"
],
[
"of the kingdom's capital cities.\nAl-Aziz Uthman (1171–1198), the second Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt, tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after only damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure because the task proved too large. Pyramid symbolism The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance.",
"-31.46946307115286"
],
[
"in turn surrounded by 14 layers of mud bricks bonded with clay mortar and disposed almost vertically, with an inward inclination angle of 68°. Just as the inner-most stone casing of the pyramid core, each mud brick layer is 2.6 m (8.5 ft) thick.\nWhether the pyramid was finished or left unfinished is disputed among experts. The egyptologist Rainer Stadelmann believes that the pyramid was indeed finished, but others, such as Miroslav Verner, think that the building was left unfinished because of the pharaoh's premature death. In particular, no traces of outer cladding were found, which could hint that there never was one",
"-31.455087291411473"
],
[
"skill level of Egyptian design and engineering on a large scale. The Great Pyramid of Giza, which was probably completed c. 2580 BC, is the oldest of the Giza pyramids and the largest pyramid in the world, and is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign. Khafre ambitiously placed his pyramid next to his father’s. It is not as tall as his father's pyramid but he was able to give it the impression of appearing taller",
"-31.43668826933208"
],
[
"the construction of the Egyptian pyramids do little to point definitively to methods to lift the blocks; yet most Egyptologists refer to these accounts when discussing this portion of pyramid construction. Thales, according to the philosopher Hieronymus (3rd century BC) visited the Egyptian pyramids during the 7th century BC and by using the intercept theorem, also known as Thales's theorem, measured their height and thus their volume. The first historical accounts of the construction of these monuments came centuries after the era of pyramid construction, by Herodotus in the 5th century BC and Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC.",
"-31.414097290458812"
],
[
"his An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920) summed up the earliest of pseudoarcheological claims on the ancient Egyptian pyramids as follows:\n...in the 1880s, Ignatius Donnelly had suggested that the Great Pyramid had been built by the descendants of the Atlanteans. That idea was picked up in the 1920s by Manly Palmer Hall who went on to suggest that they were the focus of the ancient Egyptian wisdom schools. Edgar Cayce built upon Hall's speculations.\nIgnatius Donnelly and later proponents of the hyperdiffusionist view of history claimed that all pyramid structures across the world had a common origin. Donnelly claimed this common origin",
"-31.39438123429136"
],
[
"and as a result his report was extremely short and contained no information beyond what had already been reported by the French expedition.\nThe most recent attempt to locate the pyramid was undertaken in 1993 by the Polish Egyptologist Andrzej Ćwiek. By this time, however, Athribis had been almost entirely covered over by the modern city of Banha, the pyramid had been completely destroyed and its exact location could no longer be determined. Structure The dimensions of the pyramid were never exactly determined, so they can only be estimated from the information in the Description de l'Egypte. On the basis of",
"-31.30108421802288"
],
[
"Pyramid of Athribis Discovery and loss The structure was first noted by scholarship during Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition (1798-1801). No real investigation was undertaken, however, aside from an engraving of the pyramid and a map of the ruins of Athribis which includes the pyramid, both of which were first published in the Description de l’Égypte in 1822. After that, for a long time, the pyramid was forgotten.\nThe pyramid was first relocated in 1938 by a team from Liverpool University led by Alan Rowe. In the meanwhile the superstructure had been almost entirely destroyed. Time constraints prevented Rowe from undertaking close investigation",
"-31.28626604359306"
],
[
"and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles.\nThe southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid, is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be a \"true\" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state – but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone. As a true smooth-sided structure, the",
"-31.217299125786667"
],
[
"encased in a veneer of polished limestone. In several cases, later pyramids were built on top of natural hills to further reduce the volume of material needed in their construction. The materials and methods of construction used in the earliest pyramids have ensured their survival in a generally much better state of preservation than for the pyramid monuments of the later pharaohs. Building the pyramids from quarried stone blocks One of the major problems faced by the early pyramid builders was the need to move huge quantities of stone. The Twelfth Dynasty tomb of Djehutihotep has an illustration of 172",
"-31.214117115734552"
],
[
"and Edificio F (Building F). By the official end of the project in 1974, interest in the pyramid waned again as it could not be reconstructed in its entirety, like other major pyramids in Mexico. The project was abandoned, leaving only fragmentary knowledge about it.\nDespite the site's pre-Hispanic importance, this pyramid is relatively unknown and unstudied, especially in comparison to others in Mexico such as Teotihuacan, Chichen Itza and Monte Albán. There are a number of possible reasons for this. One is that its existence was not greatly elaborated in a publication by the Mexican government for the 1928 Congreso",
"-31.17007287252636"
],
[
"than a hillock of stone. \nNone of the excavations penetrated to the burial chamber due to high water levels, but much was learned about pyramid construction from the surrounding quarries, which contained one of the highest concentrations of ancient debris of any Egyptian archaeological site. Gautier and Jequier The pyramid was first explored by archaeologists Gautier and Jequier between 1894 and 1895. Metropolitan Museum of Art From 1906 to 1943, the pyramid was excavated by a team from the Metropolitan Museum of Art headed by Lythgoe, Mace and Ambrose Lansing. Dieter Arnold From 1984 to 1987, further excavation was",
"-31.12327897376963"
],
[
"cubic meters) is one of the largest pyramids in the world. When the large man-made platform that the temple is built upon (some 180,000 square meters) is included in calculations, La Danta is considered by some archeologists to be one of the most massive ancient structures in the world. Also the \"Los Monos\" complex is very large (48 meters high) although not as well known. Most of the structures were originally faced with cut stone which was then decorated with large stucco masks depicting the deities of Maya mythology. According to Carlos Morales-Aguilar, a Guatemalan archaeologist from Pantheon-Sorbonne University, the",
"-31.121996272213437"
],
[
"is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed for use on other structures over the millennia.\nThe Red Pyramid of Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone",
"-31.115745264003635"
],
[
"Great Pyramid) Complex C, “The Great Pyramid,” is the central building in the city layout, is constructed almost entirely out of clay, and is easily seen from far away. The structure is built on top of a closed-in platform—this is where Blom and La Farge discovered Altars 2 and 3, thereby discovering La Venta and the Olmec civilization. A carbon sample from a burned area of the Structure C-1’s surface resulted in the date of 394 ± 30 BCE.\nOne of the earliest pyramids known in Mesoamerica, the Great Pyramid is 110 ft (34 m) high and contains an estimated 100,000 cubic meters",
"-31.100675330573722"
],
[
"beautifully covered in white, but the top was said to be capped. The pyramid therefore already had no pyramidion anymore. He also thinks that the pyramid was built with ramps, which were removed during the finishing of the limestone shell. Diodorus estimates that the total number of workers was 300,000 and that the building works lasted for 20 years. Khufu in Arabic traditions In 642 A.D. the Arabs conquered Egypt. Upon arriving at the Giza pyramids, they searched for explanations as to who could have built these monuments. By this time, no inhabitant of Egypt was able to tell and no",
"-31.005345296114683"
],
[
"of approximately 2.5 metres (8.2 ft). The front (south) face of the pyramid was not straight, the angles of the southern corners were slightly greater than 90° with the facade of the pyramid extending out slightly to meet the access ramp. The excavator concluded that this was to create the illusion that the building was larger than its actual size. The pyramidal base originally stood between 9.7 and 9.8 metres (32 and 32 ft) high. The access ramp was 6.4 metres (21 ft) wide and originally faced in stone, as uncovered during the 1949 excavations by Pedro Armillas. However, after the excavations, the",
"-30.963013385160593"
],
[
"pyramid of Teti; the Headless Pyramid was a perfect candidate, also because there were no other pyramids of the Fifth Dynasty in its immediate vicinity. However, most scholars believed that the owner of the pyramid was Menkauhor instead, because the priests appointed for the funerary cult of this king were buried to a great extent in northern Saqqara.\nA systematic excavation of the substructure in 2008 under Zahi Hawass corroborated the assignment to the Fifth Dynasty on the basis of structure and materials that were typical of that era. Although no inscriptions with the name of a pharaoh were found, Hawass",
"-30.932103499486402"
],
[
"el-Mudir. The results of these excavations were not published.\nSystematic research was first undertaken in the 1990s by archaeologists of the National Museum of Scotland employing techniques like magnetometry and ground-penetrating radar. Before these excavations, the structure was thought to be an unfinished pyramid complex from the Third Dynasty. However, pottery shards in the filling of the walls were found to date to the late Second or beginning of the Third Dynasty which leads some Egyptologists to believe this is evidence the structure may have been constructed at the end of the Second Dynasty.\nThe builder of the structure has not yet",
"-30.932058645070356"
],
[
"any theory that seeks to explain only how the Great Pyramid was built\".\nHoudin has another hypothesis developed from his architectural model, one that could finally explain the internal \"Grand Gallery\" chamber that otherwise appears to have little purpose. He believes the gallery acted as a trolley chute/guide for counterbalance weights. It enabled the raising of the five 60-ton granite beams that roof the King's Chamber. Houdin and Brier and the Dassault team are already credited with proving for the first time that cracks in beams appeared during construction, were examined and tested at the time and declared relatively harmless. Limestone",
"-30.922769515535037"
],
[
"of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat. Looting Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid-building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Brier and Hobbs claim, \"all the pyramids were robbed\" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began. Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself \"is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom\", before",
"-30.905703850086866"
],
[
"Egyptian pyramid construction techniques Egyptian pyramid construction techniques are the controversial subject of many hypotheses. These techniques seem to have developed over time; later pyramids were not constructed in the same way as earlier ones. Most of the construction hypotheses are based on the belief that huge stones were carved from quarries with copper chisels, and these blocks were then dragged and lifted into position. Disagreements chiefly concern the methods used to move and place the stones.\nIn addition to the many unresolved arguments about the construction techniques, there have been disagreements as to the kind of workforce used. The Greeks,",
"-30.876112002060836"
],
[
"like Egypt's Great Pyramids, still stand today.\nAncient buildings such as the Egyptian pyramids, the Roman Colosseum, and the Parthenon face common preservation issues. The most prominent factors affecting these structures are the environment, pollution, and tourism.\nAs the Earth's climate patterns change, so too do the environmental conditions governing these buildings. For example, the Colosseum has already faced lightning, fire, and earthquakes. The changing climate increases the accumulation of salt crystals on the outside of monuments like the Colosseum and the Parthenon. This phenomenon increases the deterioration of these buildings.\nThe salt crystals further contribute to the black effect",
"-30.85075522695479"
],
[
"and calls attention to the obvious fact \"that this figure is most improper for such a purpose, a Pyramid being the least capacious of any regular mathematical body, the straitness and fewness of the rooms within (the rest of the building being one solid and intire fabric of stone) do utterly over-throw this conjecture.\" No longer could the notion be held credibly, though for over a millennium it had reigned supreme among European travelers. Egyptian granaries Ancient Egypt had one of the most successful and stable agricultural economies of the ancient world, and had both a system and facilities",
"-30.827648309461438"
],
[
"in fact pyramids, e.g. a tomb alleged to be the tomb of Amphion and Zethus near Thebes, a structure at Stylidha (Thessaly) which is just a long wall, etc. She also notes the possibility that the stones that were dated might have been recycled from earlier constructions. She also notes that earlier research from the 1930s, confirmed in the 1980s by Fracchia was ignored. She argues that they undertook their research using a novel and previously untested methodology in order to confirm a predetermined theory about the age of these structures.\nLiritzis responded in a journal article published in 2011, stating",
"-30.81760324777133"
],
[
"notion of granaries: \"On the other side of the Nile we saw many pyramids, which long ago the kings of Egypt had erected over their tombs, of which the common people say are the granaries or storehouses that were built there by Joseph in order to store grain. However, this is clearly false, for these pyramids are not hollow inside.\" Renaissance By the 16th century most visitors who left accounts argue against the notion that the pyramids were originally granaries constructed by the patriarch Joseph, if they mention it at all. Many of the visitors inspected the ruins rather",
"-30.817601772134367"
],
[
"but three pyramids. The first is called the Meidum pyramid, named for its location in Egypt. Snefru abandoned it after the outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber. Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur, and the Red Pyramid, at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during the building of 'The Great Pyramids' at Giza.\nSneferu was succeeded by his son,",
"-30.78776793007819"
],
[
"not a step pyramid like the other seven; secondly, the other seven pyramids are built of stone, while the Pyramid of Athribis was made of brick. On account of this last point in particular, Ćwiek criticised Swelim and Stadelmann's inclusion of this pyramid in that group. He further considered it unlikely that a brick structure would have survived in such good condition from the Old Kingdom until the beginning of the 19th century. In his opinion, therefore, it was probably a pyramid from the 13th Dynasty, if not the Late Period.",
"-30.769820955487376"
],
[
"his 1968 book Chariots of the Gods?, saying that the ancient Egyptians did not have the most advanced tools to actually build the pyramid, there is no evidence of workers, and there is too much 'intimate' knowledge about the Earth and its geography for the Egyptians to build the pyramid in that exact location. However, the technique of construction is well understood, the tools the Egyptians used are known, marks left in the quarries by those tools are still visible, and many examples of the tools are preserved in museums.\nVon Däniken claims that it would have taken the Egyptians too",
"-30.710411184772965"
],
[
"visible. Khufu decided to call his necropolis Akhet-Khufu (meaning \"horizon of Khufu\").\nThe Great Pyramid has a base measurement of ca. 750 x 750ft (≙ 230.4 x 230.4 m) and today a height of 455.2 ft (138.7 m). Once it had been 481 ft (147 m) high, but the pyramidion and the limestone casing are completely lost due to stone robbery. The lack of the casing allows a full view of the inner core of the pyramid. It was erected in small steps by more or less roughly hewn blocks of dark limestone. The casing was made of nearly white limestone. The outer surface of the",
"-30.67412180678366"
],
[
"that only the outer casing was constructed using high quality limestone.\nOwing to the poor condition of the monument, information regarding its dimensions and appearance contain a degree of imprecision. The pyramid had a base length of 78.5 m (258 ft; 149.8 cu) converging at 50° 30′ towards the apex 48 m (157 ft; 92 cu) high. The architects made a notable error in demarcating the base, causing the southeast corner of the pyramid to extend 1.58 m (5.2 ft) too far east. Consequently, the base is not square. A ditch was left in the north face of the pyramid during construction which allowed workers to build",
"-30.644902953354176"
],
[
"Priest of Memphis and son of Ramesses II, from the Nineteenth Dynasty indicates that the pyramid was in relatively good condition at this time, needing only minor improvements.\nThe pyramid is now destroyed, and original dimensions are estimates. The length of the base of the pyramid was 78.75 m (258 ft; 150 cu), converging towards the apex at ~53° giving the pyramid a peak 52.5 m (172 ft; 100 cu) high on completion. The remaining ruins leave a mound about 12 m (39 ft; 23 cu) tall, with a pit in its centre dug by stone robbers. Substructure A north chapel once stood over the entrance corridor on the north",
"-30.609109615863417"
],
[
" As the Egyptian scholar Abu Ja'far al-Idrisi (d. 1251), the author of the oldest known extensive study of the Pyramids, puts it: \"The nation that built it lay destroyed, it has no successor to carry the truth of its stories from father to son, as sons of other nations carry from their fathers what they love and cherish among their stories.\" As a result, the oldest discussion of the Pyramids that has survived is from the Greek historian Herodotus, who visited them soon after 450 BCE. He describes \"the underground chambers on the hill whereon the pyramids stand,\"",
"-30.60641273199508"
],
[
"Joseph Davidovits Archaeological theories Davidovits asserts that the ancient Egyptians did not possess the tools or technology to carve and haul the huge (2.5 to 15 ton) limestone blocks that made up the Great Pyramid, conjecturing instead that the blocks were molded in-place by using a form of limestone concrete. According to his theory, a soft limestone with a high kaolinite content was quarried in the wadi on the south of the Giza plateau. It was then dissolved in large, Nile-fed pools until it became a watery slurry. Lime (found in the ash of ancient cooking fires) and natron (also",
"-30.581532304897564"
],
[
"marble and surrounded by a colonnade.\nDuring the 19th century, the remains of this structure were discovered by Flinders Petrie at the foot of the pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara in the Faiyum Oasis. The Classical accounts of various authors (Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, among others) are not entirely consistent, perhaps due to degradation of the structure during Classical times. In origin, the structure was likely a collection of funerary temples such as are commonly found near Egyptian pyramids.\nIn 1898, the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities described the structure as \"the largest of all the temples of Egypt,",
"-30.580088928267287"
],
[
"Merheleva Ridge Misidentification as pyramid and clarification Initial reports indicated that archaeologists had discovered a pyramidal structure.\nKlochko blamed the press: \"I'm not sure where the pyramid idea came from - the media got it wrong,\" says Klochko. \"We didn't find anything like an Egyptian pyramid. Though the site is on a hill. But it's interesting enough in its own right.\"",
"-30.575447601047927"
],
[
"be highly reflective. After 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians began building pyramids, until around 1700 BC. The first pyramid was erected during the Third Dynasty by the Pharaoh Djoser and his architect Imhotep. This step pyramid consisted of six stacked mastabas. The largest Egyptian pyramids are those at the Giza pyramid complex.\nThe age of the pyramids reached its zenith at Giza in 2575–2150 BC. Ancient Egyptian pyramids were in most cases placed west of the river Nile because the divine pharaoh's soul was meant to join with the sun during its descent before continuing with the sun in its eternal",
"-30.558361250863527"
],
[
"Materials The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the \"King's\" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Ancient Egyptians cut stone into rough blocks by hammering grooves into natural stone faces, inserting wooden wedges, then soaking these with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, breaking off workable chunks. Once the blocks were cut, they were",
"-30.543140442823642"
],
[
"of the narrow shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.\nAll Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which, as the site of the setting sun, was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology. Number and location of pyramids In 1842, Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first",
"-30.532461967704876"
],
[
"were often \"inscribed with royal titles and religious symbols\".\nVery few pyramidia have survived into modern times. Most of those that remain are made of polished black granite, inscribed with the name of the pyramid's owner. Four pyramidia – the world's largest collection – are housed in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Among them are the pyramidia from the so-called Black Pyramid of Amenemhat III at Dahshur and of the Pyramid of Khendjer at Saqqara.\nA badly damaged white Tura limestone pyramidion, thought to have been made for the Red Pyramid of Sneferu at Dahshur, has been reconstructed",
"-30.473992558105238"
],
[
"that material will be replaced because it was in poor conditions. In 2014, the Shaanxi Conservation Institute and the Wuhan University led a joint surveillance study on the site. Description The tomb is the largest of all tombs built during the Han Dynasty. It is also well known as \"Great White Pyramid\" since U.S. Army Air Corps pilot James Gaussman saw it as \"a white jewel-topped pyramid during a flight between India and China during World War II\" (see Chinese pyramids).\nIt is a trapezoidal tumulus built from rammed earth with a rectangular base which measures 222 by 217 metres (728",
"-30.470978384844784"
],
[
"the western side of the structure.\nA Czech archaeological team led by Miroslav Verner conducted the first intensive excavation between 2001 and 2004, in which the unusual character of the structure as a \"Double pyramid\" became clear. Both sections of the structure have a slightly rectangular base plan, oriented in a north-south direction with extremely steep sides, which make it impossible that the structure was ever a true pyramid. In the masonry, a relatively large number of building inscriptions and marks were found. These included the name of the structure, which can be translated as \"the two [pyramids] are watchful.\"\nDušan Magdolen",
"-30.452757583447237"
],
[
"by Alessandro Barsanti, who uncovered the vertical access shaft leading to the burial chamber. Barsanti, seeing that several corridors and chambers were seemingly unfinished and that all were completely devoid of artefacts, deemed that the pyramid had never been used. Shortly after, in 1910–1911, George Reisner and Clarence S. Fisher worked on the site, excavating the north and east exteriors of the pyramid as well as the cemeteries surrounding it. The dimensions of the pyramid as estimated by Barsanti, Reisner and Fisher differ greatly and even the numbers of subterranean galleries they report are in disagreement. Unfortunately, the pyramid lies",
"-30.449862126566586"
],
[
"Double Pyramid Exploration On his Egyptian expedition (1842-1845), the German archaeologist Karl Richard Lepsius located a small pyramid structure and included it in his list of pyramids as number XXV (25). Ludwig Borchardt classified it as a double mastaba in his research sixty years later, but he did not examine it any more closely.\nSince for a long time no intensive research was conducted, the structure was believed to be the pyramid of a queen of the 5th dynasty, similar to Lepsius XXIV directly to the north, although preliminary investigations appeared to indicate that the funerary temple was located, unusually, on",
"-30.439048422776978"
],
[
"1748.\nThe rather unusual design of this monument has long attracted visitors' notice. As Rev. A. Williamson, who visited the site in 1865, wrote:\nThe pyramid was not at all to be compared to the Egyptian ones for size, but of the same shape, and instantly reminded one of them. Anywhere but in China would we look for such structures. But this is another indication of the antiquity of the Chinese, and the oneness of the human race.\nThe tomb proper is only a few metres behind Shou Qiu. Shou Qiu was originally separate from Shaohao's tomb, but after the 12th century renovation",
"-30.39423039353278"
],
[
"pyramid site, 6 miles northeast of Jebel Barkal. It housed the tombs of 20 pharaohs and 54 queens. The pharaoh's pyramids range from 39.5 to 65 metres (130 to 213 ft) in height. The queen's pyramids are 9 to 17 metres (30 to 56 ft). The tombs were cut out of bedrock. The pharaoh's chamber contained three interconnecting chambers. The queen's contain two interconnecting chambers. Meroë The third Nubian Pyramid site Meroë is considered to be the largest archaeological site in the world. It contains more Nubian Pyramids than any other site.\nThe ancient Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions",
"-30.378611020201788"
],
[
"that rarely exceed 8 metres (26 ft) in width, resulting in tall, narrow structures inclined at approximately 70°. Most also have offering temple structures abutting their base with unique Kushite characteristics. By comparison, Egyptian pyramids of similar height generally had foundation footprints that were at least five times larger and were inclined at angles between 40–50°.\nThe tombs inside the pyramids of Nubia were plundered in ancient times. Wall reliefs preserved in the tomb chapels reveal that their royal occupants were mummified, covered with jewellery and laid to rest in wooden mummy cases. At the time of their exploration by archaeologists in",
"-30.348491701421153"
],
[
"attributed it to Menkauhor because he is the only pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty whose pyramid has not been identified. The pyramid The pyramid had a length of approximately 52 m (171 ft) and was probably aligned with the pyramid of Teti. Virtually nothing is left of the superstructure, hence its name. On the north side lies the entrance to the underground chamber system, which was sealed by two granite portcullises. A broken sarcophagus lid was found in the burial chamber.",
"-30.34209259186173"
],
[
"build royal pyramids was Ahmose, with later kings hiding their tombs in the hills, such as those in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor's West Bank. In Medinat Habu, or Deir el-Medina, smaller pyramids were built by individuals. Smaller pyramids with steeper sides were also built by the Nubians who ruled Egypt in the Late Period. Sudan While pyramids are associated with Egypt, the nation of Sudan has 220 extant pyramids, the most numerous in the world.Nubian pyramids were constructed (roughly 240 of them) at three sites in Sudan to serve as tombs for the kings and queens of",
"-30.335215998034982"
],
[
"seashells. Many of the facing stones have fallen or have been removed and used for construction in Cairo.\nMost pyramids are located near Cairo, with only one royal pyramid being located south of Cairo, at the Abydos temple complex. The pyramid at Abydos, Egypt were commissioned by Ahmose I who founded the 18th Dynasty and the New Kingdom. The building of pyramids began in the Third Dynasty with the reign of King Djoser. Early kings such as Snefru built several pyramids, with subsequent kings adding to the number of pyramids until the end of the Middle Kingdom.\nThe last king to",
"-30.33225272936511"
],
[
"More pyramids were constructed and for the longest time in Nubia than in Egypt. Nubia contains 223 pyramids. They were smaller than Egyptian pyramids. Nubian pyramids were for kings and queens. The general construction of Nubian pyramids consisted of steep walls, a chapel facing East, stairway facing East, and a chamber access via the stairway.\nEl-Kurru was the first major site. It is located 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south from Jebel Barkal. It was made of sandstone. It range from 10 to 30 metres (33 to 98 ft) in height. About 10 pharaohs and 14 queens were buried at El-Kurru.\nNuri was another important",
"-30.301340268015338"
],
[
"Giants' statues. Hypotheses on the necropolis appearance Due to the incompleteness of the excavations, it is not yet possible to determine the real appearance of the necropolis and grouping of the sculptures.\nSome scholars have cast doubts about the original pertinence of the latter to the necropolis, in that the only evidence in favour of this fact would be the spatial contiguity between the statues and the mortuary complex itself. This led others to hypothesize that the statues had been conceived as telamons to adorn a temple, close to the necropolis but dedicated to the Sardus Pater. According to this theory,",
"-30.26247051138489"
],
[
"typical of Ming Dynasty observation platforms and it would have been wholly logical for the Chinese to build observatories to determine precisely the location of the phenomenal riches they had discovered.\"\nWheeler argues that the claims of an extraordinary origin for the pyramid are unfounded, writing, \"The facts are (probably) that the Gympie \"Golden\" pyramid is actually an ordinary hill terraced by early Italian immigrants for viticulture that has been disfigured by erosion and the removal of stone from the retaining walls for use elsewhere ... As for all the supporting statements by the various authorities, all but a few unimportant",
"-30.232895403154544"
],
[
"example is perhaps problem 56 from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.\nThe most famous of all the pyramids of Egypt is the Great Pyramid of Giza built around 2,550 B.C.. Based on the surveys of this structure that have been carried out by Flinders Petrie and others, the slopes of the faces of this monument were a seked of 5 1/2, or 5 palms and 2 digits [see figure above] which equates to a slope of 51.84° from the horizontal, using the modern 360 degree system. This slope would probably have been accurately applied during construction by way of 'A frame' shaped wooden",
"-30.195231715199043"
],
[
"on top, more similar to the Mesopotamian ziggurat than the Egyptian pyramid.\nThe largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. Constructed from the 3rd century BC to the 9th century AD, this pyramid is considered the largest monument ever constructed anywhere in the world, and is still being excavated. The third largest pyramid in the world, the Pyramid of the Sun, at Teotihuacan is also located in Mexico. There is an unusual pyramid with a circular plan at the site of Cuicuilco, now inside Mexico City and mostly covered with lava from",
"-30.155474463057544"
],
[
"Pyramid of Khui History of research The ruined pyramid was first mentioned in a 1912 article of the fr:Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte by the Egyptian Egyptologist Ahmed Kamal. Later, between 1946 and 1948, the complex was explored by Raymond Weill. Due both to the ruined state of the structure and to the building's atypical architecture, Kamal believed it to be a huge mastaba while Weill thought it was a pyramid. Even today, in spite of the fact that the building is commonly considered to be a pyramid—and possibly a step pyramid—it is not possible to determine with",
"-30.138779136943413"
],
[
"Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining.\nWhile it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion is that they were designed as a type of \"resurrection machine.\"\nThe Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One",
"-30.116067503588056"
],
[
"Kakai, is believed to have been built originally as a step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then later transformed into a \"true\" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry. Saqqara Major pyramids located here include the Pyramid of Djoser – generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone – the Pyramid of Userkaf, the Pyramid of Teti and the Pyramid of Merikare, dating to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved",
"-30.074795937352974"
],
[
"the Meidum Pyramid in a downpour while the building was still under construction.\nFranck Monnier and others believe the pyramid not to have collapsed until the New Kingdom, but there are a number of facts contradicting this theory. The Meidum Pyramid seems never to have been completed. Beginning with Sneferu and to the 12th dynasty all pyramids had a valley temple, which is missing at Meidum. The mortuary temple, which was found under the rubble at the base of the pyramid, apparently never was finished. Walls were only partly polished. Two steles inside, usually bearing the names of the pharaoh, are",
"-30.054532694002773"
],
[
"site quickly established a Fifth Dynasty date as indicated by the construction techniques used in its making. Although the excavations failed to yield the name of the king who built the pyramid, Menkauhor was the last pharaoh of the dynasty whose pyramid remained undiscovered. Thus, proceeding by elimination, archeologists and egyptologists have formally recognized the Headless Pyramid as that of Menkauhor.\nThe pyramid is estimated to have been around 50–60 m (160–200 ft) at the base, so that the edifice would have stood 40–50 m (130–160 ft) high at the time of its construction, making it one of the smallest royal pyramids of the Old",
"-30.013608522436698"
],
[
"pseudoarchaeological ancient astronaut theory and Orion correlation theory are related claims that the Great Pyramid was constructed by the use of an advanced lost technology. Proponents of this theory often link this hypothetical advanced technology to extraterrestrials but also Atlanteans, Lemurians or a legendary lost race. Notable proponents include Christopher Dunn and David Hatcher Childress. Graham Hancock, in his book Fingerprints of the Gods, assigned the 'ground plan' of the three main Egyptian pyramids, in his theory of an advanced progenitor civilization which possessed advanced technology. Criticism In 1880, the renowned Egyptologist Flinders Petrie went to Egypt to perform new",
"-29.97869513788828"
],
[
"largest pyramids, the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Khafre, describing his findings in the Legatio while largely ignoring the smaller Pyramid of Menkaure. The ambassador later directed his attention towards the Great Pyramid's interior. Members of the expedition were instructed to enter the monument through a southeastern entrance, while Martyr and the chief guide observed from the outside. The visitors came across a \"vaulted, shell-shaped chamber\" where small tombs could be found. From this, Martyr was able to confirm the pyramids' funerary nature, discarding the notion that the monuments represented the biblical \"granaries of Joseph\", a common perception in",
"-29.954704472853336"
],
[
"Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years. Interior The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23\" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to",
"-29.95298671616183"
],
[
"of tunnels inside the pyramid, which began with two in 1931 to prove that the hill was an archeological find. Within, altars with offerings, floors, walls and buried human remains from around 900 AD were discovered. Today, only about 800 meters of these tunnels are open to the public, which have been made into well-lit, arched passages. Visitors enter on the north side, through the center of the pyramid and exit on the south side. There are few signs explaining the structures within, but in one section allows a view of main staircases of one of the pyramids, whose nine",
"-29.951018922627554"
]
] |
32lc8q | With the number of deaths it causes each year, how are alcohol advertisements not illegal like cigarettes? | [
"Because the alcohol industry is better at Public Relations management. Tobacco has become the public whipping boy and the slightest breath to defend tobacco will draw an insane firestorm of rabid mouth-foamers (despite whatever huge chunk of society is stupid enough to choose smoking). The fact that \"plain packaging\" - which really shows diseased eyeballs and rotting teeth and such -- can be mandated for cigs is a clear example. Try to push that on anything else bad, alcohol, whatever, and you'd see people freak out. Bashing tobacco is the media darling these days and there is no limit to how far you can push that.",
"While ads are allowed, you can't show someone drinking the product.",
"Alcohol is viewed as the only drug that can be taken in moderation, and its enjoyment by humans far predates tobacco.",
"Laws in a democracy aren't based on pure logic or the best public policy. Good policies often need majority support to be implemented. Only 18 percent of Americans smoke while 65 percent drink alcohol at least occasionally. Cigarettes have been losing in a downward cycle. The few smokers the easier it is to approve anti-smoking rules. As a result there are few smokers which in turn making it easier to put in place new restrictions. I wrote a piece about the long term political dynamics the legal marijuana industry faces will likely face that applies perfectly to the question you are asking. URL_0 ",
"First of all, advertising tobacco isn't entirely illegal; it's only illegal on TV, which children are likely to see. Similarly, it is unlawful to advertise alcohol on TV programs targeted to minors. So there are similarities, though obviously, restrictions on tobacco advertising are more strict. The why is a political matter. Tobacco, even in moderation, is a potent carcinogen; it causes cancer. Alcohol, in moderation, has documented health benefits. Although as a society, we limit alcohol consumption to adults, drinking is seen as a normal and non-harmful behavior, provided it's done responsibly, so as a society we haven't seen fit to limit its advertising as aggressively.",
"One of the reason could be also that alcohol most of the time is a \"social\" drug",
"Depends on the country. A lot of european countries completely or partially ban alcohol advertisement"
] | [
[
"a year: 480,000 from tobacco smoking-related illnesses and 80,000 from alcohol abuse. Together, tobacco and alcohol cause about 20% of all yearly deaths in the USA.\nIt is argued that inconsistency between the harm caused and the legal status of these common drugs undermines the declared motives of the law enforcement agencies to reduce harm by prohibition, for example of marijuana.\nIn February 2009, the UK government was accused by its most senior expert drugs adviser Professor David Nutt of making political decisions with regard to drug classification, for example in rejecting the scientific advice to downgrade ecstasy from a class A",
"-29.260214984067716"
],
[
"is only allowed after 10:00 pm. Europe In Russia, advertising alcohol products is banned from almost all media (including television and billboards) since January 2013. Before that, alcohol advertising was restricted from using images of people drinking since mid-2000s.\nIn Sweden, since 2010 advertisements are legal for wine and beer, but not on television and radio. Non-periodic magazines are allowed to advertise alcoholic beverages above 15%. These advertisements must contain warnings, but which are worded less strongly than the warnings on tobacco products - for example, \"Avoid drinking while pregnant,\" as opposed to \"smoking kills.\" These rules were introduced into the",
"-26.322899000981124"
],
[
"\"That illicit drugs are inherently harmful substances is attested by the very nomenclature of the 'harm reduction' movement.\" The U.S. government has argued that illegal drugs are \"far more deadly than alcohol\" saying \"although alcohol is used by seven times as many people as drugs, the number of deaths induced by those substances is not far apart. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), during 2000, there were 15,852 drug-induced deaths; only slightly less than the 18,539 alcohol-induced deaths.\" Ratios of the harms of illicit opiates to licit alcohol and tobacco in Australia are similar, with 2",
"-25.983778472203994"
],
[
"Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has suggested that illegal drugs are \"far more deadly than alcohol\", arguing that \"although alcohol is used by seven times as many people as drugs, the number of deaths induced by those substances is not far apart\", quoting figures from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), claiming \"during 2000, there were 15,852 drug-induced deaths; only slightly less than the 18,539 alcohol-induced deaths.\"\nThe DEA's use of such figures is questionable however. An article in the Journal of the American Medical Association gave the number deaths caused by alcohol in year 2000 as 85,000 – over",
"-25.35316297307145"
],
[
"Because cannabis is the most common drug, consuming of cannabis goes up to 66 percent than other drugs in the country. The death penalty is given to the people who grow cannabis, or a minimum fine of $550,000, based on the National Anti-Narcoticts (BNN) law.",
"-25.091037011356093"
],
[
"century, there was a period when gin was criminalized and whiskey wasn't, because gin is what poor people drink. Legal highs and prohibition In 2013 the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reported that there are 280 new legal drugs, known as legal highs, available in Europe. One of the best known, mephedrone, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2010. On November 24, 2010, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration announced it would use emergency powers to ban many synthetic cannabinoids within a month. An estimated 73 new psychoactive synthetic drugs appeared on the UK market in 2012.",
"-24.674841186468257"
],
[
"an accident and is often a separately defined felony punishable by jail, license suspension, fines or compulsory treatment. Long-term effects Alcohol is the main active ingredient of wine, beer and distilled spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount, however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or",
"-24.620485792285763"
],
[
"increase in accident risk associated with alcohol, as well as the high accident rate among young drivers, the increases in risk associated with the use of drugs are surprisingly small.\"\nA report from the University of Colorado, Montana State University, and the University of Oregon found that on average, states that have legalized medical cannabis had a decrease in traffic-related fatalities by 8–11%. The researchers hypothesized \"it’s just safer to drive under the influence of marijuana than it is drunk....Drunk drivers take more risk, they tend to go faster. They don’t realize how impaired they are. People who are",
"-24.289351101848297"
],
[
"Union and adopting the entire European Union law. \nAlcohol misuse costs the United Kingdom's National Health Service £3 billion per year. The cost to employers is 6.4 billion pounds sterling per year. These figures do not include the crime and social problems associated with alcohol misuse. The number of women regularly drinking alcohol has almost caught up with men.\nIn the United States, many people are arrested for drinking and driving. Also, people under the influence of alcohol commit a large portion of various violent crimes, including child abuse, homicide and suicide. In addition, people of minority groups are affected by",
"-24.075085833464982"
],
[
"100,000 individuals to 9.7 and within the first three months proceeding the Eighteenth Amendment, a half million dollars in bonded whiskey was stolen from government warehouses. The profits that could be made from selling and distributing alcohol were worth the risk of punishment from the government, which had a difficult time enforcing prohibition. There were over 900,000 cases of liquor shipped to the borders of U.S. cities. Criminal gangs and politicians saw the opportunity to make fortunes and began shipping larger quantities of alcohol to U.S. cities. The majority of the alcohol was imported from Canada, the Caribbean, and the",
"-24.013288535177708"
],
[
"a proxy for alcohol consumption estimated a decrease in consumption of 10–20%. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism studies show clear epidemiological evidence that \"overall cirrhosis mortality rates declined precipitously with the introduction of Prohibition,\" despite widespread flouting of the law.\nA 2017 study concluded that in six years from 1934 to 1939, \"an excess of 13,665 infant deaths ... could be attributable to the repeal of federal prohibition in 1933.\" Crime It is difficult to draw conclusions about Prohibition's impact on crime at the national level, as there were no uniform national statistics gathered about crime prior to 1930.",
"-23.627233937382698"
],
[
"vulnerable people, a warning can be given instead of a fine. Larger quantities (more than 100 g or 3.5 oz) generally results in a prison sentence. Driving under the influence of cannabis is illegal and all but the smallest amounts of THC in a blood sample results in a fine and loss of the driver's license (conditional or unconditional). Usage Despite its illegal status, a report by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2015) shows that slightly more than ¹⁄₃ of adult Danes have tried cannabis at some point in their life, which is above the European average where",
"-23.563397989724763"
],
[
"Ultimately, during prohibition use and abuse of alcohol ended up higher than before it started.\nThough there were significant increases in crimes involved in the production and distribution of illegal alcohol, there was an initial reduction in overall crime, mainly in types of crimes associated with the effects of alcohol consumption such as public drunkenness. Those who continued to use alcohol, tended to turn to organized criminal syndicates. Law enforcement wasn't strong enough to stop all liquor traffic; however, they used \"sting\" operations, such as Prohibition agent Eliot Ness famously using wiretapping to discern secret locations of breweries. The prisons became",
"-23.493020335183246"
],
[
"impact of alcohol (2010) A December 2010 article determined that alcohol had the worst medical and social effects compared to other recreational substances such as heroin and crack cocaine. The drugs marijuana, ecstasy, and LSD scored far lower in terms of related harms. The authors did not advocate alcohol prohibition, but they suggested that the government raise the price of alcohol until it was no longer widely available. Gavin Partington, spokesman of the Wine and Spirit Trade Association, responded to the report by saying that alcohol abuse affects \"a minority\" needing \"education, treatment and enforcement\". He also remarked that millions",
"-23.474472170579247"
],
[
"ban. In the 2010 elections, the liquor ban was a minimum two days; in the 2013 elections, there was a proposal that it be extended to five days. This was overturned by the Supreme Court.\nOther than election-related prohibition, alcohol is freely sold to anyone above the legal drinking age. Saudi Arabia The sale, consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Sri Lanka In 1955 Sri Lanka passed a law prohibiting adult women from buying alcohol. In January 2018, Finance Minister Mangala Samaraweera announced that the law would be amended, allowing women to",
"-23.414142916502897"
],
[
"alcohol is banned totally since 1975.\nIn September 2017, Facebook announced it would allow users to hide all alcohol advertisements. The move is debated within the UK, as Alcohol Research UK group welcomed the change, while the Alcohol Standards Authority said the UK already had some of the strictest rules in the world.\nIn November 2018, Ireland introduced a law banning alcohol advertisements near schools, children play areas, public transportation, and cinemas, as well as restricting visibility of alcohol products in stores. The legislation will take effect November 2019. Responsible drinking campaigns There have been various campaigns to help prevent alcoholism, under-age",
"-23.391476535820402"
],
[
"drinking causes the disorder. Alcohol misuse is associated with a number of mental health disorders and alcoholics have a very high suicide rate. A study of people hospitalised for suicide attempts found that those who were alcoholics were 75 times more likely to go on to successfully commit suicide than non-alcoholic suicide attempters. In the general alcoholic population the increased risk of suicide compared to the general public is 5-20 times greater. About 15 percent of alcoholics commit suicide. Abuse of other drugs is also associated with an increased risk of suicide. About 33 percent of suicides in the under",
"-23.236152226600097"
],
[
"research which suggests that alcohol is more harmful than all but the most \"dangerous\" drugs. When the level of harm associated with the other drugs includes harm that arises solely as a result of the drugs illegality rather than merely that danger which is associated with actually using the drugs, only heroin, cocaine, barbiturates and street methadone were shown to be more harmful than the legal drug alcohol.\nA 2002 DAWN report, for the USA records two possible drug-induced deaths where marijuana was the only drug found. Legal drugs however, have been the cause of more than half a million deaths",
"-23.19790212449152"
],
[
"Arguments for and against drug prohibition Drug laws are effective Supporters of prohibition claim that drug laws have a successful track record suppressing illicit drug use since they were introduced 100 years ago. The licit drug alcohol has current (last 12 months) user rates as high as 80–90% in populations over 14 years of age, and tobacco has historically had current use rates up to 60% of adult populations, yet the percentages currently using illicit drugs in OECD countries are generally below 1% of the population excepting cannabis where most are between 3% and 10%, with six countries between",
"-23.151805413421243"
],
[
"of alcohol are illegal in most jurisdictions when a person under the legal drinking age requests that a person above the legal age purchase alcohol for the underage person, and the straw purchaser knows or might reasonably assume based on the circumstances that the person is under the legal age. Tobacco and nicotine products As of October 2015, it is an offence to buy tobacco, cigarette papers (for the purpose of smoking tobacco) or e-cigarettes on behalf of under 18s in the United Kingdom. It was already an offence in Scotland. Mortgage loans The use of a straw person to",
"-23.10089243837865"
],
[
"29% of those who had never used cannabis cited the illegality of the substance as their reason for never using the drug, while 19% of those who had ceased use of cannabis cited its illegality as their reason.\nGil Kerlikowske, Director of the US ONDCP argues,\nControls and prohibitions help to keep prices higher, and higher prices help keep use rates relatively low, since drug use, especially among young people, is known to be sensitive to price. The relationship between pricing and rates of youth substance use is well-established with respect to alcohol and cigarette taxes. There is literature showing that increases",
"-23.097554786334513"
],
[
"of the sale of alcohol to visibly intoxicated persons or minors who subsequently cause death or injury to third parties (those not having a relationship to the business that sold the alcohol) as a result of alcohol-related car crashes and other accidents.\nThe laws are intended to protect the general public from the hazards of serving alcohol to minors and intoxicated patrons. Groups such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) have advocated for the enforcement and enactment of dram shop laws across the United States as well as in the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. The earliest dram shop",
"-23.094962043047417"
],
[
"and an illegal drug use increasing nineteen-fold. Colbert went on to say the ad was \"terrifying,\" adding, \"and that ad is no less terrifying just because there is no country called Scandinavia, none of the countries in Scandinavia passed gay marriage laws in 2004, and the statistics on suicide and drug use are made up.\"",
"-22.905605727690272"
],
[
"alcohol industry around the world has also campaigned to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels.",
"-22.84371350836591"
],
[
"did not have a history of drug abuse. Nearly 680,000 federal offender urine samples were tested for drugs in 1992. Consuming 12 beers over a weekend does not constitute excessive use of alcohol as a matter of law. Mental health treatment or examination Court-ordered mental health treatment as a condition of probation has been upheld when the case had taken an emotional toll on the defendant and the defendant said the conviction felt \"like the end of her life as she knows it\" or when the defendant has a history of major depression, refusal to take antidepressants, and dangerous conduct",
"-22.809111334820045"
],
[
"death through overdose because substitution or poor quality, although this potential for harm may be operationally indistinct from the potentials for harm associated with other noncriminal behaviors, such as driving a car while tired or over-consumption of healthy foods. Some argue that if drugs were available legally, they would be less harmful (see the drug policy of the Netherlands). When drugs are illegal, the price is higher, and maintaining the habit takes the money that would otherwise be spent on food, shelter, and clothing. The resultant neglect is a contributory factor to the addict's physical deterioration. In Australia, Walker (1991)",
"-22.805968531407416"
],
[
"owner or publisher of a media outlet.\nIn 1991, U.S. Surgeon General Antonia Novello criticized alcoholic beverage companies for \"unabashedly targeting teenagers\" with \"sexual imagery, cartoons, and rock and rap music\" in television and print ads. The Federal Trade Commission conducted an investigation in 2002 into possible targeting to those under the age of 21. However, this investigation and those of some scholars have not found evidence of such targeting. Concerns exist that irresponsible advertising practices or \"pushing the envelope\" with audience composition may lead to permanent legislation governing the advertising of beverage alcohol. Asia In Malaysia, alcohol advertising on radio",
"-22.70475895112031"
],
[
"United States, the smuggling of alcohol did not end with the repeal of prohibition. In the Appalachian United States, for example, the demand for moonshine was at an all-time high in the 1920s, but an era of rampant bootlegging in dry areas continued into the 1970s. Although the well-known bootleggers of the day may no longer be in business, bootlegging still exists, even if on a smaller scale. The state of Virginia has reported that it loses up to $20 million a year from illegal whiskey smuggling.\nThe Government of the United Kingdom fails to collect an estimated £900 million in",
"-22.68008329065924"
],
[
"the criminal did not make a sale. \n-Possession of 5000 grams/5 kilograms of opium/marijuana/cannabis/prescription drugs/industrial chemical drugs/hemp juice. The death penalty is commuted for first-time offenders when the amount is less than 20000 grams/20 kilograms and the criminal did not make a sale. \n-Armed smuggling of any narcotics, or being part of or the head of a narcotics smuggling gang (normally would receive a prison sentence prior to execution).\nUsually the first offense would be imprisonment, but the second or third offense would be death. The death penalty would be applied if the crimes are deemed to be at the level of \"mofsed-fel-arz\"",
"-22.60626136540668"
],
[
"of alcoholic beverage by driver or his/her crew in advance of, or while competing in any IMCA sanctioned program is strictly forbidden. Any driver showing evidence of alcohol consumption will be required to leave the premises immediately and may be subject to a fine of no less than $250. Use of illegal drugs at any time shall be cause for immediate, indefinite suspension and/or fine of no less than $250. Stock Car Brasil The Stock Car Brasil organisation has had a number of run-ins with doping offenders over the years. The Stock Car Brasil organisation is subjected to Brazilian Auto",
"-22.594807779663824"
],
[
"alcohol consumption by 2016. These products were often nearly pure alcohol that could be diluted to a rough approximation of vodka, and were frequently available at all hours via strategically placed vending machines. In the Irkutsk incident, the victims drank scented bath lotion that was mislabeled as containing drinkable ethanol.\nIn the aftermath of the poisoning, regulations on products being used as surrogate alcohols were tightened around the country. Politicians announced a temporary ban on non-food items with more than 25 percent alcohol, which was extended several times. Causes and event In the 2010s, Russia's economy suffered from a financial crisis,",
"-22.491037187093752"
],
[
"do not intervene in underage drinking. Although restrictions are nationwide and well-known, some salespersons violate the law at times. Minors themselves can never be prosecuted for alcohol consumption under age. Supermarkets and stores generally check minors for their identity card. The law is less thoroughly enforced in many bars and restaurants, but this can vary by location. Alcohol consumption in public Public parties are prohibited nationally on Good Friday, and regionally on other holidays such as All Saints' Day. Buying alcohol remains possible at these times. The government maintains the right to restrict or ban the sale of alcohol for",
"-22.413881524582393"
],
[
"mostly being bootleg alcohol. If care is not taken in the distillation process and the proper equipment is not used, harmful impurities such as fusel alcohols, lead from plumbing solder, and methanol can be concentrated to toxic levels. Several deaths have been reported in India and Pakistan due to consumption of non-factory made toxic liquor.",
"-22.411113773239776"
],
[
"of other illegal drugs for trafficking, and for acquiring weapons that are ultimately used to commit murders (causing a burgeoning in the homicide rates of many areas of the world, but particularly Latin America).\nSome studies show that the increased legalization of cannabis in the United States (beginning in 2012 with Washington Initiative 502 and Colorado Amendment 64) has led Mexican cartels to smuggle less cannabis in exchange for more heroin. Alcohol Alcohol, in the context of alcoholic beverages rather than denatured alcohol, is illegal in a number of Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, and this has resulted in a",
"-22.40650833064865"
],
[
"rum bottles\n— Justice Stevens, 44 Liquormart, 517 U.S. at 492\nBecause the advertisement implied that 44 Liquormart had low prices, the Rhode Island Liquor Control Administrator fined the store $400.00. After being assessed the fine, the petitioners brought the suit, alleging that the regulation was unconstitutional. The District Court found the regulation banning advertisements unconstitutional, because the state did not prove that the law directly advanced its interest in reducing alcohol consumption, and because the law's reach was unnecessarily extensive.\nThe First Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the lower court, ruling that an increase in alcohol advertisements would lead to an",
"-22.39533108350588"
],
[
"claimed several hundred lives. According to the Tamil Nadu police, though consumption of alcohol results in major crimes and collisions, total prohibition may lead to other potential issues like black market trade. The police have recommended stricter traffic laws and introduction of smart cards to record the crime history of the drivers electronically. The state police stated during 2012 that public awareness was created and the officers were educated to improve reaction time to emergencies.",
"-22.32605088003038"
],
[
"out in Lower Saxony, in 1327 cases (44%) alcohol was sold without age verification to underage persons. Hundreds of summary proceedings led to administrative fines ranging from 500 to 3000 euros. The standard rate for the illegal sale of one bottle of spirits is 1500 euros. Thus, alcohol trap purchases bring a return of around €2 million annually. Other German states, especially Schleswig-Holstein, are considering implementing the Lower Saxony model, but states like Berlin, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia and Baden-Württemberg object to it.\nViolation of restraints will involve prosecution for vendors who sell alcohol to underage persons and also for bystanders who",
"-22.311212383196107"
],
[
"consumption of alcohol in specific public areas where large scale festivities are due to take place and large crowds are expected. Yemen Alcohol is banned in Yemen. Czech Republic On 14 September 2012, the government of the Czech Republic banned all sales of liquor with more than 20% alcohol. From this date on it was illegal to sell such alcoholic beverages in shops, supermarkets, bars, restaurants, gas stations, e-shops etc. This measure was taken in response to the wave of methanol poisoning cases resulting in the deaths of 18 people in the Czech Republic. Since the beginning of the \"methanol",
"-22.220233271375037"
],
[
"supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this was Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:\n[T]he existing drug policies have failed in their intended goals of addressing the problems of crime, drug abuse, addiction, juvenile drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into this country and the internal sale and use of illegal",
"-22.177297134534456"
],
[
"prescriptions for whiskey in one day. It wasn’t tough for people to write—and fill—counterfeit subscriptions at pharmacies, either. Naturally, bootleggers bought prescription forms from crooked doctors and mounted widespread scams. In 1931, 400 pharmacists and 1,000 doctors were caught in a scam where doctors sold signed prescription forms to bootleggers. Just 12 doctors and 13 pharmacists were indicted, and the ones charged faced a one-time $50 fine. Selling alcohol through drugstores became so much of a lucrative open secret that it’s name-checked in works such as The Great Gatsby. Historians speculate that Charles R. Walgreen, of Walgreen’s fame, expanded from",
"-22.115831251911004"
],
[
"food stands on 12 September. On 14 September, the ban was extended to any sale of all alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content above 20% vol. On 20 September, export of such products was banned as well. The restrictions on liquor sales were lifted on 27 September 2012.\nThe police systematically checked shops where liquors were on sale. Led by police vice president Václav Kučera, a special police team called Metyl coordinated the investigations. On 24 September, the police announced that the source of the methanol-contaminated alcohol had been identified. Two main suspects were arrested: Rudolf Fian, a businessman from Karviná",
"-22.112959399120882"
],
[
"substances in excess of legitimate cigarettes. Illicit cigarettes seized in Canada and the United Kingdom were found to contain five times more cadmium, six times as much lead, 160% more tar, and 133% more carbon dioxide. Consumers are warned to take caution and avoid the temptation to save money by purchasing illegal cigarettes as it poses greater health risks compared to legal cigarettes. Australia The country's attempts to discourage smoking through higher taxes have instead fueled the illegal cigarette industry, leading to a $1.1 billion loss of taxes due to illegal cigarettes in 2012.\nIn May 2016, it is estimated that",
"-22.095736442541238"
],
[
"times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol abuse compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers, though the direction of causality remains unclear. Occasional binge drinkers (one or two times in past two weeks), were found to be four times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol abuse or dependence compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers. Societal and economic costs Alcohol abuse is associated with many accidents, fights, and offences, including criminal. Alcohol is responsible in the world for 1.8 million deaths and results in disability in approximately 58.3 million people. Approximately 40 percent of the 58.3 million people disabled through alcohol abuse",
"-22.043319294989487"
],
[
"to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age. Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments. Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the \"hard\" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.\nIn the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and",
"-22.03032561438158"
],
[
"industry with most new addicts.\nAnother method of evading restrictions is to sell less-regulated nicotine products instead of the ones for which advertising is more regulated. For instance, while TV ads of cigarettes are banned in the United States, similar TV ads of e-cigarettes are not.\nThe most effective media are usually banned first, meaning advertisers need to spend more money to addict the same number of people. Comprehensive bans can make it impossible to effectively substitute other forms of advertising, leading to actual falls in consumption. However, skillful use of allowed media can increase advertising exposure; the exposure of U.S. children",
"-22.02362053352408"
],
[
"all road fatalities in Europe are alcohol-related whereas about only 1,6% of all kilometres driven in Europe are driven by drivers with 0,5 g/l alcohol or more in their blood.\n— European Commiison, European Road safety Observatory\nLaws are also in place to protect citizens from the consequences incurred by drunk drivers.\nIn fact \"To help control the number of drunk driving episodes, states have lowered the blood alcohol content limit to .08%.\" In terms of American law driving under the influence or while intoxicated \"is never a defense to a crime or motor-vehicle infraction involving reckless behavior.\"\nWhen charged with this as a",
"-22.008812878630124"
],
[
"illicit drugs in Schedules I and II increased to a maximum of life imprisonment, the penalties for the possession of drugs in Schedule VIII (up to 30g of cannabis and 1g of hashish) decreased to a maximum six months imprisonment and/or a maximum fine of $1000.\nSince the enactment of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, various courts have struck down parts of the law and amendments have been passed by Parliament. In 2001, Canada became the first country in the world to legalize the use of cannabis for the terminally ill and three years later the Minister of Justice Irwin",
"-21.98090384486568"
],
[
"supermarkets and convenience stores such as NTUC FairPrice, Giant Hypermarket, Sheng Siong, Cold Storage and 7-Eleven from 10.30pm to 7am.\nThe condition of carriage of alcohol is prohibited even between 10.30pm and 7am on SMRT Trains and SBS Transit services. Slovakia In Slovakia, drinking alcoholic beverages in public is illegal in many cities South Korea In general, drinking in public is illegal if the drinker harms others while drinking in public. Harm is defined as using harsh language or stirring up loud noise while drinking or exercising bad drinking habits on others for no reason. Anyone reported or caught by city",
"-21.926197094318923"
],
[
"in 1983. In 1997 an estimated 513,200 DWI offenders were in prison or jail, down from 593,000 in 1990 and up from 270,100 in 1986. In the United States, DUI and alcohol-related collisions produce an estimated $45 billion in damages every year.\nIn some US and German studies BAC level 0.01-0.03% predicted a lower collision risk than BAC 0%, possibly due to extra caution, whereas BACs 0.08% or higher seem to be responsible for almost all extra accidents caused by alcohol. For a BAC of 0.15% the risk is 25-fold. Implied consent All U.S. states recognize \"implied consent\", pursuant to which",
"-21.916439878885285"
],
[
"liquor-free zone. Similarly, passengers of motor vehicles are allowed to consume alcohol as long as they are not in a liquor-free zone. Sale of alcohol to intoxicated persons is illegal. Under the Summary Offences Act 1981 it is an offence to drink alcohol in public transport, aeroplanes and taxis unless the vehicle is a licensed premises. Most commercial flights as well as many ferries and trains serve alcohol on board. Norway Drinking in public is illegal in Norway and subject to fines. In many cities the police will primarily react if the use of alcohol is causing trouble and",
"-21.889522401965223"
],
[
"individuals. As of 2014, alcohol warning labels are required in many countries, including Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, France, Guatemala, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, and the United States. Modern alcohol advertising promotes alcoholic beverages heavily “as though it was not a toxic substance”. The alcohol industry has tried to actively mislead the public about the risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption, in addition to campaigning to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels. Australia In Australia, \"Alcohol beverage makers must label their products with warning labels relating to the risks of drinking during pregnancy.\"",
"-21.871810937969713"
],
[
"of such person's blood, saliva, urine or any other bodily fluid administered within two (2) hours after the arrest of such person.\" A second offense will have longer sentencing as well as require an ignition interlock device that can only detect alcohol even if person is not a user of alcohol. \nNon-licensed making of hashish (including through the use of a simple grinder) or making brownies may include life imprisonment, however, licensed medical users can make and possess these products. Feral hemp research In 2018 Hempyre Genetics was hired to research strains of feral cannabis growing at undisclosed locations in",
"-21.849198279800476"
],
[
"place their last orders for alcohol, due to serving hour cutoff laws. In some countries, alcohol cannot be sold to a person who is already intoxicated. Alcohol laws in many countries prohibit drunk driving.\nIn some jurisdictions, alcoholic drinks are totally prohibited for reasons of religion (e.g., Islamic countries with sharia law) or for reasons of local option, public health, and morals (e.g., Prohibition in the United States from 1920 to 1933). In jurisdictions which enforce sharia law, the consumption of alcoholic drinks is an illegal offense, although such laws may exempt non-Muslims.",
"-21.71847520620213"
],
[
"pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine. While not objecting to some form of regulatory legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most Salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation. Alcohol and tobacco When questioned by Māori Party MP Tariana Turia, on why she was unwilling to take the same prohibitory line on smoking cigarettes and drinking alcohol as she took on BZP, Ms Dean said – \"Alcohol and tobacco have been with our society for many, many years.\" ",
"-21.700858221272938"
],
[
"was implemented in late 2007. A study by the University of Hamburg (Ahlfeldt and Maennig 2010) demonstrates, that the smoking ban had, if any, only short run impacts on bar and restaurant revenues. In the medium and long run no negative effect was measurable. The results suggest either, that the consumption in bars and restaurants is not affected by smoking bans in the long run, or, that negative revenue impacts by smokers are compensated by increasing revenues through non-smokers. Ignition safety An indirect public health problem posed by cigarettes is that of accidental fires, usually linked with consumption of alcohol.",
"-21.697916378820082"
],
[
"in one corner on the street, but one may not openly carry and consume a bottle of alcohol on the streets. Republic of Ireland The Republic of Ireland has no laws against public drinking, except that alcohol in a closed container cannot be consumed within 100 m (330 ft) of the off license where it was purchased. Some towns and cities have by-laws forbidding public drinking.\nThe sale of alcohol in stores or off-license is illegal between the hours of 10:00 PM and 10:30 AM with the exception of Sunday morning, when the sale of alcohol is forbidden until 12:30 PM. The sale",
"-21.68083832517732"
],
[
"used the same amount and half said they used less. Compared to previous surveys, more users purchased it from dealers, rather than the internet. The average price per gram was £16, compared to around £10 before the ban. The 2010 Mixmag survey of 2,500 nightclubbers found one quarter had used mephedrone in the previous month, the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal, and it was more likely to be cut with other substances. Of those who had already used mephedrone prior to the ban, 75% had continued to use it after the ban. Of the various drugs",
"-21.680422581266612"
],
[
"cannot be issued for \"self defense reasons\". Even other weapons, such as pepper sprays, are regulated. Carrying weapons, including guns and knives in public is not allowed. Alcohol and criminality The majority of criminals and victims of violent crime are under the influence of alcohol during the act. Statistics show that in homicides 61 to 75 percent, in attempted homicides 71 to 78 percent and in assaults 71 to 73 percent of the offenders have been under the influence of alcohol. During the last two decades the number of drunk offenders has increased. Roughly half of the crimes of theft",
"-21.675614206149476"
],
[
"decision to recreationally use illicit drugs is most commonly free, and with the knowledge that they may lead to an abundance of addictions.\" Health arguments for drug law reform There is evidence that many illicit drugs pose comparatively fewer health dangers than certain legal drugs. The health risks of MDMA (Ecstasy) have been exaggerated for instance, the risks from cannabis use also overstated, and health problems from the use of legal substances, particularly alcohol and tobacco, are greater, even than from cocaine use for example (occasional cocaine use does not typically lead to severe or even minor physical or social",
"-21.665915512188803"
],
[
"Cari was killed by a drunk driver. Significantly, zero tolerance laws were enacted which criminalized driving a vehicle with 0.01% or 0.02% BAC for drivers under 21. This is true even in Puerto Rico, despite maintaining a legal drinking age of 18. Recent research in the American Economic Review suggests that sanctions imposed at BAC thresholds are effective in reducing repeat drunk driving.\nOn May 14, 2013, the National Transportation Safety Board recommended that all 50 states lower the benchmark for determining when a driver is legally drunk from 0.08 blood-alcohol content to 0.05. The idea is part of an initiative",
"-21.65177497023251"
],
[
"were committed by intoxicated persons; and drunk drivers were responsible for 14,000 traffic deaths and 60,000 serious traffic injuries\". In 1995, about three quarters of those arrested for homicide were under the influence of alcohol, and 29% of respondents reported that children beaten within families were the victims of drunks and alcoholics.\nA 1997 report published in the Journal of Family Violence found that among male perpetrators of spousal homicide, 60–75% of offenders had been drinking prior to the incident. Suicide In 2008, suicide claimed 38,406 lives in Russia. With a rate of 27.1 suicides per 100,000 people, Russia has one",
"-21.623327677953057"
],
[
"of a shortage of police personnel. During the tenure of the department there were no incidents of alcohol poisoning in Gujarat. The revenue loss to Gujarat government because of the ban is estimated to be around Rs 30 Billion. Alcohol poisoning On 7 July 2009, ten people died in Behrampura after drinking spurious liquor. The liquor was brewed in the house of Arvind Solanki, who also died after consuming the liquor. The death toll rose to 43 next day and crossed 120 by 12 July. Two hundred seventy-six people were admitted in various hospitals with nearly 100 of them in",
"-21.616934611607576"
],
[
"suspension of the suspect's driver's license. Drinking age Missouri's drinking age has been 21 since 1945. That is, Missouri law prohibits minors from possessing or purchasing alcohol. Thus, when the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 came into effect on January 1, 1985, Missouri was in no danger of losing federal highway funds.\nA minor in possession (MIP) of alcohol or a business or person which furnishes alcohol to a minor is guilty of a misdemeanor, although for sellers there are numerous defenses and exceptions. Missouri is one of six states, however, with a unique exception which allows a",
"-21.610337503516348"
],
[
"such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents and dosage. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33% after labeling was mandated. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 is cited by drug policy reform advocates such as James P. Gray as a successful model for re-legalization of currently prohibited drugs by requiring accurate",
"-21.607697601197287"
],
[
"an estimated half of all suicides correlated with alcohol abuse. Russia's suicide rate has declined since the 1990s, alongside per capita alcohol consumption, despite the economic crises since then; therefore it is believed that alcohol consumption is more of a factor than economic conditions. Teenage suicides In 2012, the rate of teenage suicides in Russia was three times higher than the world average.",
"-21.58254238992231"
],
[
"drunk and disorderly in a public place, selling alcohol to a minor (under 18), threatening behaviour or language and \"behaviour likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to others\". Penalty notices can also be issued for minor shop thefts and minor criminal damage and in January 2009 the offence of possession of cannabis was added to the scheme. Recipients have 21 days to pay the notice or request a court hearing. If a penalty notice is not paid after 21 days then the outstanding amount is increased by 50% and if it is still unpaid the fine is",
"-21.5712919573416"
],
[
"a liquor store to deliver alcoholic beverages by car or van to a person's home. ABC regulations mandate that the alcoholic beverages being delivered are paid for in advance, that they are received by someone 21 or older, and that they take place when the licensed establishment is permitted to be open. Penalties for underage drinking The state underage drinking statute is a disorderly persons offense (misdemeanor), which upon conviction is punishable by up to 6 months in jail (rarely imposed), a $500–$1000 fine, and a mandatory 6-month suspension of the person's driver's license. The penalties are the same for",
"-21.565839898132253"
],
[
"as illegal alcohol, also due to the high incidence of alcohol poisoning.",
"-21.539988827542402"
],
[
"of alcohol, stricter regulation of alcohol advertising and the provision of brief Interventions. Brief Interventions for alcohol abuse reduce the incidence of unsafe sex, sexual violence, unplanned pregnancy and, likely, STD transmission. Information and education on social norms and the harms associated with alcohol abuse delivered via the internet or face-to-face has not been found to result in any meaningful benefit in changing harmful drinking behaviours in young people.\nAccording to European law, individuals who are suffering from alcohol abuse or other related problems cannot be given a license, or if in possession of a license cannot get it renewed. This",
"-21.50418162861024"
],
[
"in order to purchase illegal alcohol. This is promoted through prohibitive laws that ban people from purchasing alcohol on many days, and high taxes that make much alcohol legally expensive.\nDue to the monopoly on many narcotics, there are concerns that many government officials engage in corruption through the distribution of cannabis and opium by asking for kickbacks, albeit there is not illegality to the sale of cannabis through the Ministry of Health.",
"-21.499411428463645"
],
[
"nicotine products instead of the ones for which advertising is more regulated. For instance, while TV ads of cigarettes are banned in the United States, similar TV ads of e-cigarettes are not.\nThe most effective media are usually banned first, meaning advertisers need to spend more money to addict the same number of people. Comprehensive bans can make it impossible to effectively substitute other forms of advertising, leading to actual falls in consumption. However, skillful use of allowed media can increase advertising exposure; the exposure of U.S. children to nicotine advertising is increasing as of 2018.\nIn the US, sport and event",
"-21.477279510814697"
],
[
"the smoking rooms; cleaning and maintenance personnel may enter the room only one hour after it was last used for smoking.\nPopular French cigarette brands include Gauloises and Marlboro.\nThe possession, sale and use of cannabis (predominantly Moroccan hashish) is illegal in France. Since 1 March 1994, the penalties for cannabis use are from two months to a year and/or a fine, while possession, cultivation or trafficking of the drug can be punished much more severely, up to ten years. According to a 1992 survey by SOFRES, 4.7 million French people ages 12–44 have smoked cannabis at least once in their",
"-21.365912062785355"
],
[
"as opiates and cocaine\" and military delinquencies due to its use were \"negligible in number\" compared to alcohol. By other reports and research The 1933 report has been cited by other reports and research including the Surgeon General's 1988 Health Consequences of Smoking: Nicotine Addiction, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare's 1972 report to Congress, Licit and Illicit Drugs by Consumers Union (1972), medical studies on human appetite, and others. By legal defenses In 1964, Lowell Eggemeier's legal defense cited the 1933 government report, in the nation's first protest against what was called irrational drug control policy.",
"-21.348940947500523"
],
[
"is illegal to distribute alcoholic beverages for free, as well as serving a customer more than two beverages at a time. Practices designed to get customers to drink more, such as drinking games, are prohibited, as is the awarding of drinks as prizes. Place Sales of Alcohol were once only permitted from state-owned stores, but the laws establishing the stores were repealed in 1991 and the stores gradually closed. Privately owned stores now obtain licenses to operate as \"Agency Liquor Stores\". Establishments selling liquor may not be within 300 feet of an existing school or church ",
"-21.343636434054133"
],
[
"have taken a blood sample.\nDriving while consuming alcohol may be illegal within a jurisdiction. In some it is illegal for an open container of an alcoholic beverage to be in the passenger compartment of a motor vehicle or in some specific area of that compartment. There have been cases of drivers being convicted of a DUI when they were not observed driving after being proven in court they had been driving while under the influence.\nIn the case of an accident, car insurance may be automatically declared invalid for the intoxicated driver, i.e. the drunk driver is fully responsible for damages.",
"-21.33735766459722"
],
[
"for the product until the company disbanded due to prohibition. After Asher Guckenheimer's death the company changed hands several times, and the new owners in 1925 attempted to continue to sell the whiskey despite the prohibition. In 1925 the corporation and 13 of its workers were indicted on charges relating to conspiring to obtain the release of a large quantity of whiskey from bond to sell and deliver it unlawfully. The company was found guilty and the warehouse was sold to the Landau Brothers Contracting and Building Company. They owned the building until it was again sold to Paddington Associates",
"-21.335866120047285"
],
[
"the law caused significant public backlash, fuelled by gun rights lobbyists, and several shop owners offering such guns received death threats and stopped stocking them In 2014, 12 years after the law was passed, it was suggested the law be repealed if gun rights lobbyists agree not to resist the introduction of \"smart\" firearms.\nDrug prohibition can lead drug traffickers to prefer stronger, more dangerous substances, that can be more easily smuggled and distributed than other, less concentrated substances.\nTelevised drug prevention advertisements may lead to increased drug use.\nIncreasing usage of search engines, also including recent image search features, has contributed in",
"-21.323389913362917"
],
[
"to students underage and for those violating the advertising laws for tobacco products could be fined 500–10,000 EUR. On a store's fourth violation, its license is suspended for ten days, while after the fifth violation it is revoked permanently. Furthermore, the law includes that a driver may be fined up to 1,500 EUR for smoking with a minor (under 12 years of age) on board, regardless of who was smoking and it may be doubled if it is a public sector vehicle, such as a public bus. Drivers may have their licenses suspended for a month after each violation.\nHowever, these",
"-21.303037696750835"
],
[
"common). Within 24 hours of legalization, as much as 1.5 million barrels of 3.2% ABW beer was sold, causing some to predict a \"beer famine\". Soon thereafter, in December of the same year, the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution repealed prohibition in general, but left the production of alcoholic beverages heavily regulated by federal, state, and local authorities. Included in these regulations was the imposition of a three-tier distribution system, in which a manufacturer of alcoholic beverages must go through a wholesale distributor to sell its product, rather than selling to retailers directly. Post Prohibition Although the Twenty-first",
"-21.27455916166946"
],
[
"- under Regulation 28. Drinking age Although there's no legal drinking age is being set in Hong Kong, however, with the effect of the \"Dutiable Commodities (Amendment) Ordinance 2018\" (Cap. 109 Hong Kong Law) since November 30, 2018, sale or supply of alcohol / intoxicating liquor to minors (aged below 18) in the course of business is prohibited. The maximum fine for selling or supplying intoxicating liquor to a minor, or selling intoxicating liquor via vending machines, is HK$50,000 on summary conviction. Those who obstruct inspectors during enforcement are liable to a maximum fine of HK$10,000 on summary conviction.",
"-21.257461476547178"
],
[
"the Republic of Korea mandated tobacco manufactures to include warnings on cigarette packages. The violation against the smoke policy include a fine, which is less than 100 thousand won. Drinking alcohol According to the World Health Organization, South Koreans rank No. 28 in alcohol consumption over all (2015) and No. 22 in the OECD (2013). According to Euromonitor data, it is number 1 in hard-liquor consumption (2013). Age-standardized death rate of liver cirrhosis for male in South Korea is 20.6% of which 70.5% is attributed to alcohol. Prevalence of alcohol use disorders (including alcohol dependence and harmful use of alcohol)",
"-21.239653201948386"
],
[
"rejected or returned them.\n\nNicotine use is frequently shown in movies. While academics had long speculated that there was paid product placement, it was not until internal industry documents were released that there was hard evidence of such practices. The documents show that in the 1980s and 1990s, cigarettes were shown in return for ≤six-figure (US$) sponsorship deals. More money was paid for a star actor to be shown using nicotine. While this sponsorship is now banned in some countries, it is unclear whether the bans are effective, as such deals are generally not publicized or investigated.\nSmokers in movies are generally",
"-21.21745903987903"
],
[
"ban public drinking or the purchase of alcohol in certain areas or at certain times. \nPublic intoxication is illegal in France and an intoxicated person may be detained by the police or gendarmes and placed in a secure room (possibly a holding cell) until sober. The maximum fine is 150 euros. Germany The possession of open containers of alcohol and drinking in public (street, park etc.) is legal for people of the legal drinking age (16 for beer and wine; 18 for distilled spirits). Many cities forbid or restrict the consumption of alcohol in public transit or inside train stations.",
"-21.190927387506235"
],
[
"did not issue licenses, effectively banning the drugs.\nThe American judicial system did not initially accept drug prohibition. Prosecutors argued that possessing drugs was a tax violation, as no legal licenses to sell drugs were in existence; hence, a person possessing drugs must have purchased them from an unlicensed source. After some wrangling, this was accepted as federal jurisdiction under the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution. Alcohol prohibition The prohibition of alcohol commenced in Finland in 1919 and in the United States in 1920. Because alcohol was the most popular recreational drug in these countries, reactions to its prohibition",
"-21.166036709444597"
],
[
"in store for you one week later.\nSmith claimed to have downed the first legal drink in the United States once prohibition was repealed with the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution, and he wrote about the incident in Chapter VI of Life in a Putty Knife Factory. However, others also claimed to have taken the first Repeal drink; in New York City, Joe Weber of the comedy team Weber and Fields took the first legal drink with several reporters as his witnesses.",
"-21.16489720953541"
],
[
"have a great deal of problems from the use of alcohol so we should multiply that with marijuana\". Arguments against inconsistent drug laws Since alcohol prohibition ended and the War on Drugs began there has been much debate over the issue of consistency among legislators with regard to drug prohibition. Many anti-prohibition activists focus on the well-documented dangers of alcohol (such as alcoholism, cystisis, domestic violence, brain and liver damage). In addition to anecdotal evidence, they cite statistics to show more deaths caused by drunk driving under the influence of alcohol than by drivers under the influence of marijuana, and",
"-21.16175512832706"
],
[
"displayed prominently in stores. On April 1, 2008, smoking in a car with passengers under 19 inside became illegal. Minors are prohibited from possessing tobacco products. \nAs of 2015, 17.8% of Nova Scotia residents smoke. Ontario Ontario banned smoking in public spaces and workplaces in 1994 with the passing of the Tobacco Control Act and became the first province to outlaw the sale of tobacco in pharmacies. This was replaced with the Smoke Free Ontario Act in May 2006. In 2008, a ban on retail displays of tobacco was implemented. Since January 21, 2009, smoking is banned in all",
"-21.15552842989564"
],
[
"Kingdom Although the sale or consumption of commercial alcohol has never been prohibited by law in the United Kingdom, historically, various groups in the UK have campaigned for the prohibition of alcohol; including the Society of Friends (Quakers), The Methodist Church and other non-conformists, as well as temperance movements such as Band of Hope and temperance Chartist movements of the nineteenth century.\nFormed in 1853 and inspired by the Maine law in the United States, the United Kingdom Alliance aimed at promoting a similar law prohibiting the sale of alcohol in the UK. This hard-line group of prohibitionists was opposed by",
"-21.124824411293957"
],
[
"consent provision, thus making it illegal in all cases for a tavern or liquor store to sell alcohol to person under 18. In 1908, the penalties were increased so that a tavern keeper who served a minor could be jailed. Upon the start of Prohibition, New Jersey repealed its laws regarding the sale of alcohol to minors since the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited almost all liquor sales.\nUpon repeal of Prohibition and the passage of the Alcoholic Beverage Control Law, the ABC issued regulations that prohibited bars and liquor stores from selling alcohol to a person under",
"-21.100715542270336"
],
[
"people's mental development, their ability to concentrate in school, and their motivation and initiative to reach goals. And marijuana affects people of all ages: Harvard University researchers report that the risk of a heart attack is five times higher than usual in the hour after smoking marijuana.\n— US Drug Enforcement Administration (2003). \"Speaking Out Against Drug Legalization\"\nMany of the deaths from using cannabis, other than from car accidents while intoxicated or violence and aggression, are more likely to figure in the longer term, just as with tobacco, where both nicotine overdose and cannabis overdose are extremely rare or nonexistent. While",
"-21.05121230275836"
],
[
"Smoking in Sweden Smoking in Sweden is at a very low prevalence; only 11% of the total Swedish population (8% of men and 10% of women) smoked daily in 2016. Around another 10% smoke occasionally. Smoking has been banned in all bars and restaurants since May 2005. A majority of Swedes supported the introduction of the ban. Sweden was the only European country to achieve the WHO goal of less than 20% daily smoking prevalence among adults by year 2000. Sweden has a high level of use of smokeless tobacco, specifically a moist snuff product called 'snus', which some Swedes",
"-21.04126947990153"
],
[
"is placed.\nCurrently, the standard is that alcohol advertisements can only be placed in media where 70% of the audience is over the legal drinking age. Alcohol advertising's creative messages should not be designed to appeal to people under the age of 21, for example, using cartoon characters as spokespeople is discouraged. Advertising cannot promote brands based on alcohol content or its effects. Advertising must not encourage irresponsible drinking. Another issue in media placement is whether media vendors will accept alcohol advertising. The decision to accept an individual ad or a category of advertising is always at the discretion of the",
"-21.01774018188007"
],
[
"are disabled due to alcohol-related neuropsychiatric disorders. Alcohol abuse is highly associated with adolescent suicide. Adolescents who abuse alcohol are 17 times more likely to commit suicide than adolescents who don't drink. Additionally, alcohol abuse increases the risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with violent crimes, through specifics differ between particular countries and cultures. By country According to studies of present and former alcoholic drinkers in Canada, 20% of them are aware that their drinking has negatively impacted their lives in various vital areas including",
"-20.973971047089435"
],
[
"Production and Trade of Ethanol, Alcoholic and Ethanol-containing Products and about Restriction of Alcoholic Products Consumption (Drinking)\" forbids drinking in almost all public places (including entrance halls, staircases and elevators of living buildings) except bars, restaurants or other similar establishments where it is permitted to sell alcoholic products for immediate consumption. Singapore Drinking in public is legal in Singapore, however, consumption of alcohol in a public space or non-licensed premise is restricted from 10.30pm to 7am after the 2013 Little India riot. A permit will be required to consume alcohol during restricted hours in public places. Sales are prohibited from",
"-20.96317613561405"
],
[
"problems). Quality control According to a World Health Organisation report: \"As cannabis is an illegal drug its cultivation, harvesting and distribution are not subject to quality control mechanisms to ensure the reliability and safety of the product used by consumers. It is well recognised in developing countries, such as Kenya, that illicit alcohol production can result in the contamination with toxic by-products or adulterants that can kill or seriously affect the health of users. The same may be true of illicit drugs such as opiates, cocaine and amphetamine in developed societies.\"\nThe government cannot enforce quality control on products sold and",
"-20.959751353700995"
],
[
"a widespread criminal activity in Texas. The research found that 740 girls under age 18 were documented being marketed for sex during a 30-day period in Texas, of whom 712 of these girls were being marketed through Internet classified web sites and 28 were being marketed through escort services. More information concluded from the research is that there are more girls being trafficked for sex in Texas during one month than there are women killed in domestic violence with former or current husbands, intimate partners or boyfriends in Texas over an entire year. There are more girls being trafficked for",
"-20.917771497392096"
],
[
"transport of intoxicating beverages within the United States, as well as import and export. The Volstead Act, 1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5% and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not try.\nConsumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance, and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly ineffective, even if it did not",
"-20.91125378615834"
],
[
"dangerous than the opiates, amphetamines and barbiturates, and also less dangerous than alcohol. (…) An increasing number of people, mainly young, in all classes of society are experimenting with this drug, and substantial numbers use it regularly for social pleasure. There is no evidence that this activity is causing violent crime, or is producing in otherwise normal people conditions of dependence or psychosis requiring medical treatment (…) there are indications that (cannabis) may become a functional equivalent of alcohol.\"\nThe Advisory Committee appeared also to accept the principle of decriminalisation. The main proposal in the report was that \"possession of a",
"-20.90611506870482"
],
[
"dramatic drop in cigarette use among preteens since 1999. \"We didn't have to criminalize tobacco or create long prison sentences for cigarettes to achieve these amazing results,\" she said. \"The decrease was due to quality, comprehensive education at all grade levels about the health consequences of smoking and strict laws about sales to minors. This approach is working for tobacco.\" Massachusetts On May 16, 2007, Representatives Viriato deMacedo (R) and Daniel Webster (R) introduced House Bill 4434 to the Massachusetts State Legislature. If enacted, this legislation would have made Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A Class C controlled substances in that",
"-20.903057058574632"
],
[
"while \"over 80\" (over 80 milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood). In 1976, Parliament made the penalty the same as driving while impaired, created the offence of refusing to provide a breath sample (with the same penalties), and created laws allowing the police to use roadside screening devices. Both offences are now set out in the same section of the Criminal Code, section 253.\nAfter 1976, there were additional changes to the minimum penalties, and the introduction of new offences (impaired driving causing bodily harm and impaired driving causing death).\nBy 2008, drinking and driving cases made up",
"-20.88813774630762"
]
] |
57l4ga | Is intelligence genetic? Are some people genetically predisposed to be better at things like math and arts? | [
"Yes, and no. Intelligence isn't really something that exists by itself, its more a combination of curiosity, creativity, persistence, experience, memory, and calculation. Those are to different degrees innate or trained/learned skills. Regardless of how smart you are it's damn hard to learn something you find dreadfully boring, and extremely easy to learn something you find fascinating. Though you often need some pretty significant persistence in learning the boring stuff so you have the required foundation to understand the interesting stuff. As for genetics. Mental strength is a lot like physical strength. You aren't going to win a gold medal at the olympics without both innate talent and a ton of hard work and training. Yet a puny weakling can obtain significant strength through exercise and training.",
"I used to work in a lab that did learning, memory, & intelligence research. Ultimately, in humans, **approximately 50% of your mental capacity is determined by your level of general intelligence**, according to well-founded statistical analyses. Let me explain: **\"General intelligence\"** Intelligence is hard to define, but we do have some concrete evidence for what it is. The most important piece of evidence that there is such a thing as \"general intelligence\" is the fact that pretty much all types of mental abilities are correlated with each other. In other words, people who are really good at math tend *on average* to be really good at a lot of other things. This strongly implies that there is some kind of \"general factor\" that people can have more or less of. One very important thing to note is that \"general intelligence\" doesn't really directly give someone math skills, or computer programming skills, etcetera. Instead, you should think of general intelligence as giving someone an increased ability to learn those things. Someone who scores higher on the \"general factor\" will be able to learn calculus more easily, in less time, than others. In practice, this often results in people who can't learn calculus as easily simply not learning calculus, and this can make it look like \"person A can understand calculus but person B can't.\" In reality, it's usually not a matter of being able / not able to understand something. It's simply a matter of it costing less time and effort for some than others. It's just sadly very easy for people to become discouraged by things like this and deciding that they are not able at all. **\"multiple kinds of intelligence\"** There are also lower-level \"group factors,\" which represent the fact that certain \"groups\" of mental abilities correlate with each other especially strongly. For example, spatial reasoning skills might be one type of group factor. Generally speaking, the different \"group factors\" tend to correlate with the \"general factor.\" Someone who is more intelligent will usually have good spatial reasoning skills, as well as good ability to learn math, ability to learn music, ability to learn computer skills, and so on. But the group factors can vary somewhat independently from the general factor. So somebody who had high general intelligence CAN have poor spatial reasoning skills. Or someone with lower general intelligence CAN have high ability to learn math, or ability to learn languages, and so on. **Genetics** Studies on twins have helped demonstrate that there is a strong genetic component to intelligence. For example, some studies compare identical and non-identical twins. This makes a great control, because in either case the twins are born at the same time and raised in the same environment. But identical twins share all of their genes, whereas non-identical twins have approximately 50% of the same genes. So, if you give IQ tests to a bunch of twins, then if intelligence is highly genetic, identical twins should be more similar to each other than fraternal twins. But if intelligence is purely due to upbringing, socioeconomic status, etc., then fraternal twins should be just as similar to each other as identical twins. In fact, such studies have found that identical twins usually have similar IQ, and fraternal twins have IQs that are less closely matched. As far as we can tell, something like 50% of IQ (and a true IQ test is a pretty decent measure of general intelligence) is genetic. I am not aware of studies specifically addressing the genetic component of group factors. So I'm not sure how likely it is for a specific talent in one area to be heritable.",
"There is definitely a string genetic component to intelligence - see [Heritability of IQ] ( URL_0 ) for summaries of the research. The correlation varies with age but is roughly +0.5. IQ and intelligence are not exactly the same thing, but what we call \"intelligence\" is strongly correlated with IQ. There's also ongoing research in to the effects of upbringing, since we also know that children need good nutrition and intellectual stimulation at critical times if they are to reach their full potential.",
" > Is intelligence genetic? Define intelligence, but IQ certainly is. Early childhood education, diet etc of course also play a major role. > Are some people genetically predisposed to better at certain things like math vs art? We don't know, but a high IQ is correlated with success in all sorts of intellectual endeavors, mathy and artsy both. What gets really fun and controversial is when you get into large-population territory, for example, China, Mongolia and Japan score similarly on IQ test (around 105 average) despite vastly different standards of living. This of course implying it may be more about genetics than we care to admit, and these differences may be observable on a general level in groups larger than a family unit.",
"I know it is purely anecdotal but my two kids seem to have inherited math skills, like I did. My wife is a teacher in a district that focuses on reading first. All other subjects fall into place if reading is solid. As a result, our kids have only had reading training at home. We sometimes do math or science but the time ratio is close to 500:1 against reading. Our oldest, now 7, is excelling in math. It is too easy for him and they're now scrambling to bring in lessons from higher grades. He never talks or thinks about it, just \"gets it\". When my now 5 year old was 3, he would whisper answers to math questions that me and mom and the older kid would be talking about, like how much money we need or how much time left or days until type of stuff. He even knew a week out how many hours until he would wake up and be a 5 year old. At 4, his montessori school asked us if it would be alright if they tought him multiplication because their simple lessons of counting shapes and sorting stuff were not stimulating him. Then there is me. Grow up in small town. Not much emphasis on school. Didn't do well in school. I knew exactly how much effort was needed to pass and be as lazy as possible doing it. I never stood out in math. Fell asleep a lot. When I was leaving high school and taking the college entrance tests, i scored perfect in math on the ACT and the college math placement test. I also finished them in half the time as everyone else. My math teacher at the time was so upset by this that he was yelling. With math, I just \"got it\".",
"If anyone tells you that intelligence is not something that you get from birth then they are just bullshitting you. You ever wonder why some people can learn at an unbelievable rate and you struggle your ass off? How some people can pick up an instrument and be a god at it while you try for years and years and still are no where near their level. How some people can just start running and be marathon runners and you try every day to and could never come close? How long have you been trying to become a basketball god and try your hardest every day, and then someone comes along and within a few weeks are at a level that you can't even imagine being at? It is all in your genes. They were born with it and you was not. Not everyone gets to be a rockstar. Some people are born with that gift and most people are doomed to live in mediocrity. I'm sure that I will be downvoted for saying this, and I'm sure that everyone will say all kinds of things to try and go against it and prove it wrong, but the fact remains the same. Some people are on another level. A level that no matter how hard you try, you will never achieve. It's a fact of life. A hard fact to deal with, but a fact non-the-less.",
"There's evidence from studies of adopted children that it's largely genetic. Adopted children actually tend to be less successful in life, which is weird because adoption is expensive and adoptive parents are carefully screened. So adoptive parents should be providing better home lives on average because they need to be financially stable in order to afford the process and be able to demonstrate that they'll probably be successful parents in order to qualify. The conclusions reached by the study are that parents who give up children are, on average, doing so because they've been less successful at life and don't have the resources to care for a child. It seems that these traits get passed along to the child and this genetic component is more powerful than the child's environment. Intelligence and life skills seem to be largely genetic. Source: the book *Freakonomics* by Stephen Dubner and another author whose name eludes me.",
"There were studies done on both adopted kids and twin studies. I believe the results were that intelligence is about 60-70 % nature and 30-40% nurture. [here]( URL_0 ) is an example of one such study, showing that in adopted kids (at birth), the child's intelligence has a significantly stronger correlation with the biological mother than the adopting mother.",
"Mehlman has noted, “SNAP-25 is a gene increasingly associated with cognitive intelligence, and g genes are ones which code for a protein which increases the receptive rate which information can pass through a cell” (17). When these genes were altered in mice, some of these mice showed increased problem solving capabilities, as well as a considerably reduced amount of time navigating mazes, due to memory of the pathways. In particular rats were put in murky water they couldn't see through, and the genetically modified rats immediately swam for the hidden platform. While the rats who had solved this maze in the past, but had no genetic manipulation had to swim around for much longer to find the platform, they didn't go immediately to it. URL_0 "
] | [
[
"are many genes associated with genetic transmission of intelligence, but current theories of intelligence point to inheritance of intelligence from parents to be due to both genetic and environmental factors, especially as there is no concrete proof of the relationship between certain genes and intelligence.\nThe correlation between height and intelligence could also be confounded by how cultural and psychological factors affect the expression of intelligence. It is impossible to create a culture-free test for intelligence, as different societies value and cultivate different skill sets and ways of interpreting the world. For example, some cultures put more emphasis on hard work",
"-37.56031434619217"
],
[
"intelligent people are found to acquire new material quicker.\nIndividual intelligence can be used to predict plenty of life outcomes from school attainment and career success to health outcomes and even mortality. Whether collective intelligence is able to predict other outcomes besides group performance on mental tasks has still to be investigated. Potential connections to individual intelligence Gladwell (2008) showed that the relationship between individual IQ and success works only to a certain point and that additional IQ points over an estimate of IQ 120 do not translate into real life advantages. If a similar border exists for Group-IQ or if",
"-36.152293228526105"
],
[
"conclusions. \nAccording to Hunt, international studies of intelligence are important because they measure which populations possess the cognitive skills that are necessary in a post-industrial world. He also writes that genetics cannot be ruled out as a possible cause, but that education surely plays a major role, so one should not conclude that human capital in poor countries can never be improved. \"Average IQ values in various European countries\" The 1981 article \"Average IQ values in various European countries\" by Vinko Buj is the only international IQ study that over a short time period has compared IQs using the same",
"-35.93484937397989"
],
[
"to be the least intelligent is evidence of dysgenic fertility. He said there has been a genuine increase in phenotypic intelligence, but that this is caused by environmental factors and is masking a decline in genotypic intelligence.\nAccording to Lynn, those with greater educational achievement have fewer children, while children with lower IQs come from larger families, which he viewed as evidence that intelligence and fertility are negatively correlated. Lynn agreed with Lewis Terman's comment in 1922 that \"children of successful and cultivated parents test higher than children from wretched and ignorant homes for the simple reason that their heredity is",
"-35.80954517018108"
],
[
"certain genetic variants that contribute to an average lower intelligence. Such a hypothetical situation could hold without all Africans carrying the same genes or belonging to a single evolutionary lineage. According to Mackintosh, a biological basis for the gap thus cannot be ruled out on a priori grounds.\nIntelligence is a polygenic trait. This means that intelligence is under the influence of several genes, possibly several thousand. The effect of most individual genetic variants on intelligence is thought to be very small, well below 1% of the variance in g. Current studies using quantitative trait loci have yielded little success in",
"-35.758403083484154"
],
[
"than in general intelligence, some are gifted in mathematics and autism spectrum disorder has not prevented some adults from major accomplishments.\nThe questionnaire was tried on Cambridge University students and a group of 16 winners of the British Mathematical Olympiad to determine whether there was a link between a talent for mathematical and scientific disciplines and traits associated with the autism spectrum. Mathematics, physical sciences, and engineering students were found to score significantly higher, e.g., 21.8 on average for mathematicians and 21.4 for computer scientists. The average score for the British Mathematical Olympiad winners was 24.",
"-35.391780731973995"
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[
"life choices. One study which tested this idea looked at the incidence of heritable and non-heritable cancers in individuals of differing levels of intelligence. They found that those of higher intelligence were less likely to suffer from cancer that was not heritable, that was based on lifestyle, thus supporting the evolutionary novelty theory. However this was only a preliminary study and only included the disease cancer, which has been found in previous studies to have an ambiguous relationship with intelligence. Disease and injury prevention Having higher intelligence scores may mean that individuals are better at preventing disease and injury. Their",
"-35.334071756878984"
],
[
"and general intelligence, stating \"there is still almost no replicated evidence concerning the individual genes, which have variants that contribute to intelligence differences\". In 2001, a review in the Journal of Black Psychology refuted eight major premises on which the hereditarian view regarding race and intelligence is based.\nA 2005 literature review article by Sternberg, Grigorenko and Kidd stated that no gene has been shown to be linked to intelligence, \"so attempts to provide a compelling genetic link of race to intelligence are not feasible at this time\". Hunt (2010, p. 447) and Mackintosh (2011, p. 344) concurred, both scholars noting that while",
"-35.207036875071935"
],
[
"and mortality. The study was constructed to better identify if there are any shared phenotypic and genetic influences from height and intelligence in determining health outcomes and mortality. Definition of intelligence Human intelligence can be measured according to an extensive number of tests and criteria, ranging from academic, social, and emotional fields. There is no clear definition for what \"intelligence\" is in humans. There are several theories that define different categories of intelligence and associate traits, instead of a single general ability. In most of the studies, intelligence quotient (IQ) tests were used to measure a subject's mental age,",
"-35.0876870174543"
],
[
"abilities, such as the capacities to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use language, and to learn. There are several ways to more specifically define intelligence. In some cases, intelligence may include traits such as creativity, personality, character, knowledge, or wisdom. However, some psychologists prefer not to include these traits in the definition of intelligence.\nA widely researched index or classification of intelligence among scientists is intelligence quotient (IQ). IQ is a summary index, calculated by testing individuals' abilities in a variety of tasks and producing a composite score to represent overall ability, e.g.,",
"-35.0462384755956"
],
[
"than being clever, making it difficult to accurately test and compare the intelligence of different groups within a population.\nThere is evidence that intellectual development is influenced by the expectations placed on an individual. In an experiment involving elementary school children, researchers found that when teachers believe students are above average intellect, these students tend to do better in school and receive higher IQ scores than students who are perceived as average or below average intellect, regardless of the actual competence of the students. This self-fulfilling prophecy caused by expectations is known as the Pygmalion effect, and it may play",
"-34.90254236830515"
],
[
"importance of genetic or environmental factors on the development of a given trait, nor does it convey the extent to which that trait is genetically determined. Arguments in support of a genetic explanation of racial differences in IQ are sometimes fallacious. For instance, hereditarians have sometimes cited the failure of known environmental factors to account for such differences, or the high heritability of intelligence within races, as evidence that racial differences in IQ are genetic.\nPsychometricians have found that intelligence is substantially heritable within populations, with 30–50% of variance in IQ scores in early childhood being attributable to genetic factors in",
"-34.7815908939956"
],
[
"on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence, multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality traits are also important,",
"-34.755222469349974"
],
[
"the capacity for intelligence is inherited, those with exceptional intelligence also need exceptional schooling. Terman wrote that \"[bright children] are rarely given tasks which call forth their best ability, and as a result they run the risk of falling into lifelong habits of submaximum efficiency\". In other words, nature (heredity) plays a large role in determining intelligence, but nurture (the environment) is also important in fostering the innate intellectual ability. By his own admission, there was nothing in his own ancestry that would have led anyone to predict him to have an intellectual career. Legacy From 1957 until 2018,",
"-34.74761056303396"
],
[
"intelligence. Data, not surprisingly, in the actual social context, indicates that there is an association between race, gender, class and IQ scores. This is not a revelation. But, mainstream science on intelligence views it as an \"unfortunate\" biological destiny!\" Belkhir et al. also accused the signatories of the editorial of reviving the \"pseudo-scientific inquiry\" of biological determinism.\nIn a 2001 article in Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Ian J. Deary noted that the Wall Street Journal \"... is an odd place for such a document, and readers might view the signatories as one-sided, largely committed to the psychometrics-based intelligence research they were",
"-34.689773099977174"
],
[
"Fertility and intelligence The relationship between fertility and intelligence has been investigated in many demographic studies. There is evidence that, on a population level, intelligence is negatively correlated with fertility rate and positively correlated with survival rate of offspring. The combined net effect of these two conflicting forces on ultimate population intelligence is not well studied and is unclear. It is theorized that if an inverse correlation of IQ with fertility rate were stronger than the correlation of IQ with survival rate (and if heritable factors involved in IQ were consistently expressed in populations with different fertility rates), assuming this",
"-34.52751755021745"
],
[
"older. Malnutrition and diseases Certain single-gene metabolic disorders can severely affect intelligence. Phenylketonuria is an example, with publications demonstrating the capacity of phenylketonuria to produce a reduction of 10 IQ points on average. Meta-analyses have found that environmental factors, such as iodine deficiency, can result in large reductions in average IQ; iodine deficiency has been shown to produce a reduction of 12.5 IQ points on average. Heritability and socioeconomic status The APA report \"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\" (1995) also stated that: \n\"We should note, however, that low-income and non-white families are poorly represented in existing adoption studies as well as",
"-34.45711499729077"
],
[
"they now also give scores for many more narrow abilities. Lack of empirical evidence According to a 2006 study many of Gardner's \"intelligences\" correlate with the g factor, supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence. According to the study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involved a blend of g, of cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some cases, of non-cognitive abilities or of personality characteristics.\nThe Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation has tested hundreds of thousands of people to determine their \"aptitudes\" (\"intelligences\"), such as manual dexterity, musical ability, spatial visualization, and memory for numbers. ",
"-34.396733347133704"
],
[
"that supports some of the human brain's most distinctive cognitive abilities. Consequently, individual intelligence within the human species might be modulated by the degree of cortical convolution.\nAn analysis published in 2019 found the contours of 677 kids' brain had a genetic correlation of almost 1 between IQ and surface area of the supramarginal gyrus on the left side of the brain. Neural efficiency The neural efficiency hypothesis postulates that more intelligent individuals display less activation in the brain during cognitive tasks, as measured by Glucose metabolism. A small sample of participants (N=8) displayed negative correlations between intelligence and absolute regional",
"-34.211311070772354"
],
[
"the over 17,000 human genes are thought to have an effect on the development and functionality of the brain. While a number of individual genes have been reported to be associated with IQ, none have a strong effect. Deary and colleagues (2009) reported that no finding of a strong single gene effect on IQ has been replicated. Recent findings of gene associations with normally varying intelligence differences in adults continue to show weak effects for any one gene; likewise in children, but see. Gene-environment interaction David Rowe reported an interaction of genetic effects with socioeconomic status, such that the heritability",
"-34.05824996611045"
],
[
"which can be paired with photographs to identify the individual.\nIt is becoming more accepted that a neurobiological basis for intelligence exists (at least for reasoning and problem-solving). The success of these intelligence studies present ethical issues. A large concern for the general population is the issue of race and intelligence. While little variation has been found between racial groups, the public perception of intelligence studies has been negatively impacted by concerns of racism. It is important to consider the consequences of studies that investigate intelligence differences in population-groups (racial or ethnic) and if it is ethical to conduct these studies.",
"-34.03083169271122"
],
[
"better health. This theory provides a theoretical background for evidence found that supports the idea that intelligence is related to mortality through health behaviours such as wearing a seatbelt or quitting smoking.\nEvolutionary novelty theory emphasises the role of behaviour in the link between mortality and intelligence whereas system integrity emphasis the role of genes. Thus system integrity predicts that individuals of higher intelligence will be better protected from diseases that are caused primarily by genetics whereas evolutionary adaptive theory suggests that individuals of higher intelligence will be better protected from diseases that are less heritable and are caused by poor",
"-34.0164674795451"
],
[
"the growth of new connections between neurons, and the selective elimination of such connection, called \"dendritic pruning\". Genetic factors of intelligence Humans have varying degrees of neuroplasticity due to their genetic makeups, which affects their ability to adapt to conditions in their environments and effectively learn from experiences. The degree to which intelligence test scores can be linked to genetic heritability increases with age. There is presently no explanation for this puzzling result, but flaws in the testing methods are suspected. A study of Dutch twins concludes that intelligence of 5 year olds is 26% heritable, while the test",
"-33.98198246852553"
],
[
"question.\nDevelopmental genetic analysis examines the effects of genes over the course of a human lifespan. Early studies of intelligence, which mostly examined young children, found that heritability measured 40–50%. Subsequent developmental genetic analyses found that variance attributable to additive environmental effects is less apparent in older individuals, with estimated heritability of IQ increasing in adulthood.\nMultivariate genetic analysis examines the genetic contribution to several traits that vary together. For example, multivariate genetic analysis has demonstrated that the genetic determinants of all specific cognitive abilities (e.g., memory, spatial reasoning, processing speed) overlap greatly, such that the genes associated with any specific cognitive",
"-33.948869746564014"
],
[
"analyzed Thurstone's data, discovering that those scored high in one category often did well in the others. This finding gives support that there is an underlying factor influencing them, namely g.\nHoward Gardner suggested in his theory of multiple intelligences that intelligence is formed out of multiple abilities. He recognized eight intelligences: linguistic, musical, spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist. He also considered the possibility of a ninth intelligent ability, existential intelligence. Gardner proposed that individuals who excelled in one ability would lack in another. Instead, his results showed that each of his eight intelligences correlate positively with each other.",
"-33.91244726086734"
],
[
"admitted that the selection (or rejection) of a candidate's intelligence is reminiscent more of an artistic judgment than of a scientific assessment.\nGenerally, linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities are called intelligence, but artistic, musical, athletic, etc. abilities are not. Gardner argues this causes the former to be needlessly aggrandized. Certain critics are wary of this widening of the definition, saying that it ignores \"the connotation of intelligence ... [which] has always connoted the kind of thinking skills that makes one successful in school.\"\nGardner writes \"I balk at the unwarranted assumption that certain human abilities can be arbitrarily singled out as intelligence while others",
"-33.7600035573123"
],
[
"intelligence, very little is truly known about how these factors go about shaping intelligence. Additionally, they stated that the genetic hypothesis (as used in the Bell Curve) does not explain the intelligence test score differences between racial groups. Boykin also collaborated on studies combining culture and education, two such studies were “In search of cultural themes and their expressions in the dynamics of classroom life” (2005) and “Culture in the sanctioned classroom practices of elementary school teachers serving low-income African American students” (2006). Culture In addition to combining culture and education in his studies, Boykin also studies culture on its",
"-33.74450514576529"
],
[
"mean by intelligence is general cognitive functioning (g) as assessed in the psychometric tradition of a general factor derived from a battery of diverse cognitive ability tests.\"\nHarrington (1997) gives a point-by-point analysis of the conclusions of the letter. He points out that the validity of tests is claimed as a property of the tests, rather than how or where they are used. He queried the claims about there being no cultural bias; and that intelligence was a key factor determining fitness in human evolution, something that he argued was inconsistent with the claims on heritability, if the geneticist's version of",
"-33.54224922854337"
],
[
"as \"feeble-minded\"; whereas, in the initial sentence of the study, Goddard said the study subjects were atypical members of their ethnic groups, who had been selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Countering Gould, Davis further explained that Goddard proposed that the low IQs of the sub-normally intelligent men and women who took the cognitive-ability test likely derived from their social environments rather than from their respective genetic inheritances, and concluded that \"we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence, and, if rightly brought up, will be good citizens\".\nIn his review, psychologist John B. Carroll said",
"-33.32447773421882"
],
[
"Race and intelligence The connection between race and intelligence has been a subject of debate in both popular science and academic research since the inception of IQ testing in the early 20th century. There remains some debate as to whether and to what extent differences in intelligence test scores reflect environmental factors as opposed to genetic ones, as well as to the definitions of what \"race\" and \"intelligence\" are, and whether they can be objectively defined. Currently, there is no non-circumstantial evidence that these differences in test scores have a genetic component, although some researchers believe that the existing",
"-33.273138114884205"
],
[
"we can be confident that none of the experts cited here actually believes that genes play no role in individual differences in IQ, but their positions are represented as such by newspapers that divide the world into hereditarians and environmentalists, and often fail to clarify for their readers that the argument is over the degree of genetic influence, not its existence or exclusive control. Because newspaper journalists either cannot or do not want to understand this distinction, readers will not either.\nNews reports made mistakes of the same proportion when reporting the expert view on the contribution of genetics to",
"-33.22607578005409"
],
[
"Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism). It was determined that Big Five traits have complex etiology with both genetics and outside factors influencing these traits. \nSome of her work has examined genetic influences on general intelligence, often referred to as g. Her research validates the psychological construct of a higher-level g factor that is not closely associated with any specific test, but rather reflects shared variance across multiple mental ability tests.",
"-33.134175559476716"
],
[
"multi-generational studies that would take a very long time in humans.\nOne such aspect of intelligence well suited for a non-human model is the experimental study of genetic aspects of g. Mice are currently being considered as a potential model due to their widespread availability, detailed knowledge of their genome, and the ease with which strains can be bred to exhibit individual differences in cognitive ability. Neuroscience Non-human models can also be used in neuroscience for neuroanatomical studies investigating intelligence and the influence of g on the neurological level. Rats have been used in experimental manipulations of intelligence using chemicals administered",
"-32.95750196292647"
],
[
"for what results in a persons intelligence basically boils down to the genetics of the subject in question and the environment they were raised in. Education as Causal of Intelligence There is substantial evidence to suggest that education influences intelligence. One study took advantage of the school system in Germany to investigate the relationship between education and intelligence. The children in the sample were required to be 6 years old before they started the school year on April 1, so it was possible to compare children who were of a similar chronological age, but had a year's difference in schooling.",
"-32.92983959166668"
],
[
"can be analyzed over time within an individual longitudinally (e.g. intelligence is stable over a lifetime, due to the same genetic influences – childhood genetically correlates with old age), or across studies or populations or ethnic groups/races, or across diagnoses, allowing discovery of whether different genes influence a trait over a lifetime (typically, they do not), whether different genes influence a trait in different populations due to differing local environments, whether there is disease heterogeneity across times or places or sex (particularly in psychiatric diagnoses there is uncertainty whether 1 country's 'autism' or 'schizophrenia' is the same as another's",
"-32.883968727401225"
],
[
"Human intelligence Relevance of IQ tests In psychology, human intelligence is commonly assessed by IQ scores, determined by IQ tests. However, there are critics of IQ who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores, or the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.\nOn the other hand, Linda S. Gottfredson (2006) has argued that the results of thousands of studies support the importance of IQ for school and job performance (see",
"-32.874670919802156"
],
[
"and ability to acquire knowledge as the most important elements.\nThe study found that psychologists were in agreement about the heritability of intelligence in that almost all (94%) felt that it played a substantial role but there was disagreement regarding accuracy with half of those that felt qualified to reply in this section agreed that there was not enough evidence to estimate heritability accurately. The 214 who thought there was enough evidence gave an average estimate of .596 for the US white population and .57 for the US black population.\nThe study also revealed that the majority (55%) of surveyed experts",
"-32.85166022818885"
],
[
"scores. Several scores correlate well with general intelligence. One such scale is R, the total number of responses; this reveals the questionable side-effect that more intelligent people tend to be elevated on many pathology scales, since many scales do not correct for high R: if a subject gives twice as many responses overall, it is more likely that some of these will seem \"pathological\". Also correlated with intelligence are the scales for Organizational Activity, Complexity, Form Quality, and Human Figure responses.\nThe same source reports that validity has also been shown for detecting such conditions as schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders;",
"-32.805283322610194"
],
[
"had postulated in 1987 that \"IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence\". By 2009, however, Flynn felt that the IQ test score changes are real. He suggests that our fast-changing world has faced successive generations with new cognitive challenges that have considerably stimulated intellectual ability. \"Our brains as presently constructed probably have much excess capacity ready to be used if needed. That was certainly the case in 1900.\" Flynn notes that \"Our ancestors in 1900 were not mentally retarded. Their intelligence was anchored in everyday reality. We differ from",
"-32.80315803915437"
],
[
"strength, metabolic syndrome and genetic correlation may be further potential markers of system integrity which by definition should explain a large part of or nullify the relationship between intelligence and mortality.\nAn opposing theory to the system integrity theory is the evolutionary novelty theory which suggests that those with higher intelligence are better equipped to deal with evolutionary novel events. It is proposed that intelligence evolved to tackle evolutionarily novel situations and that those with a higher IQ are better able to process when such a novel situation is dangerous or a health hazard and thus are likely to be in",
"-32.78057550646918"
],
[
"that national IQ data are primarily (not wholly) a function of innate ability, which in turn is at least partly generated by genes. There are many assumptions of cause–effect in here, and some of them involve substantial leaps of faith.\"\nPsychologist J. Philippe Rushton, president of the Pioneer Fund that has been a long time funder of research by Lynn, reviewed the book in 2006 for Personality and Individual Differences. Rushton wrote that the book extends and answers criticisms against the earlier work in several ways, and believed that the methods were accurate.\nEvolutionary biologist Satoshi Kanazawa claimed in 2008 to have",
"-32.77928856034123"
],
[
"normally distributed in the general population.\nIntelligence tests are widely used in educational, business, and military settings because of their efficacy in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income. Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance. General",
"-32.72831828150811"
],
[
"and other issues. However, the sheer volume of consortium-based data makes analysis difficult. Most studies also focus on one gene. In actuality, many genes and interactions between them likely contribute to individual differences in personality, behaviour and health. As social scientists often work with many variables, determining the number of affected genes also poses methodological challenges. More collaboration between medical researchers, geneticists and social scientists has been advocated to increase knowledge in this field of study.\nLimited access to human brain tissue poses a challenge to conducting human research. Not yet knowing if epigenetic changes in the blood and",
"-32.64918331525405"
],
[
"an independent sample confirmed these results, reporting a heritability estimate of 47%. These findings are compatible with the view that a large number of genes, each with only a small effect, contribute to differences in intelligence. Between-group heritability Although IQ differences between individuals are shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that mean group-level disparities (between-group differences) in IQ necessarily have a genetic basis. The Flynn effect is one example where there is a large difference between groups (past and present) with little or no genetic difference. An analogy, attributed to Richard Lewontin, illustrates this point:\nSuppose",
"-32.59810389755148"
],
[
"Though the specific number of s factors are unknown, a few have been relatively accepted: mechanical, spatial, logical, and arithmetical.\nRising interest in the debate on the structure of intelligence prompted Spearman to elaborate and argue for his hypothesis. He claimed that g was not made up of one single ability, but rather two genetically influenced, unique abilities working together. He called these abilities \"eductive\" and \"reproductive\". He suggested that future understanding of the interaction between these two different abilities would drastically change how individual differences and cognition are understood in psychology, possibly creating the basis for wisdom. Intelligence testing Many",
"-32.59603255346883"
],
[
"that the subjects of the study were not typical members of their groups but were selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Davis has further noted that Goddard argued that the low IQs of the test subjects were more likely due to environmental rather than genetic factors, and that Goddard concluded that \"we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence and if rightly brought up will be good citizens\". In 1996 the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs stated that IQ tests were not discriminatory towards any ethnic/racial groups.\nIn his book The Mismeasure of Man,",
"-32.577077643742086"
],
[
"intelligence most often used in the relevant studies include measures of fluid ability (Gf) and crystallized ability (Gc); that differ in their trajectory of development in individuals. The 'investment theory' by Cattell states that the individual differences observed in the procurement of skills and knowledge (Gc) are partially attributed to the 'investment' of Gf, thus suggesting the involvement of fluid intelligence in every aspect of the learning process. It is essential to highlight that the investment theory suggests that personality traits affect 'actual' ability, and not scores on an IQ test. In association, Hebb's theory of intelligence suggested a bifurcation",
"-32.56763879113714"
],
[
"scientific standing as on their supposed political implications\".\nThe task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They stated that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by both genetics and environment.\nThe report stated that a number of biological factors, including malnutrition, exposure to toxic substances, and various prenatal and perinatal stressors, result in lowered psychometric intelligence under at least some conditions. The task force agrees that large",
"-32.54697597344057"
],
[
"Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. It is used to predict educational outcomes and other variables of interest.\nOthers have attempted to measure intelligence indirectly by looking at individuals' or group's educational attainment, although this risks bias from other demographic factors, such as age, income, gender and cultural background, all of which can affect educational attainment.\nDissatisfaction with traditional IQ tests has led to the development of alternative theories. In 1983, Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, which broadens the conventional definition of intelligence, to include logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences.\nHe chose not to include spiritual intelligence",
"-32.498876104538795"
],
[
"personality is predictive of both types of performance. A separate study, however, found slightly different results, concluding that overall personality is more predictive of typical performance, while intelligence is still the best predictor of maximum performance. Honesty Many organizations give tests to potential employees during the interview process to determine their job knowledge, overall intelligence, or honesty, and use these to predict how the employee will perform if hired. Research has touched on how maximum performance can be predicted by these tests. For example, one tool is the integrity test, which is a test that attempts",
"-32.47798004928336"
],
[
"environment with a set of useful skills including reasoning and understanding patterns and relationships. He believed individuals highly developed in one intellectual ability tended to be highly developed at other intellectual abilities. A more intelligent individual was thought to be able to more easily \"accommodate\" experiences into existing cognitive structures to develop structures more compatible with environmental stimuli.\nIn general, intelligence is thought to be attributed to both genetic and environmental factors, but the extent to which each plays a key role is highly disputed. Studies of identical and non-identical twins raised separately and together show a strong",
"-32.44622362566588"
],
[
"even been found to hold for gifted children, those with an intelligence over 135. A 15-point increase in intelligence was associated with a decreased risk of mortality of 32%. This relationship was present until an intelligence score of 163 at which point there was no further advantage of a higher intelligence on mortality risk.\nA meta-analysis of the relationship between intelligence and mortality found that there was a 24% increase in mortality for a 1SD (15 point) drop in IQ score. This meta-analysis also concluded that the association between intelligence and mortality was similar for men and women despite sex differences",
"-32.41092683711031"
],
[
"genetic heredity. He cites the Burt Affair, about the oft-cited twin studies, by Cyril Burt (1883–1971), wherein Burt claimed that human intelligence is highly heritable. IQ, g, statistical correlation, and heritability As an evolutionary biologist and historian of science, Gould accepted biological variability (the premise of the transmission of intelligence via genetic heredity), but opposed biological determinism, which posits that genes determine a definitive, unalterable social destiny for each man and each woman in life and society. The Mismeasure of Man is an analysis of statistical correlation, the mathematics applied by psychologists to establish the validity of IQ tests, and",
"-32.385928561445326"
],
[
"satisfactory description of human intelligence. It also drives home the point that the \"g-loading\" so strongly emphasized by Murray and Herrnstein measures only agreement among tests—not predictive power for socioeconomic outcomes. By the same token, one could also argue that the authors have biased their empirical analysis against the conclusions they obtain by disregarding the test with the greatest predictive power.\nJanet Currie and Duncan Thomas presented evidence suggesting AFQT scores are likely better markers for family background than \"intelligence\" in a 1999 study:\nHerrnstein and Murray report that conditional on maternal \"intelligence\" (AFQT scores), child test scores are little affected by",
"-32.3846394838547"
],
[
"Synthetic giftedness is seen in creativity, intuition, and a study of the arts. People with synthetic giftedness are not often seen with the highest IQ's because there are not currently any tests that can sufficiently measure these attributes, but synthetic giftedness is especially useful in creating new ideas to create and solve new problems. Sternberg also associated another one of his students, \"Barbara\", to the synthetic giftedness. Barbara did not perform as well as Alice on the tests taken to get into school, but was recommended to Yale University based on her exceptional creative and intuitive skills. Barbara was later",
"-32.37290644655877"
],
[
"Therefore, genes are not perfect predictors of future health; individuals with both the high risk form of the gene and those without are all candidates to get the disease. Multiple factors in the environment, particular smoking, diet and exercise, infection, and pollution; play important roles and can be more important than genetic make-up. This makes the results and risks determined by predictive medicine more difficult to quantify. Furthermore, the potential false positives or false negatives that may arise from a predictive genetic screen can cause substantial unnecessary strain on the individual.\nTargeting medication to people who are genetically",
"-32.34038270989549"
],
[
"group intelligence, such as a composition out of several equally important but independent factors as found in individual personality research.\nBesides, this scientific idea also aims to explore the causes affecting collective intelligence, such as group size, collaboration tools or group members' interpersonal skills. The MIT Center for Collective Intelligence, for instance, announced the detection of The Genome of Collective Intelligence as one of its main goals aiming to develop a taxonomy of organizational building blocks, or genes, that can be combined and recombined to harness the intelligence of crowds. Causes Individual intelligence is shown to be genetically and environmentally influenced.",
"-32.30561892213882"
],
[
"rating a person's intelligence. A pioneer of psychometrics and the application of statistical methods to the study of human diversity and the study of inheritance of human traits, he believed that intelligence was largely a product of heredity (by which he did not mean genes, although he did develop several pre-Mendelian theories of particulate inheritance). He hypothesized that there should exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as reflexes, muscle grip, and head size. He set up the first mental testing centre in the world in 1882 and he published \"Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development\"",
"-32.29666348549654"
],
[
"intelligence is a multidimensional and multidirectional construct characterized by plasticity and interindividual variability. Intellectual development throughout the lifespan is characterized by decline as well as stability and improvement. Mechanics of intelligence, the basic architecture of information processing, decreases with age. Pragmatic intelligence, knowledge acquired through culture and experience, remains relatively stable with age.\nThe psychometric approach assesses intelligence based on scores on standardized tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Stanford Binet for children. The Cognitive Structural approach measures intelligence by assessing the ways people conceptualize and solve problems, rather than by test scores. Developmental trends",
"-32.28199924204091"
],
[
"giftedness may be present in areas other than the typical intellectual realm. The concept of multiple intelligences (MI) makes the field aware of additional potential strengths and proposes a variety of curricular methods. Gardner argued that there are eight intelligences, or different areas in which people assimilate or learn about the world around them: interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, naturalistic, and spatial-visual.\nThe most common criticism of Gardner's MI theory is \"the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct\". Others consider the theory not to be",
"-32.23208931400586"
],
[
"David James, professor of social sciences at Cardiff and editor of the British Journal of Sociology of Education, says \"it's great to dwell on the fact that intelligence is not fundamentally genetic and unchangeable\", but he believes the limitations of mindset outweigh its uses. \"It individualises the failure—'they couldn't change the way they think, so that's why they failed'.\" James notes that a study in 2013 showed no statistically significant effect of mindset theory.\nIn July 2019, a large randomized controlled trial of growth mindset training by the Education Endowment Foundation involving 101 schools and 5018 pupils across England found that",
"-32.224207673047204"
],
[
"also the work of Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). She says that IQ also predicts or correlates with numerous other life outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-g intelligences is lacking or very poor. Triarchic theory of intelligence Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability. The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence. Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not",
"-32.22280640466488"
],
[
"statistical evidence and dubious presumptions seem misguided at best and quite dangerous if taken seriously. It is therefore difficult to find much to recommend in this book.\"\nLynn's 2006 Race Differences in Intelligence is the largest review of the global cognitive ability data. The book organises the data by ten population groups and (in the 2015 edition) covers over 500 published articles.\nLynn's meta-analysis lists the average IQ scores of East Asians (105), Europeans (99), the Inuit (91), Southeast Asians and indigenous peoples of the Americas each (87), Pacific Islanders (85), Middle Easterners (including South Asians and North Africans) (84), East and",
"-32.18257812282536"
],
[
"comprehension. In biology In the study of biology – particularly genetics and neuroscience – predictability relates to the prediction of biological developments and behaviors based on inherited genes and past experiences.\nSignificant debate exists in the scientific community over whether or not a person's behavior is completely predictable based on their genetics. Studies such as the one in Israel, which showed that judges were more likely to give a lighter sentence if they had eaten more recently. In addition to cases like this, it has been proven that individuals smell better to someone with complementary immunity genes, leading to more physical",
"-32.18180859347558"
],
[
"humans, it became of relevance to outmaneuver other members of the group seeking leadership or acceptance, by means of more advanced social skills. A more social and communicative person would be more easily selected. Intelligence dependent on brain size Human intelligence is developed to an extreme level that is not necessarily adaptive in an evolutionary sense. Firstly, larger-headed babies are more difficult to give birth to and large brains are costly in terms of nutrient and oxygen requirements. Thus the direct adaptive benefit of human intelligence is questionable at least in modern societies, while it is difficult to study in",
"-32.1770976963453"
],
[
"After further analysis, Gardner found that logic, spatial abilities, language, and mathematics are all linked in some way, giving support for an underlying g factor that is prominent in almost all intelligence in general.\nRobert Sternberg agreed with Gardner that there were multiple intelligences, but he narrowed his scope to just three in his triarchic theory of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. He classified analytical intelligence as problem-solving skills in tests and academics. Creative intelligence is considered how people react adaptively in new situations, or create novel ideas. Practical intelligence is defined as the everyday logic used when multiple solutions or",
"-32.17060077437782"
],
[
"further allow them to recognize when they are most likely to observe either type of performance. Intelligence Since all individuals in a maximum performance situation are expected to have similarly high levels of motivation, the differences in their performance should be primarily based on the differing ability of each person. Following these thoughts, researchers have hypothesized that intelligence would be predictive of maximum performance. A few studies have supported this thought, finding that intelligence is more highly related with maximum performance than it is typical performance. Personality Researchers have hypothesized that typical performance would be predicted by personality",
"-32.14620540520991"
],
[
"Impact of health on intelligence Health can affect intelligence in various ways. Conversely, intelligence can affect health. Health effects on intelligence have been described as being among the most important factors in the origins of human group differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood–brain barrier of the child is less effective. Such impairment may sometimes be permanent, sometimes be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth.\nDeveloped nations have implemented several health",
"-32.12558396437089"
],
[
"and the like\". Celia's contextual intelligence allowed her to use these skills to her best advantage. \nSternberg also acknowledges that an individual is not restricted to having excellence in only one of these three intelligences. Many people may possess an integration of all three and have high levels of all three intelligences.\nPractical intelligence is also a topic covered by Malcolm Gladwell in his book Outliers: The Story of Success. Criticism Psychologist Linda Gottfredson criticises the unempirical nature of triarchic theory. Further, she argues it is absurd to assert that traditional intelligence tests are not measuring practical intelligence, given",
"-32.09190452247276"
],
[
"intelligence factor) were replaced with a model that tested several types of intelligence, it would change results less than one might expect. Therefore, according to Jensen and Davis, the results of standardized tests of cognitive ability would continue to correlate with the results of other such standardized tests, and that the intellectual achievement gap between black and white people would remain.\nPsychologist J. Philippe Rushton accused Gould of \"scholarly malfeasance\" for misrepresenting and for ignoring contemporary scientific research pertinent to the subject of his book, and for attacking dead hypotheses and methods of research. He faulted The Mismeasure of Man because",
"-32.07845328678377"
],
[
"Mithen believes that it is related to the evolution of language. Language may be the most complex cognitive task we undertake.[citation needed] Language is directly related to social intelligence because it is primarily used to mediate social relationships.\nSocial intelligence was a critical factor in brain growth. Social and cognitive complexity co-evolve. Differences from intelligence Nicholas Humphrey points to a difference between intelligence being measured by IQ tests and social intelligence. Some autistic children are extremely intelligent because they have well developed skills of observing and memorizing information, however they have low social intelligence. Similarly, chimpanzees are very adept at observation",
"-32.07446314355184"
],
[
"in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income.[19] Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance.[1][20]",
"-32.07309770466236"
],
[
"Malleability of intelligence Malleability of intelligence describes the processes by which intelligence can increase or decrease over time and is not static. These changes may come as a result of genetics, pharmacological factors, psychological factors, behavior, or environmental conditions. Malleable intelligence may refer to changes in cognitive skills, memory, reasoning, or muscle memory related motor skills. \nIn general, the majority changes in human intelligence occurs at either the onset of development, during the critical period, or during old age (see Neuroplasticity).\nCharles Spearman, who coined the general intelligence factor \"g\", described intelligence as one's ability to adapt to his",
"-32.04254263605981"
],
[
"who achieve a great deal of academic success early on might be most likely to believe their intelligence is fixed because they so frequently have been praised regarding their intelligence. They may have faced fewer opportunities for setbacks and do not have much experience persisting through errors. Longitudinal research shows that individuals who endorse entity beliefs experience decreasing self-esteem throughout their college years, while individuals who endorse incremental beliefs experience an increase. Development Implicit theories of intelligence develop at an early age and are subtly influenced by parents and educators and the type of praise they give for successful work.",
"-32.03479280631291"
],
[
"cognitive abilities may equip them with a better propensity for understanding the injury and health risks of certain behaviours and actions.\nFatal and non-fatal accidental injury have been associated with lower intelligence. This may be because individuals of higher intelligence are more likely to take precautions such as wearing seat belts, helmets etc. as they are aware of the risks.\nFurther there is evidence that more intelligent people behave in a healthier way.\nPeople with higher IQ test scores tend to be less likely to smoke or drink alcohol heavily. They also eat better diets, and they are more physically active. So they",
"-32.027402056439314"
],
[
"intelligence can be as follows: The more mentally efficient (that is, the faster and more focused on goal), capable (that is, the more information one can hold in mind at a given moment), foresighted (that is, the more clearly one can specify his goals and plan how to achieve them), and flexible (that is, the more one can introduce variations in the concepts and mental operations one already possesses) a person is, the more intelligent (both in regard to other individuals and in regard to a general developmental hierarchy) this person is.\nDifferences between persons in IQ or in the rate",
"-32.0147725455754"
],
[
"\"which allows us to be able to teach successfully to other people\". In the same interview, he explicitly refused some other suggested intelligences like humour, cooking and sexual intelligence. Critical reception Gardner argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, but that there are only very weak correlations among them. For example, the theory postulates that a child who learns to multiply easily is not necessarily more intelligent than a child who has more difficulty on this task. The child who takes more time to master multiplication may best learn to multiply through a different approach, may excel",
"-31.985337521502515"
],
[
"factors which could potentially affect performance. These factors include health, wealth, biological differences, and education. Group differences The study of human intelligence is one of the most controversial topics in psychology. It remains unclear whether group differences in intelligence test scores are caused by heritable factors or by \"other correlated demographic variables such as socioeconomic status, education level, and motivation.\"\nHunt and Carlson outlined four contemporary positions on differences in IQ based on race or ethnicity. The first is that these reflect real differences in average group intelligence, which is caused by a combination of environmental factors and heritable differences in",
"-31.97903817993938"
],
[
"a quarter of this predictive power. Psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great many factors that influence social outcomes.\nIn a meta-analysis, Strenze (2006) reviewed much of the literature and estimated the correlation between IQ and income to be about 0.23.\nSome studies claim that IQ only accounts for (explains) a sixth of the variation in income because many studies are based on young adults, many of whom have not yet reached their peak earning capacity, or even their education. On pg 568 of The g Factor, Arthur Jensen claims that although the correlation between IQ and income averages a",
"-31.960202021495206"
],
[
"suggests that even practising geneticists will gain a sense of wonder from the \"hidden secrets\" in the book.\nThe biologist Jerry Coyne, writing in the London Review of Books, criticises Genome as \"at once instructive and infuriating. For each nugget of science, Ridley also includes an error or misrepresentation. Some of these derive from poor scholarship: others from his political agenda.\" For example, Coyne mentions Ridley's incorrect claim that \"half of your IQ is inherited\"; that Ridley assumes that the marker used by Robert Plomin, IGF2R, is the purported \"intelligence gene\" that it marks; and that social influences on behaviour [always]",
"-31.932426617408055"
],
[
"exactly matched his chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985).\nBinet was forthright about the limitations of his scale. He stressed the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures. Binet also stressed that intellectual development progressed at variable rates and could be influenced by the environment; therefore, intelligence was not based solely on genetics, was malleable rather than fixed, and could only be found in children with comparable backgrounds (Siegler, 1992). Given Binet's stance that intelligence testing was subject to variability and was not generalizable, it is important to look at the",
"-31.91350784864335"
],
[
"Gregory Cochran Human evolution In opposition to what he sees as the conventional wisdom that civilization has been a static environment which imposed stabilizing selection on humans, Cochran, along with like-minded anthropologists such as John D. Hawks, contends that haplotype and other data indicate the selection of genes has been strongest since the advent of farming and civilization.\nThrough his work on human evolution, Cochran has been associated since the 1990s with the human biodiversity (“HBD”) milieu, Ashkenazi intelligence Cochran and co-authors Jason Hardy and Henry Harpending suggest that the high average IQ of Ashkenazi Jews may be attributed to natural",
"-31.91311357592349"
],
[
"study on educational attainment found that Jews, Christians, religiously unaffiliated persons, and Buddhists have, on average, higher levels of education than the global average. Numerous factors affect both educational attainment and religiosity. Intelligence The definitions of intelligence are controversial since at least 70 definitions have been found among diverse fields of research. Some groups of psychologists have suggested the following definitions: \nFrom \"Mainstream Science on Intelligence\" (1994), an op-ed statement in the Wall Street Journal signed by fifty-two researchers (out of 131 total invited to sign). \nA very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason,",
"-31.896721433353378"
],
[
"neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape, and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features that may affect IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose metabolic rate. Health Health is important in understanding differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant",
"-31.8953324794129"
],
[
"change would be slow, especially relative to rates of cultural change.\nSelective breeding, nootropics, NSI-189, MAO-I's, epigenetic modulation, and genetic engineering could improve human intelligence more rapidly. Bostrom writes that if we come to understand the genetic component of intelligence, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis could be used to select for embryos with as much as 4 points of IQ gain (if one embryo is selected out of two), or with larger gains (e.g., up to 24.3 IQ points gained if one embryo is selected out of 1000). If this process is iterated over many generations, the gains could be an order of",
"-31.858812719758134"
],
[
"as the genetic position, holds that IQ is determined by hereditary factors - about 80 percent of the variability of intelligence while 20 percent is attributed to environmental factors. The gap, therefore, was associated with race. Jensenism was as one of the most notable theories to have emerged from this sector. It was based on Arthur Jensen's 1969 article that talked about the failure of compensatory education. He cited several evidence that demonstrated how IQ is inherited. For instance, he said that if one looks at studies of adopted children, \"you find that their intelligence relates more closely to their",
"-31.852378636402136"
],
[
"S. Coleman, however, argues that Preston and Campbell's model depends on assumptions which are unlikely to be true.\nThe general increase in IQ test scores, the Flynn effect, has been argued to be evidence against dysgenic arguments. Geneticist Steve Connor wrote that Lynn, writing in Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern Populations, \"misunderstood modern ideas of genetics.\" \"A flaw in his argument of genetic deterioration in intelligence was the widely accepted fact that intelligence as measured by IQ tests has actually increased over the past 50 years.\" If the genes causing IQ have been adversely affected, IQ scores should reasonably be expected",
"-31.842827269254485"
],
[
"controversial. Race and intelligence in United States of America The 1996 Task Force investigation on Intelligence sponsored by the American Psychological Association concluded that there are significant variations in IQ across races. The problem of determining the causes underlying this variation relates to the question of the contributions of \"nature and nurture\" to IQ. Psychologists such as Alan S. Kaufman and Nathan Brody and statisticians such as Bernie Devlin argue that there are insufficient data to conclude that this is because of genetic influences. A review article published in 2012 by leading scholars on human intelligence concluded, after reviewing the",
"-31.839095378767524"
],
[
"correlation with other variables such as educational and nutritional levels. Since brain development requires a very high proportion of all the body's energy in newborns and children, the researchers argue that fighting infection reduces children's IQ potential. The Eppig research may help to explain the Flynn effect, the rise in intelligence noted in rich countries. They also tested other hypotheses as well, including genetic explanations, concluding that infectious disease was \"the best predictor\". Christopher Hassall and Thomas Sherratt repeated the analysis, and concluded \"that infectious disease may be the only really important predictor of average national IQ\".\nIn order to mitigate",
"-31.800810634296795"
],
[
"develop intelligence and to help people reach vocational and avocational goals that are appropriate to their particular spectrum of intelligence. People who are helped to do so, [he] believe[s], feel more engaged and competent and therefore more inclined to serve the society in a constructive way.\"\nGardner contends that IQ tests focus mostly on logical and linguistic intelligence. Upon doing well on these tests, the chances of attending a prestigious college or university increase, which in turn creates contributing members of society. While many students function well in this environment, there are those who do not. Gardner's theory argues that students",
"-31.78317554583191"
],
[
"very large differences in the very high IQ ranges. A decline in average psychometric intelligence of only a few points will mean a much smaller population of gifted individuals.\nMore rigorous studies carried out on Americans alive after the Second World War returned different results suggesting a slight positive correlation with respect to intelligence. The findings from these investigations were consistent enough for Osborn and Bajema, writing as late as 1972, to conclude that fertility patterns were eugenic, and that \"the reproductive trend toward an increase in the frequency of genes associated with higher IQ... will probably continue in the foreseeable",
"-31.739919754105358"
],
[
"It is important to know that (C), (IC), and (EC) can facilitate but can also hinder the learning and training of becoming talented. The learning/practice is the moderator. It is through the interactions, both environmental and intrapersonal that influence the process of learning and practice along with/without chance that natural abilities are transformed into talents. Multiple intelligences theory Multiple intelligences has been associated with giftedness or overachievement of some developmental areas (Colangelo, 2003). Multiple intelligences has been described as an attitude towards learning, instead of techniques or strategies (Cason, 2001).\nHoward Gardner proposed in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1983/1994) that intellectual",
"-31.70272513330565"
],
[
"Analogously, collective intelligence research aims to explore reasons why certain groups perform more intelligent than other groups given that c is just moderately correlated with the intelligence of individual group members. According to Woolley et al.'s results, neither team cohesion nor motivation or satisfaction is correlated with c. However, they claim that three factors were found as significant correlates: the variance in the number of speaking turns, group members' average social sensitivity and the proportion of females. All three had similar predictive power for c, but only social sensitivity was statistically significant (b=0.33, P=0.05).\nThe number speaking turns indicates that \"groups",
"-31.638971927881357"
],
[
"and crystallized intelligence, as well as his 16 Personality Factors theory of personality. Cattell was a strong advocate of factor analysis and psychometrics. He believed that all theory should be derived from research, which supports the continued use of empirical observation and objective testing to study human intelligence. Applications in psychology Factor analysis is used to identify \"factors\" that explain a variety of results on different tests. For example, intelligence research found that people who get a high score on a test of verbal ability are also good on other tests that require verbal abilities. Researchers explained this by using",
"-31.632174984173616"
],
[
"and apply knowledge to work. Cognitive ability is a consistent and nearly universal predictor of future job performance. But cognitive ability information is not enough – some technical geniuses, for example, can’t work with managers, peers, or end users. Some gifted employees cannot deliver projects on time. Personality helps explain why some employees don’t perform well, even when they possess technical skills.\nPersonality is the unique set of characteristics that is reflected in patterns of individual behavior. Personality and its effects on work success have been studied for more than 85 years. Because personality is relatively consistent over",
"-31.61254215336521"
],
[
"the first studies into the subject were carried out on individuals living before the advent of IQ testing, in the late 19th century, by looking at the fertility of men listed in Who's Who, these individuals being presumably of high intelligence. These men, taken as a whole, had few children, implying a correlation.\nNobel Prize–winning physicist William Shockley controversially argued from the mid-1960s through the 1980s that \"the future of the population was threatened because people with low IQs had more children than those with high IQs.\"\nIn 1963, Weyl and Possony asserted that comparatively small differences in average intelligence can become",
"-31.610078660181898"
],
[
"concluded that there must be one central factor that influences our cognitive abilities. Spearman termed this general intelligence g. Structure of intelligence debate Due to the controversy of the structure of intelligence, other psychologists also published their relevant research. Other than Charles Spearman, three others developed a hypothesis regarding the structure of intelligence. L. L. Thurstone tested subjects on 56 different abilities; from his data he established seven primary mental abilities relating to intelligence. He categorized them as: spatial ability, numerical ability, word fluency, memory, perceptual speed, verbal comprehension, and inductive reasoning. Other researchers, interested in this new research study,",
"-31.608053249772638"
],
[
"the heritability of intelligence. For example, to establish the validity of the proposition that IQ is supported by a general intelligence factor (g factor), the answers to several tests of cognitive ability must positively correlate; thus, for the g factor to be a heritable trait, the IQ-test scores of close-relation respondents must correlate more than the IQ-test scores of distant-relation respondents. However, correlation does not imply causation; for example, Gould said that the measures of the changes, over time, in \"my age, the population of México, the price of Swiss cheese, my pet turtle’s weight, and the average distance between",
"-31.59888084170234"
],
[
"on the understanding that their identity would remain unknown in the published report. This was due, claim the authors, to fears of suffering the same kind of castigation experienced by Jensen for publicly expressing views on the correlation between race and intelligence which are privately held in the wider academic community.\nSnyderman and Rothman stated that media reports often either erroneously reported that most experts believe that the genetic contribution to IQ is absolute (~100% heritability) or that most experts believe that genetics plays no role at all (~0% heritability). As they wrote:\nWith the possible exception of Leon Kamin,",
"-31.571185252476425"
],
[
"research even though it was without scientific value and probably directly faked: They wanted to believe that IQ is hereditary and considered uncritically empirical claims supporting this view. This paper thus demonstrates how critical reading (and the opposite) may be related to beliefs as well as to interests and power structures.",
"-31.54524178817519"
]
] |
2a6qme | Do Astronauts at the ISS get "private" time? | [
"They have private bathrooms and while the station isn't big there are not constantly people around every square inch of it. However I don't think they get special jerk-off time they can probably find private time in the bathroom or in their bunk. Of course it is space so you have to take extra precautions for anything that might go flying off and float around.",
"I sailed across the Pacific with my old man once. Just the two of us. Not a sexy time. But trust me, you find a way. It gets unbearable after a while.",
"I don't think I would stay sane after 6 months. I have the romantic/sexual life of a particularly impotent snail, and *I* would have a need to bed the first human being I make eye-contact with after landing. On to the question, I assume they would have a way of 'relieving' themselves every so often. It just might not be talked about much in public outreach, due to America's fear of penises.",
"I don't think this is an appropriate conversation for 5 year olds. But on a more serious note, IIRC there was post a while back about whether anyone has had sex in space and it seemed that the general consensus was that there was at least one married couple on the ISS at the same time that probably did.",
"Apparently your penis is smaller in space when erect because of the blood flow or something.",
"\"In space, no one can hear you scream.\"",
"Now I'm thinking about this. Do they bring their porno magazine stash or a HDD full of porn? I've been in the military on deployments, the imagination can only take you so far.",
"The book \"Packing for Mars\" explained that the astronauts have various moments of free time and an understanding to spend some of that time \"alone\", but dedicated time is not to be specifically allotted because if they have to schedule it then it goes in the official flight log which is available in public records and they didn't want to list \"jerk off time\" In addition, if it goes in the flight log then they have to do tests to account for it which means timing the astronauts during their \"sessions \" on earth.",
"This was asked in an astronaut's AMA a while back. I believe the answer he gave was (and I'm summarizing here) that the space station is big and the inhabitants can find an out of the way place for 'private' time.",
"The two pump chump skill requires intense mental focus. I'd hope there would be a formal whack hour or signal as to allow for a distraction-less self-rape."
] | [
[
"During a 6½ month stay aboard the Space Station, the crew of three (two American astronauts and one Russian cosmonaut) performed flight tests of the station hardware, conducted internal and external maintenance tasks, and developed the capability of the station to support the addition of science experiments. The crew spent 196 days in space establishing a U.S. space flight endurance record for Carl Walz and crewmate Dan Bursch. Wearing the Russian Orlan space suit, Walz logged 11 hours and 52 minutes of EVA time in two separate spacewalks. The Expedition 4 crew returned to Earth aboard STS-111, with Endeavour landing",
"-31.049258900409768"
],
[
"conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.\nThe time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly follows the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of",
"-30.854754679672624"
],
[
"7, 2001. During a 6½ month stay aboard the Space Station, the Expedition 4 crew of three (two American astronauts and one Russian cosmonaut) performed flight tests of the station hardware, conducted internal and external maintenance tasks, and developed the capability of the station to support the addition of science experiments. The crew spent 196 days in space establishing a U.S. space flight endurance record for Dan Bursch and crew mate Carl Walz. Wearing the Russian Orlan spacesuit, Bursch logged 11 hours and 48 minutes of EVA time in two separate spacewalks. The Expedition-Four crew returned to Earth aboard STS-111,",
"-30.718672470398815"
],
[
"human body. This doubled the length of time that anyone had been in space and stood as the longest spaceflight duration record for five years.\nThis 14-day mission required NASA to solve some of the problems of long-duration space flight, such as stowage of waste (the crew had practiced stuffing waste paper behind their seats before the flight). Timing their workday to match that of the prime shift ground crews, both men worked and slept at the same time. Gemini 7 conducted twenty experiments, the most of any Gemini mission, including studies of nutrition in space. The astronauts also evaluated a",
"-30.51453831746585"
],
[
"a half-day off from their busy schedule operating the many microgravity experiments on the mission. Due to the long duration of the mission, each crew member received two half-days off during the 14-day mission.\nThe other astronauts spent the first half of the day working with the Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment, or MODE, and a model of a truss structure which was under consideration for use on a future space station. The truss model, set up to float free in the middeck, was analyzed to determine its behavior in weightlessness.\nAround the clock, experiments with the U.S. Microgravity Payload-2, the Office of",
"-30.491803969552166"
],
[
"logged a total of 119 hours and 41 minutes in space.\nHe used to tell people that for the first couple of years at NASA, his main job was carrying John Young's helmet bag. This he said as a joke, but it was also \"sorta true\" because he was assigned to accompany the veteran astronaut on many T-38 flights. Spaceflight experience McCulley was the Pilot on mission STS-34. The crew aboard Shuttle Orbiter Atlantis launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on October 18, 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on October 23, 1989. During the mission crew members",
"-30.39753992587066"
],
[
"a quiet, motion- free environment to produce the best possible data.\nOn Thursday, 28 October 1993, after enjoying a half a day off, the astronauts aboard Columbia continued to collect scientific data on how humans and animals adapt to the absence of Earth's gravity.\nPayload Commander Rhea Seddon sent down a special message to her husband, Astronaut Office Chief Robert L. Gibson when she surpassed his total of 632 hours, 56 minutes in space. \"He's still a really good guy, I still love him a lot, but I've got more hours in space than he does, so there!\" she teased. Seddon",
"-30.023977337348697"
],
[
"Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment. It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads. During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and color temperatures adjusted. Food On",
"-30.018480465458197"
],
[
"Detachment 3, Air Force Flight Test Center. NASA experience Selected by NASA in January 1990, Walz is a veteran of four space flights, and has logged 231 days in space. He was a mission specialist on STS-51 (1993), was the Orbiter flight engineer (MS-2) on STS-65 (1994), was a mission specialist on STS-79 (1996), and served as flight engineer on ISS Expedition 4 (2001–2002). Carl Walz and fellow astronaut Dan Bursch currently hold the U.S. space flight endurance record of 196 days in space. Space flight experience STS-51 Discovery (September 12–22, 1993). During the mission, the five-member crew deployed the",
"-29.954702227951202"
],
[
"the crew members reported that their life in space was not as difficult as they expected prior to launch, despite a 20% increase in interpersonal problems during the second half of the missions. It was recommended that future crew members be allowed to control their individual schedules as much as possible. On-orbit and post-spaceflight psychiatric issues A number of psychiatric problems have been reported during on-orbit space missions. Most common are adjustment reactions to the novelty of being in space, with symptoms generally including transient anxiety or depression. Psychosomatic reactions also have occurred, where anxiety and other emotional states",
"-29.938396418698176"
],
[
"video. In the meantime, the rest of the shuttle crew completed more equipment transfers from Endeavour and the Johannes Kepler ATV to the ISS.\nWorking from the mid-deck of Endeavour, Andrew Feustel, who participated in the first three spacewalks of the mission, was the EVA 4 choreographer. Astronaut Steven Swanson was the spacewalk CAPCOM from the station flight control room in Houston. During Flight Day 12, Mike Fincke achieved a milestone, becoming the U.S. astronaut with the most time in space, more than 377 days. He surpassed the time in space of astronaut Peggy Whitson. 28 May (Flight Day 13) Flight",
"-29.937086701669614"
],
[
"with NASA are called astronauts. He has said that if the distinction has to be made, he would rather be called \"private astronaut\" than \"tourist\". Dennis Tito has asked to be known as an \"independent researcher\", and Mark Shuttleworth described himself as a \"pioneer of commercial space travel\". Gregory Olsen prefers \"private researcher\", and Anousheh Ansari prefers the term \"private space explorer\". Other space enthusiasts object to the term on similar grounds. Rick Tumlinson of the Space Frontier Foundation, for example, has said: \"I hate the word tourist, and I always will ... 'Tourist' is somebody in a flowered shirt",
"-29.92809222069991"
],
[
"as EV-1, EV-2, EV-3 and EV-4 (assigned to mission specialists for each mission, if applicable). Camp-out procedure For EVAs from the International Space Station, NASA employed a camp-out procedure to reduce the risk of decompression sickness. This was first tested by the Expedition 12 crew. During a camp out, astronauts sleep overnight in the airlock prior to an EVA, lowering the air pressure to 10.2 psi (70 kPa), compared to the normal station pressure of 14.7 psi (101 kPa). Spending a night at the lower air pressure helps flush nitrogen from the body, thereby preventing \"the bends\". More recently astronauts have been using the",
"-29.794036366780347"
],
[
"in space than they do on the ground. NASA is researching two areas which may provide the keys to a better night's sleep, as improved sleep decreases fatigue and increases daytime productivity. A variety of methods for combating this phenomenon are constantly under discussion. Duration of space travel A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks represent a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. While Skylab's three crews remained in space 1, 2, and 3 months respectively, long-term crews on Salyut 6,",
"-29.75772032662917"
],
[
"has logged over 646 hours in space. He was the last member of his astronaut class - the 1978 NASA Group 8 - to fly into space.\nPrior to the first flight of the Space Shuttle, he provided astronaut support in Orbiter engineering development and testing. He was a T-38 chase pilot for the second and third Shuttle flights and support crewman for the first operational Shuttle flight, STS-5. Covey also served as Mission Control spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) for Shuttle Missions STS-5, 6, 61-B, 61-C, and 51-L (it was his voice that said the now infamous words, \"Challenger, go at throttle",
"-29.70604065898806"
],
[
"of diversity and tolerance. This does not mean that it is perfectly harmonious. Astronauts experience the same frustrations and interpersonal quarrels as their Earth-based counterparts.\nA typical day on the station might start with wakeup at 6:00 am inside a private soundproof booth in the crew quarters. Astronauts would probably find their sleeping bags in an upright position tied to the wall, because orientation does not matter in space. The astronaut's thighs would be lifted about 50 degrees off the vertical. This is the neutral body posture in weightlessness – it would be excessively tiring to",
"-29.380607504539512"
],
[
"time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days. Terminology In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Dr. Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred \"cosmonaut\", on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos (near space), while the \"astro\" prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA",
"-29.37345498203831"
],
[
"ISS year-long mission History In November 2012, NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), and their international partners selected two veteran spacefarers for a one-year mission aboard the International Space Station in 2015. The mission included collecting scientific data important to future human exploration of the Solar System. Kelly and Korniyenko already had a connection; Kelly was a backup crew member for the station's Expedition 23/24 crews, where Korniyenko served as a flight engineer.\nThe goal aboard the orbiting laboratory was to understand better how the human body reacts and adapts to the harsh environment of space. Data from the mission",
"-29.343622863398195"
],
[
"to go on the International Space Station, with the use of SpaceX's Crew Dragon spacecraft and Boeing's Starliner spacecraft for public astronauts, which is planned to be priced at 35,000 USD per day for one astronaut. Terminology Many private space travelers have objected to the term \"space tourist\", often pointing out that their role went beyond that of an observer, since they also carried out scientific experiments in the course of their journey. Richard Garriott additionally emphasized that his training was identical to the requirements of non-Russian Soyuz crew members, and that teachers and other non-professional astronauts chosen to fly",
"-29.253694560316944"
],
[
"conducted a fly-by of the ISS, so pictures could be taken. Saying goodbye to the ISS and its crew, commander Kelly said \"We wish them the best with their expedition and we hope we left them a better, more capable space station than when we arrived. Sayonara.\"\nAfterwards the crew of Discovery conducted the late inspection of the shuttle's Thermal Protection System that was unable to be performed as usual on Flight Day 2, due to the size of the Kibo Pressurized Module. 12 June (Flight day 13) Flight day 13 was a rare off-duty day. The only major projects were",
"-29.229344892788504"
],
[
"and has logged over 259 hours in space, including over 14 EVA hours. Space flight experience STS-110 Atlantis (April 8–19, 2002) was the 13th Space Shuttle mission to visit the International Space Station. Mission milestones included: the delivery and installation of the SO (S-Zero) Truss; the first time the station's robotic arm was used to maneuver spacewalkers around the station; and the first time that all of a shuttle crew's spacewalks were based from the station's Quest Airlock. Morin performed 2 EVAs totaling 14 hours and 9 minutes. The crew prepared the station for future spacewalks and spent a week",
"-29.20971977848967"
],
[
"of the practical aspects of remaining in space longer will be the requirement to maintain crew member health and performance. During STS-50, crew members conducted biological tests as part of the EDO Medical Project. Crew members monitored their blood pressure and heart rate and took samples of the cabin atmosphere during the flight. They also evaluated the Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP) device as a countermeasure to the normal reduction of body fluids that takes place in space. If the beneficial effects of the LBNP could last for 24 hours, it would improve crew member performance on reentry and landing.",
"-29.144522479891748"
],
[
"crew then worked to undertake some further detailed inspection of the orbiter and unloaded the P5 truss segment from the payload bay, handing it off successfully from the shuttle robotic arm to the station arm. The astronauts scheduled for Day 4's EVA, Robert Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang, ended their day by entering the airlock for a \"campout\" sleep session to prepare for the EVA by purging their bodies of nitrogen in a lower-pressure environment. Such a practice is common in order for the astronauts to avoid getting decompression sickness. 12 December (Flight day 4 – EVA #1) Flight day 4",
"-28.9818577310848"
],
[
"the Space Shuttle mission.\nThe station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two 'sleep stations' in the Zvezda and four more installed in Harmony. The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing. A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop.",
"-28.963170967532278"
],
[
"astronaut is most able to understand the situation in the spacecraft and pass information in the clearest way.\nFor long-duration missions there is more than one CAPCOM, each assigned to a different shift team. After control of U.S. spaceflights moved to the Johnson Space Center in the early 1960s, each CAPCOM used the radio call-sign Houston. When non-astronauts are communicating directly with the spacecraft, CAPCOM acts as the communications controller.\nAs of 2011, due to the shrinking size of the astronaut corps at the end of the Shuttle program, fewer astronauts are available to perform CAPCOM duties, so non-astronauts from the space",
"-28.912426062372106"
],
[
"(ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US crewed spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz. The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late",
"-28.88067188003879"
],
[
"four space flights, Dr. Newman has logged over 43 days in space, including six spacewalks totaling 43 hours and 13 minutes. If Dr Newman could do it all over again, he really wishes he could fly on an ISS Expedition like fellow astronaut classmate Dan Bursch.\nEffective December 1, 2002, Newman served as NASA’s Director, Human Space Flight Programs, Russia. As NASA’s lead representative to the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (Rosaviakosmos) and its contractors, his role is to continue oversight of all human space flight operations, logistics, and technical functions, including NASA’s mission operations in Korolev and crew training at",
"-28.87801474274238"
],
[
"completed 26 hours and 12 minutes of spacewalking time, bringing his total EVA time to 48 hours and 37 minutes. This places him 11th all time on the list of spacewalkers. Boeing Crew Flight Test On January 22nd, NASA announced that Fincke would fly on Boeing CST-100 Starliner’s Crew Flight Test currently scheduled for late 2019. The Starliner’s Crew Flight Test will be the first time that the new spacecraft, which is being developed and built by Boeing as part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program, is launched into space with humans on board. Fincke took the place of astronaut Eric",
"-28.816729175394357"
],
[
"CSA astronaut Jeremy Hansen. Prior to the NEEMO 19 mission Stevenin was quoted as saying that \"It is a privilege to be part of the crew with three astronauts. I am looking forward to take part in this outstanding project to test future concepts for space operations as well as evaluating spacewalk tools, techniques and man–machine interfaces for future space exploration beyond the International Space Station.\" Personal life Stevenin is a certified PADI \"Open Water Scuba diving & Nitrox Instructor\" and an Emergency First Response (CPR/First Aid/AED) Instructor and has logged more than 400 dives.\nHe has a private pilot licence",
"-28.814885205405517"
],
[
"EVA from the shuttle, the cabin pressure was reduced from 14.7 to 10.2 psi (101 to 70 kPa) for 24 hours, after which an astronaut had to pre-breathe for 45 minutes. For EVAs on board the ISS, the astronaut must pre-breathe for about four hours. Manufacturer The EMU hardware and accessories (PLSS, helmet, communications cap, and locking rings for the helmet and gloves), is manufactured by Hamilton Standard (now the Hamilton Sundstrand division of Collins Aerospace) out of Windsor Locks, Connecticut, while the suit's soft components (the arms of the HUT and the entire LTU) are produced by ILC Dover (a former",
"-28.789447837989428"
],
[
"flights for all of the world's first private space explorers. The first three participants paid in excess of $20 million (USD) each for their 10-day visit to the ISS.\nRussia halted orbital space tourism in 2010 due to the increase in the International Space Station crew size, using the seats for expedition crews that would previously have been sold to paying spaceflight participants. Orbital tourist flights were set to resume in 2015 but the one planned was postponed indefinitely and none have occurred since 2009.\nOn June 7, 2019, NASA announced that starting in 2020, the organization aims to start allowing private astronauts",
"-28.77007481024998"
],
[
"mission is underway, the rooms are staffed around the clock, usually in three shifts.\nJSC handles most of the planning and training of the US astronaut corps and houses training facilities such as the Sonny Carter Training Facility and the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, a critical component in training astronauts for spacewalks. The Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory provides a controlled neutral buoyancy environment—a very large pool containing about 6.2 million US gallons (23,000 m³) of water where astronauts train to practice extra-vehicular activity tasks while simulating zero-g conditions. The facility provides preflight training in becoming familiar with crew activities and with the dynamics",
"-28.75613343418445"
],
[
"Altman has logged over 40 days in space. Altman retired from NASA in September 2010 to join ASRC Federal Research and Technology Solutions in Greenbelt, Maryland. Spaceflights STS-90 Neurolab (April 17 to May 3, 1998). During the 16-day Spacelab flight the seven person crew aboard Space Shuttle Columbia served as both experiment subjects and operators for 26 individual life science experiments focusing on the effects of microgravity on the brain and nervous system.\nSTS-106 Atlantis (September 8–20, 2000). During the 12-day mission, the crew successfully prepared the International Space Station for the arrival of the first permanent crew. Additionally, he handflew",
"-28.7267241783793"
],
[
"by Jeff Williams. In early April 2017, her mission was extended by an additional 3 months at the International Space Station. On September 3, she returned in a previously vacant seat on the Soyuz capsule accompanied by NASA's Jack Fischer and Fyodor Yurchikhin of Roscosmos.\nIn January 2017, Whitson performed her seventh EVA. along with Expedition 50 commander Shane Kimbrough. During the EVA, they installed three new adapter plates and hooked up electrical connectors preparing the way to replace the ISS batteries. The EVA lasted 6 hours and 32 minutes. Whitson now holds the record for the oldest female spacewalker, and",
"-28.65499531832029"
],
[
"only by military flight crews and astronauts for protection during high-altitude and space operations. It is also used by flight test crews involved with certifying aircraft, and may also be used for high-altitude parachute jumps.\nAstronauts aboard the International Space Station preparing for extra-vehicular activity (EVA) \"camp out\" at low atmospheric pressure, 10.2 psi (0.70 bar), spending eight sleeping hours in the Quest airlock chamber before their spacewalk. During the EVA they breathe 100% oxygen in their spacesuits, which operate at 4.3 psi (0.30 bar), although research has examined the possibility of using 100% O₂ at 9.5 psi (0.66 bar) in the suits to lessen the pressure",
"-28.63650141693688"
],
[
"The suits for the ISS were modified to provide greater mobility, to afford better tactile capabilities of the glove, and to provide an increased operational life. As of Feb. 2011, a total of 104 EVAs on the ISS had occurred, for greater than 650 total hours in space. Mark III The Mark III (MKIII) is an experimental suit that was designed by ILC for use on the space station. The suit is a combination of hard and soft elements, designed for pressurization to 8.3 psi. Shuttle suits are pressurized to 4.3 psi, and astronauts are required to",
"-28.628298144070868"
],
[
"transport agency of the Department of Defense\". Space available travel is defined as \"travel aboard DoD owned or controlled aircraft and occurs when aircraft are not fully booked with passengers traveling under orders\".\nIt is a privilege offered to United States Uniformed Services members. Retired members are given the privilege in recognition of their career and because they are eligible for recall to active duty. The criteria for extending the privilege to other categories of passengers is their support to the mission being performed by Uniformed Services members and to the enhancement of active duty Service members' quality of life. Guidelines",
"-28.60725845948582"
],
[
"opposed space tourism on principle; from the beginning of the ISS expeditions, NASA stated it was not interested in accommodating paying guests. The Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science of the House of Representatives held in June 2001 revealed the shifting attitude of NASA towards paying space tourists wanting to travel to the ISS in its statement on the hearing's purpose: \n\"Review the issues and opportunities for flying nonprofessional astronauts in space, the appropriate government role for supporting the nascent space tourism industry, use of the Shuttle and Space Station for Tourism, safety and training criteria for space",
"-28.596706139142043"
],
[
"Facility at the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. The NBL is a large indoor pool of water, the largest in the world, in which astronauts may perform simulated EVA tasks in preparation for space missions. The NBL contains full-sized mock-ups of the Space Shuttle cargo bay, flight payloads, and the International Space Station (ISS).\nThe principle of neutral buoyancy is used to simulate the weightless environment of space. The suited astronauts are lowered into the pool using an overhead crane and their weight is adjusted by support divers so that they experience no buoyant force and no rotational moment",
"-28.522495146382425"
],
[
"up to two years and resized on-orbit to fit various crew members. The ISS EMUs also have increased battery capacity, the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER), improved cameras and radios, and a new caution and warning system. Another feature incorporated into the ISS suits is an additional battery to power heaters built into the glove, allowing astronauts to keep their hands warm during nighttime passages on each 95-minute orbit.\nCurrently, the ISS EMUs and the Russian Orlan suits are used by crews of all nationalities on the International Space Station. The two EMUs are stored within the Quest Joint Airlock.",
"-28.46066516729843"
],
[
"Gemini 7 having stayed in space for 14 days, and Soyuz 11 for a month). The twelfth day in space for the crew was one of the quietest. As on all Apollo lunar flights, on the return trip there was little left to do, with the main objectives already accomplished.\nThe crew undertook another light flash experiment, this time keeping the cabin lights on to see if this affected the visibility. They found that they were less visible.\nMission Control ran over the stowage of items in the cabin. It was extremely important that stowed items were placed such that the spacecraft's",
"-28.452038027196977"
],
[
"affected navigational systems. Astronauts enjoyed soft drinks, cookies and other snacks during their intense hours-long training session, leading planetarium employees to create the code name \"cookie time\" to refer to the training sessions. Occasionally, word of the sessions leaked out and noted clothing designer and Chapel Hill native Alexander Julian recalls meeting Mercury Astronauts during a visit to the planetarium while in junior high.\nThe first astronaut to train at Morehead, in March 1964, was Neil Armstrong. Armstrong visited again only months before the 1969 launch of Apollo 11, spending a total of 20 days at Morehead over",
"-28.429007767364965"
],
[
"the International Space Station crew be a space veteran (not be on a first flight).\nThe 84-day stay of the Skylab 4 mission was a human spaceflight record that was not exceeded for over two decades by a NASA astronaut. The 96-day Soviet Salyut 6 EO-1 mission broke Skylab 4's record in 1978. Controversies Sources including David Hitt's Homesteading Space and Atlas Obscura dispute that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control.",
"-28.382474574747903"
],
[
"400 Days (film) Plot Four astronauts—Captain Theo Cooper (Routh), Dr. Emily McTier (Lotz), Bug Kieslowski (Feldman), and Cole Dvorak (Cook)—begin a 400-day-long simulation on Earth intended to study the long-term effects of space travel.\nAs their time underground grinds on, the crew begins to deal with extreme psychological effects like paranoia and hallucination. The team settles deeper into their separate spaces, until a disheveled man finds his way into their simulated space ship. After his escape, the crew decides to exit and explore the surface world, which they discover is now dark, windy, desolate, forbidding, and covered with dust.\nAfter a long",
"-28.34987859785906"
],
[
"wrapping up a 167-day stay aboard the Space Station.\nOn Expedition 47, Williams surpassed Scott Kelly (astronaut)'s record of 520 cumulative days in space which was set when he returned from space on March 1, 2016; Williams beat this record with 534 cumulative days.\nWilliams also flew aboard the Soyuz TMA-8 mission, replacing Expedition 12 astronaut William S. McArthur. He was previously in orbit as the Expedition 13 Flight Engineer and Science Officer aboard the International Space Station. He returned to Earth on September 28, 2006.\nOn August 24, 2006, a taped message made by him to be played at an official",
"-28.30990758547705"
],
[
"space outpost in history and marked the start of onboard scientific research at the ISS. A veteran of four space flights, Jones has logged over 52 days (1,272 hours) in space, including 3 space walks totaling over 19 hours.\nSince leaving NASA in 2001, Jones has worked as a planetary scientist and consultant in space operations. He is a senior research scientist at the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, engaged in planning robotic and astronaut expeditions to deep space and the near-Earth asteroids. He is also an author and speaker, with four adult, non-fiction works to his credit.",
"-28.29696161664515"
],
[
"of missions, the training to prepare astronauts will likely include training as doctors, scientists, engineers, technicians, pilots, and geologists. In addition there will be a focus on the psychological aspects of long-duration missions where crew is largely isolated.\nCurrently a six-month mission to the ISS requires up to five years of astronaut training. This level of training is to be expected and likely to be expanded upon for future space exploration missions. It may also include in-flight training aspects. It may be possible that the ISS will be used as a long-duration astronaut training facility in the future.\nA powerful tool for",
"-28.258742747217184"
],
[
"working through their post-sleep activities, Altman, Johnson and McArthur performed a check-out of the flight control surfaces, performed a reaction control system hot-fire, and went through communications checks with managers on the ground. The rest of the crew worked to stow away items that were used during the mission. The crew held a deorbit preparations briefing with the ground teams, and Altman and Johnson worked with the simulator on board to run through a series of landing simulations.\nIn the afternoon, the crew became the first shuttle crew to ever testify live from orbit in a United States Senate hearing. Barbara",
"-28.192066670715576"
],
[
"with the piece of space debris.\nTransferring expedition crews\nBy 14 March, the expedition crews had completed the change over, but until the shuttle undocked, Shepherd officially remained commander of the station. The morning of the 14th the astronauts' wake-up call was the song \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\" by The Clash, at the request of Shepherd's wife. Shepherd, a former Navy SEAL, said during the change over ceremony: \"May the good will, spirit and sense of mission we had enjoyed on board endure. Sail her well.\" The commander of Discovery, Jim Wetherbee, said \"For Captain Shepherd and his crew,",
"-28.183504453212663"
],
[
"with three cameras around his neck.\" Russian cosmonaut Maksim Surayev told the press in 2009 not to describe Guy Laliberté as a tourist: \"It's become fashionable to speak of space tourists. He is not a tourist but a participant in the mission.\"\n\"Spaceflight participant\" is the official term used by NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency to distinguish between private space travelers and career astronauts. Tito, Shuttleworth, Olsen, Ansari, and Simonyi were designated as such during their respective space flights. NASA also lists Christa McAuliffe as a spaceflight participant (although she did not pay a fee), apparently due to her",
"-28.181666049698833"
],
[
"contains a parachute, life raft, survival gear, and a 30-minute supply of breathing oxygen and a water tank.\nBecause of the helmet design, which rested on the astronaut's shoulders and allowed them to move their head around freely, astronauts were now required to wear a communications cap similar to those worn by Apollo astronauts, and because they were white (later changed to brown), the suit resembled the Vostok pressure suit worn by Yuri Gagarin. The suits were designed to withstand pressures up to 40,000 feet (12 kilometers), and immersion in the ocean for up to 24 hours at 5 °C (40 °F).\nBecause of",
"-28.160296364090755"
],
[
"July 2005, NASA announced that STS-114 would be extended for one day, so that Discovery's crew could help the ISS crew maintain the station while the shuttle fleet was grounded. The extra day was also used to move more items from the shuttle to the ISS, as uncertainty mounted during the mission as to when a shuttle would next visit the station. The orbiter's arrival also gave the nearly 200-ton space station a free altitude boost of about 4,000 feet (1,220 m). The station loses about 100 feet (30 m) of altitude a day.\nThe shuttle hatch was closed the night",
"-28.15383225763435"
],
[
"a huge honor to break a record like this, but it is an honor for me back to be representing all the folks at NASA'.\nOn May 12, 2017, Whitson performed her ninth career EVA with Jack Fischer. After a short delay due to leaking equipment, they replaced an avionics box on the starboard truss called an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC), a storage platform. The duration was 4 hours and 13 minutes, and it was the 200th EVA to be performed on the ISS.\nOn May 23, 2017, Whitson performed her tenth career EVA with Fischer. They replaced a backup multiplexer-demultiplexer (MDM)",
"-28.149495101450157"
],
[
"details the health of each astronaut both for Mission Control and for the astronauts), ORBIT (the piloting software), and Engineering, which is used to control the habitat's engineering systems. During the Mission each of these programs is run on a dedicated computer, but BIOCOM shares a computer with mission records and logs. Every room is outfitted with CAPCOM (CAPsule COMmunicator), telephone lines that allows the astronauts to communicate with Mission Control. Contents of the rooms The Control Room contains a television with a camera feed to Mission Control, so as to enable two-way visual communication in the event of a",
"-28.146806597207615"
],
[
"a deal with the astronauts that they would not hide information from her, and she would not betray their confidence, unless, she thought it may jeopardize them or the mission. She was the only nurse assigned to the Astronauts. O'Hara became close to the astronauts and their families. Before every launch she performed the pre-flight physicals including height, weight, temperatures, blood pressure measurements. The astronauts would not agree to let anyone else but O'Hara draw blood before launch.\nO'Hara also helped set up the portable hospital at the Grand Bahama Island to support post flight examination and, if needed, treat injured",
"-28.13846050473512"
],
[
"Precourt was chief of the Astronaut Corps, responsible for the mission preparation activities of all space shuttle and future International Space Station crews and their support personnel. From November 2002 until his 2004 retirement from NASA, Precourt served as the deputy manager for the International Space Station, responsible for the day-to-day management of ISS operations, on orbit assembly and the interfaces with NASA contractors and the International Partners.\nA veteran of four space flights, he has logged over 932 hours in space. He served as a mission specialist on STS-55 (April 26 to May 6, 1993), was the pilot on",
"-28.092801873177677"
],
[
"day for the crews of Discovery and the ISS after the previous days' activities. Spacewalkers Bob Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang enjoyed some R&R, while the rest of the crew performed cleanup and preparatory tasks for Flight day 8's planned EVA #3. The traditional joint photo session and joint news conference were held by the crews. During this event Swedish first time astronaut Christer Fuglesang was interviewed by Crown Princess Victoria and also set a 20-second Frisbee world record in space, broadcast live on Swedish TV4.\nIn an attempt to free a stuck solar panel, Thomas Reiter exercised vigorously on a machine",
"-28.07368495722403"
],
[
"day. Before the scheduled bedtime the entire crew conducted another EVA procedures review for the third and final EVA of the mission. 17 February (Flight Day 10: Spacewalk 3) On flight day 10, astronauts Bob Behnken and Nick Patrick completed the third and final spacewalk of the STS-130 mission. Their tasks included hooking up heater and data cables for PMA-3, removing thermal covers and launch locks on Cupola, and installing handrails on Tranquility and a video cable for another base to be installed on the Russian segment of the ISS. Bob Behnken also connected the second ammonia cooling loop and",
"-28.057314947031045"
],
[
"used during STS-132. During the installation of the old ATA in Discovery's payload bay, the spacewalkers had some problems securing a bolt on the ATA to the LMC. The spacewalk took 6 hours and 24 minutes, bringing the total EVA time to 20 hours and 19 minutes. While the EVA was going on, commander Alan Poindexter and mission specialist Naoko Yamazaki continued transferring items from the MPLM to the ISS. Transfer is more than seventy-five percent complete. 14 April (Flight Day 10 – Final transfers/off duty) The crew of STS-131 continued with transfer activities on the morning of flight day",
"-28.055909478174726"
],
[
"(SARJ), the ground team in Mission Control informed Whitson that she had become the female astronaut with the most cumulative EVA time in NASA history, as well as the most EVAs, with her fifth EVA. Three hours and 37 minutes into the spacewalk, Whitson surpassed NASA astronaut Sunita Williams with a total time at that point of 29 hours and 18 minutes. At the completion of Whitson's fifth EVA, the 100th in support of ISS assembly and maintenance, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 32 hours, and 36 minutes, which placed her in 20th place for total EVA time. STS-122 STS-122",
"-28.050007437246677"
],
[
"time that two female mission commanders were in orbit at the same time.\nShe has logged over 924 hours (over 38 days) in space. Spaceflight experience STS-92 Discovery (October 11–24, 2000) was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida and returned to land at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the 13-day flight, the seven member crew attached the Z1 Truss and Pressurized Mating Adapter 3 to the International Space Station using Discovery’s robotic arm and performed four space walks to configure these elements. This expansion of the ISS opened the door for future assembly missions and prepared the",
"-28.027389218823373"
],
[
"one of the quietest places on the ISS, as it was isolated from the rest of the station. Because of this, the crew used it as sleeping quarters, and also as a place to perform personal hygiene activities. Yi So-yeon also used it as laboratory space where she performed nanotechnology experiments. End of mission On 5 September 2008, Jules Verne undocked and manoeuvred to an orbital position 5 km below the ISS. It remained in that orbit until the night of 29 September. At 10:00:27 UTC, Jules Verne started its first de-orbit burn of 6 minutes, followed by a second burn of 15 minutes at",
"-27.983236139683868"
],
[
"spacecraft have been considered by ISS for EVA work, to avoid having to go through the decompression needed to use the lower-pressure space suits. NASA developed a body-shaped single person spacecraft called FlexCraft, with the idea of allowing more and shorter EVA. The spacecraft would be at the same atmospheric pressure as the ISS, thus removing the medical stress and time needed to decompress and compress, and the danger of the bends. A single-person spacecraft could also enhance protection against micrometeoriod impacts and radiation from cosmic rays.\nThe Personal Rescue Enclosure was developed for the Space Shuttle. On the ISS the",
"-27.982179196906145"
],
[
"3) by astronauts Satcher and Bresnik. For identification, Satcher wore an all-white spacesuit while Bresnik wore a spacesuit with broken red stripes. Atlantis Mission Specialist Foreman, the intravehicular crew member for EVA 3 choreographed the activities and coordinated communications between the spacewalkers and Mission Control. Astronauts Melvin and Wilmore operated the station's robotic Canadarm2.\nThe spacewalk started just over an hour later than planned due to Satcher reinserting a valve that became detached in his spacesuit drink bag. The bag is contained in the spacesuit and allows spacewalkers to sip water throughout their activity.\nWorking ahead of schedule most of time,",
"-27.855674202164664"
],
[
"module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Rusty Schweickart during Apollo 9.\nThe cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew's checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo 8 crew used a 2-kilogram (4.4 lb) camera that broadcast in black-and-white only, using a Vidicon tube. The camera had two lenses, a very wide-angle (160°) lens, and a telephoto (9°) lens.\nDuring this first broadcast, the",
"-27.805422865092623"
],
[
"looking out at the window.\nSpaceflight history author David Hitt disputed that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control in a book written along with former astronauts Owen K. Garriott and Joseph P. Kerwin. Effects At the time, only the crew of Skylab 3 had spent six weeks in space. It was unknown what had happened psychologically. NASA carefully worked with crew's requests, reducing their workload for the next six weeks. The incident took NASA into an unknown realm of concern in the selection of astronauts, still a question as humanity considers human missions to Mars or returning to the",
"-27.76578160162444"
],
[
"Space Agency astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti delivered the ISO recordings to the ISS during her space expedition record for longest single space flight by a woman (199 days 16 hours) and for the longest uninterrupted spaceflight of a European astronaut.",
"-27.74044848655467"
],
[
"Astronauts Day Astronauts Day is an American holiday, dedicated to NASA astronauts and their achievements. It is a \"floating\" holiday, observed on the last Friday of January. Overview This date was chosen to commemorate a number of space-related disasters which took place around this time, including the 27 January 1968 deaths of Command Pilot Virgil Grissom, Senior Pilot Edward Higgins White, and Pilot Roger Chaffee aboard Apollo I, and disasters involving the Space Shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986, and the Space Shuttle Columbia on 1 February 2003.\nObservants of this holiday are asked to light a candle in their window,",
"-27.73682522638228"
],
[
"telephone and radio failure. Astronauts are encouraged to become familiar with sign language, an endeavour in which they are aided by an instructive chart on the wall of the Control Room. The Interlock is the largest room of the habitat and it connects to every other room. It serves as a kitchen, containing a refrigerator, a microwave, and a full complement of cupboards and cutlery, and also contains a television and camera feed that monitors activity in the airlock and hotlab. The Longhouse is where the astronauts sleep during the mission. It contains 3 wooden bunk beds, providing 1 bed",
"-27.729708970629872"
],
[
"of two Space Shuttle missions and pilot of two others, Henricks became the first person to log over 1,000 hours as a Space Shuttle pilot/commander. Tom Henricks left government service in November 1997 to pursue a career in business. He held the position of President of McGraw-Hill's Aviation Week, based in New York City until his departure in 2010 to pursue other opportunities. Space flight experience STS-44 Atlantis launched the night of November 24, 1991. The primary mission objective was the deployment of a Defense Support Program (DSP) satellite with an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) rocket booster. The mission",
"-27.71961074351566"
],
[
"from the landing site.\nThe crew should have started their sleep period, but due to the delays now had to finish housekeeping chores. Mainly these centered around turning back on the SIM instruments which had been turned off during the rendezvous and docking and orientating the spacecraft for their proper use. Just before the sleep period, Deke Slayton, who was effectively the astronauts' boss, radioed the crew and told them to take a Seconal sedative. The crew decided against this.\nDoctors on the ground had become worried when they saw that Scott's and Irwin's EKG had developed a bigeminy rhythm. Caused by",
"-27.71692030512895"
],
[
"with them in space. Collins picked David Scott in the number one position. Crew assignments After this basic training, the third group were assigned specializations. Collins received his first choice: pressure suits and extravehicular activities (EVAs, also known as spacewalks). His job was to monitor development and act as a liaison between the Astronaut Office and contractors. He was disturbed by the secretive planning of Ed White's EVA on Gemini 4, because he was not involved despite being the person with the greatest knowledge of the subject.\nIn late June 1965, Collins received his first crew assignment: the backup pilot for",
"-27.712289327464532"
],
[
"To prepare for long-term (months) microgravity research aboard Space Station Freedom, scientists and NASA need practical experience in managing progressively longer times for their experiments. The Space Shuttle usually provides a week to ten days of microgravity. Thanks to the Extended Duration Orbiter kit, the Space Shuttle orbiter Columbia remained in orbit for almost 14 days and future missions with Columbia could last as long as a month. The kit consists of extra hydrogen and oxygen tanks for power production, extra nitrogen tanks for the cabin atmosphere, and an improved regeneration system for removing carbon dioxide from the cabin air.\nOne",
"-27.664027753595292"
],
[
"has served as a Crew Support Astronaut for Expedition 2. STS-108 Tani flew on STS-108 in 2001, and logged over 11 days in space, including over 4 EVA hours in one space walk. STS-108 Endeavour (December 5–17, 2001) was the 12th shuttle flight to visit the International Space Station. During the mission, Tani served as Mission Specialist 2. Endeavour's crew delivered the Expedition 4 crew to the station, and returned the Expedition 3 crew. The crew transferred over three tons of supplies, logistics and science experiments from the Raffaello Multi-Purpose Logistics Module to the station. Tani performed a spacewalk to",
"-27.659394860106318"
],
[
"Soyuz TMA-9 Crew notes Daisuke Enomoto was originally scheduled to be the spaceflight participant, but on 21 August 2006, he was determined to be unfit for the flight due to medical reasons, and replaced by Anousheh Ansari, his back-up crew member. Mission highlights Soyuz TMA-9, known within the International Space Station program as ISS Soyuz 13, was the 32nd manned flight to the ISS. It is of note because for three days, from 18–21 September 2006, it marked the first time since before the Columbia accident that twelve humans have been in space simultaneously; three aboard the International Space Station",
"-27.657326741171346"
],
[
"told them they were hired because the government forced NASA to, \"but we don't have a job for you, not any of you\". He offered to accept their resignations, and promised ground assignments if they did not quit, but warned them to not \"fool\" themselves that they would fly in space. Consequently, the men named themselves the \"XS-11\", or \"Excess Eleven\".\nAssignments for the group were further delayed by the requirement to complete a full year of Air Force Undergraduate Pilot Training to become qualified as jet pilots like the Group 4 scientists before them; however, unlike the previous scientist-astronaut group,",
"-27.65499537213327"
],
[
"EVA procedure review for the fourth and final spacewalk of STS-134. Astronauts Mike Fincke and Greg Chamitoff spent the night in the Quest Airlock with the air pressure reduced to 10.2 Psi, so as to avoid decompression sickness during their spacewalk. The crew and flight controllers on the ground opted not to use the In-suit Light Exercise (ISLE) protocol that was tested during EVA 3 earlier in the mission, opting instead to go with the standard campout protocol, since it was discovered that ISLE used more carbon-dioxide scrubbing capability. They wanted to save this capability, since a CO₂ sensor in",
"-27.651896875791863"
],
[
"Space flight participant Space flight participant (Russian: участник космического полёта, romanized: uchastnik kosmicheskogo polyota) is the term used by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for people who travel into space, but who are not professional astronauts.\nWhile the term gained new prominence with the rise of space tourism, it has also been used for participants in programs like NASA's Teacher in Space and astronauts designated by inter-government agreements like the Angkasawan program and the Korean Astronaut Program.\nOther terms used for space travelers who are not career",
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[
"personal inspection of the equipment bay area. He logged 301 hours and 51 minutes in space, 1 hour and 6 minutes of which were spent in extravehicular activity. He holds the record of most time spent in lunar orbit: six days and four hours (148 hours).\nEvans was later backup Command Module Pilot for the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission.\nEvans retired from the U.S. Navy as Captain on April 30, 1976, with 21 years of service, and remained active as a NASA astronaut involved in the development of NASA's Space Shuttle program. He served as a member of the operations",
"-27.625845643680805"
],
[
"NASA experiments performed on the ISS. Thomas retired from NASA in July 2007 in order to pursue private interests. Space flight experience STS-65 Columbia (July 8, 1994 – July 23, 1994) set a new flight duration record for the Space Shuttle program. The mission flew the second International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2). During the 15-day flight the crew conducted more than 80 experiments focusing on materials and life sciences research in microgravity. The mission was accomplished in 236 orbits of the Earth, traveling 6.1 million miles in 353 hours and 55 minutes.\nSTS-70 Discovery (July 13, 1995 – July 22, 1995). During",
"-27.623339062753075"
],
[
"7 crew with just two members was delivered to the ISS on Soyuz TMA-2. The Space Shuttle was expected to be grounded for up to two years. Ongoing logistical support for the ISS would have to be carried out by Soyuz and Progress flights until the Space Shuttle returned to flight.\nThe sixth crew of the International Space Station returned to Earth just after 10 p.m. EDT on 3 May 2003, the first time U.S. astronauts landed in a Russian Soyuz spacecraft, though a U.S. space tourist, Dennis Tito, had done so in 2001.\nRussian Mission Control reported at approximately 2:45 a.m. on",
"-27.61634496742954"
],
[
"is now tied with the record for total spacewalks by a woman (seven), along with Sunita Williams. After completion of the seventh EVA, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 46 hours, 18 minutes, which placed her in 13th place for total EVA time.\nOn April 24, 2017, Whitson officially broke the record for longest amount of time spent in space by any NASA astronaut. As a result, she received a televised phone call from the Oval Office from US President Donald Trump, the President's daughter Ivanka, and fellow astronaut Kathleen Rubins. When interviewed on that day she declared 'It is actually",
"-27.604404959834937"
],
[
"There are rules and guidelines which apply to such travel. Uniformed personnel may only travel Space-A while on leave or pass for the full duration of their Space-A trip, and Space-A travel cannot be used in conjunction with travel required by the service. Space A travel may not be used for personal financial gain or in connection with business enterprises or employment. Other nations' laws and policies, as well as U.S. foreign policy, may limit the ability to travel using Space-A.\nAside from members of the United States Marine Corps, travelers do not have to be in uniform for their flights.",
"-27.59700448172589"
],
[
"would sleep in the station's airlock as part of the pre-EVA campout procedure. 20 November (Flight day 7) On the tenth anniversary of the International Space Station, Stefanyshyn-Piper and Kimbrough successfully conducted the mission's second spacewalk. The EVA was 6 hours and 45 minutes in duration, and all tasks were accomplished without complications. Two crew equipment carts were relocated in preparation for the arrival of the final set of solar arrays, the station's robotic arm was lubricated, and the work on the starboard SARJ continued. Inside the station, crewmembers continued to transfer cargo from Leonardo to the station, items to",
"-27.536049129703315"
],
[
"Capitol Rotunda in 2011. During the ceremony, NASA administrator Charles Bolden said, \"Those of us who have had the privilege to fly in space followed the trail they forged.\"\nThe Apollo 11 crew were awarded the Collier Trophy in 1969. The National Aeronautic Association president awarded a duplicate trophy to Collins and Aldrin at a ceremony. The crew was awarded the 1969 General Thomas D. White USAF Space Trophy. The National Space Club named the crew the winners of the 1970 Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy, awarded annually for the greatest achievement in spaceflight. They received the international Harmon Trophy for",
"-27.532062486552604"
],
[
"logged more than 5,500 hours flying time. NASA experience Grabe became a NASA astronaut in August 1981. He has served as a chief verification pilot for STS-3 and STS-4 entry guidance, navigation and control simulation testing; as the Deputy Manager for Operations Integration, Space Shuttle Program Office; and subsequently as the Chief of Training within the Astronaut Office. A veteran of four space flights, Grabe served as Pilot on STS-51-J (October 3–7, 1985) and STS-30 (May 4–8, 1989), and was the mission commander on STS-42 (January 22–30, 1992) and STS-57 (June 21 to July 1, 1993).\nGrabe has logged over 627",
"-27.514994745113654"
],
[
"months. Astronauts will receive an orientation on the major spacefaring nations, their space agencies, and all major manned and unmanned space programs. Training in this phase also looks into applicable laws and policies of the space sector. Technical (including engineering, astrodynamics, propulsion, orbital mechanics, etc.) and scientific (including human physiology, biology, earth observation, and astronomy) basics are introduced, to ensure that all new astronauts have the required base level of knowledge. Training is done on ISS operations and facilities, including an introduction to all major operating systems on board the ISS that are required for its functionality as a",
"-27.51263261398708"
],
[
"crew to alert them that the managers had decided to make a 24-hour delay to EVA-1, originally scheduled for Flight Day 4, and that Stanley Love would replace Hans Schlegel for EVA-1 on Monday. During the post-MMT briefing, Mission Management Chairman John Shannon explained there was a \"crew medical issue\", but it would not impact the mission objectives. For reasons of medical privacy, Shannon said NASA can not disclose which crewmember is affected, and no details would be given as to the nature of the issue, but Shannon said it was not something to be concerned about. Unconfirmed news reports",
"-27.500489128628033"
],
[
"the crew's return to Earth, creating a one-star observation system that would allow astronauts to determine their location with accuracy. In a 2010 interview, Johnson recalled, \"Everybody was concerned about them getting there. We were concerned about them getting back.\" Later in her career, Johnson worked on the Space Shuttle program, the Earth Resources Satellite, and on plans for a mission to Mars. Personal life In 1939, Katherine (then Coleman) married James Francis Goble. They had three daughters: Constance, Joylette, and Katherine. In 1953, she and James moved their family to Newport News to pursue a new job opportunity. In",
"-27.499522173533478"
],
[
"Station. The astronauts use a colour-coded ultrasound machine and make calls to Moynihan using a VoIP phone. During a sixth-month mission, one of the astronauts, who suffered with a history of knee injury, developed a persistent pain. This was assessed using ultrasound, where images were live streamed back to the planet Earth.\nShe took part in the BBC documentary Women with the Right Stuff and the book Promised the Moon. She appeared in the Channel 4 documentary, Live from Space. She is affiliated with San Jacinto Methodist Hospital.",
"-27.49768620667055"
],
[
"different mission activities. It is vital that astronauts are familiar with their assigned experiments in order to complete them in a timely manner, with as little intervention from the ground as possible.\nFor missions to the ISS, each astronaut is required to become proficient at one hundred or more experiments. During training, the scientists responsible for the experiments do not have direct contact with the astronauts who will be carrying them out. Instead, scientists instruct trainers who in turn prepare the astronauts for carrying out the experiment. Much of this training is done at the European Astronaut Center.\nFor human experiments, the",
"-27.481139770932714"
],
[
"Two 6.5 hour spacewalks were conducted by three astronauts to test hardware and tools to be used in the assembly of the International Space Station starting in late 1998. EVA-1 on flight day five consisted of Crewmembers Leroy Chiao (EV1) and Dan Barry (EV2). After taking a few minutes to acclimate themselves in the payload bay, first-time spacewalkers Chiao and Barry attached a portable work platform to the end of the robot arm, operated by Pilot Brent Jett and Mission Specialist Koichi Wakata. Jett used the arm to grapple various pieces of hardware designed to hold large modular components, mimicking",
"-27.479349244140394"
],
[
"Human Research Facility at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas. Meir coordinated and supported human space life science experiments that were performed by astronauts on Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) missions. These experiments included physiological studies (bone loss, muscle control/atrophy, lung function, etc.) to determine if any bodily processes were altered in the spaceflight environment. Meir guided these experiments through the necessary review cycles, developed procedures that the astronauts would use on-orbit, trained crew members, and provided ground support in the Mission Control Center while the astronauts were performing the experiments on the shuttle or",
"-27.463512056951004"
],
[
"38-minute EVA to a close .\nA final scheduled task, an inspection of bolts on one of two Strela hand-operated cranes on the docking compartment, was postponed to a future EVA. Conclusion This mission was the longest expedition to the ISS thus far. Also, the Soyuz capsule was the oldest one ever used. López-Alegría, already the U.S. recordholder for spacewalks, now also holds the record for longest spaceflight by a NASA astronaut.",
"-27.424848617483804"
],
[
"spaceflight has so far been human-piloted, with the first autonomous human-carrying spacecraft under design starting in 2015.\nRussia and China have human spaceflight capability with the Soyuz program and Shenzhou program. In the United States, SpaceShipTwo reached the edge of space in 2018; this was the first crewed spaceflight from the US since the Space Shuttle retired in 2011. Currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use Soyuz vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The United States is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to ISS and low Earth orbit, as",
"-27.420268021767697"
],
[
"second most experienced spacewalker overall, behind Russia's Anatoly Solovyev. On April 2, 2007, López-Alegría set the record for the longest space mission of any American astronaut. When he landed on April 21, his time in space on a single mission was 215 days. (The longest space mission on record is that of Valeriy Polyakov, who spent 437 days aboard the Russian space station Mir in 1994 and 1995.) After NASA López-Alegría retired from NASA on March 12, 2012 and served as the President of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation through the end of 2014.\nLópez-Alegría is an independent consultant to traditional and",
"-27.380987486887534"
],
[
"of the astronauts engaged in the EASE/ACCESS work, as well as other scenes of interest.\n\"This is probably not the preferred way of building a space station,\" Ross said later of EASE. The astronauts reported that the most difficult part of the spacewalks was torquing their own masses while holding the EASE beams. The ACCESS worked well, while EASE required too much free floating. The astronauts judged that performing six-hour spacewalks every other day over a five or six-day period was feasible, and recommended glove changes to reduce hand fatigue. Ross said in the Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) debrief that the crew",
"-27.36678674086579"
],
[
"over 461 hours in space including over 19 EVA hours in 3 space walks. Following STS-97, Noriega trained as the backup commander for ISS Expedition 6 and later as a member of the crew of STS-121. In July 2004, Noriega was replaced by Piers Sellers on the crew of STS-121 due to a temporary medical condition. While awaiting future flight assignment Noriega served as Chief, Exploration Systems Engineering Division, Engineering Directorate, Johnson Space Center. In January 2005, Noriega retired from the NASA Astronaut Corps, but continues to serve as the Manager, Advanced Projects Office, Constellation Program, Johnson Space Center. Spaceflight",
"-27.36580799332478"
],
[
"station is operated and controlled by Roscosmos and provides Russia with the right to nearly one-half of the crew time for the ISS. The allocation of remaining crew time (three to four crew members of the total permanent crew of six) and hardware within the other sections of the station is as follows: Columbus: 51% for the ESA, 46.7% for NASA, and 2.3% for CSA. Kibō: 51% for the JAXA, 46.7% for NASA, and 2.3% for CSA. Destiny: 97.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA. Crew time, electrical power and rights to purchase supporting services (such as data upload and",
"-27.34959324315787"
],
[
"had logged more than 3,000 hours of flight time when NASA selected him for astronaut training in December 1994. He was one of 19 candidates selected from a pool of 2,962 applicants. NASA Anderson reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995. He completed a year of training and evaluation, and was qualified for flight crew assignment as a mission specialist. Anderson was initially assigned technical duties in the Flight Support Branch of the Astronaut Office, but went on to log more than 593 hours in space aboard two Space Shuttle missions. Endeavour STS-89 Endeavour (January 22–31, 1998). Anderson",
"-27.339738286460488"
]
] |
2vqb3g | Why did the Germans put those barricades on the beaches for the D-Day strikes? Wouldn't it have been better to have left the beach with as little cover as possible for the allied troops landing? | [
"It prevented the Allies from landing tanks on the beach and advancing upon the gun positions.",
"One name for those is \"Czech hedgehogs\" (there may be others). They're obstacles and their purpose was to impede, stop, or damage tanks, landing craft or other watercraft/vehicles that were coming ashore. Their design makes it very difficult to go over them. If your enemy gets \"hung up\" on one, it makes them easy targets, and also prevents them from getting to you. [more info]( URL_0 )",
"An important thing to note is that the landings occured at low tide. IIRC, the germans expected them to land at high tide, because that would mean the troops had less open ground on the beach to cover once they got off the landing craft. At high tide many of those obstacles would have been underwater and would have torn up the landing craft. Some of them were also tipped with mines to straight up blow the boats up.",
"Pretty sure they were to prevent the rapid deployment of tanks.",
"To keep tanks and other motorized vehicles from rolling off of the boats. They give you as much cover area as a 2x4",
"There were also many under water, or hidden by tides. They came in [all shapes and sizes]( URL_0 ) They deterred boats and large vehicles from using the beach easily, one of many layers of protection to delay large equipment (like bulldozers and tanks) and establishing a beachhead. Past these obstacles were walls, trenches, barbed wire, concrete pillboxes, machine gun nests, and a variety of huge artillery guns miles away, all with their crosshairs on the beaches. When the [Atlantic Wall]( URL_1 ) was built, the Germans plan was to basically stall the enemy on the beaches until nearby planes, artillery, tanks and other reinforcements could help. When the Allies finally attacked on D-Day, they had lots of planning, the element of surprise, bombing from air and ships, and thousands of paratroopers dropped across the French countryside to cause trouble and prevent German reinforcements from helping."
] | [
[
"to hit the beach defences. The Germans had 570 aircraft stationed in Normandy and the Low Countries on D-Day, and another 964 in Germany.\nMinesweepers began clearing channels for the invasion fleet shortly after midnight and finished just after dawn without encountering the enemy. The Western Task Force included the battleships Arkansas, Nevada, and Texas, plus eight cruisers, 28 destroyers, and one monitor. The Eastern Task Force included the battleships Ramillies and Warspite and the monitor Roberts, twelve cruisers, and thirty-seven destroyers. Naval bombardment of areas behind the beach commenced at 05:45, while it was still dark, with the gunners switching",
"-37.541810512775555"
],
[
"and antitank obstacles were planted on the beaches, and underwater obstacles and naval mines were placed in waters just offshore. The intent was to destroy the Allied landing craft before they could unload on the beaches. D-Day By the time of the Allied invasion, the Germans had laid almost six million mines in Northern France. More gun emplacements and minefields extended inland along roads leading away from the beaches. In likely landing spots for gliders and parachutists, the Germans emplanted slanted poles with sharpened tops, which the troops called Rommelspargel (\"Rommel's Asparagus\"). Low-lying river and estuarine areas were intentionally flooded.",
"-36.22275253053522"
],
[
"counter-attacks before the arrival of sufficient forces in the beachhead could be accomplished. To slow or eliminate the enemy's ability to organise and launch counter-attacks during this critical period, airborne operations were used to seize key objectives such as bridges, road crossings, and terrain features, particularly on the eastern and western flanks of the landing areas. The airborne landings some distance behind the beaches were also intended to ease the egress of the amphibious forces off the beaches, and in some cases to neutralise German coastal defence batteries and more quickly expand the area of the beachhead.\nThe US 82nd and",
"-36.022531777387485"
],
[
"attacks on ships offshore, and the beach and boardwalk closed at 9:00 p.m. to make it easier for military personnel to patrol against landings by enemy agents and saboteurs. Many personnel of the various armed forces were billeted in the town or based nearby, German prisoners of war were held in the area, a radar station was built nearby to the west, and the United States Army built a gunnery control tower south of town to support the Coast Artillery guns at Fort Miles on Cape Henlopen. Patrol dogs intended for use along the entire United States East Coast were trained",
"-35.797774784849025"
],
[
"would spend less time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high-tide mark. Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry. On Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled. Given the Allied air supremacy (4,029 Allied aircraft assigned to operations in Normandy plus 5,514 aircraft assigned to bombing and defence, versus 570 Luftwaffe planes stationed in France and the Low Countries), booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's asparagus) were set up in meadows and fields to deter airborne",
"-35.670405480545014"
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[
"way into the beach due to their draught. Also some of the tasks that had been assigned were impractical or had not been rehearsed—the wire intended for use as a road block was too heavy to carry from the beach—and intelligence relating to German dispositions upon the island was at best outdated or completely wrong. The commandos also found they were burdened with equipment that was not of use, including steel helmets, gaiters and an excess of ammunition. Largely this was the result of the haste with which the operation had been conceived and then put together, but it was",
"-35.26955292606726"
],
[
"the shores of Normandy. Blockhouses had token defense, but were excellent in making counterattacks. Certain blockhouses also had the ability to fire out to sea, allowing the German player to eliminate allied reinforcements for the next turn. Conversely, naval bombardment (represented by a naval bombardment phase in D-Day) allowed the safe removal of blockhouses from play. Battleship Battleships are the most expensive units in Axis & Allies, but have unparalleled attack and defense capabilities. Originally the same as other units in the fact that a single hit destroyed the unit (making it an expensive proposition), a",
"-35.14064792339923"
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[
"five landing beaches, due to its rough terrain and bluffs overlooking the beach, which had been well fortified by its German defenders of the 352nd Infantry Division. The 116th Infantry was assigned four sectors of the beach; Easy Green, Dog Red, Dog White, and Dog Green. Soldiers of the 29th Infantry Division boarded a large number of attack transports for the D-Day invasion, among them landing craft, landing ship, tank, and landing ship, infantry ships and other vessels such as the SS Empire Javelin, USS Charles Carroll, and USS Buncombe County.\nAs the ships were traveling to the beach, the heavy seas, combined",
"-35.09753599703254"
],
[
"the Germans had constructed a network of trenches, gun pits, mortar pits, and machine gun nests. Barbed wire surrounded these positions and lined the beach. The beachfront itself, being generally flat and exposed, was guarded by a few scattered bunkers, with machine gun and sniper posts in some of the holiday homes and tourist facilities lining the shore. To reinforce the defences, six strongpoints had been constructed, each with at least eight 5 cm Pak 38 50mm anti-tank guns, four 75mm guns, and one 88mm gun. One of the strongpoints (codenamed Cod by the British), faced directly on to Queen",
"-35.032040182792116"
],
[
"the beach had failed to do so, however, and another brief fire-fight was required to eliminate the Germans guarding the beach. The raiding force was then picked up by a small number of landing craft and transferred to several Motor Gun Boats which brought them back to Britain. The raid was entirely successful. The airborne troops suffered only a few casualties, and the pieces of the radar they brought back, along with a German radar technician, allowed British scientists to understand German advances in radar and to create counter-measures to neutralise those advances. Norway Operation Freshman was the first British",
"-34.78380383551121"
],
[
"and deal with various anti-tank emplacements and bunkers. Once past the beach, the Allied troops would have faced minefields, barbed wire, flooded areas and ditches while still under fire from the artillery, and now from the sechsschartentürme. Luckily for Allied soldiers, Allied High Command decided that the invasion of Normandy would bypass the Channel Islands.",
"-34.66177727066679"
],
[
"patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 28 September 1944. Today the long dismantled airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.",
"-34.344423578411806"
],
[
"beach defences, take prisoners and destroy a searchlight battery. Defences were found to be light and/or abandoned as they advanced and only three Germans were encountered at close quarters who withdrew immediately. The official report recorded, \"no determined opposition\". A fighting patrol of 12 men sent to destroy the searchlights reached their objective but had to retire before pressing home their attack due to lack of time remaining signalled by the re-call rocket.\nOn 19 August 1942, the Dieppe raid a major landing took place at the French coastal town of Dieppe. The main force was provided by the 2nd Canadian",
"-34.32678020116873"
],
[
"strongpoint near the beach as well as pillboxes and machine gun nests on the top of the cliff overlooking the beach. The beach was not land mined and had only sporadic barbed-wire defences, but it was patrolled regularly; a mobile reserve of infantry was believed to be available at one hour's notice and stationed some distance inland.\nBased on this information, Frost decided to divide the company into five groups of forty men for the raid, each named after a famous Royal Navy admiral: 'Nelson', 'Jellicoe', 'Hardy', 'Drake' and 'Rodney'. 'Nelson' would clear and secure German positions defending the evacuation beach,",
"-34.2116244349163"
],
[
"by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies. Some of the opening bombardment was off-target or not concentrated enough to have any impact, but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches. Indecisiveness and an overly complicated command structure on the part of the German high command were also factors in the Allied success. War memorials and tourism At Omaha Beach, parts of the Mulberry harbour are still visible, and a few of the beach obstacles",
"-34.1945947217755"
],
[
"could not be used to support the Allied advance. Allied bombers breached the dykes on 3 October at Westkapelle, Flushing and Veere, flooding the island, leaving only a few dry areas around its perimeter and greatly restricting the Germans’ freedom of movement.\nThe 4th Special Service Brigade formed the seaborne element of the attack while British and Canadian infantry attacked overland from the mainland. This time the commandos came ashore in Landing Vehicle Tracked, (also known as Buffaloes), which had already proven their worth in the Pacific campaign. 41 Commando was tasked with assaulting the town of Westkapelle and then to",
"-34.19145845004823"
],
[
"storm the beaches of Normandy. Island assault In one joint training mission with the Army, Navy and Air Force, they simulated a takeover of the island. In preparing to do so they acted as if the island was held by German troops and they needed to infiltrate the island and capture it. To make things as realistic as possible the beaches were covered with barbed wire, beach obstacles and demolitions were planted on the beaches and also further inland. The demolitions were set up to replicate naval gunfire support, artillery and land mines. Along with these obstacles the 75th Composite",
"-34.070833194049555"
],
[
"front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 38 September 1944. Today the long dismantled airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.",
"-34.03361703432165"
],
[
"some landings went to the wrong beaches, this was immaterial because of the extremely low level of French opposition. All the coastal batteries had been neutralized by French resistance, and one French commander openly welcomed the landing Allies. The only fighting took place in the port of Algiers, where in Operation Terminal, two British destroyers attempted to land a party of U.S. Army Rangers directly onto the dock, in order to prevent the French destroying the port facilities and scuttling their ships. Heavy artillery fire prevented one destroyer from landing, but the other was able to disembark 250 Rangers before",
"-34.03092255251249"
],
[
"beaches. The sector chosen for the assault was the 1.8 miles (2.9 km) wide 'White' and 'Red' beaches of 'Queen' sector, as shallow reefs blocked access to the other sectors. Two infantry battalions supported by DD tanks would lead the assault followed up by the commandos and the rest of the division; the landing was due to start at 07:25 hours; the division would be the last assault division to land. German On 23 March 1942, Führer Directive Number 40 called for the official creation of the Atlantic Wall - a line of concrete gun emplacements, machine-gun nests, minefields and beach",
"-34.00659815908875"
],
[
"skirt fitted to the hulls of ships, and energised by a special electric current which countered the threat from these mines securing the future of the north Atlantic convoys on which Britain's war effort depended.\nIn 1944 France was occupied by the Nazis, the Allied Forces hatched a plan to attack the Germans on French soil. D-Day would not have been possible, due to the rough seas if it wasn't for one major element, the Mulberry Harbour.\nOne of the major challenges facing the D-Day landings was to secure a European port for the delivery of essential supplies, but instead of capturing",
"-33.91769890068099"
],
[
"6th Airlanding Brigade overflew their positions, on their way to reinforce the Orne bridgehead in Operation Mallard, the Germans, believing they were about to be cut off, retired.\nThe Luftwaffe was particularly weak in this sector, but tried to support the attack with a few of the rare daylight appearances it made on D-Day. Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle, commanding Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleet 3) was responsible for the air defense of Normandy and ordered all available forces to attack the beachhead. Junkers Ju 88s from Kampfgeschwader 54 (KG 54: Bomber Wing 54) attacked British positions with Butterfly Bombs. III./KG 54 struck Lion-sur-Mer",
"-33.91104458970949"
],
[
"World War II, the beaches of the Île de Ré were fortified by German forces with bunkers, in order to block a possible seaward invasion. Many of the bunkers are still visible, in a more or less derelict state. Several scenes of the 1962 movie The Longest Day were filmed on the beaches of the island. Connection to the mainland In 1987, a two-point-nine-kilometre (1.8 mi) bridge was built to connect the island to the mainland. Previously, the island was connected through roll-on roll-off ferries (called \"bacs\"), which could accommodate vehicles and passengers. In peak summer time periods, the waiting time",
"-33.91042630182346"
],
[
"and the beaches. The turret also guards two roads leading to the interior of the island.\nThere were several of these bunkers lining the headland of St. Ouen's bay and overlooking the low-lying areas beneath. Their locations permitted the bunkers to achieve interlocking fields of fire. Anti-tank ditches, barbed wire, mines and excellent camouflage complemented the bunkers, creating a formidable defensive position. In order to land there, the Allied landing craft would first have had to run the gantlet of artillery fire from the cliffs above to arrive on the beach. The troops would then have to scale an antitank wall",
"-33.77479057959863"
],
[
"to pre-assigned targets on the beach as soon as it was light enough to see, at 05:50. Since troops were scheduled to land at Utah and Omaha starting at 06:30 (an hour earlier than the British beaches), these areas received only about 40 minutes of naval bombardment before the assault troops began to land on the shore. Airborne operations The success of the amphibious landings depended on the establishment of a secure lodgement from which to expand the beachhead to allow the buildup of a well-supplied force capable of breaking out. The amphibious forces were especially vulnerable to strong enemy",
"-33.74832579033682"
],
[
"between the beachhead and Valognes, clear the area of the drop zones to the unit boundary at Les Forges, and link up with the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division.\nGerman forces opposing the operation included the 3rd Battalion, 1058th Grenadier Regiment (91st Air Landing Division) in the vicinity of Saint Come-du-Mont, the 919th Grenadier Regiment (709th Infantry Division) behind Utah Beach, the 191st Artillery Regiment (105mm mountain howitzer, 91st AL Div), and the 6th Parachute Regiment, sent to Carentan during D-Day. Mission description Albany was the first of two parachute missions, with \"Mission Boston\" following it by one hour to drop the",
"-33.73486099625006"
],
[
"time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high water mark. Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry. On Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled. The Allied air offensive over Germany had crippled the Luftwaffe and established air supremacy over western Europe, so Rommel knew he could not expect effective air support. The Luftwaffe could muster only 815 aircraft over Normandy in comparison to the Allies' 9,543. Rommel arranged for booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's",
"-33.59752432879759"
],
[
"3 to 4 days later. Operation Wild Oats was another plan made before the invasion, for XXX Corps and the 1st Airborne Division to cut off a possible German retirement westwards from Caen. The landings were to be supported by the bombardment of the inland defences by Allied strategic bombers, naval bombardment ships and the beaches to be \"drenched\" by rocket and field gun fire from landing craft. D-Day, 6 June The naval bombardment and bombing by the Allied air forces failed to have the destructive effect on German beach defences hoped for and in many places Allied infantry, engineers",
"-33.50850328383967"
],
[
"platoon in the anti-tank company, 116th Infantry Regiment of the 29th Infantry Division in the Allies' D-Day landings on Omaha Beach in Nazi-occupied Normandy, France. After landing in the second wave of the amphibious assault, Ferguson and his platoon, as well as the survivors from the first wave, were pinned down on the beach by heavy rifle, machine gun and artillery fire from the German defenders, and their advance was blocked by extensive barbed wire and other enemy obstacles. Ferguson rose under fire, cleared a passage through the enemy obstacles with a Bangalore torpedo, and was gravely wounded",
"-33.483606062829494"
],
[
"achieved during training; instead, all six landing craft landed at the same time, with the covering troops in the landing craft opening fire on German soldiers gathering at the top of the cliff.\nThis deviation from the original evacuation plan and the enemy fire caused considerable confusion on the beach; some of the landing craft left the beach over-crowded, whilst others left half-empty. However, the radar equipment, German prisoners and all but six of the raiding force were embarked and transferred to motor gunboats for transport back to Britain. On the return journey, Frost learned that the naval force had received",
"-33.453769034007564"
],
[
"attack on the dry dock behind enemy lines was an attempt to neutralise the ability of the German battleship Tirpitz to attack Atlantic supply lines to Britain as the dry dock at St. Nazaire was the only dock on the Atlantic coast of occupied France large enough to accommodate the Tirptiz and, as base, would allow the German battleship to attack British shipping supply lines. The 1952 film Gift Horse starring Trevor Howard was based on the true story of the raid on St. Nazaire.\n David Paton was to see action again when on D-Day, 6 June 1944, he landed",
"-33.40584938254324"
],
[
"as successful as the beach landings, with only 104 dead, 24 of which were caused by glider accidents and 18 by parachute accidents. German counterattacks French sabotage by the FFI, together with the Allied bombing, severed German communication lines, causing initial confusion among the troops. German field commanders were not able to communicate with Army Group G's headquarters. Despite the hampered communications, German commanders acted independently to put measures in effect to counter the Allied invasion. Directly facing the brunt of the Allied landings was the German LXII Corps at Draguignan, commanded by Ferdinand Neuling. Allied paratroopers interrupted his communication lines",
"-33.33548185694963"
],
[
"waves of infantry that reached an invasion beach would be acutely vulnerable without the support of tanks. However, if landing craft were used to carry those tanks, they themselves would be vulnerable to German heavy guns. The loss of too many landing craft would slow the movement of reinforcements from ships offshore and the invasion beaches would be choked with disabled and sunken landing craft. By giving tanks the ability to float, they could be launched from landing craft offshore and make their own way onto the beach. Canal Defence Light The Canal Defence Light (CDL) was a British secret",
"-33.306198825797765"
],
[
"Normandy, patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 7 September 1944. Today the airfield is indistinguishable from the agricultural fields in the area.",
"-33.27693033433752"
],
[
"add to their troubles, the area round the airfield they had to protect was too rocky to permit digging in, and there was no time to build blast walls before the enemy was upon them. The air attacks were so severe that casualties inflicted on the British paratroopers forced them to be withdrawn on 25 September. German landings - Operation \"Polar Bear\" On 1 October 1943, a concentration of shipping was observed in the ports of Crete, and early on the following morning a convoy steaming in a north-north-easterly direction south-east of Melos was sighted by British aircraft. Urgent supplies",
"-33.23704032410751"
],
[
"in action. Most of the shore batteries and positions remained in Axis hands. Force A Force E, a group of commandos from the submarine HMS Taku failed to set up beacons on the shore to guide the main British force, due to the bad sea conditions. The garrison had been reinforced and the destroyers HMS Sikh and Zulu bringing in the seaborne troops landed them on the wrong beach, far to the west of the intended landing place. The British destroyer Sikh, which led the landing attempt, was hit by Italian 152 mm (6-inch) shore batteries and German 88 mm anti-tank guns, while",
"-33.17437601007987"
],
[
"enhanced fortifications along the Atlantic Wall, with special emphasis on the most likely invasion front, which stretched from the Netherlands to Cherbourg. Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion, so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore. In addition to concrete gun emplacements at strategic points along the coast, he ordered wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks. Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so",
"-33.165179037023336"
],
[
"out until about 10:00 a.m. but by 10:30 a.m. the British and Canadian divisions had landed fifteen infantry battalions, five Commando units, seven armoured regiments, two Royal Marine armoured support regiments, nine field artillery regiments and two engineer regiments, on a beachhead only 5 mi (8.0 km) wide. By noon the follow-up brigades were ashore and had inched through traffic jams at the beach exits under severe bombardment from German artillery, to begin the advance inland.\nThe German reply was slower than the Allies expected, because the decision to land on 6 June caught the German commanders unprepared. By morning, reports received by",
"-32.945880854851566"
],
[
"The invasion fleet then headed south toward Normandy and navigated the German minefield, through which minesweepers had cleared channels; not a single Omaha Beach vessel was lost. D-Day At 03:00 on 6 June 1944, Texas and the British cruiser Glasgow entered the Omaha Western fire support lane and arrived at her initial firing position 12,000 yards (11,000 m) offshore near Pointe du Hoc at 04:41, as part of a combined total US-British flotilla of 702 ships, including seven battleships and five heavy cruisers.\nThe initial bombardment commenced at 05:50, against the site of six 15-centimetre (6 in) guns, atop Pointe du Hoc. When",
"-32.93444580025971"
],
[
"Bay.\nEarly in 1944 a coast ban, from The Wash to Cornwall, had come into force and visitors were only allowed in if possessing appropriate permits: this was to ensure absolute security surrounded the preparation of Operation Overlord and the D-Day landings. Torquay played a vital role in the landings, more than 23,000 men of the American 4th Infantry Division departed from Torquay for Utah Beach during Overlord.\nThe visiting restrictions were lifted in early July soon after the beach-head in Normandy had been established following the D-Day landings, and the American and Commonwealth troops billeted in the town had departed for",
"-32.892176947323605"
],
[
"beach and ignited when the Australian ground troops made their assaults. The group attacked the beach while naval underwater demolition teams operated offshore without losing a man. The attacks were so effective that the Australian Seventh Division was able to come ashore without enemy opposition. Cold War Reactivated as a Strategic Air Command Convair B-36 Peacemaker bombardment squadron in 1953. Engaged in worldwide training missions with the B-36 until 1956 when re-equipped with the jet Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. Deployed to Western Pacific during the Vietnam War and flew conventional Arc Light bombardment missions over enemy military and",
"-32.89109970431309"
],
[
"end of the Allied landing zone and at the same time limiting the Allies' potential to break out of the beachhead. Thus control of the bridges at Manoir de la Fière and Chef-du-Pont was seen as vital. The Merderet was assigned to the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division as Mission Boston, scheduled for 5 hours before the amphibious landings on D-Day. Cloud cover and German fire caused the landings to be dispersed; the paratroopers took the strategic town of Sainte-Mère-Église but failed in their original mission to clear the west bank of the Merderet on D-Day and blow the bridge over",
"-32.88752241835755"
],
[
"left (northern) flank, to join the 6th Airborne Division at the Orne crossings.\nThe unsettled weather that lulled the German commanders also pushed the tide in quicker and further than expected, which covered obstacles and reduced the beaches to a strip about 11 yd (10 m) from the water's edge to the sea wall, delaying the landing of follow-on forces and Sword was reduced to only 15 yd (14 m) instead of the usual 150 yd (140 m) of beach. Fire from unsuppressed German machine-gun nests swept the beach as the British advanced to capture the beachfront resorts and villas. A German strongpoint at La Brèche held",
"-32.87604448173079"
],
[
"to RAF squadrons equipped with Hawker Typhoon fighter-bombers also attacked German vehicles and positions in direct support of the Allied ground troops throughout the month. No. 456 Squadron, which was one of four night fighter squadrons assigned to protect the beachhead, frequently met German aircraft and shot down twelve of them in the week after the landing. Australian fighter ace Flight Lieutenant Nicky Barr, who had escaped from German custody in Italy during 1943, also briefly served in an air support control unit in Normandy. Barr landed at Omaha Beach on 9 June, but returned to the UK three days later",
"-32.870051439036615"
],
[
"D-Day landings. Some 30 senior officers, each with a staff vehicle and radio also took part in a top secret deception exercise to convince the Germans that a major sea assault was being prepared but could not be launched until at least September 1944.\nThe centre closed in June 1946 and the site is now occupied by a caravan park.",
"-32.84539221774321"
],
[
"patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied Armies, the airfield was closed on 7 September 1944. Today the airfield consists of agricultural fields, likely located to the east of the commune, as a large section of land appears to have an outline of an airfield by its field shapes.",
"-32.83087953651557"
],
[
"landing zone to quickly seize the high ground overlooking the beaches. Parallel to the invasion, several commando units were to take control of the islands off the coast.\nThe Allied plan consisted of a three-division landing of US forces led by Major General Lucian Truscott to secure a bridgehead on the first day. Their flanks were to be protected by French, American and Canadian commando units. Within 24 hours, 50,000–60,000 troops and 6,500 vehicles were to be disembarked. The airborne landings would concentrate in an area near Draguignan and Le Muy, with the aim of taking these towns to prevent German",
"-32.80276645103004"
],
[
"maximum disruption of air defenses when heavy bomber groups returning from bombardment raids. Destroyed many enemy aircraft on the ground; destroyed support buildings; barracks and enemy aircraft on the ground.\nAfter D-Day invasion of Europe, engaged in tactical air support of Allied ground forces, carrying out bombardment attacks against enemy strong points, structures and targets of opportunity when making sweeps of enemy rear areas. Moved from England to Advanced Landing Grounds in France and further eastward as ground forces advanced across continent; engaging enemy targets during the Western Allied invasion of Germany in early 1945. Continued",
"-32.79852988192579"
],
[
"or not such a landing was feasible, the Dieppe raid was to be undertaken by the 4th and 6th Brigades, with additional naval, air, and infantry support. Significant elements of the 5th Brigade were also involved.\nOn 19 August 1942, while British commando units attacked bunker positions on the outskirts of Dieppe, forces of the 2nd Division landed on four beaches. The easternmost, Blue Beach, which was situated at the foot of a sheer cliff, presented the most difficulties; the Royal Regiment of Canada, with a company of the Black Watch, was held at bay by two platoons of German defenders.",
"-32.77723826485453"
],
[
"the beach have been removed and relocated to near the parking area at Birubi Point in Anna Bay while most from the southern end of the beach may be found outside Fort Wallace in Stockton. Some of the tank traps remain submerged and pose a hazard to swimmers.\nDuring World War II the beach was used as a military bombing range and Air Force pilots used to regularly drop unused bombs on the beach before landing at RAAF Base Williamtown. To this day it is occasionally possible to see exposed bombs in the sand.\nStockton Beach is less than 3.5 km (2.2 mi) from",
"-32.72926748421742"
],
[
"the beaches and created \"a 'devil's garden' of beach obstacles ... deployed in rows between 12–17 ft (3.7–5.2 m) above the low-tide mark\". Strongpoints of machine-gun positions, antitank and anti-personnel artillery and bunkers were located every 1,000 yards (910 m), manned by several platoons with mortars. Minefields were deployed surrounding these strongpoints, and additional defences were present in the Courseulles harbour.\nThe Calvados beaches of Normandy were defended by the 716th Static and 352nd Infantry divisions, with the Canadian landing zone defended by elements of the 716th. It was formed mostly from soldiers under 18 or over 35, comprising 7,771 combat troops in six",
"-32.727993171080016"
],
[
"for Allied crossings at the Strait of Dover (see Operation Fortitude), where the senior German staff had always assumed that the invasion would begin.\nSet-piece scenes include the parachute drop into Sainte-Mère-Église, the advance inshore from the Normandy beaches, the U.S. Ranger Assault Group's assault on the Pointe du Hoc, the attack on Ouistreham by Free French Forces, and the strafing of the beaches by two lone Luftwaffe pilots. The film concludes with a montage showing various Allied units consolidating their beachheads before they advance inland by crossing France to eventually reach Germany. Development French producer Raoul Lévy signed a deal",
"-32.67916898935073"
],
[
"Troop A (4th), and SGT John S. Zanders and CPL Melvin F. Kinzie of Troop B (24th) swam ashore armed only with knives to mark the beaches for the landing craft. They became the first seaborne American soldiers to land in France on D-Day. When the invasion began, the troops rapidly captured the islands with no resistance; the Germans had evacuated, but 19 men were killed or wounded due to enemy mines. On 7 June, just south of Utah Beach, a platoon of Troop B, 4th Squadron, linked up with elements of the 82nd Airborne and managed to ambush a",
"-32.61966421012767"
],
[
"Stratford upon Avon, and troops participated in Operation Fortitude, the British-designed and led D-Day deceptions of a landing force designated for the Pas-de-Calais.\nSome troops went to Normandy two weeks after D-Day, where they simulated a fake Mulberry harbour at night with lights which attempted to draw German artillery from the real ones. After this the entire unit assisted in tying up the German defenders of Brest by simulating a larger force than was actually encircling them.\nAs the Allied armies moved east, so did the 23rd, and it eventually was based within Luxembourg, from where it engaged in deceptions of crossings",
"-32.59457581146853"
],
[
"the order for the three detachments to withdraw to the evacuation beach; it became apparent, however, that the beach had not been secured by the under-strength 'Nelson' detachment when a German machine gun opened fire on the airborne troops, severely wounding the company sergeant major. Frost ordered 'Rodney' and the available men of 'Nelson' to clear the defences, whilst he led the other three detachments back to the villa, which had been reoccupied by enemy troops.\nThe villa was soon cleared of enemy troops once more, and when Frost returned to the beach, he found that the machine-gun nest had been",
"-32.55436185465078"
],
[
"Lucian Truscott, landed at Torre di Gaffe, red beach, and Mollarella and Poliscia, green beaches in the west, and Cassibile in the east, with British and Canadian forces in the east and Americans toward the west. This constituted the largest amphibious operation of World War II in terms of size of the landing zone and the number of divisions put ashore on the first day. The Italian defensive plan did not contemplate a pitched battle on the beaches and so the landings themselves were somewhat anti-climactic.\nMore trouble was experienced from the difficult weather conditions (especially on the southern beaches) and",
"-32.54602463240735"
],
[
"the RAF to shield the fleet from the long-range battery at Le Havre. Allied losses to mines included the American destroyer USS Corry off Utah and submarine chaser USS PC-1261, a 173-foot patrol craft. In addition, many landing craft were lost. Bombardment Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with more than 2,200 British, Canadian, and US bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland. The coastal bombing attack was largely ineffective at Omaha, because low cloud cover made the assigned targets difficult to see. Concerned about inflicting casualties on their own troops, many bombers delayed their attacks too long and failed",
"-32.49791973363608"
],
[
"emplacements with infantry strong points along the French coastline. The older gun emplacements based on First World War designs were being replaced by stronger designs with overhead cover to offer protection from air attack. The area of Normandy targeted by Operation Aquatint had yet to receive any concrete gun emplacements but there was a network of coastal artillery batteries able to provide interlocking arcs of fire. German infantry carried out foot patrols in the areas between the batteries. Battle The mission had previously been attempted over the night of 11/12 September 1942, but had to be cancelled after the MTB",
"-32.49406290799379"
],
[
"used per skill type, the weather, equipment inventory and quality, level of supervision, employee absences, staffing levels, deaths and problems experienced all had to be filed with the OT. British attacks Throughout most of 1942–43, the Atlantic Wall remained a relaxed front for the Axis troops manning it, with only two large-scale British attacks. Operation Chariot, launched near St Nazaire in March 1942, successfully destroyed German pumping machinery for, and severely damaged, the Normandie dry dock and installations. The second attack was the Dieppe Raid, launched near the French port of Dieppe in August 1942 to test the German defences",
"-32.47372302264557"
],
[
"against Norway, Denmark, the southern part of western France, and the French Mediterranean coast\", adding that he expected the Allies to subsequently attack in force across the Straits of Dover.\nThey maintained the pretense of FUSAG and other forces threatening Pas de Calais for some considerable time after D-Day, possibly even as late as September 1944. This was vital to the success of the Allied plan, since it forced the Germans to keep most of their reserves bottled up waiting for an attack on Calais that never came, thereby allowing the Allies to maintain and build upon their marginal foothold in",
"-32.449912279553246"
],
[
"Even the battalion left to defend the beaches was virtually unscathed. During the assault, the island's defenders exercised unusual firing discipline to avoid giving away their positions. The bombardment managed only to destroy Japan's aircraft on the island, as well as the buildings surrounding the airfield. The Japanese remained in their fortified positions, ready to attack the American landing troops. Landing U.S. Marines landed on Peleliu at 08:32, on September 15, the 1st Marines to the north on White Beach 1 and 2 and the 5th and 7th Marines to the center and south on Orange Beach 1, 2, and",
"-32.392645026760874"
],
[
"its assault brigade and 6 Beach Group with its follow-up brigade. Four LCTs, each loaded with 200 tonnes (200 long tons) of high priority stores were beached and rapidly unloaded into temporary dumps near the beaches. These had been intended for use on D-Day only but the intended beach maintenance area had not been captured and was not ready to receive stores until 9 June.\nAlthough it was captured intact on D-Day, the small port of Ouistreham could not be used due to German shellfire from around Caen. There were some attacks by E-boats and a German air raid on 8",
"-32.37866030447185"
],
[
"1943 they built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on the southeast of England. Despite heavy preparations for defence against an amphibious assault, the Allied invasion took place well to the west in Normandy on D-Day. Calais was very heavily bombed and shelled in a successful effort to disrupt German communications and persuade them that the Allies would target the Pas-de-Calais for invasion (rather than Normandy). The town, by then largely in ruins, was laid siege to liberated by General Daniel Spry's 3rd Canadian Infantry Division between 25 September and 1 October 1944. On 27 February",
"-32.37478656799067"
],
[
"The 3rd Infantry Division landed on the left at Alpha Beach (Cavalaire-sur-Mer), the 45th Infantry Division landed in the centre at Delta Beach (Le Muy, Saint-Tropez) and the 36th Infantry Division landed on the right at Camel Beach (Saint-Raphaël).\nThe landings were overwhelmingly successful. On Delta and Alpha beaches, German resistance was low. The Osttruppen surrendered quickly, and the biggest threats to the Allies were the mines. A single German gun and a mortar position were silenced by destroyer fire. The Allied units in this sector were able to secure a bridgehead and quickly linked up with the paratroopers, capturing Saint-Tropez",
"-32.37166140732006"
],
[
"manner. Communications problems exacerbated the difficulties caused by Allied air and naval firepower. Local commanders also seemed incapable of the task of fighting an aggressive defense on the beach, as Rommel had envisioned.\nThe German High Command remained fixated on the Calais area, and von Rundstedt was not permitted to commit the armoured reserve. When it was finally released late in the day, its chance of success was greatly reduced. Overall, despite considerable Allied material superiority, the Germans kept the Allies bottled up in a small beachhead for nearly two months, aided immeasurably by terrain factors.\nAlthough there were several known disputes",
"-32.34165385609958"
],
[
"practice, the sea defense zones became well tested when the Allies invaded western Europe, in particular at the battle of Normandy. Sea Defense zone forces also fought fiercely to avoid losing Germany's submarine bases in France, in one case holding out for several months under Allied siege before surrendering.",
"-32.333970175590366"
],
[
"beachhead during January and February 1944.\nIn July 1944, the squadron moved again to Corsica to take part in the pending Operation Dragoon, the invasion of Southern France. This invasion occurred in August, and the 415th again flew night patrols covering the beachheads. After the Allied ground forces established beachheads, the squadron moved into Southern France, where it supported the U.S 7th Army and the French 1st Army with night interception and anti-night-intruder sorties. The pilots also patrolled the lines at St. Die, and it dropped flares to light up targets for the artillery. Through April 1945, the squadron flew patrols",
"-32.32661560131237"
],
[
"had deliberately breached the dykes around the island and had turned it into a massive lagoon, rimmed by broken dykes. The Germans had installed defences on the dykes to virtually turn them into a continuous fortification bristling with guns of every calibre. The British Marines placed great reliance on Weasel and Buffalo amphibious landing craft. The Royal Marine Commandos were to seize the shoulders of the gap in the dyke and then to fan out north and south to roll up the remainder of the German defences by linking up with the southern thrust. The RAF provided air support and",
"-32.31116375197598"
],
[
"near Port en Bessin in Normandy. The mission was to collect information about the surrounding area, and take a German guard prisoner. After the mission and on their way back to the beach to rejoin the Motor Torpedo Boat which had dropped them off, the SSRF commandos were fired on by a German patrol with machine guns and hand grenades. They attempted to swim out to the MTB which by now had also been discovered and was under fire and, unable to locate it in the darkness, were forced to swim back to the beach.\nHayes came ashore beside Asnieres-en-Bessin and",
"-32.300569919578265"
],
[
"in small domestic shelters. Largely for political reasons most of his recommendations were never adopted, although some wealthy Londoners were able to build concrete shelters according to his design.\nArup played a significant part in the design of the Mulberry temporary harbours used during the D-Day landings.\nThe Mulberry Harbour was a type of temporary harbour developed to offload cargo on the beaches during the Allied invasion of Normandy. The sections for two prefabricated or artificial military harbours were taken with the invading army from Britain across the English Channel and assembled off the coast of Normandy as part of the D-Day",
"-32.29824980736885"
],
[
"the aerial and naval bombardment of German coastal defences and artillery sites. The landing was to be concentrated on Queen Red and Queen White in front of Hermanville-sur-Mer, other approaches having proven impassable due to shoals. At 0725, the first units set off for the beach. These were the amphibious DD tanks of the 13th/18th Hussars; they were followed closely by the 8th Infantry Brigade, and by Royal Engineers in AVREs and the various odd-looking, specialized vehicles that had been nicknamed 'Hobart's funnies'. The engineers set to work clearing mines and obstacles under a steady hail of small arms fire",
"-32.2880042536126"
],
[
"Head Cliffs of Martha's Vineyard in order to simulate live gunfire and bombing rounds. The soldiers who landed on the beach would then have to move up and clear the woods and take control of the beach. These missions were created to simulate the planned landings on the beaches of Normandy during D-Day. If the troops were unable to complete these missions they would not be allowed to ship out and take part in the storming of the beaches in Normandy.\nAnother practice mission that the U.S. Army did to prepare for storming the beaches was practicing climbing the",
"-32.286881887266645"
],
[
"and Le Muy. The most serious fighting was on Camel Beach near the town of Saint-Raphaël. This beach was defended by several well-emplaced coastal guns, as well as flak batteries. Through heavy German fire, the Allies attempted to land at the shore. However, at sector Red of the Camel Beach landing zone, the Allies were not able to succeed. A bombing run of 90 Allied B-24 bombers was called in against a German strongpoint here. Even with the assistance of naval fire, the Allies were not able to bring the landing ships close to the shore. They decided to avoid Camel Red",
"-32.28159660273377"
],
[
"bridge, while another set a tyre dump on fire and blew up the breeches of a number of naval guns. Due to the delays during the landings and the need to depart while it was still dark, time ran out and the commandos were forced to withdraw. On the way back, an officer was shot when he failed to respond correctly when challenged by a sentry; while 67 men, not knowing that there were no assault craft at their beach due to the earlier error, were left behind and later captured.\nDespite the lack of tangible success the raid was not",
"-32.247588445898145"
],
[
"to be released into shallow pits on the beach and ignited when the Australian ground troops made their assaults. The group attacked the beach while naval underwater demolition teams operated offshore without losing a man. The attacks were so effective that the Australian Seventh Division was able to come ashore without enemy opposition. The group continued to support Australian forces in Borneo after this mission, augmented by the B-25s of the 38th Bombardment Group of Fifth Air Force.\nThe group's final combat action of World War II was attacking isolated Japanese units on Luzon during July and August 1945.",
"-32.24424319251557"
],
[
"to simulate landing craft approaching, firing salvos of rockets and dropping dummies overboard to give the impression of troops wading ashore.\nIn the south, the main invasion force was approaching the island when, at 03:38, a signal flare was fired and the Germans opened fire on the landing craft. The Royal Navy Commandos of Able 1 and Oboe 3 Commando with Able 2 in reserve landed at 03:50. They approached the beach toward their objective: the heavily armed German flak ship Köln, which was berthed at Marina di Campo and had a commanding view of both beaches.\nThis made its capture or destruction vital to",
"-32.197905275941594"
],
[
"linked with a front line 10 to 16 kilometres (6 to 10 mi) from the beaches; none of these objectives were achieved. The five beachheads were not connected until 12 June, by which time the Allies held a front around 97 kilometres (60 mi) long and 24 kilometres (15 mi) deep. Caen, a major objective, was still in German hands at the end of D-Day and would not be completely captured until 21 July. The Germans had ordered French civilians other than those deemed essential to the war effort to leave potential combat zones in Normandy. Civilian casualties on D-Day and D+1 are",
"-32.182063077692874"
],
[
"fire from the cliffs above. Problems clearing the beach of obstructions led to the beachmaster calling a halt to further landings of vehicles at 08:30. A group of destroyers arrived around this time to offer supporting artillery fire. Exit from Omaha was possible only via five gullies, and by late morning barely six hundred men had reached the higher ground. By noon, as the artillery fire took its toll and the Germans started to run out of ammunition, the Americans were able to clear some lanes on the beaches. They also started clearing the draws of enemy defences so that",
"-32.055104968414526"
],
[
"put ashore by Landing Craft Tank vessels, along with the supporting engineers. Some problems were anticipated and allowed for: waterproofing of the hulls, canvas carpets to aid the tanks crossing the shingle beach, engineer teams to demolish obstacles and a few of the tanks were fitted with flame-throwers.\nIn the event, the German defences were stronger than expected. The shingle \"chert\" of the beach was also a problem: according to history professor Hugh Henry, the German defenders had previously considered it impassable to tanks. Only the 30 Churchills in the first two waves of 10 LCTs made the beach, landing under",
"-32.00786868529394"
],
[
"War Two During World War II, the Germans and Italians strengthened the island's fortifications as part of the Atlantic Wall. The Italian contingent was made up of two officers and just over one hundred sailors, included in the Divisione Atlantica of the Repubblica Sociale Italiana. The Normandy campaign in the summer of 1944 saw the German-Italian garrison heavily bombarded by land artillery, naval artillery, and air strikes. Guns on the island contributed to the defense of St. Malo. The island's three-hundred-man garrison eventually surrendered to elements of the U.S. 83rd Infantry Division on 2 September 1944. Post-war",
"-32.00147327597915"
],
[
"Ouistreham, and the Orne and Caen Canal bridges.\nB Troop took up its coast defence position at Ouistreham on D+2, where it came under enemy artillery fire, suffering some casualties and damage. As part of the coast defence role, Gun Control Radar sets were used to plot Parachute mines being dropped by German aircraft in the anchorage (though the AA guns were forbidden to engage them for fear of causing casualties among the shipping). Given the low intensity of air attacks, HAA guns in the bridgehead were sometimes made available to fire on ground targets for bombardment, counter-battery and anti-tank shoots.",
"-32.001250092405826"
],
[
"the morning, Germans in fortified resistance nests directed a withering fire on to flights of LCAs touching down on the beach, which added to the troubles of the assault units. At approximately 09:50, approaching the shore side town of Asnelles, five of the LCAs transporting No.47 Royal Marine Commando ashore blew up mines or were wrecked on beach obstacles with the loss of more than a fifth of the Commando before they reached the beach. Juno Beach On Juno Beach, RCN, RN, and RM flotillas employed 142 LCAs and experienced some difficulty getting the units of the 3rd Canadian Infantry",
"-31.950747220078483"
],
[
"1941 by the German Wehrmacht as a school for anti-aircraft personnel. The barracks were meant to look like a small village, in order not to be bombed by the allied or British bombers, which it never was.\nJust near the barracks of Nymindegab lay the Atlantic Wall, stretching from Nordkap in Norway to the Pyrenees by the Spanish border. Because of this bunkers lay along the coast as a constant reminder of WW2. Among these the Tirpitz-position (in German: Batterie Vogelsnest), which was being built (but never finished) in order to protect the port of Esbjerg.\nFollowing the Second World War it",
"-31.93394542625174"
],
[
"bases. The German Air Force used Harvey Barracks for an airport and they would flood the landing strip there when Allied forces would fly overhead. Below Harvey Barracks were multiple levels of hangars which still contain some German World War II aircraft. The hangars were booby-trapped by the retreating Germans close to the end of World War II. Tunnels were said to have been constructed by the Germans from the airfield out to the nearest highway, so that aircraft could be launched off the road to intercept allied planes. Because of the danger involved, no one had been inside the",
"-31.905110850231722"
],
[
"and troop carriers to clear any remaining German bunkers and snipers. The NCDU teams (designated Demolitions Gap-Assault teams) would come in with the second wave and work at low tide to clear the obstacles. Their mission was to open sixteen 50-foot (15 m) wide corridors for the landing at each of the U.S. landing zones (Omaha Beach and Utah Beach). Unfortunately, the plans could not be executed as laid out. The preparatory air and naval bombardment was ineffective, leaving many German guns in position to fire on the attackers. Also, tidal conditions caused many of the NCDU teams to land prematurely",
"-31.903535045916215"
],
[
"to D-Day, German raids on coastal areas were expected and Torquay's took place on 29 May when some 20 planes are believed to have been in Torbay laying mines. Some carried bombs and these were dropped around the Harbour, in Chelston and elsewhere. Nos 4 and 5 Park Crescent were destroyed but the worst affected property was \"Bay Court Hotel\" where rescuers dug for days for survivors. This was the last recorded raid during the war in Torquay, but throughout the past four years the air attacks had resulted in well over 700 'air raid alerts' being sounded in the",
"-31.897433856269345"
],
[
"operations against targets on the Continent, strafed targets of opportunity, and flew fighter-bomber, counter-air, and area-patrol missions. Engaged primarily in B-17/B-24 escort activities and fighter sweeps until the Normandy invasion in June 1944.\nPatrolled the beachhead during the invasion. Strafed and dive-bombed troops, bridges, locomotives, railway cars, barges, vehicles, airfields, gun emplacements, flak towers, ammunition dumps, power stations, and radar sites while on escort or fighter-bomber missions as the Allies drove across France during the summer and fall of 1944. The unit flew area patrols to support the breakthrough at Saint-Lô in July and the airborne attack on the Netherlands in",
"-31.87550377950538"
],
[
"front line troops, holding a sector of the Allied front line, badly depleted after the withdrawal of forces for the D-Day landings in Normandy, nipping around in their jeeps to fool the Germans into believing that they were opposed by much larger units.\nSeveral operations used DUKWs or small landing craft called RCLs (manned by 7 Royal Engineers who became known as \"Popski’s Private Navy\") to sail up the Adriatic and get behind the German front line, escorted by the Royal Navy’s Coastal Forces.\nThroughout the bitter winter weather and fighting of 1944 and 1945 PPA undertook their operations ahead of regular",
"-31.873851206852123"
],
[
"perimeter, although it was able to stop German attacks by mid-morning thanks to heavy naval fire from a British cruiser off the shore of Sicily. By dusk 3rd Parachute Battalion to the north had been forced to retreat after suffering heavy casualties and facing repeated German assaults, and the surviving paratroopers began moving towards 2nd Parachute Battalion's positions; at the same time, Lonsdale managed to make contact with M4 Sherman tanks from 44th Royal Tank Regiment, part of the British 4th Armoured Brigade, who had advanced from the British beachheads. As the 3rd Parachute Battalion troops reached his company's positions,",
"-31.87051262613386"
],
[
"June 6, 1944, Peregory landed with the 116th at Omaha Beach as part of the Normandy Invasion, also known as D-Day. His unit was among the first wave of troops to assault the beach but despite fierce enemy resistance that included heavy shelling and machine gun fire, his unit made its way to the town of Grandcampe, by June 8.\nWhile his unit advanced on the German defenses, the leading elements of his unit began receiving fire from German forces. The Germans were firmly entrenched on high ground overlooking the town and were able to inflict severe damage to allied forces",
"-31.866534616739955"
],
[
"during this time. \nThe fighter planes flew support missions during the Allied invasion of Normandy, patrolling roads in front of the beachhead; strafing German military vehicles and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops in Normandy and Brittany when spotted.\nAfter the Americans moved east into Central France with the advancing Allied armies, the airfield was used as a resupply and casualty evacuation airfield, before being closed on 5 September 1944. The land was returned to agricultural use. Current use Today there is little or no physical evidence of the airfield's existence, with the land",
"-31.858794351486722"
],
[
"the Luftwaffe bomber wing Kampfgeschwader 54 made several attacks on the British beachheads on D-Day.\nThe Eighth Air Force attacked various tactical targets in France on 15 June. To counter this attack, Jagdfliegerführer 5 dispatched the German fighters at dawn. Priller and his wingman, Unteroffizier Heinz Wodarczyk, joined II. Gruppe, heading for the area west of Caen and encountered the USAAF heavy bombers just as they were crossing the French coast. Avoiding the escort fighters, Priller attacked the first combat box of about twenty B-24 bombers from the front. Priller shot down a B-24 from the 492nd Bomb Group flying in",
"-31.84895972837694"
],
[
"of the South Hams that they were all to be evacuated from the area by 20 December 1943. Although nobody was told the reason, it was because The War Office had chosen to use Slapton Sands to rehearse the D-Day landings, as the beach at Slapton is very similar to the beach at Normandy which had been chosen for the landings. Ultimately, 749 American soldiers lost their lives at Slapton Sands in April, 1944 in a German attack during the exercises.\nToday, East Allington is a thriving village, with some new housing. It has a church, primary school, village hall, public",
"-31.846766149101313"
],
[
"river, but was delayed by rough seas on the proposed landing beach. This gave the Vichy French defenders enough time to destroy the bridge. When the commandos eventually landed in daylight, in three separate places, the initial landing was almost unopposed due to the defenders being in combat against the Australian troops, subsequently in the fighting they took heavy casualties, among them Pedder, who was killed in an assault on the French barracks. He was succeeded in command by Geoffrey Keyes, whose party was ultimately able to secure the crossing by getting over the river in canvas boats with the",
"-31.78388493019156"
],
[
"du Hoc which commanded the Omaha landing beaches. After escorting minesweepers to the beach area on the night of 5 and 6 June, she commenced pre-arranged fire on Pointe du Hoc at 05:48, 6 June. As the Rangers landed, she broke up enemy units attempting to oppose them from the top of the cliff.\nAlthough the rangers found that the battery's guns had been removed before the landings, German resistance was stiff, and Satterlee provided gunfire support for the rest of the day. Satterlee remained off the Normandy beaches for the next forty days, and then joined the invasion force which",
"-31.773827141645597"
],
[
"Sicily the 17th moved to England to train and prepare for D-Day. Normandy On 9 June 1944, D-day plus 3, along with other battalions, the 17th battalion landed on Utah Beach in Normandy as a part of the Normandy landings and Operation Overlord. They cleared lanes for landing craft by destroying the mine-bearing steel structures that the Germans had implanted in the intertidal zone. They bulldozed roads up the narrow draws through the cliffs lining the beaches. 17th Armored Engineer Battalion were issued new camouflage uniforms for D-Day. These uniforms are the same one used by US Marine Corps in",
"-31.75636468763696"
],
[
"in several attacks on E-boats operating near Normandy as well as German shipping travelling through the English Channel. No. 460 Squadron and Australians in other Bomber Command units also participated in raids on E-Boat bases at Le Havre and Boulogne on the nights of 14/15 June and 15/16 June respectively. July and August By July the Allied armies were having difficulty advancing against the German forces in Normandy. In an attempt to create a breakthrough, the Allied air commanders decided to use heavy bombers to attack German positions. The first of these attacks was made on 7 July by 467 Bomber",
"-31.742215979262255"
],
[
"Invasion of Normandy Planning Allied forces rehearsed their D-Day roles for months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the English coast, 749 U.S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger.\nIn the months leading up to the invasion, the Allied forces conducted a deception operation, Operation Fortitude, aimed at misleading the Germans with respect to the date and place of the invasion.\nThere were several leaks prior to or on D-Day. Through the Cicero affair, the Germans obtained documents containing references to Overlord, but these documents lacked",
"-31.73067777446704"
],
[
"LCVPs carrying the French division beached right on time to be met by heavy machine gun and 88 mm (3.46 in) fire. By 07:00, the German defences in the hills above Kodak Amber beach had forced the incoming landing craft to lay smoke and withdraw. The heavy defensive fire forced the follow-up waves of landing craft to divert to Kodak Green beach, which caused some congestion on the beachhead. Delays and German gunfire kept some landing craft off shore until 14:00.\nThe Royal Navy Commandos—unaware of the diversion to the other beach—had to wait some hours before the French cleared the village and",
"-31.727961529773893"
],
[
"further asserted that dropping behind the island's beaches and overcoming its defences was not a suitable mission for the airborne troops, as they were only lightly armed and vulnerable to the 'friendly fire' of the planned Allied naval bombardment. In the revised blueprint for the airborne divisions, a reinforced regimental combat team (the 505th Parachute Infantry, under Colonel James M. Gavin, with the 3rd Battalion of the 504th PIR and numerous other units attached) from Major General Ridgway's U.S. 82nd Airborne Division would be dropped by parachute north-east of the port of Gela to block the movement of Axis reserves",
"-31.715512968192343"
]
] |
2zxsjo | If I have 'high blood pressure', why can't I just cut myself a little to reduce the pressure? | [
"It is not the amount of volume. It is the pressures inside your blood vessels...and therefore your organs. Blood letting would not cure hypertension. It might lower your blood pressure do to hypovolemia (loss of volume) for a period of time, but when your body recovers you will still have hypertension. And those damaging pressures on your organs, kidneys and brain specifically.",
"It'd kind of be like cutting the hose when someone has it bent so water can't go through easy.",
"High blood pressure is bad because your blood vessels get narrower so you need a higher blood pressure to push the blood, with its oxygen, to the places its need to get to (organs/muscles). The higher pressure is created by your heart having to work harder. Because it has to work harder all the time, unlike in exercise where it works hard and then gets to rest and recover, it becomes dilated and stops pumping properly. A bad heart = a bad situation. Say you let some blood out, all that means is your organs aren't getting the blood they need. So your heart will work even harder (more beats per minute) to make sure your organs are ok.",
"Assuming you are a generally healthy person, you could lose about a third of your blood volume before your body would be unable to maintain pressures. You would have to bleed yourself for 1-2 liters of blood. Needless to say, this is not part of the standard treatment for hypertension.",
"The pressure in your body has to be adequate to ensure perfusion of blood to your organs; that is to say, to ensure they receive enough blood to oxygenate everything sufficiently. The pressure in your body is monitored and controlled by a bunch of processes so that perfusion is maintained no matter what happens to you. One way this happens is by baroreceptors (\"baro\" = \"pressure\") in places like your carotid artery and your heart, which are able to tell how much the vessel is being stretched. Sudden change in blood pressure signals the baroreceptors, which signal the brain, which decides what to do to fix the perceived problem. When your pressure drops too low, as in the event of a hemorrhage / bleeding out (like when you cut yourself), your baroreceptors sense the lessened stretch and activate your sympathetic nervous system, which you might know as the \"fight or flight\" nervous system. This causes your blood vessels to constrict, which increases your blood pressure. (According to Poiseuille's Law, decreasing the radius of your blood vessels by half increases the pressure by a factor of 16, so it doesn't take a lot.) You might ask why your blood pressure is so high in the first place if these mechanisms are supposed to keep it at a reasonable level. There are countless possible reasons, such as (1) your baroreceptors getting used to higher blood pressure and reaching a higher \"set-point\" that the brain doesn't think it has to compensate for, or (2) your blood vessels getting stiffer due to old age or plaques due to bad lifestyle habits, thus reducing the ability of them to stretch and activate the baroreceptors.",
"Okay! So, hypertension also known as high blood pressure can be thought of like this. You have this vast network of highways in your body: interstates (large vessels), highways (medium vessels), and city roads (small vessels). The cars on this highway system (red and white blood cells, platelets, various proteins, and so on) all ride this highway system in a vary harmonious way (not many asshats on the road). There is also space in between the cars (water) that has to be accounted for. For the most part, things stay well balanced, if there are potholes (a leaky vessel), it is repaired quickly with a quick patch (platelet plug), and slight fender benders are repaired without ever showing signs of a problem. High blood pressure can be seen as all the roads, highways, and interstates getting smaller, or the amount of space being taken up on the road is getting larger. You have to adjust one, or both, in order to fix the larger problem of the congested traffic. By bleeding out you can reduce the number cars on the road and the space that was in between each car to help alleviate the strain on the highway system, but those cars are necessary to bring home all the bacon (oxygen) to all corners of the nation (the tissues of your body). Your body will just call for more taxes (increase in bone marrow production and collection of free water through the gut and kidney) to produce more cars and fix the space between each car and the problem starts all over again. You gotta either pass legislation to either expand the road systems (as one type of hypertensive pill = ACE inhibitor) or decrease the space between each car (another hypertensive pill = diuretic [causes you to pee more to get rid of some water]). Some times is a combination of both; a bipartisan bill so to speak. Hope this helps. Fun fact though: approximately 90% of the cases of hypertension have no known cause.",
"Think of it as an old house with calcified pipes. It's not the flow of water (blood), but the pipes (veins, arteries, etc.) that can cause a catastrophic problem. And whatever's in the water could be contributing to the blockage in the pipes (your diet, lifestyle, genetics)."
] | [
[
"the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Target blood pressure Various expert groups have produced guidelines regarding how low the blood pressure target should be when a person is treated for hypertension. These groups recommend a target below the range 140–160 / 90–100 mmHg for the general population. Cochrane reviews recommend similar targets for subgroups such as people with diabetes and people with prior cardiovascular disease.\nMany expert groups recommend a slightly higher target of 150/90",
"-31.155016856331713"
],
[
"pressure drastically.\nThe decrease in blood pressure shows a combination of short- and long-lasting effects. The early, acute onset took five minutes, and the effect could last for 120 minutes or longer. In addition, calciseptine had only a small effect on the heart rhythm, changing it only slightly. Furthermore, it can also relax the trachea rings in the lungs. These effects can be explained by the relaxing activity of calciseptine on various smooth muscle cells. The inhibitory effect of calciseptine results in a decreased or total disappearance of electric activity in these cells. The total inhibitory effect depends on the tissue:",
"-30.575519811653066"
],
[
"process, it can increase the pressure as much as 2 mb.",
"-29.689539230839728"
],
[
"control it. Adequate management of hypertension can be hampered by inadequacies in the diagnosis, treatment, or control of high blood pressure. Health care providers face many obstacles to achieving blood pressure control, including resistance to taking multiple medications to reach blood pressure goals. People also face the challenges of adhering to medicine schedules and making lifestyle changes. Nonetheless, the achievement of blood pressure goals is possible, and most importantly, lowering blood pressure significantly reduces the risk of death due to heart disease and stroke, the development of other debilitating conditions, and the cost associated with advanced medical care. Research A",
"-29.453898551641032"
],
[
"with high blood pressure are typically advised to avoid products containing it. Because this medication is a sympathomimetic amine without beta-adrenergic activity, it does not increase contractility force and output of the cardiac muscle. It may increase blood pressure resulting in a slow heart rate through stimulation of vascular (likely carotid) baroreceptors. A common side effect during IV administration is reflex bradycardia. The low concentration eye drops do not cause blood pressure changes and the changes with the higher dose drops do not last long. Other Prostatic hyperplasia can also be worsened by use, and chronic use can lead",
"-29.3715545283776"
],
[
"lowering blood pressure, but the largest reductions in blood pressure were obtained by eating a combination of these two (i.e., a lower-salt version of the DASH diet). The effect of this combination at a sodium level of 1,500 mg/day was an average blood pressure reduction of 8.9/4.5 mm Hg (systolic/diastolic). The hypertensive subjects experienced an average reduction of 11.5/5.7 mm Hg. The DASH-sodium results indicate that low sodium levels correlated with the largest reductions in blood pressure for participants at both pre-hypertensive and hypertensive levels, with the hypertensive participants showing the greatest reductions in blood pressure overall. OmniHeart and OmniCarb Following the publication",
"-29.26130783627741"
],
[
"pressure is common and can change the blood pressure reading by up to 10 mmHg, which can lead to misdiagnosis and misclassification of hypertension. Correct blood pressure measurement technique involves several steps. Proper blood pressure measurement requires the person whose blood pressure is being measured to sit quietly for at least five minutes which is then followed by application of a properly fitted blood pressure cuff to a bare upper arm. The person should be seated with their back supported, feet flat on the floor, and with their legs uncrossed. The person whose blood pressure is being measured should avoid",
"-28.77493544591016"
],
[
"pressure is always seen as an immense clinical challenge, affecting large segments of the population. In patients with systemic hypertension under therapy, the blood pressure should not be lowered too rigorously. NTG might be the only severe (= sight-threatening) disease caused in numerous cases by a too low blood pressure. Both magnesium and low dose calcium channel blockers have been employed in the treatment of some NTG patients. There are therapeutic approaches to underlying conditions like Flammer syndrome. A change in nutrition like the intake of sodium-rich foods has been tried as has the oral administration of low-dosed steroids. Lifestyle",
"-28.629983513616025"
],
[
"Pressure overload Pressure overload refers to the pathological state of cardiac muscle in which it has to contract while experiencing an excessive afterload. Pressure overload may affect any of the four chambers of the heart, though the term is most commonly applied to one of the two ventricles. Chronic pressure overload leads to concentric hypertrophy of the cardiac muscle, which can in turn lead to heart failure, myocardial ischaemia or, in extreme cases, outflow obstruction. Causes Any obstruction to the outflow of one of the chambers of the heart can lead to pressure overload. Signs and symptoms A forceful apex",
"-28.61141870962456"
],
[
"know that even mild elevations in blood pressure can be detrimental to health. Studies have shown that diabetics with even a slight elevation in blood pressure have 2-3 times the risk of heart disease compared to individuals without diabetes.\nBlood pressure readings do vary but experts recommend that blood pressure should not range above 140/80. Secondly, high blood pressure is a silent disease and thus it is vital for all diabetics to regularly check their blood pressure or have it checked at a doctor's office on a regular basis. The American Diabetes Association recommends that all diabetics get their blood pressure",
"-28.596377575478982"
],
[
"for each of these may benefit adults with high blood pressure. While weight loss diets reduce body weight and blood pressure, it is unclear if they reduce negative outcomes.\nSome programs aimed to reduce psychological stress such as biofeedback or transcendental meditation may be reasonable add-ons to other treatment to reduce hypertension. However several techniques, namely yoga, relaxation and other forms of meditation do not appear to reduce blood pressure, and there are major methodological limitations with many studies of stress reduction techniques.\nThere is no clear evidence that the modest reduction in blood pressure with stress reduction techniques results in prevention",
"-28.56528519897256"
],
[
"positioning of the electrode. History Despite modern medications against high blood pressure, only around half of people with hypertension in England, USA and Canada have blood pressure at or below target levels.\nIn many cases the situation can be resolved with increases in antihypertensive medication. However in about 10% of patients, blood pressure is still above target (140/90mm Hg) despite at least 3 anti-hypertensives, a status known as resistant hypertension.\nSome patients prefer not to be prescribed progressively greater number of medications, because of side effects or the difficulty managing a complex medication regime. Despite the greater invasiveness, they may prefer the",
"-28.56522873134236"
],
[
"high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, and chronic kidney disease.\nLifestyle factors can increase the risk of hypertension. These include excess salt in the diet, excess body weight, smoking, and alcohol. Hypertension can also be caused by other diseases, or as a side-effect of drugs.\nBlood pressure is expressed by two measurements, the systolic and diastolic pressures, which are the maximum and minimum pressures, respectively. Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100–140 millimeters mercury (mmHg) systolic and 60–90 mmHg diastolic. High blood pressure",
"-28.470855155756"
],
[
"is defined as high blood pressure that remains above a target level, in spite of being prescribed three or more antihypertensive drugs simultaneously with different mechanisms of action. Failing to take the prescribed drugs, is an important cause of resistant hypertension. Resistant hypertension may also result from chronically high activity of the autonomic nervous system, an effect known as \"neurogenic hypertension\". Electrical therapies that stimulate the baroreflex are being studied as an option for lowering blood pressure in people in this situation. Adults As of 2014, approximately one billion adults or ~22% of the population of the world have hypertension.",
"-28.403433557861717"
],
[
"Hypotension Causes Low blood pressure can be caused by low blood volume, hormonal changes, widening of blood vessels, medicine side effects, anemia, heart problems or endocrine problems.\nReduced blood volume, hypovolemia, is the most common cause of hypotension. This can result from hemorrhage; insufficient fluid intake, as in starvation; or excessive fluid losses from diarrhea or vomiting. Hypovolemia is often induced by excessive use of diuretics. Low blood pressure may also be attributed to heat stroke. The body may have enough fluid but does not retain electrolytes. Absence of perspiration, light headedness and dark coloured urine are also indicators.\nOther medications can",
"-28.39733564724611"
],
[
"in the long term.\nDenervating these receptors 'fools' the body into thinking that it has too low blood volume and initiates mechanisms that retain fluid and so push up the blood pressure to a higher level than it would otherwise have. Baroreceptor dysfunction Baroreceptors are integral to the body's function: Pressure changes in the blood vessels would not be detected as quickly in the absence of baroreceptors. When baroreceptors are not working, blood pressure continues to increase, but, within an hour, the blood pressure returns to normal as other blood pressure regulatory systems take over.\nBaroreceptors can also become oversensitive in some",
"-28.33116851961313"
],
[
"to a blood pressure of 130/80 mm Hg or higher in adults. This is a severe problem for the heart and can cause many other complications. In a study of 120 coarctation repair recipients done in Groningen, The Netherlands, twenty-nine patients (25%) experienced hypertension in the later years of life due to the repair. While hypertension has many different factors that lead to this stage of blood pressure, people who have had a coarctation repair — regardless of the age at which the operation was performed — are at much higher risk than the general public of hypertension later in",
"-28.296405287692323"
],
[
"output and blood pressure. Higher doses also cause vasoconstriction that further increases blood pressure.\nWhile some effects result from stimulation of dopamine receptors, the prominent cardiovascular effects result from dopamine acting at α₁, β₁, and β₂ adrenergic receptors.",
"-28.244181341433432"
],
[
"to control weight and blood pressure, and also discusses the role of emotional awareness and self-image in heart health. Steinbaum describes methods for integrating diet, exercise, sleep, and lifestyle.\nIn 2014, Rodale Inc. published Lowering Your Blood Pressure Naturally: Drop Pounds and Slash Your Blood Pressure in 6 Weeks Without Drugs, which Steinbaum co-authored with Sarí Harrar.",
"-28.222600872184557"
],
[
"Management of hypertension Hypertension is managed using lifestyle modification and antihypertensive medications. Hypertension is usually treated to achieve a blood pressure of below 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg. According to one 2003 review, reduction of the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischaemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Blood pressure target For most people, recommendations are to reduce blood pressure to less than or equal to somewhere between 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg. Attempting to achieve lower levels have not been shown to",
"-28.148705523839453"
],
[
"heart failure. These conditions may cause low blood pressure because they prevent the body from being able to circulate enough blood.\nExcessive vasodilation, or insufficient constriction of the resistance blood vessels (mostly arterioles), causes hypotension. This can be due to decreased sympathetic nervous system output or to increased parasympathetic activity occurring as a consequence of injury to the brain or spinal cord or of dysautonomia, an intrinsic abnormality in autonomic system functioning. Excessive vasodilation can also result from sepsis, acidosis, or medications, such as nitrate preparations, calcium channel blockers, or AT1 receptor antagonists (Angiotensin II acts on AT1 receptors).",
"-28.14588844263926"
],
[
"higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\nThe lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh can occasionally be damaged during laparoscopic hernia repair, or scarring from the operation can lead to meralgia paraesthetica. Diagnosis Diagnosis is largely based on patient description and relevant",
"-28.01123858320352"
],
[
"reduced. This then helps the blood vessels to relax and expand back to a normal healthy state, so blood pressure is lowered. Clinical trials Several human trials aimed to evaluate the effect of lactotripeptides on blood pressure. Some trials show a blood pressure-lowering effect of lactotripeptides in people with mild to moderate hypertension, however others see no effect from these peptides. A recent systematic review of the literature found no confirmed ACE-inhibitor effects in humans, as well as no conclusive evidence for lactotripeptides as a successful intervention; the meta-analysis cited heterogeneity in methodology and lack of inclusion of recent larger",
"-27.999427996015584"
],
[
"greater amount of force to permit them to accommodate the volume of blood ejected from the heart (stroke volume). This increased force requirement equates to an increase in pulse pressure. The increase in pulse pressure may result in increased damage to blood vessels in target organs such as the brain or kidneys. This effect may be exaggerated if the increase in arterial stiffness results in reduced wave reflection and more propagation of the pulsatile pressure into the microcirculation.\nAn increase in arterial stiffness also increases the load on the heart, since it has to perform more work to maintain the",
"-27.946897705125593"
],
[
"vessels and arteries which leads to low blood pressure.",
"-27.933096609194763"
],
[
"blood pressure would create a decrease in stroke volume that would compromise circulation to peripheral and visceral tissues.\nSustained myocardial stretch activates tension dependent Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers, bringing Na⁺ ions into the sarcolemma.\nThis increase in Na⁺ in the sarcolemma reduces the Na⁺ gradient exploited by sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) and stops them from working effectively.\nCa²⁺ ions accumulate inside the sarcolemma as a result and are uptaken by sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) pumps.\nCalcium induced calcium release (CICR) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is increased upon stimulation of the cardiac myocyte by an action potential.\nThis leads to an increase in the force of contraction of the",
"-27.89448062493466"
],
[
"pressure rating could be indicated as \"Maximum Pressure,\" or \"Inflate to . . . \" and will usually give a range (for example, 90-120 psi, or 35-60 psi). Inflating to the lower number in the pressure range will increase traction and make the ride more comfortable. Inflating to the higher number will make the ride more efficient and will decrease the chances of getting a flat tire but a firmer ride must be expected. Pressure output The maximum pressure, or how much air the pump can force into a tire, is an important consideration. The pump needs to match or",
"-27.793828721885802"
],
[
"However, in general, symptomatic relief from pressure overload will not be achieved immediately, but will involve a delayed response following the atrophy of the hypertrophied heart muscle.",
"-27.65626182802953"
],
[
"wedge pressure, and therefore, is probably a reflection of an increased central blood volume. In the absence of isolated right ventricular failure, seen in some patients with right ventricular infarction, a positive abdominojugular test suggests a pulmonary artery wedge pressure of 15 mm Hg or greater.",
"-27.635682940715924"
],
[
"to continue. The 54-year-old curler said his doctor had prescribed a medication on the banned substances list.\nAnother concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of \"boosting\". Athletes can artificially increase their blood pressure, often by self-harming, which has been shown to improve performance by up to 15%. This is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly, and using high-pressure compression stockings. The injury is painless",
"-27.630906391103053"
],
[
"expectancy. Decreasing the systolic blood pressure to less than 140 mmHg is associated with a lower risk of death and better outcomes. Intensive blood pressure management (less than 130/80 mmHg) as opposed to standard blood pressure management (less than 140-160 mmHg systolic to 85–100 mmHg diastolic) results in a slight decrease in stroke risk but no effect on overall risk of death.\nIntensive blood sugar lowering (HbA1c<6%) as opposed to standard blood sugar lowering (HbA1c of 7–7.9%) does not appear to change mortality. The goal of treatment is typically an HbA1c of 7 to 8% or a fasting glucose of less than 7.2 mmol/L",
"-27.525815077708103"
],
[
"Hypertensive heart disease Prevention Because there are no symptoms with high blood pressure, people can have the condition without knowing it. Diagnosing high blood pressure early can help prevent heart disease, stroke, eye problems, and chronic kidney disease.\nThe risk of cardiovascular disease and death can be reduced by lifestyle modifications, including dietary advice, promotion of weight loss and regular aerobic exercise, moderation of alcohol intake and cessation of smoking. Drug treatment may also be needed to control the hypertension and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, manage the heart failure, or control cardiac arrhythmias. Patients with hypertensive heart disease should",
"-27.50137391584576"
],
[
"down the swelling. If the swelling appears to have increased to a dangerous level, surgery may be needed to relieve pressure on the brain. The formation of an abscess also calls for surgery as it will be necessary to drain the abscess.",
"-27.490970184793696"
],
[
"than a few years unless appropriately treated.\nIn the past, most attention was paid to diastolic pressure; but nowadays it is recognized that both high systolic pressure and high pulse pressure (the numerical difference between systolic and diastolic pressures) are also risk factors. In some cases, it appears that a decrease in excessive diastolic pressure can actually increase risk, due probably to the increased difference between systolic and diastolic pressures (see the article on pulse pressure). If systolic blood pressure is elevated (>140 mmHg) with a normal diastolic blood pressure (<90 mmHg), it is called \"isolated systolic hypertension\" and may present a",
"-27.482138905092143"
],
[
"turn decreases the sympathetic outflow resulting in reduced norepinephrine and thus blood pressure. When the blood pressure is low, baroreceptor firing is reduced and this in turn results in augmented sympathetic outflow and increased norepinephrine release on the heart and blood vessels, increasing blood pressure. Effect on heart rate The baroreflex may be responsible for a part of the low-frequency component of heart rate variability, the so-called Mayer waves, at 0.1 Hz. High blood pressure The baroreflex can be used to treat resistant hypertension. This Stimulation is provided by a pacemaker-like device. While the devices appears to lower blood pressure evidence",
"-27.41470428899629"
],
[
"in blood pressure. This increase in blood pressure under stressful conditions ensures that muscles receive the oxygen that they need to be active and respond accordingly. If these stressful conditions remain elevated, muscles will become fatigued, resulting in hypertension and in extreme cases can result in death. Thyroxine axis The third physiological response results in the release of thyrotropic hormone-release factor (TRF) which results in the release of thyrotropic hormone (TTH). TTH stimulates the release of thyroxine and triiodothyronine from the thyroid. This results in an increased basal metabolic rate (BMR). This effect is not as immediate as",
"-27.352613739436492"
],
[
"lower pressure in order to pass blood through the low-resistance, high compliance circulation of the lungs. The lungs are able to accomplish this low-resistance circulation largely due to the fact that the length of the pulmonary circulation is smaller, and because much of the circuitry is in parallel rather than in series. \nIf a significant anatomic defect (i.e. a hole or breach) exists between the two sides of the heart, a shunt will occur, causing blood to flow down the normal pressure gradient from the left side to the right side. The amount of blood shunted is proportional to the",
"-27.280957283335738"
],
[
"This behavior facilitates a much greater increase in stroke volume and cardiac output at a lower mean arterial pressure and enables much greater aerobic capacity and physical performance. The diastolic drop reflects a much greater fall in total peripheral resistance of the muscle arterioles in response to the exercise (a greater proportion of red versus white muscle tissue). Individuals with larger BMIs due to increased muscle mass (body builders) have also been shown to have lower diastolic pressures and larger pulse pressures. Relationship to heart disease Recent work suggests that a high pulse pressure is an important risk factor for",
"-27.25650854181731"
],
[
"measure of blood pressure is taken from a noninvasive instrument called a sphygmomanometer. \"A survey showed that 96% of primary care physicians habitually use a cuff size too small,\" adding to the difficulty in making an informed diagnosis. For such reasons, white coat hypertension cannot be diagnosed with a standard clinical visit. It can be reduced (but not eliminated) with automated blood pressure measurements over 15 to 20 minutes in a quiet part of the office or clinic.\nPatients with white coat hypertension do not exhibit the signs indicative of trepidation and their increased blood pressure is often not accompanied",
"-27.252805384581734"
],
[
"the tissues to be maintained at a lower head of pressure by making people more sensitive to their own insulin.",
"-27.239019308894058"
],
[
"increased pressure (usually caused by inflammation) occurs within a compartment.",
"-27.230491533802706"
],
[
"The amount of pressure on the tissue is based on the size of the area of the contact: the smaller the point of pressure, the greater effect it will have on the tissue. The position of instruments can cause damage to the body if pressure is not relieved periodically.\nThe patient's own health is also considered. Respiratory and circulatory disorders, blood pressure, the patient's weight, old age, and body temperature may affect a patient's potential for pressure. Other forces that may damage the body are the folding of the tissue, called shear, friction from the tissue rubbing against other tissue, and",
"-27.16213310582316"
],
[
"normal blood pressure to drop that much. All we should care about is blood pressure in the small subset that had high blood pressure. But they don’t present that.\" Writing for The Incidental Economist, Aaron Carroll and Austin Frakt, a health economist and researcher, argued that the study \"shows that some things improved for people who got Medicaid. For others, changes weren't statistically significant, which isn't the same thing as certainty of no effect. For still others, the jury is still out. But it didn't show that Medicaid harms people, or that the ACA is a failure, or that anything",
"-27.077545371372253"
],
[
"pain at the front of the knee due to overuse can be managed with a combination of RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation), anti-inflammatory medications, and physiotherapy.\nUsually chondromalacia develops without swelling or bruising and most individuals benefit from rest and adherence to an appropriate physical therapy program. Allowing inflammation to subside while avoiding irritating activities for several weeks is followed by a gradual resumption. Cross-training activities such as swimming – using strokes other than the breaststroke – can help to maintain general fitness and body composition. This is beneficial until a physical therapy program emphasizing strengthening and flexibility of the",
"-27.07746164863056"
],
[
"High pressure receptors High pressure receptors are the baroreceptors found within the aortic arch and carotid sinus. They are only sensitive to blood pressures above 60 mmHg.\nWhen these receptors are activated they elicit a depressor response; which decreases the heart rate and causes a general vasodilation. An increase in arterial blood pressure reflexly elicits an increase in vagal neuronal activity to the heart (i.e. the resulting decreased heart rate).\nThe afferent nerves from the baroreceptors are called buffer nerves.",
"-27.028988293604925"
],
[
"past, physicians were very aggressive with fluid resuscitation (giving fluids such as normal saline or lactated Ringer's through the vein) to try to bring the blood pressure to normal values. Recent studies have found that there is some benefit to allowing specific patients to experience some degree of hypotension in certain settings. This concept does not exclude therapy by means of i.v. fluid, inotropes or vasopressors, the only restriction is to avoid completely normalizing blood pressure in a context where blood loss may be enhanced. When a person starts to bleed (big or small) the body starts a natural coagulation",
"-27.009460748460697"
],
[
"positive for steroids in 2002. He had won two gold medals in the alpine events but was stripped of his medals. One concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of boosting blood pressure, known as autonomic dysreflexia. The increase in blood pressure can improve performance by 15% and is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly and using high-pressured compression stockings. The injury is painless",
"-26.95549270574702"
],
[
"large volume of blood under low pressure to enhance cardiac output.",
"-26.9533494298812"
],
[
"pressure may help in immobilization but also is thought to reduce the tendency of the fluid to leak out of vessels by increasing the back-pressure on those fluid sources.\nFollowing masculinising chest reconstruction (double mastectomy) in trans men or breast augmentation, surgeons often recommend binding the chest for several weeks to minimize the risk of seromas.",
"-26.916269499401096"
],
[
"the increased pressure is transmitted to the pulmonary vasculature, and the resultant hydrostatic pressure favors extravasation of fluid into the lung parenchyma, causing pulmonary edema. On the right side of the heart, the increased pressure is transmitted to the systemic venous circulation and systemic capillary beds, favoring extravasation of fluid into the tissues of target organs and extremities, resulting in dependent peripheral edema. Diastolic dysfunction Heart failure caused by diastolic dysfunction is generally described as the backward failure of the ventricle to adequately relax and typically denotes a stiffer ventricular wall. The \"stiffness\" and contractility of the ventricular walls in",
"-26.91070185333956"
],
[
"or labetalol in which blood pressure is increased unintentionally (such as with cough and cold medications). Finally, there may also be some alpha/beta blocker drug interactions that can worsen previous heart failure.",
"-26.872411793359788"
],
[
"blood pressure and elicits venous vasoconstriction to decrease venous compliance. Decreased venous compliance also results from an intrinsic myogenic increase in venous smooth muscle tone in response to the elevated pressure in the veins of the lower body. Other compensatory mechanisms include the veno-arteriolar axon reflex, the 'skeletal muscle pump' and 'respiratory pump'. Together these mechanisms normally stabilize blood pressure within a minute or less. If these compensatory mechanisms fail and arterial pressure and blood flow decrease beyond a certain point, the perfusion of the brain becomes critically compromised (i.e., the blood supply is not sufficient), causing lightheadedness,",
"-26.870438742509577"
],
[
"part of aging. In fact, it was felt by the medical community that high blood pressure was a good thing, because it improved circulation. Even so, there was no reliable way to lower high blood pressure until the 1940s. But Freis's studies, first published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1954 then later expanded in the 1960s, showed that hypertension actually increased the likelihood of stroke and heart attack. The 1960s study lasted five years (1964-1969), and was designed to determine whether treatment of hypertension would help prevent death and injury from complications due to stroke, kidney damage,",
"-26.835603314684704"
],
[
"as the hydrostatic pressure of the blood passing through the branches of the pulmonary artery in order to reach the apical and basal areas of the lungs, acting synergistically with the pressure developed by the right ventricle. Thus at the apex of the lung the resulting pressure can be insufficient for developing a flow (which can be sustained only by the negative pressure generated by venous flow towards the left atrium) or even for preventing the collapse of the vascular structures surrounding the alveoli, while the base of the lung shows an intense flow due to the higher pressure.",
"-26.833463101123925"
],
[
"Low pressure receptors Low pressure receptors are baroreceptors located in large systemic veins, in the pulmonary arteries, in the walls of the atria, and ventricles of the heart.[2] They are also called volume receptors. These receptors respond to changes in the wall tension, which is proportional to the filling state of the low pressure side of circulation (below 60mmHg). Thus, low pressure baroreceptors are involved with the regulation of blood volume. The blood volume determines the mean pressure throughout the system, in particular in the venous side where most of the blood is held. Increasing stretch of the",
"-26.810832550923806"
],
[
"to maintain the blood pressure which may be done using intravenous fluids and vasopressors. Vasopressors used include phenylephrine, dopamine, or norepinephrine. Mean arterial blood pressure is measured and kept at 85 to 90 mmHg for seven days after injury. The treatment for shock from blood loss is different from that for neurogenic shock, and could harm people with the latter type, so it is necessary to determine why someone is in shock. However it is also possible for both causes to exist at the same time. Another important aspect of care is prevention of insufficient oxygen in the bloodstream, which",
"-26.734324000339257"
],
[
"cuff pressure is monitored carefully in order to avoid complications from over-inflation, many of which can be traced to excessive cuff pressure restricting the blood supply to the tracheal mucosa. A 2000 Spanish study of bedside percutaneous tracheotomy reported overall complication rates of 10–15% and procedural mortality of 0%, which is comparable to those of other series reported in the literature from the Netherlands and the United States.\nInability to secure the airway, with subsequent failure of oxygenation and ventilation is a life-threatening complication which if not immediately corrected leads to decreased oxygen content, brain damage, cardiovascular collapse, and death. When",
"-26.71656619470741"
],
[
"reduction. Sympathetic inhibition leads to a drop in peripheral resistance, while parasympathetic activation leads to a depressed heart rate (reflex bradycardia) and contractility. The combined effects will dramatically decrease blood pressure.\nIn a similar manner, sympathetic activation with parasympathetic inhibition allows the baroreflex to elevate blood pressure. Set point and tonic activation Baroreceptor firing has an inhibitory effect on sympathetic outflow. The sympathetic neurons fire at different rates which determines the release of norepinephrine onto cardiovascular targets. Norepinephrine constricts blood vessels to increase blood pressure. When baroreceptors are stretched (due to an increased blood pressure) their firing rate increases which in",
"-26.70803442336546"
],
[
"cardiac muscle to try and increase stroke volume and cardiac output to maintain tissue perfusion.\nOn the other hand, it has been proposed that the Anrep effect may be a spurious effect resulting from the recovery of the myocardium from a transient ischemia arising from the abrupt increase in blood pressure.",
"-26.693520541884936"
],
[
"pressure Divers must avoid injuries caused by changes in pressure. The weight of the water column above the diver causes an increase in pressure in proportion to depth, in the same way that the weight of the column of atmospheric air above the surface causes a pressure of 101.3 kPa (14.7 pounds-force per square inch) at sea level. This variation of pressure with depth will cause compressible materials and gas filled spaces to tend to change volume, which can cause the surrounding material or tissues to be stressed, with the risk of injury if the stress gets too high. Pressure",
"-26.676034045027336"
],
[
"be transformed into pressure, because the elastic components of the arterial wall are not linear and the smooth muscles also consist of non-elastic parts.. \nThe goal is to unload the arterial wall in order to linearize this phenomenon with a counter pressure as high as the pressure inside the artery. Blood volume is kept constant by applying this corresponding pressure from the outside. The continuously changing outside pressure that is needed to keep the arterial blood volume constant directly corresponds to the arterial pressure. It is an instantaneous, continuous measure for arterial blood pressure, which is the basic principle of",
"-26.659953478403622"
],
[
"increases the resistance to blood flow and so the pressure within the system rises. Molecular pathology The molecular mechanism of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is not known yet, but it is believed that the endothelial dysfunction results in a decrease in the synthesis of endothelium-derived vasodilators such as nitric oxide and prostacyclin. Moreover, there is a stimulation of the synthesis of vasoconstrictors such as thromboxane and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). These results in a severe vasoconstriction and vascular smooth muscle and adventitial hypertrophy characteristic of patients with PAH. Nitric oxide-soluble guanylate cyclase pathway In normal conditions, the vascular",
"-26.623466402001213"
],
[
"blood pressure by forcing the heart to pump harder and faster, and by squeezing or constricting small blood vessels in the arms and legs. These compensatory mechanisms can be recognised by a rapid resting heart rate and cool fingers and toes.\nIf the blood within the pleural cavity is not removed, it will eventually clot. This clot tends to stick the parietal and visceral pleura together and has the potential to lead to scarring within the pleura, which if extensive leads to the condition known as a fibrothorax. Following the initial loss of blood, a small hemothorax may irritate the pleura,",
"-26.616287415585248"
],
[
"than 250 million people. As the momentum picks up year after year, the WHL is confident that almost all the estimated 1.5 billion people affected by elevated blood pressure can be reached. Economics High blood pressure is the most common chronic medical problem prompting visits to primary health care providers in USA. The American Heart Association estimated the direct and indirect costs of high blood pressure in 2010 as $76.6 billion. In the US 80% of people with hypertension are aware of their condition, 71% take some antihypertensive medication, but only 48% of people aware that they have hypertension adequately",
"-26.57880240297527"
],
[
"in initial studies did not increase blood pressure. In 2017, its development was abandoned by Merck. The other was Eli Lilly's evacetrapib, which failed in Phase 3 trials.",
"-26.53919343785674"
],
[
"progressively, but intense sports may increase the risk of developing AF, as seen in athletes. It is due to a remodeling of cardiac tissue, and an increase in vagal tone, which shortens the effective refractory period (ERP) favoring re-entries from the pulmonary veins. High blood pressure According to the CHARGE Consortium both systolic and diastolic blood pressure are predictors of the risk of AF. Systolic blood pressure values close to normal limit the increase in the risk associated with AF. Diastolic dysfunction is also associated with AF, which increased pressure, left atrial volume, size, and left ventricular hypertrophy, characteristic of",
"-26.41015610397153"
],
[
"eye. It is not entirely clear how it protects the eye from the raised pressure, but it may be the result of either diversion of the CSF into the orbit or the creation of an area of scar tissue that lowers the pressure. The effects on the intracranial pressure itself are more modest. Moreover, the procedure may lead to significant complications, including blindness in 1–2%. The procedure is therefore recommended mainly in those who have limited headache symptoms but significant papilledema or threatened vision, or in those who have undergone unsuccessful treatment with a shunt or have a contraindication for",
"-26.29097686294699"
],
[
"of cardiovascular disease.\nSeveral exercise regimes—including isometric resistance exercise, aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, and device-guided breathing—may be useful in reducing blood pressure. Medications Several classes of medications, collectively referred to as antihypertensive medications, are available for treating hypertension. Use should take into account the person's cardiovascular risk (including risk of myocardial infarction and stroke) as well as blood pressure readings, in order to gain a more accurate picture of the person's risks.\nThe best first-line medication is disputed, but the Cochrane collaboration, World Health Organization and the United States guidelines support low-dose thiazide-based diuretic as first-line treatment. The UK guidelines emphasise calcium",
"-26.27041301663121"
],
[
"be a useful initial emergency treatment of severely elevated pressure.\nThe depolarising muscle relaxant succinylcholine, which is used in anaesthesia, transiently increases IOP by around 10 mmHg for a few minutes. This is significant for example if the patient requires anaesthesia for a trauma and has sustained an eye (globe) perforation. The mechanism is not clear but it is thought to involve contraction of tonic myofibrils and transient dilation of choroidal blood vessels. Ketamine also increases IOP. Significance Ocular hypertension is the most important risk factor for glaucoma.\nIntraocular pressure has been measured as a secondary outcome in a systematic",
"-26.22137511378969"
],
[
"stretch due to the increased blood pressure, the cardiac center responds by increasing sympathetic stimulation and inhibiting parasympathetic stimulation to increase heart rate. The opposite is also true. Chemoreceptors present in the carotid body or adjacent to the aorta in an aortic body respond to the blood's oxygen, carbon dioxide levels. Low oxygen or high carbon dioxide will stimulate firing of the receptors.\nExercise and fitness levels, age, body temperature, basal metabolic rate, and even a person's emotional state can all affect the heart rate. High levels of the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones can increase the heart rate. The",
"-26.191116037152824"
],
[
"Pulse pressure Low (Narrow) Pulse Pressure A pulse pressure is considered abnormally low if it is less than 25% of the systolic value. The most common cause of a low (narrow) pulse pressure is a drop in left ventricular stroke volume.\nIn trauma, a low or narrow pulse pressure suggests significant blood loss (insufficient preload leading to reduced cardiac output).\nIf the pulse pressure is extremely low, i.e. 25 mmHg or less, the cause may be low stroke volume, as in Congestive Heart Failure and/or cardiogenic shock.\nA narrow pulse pressure is also caused by aortic valve stenosis and cardiac tamponade. High values",
"-26.150177965289913"
],
[
"total limb occlusion pressure is just one example of efforts to account for the above factors and provide an individualised approach to prescribing BFR training that is relatively quick and inexpensive. While the relationship between BFR pressure and the underlying tissue compression during exercise is not yet fully understood, BFR training using 40%–80% of limb occlusion pressure is safe and effective when supervised by experienced practitioners ; therefore, lower pressures may provide less risk without the need for higher pressure. Adaptations Historically, heavy exercise loads of approximately 70% of an individual's one repetition maximum (1RM) have been deemed necessary to",
"-26.07151010906091"
],
[
"postural hypotension, the tendency for blood pressure to decrease on standing due to gravity. \nThe system relies on specialized neurons, known as baroreceptors chiefly in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses to monitor changes in blood pressure and relay them to the medulla oblongata. Baroreceptors are stretch receptors and respond to the pressure induced stretching of the blood vessel in which they are found. Baroreflex induced changes in blood pressure are mediated by both branches of the autonomic nervous system: the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves. Baroreceptors are active even at normal blood pressures so that their activity informs the brain",
"-26.061404341337038"
],
[
"in a pulse (blood pressure) weaker than expected and triggers normal homeostatic mechanisms that try to compensate by constricting arteries and increasing heart rate (the turbulence onset part of HRT). This is accomplished by the brain reflexively withdrawing the parasympathetic nerve signals and increasing the sympathetic nerve signals it sends to the heart. The compensatory constriction of the arteries and increased heart rate frequently cause blood pressure to overshoot normal values (overcompensates), and activate the baroreflex in reverse. This time, the brain reinstates parasympathetic nerve signals and decreases sympathetic nerve signals, which cause the heart rate to slow",
"-26.051454853150062"
],
[
"are opposed by high positive airway pressures pushing back and this does not place undue stress on the thin blood vessel walls. During inspiration, the high positive pressures in the pulmonary blood vessels pushing out are met by negative pressures distending the blood vessel and placing increased stress on the walls.\nStudies in vitro show that significant disruption of the pulmonary capillaries occurs at pressures of approximately 80 mmHg. In vivo, significant EIPH occurs above a mean pulmonary artery pressure of around 80–95 mmHg. On the basis of this theory, any factor or disease that would increase pulmonary vascular pressures (e.g.",
"-26.046351981756743"
],
[
"blood pressure. Some evidence suggests that people with certain circulatory problems, such as varicose veins, may benefit from the consumption of EPA and DHA, which may stimulate blood circulation and increase the breakdown of fibrin, a protein involved in blood clotting and scar formation.\nOmega−3 fatty acids reduce blood triglyceride levels but do not significantly change the level of LDL cholesterol or HDL cholesterol in the blood. The American Heart Association position (2011) is that borderline elevated triglycerides, defined as 150–199 mg/dL, can be lowered by 0.5-1.0 grams of EPA and DHA per day; high triglycerides 200–499 mg/dL benefit from 1-2 g/day; and",
"-25.983202971779974"
],
[
"pressure reduction may exceed the rate at which gas can be eliminated by diffusion and perfusion, and if the concentration gets too high, it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues. When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceed the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension from the bubble - liquid interface, the bubbles will grow, and this growth can cause damage to tissues. Symptoms caused by this damage are known as Decompression sickness.\nThe actual rates of diffusion and perfusion, and the solubility of gases in specific tissues is",
"-25.973445313982666"
],
[
"an immediate gravitational pooling of about 500 to 1000ml of blood to the lower extremities, splanchnic and pulmonary circulations. The decrease in venous return to the heart reduces cardiac output and eventually causes a drop in blood pressure. Baroreceptors in the carotid and aortic arteries sense this decrease in blood pressure and activate the sympathetic nervous system which leads to increased heart rate, systemic vasoconstriction, and increased cardiac muscle contractility all of which eventually increase blood pressure. In a healthy individual, this sympathetic activation causes a physiological increase in heart rate by 10 to 20 bpm, diastolic blood pressure by",
"-25.961808767722687"
],
[
"(the flow of blood pumped by the heart) through the vascular resistance, usually termed total peripheral resistance by physicians and researchers. An increase in the media to lumenal diameter ratio has been observed in hypertensive arterioles (arteriolosclerosis) as the vascular wall thickens and/or lumenal diameter decreases.\nThe up and down fluctuation of the arterial blood pressure is due to the pulsatile nature of the cardiac output and determined by the interaction of the stroke volume versus the volume and elasticity of the major arteries.\nThe decreased velocity of flow in the capillaries increases the blood pressure, due to Bernoulli's principle. This induces",
"-25.952717512613162"
],
[
"Ocular hypertension Pathophysiology The pressure within the eye is maintained by the balance between the fluid that enters the eye through the ciliary body and the fluid that exits the eye through the trabecular meshwork.\n==Diagnosis==We can diagnose increase in intraocular pressure with the help of tonometry\nNormal intraocular press is 10_21mmhg Treatment Ocular hypertension is treated with either medications or laser. Medications that lower intraocular pressure work by decreasing aqueous humor production and/or increasing aqueous humor outflow. Laser trabeculoplasty works by increasing outflow. The cannabinoids found in cannabis sativa and indica (marijuana) have been shown to reduce intraocular pressure, by",
"-25.934246621414786"
],
[
"blood pressure. This can be treated with inotropic agents or by intra-aortic balloon pump, but this is regarded as temporary treatment while the underlying cause is addressed.",
"-25.9253856104624"
],
[
"in pulse pressure with age is attributed to increased stiffness of the arteries. An age-related rise in blood pressure is not considered healthy and is not observed in some isolated unacculturated communities. Pulmonary pressure Normally, the pressure in the pulmonary artery is about 15 mmHg at rest.\nIncreased blood pressure in the capillaries of the lung causes pulmonary hypertension, leading to interstitial edema if the pressure increases to above 20 mmHg, and to pulmonary edema at pressures above 25 mmHg. Mean systemic pressure If the heart is stopped, blood pressure falls, but it does not fall to zero. The remaining pressure measured after cessation",
"-25.91759187812204"
],
[
"preload, and therefore increasing cardiac output, (as per the Law of Laplace) so that systolic blood pressure increases and a stronger pulse pressure can be palpated.",
"-25.907197360698774"
],
[
"the length of the muscle fibers, and resulting tension, altered the systolic pressure.",
"-25.876959038316272"
],
[
"mean blood pressure in a range of 16.1mmHg. Neufeld et al reported standard deviations for both systolic and diastolic readings were roughly 3.5 to 5.5 mm Hg. In general standard deviation for the diastolic pressure would be greater because of the difficulty in judging when the sounds disappear. White-coat hypertension For some patients, blood pressure measurements taken in a doctor's office may not correctly characterize their typical blood pressure. In up to 25% of patients, the office measurement is higher than their typical blood pressure. This type of error is",
"-25.87051892267482"
],
[
"Association on alternative approaches to lowering blood pressure concluded that MBSR was not recommended in clinical practice to lower blood pressure. MBSR can have a beneficial effect helping with the depression and psychological distress associated with chronic illness.\nPreliminary evidence suggests efficacy of mindfulness meditation in the treatment of substance use disorders; however, further study is required. MBSR might be beneficial for people with fibromyalgia: there is no evidence of long-term benefit but low-quality evidence of a small short-term benefit.\nIn 2010, a meta-analysis was conducted by Hoffman and colleagues exploring the efficacy of MBSR and similarly structured programs for adults with",
"-25.868881332920864"
],
[
"pressure in the thoracic cavity engendered by the sudden dip in plasma viscosity. Globules of lipid polymers also produce a significant shear strain on capillaries, causing the skin to pale and the tongue to swell.\nHowever, many patients claim to feel full of energy and stamina after undergoing therapy. Medical scientists are quick to point out this side effect is likely the result of rapid lipolysis, as free fatty acids are freed from glycerol, and forcibly diffused into blood and muscle fiber due to artificially elevated blood pressure.",
"-25.858311796444468"
],
[
"reduce blood pressure, but only if the use of ACE inhibitors, angiotensin-II receptor blockers, calcium channel blockers, or thazide diuretics (in full dose or in combinations) have not been efficacious. Drug interactions As with any drug, there are drug interactions that can occur with alpha blockers. For instance, alpha blockers that are used for the reduction of blood pressure, such as phenoxybenzamine or phentolamine can have synergy with other drugs that affect smooth muscle, blood vessels, or drugs used for erectile dysfunction (i.e. sildenafil, tamsulosin, etc.). This stimulates exaggerated hypotension.\nAlternative alpha blockers, such as prazosin, tamsulosin, doxazosin, or terazosin can",
"-25.853032274520956"
],
[
"have the side effect of increasing blood pressure and may even suppress the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs. Pain and anti-inflammatory drugs like Indomethacin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and piroxicam would retain water in the systemic circulation, raising the blood pressure. Other types of medications like antidepressant, hormone and caffeine would also increase blood pressure. Signs and symptoms It is often asymptomatic in the early stages of blood vessel disorder. When the disease develops, a variety of signs can be observed in different body parts. For instance, patients may have pale skin, cold hands and feet, and numb fingertips. These are mainly",
"-25.80776892565393"
],
[
"of other physiological consequences mediated by this class of drug. Notably, a reduction in blood pressure can be facilitated by a variety of mechanisms, including reduced cardiac contractility and dilation of the vasculature. This drop in blood pressure may activate a reflexive increase in heartrate, due to a baroreceptor-mediated feedback mechanism. Some anesthetics, however, disrupt this reflex.\nPatients under general anesthesia are at greater risk of developing hypothermia, as the aforementioned vasodilation increases the heat lost via peripheral blood flow. By and large, these drugs reduce the internal body temperature threshold at which autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms are triggered in response to",
"-25.799795790109783"
],
[
"to the retina, concussions from falling when unconscious, stroke, seizures, permanent brain damage, coma, and even death.\nSome argue that when pressure is applied to the carotid artery, the baroreceptors send a signal to the brain via the glossopharyngeal nerve and the heart via the vagus nerve. This signal tells the heart to reduce volume of blood per heartbeat, typically up to one-third, in order to further relieve high pressure. There is a slight chance of the rate dropping to zero, or flatline (asystole). However, there are several studies that showed choking out will result in a few seconds of flat",
"-25.79232548933942"
],
[
"stimulate RBC production, and hemoglobin and oxygen content restored to normal. Arterial blood pressure The brain can regulate blood flow over a range of blood pressure values by vasoconstriction and vasodilation of the arteries.\nHigh pressure receptors called baroreceptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinus (at the beginning of the internal carotid artery) monitor the arterial blood pressure. Rising pressure is detected when the walls of the arteries stretch due to an increase in blood volume. This causes heart muscle cells to secrete the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) into the blood. This acts on the kidneys",
"-25.790580290020443"
],
[
"tissue. A simple example of a mild pressure sore may be experienced by healthy individuals while sitting in the same position for extended periods of time: the dull ache experienced is indicative of impeded blood flow to affected areas. Within 2 hours, this shortage of blood supply, called ischemia, may lead to tissue damage and cell death. The sore will initially start as a red, painful area. The other process of pressure ulcer development is seen when pressure is high enough to damage the cell membrane of muscle cells. The muscle cells die as a result and skin fed through",
"-25.779179936565924"
],
[
"that the force of contraction is directly proportional to the initial length of muscle fiber, meaning a ventricle will contract more forcefully, the more it is stretched.\nAfterload, or how much pressure the heart must generate to eject blood at systole, is influenced by vascular resistance. It can be influenced by narrowing of the heart valves (stenosis) or contraction or relaxation of the peripheral blood vessels.\nThe strength of heart muscle contractions controls the stroke volume. This can be influenced positively or negatively by agents termed inotropes. These agents can be a result of changes within the body, or be given as",
"-25.75455626216717"
],
[
"heart disease. A meta-analysis in 2000, which combined the results of several studies of 8,000 elderly patients in all, found that a 10 mm Hg increase in pulse pressure increased the risk of major cardiovascular complications and mortality by nearly 20%. Heightened pulse pressure is also a risk factor for the development of atrial fibrillation. The authors of the meta-analysis suggest that this helps to explain the apparent increase in risk sometimes associated with low diastolic pressure, and warn that some medications for high blood pressure may actually increase the pulse pressure and the risk of heart disease. Self measurement Pulse",
"-25.73507101670839"
],
[
"or blocking small blood vessels, shutting off blood supply to the downstream side, and resulting in hypoxia of those tissues.\nThis effect is called decompression sickness or 'the bends', and must be avoided by reducing the pressure on the body slowly while ascending and allowing the inert gases dissolved in the tissues to be eliminated while still in solution. This process is known as \"off-gassing\", and is done by restricting the ascent (decompression) rate to one where the level of supersaturation is not sufficient for bubbles to form or grow. This is done by controlling the speed of ascent and",
"-25.710598973790184"
],
[
"formulation is usually added initially, while continuing oral medications. Doses of insulin are then increased to effect. Blood pressure Since cardiovascular disease is a serious complication associated with diabetes, some have recommended blood pressure levels below 130/80 mmHg. However, evidence supports less than or equal to somewhere between 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg; the only additional benefit found for blood pressure targets beneath this range was an isolated decrease in stroke risk, and this was accompanied by an increased risk of other serious adverse events. A 2016 review found potential harm to treating lower than 140 mmHg. Among medications that lower blood pressure,",
"-25.686541679664515"
],
[
"NSAIDs (Motrin/Ibuprofen) and steroids can cause hypertension. Other medications include extrogens (such as those found in oral contraceptives with high estrogenic activity), certain antidepressants (such as venlafaxine), buspirone, carbamazepine, bromocriptine, clozapine, and cyclosporine.\nHigh blood pressure that is associated with the sudden withdrawal of various antihypertensive medications is called rebound hypertension. The increases in blood pressure may result in blood pressures greater than when the medication was initiated. Depending on the severity of the increase in blood pressure, rebound hypertension may result in a hypertensive emergency. Rebound hypertension is avoided by gradually reducing the dose (also known as \"dose tapering\"),",
"-25.677780048717977"
],
[
"with elevated blood pressure. Depression was also linked to hypertension.\nA 2018 review found that any alcohol increased blood pressure in males while over one or two drinks increased the risk in females. Pathophysiology In most people with established essential hypertension, increased resistance to blood flow (total peripheral resistance) accounts for the high pressure while cardiac output remains normal. There is evidence that some younger people with prehypertension or 'borderline hypertension' have high cardiac output, an elevated heart rate and normal peripheral resistance, termed hyperkinetic borderline hypertension. These individuals develop the typical features of established essential hypertension in later life as",
"-25.62194122830988"
],
[
"vascular smooth muscle, restricting blood flow and so increases blood pressure. Diagnosis Hypertension is diagnosed on the basis of a persistently high resting blood pressure. The American Heart Association recommends at least three resting measurements on at least two separate health care visits. The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends ambulatory blood pressure monitoring to confirm the diagnosis of hypertension if a clinic blood pressure is 140/90 mmHg or higher. Measurement technique For an accurate diagnosis of hypertension to be made, it is essential for proper blood pressure measurement technique to be used. Improper measurement of blood",
"-25.609492928459076"
]
] |
4unzrb | Why are humans diurnal? | [
"Our eyes do not operate well in low light. Our hunting skills are sight based. So over-all going hunting in anything but daylight means we're more likely to be the prey, then the hunter. We weren't the top predator back when we were evolving, we used progressively better tools to drag our way up the list.",
"Everyone else on here is not actually answering the question, rather the symptoms of being diurnal (Rods/cones in the eyes, etc) Our primate ancestor was a nocturnal prosimian (think an eye-eye, very small primate). As we evolved, got bigger, and brains started to develop, it became easier to compete for resources with other daytime animals. Before being out during the day meant certain death: predatory birds, lions, bears, etc..... as we got bigger, became easier to move and be active in daytime (way harder for an eagle to pick up a chimp than a mouse lemur). Why is being diurnal more beneficial? Think hunting, fishing, social groups, etc. being able to see and move in the day makes all of these more \"evolved\" activities possible. Most nocturnal animals (esp nocturnal primates) are solitary foragers, very small, etc. Why is size beneficial? Because of metabolic rate. Bigger animals have more efficient metabolism, can digest food more easily. Why did apes evolve to be bigger while there are some still nocturnal prosimians? This question stumps a lot of evolutionary biologists, but the idea is that some prosimians 50 million years ago (or whatever timeline) were in better positions for resources with less competition and were able to \"become\" larger/diurnal. Hopefully that is ELI5",
"Usually a question about why an organism evolved in a certain way can be answered as simply as, it worked best. Organisms that have to compete in their environment (niche) may have been able to take advantage of daytime or night-time activity, whether it meant finding prey and resources easier, or not becoming the prey. It is almost arbitrary whether we are, because we could just have easily evolved the other way if there were selective pressures. Other features such as our eyes' sensitivity to light and a diurnal rhythm evolved from these pressures as well.",
"In a nutshell we are visual animals. We have some of the best eyes in the animal kingdom, we have 3 cone types that descriminate between Red, Blue, and Green, and our brains can use that to create a wide range of colors. Our visual acuity is also excellent. Some animals, like Raptors, have better visual acuity at distance, and there is the mantis shrimp that has a dozen different cone cell types, but overall humans have excellent vision and rely heavily on the sense of sight. Our eyes work OK in the dark of night, but we lose alot of our advantages, especially our ability to discriminate between colors/wavelengths of light. Humans are capable of operating at night if need be, but our eyes just aren't that finely adapted to it - they work, but they aren't a superpower like our day time vision is (compared to other animals)."
] | [
[
"were forced to be more active in the day to find food. Other environmental influences Diurnality has shown to be an evolutionary trait in many animal species, with diurnality mostly reappearing in many lineages. Other environmental factors like ambient temperature, food availability, and predation risk can all influence whether an animal will evolve to be diurnal, or if their effects are strong enough, then mask over their circadian rhythm, changing their activity patterns to becoming diurnal. All three factors often involve one another, and animals need to be able to find a balance between them if they are to survive",
"-33.76140208682045"
],
[
"or have periods of rest during the night time. Commonly classified diurnal animals include mammals, birds, and reptiles. Most primates are diurnal. Scientifically classifying diurnality within animals can be a challenge, apart from the obvious increased activity levels during the day time light. Evolution of diurnality Initially, most animals were diurnal, but adaptations that allowed some animals to become nocturnal is what helped contribute to the success of many, especially mammals. This evolutionary movement to nocturnality allowed them to better avoid predators and gain resources with less competition from other animals. This did come with some adaptations that mammals live",
"-33.347851035694475"
],
[
"are diurnal during the late spring and early fall, and become crepuscular during the heat of summer. Many insects and some birds also alter their times of activity. Some animals, like ground squirrels and marmots, have one or more periods of estivation, a summer hibernation that allows them to avoid the hottest and driest periods.\nSeveral animals are unique to Craters of the Moon and the surrounding area. Subspecies of Great Basin pocket mouse, American pika, yellow-pine chipmunk, and yellow-bellied marmot are found nowhere else. Lava tube beetles and many other cave animals are found only in the lava tubes of",
"-31.12711039406713"
],
[
"and thrive.\nAmbient temperature has been shown to affect and even convert nocturnal animals to diurnality as it is a way for them to conserve metabolic energy. Nocturnal animals are often energetically challenged due to being most active in the nighttime when ambient temperatures are lower than through the day, and so they lose a lot of energy in the form of body heat. According to the circadian thermos-energetics (CTE) hypothesis, animals that are expending more energy than they are taking in (through food and sleep) will be more active in the light cycle, meaning they will be more active in",
"-30.871165729826316"
],
[
"activity are naturally reversed through habit and not from outside interference – experience their highest temperature during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period of rest (day). Those diurnal temperatures can be reversed by reversing their daily routine.\nIn essence, the temperature curve of diurnal birds is similar to that of man and other homoeothermal animals, except that the maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also, the curves obtained from rabbits, guinea pigs, and dogs were quite similar to those from man. These observations indicate that body temperature is partially",
"-30.8390724491328"
],
[
"the day. This has been shown in studies done on small nocturnal mice in a laboratory setting. When they were placed under a combination of enough cold and hunger stress, they converted to diurnality through temporal niche switching, which was expected. Another similar study that involved energetically challenging small mammals showed that diurnality is most beneficial when the animal has a sheltered location to rest in, reducing heat loss. Both studies concluded that nocturnal mammals do change their activity patterns to be more diurnal when energetically stressed (due to heat loss and limited food availability), but only when predation is",
"-30.618843278673012"
],
[
"night.\nClimate-change and the change in global temperatures has led to an increasing amount of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. This adaptive measure allows species to avoid the heat of the day, without having to leave that particular habitat. Human disturbances The exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had a major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. The causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas: light pollution and spatial disturbance. Light pollution Light pollution is a major",
"-30.417992838614737"
],
[
"tend to stay awake at night, have higher melatonin at night just like diurnal mammals do. And, although removing the pineal gland in many animals abolishes melatonin rhythms, it does not stop circadian rhythms altogether—though it may alter them and weaken their responsiveness to light cues. Cortisol levels in diurnal animals typically rise throughout the night, peak in the awakening hours, and diminish during the day. In diurnal animals, sleepiness increases during the night. Rodents A study conducted by Datta indirectly supports the idea that memory benefits from sleep. A box was constructed wherein a single rat could move freely",
"-30.368175826617517"
],
[
"energy, though this theory is not fully adequate as it only decreases metabolism by about 5–10%. Additionally it is observed that mammals require sleep even during the hypometabolic state of hibernation, in which circumstance it is actually a net loss of energy as the animal returns from hypothermia to euthermia in order to sleep.\nNocturnal animals have higher body temperatures, greater activity, rising serotonin, and diminishing cortisol during the night—the inverse of diurnal animals. Nocturnal and diurnal animals both have increased electrical activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and corresponding secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland, at night. Nocturnal mammals, which",
"-29.602952197164996"
],
[
"synchronized with the earth's daily light-dark cycle. Thus, many animals are active during the day, others are active at night, still others near dawn and dusk. Though one might think that these \"circadian rhythms\" are controlled simply by the presence or absence of light, nearly every animal that has been studied has been shown to have a \"biological clock\" that yields cycles of activity even when the animal is in constant illumination or darkness. Circadian rhythms are so automatic and fundamental to living things – they occur even in plants – that they are usually discussed separately from cognitive processes,",
"-29.531589577090926"
],
[
"is diminished during the winter months in response to the reduction in available food, the reduction of sunlight (especially for diurnal animals) and the difficulties of surviving in cold weather. Hibernation is an extreme example, but even species that do not hibernate often exhibit changes in behavior during the winter. Presumably, food was scarce during most of human prehistory, and a tendency toward low mood during the winter months would have been adaptive by reducing the need for calorie intake. The preponderance of women with SAD suggests that the response may also somehow regulate reproduction.\nVarious proximate causes have been proposed.",
"-29.48268547574662"
],
[
"conserve energy. Variations due to circadian rhythms In humans, a diurnal variation has been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity, lowest at 11 p.m. to 3 a.m. and peaking at 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monkeys also have a well-marked and regular diurnal variation of body temperature that follows periods of rest and activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; nocturnal monkeys reach their highest body temperature at night and lowest during the day. Sutherland Simpson and J.J. Galbraith observed that all nocturnal animals and birds – whose periods of rest and",
"-29.152050235163188"
],
[
"Nocturnality Origins While it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, there is a leading hypothesis out in the evolutionary biology community. Known as the \"bottleneck theory\", it postulates that millions of years ago in the Mesozoic era, many ancestors of modern-day mammals evolved nocturnal characteristics in order to avoid contact with the numerous diurnal predators. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal",
"-28.986625525110867"
],
[
"and nocturnality occurred several times within primate lineages, with switching to diurnality being the most common transitions.\nStill today, diurnality seems to be reappearing in many lineages of other animals, including small rodent mammals like the Nile grass rat and golden mantle squirrel and reptiles. More specifically, geckos, which have thought to be naturally nocturnal have shown many transitions to diurnality, with about 430 species of geckos now showing diurnal activity. With so many diurnal species recorded, comparative analysis studies using newer lineages of gecko species have been done to study the evolution of diurnality. With about 20 transitions counted for",
"-28.743338257547293"
],
[
"Crepuscular animal Etymology and usage The word crepuscular derives from the Latin crepusculum (\"twilight\"). Its sense accordingly differs from diurnal and nocturnal behavior, which respectively peak during hours of daylight and darkness. The distinction is not absolute however, because crepuscular animals may also be active on a bright moonlit night or on a dull day. Some animals casually described as nocturnal are in fact crepuscular.\nSpecial classes of crepuscular behaviour include matutinal (or \"matinal\") and vespertine, denoting species active only in the dawn or only in the dusk, respectively. Those that are active during both morning and evening twilight are said",
"-28.430798763321945"
],
[
"are called crepuscular. The subdued morning and evening light helps make them less visible to predators, but is bright enough to allow them to locate food. Some animals are crepuscular mainly because their prey is. Crepuscular animals in the area include mule deer, coyotes, porcupines, mountain cottontails, jackrabbits, and many songbirds.\nSome desert animals are diurnal, or primarily active during the day. These include ground squirrels, marmots, chipmunks, lizards, snakes, hawks, and eagles.\nMany animals have a specific temperature range where they are active, meaning the times they are active vary with the seasons. Snakes and lizards hibernate during the winter months,",
"-28.278783386806026"
],
[
"typically diurnal species have even become crepuscular or nocturnal as a result of light pollution and general human disturbance. Reproduction There have been documented effects of light pollution on reproductive cycles and factors in different species. It can affect mate choice, migration to breeding grounds, and nest site selection. In male green frogs, artificial light causes a decrease in mate calls, and continued to move around instead of waiting for a potential mate to arrive. This hurts the overall fitness of the species, which is concerning considering the overall decrease in amphibian populations.\nPredation\nSome nocturnal predator-prey relationships are interrupted by artificial",
"-27.99643979119719"
],
[
"and diurnal in activity. In tropical areas, most are nocturnal and are attracted to light.",
"-27.82961798075121"
],
[
"human interaction from a young age, though they avoid people in the wild. Maras may even change their habits from coming out in day to becoming nocturnal, simply to avoid social interaction.",
"-27.73399833869189"
],
[
"definitions of being strictly nocturnal, diurnal, or crepuscular, often by factors that include the availability of food, predation pressure, and variable ambient temperature. As a result, many species, particularly among primates, may be classified as cathemeral.\nAlternative patterns of cathemeral activity have been observed in specific lemurs. Seasonal cathemerality has been described for the mongoose lemur (Eulemur mongoz) as activity that shifts from being predominantly diurnal to being predominantly nocturnal over a yearly cycle. The Common brown lemurs (E. fulvus fulvus) have been observed as seasonally shifting from diurnal activity to cathemerality. Etymology In the original manuscript for his paper,",
"-27.678126289974898"
],
[
"generally diurnal, resting in the hot part of the day and being active morning and afternoon. In areas where humans have encroached on the territory of a herd, they may turn nocturnal. Some species are also migratory, moving with food and water availability. Evolutionary history Modern species of Bos are thought to have evolved from a single ancestor, the aurochs (B. primigenius). This particular species survived until the early 17th century when it was hunted to extinction as the last aurochs, a female, died in Poland.",
"-27.667187699466012"
],
[
"in their cycle, even when they are not about to ovulate.\nHumans have menstrual cycles rather than estrous cycles. They, unlike most other species, have concealed ovulation, a lack of obvious external signs to signal estral receptivity at ovulation (i.e., the ability to become pregnant). There are, however, subtle signs to which human males may favorably respond, including changes in a woman's scent and facial appearance. Some research also suggests that women tend to have more sexual thoughts and are more prone to sexual activity right before ovulation. Animals with estrous cycles often have unmistakable outward displays of receptivity, ranging",
"-27.591043768450618"
],
[
"the gecko lineages, it shows the significance of diurnality. Strong environmental influences like climate change, predation risk, and competition for resources are all contributing factors. Using the example of geckos, it is thought that species like Mediodactylus amictopholis that live at higher altitudes have switched to diurnality to help gain more heat through the day, and therefore conserve more energy, especially when colder seasonal temperatures hit. Light Light is one of the most defining environmental factors that determines an animal’s activity pattern. Photoperiod or a light dark cycle is determined by the geographical location, with day time being associated with",
"-27.568844689296384"
],
[
"nocturnal primate species. This provides further evidence to support the hypothesis that nocturnality is a derived trait in the family Aotidae. \nAs the ancestor of Aotidae was likely diurnal, selective and environmental pressures must have been exerted on the members of this family which subsequently resulted in the alteration of their circadian rhythm to adapt to fill empty niches. Being active in the night rather than during the day time, gave Aotus access to better food sources, provided protection from predators, reduced interspecific competition and provided an escape from the harsh environmental conditions of their habitat. To begin, resting during",
"-27.522803832718637"
],
[
"This new rhythm can furthermore adapt to seasonal changes in day length, as with any other diurnal species. \n\nHowever, it is clear that the species has not completely evolved to be diurnal. In a lab setting where no other species is present, Acomys russatus immediately adopts nocturnal activity patterns with no transient phase, suggesting that its diurnal behavior is only an adaptation that is made when necessary. Furthermore, it has been found that the Golden Spiny Mouse’s eyes have not evolved to fit a diurnal lifestyle, but rather match the normal pattern of a nocturnal animal. This finding, along with",
"-27.51007252931595"
],
[
"wide range of conductance values. This allows animals to release heat during their activity period, when they have higher basal metabolism, as well as conserve heat during their rest period, when they have lower basal metabolism. In birds, the circadian rhythm in conductance results mostly from circadian rates of evaporative heat loss. In mammals, the conductance oscillates with circadian rhythms in the body's heat resistance and blood flow rate.\nFollowing up on his temperature studies, he found that a mammalian species can entrain to a temperature cycle, but that temperature is a weak Zeitgeber compared to a light-dark cycle.\nAschoff described masking",
"-27.422817682730965"
],
[
"mammals, they spend most of their life in old growth temperate rain forests in the high canopy. They are a non-migrating species and typically stay near areas in which they were born. They are active all year, even in the winter, because they do not hibernate. During cold weather in the winter, they huddle together to conserve heat. Groups as large as ten individuals have been documented. They are nocturnal with greatest activity right before dawn and right after dusk. They rest in dens during inactive times. They have a strong olfactory sense",
"-27.278588499611942"
],
[
"causes of nocturnality are linked to the environmental effects on circadian rhythm. While diurnal species are stimulated by the appearance of the sun, in nocturnal species, activity is highly impacted by the degree of moon light available. The presence of a new moon has correlated with inhibition of activity in night monkeys who exhibit lower levels of activity with decreasing levels of moon light. Therefore the lunar cycle has a significant influence on the foraging and a nocturnal behaviors of night monkey species. Pair-bonded social animals (social monogamy) Night monkeys are socially monogamous—they form a bond and mate with one",
"-27.20348340109922"
],
[
"Warm-blooded The variety of thermoregulation types A large proportion of the creatures traditionally called \"warm-blooded\", like birds and mammals, fit all three of these categories (i.e., they are endothermic, homeothermic, and tachymetabolic). However, over the past 30 years, studies in the field of animal thermophysiology have revealed many species belonging to these two groups that do not fit all these criteria. For example, many bats and small birds are poikilothermic and bradymetabolic when they sleep for the night (or, in nocturnal species, for the day). For these creatures, the term heterothermy was coined.\nFurther studies on animals that",
"-27.18894119952165"
],
[
"diurnal when temperature is high, but become more nocturnal if temperature plummets. At high latitudes, captive burbot, sculpin and brown bullhead are nocturnal in summer but become diurnal under the short photoperiod of the Arctic winter. In captivity, white sucker Catostomus commersonii are diurnal when living in a shoal but nocturnal when living alone.",
"-27.144171450752765"
],
[
"of all ages by 50%; this is thought to be related to simulation of moonlight.\nHumans can have a propensity to be morning people or evening people; these behavioral preferences are called chronotypes for which there are various assessment questionnaires and biological marker correlations.\nIn the second half of 20th century, substantial contributions and formalizations have been made by Europeans such as Jürgen Aschoff and Colin Pittendrigh, who pursued different but complementary views on the phenomenon of entrainment of the circadian system by light (parametric, continuous, tonic, gradual vs. nonparametric, discrete, phasic, instantaneous, respectively).\nThere is also a food-entrainable biological clock, which is",
"-26.94466458025272"
],
[
"made as far back as the 2nd century by the ancient Greek physician, Aretaeus of Cappadocia, who said, \"Lethargics are to be laid in the light and exposed to the rays of the sun, for the disease is gloom.\" Also, some studies have found weaker electrical activity in the retinas of depressed people, which gave the individuals studied poor visual contrast, meaning that they saw the world in grayer hues. The naturally weak daylight during winter at extreme latitudes can cause seasonal affective disorder, although a percentage of people experience SAD during summer. A solarium or other source of",
"-26.9109468699462"
],
[
"can react to social cues and gestures from humans. Behaviour Dingoes tend to be nocturnal in warmer regions, but less so in cooler areas. Their main period of activity is around dusk and dawn. The periods of activity are short (often less than 1 hour) with short times of resting. Dingoes have two kinds of movement: a searching movement (apparently associated with hunting) and an exploratory movement (probably for contact and communication with other dogs). According to studies in Queensland, the wild dogs (dingo hybrids) there move freely at night through urban areas and cross streets and seem to get",
"-26.834219585347455"
],
[
"of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration, and other biological activities. In addition, photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of",
"-26.75884120541741"
],
[
"the two chronotypes or diurnality and nocturnality in animal behavior. In several countries, especially in Scandinavia, early birds are called A-people and night owls are called B-people. Etymology The term is derived from the primarily nocturnal habits of the owl. Most owls sleep during the day and hunt for food at night. Characteristics Usually, people who are night owls stay awake past midnight, and extreme night owls may stay awake until just before or even after dawn. Night owls tend to feel most energetic just before they go to sleep at night. \nSome night owls have a preference or habit",
"-26.694897729583317"
],
[
"for cellular excitation via calcium influx and thus favors LTP. What else may be involved The circadian rhythm taking hold is responsible for the feeling of fatigue. Our body naturally starts to shut down, around the time that the sun starts to take its dip into the horizon. The primary chemical for this happening is melatonin, so it would seem natural to wonder if melatonin has some effect on learning and memory formation as well. Every animal that sleeps also exhibits some bodily concentration of melatonin. When studying the effects of sleepiness on fish, it was found that any significant",
"-26.598318357602693"
],
[
"lots of ambient light, and night time being associated with little ambient light. Light is one of the strongest influences of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is part of the hypothalamus in the brain that controls the circadian rhythm in most animals. This is what determines whether an animal is diurnal or not. The SCN uses visual information like light to start a cascade of hormones that are released and work on many physiological and behavioural functions.\nLight can produce powerful masking effects on an animal’s circadian rhythm, meaning that it can “mask” or influence the internal clock, changing the activity",
"-26.53331527908449"
],
[
"of environmental light change have shown to have an effect on the activity of mammals. An observational study done on the activity of nocturnal owl monkeys in the Gran Chaco in South America showed that increased amounts of moonlight at night increased their activity levels through the night, which led to a decrease of daytime activity. Meaning that for this species, ambient moonlight is negatively correlated with diurnal activity. This is also connected with the foraging behaviours of the monkeys, as when there were nights of little to no moonlight, it affected the monkey’s ability to forage efficiently, so they",
"-26.42301810978097"
],
[
"that they are descended from ectothermic ancestors, but have taken to periodic endothermy for reproductive reasons, so that the young can develop more quickly. Supporters of this theory argue that males hibernate earlier than females because they finish their contribution to reproduction first, and they awake earlier to undergo spermatogenesis in preparation for mating, while females and young lag in their annual cycle. During the hibernation period, the animals stay in entirely covered shelter.\nShort-beaked echidnas can live anywhere with a good supply of food, and regularly feast on ants and termites. They are believed to locate food by smell, using",
"-26.422844535178797"
],
[
"those active during the night are nocturnal, and animals active at sporadic times during both night and day are cathemeral. \nPlants that open their flowers during the daytime are described as diurnal, while those that bloom during nighttime are nocturnal. The timing of flower opening is often related to the time at which preferred pollinators are foraging. For example, sunflowers open during the day to attract bees, whereas the night-blooming cereus opens at night to attract large sphinx moths. In animals Many types of animals are classified as being diurnal, meaning they are active during the day time and inactive",
"-26.320449122489663"
],
[
"longevity probably helps them outlast years of low snowpack that cause poor breeding conditions, and thus low metamorphic recruitment. They are largely diurnal in contrast to the majority of anurans, probably owing to the cold mountain temperatures. Aligning their activities with diel peaks in warmth allows them to absorb solar energy to catch and biosynthesize food. The high level of melanism in eggs and tadpoles (and possibly in adult females), as well as the tendency for tadpoles to congregate in the warm shallows, probably serves the same purpose. Similarly, the selection of shallow breeding sites by adults, and shallow water",
"-26.274525131477276"
],
[
"cycle, one experiences reduced attentiveness. During the high points, it is difficult to sleep soundly. The cycle is anchored in part by ambient lighting (darkness causes a person's body to release the hormone melatonin, which induces sleep), and by a person's imposed pattern of regular sleeping and waking times. The influence of the day-night cycle is never fully displaced (standard artificial lighting is not strong enough to inhibit the release of melatonin), and the performance of night shift workers usually suffers. Circadian rhythms are persistent, and can only be shifted by one to two hours forward or backward per day. Changing",
"-26.210150861981674"
],
[
"after adverse conditions have arisen. This is commonly found in areas with an unpredictable climate. While very sudden changes in conditions may lead to a high mortality rate among animals relying on consequential dormancy, its use can be advantageous, as organisms remain active longer and are therefore able to make greater use of available resources. Hibernation Hibernation is a mechanism used by many mammals to reduce energy expenditure and survive food shortage over the winter. Hibernation may be predictive or consequential. An animal prepares for hibernation by building up a thick layer of body fat during late summer",
"-26.126160811516456"
],
[
"year. The male is the primary caregiver, and the mother carries the infant for only the first week or so of its life. This is believed to have developed because it increases the survival of the infant and reduces the metabolic costs on the female. Adults will occasionally be evicted from the group by same-sex individuals, either kin or outsiders. Nocturnality The family Aotidae is the only family of nocturnal species within the suborder Anthropoidea. While the order primates is divided into prosimians; many of which are nocturnal, the anthropoids possess very few nocturnal species and therefore it is highly",
"-26.102975142304786"
],
[
"further deep-time evolutionary pressure may have been lions' habit of eating people on moonless nights. When early Pleistocene hominids in Africa were attempting to survive by robbing big cats of their kills, according to some evolutionary scientists, it may have been adaptive to restrict overnight journeys—including sexual liaisons—to times when there was a moon in the sky. Media attention The question of whether those who live together do in fact synchronize their menstrual cycles has also received attention in the popular media. Traditional myth and ritual The idea that menstruation is – or ideally ought to be – in harmony",
"-26.09196023485856"
],
[
"complaints among the elderly, and poor sleep can be linked to a wide variety of problems including increased cardiovascular problems, disruption of endocrine functions, decline of immune functions, stability problems, and poor cognition. Studies have shown that when the elderly are exposed to high circadian light levels during the day and dim circadian levels at night, their sleep duration and efficiency has significantly improved. Depression The elderly frequently cite depression as a notable ailment. Many researchers have linked the depression to seasonal affective disorder (SAD), and seasonal mood variations have been linked to lack of light. (SAD is",
"-26.023666873632465"
],
[
"sleep or something like it occurs in all land mammals as well as in birds. The primary criteria used to identify REM are the change in electrical activity, measured by EEG, and loss of muscle tone, interspersed with bouts of twitching in phasic REM. The amount of REM sleep and cycling varies among animals; predators experience more REM sleep than prey. Larger animals also tend to stay in REM for longer, possibly because higher thermal inertia of their brains and bodies allows them to tolerate longer suspension of thermoregulation. The period (full cycle of REM and non-REM) lasts for about",
"-26.002004211652093"
],
[
"very precariously, sought to play it safe by not risking a failed crop, given that not all experiments introduced by outsiders had been successful. Animals It is common for animals (even those like hummingbirds that have high energy needs) to forage for food until satiated, and then spend most of their time doing nothing, or at least nothing in particular. They seek to \"satisfice\" their needs rather than obtaining an optimal diet or habitat. Even diurnal animals, which have a limited amount of daylight in which to accomplish their tasks, follow this pattern. Social activity comes in a distant third",
"-25.98977079166798"
],
[
"Darwin wrote about this in relation to wild horse and cattle. Humming as contact calls Joseph Jordania suggested that human humming could have played a function of contact calls in early human ancestors. According to his suggestion, humans find it distressing to be in full silence (which is a sign of danger for them), and this is why humans who are alone sometimes hum, whistle, talk to themselves, or listen to TV or radio during other activities. Birds Birds use contact calls in flight to establish location and to keep aware of each other's presence while flying and feeding. ",
"-25.98529517633142"
],
[
"Sleep in non-human animals Sleep in non-human animals refers to a behavioral and physiological state characterized by altered consciousness, reduced responsiveness to external stimuli, and homeostatic regulation. Sleep is observed in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and some fish, and, in some form, in insects and even in simpler animals such as nematodes. The internal circadian clock promotes sleep at night for diurnal organisms (such as humans) and in the day for nocturnal organisms (such as rodents). Sleep patterns vary widely among species. It appears to be a requirement for all mammals and most other animals. Invertebrates Sleep as a phenomenon",
"-25.920151100785006"
],
[
"an argument for the necessity of sleep. It appears that no animal has developed an ability to go without sleep altogether. Hibernation Animals that hibernate are in a state of torpor, differing from sleep. Hibernation markedly reduces the need for sleep, but does not remove it. Some hibernating animals end their hibernation a couple of times during the winter so that they can sleep. Hibernating animals waking up from hibernation often go into rebound sleep because of lack of sleep during the hibernation period. They are definitely well-rested and are conserving energy during hibernation, but need sleep for something",
"-25.894572574776248"
],
[
"connection between human emotion and animal emotion is so strong, humans have descended from the animal kingdom. How Long Do Animals Feel Grief? One of the questions that can be asked aside from do animals grieve is how long do they grieve for or if these animals show signs of mourning. Anthropologist Barbra J King mentions how animals might sleep less or change their ways in their daily life styles. These animals might also end up staying close to their companion's corpse for a long time as well (Safina, 2015). Something we know is that emotions in a human can",
"-25.887459846631828"
],
[
"most conspicuous during dusk and dawn, and if anything these birds are nocturnal rather than diurnal, preferring to retreat to sheltered areas in daytime. They feed actively during the day, however, if hungry or provisioning young. Shore-living individuals adapt to the rhythm of the tides. They mainly eat small fish, frogs and aquatic arthropods, but may take any invertebrate or vertebrate prey they can catch, including such animals like leeches and mice. Green herons are intolerant of other birds – including conspecifics – when feeding and are not seen to forage in groups. They typically stand still on shore or",
"-25.658145664492622"
],
[
"is naturally nocturnal, but will become diurnal when sharing a habitat with its congener, another spiny mouse species, Acomys cahirinus. Since the two species share food sources, competition does not allow for both of them to be active at the same time in the same habitat. Because of its tolerance for higher temperatures and significantly greater ability to conserve water by concentrating its urine, A. russatus is the species that is better suited to become day-active to eliminate this competition. When this occurs, there is a true switch in circadian rhythm that affects body systems such as metabolism and excretion.",
"-25.6369963849138"
],
[
"they start and end periods of activity earlier, shifting them into daylight hours, and may become diurnal. Diurnal giant anteaters have been observed at Serra da Canastra. Nocturnality in anteaters may be a response to human disturbances.\nGiant anteaters typically rest in dense brush, but may use tall grass on cooler days. They carve a shallow cavity in the ground for resting. The animal sleeps curled up with its bushy tail folded over its body. The tail serves both to conserve body heat and as camouflage. One anteater was recorded sleeping with its tail stretched out on a sunny morning with",
"-25.635553580021224"
],
[
"remained untouched by migrations and population expansions into that area. Genetic adaptations Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to stand a wide range of environmental temperatures in various ways. A 1958 study comparing cold adaptation in the desert-dwelling Pitjantjatjara people compared with a group of white people showed that the cooling adaptation of the Aboriginal group differed from that of the white people, and that they were able to sleep more soundly through a cold desert night. A 2014 Cambridge University study found that a beneficial mutation in two genes which regulate thyroxine, a hormone involved in regulating body metabolism, helps",
"-25.631074708304368"
],
[
"Estrous cycle The estrous cycle or oestrus cycle (derived from Latin oestrus \"frenzy\", originally from Greek οἶστρος oîstros \"gadfly\") is the recurring physiological changes that are induced by reproductive hormones in most mammalian therian females. Estrous cycles start after sexual maturity in females and are interrupted by anestrous phases or by pregnancies. Typically, estrous cycles continue until death. Some animals may display bloody vaginal discharge, often mistaken for menstruation. Differences from the menstrual cycle Mammals share the same reproductive system, including the regulatory hypothalamic system that produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone in pulses, the pituitary gland that secretes follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing",
"-25.626171468262328"
],
[
"influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep",
"-25.588948454358615"
],
[
"animal, they appear to be active both day and night, and are not territorial. They are timid, and flee at the sight of humans.",
"-25.55781878984999"
],
[
"species of damselfish, smallmouth bass and largemouth bass, and the brown bullhead. Some diurnal species, like the tautog Tautoga onitis, become active day and night during migration. In the Mozambique tilapia, sleep has been observed in adults, but not in juveniles.\nSome species may be variable in the phasing of their daily activity/inactivity periods, and thus presumably of their sleep. Within the same laboratory populations of goldfish, some individuals may be spontaneously diurnal while others are nocturnal. Goldfish can also be diurnal if food is more available by day, or nocturnal if food is available at night. Salmon are mostly",
"-25.55415415542666"
],
[
"the day, though they rest during the hottest hours around noon. The night is mainly spent resting. Dromedaries form cohesive groups of about 20 individuals, which consist of several females led by a dominant male. Females may also lead in turns. Some males either form bachelor groups or roam alone. Herds may congregate to form associations of hundreds of camels during migrations at the time of natural disasters. The males of the herd prevent female members from interacting with bachelor males by standing or walking between them and sometimes driving the bachelor males away. In Australia, short-term home ranges of",
"-25.544695313146804"
],
[
"hormone, and the ovary itself that releases sex hormones including estrogens and progesterone.\nHowever, species vary significantly in the detailed functioning. One difference is that animals that have estrous cycles resorb the endometrium if conception does not occur during that cycle. Animals that have menstrual cycles shed the endometrium through menstruation instead. Another difference is sexual activity. In species with estrous cycles, females are generally only sexually active during the estrus (oestrus) phase of their cycle . This is also referred to as being \"in heat\". In contrast, females of species with menstrual cycles can be sexually active at any time",
"-25.541809645539615"
],
[
"a rate limiting factor in reproduction, especially in animals with multiple litters, and that in pregnancy and lactation increased secretion of a quintet of steroid and peptide hormones caused a large increase of salt appetite.\nHis wide-ranging area of study – the instincts – is where many major discoveries were made. The primordial emotions – hunger for air, food hunger, thirst, pain, sexual desire, specific mineral appetites such as for salt or phosphate, search for temperature compatible environment or sleep after deprivation etc., are the subjective element of the instincts. They embody, when fully active, an imperious goal directed intention, which",
"-25.503300761862192"
],
[
"of horses and other large herd animals is that it is usually affected by the seasons. The number of hours daily that light enters the eye of the animal affects the brain, which governs the release of certain precursors and hormones. When daylight hours are few, these animals \"shut down\", become anestrous, and do not become fertile. As the days grow longer, the longer periods of daylight cause the hormones that activate the breeding cycle to be released. As it happens, this benefits these animals in that, given a gestation period of about eleven months, it prevents them from having",
"-25.460725873010233"
],
[
"in primates.\nVasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide histidine isoleucine help to regulate prolactin secretion in humans, but the functions of these hormones in birds can be quite different.\nProlactin follows diurnal and ovulatory cycles. Prolactin levels peak during REM sleep and in the early morning. Many mammals experience a seasonal cycle.\nDuring pregnancy, high circulating concentrations of estrogen and progesterone increase prolactin levels by 10- to 20-fold. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit the stimulatory effects of prolactin on milk production. The abrupt drop of estrogen and progesterone levels following delivery allow prolactin—which temporarily remains high—to induce lactation.\nSucking on the nipple offsets the fall in",
"-25.426125589190633"
],
[
"Aestivation Physiology Organisms that aestivate appear to be in a fairly \"light\" state of dormancy, as their physiological state can be rapidly reversed, and the organism can quickly return to a normal state. A study done on Otala lactea, a snail native to parts of Europe and Northern Africa, shows that they can wake from their dormant state within ten minutes of being introduced to a wetter environment.\nThe primary physiological and biochemical concerns for an aestivating animal are to conserve energy, retain water in the body, ration the use of stored energy, handle the nitrogenous end products, and stabilize bodily",
"-25.41789251624141"
],
[
"and autumn that will provide it with energy during the dormant period. During hibernation, the animal undergoes many physiological changes, including decreased heart rate (by as much as 95%) and decreased body temperature. In addition to shivering, some hibernating animals also produce body heat by non-shivering thermogenesis to avoid freezing. Non-shivering thermogenesis is a regulated process in which the proton gradient generated by electron transport in mitochondria is used to produce heat instead of ATP in brown adipose tissue. Animals that hibernate include bats, ground squirrels and other rodents, mouse lemurs, the European hedgehog and other insectivores, monotremes and",
"-25.37746613298077"
],
[
"makes them homeothermic when active, and poikilothermic when at rest. This phenomenon has been termed 'daily torpor' and was intensively studied in the Djungarian hamster. During the hibernation season, this animal shows strongly reduced metabolism each day during the rest phase while it reverts to endothermic metabolism during its active phase, leading to normal euthermic body temperatures (around 38 °C).\nLarger mammals (e.g. ground squirrels) and bats show multi-day torpor bouts during hibernation (up to several weeks) in winter. During these multi-day torpor bouts, body temperature drops to ~1 °C above ambient temperature and metabolism may drop to about 1% of the",
"-25.294843114883406"
],
[
"images become blurred. Humans, like their primate relatives, do not possess a tapetum lucidum and therefore were predisposed to be a diurnal species.\nDespite the fact that the resolution of human day vision is far superior to that of night vision, human night vision provides many advantages. Like many predatory animals humans can use their night vision to prey upon and ambush other animals without their awareness. Furthermore, in the event of an emergency situation occurring at night humans can increase their chances of survival if they are able to perceive their surroundings and get to safety. ",
"-25.265675819129683"
],
[
"essential regulator of biological timing in more natural settings\". Obesity and diabetes Obesity and diabetes are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignment of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light–dark cycle) might play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.\nShift work or chronic jet lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in the body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes. In humans, shift work that favors irregular eating",
"-25.255227462854236"
],
[
"unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection. In cold or barren countries no animals can live to the age of maturity, but those who have strong constitutions; the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities.\n Sebright said females went to \"the most vigorous males\", and \"the strongest individuals of both sexes, by driving away the weakest, will enjoy the best food, and the most favourable positions, for themselves and their offspring.\" After reading the pamphlet, Darwin commented \"excellent observations of sickly offspring being cut off so that not propagated by nature. –",
"-25.229013662261423"
],
[
"Nocturnal bottleneck The nocturnal bottleneck hypothesis is a hypothesis to explain several mammalian traits. In 1942, Gordon Lynn Walls described this concept which states that placental mammals were mainly or even exclusively nocturnal through most of their evolutionary story, starting with their origin 225 million years ago, and only ending with the demise of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. While some mammal groups have later evolved to fill diurnal niches, the approximately 160 million years spent as nocturnal animals has left a lasting legacy on basal anatomy and physiology, and most mammals are still nocturnal. Evolution of mammals Mammals",
"-25.224126991815865"
],
[
"are primarily diurnal. Many species, however, fly at night, and then may be attracted to artificial lights. Mantises in the family Liturgusidae collected at night have been shown to be predominately males; this is probably true for most mantises. Nocturnal flight is especially important to males in locating less-mobile females by detecting their pheromones. Flying at night exposes mantises to fewer bird predators than diurnal flight would. Many mantises also have an auditory thoracic organ that helps them avoid bats by detecting their echolocation calls and responding evasively. Diet and predation Mantises are generalist predators of arthropods. The majority",
"-25.21959722795873"
],
[
"species and subspecies are diurnal, hypothesized as a response to a lack of predators.\nDiurnal taxa include a subspecies of the black-eared flying fox (Pteropus melanotus natalis), the Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger), the Caroline flying fox (Pteropus molossinus), a subspecies of Pteropus pelagicus (P. p. insularis), and the Seychelles fruit bat (Pteropus seychellensis). Roosting A 1992 summary of forty-one megabat genera noted that twenty-nine are tree-roosting genera. A further eleven genera roost in caves, and the remaining six genera roost in other kinds of sites (human structures, mines, and crevices, for example). Tree-roosting species can be solitary or highly colonial,",
"-25.183813417796046"
],
[
"an estrous cycle, yet only ten primates species, four bats species, the elephant shrew, and the spiny mouse have a menstrual cycle. The relatedness of these groups suggests that four distinct evolutionary events have caused menstruation to arise.\nRecent reviews suggest that menstruation itself is not an evolved, adaptive trait. Rather, it is an inherent consequence of spontaneous decidualization evolving as a derived trait from non-spontaneous decidualization. Spontaneous decidualization allows for more maternal control in the maternal-fetal conflict by increasing selectivity over the implanted embryo.\nAll female placental mammals have a uterine lining that builds up when the animal is fertile, but",
"-25.165118601871654"
],
[
"well.\nThe only other mammal species known to hibernate within snow is the polar bear. Reproduction and life history Females are strongly philopatric, meaning that they likely stay in their natal ranges.\nTherefore, females in a given area are closely related, influencing the social structure of colonies.\nFemales give birth in the summer to an offspring called a pup.\nPups are weaned in the summer, and some reach sexual maturity in their first autumn.\nIt is a relatively short-lived species for a bat, with maximum age recorded as 4 and 4.5 years for males and females, respectively. Parasites and disease The Ussuri tube-nosed bat is",
"-25.13501929186168"
],
[
"slept normally. This suggests that the sleep which follows deprivation is compensatorily deeper.\nIn 2016, a study report the existence of REM- and NREM-like sleep stages in the Australian dragon Pogona vitticeps. Amphibians have periods of inactivity but show high vigilance (receptivity to potentially threatening stimuli) in this state. Birds There are significant similarities between sleep in birds and sleep in mammals, which is one of the reasons for the idea that sleep in higher animals with its division into REM and NREM sleep has evolved together with warm-bloodedness. Birds compensate for sleep loss in a manner similar to mammals, by",
"-25.073135568614816"
],
[
"a nocturnal phase in which complex colour vision was lost. Being that these pro-mammals were nocturnal they increased their sensitivity in low luminescence settings and reduced their photopic system from tetrachromatic to dichromatic. The shift to a nocturnal lifestyle would demand more rod photoreceptors to absorb the blue light emitted by the moon during the night. It can be extrapolated that the high ratio of rods to cones present in modern human eyes was retained even after the shift from nocturnal back to diurnal.\nIt is believed that the emergence of trichromacy in primates occurred approximately 55 million",
"-25.024758457089774"
],
[
"these other species may even den together, as most of their relatives are nocturnal. Dens may be found anywhere sheltered from the elements: in crevices between rocks, in hollow logs, and the like. Reproduction A male's range will include the ranges of several females, and scent cues inform him when the female is in heat. The gestation period is believed to be 60 to 70 days, and most pregnancies result in one to three (usually two) young. The male does not help care for them. Unusually, for a solitary species, in the Kalahari the males are philopatric whereas the females",
"-25.00919952034019"
],
[
"activity. The age-related decline in immune function is also related to decreasing vitamin D levels in the elderly. As people age, two things happen that negatively affect their vitamin D levels. First, they stay indoors more due to decreased activity levels. This means that they get less sun and therefore produce less cholecalciferol via UVB radiation. Second, as a person ages the skin becomes less adept at producing vitamin D. Sleep and rest The immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and sleep deprivation is detrimental to immune function. Complex feedback loops involving cytokines, such as interleukin-1 and tumor",
"-24.978231509274337"
],
[
"issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. Species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to the change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. Many diurnal species see the benefit of a \"longer day\", allowing for a longer hunting period, which is detrminental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them. Orientation Light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are",
"-24.97754786827136"
],
[
"the range can occur at nearly any time of night or day, with bears who dwell in areas with more extensive human contact being more likely to be fully nocturnal. Furthermore, yearling and newly independent bears are more likely to be active diurnally and many adult bears in low-disturbance areas are largely crepuscular. In summer through autumn, a brown bear can double its weight from the spring, gaining up to 180 kg (400 lb) of fat, on which it relies to make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic. Although they are not full hibernators and can be woken easily, both",
"-24.954870521789417"
],
[
"animals being most active in the mornings and evenings while the young are active most of the day. Winter hibernation lasts for about six and a half to eight and a half months. The date of emergence depends on spring conditions and may vary by up to twenty five days. The diet consists of the green parts of plants, roots, bulbs, grass seed, cereals and other agricultural crops. Reproduction takes place in the summer with pregnancy lasting approximately 23 days and the brood size averaging seven to eight young. These grow rapidly and are fully grown in two and a",
"-24.923985435183567"
],
[
"and they like to reside close to stony mountains and hills. In appearance and habits they closely resemble the unrelated rock hyrax of Africa (an example of convergent evolution). They usually shelter in crevices. They are reportedly seen at day and night, but are most active at dawn or dusk. Animals most active at this time are known as crepuscular. Behavior Studies show that there is a direct link between the retina and the mediodorsal nucleus, a large nucleus in the thalamus, which may provide the rock cavy with strong emotional learning, visual recognition, and object-reward association memory. This may",
"-24.8709026107681"
],
[
"of 7 years or more in age are females, with males rarely surviving past 5 years of age. Reasons for higher mortality in males may include loss of weight during the breeding season due to the high energetic demands of defending a territory followed by energetically costly migration.\nA variety of animals prey on hummingbirds given the opportunity. Due to their small size, hummingbirds are vulnerable even to passerine birds and other animals which generally feed on insects. On the other hand, only very swift predators can capture them and a free-flying adult hummingbird is too nimble for most predators. Chief",
"-24.859712413162924"
],
[
"interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.\nIn evolutionary terms, the ovulatory shift hypothesis posits that female humans exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their menstrual cycle, as a means to ensure that they attract a high quality mate to copulate with during their most fertile time. Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's overt behaviours, influencing the way a woman presents herself to others during stages of her menstrual cycle, in attempt to attract high quality mates the",
"-24.846961489703972"
],
[
"summarized that the differences came from personal breaks and unproductive activities at the workplace. Another, larger study found that afternoon declines in productivity were greater during longer work shifts.\nIt is important to note, however, that not all humans share identical circadian rhythms. One study across Italy and Spain had students fill out a questionnaire, then ranked them on a \"morningness–eveningness\" scale. The results were a fairly standard bell curve. Levels of alertness over the course of the day had a significant correlation with scores on the questionnaire. All categories of participants—evening types, morning types, and intermediate types—had high levels of",
"-24.835442961659282"
],
[
"all diurnal herd animals and grazers preferring a grassland environment. In the Wilton Base Marker and overlying units, the faunal remains are primarily of nocturnal, non-herding animals that generally prefer a more vegetated environment. This change is thought to represent and correspond to a decrease in grassland and increase in scrub and brush that began in the terminal Pleistocene and continued into the Holocene. It is unknown whether this environmental change occurred as a result of human activity, but it is thought to be a natural occurrence that may have been reinforced by human activity.\nThe principal conclusion of the “Prehistory",
"-24.81277719134232"
],
[
"sun to warm their body or to provide comfort. It has been suggested that early mammals. which may have been small and nocturnal, may have basked to rapidly warm their bodies based on observations made on a nocturnal marsupial, Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis. Insects Many insects require the morning sun to come out of nocturnal torpor and become active. In the higher latitudes, many insects have black on their wings or body to enhance their heat acquisition. This trend for increased darkness in higher latitudes is especially well marked in the Lepidoptera although the trend may be more general and unrelated to",
"-24.811861323658377"
],
[
"or migrate too early. The feeding behavior of insects, bats, sea turtles, fish, replies reflect alterations by artificial light. Sea turtles mistake the glow of electric lights for the shimmer of the ocean, leading them to flock outside of their nest into hazardous areas.\nHuman circadian rhythm and sleep patterns:\nExposure to light during traditional sleeping hours have are\ndocumented to cause disruptions in the circadian rhythm that regulate human\nsleep cycles. Biologists have noted a decrease in the amount of melatonin, a natural hormone that regulates the Circadian rhythm, in humans that are exposed to light pollution of the night sky. In order",
"-24.7909070836904"
],
[
"study found evidence that genetics account for approximately half of the measurable differences in loneliness among adults, which was similar to the heritability estimates found previously in children. These genes operate in a similar manner in males and females. The study found no common environmental contributions to adult loneliness. Feeling lonely vs. being socially isolated There is a clear distinction between feeling lonely and being socially isolated (for example, a loner). In particular, one way of thinking about loneliness is as a discrepancy between one's necessary and achieved levels of social interaction, while solitude is simply the lack of contact",
"-24.782300573140674"
],
[
"tropical and subtropical animals). Some animals (opportunistic breeders) breed dependent upon other conditions in their environment aside from time of year. Mammals Mating seasons are often associated with changes to herd or group structure, and behavioural changes, including territorialism amongst individuals. These may be annual (e.g. wolves), biannual (e.g. dogs) or more frequently (e.g. horses). During these periods, females of most mammalian species are more mentally and physically receptive to sexual advances, a period scientifically described as estrous but commonly described as being \"in season\" or \"in heat\". Sexual behaviour may occur outside estrus, and such acts as do",
"-24.73919768354972"
],
[
"whether menstrual synchrony occurred in a semi-free-ranging population of mandrills of 10-group years. They reported that mandrills do not synchronize their menstrual cycles and concluded that cycle synchrony does not occur in non-human primates. Lions Oestrus synchrony has been reported of female lions living under natural conditions in the wild.",
"-24.69564999535214"
],
[
"for example, which are sown in the fall and germinate before the frost, become dormant during the winter and actually require a few weeks of cold before they are able to flower. Animals Winter rest in an animal is different from true hibernation, since the metabolism is not reduced drastically. The body temperature is not significantly lowered, however the heart rate is reduced. This means that animals like the raccoon can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts. Other animals that winter rest are badgers and brown bears.",
"-24.688975536380894"
],
[
"same, and some produce only blue or green light.\nA reduction in exposure to sunlight during winter months and the shift in times or sunrise and sunset can affect a person's Circadian rhythm/internal clock, serotonin levels and melatonin levels. Symptoms of SAD may be more pronounced in women (75% of SAD cases), in younger adults (18-30), those with depression or a family history of depression, and it also more common in those who live more than 30 degrees north or south of the equator. Independent verification The non-profit Lighting Research Center, a group of utility companies, experts and government agencies,",
"-24.68877041435917"
],
[
"when they are in a good mood on a sunny day rather than in a bad mood on a rainy day. However, if the interviewer mentions the weather before they ask the life satisfaction question, this mood effect disappears because people accurately attribute their current mood to the weather rather than their life satisfaction.\nIn other work from the feelings-as-information perspective, Schwarz suggests that metacognitive experiences, such as the feeling of ease or difficulty in recalling or processing information, can exert significant influence on judgments. In other words, people tend to make judgments based on this interpretation of their subjective feelings",
"-24.631089231348597"
],
[
"the dark. Water conservation Another reason for nocturnality is avoiding the heat of the day. This is especially true in arid biomes like deserts, where nocturnal behavior prevents creatures from losing precious water during the hot, dry daytime. This is an adaptation that enhances osmoregulation. One of the reasons that (cathemeral) lions prefer to hunt at night is to conserve water.\nMany plant species native to arid biomes have adapted so that their flowers only open at night when the sun's intense heat cannot wither and destroy their moist, delicate blossoms. These flowers are pollinated by bats, another creature of the",
"-24.58098310721107"
],
[
"marsupials. Although hibernation is almost exclusively seen in mammals, some birds, such as the common poorwill, may hibernate. Diapause Diapause is a predictive strategy that is predetermined by an animal's genotype. Diapause is common in insects, allowing them to suspend development between autumn and spring, and in mammals such as the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, the only ungulate with embryonic diapause), in which a delay in attachment of the embryo to the uterine lining ensures that offspring are born in spring, when conditions are most favorable. Aestivation Aestivation, also spelled estivation, is an example of consequential dormancy in",
"-24.579631249245722"
],
[
"to be less active overall. Females' home ranges are also smaller than those of males. Males had a mean annual home range of 113 ha (280 acres), and females of 72 ha (180 acres). While males have larger home ranges in all seasons, the differences between males' and females' territories are most significant during the winter. Their home ranges are slightly larger during the spring because they are more active, not only nocturnally, but in seeking a mate. Because of their increased activity, they require more energy and are more active to acquire the necessary sustenance.\nBoth male and females scent mark in",
"-24.574874020530842"
],
[
"humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun. For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotle's Meteorology (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion. Origin of humankind Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life, and that humans came from other animals in waters. He claimed that animals sprang out of the sea long ago, born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and animals would be able to break it. As",
"-24.559664855943993"
]
] |
3bbrik | What is the purpose of the mesh lining inside swim trunks? | [
"Originally the mesh was used as a lightweight barrier to block men's wee-wee's from direct contract from the fabric of the actual boardshorts. When the cloth got wet it got heavier and would cause your sensitive bits to chafe and that's very uncomfortable. More and more companies are starting to make boardshorts without the mesh now, however. They are able to do this because of the inventions of micro-fibers and quick drying technology. There's also a new stitch pattern called \"flat-lock\" stitching which is a non-abrasive stitch used a lot now in active wear clothing. You'll see it a lot in Nike and Under Armour. Source: Worked for both Under Armour and Hurley for several years. EDIT: The underwear underneath the boardshorts seems to have some mixed opinions from what I've read. I personally wear Hurley Phantom boardshorts without any underwear on and there is no chaffing issue. The only downside that I PERSONALLY see about wearing underwear underneath is that it takes longer for you to dry completely. I don't believe only douches wear underwear and I don't think it's a weird decision. It's all about comfort.",
"When I was a kid I went to a swimming pool with my big cousin. He trusted a fart and the mesh lining acted as a shit sieve trapping the larger particles of the rapidly expanding crumb cloud that was emanating from him in the water. For years after I believed that this was the reason for the mesh.",
"When you jump into a pool, waterski, or engage in a number of other aquatic activities, your swim trunks have a tendency to ride up your thighs, creating the potential for your junk to flop out. The mesh lining is there to act as underwear so that the junk flop doesn't happen.",
"So far no one has given you the correct answer. Yes, it is true that swim suits use a double lining for modesty but the reason they use mesh is for one reason and one reason only. SAND Playing in the surf and on the beach will collect sand in your shorts. But, with mesh the sand will fall away. No longer will you leave piles of sand where ever you change at. Also, now you can spray off at the beach without having to take your shorts off since you can simply spray out what sand remains in your shorts while standing under the shower/hose with your shorts still on. I live on a boat most the year and in our \"guide to guests\" we recommend they buy swimwear with mesh just to keep sand from being tracked all over the boat. (That and spray off on the stern deck and take off their sand filled shoes.) EDIT: This is also why beach bags, scuba bags, snorkel bags are often made of mesh. ...to allow the sand to fall out.",
"It acts like underwear, serving the same purpose. But it's a mesh, and usually similar material as the swim trunks so that it doesn't absorb water like regular cotton underwear would do.",
"OK everyone is picking one thing and saying that's why buy it's a few things. Swim trunks used to chafe but it's not as much of an issue now with all of the fancy weaves and fabrics. If you're wearing short trunks, you don't want you balls hanging out one of the sides now do you? When they get wet, then you get out of the pool, there's a decent chance your trunks have just shrink wrapped your junk and are displaying it to the world.",
"What I want to know is, why the fuck don't they have drawstrings around the entire waistband anymore? That is annoying as fuck.",
"I always thought it was built in underwear. On a side not, most inner mesh was kind of a net design, but I had a pair when I was young, very shiny blue pair that had a silk like lining on the inside, I used to love those trunks, so comfortable.",
"So you could maintain junk control without the underwear being weighed down by water. The mesh lets the water move in and out of the shorts freely.",
"I always thought it was too keep your junk from falling out the leg of the shorts. And when I buy trunks without the mesh I wear the man equivalent of spanks to make sure I have no unintended junk lookers.",
"I always assumed it acted like a jock strap when you were being active while swimming, playing volleyball, or in a training montage with Apollo Creed. Keeping the boys from flapping around all willy nilly."
] | [
[
"MeshBox MeshBox is an item of computer hardware which is used to provide large scale wireless broadband networks. Manufactured by LocustWorld, the devices are designed to co-operate with other MeshBoxes within range, passing the internet service from one box to the next, over the air, until it reaches the final destination. The coverage area of a mesh is typically measured in square miles or square kilometres.\nOriginally released as a bootable CD-ROM called MeshAP based on the OpenAP open source software, the system is now implemented as system image which can fit within a small 32MB CompactFlash card. The system functions",
"-31.904231439461"
],
[
"is accomplished by use of solid barriers such as copper tubes, and water-repellent jelly or water-absorbing powder surrounding the fiber.\nFinally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental hazards, such as construction work or gnawing animals. Undersea cables are more heavily armored in their near-shore portions to protect them from boat anchors, fishing gear, and even sharks, which may be attracted to the electrical power that is carried to power amplifiers or repeaters in the cable.\nModern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications such as direct burial in trenches, dual use as",
"-31.48380826850189"
],
[
"the heat generated by the diver. More insulation is needed for colder conditions and for less energetic diving activity.\nThe principle of layering can be used to provide a wider range of insulation possibilities from a relatively small range of underwear items, however this can only be done before entering the water. Most dry suit underwear insulates by a trapped layer of air in the garment, and this is largely lost if the air is replaced by water in a flooded suit, so as a general rule, insulation is proportional to the combined thickness of the undergarments. The layering principle shows",
"-31.013004092950723"
],
[
"million rectangular mesh openings.\nThe net is usually built underneath a rock where a current of water flows through it. The downstream end of the net is free to move and has an opening to permit a respiratory current to flow through, and groups of nets are often built besides each other. The larva moves about inside the net and feeds on the fine organic matter and diatoms that get caught in the mesh structure. Much of its time is spent scraping this deposit off the net with specialised mouthparts.",
"-30.83313438037294"
],
[
"often used for fishing and trapping. Structural properties Nets, like fabric, stretch less along their constituent strands (the \"bars\" between knots) than diagonally across the gaps in the mesh. They are, so to speak, made on the bias. The choice of material used also affects the structural properties of the net. Nets are designed and constructed for their specific purpose by modifying the parameters of the weave and the material used. Safety nets, for example, must decelerate the person hitting them gradually, usually by having a concave-upwards stress–strain curve, where the amount of force required to stretch the net increases",
"-30.510247114114463"
],
[
"Shared mesh A shared mesh (also known as 'traditional' or 'best effort' mesh) is a wireless mesh network that uses a single radio to communicate via mesh backhaul links to all the neighboring nodes in the mesh. This is a first generation mesh where the total available bandwidth of the radio channel is ‘shared’ between all the neighboring nodes in the mesh. The capacity of the channel is further consumed by traffic being forwarded from one node to the next in the mesh – reducing the end to end traffic that can be passed. Because bandwidth",
"-30.325264571001753"
],
[
"fabric. If two layers of fabric are used, stitched channels can be formed which enclose the tubing between the two fabric layers. Where flame resistance is needed, the garment may be constructed out of materials such as nomex.\nThe tubing is typically a few millimeters in diameter, and may be made out of any number of flexible plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or silicone. Smaller diameter tubing permits a higher degree of garment flexibility, but at a cost of lower heat absorption capacity, and increased pressure needed to push liquid through the tubing.\nWhen a large area needs to be",
"-30.093211769883055"
],
[
"the surface and catch the cable. If the cable is on a rocky sea surface, the grapple is more flexible, with hooks along its length so that it can adjust to the changing surface. In especially deep water, the cable may not be strong enough to lift as a single unit, so a special grapple that cuts the cable soon after it has been hooked is used and only one length of cable is brought to the surface at a time, whereupon a new section is spliced in. The repaired cable is longer than the original, so the excess is",
"-30.029801242868416"
],
[
"winding handle to help keep slack line under control and rewind line. Lines are used in open water to deploy surface marker buoys and decompression buoys and link the buoy on the surface to the submerged diver, or may be used to allow easy return navigation to a point such as a shotline or boat anchor.\nThe material used for any given distance line will vary based on intended use, nylon being the material of choice for cave diving. A common line used is 2 mm (0.08 inch) polypropylene line when it does not matter if the line is buoyant.\nThe use of guideline",
"-29.645950942125637"
],
[
"as much as it defines curves by applying a grid close to the body it generally accentuates the wearer's muscular definition.\nA more practical use of fishnet textiles is in high performance next-to-skin apparel used in cold weather outdoor sports, including hiking, hunting, fishing, skiing, and mountaineering. In this context, fishnet is usually knitted from fibers of polypropylene, merino wool, or nylon, and offers a number of benefits over traditional densely knitted base layer apparel. These benefits are related to the presence of large void spaces in the fishnet fabric structure that trap insulating air for warmth in cool conditions, and",
"-29.45505299398792"
],
[
"Wireless mesh network A wireless mesh network (WMN) is a communications network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. It is also a form of wireless ad hoc network.\nA mesh refers to rich interconnection among devices or nodes. Wireless mesh networks often consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and gateways. Mobility of nodes is less frequent. If nodes constantly or frequently move, the mesh spends more time updating routes than delivering data. In a wireless mesh network, topology tends to be more static, so that routes\ncomputation can converge and delivery of data to their destinations can occur.",
"-29.383876665087882"
],
[
"suit. This high-technology swimwear is designed to minimize drag while maximizing support to muscles. Some companies claim that their fabrics reduce drag even more than the water's normal friction against the skin. To do this, they design high-end lines of competitive swimwear that cover the arms and legs. The fabric used for high-technology swimwear is light and water-repellent. The material is often composed of highly stretchy spandex and nylon. High-technology swimwear is often made using bonded seams, to reduce further drag. These suits also provide the compression necessary to increase performance. Regulation After the 2008 Olympic Games, the International Swimming",
"-29.378249205998145"
],
[
"still be lightweight and compactable. Fisherman use netting when trawling, because it is sturdy enough to carry large amounts of weight as fish are trapped, pulled, then lifted out of water. Oftentimes, the filaments that make up the yarn are coated with wax or plastic. This coating adds a waterproof component to the textile that provides even more reliability.\nNet is also used in medical practices to provide fabric insulation and wrapping under an industry standard sling. In the medical practice, netting provides cushion and protection, when used in layers, but still allows the skin to breathe under the fabric. ",
"-29.3412905264413"
],
[
"mesh is woven tightly enough to stop insects from entering but loosely enough to not interfere with ventilation. The frame is usually self-supporting or freestanding although it can be designed to be attached from the top to an alternative support such as tree limbs. Usage Mosquito nets are often used where malaria or other insect-borne diseases are common, especially as a tent-like covering over a bed. For effectiveness, it is important that the netting not have holes or gaps large enough to allow insects to enter. It is also important to 'seal' the net properly because mosquitoes are able to",
"-29.237267754157074"
],
[
"simultaneously, but they are required to use different combinations of upstream and downstream channels as instructed by the headend. Wireless mesh networks Mesh networks are used to extend coverage (to cover entire homes) and for ad-hoc networking (emergency communication). Wireless mesh networks use a mesh topology to provide the desired coverage. The data travels from one node to another until it reaches its destination. In mesh networks using a single frequency, the data is typically store-and-forwarded, with each hop adding a delay. SIC can enable wireless mesh nodes to reuse frequencies so that the data is retransmitted (relayed) as it",
"-29.224313190788962"
],
[
"form that has holes small enough for moisture to escape, but not allow liquid water to intrude. This material is trade named Gore-Tex. Layering Best practice indicates that for extreme conditions, clothing should be layered and loose. Near the core of the body, a soft, wicking layer is best. Wool or silk underwear is preferred. Then, by preference, a knitted layer of wool or synthetic fleece. A massive insulating layer and a windproof layer complete the ensemble. Inner layer Underwear, inner socks, and glove liners are typically thin soft knits of silk, wool, or synthetic. First insulating layer Typically knit",
"-29.2130029827822"
],
[
"fishing and shipping – the main causes of cable damage – are small. Accordingly, a typical cable is a 17-22mm diameter tube, the size of a domestic garden hose. It is composed of optical glass fibres, a copper power conductor and steel wires to add strength, all of which are encased in chemically inert, marine-grade polyethylene. Antifouling agents are not used. Furthermore, the amount of power in a cable is small being around 0.6 to 1 ampere, which is less than a laptop computer. Deep-ocean cables are laid on the seabed surface with minimal disturbance to the benthic environment.\nLaying is",
"-29.08991188276559"
],
[
"the further the net is stretched. Transport Examples include cargo nets and net bags. Some vegetables, like onions, are often shipped in nets. Sports Nets are used in sporting goals and in games such as soccer, basketball, bossaball and ice hockey. A net separates opponents in various net sports such as volleyball, tennis, badminton, and table tennis, where the ball or shuttlecock must go over the net to remain in play. Capturing animals Nets for capturing animals include fishing nets, butterfly nets, cricket nets, bird netting, and trapping nets such as purse and long nets. Some, like mist nets, rocket",
"-28.97068357106764"
],
[
"optimal mesh netting is made from stainless steel filaments the size of three to four human hairs and with holes that are twice as big as the filament. The netting is coated in a chemical that decreases water droplet's contact angle hysteria, which allows for more small droplets to form. This type of netting can capture 10% of the moisture in the air.\nBelow the mesh netting of a fog fence, there is a small trough for the water to be collected in. The water runs from the trough to some type of storage container or irrigation system for use. If",
"-28.9293190305616"
],
[
"cable guides, and clipping or stapling them to walls are other common methods of keeping them organized. Above drop ceilings, hooks or trays are used to organize cables and protect them from electrical interference\nPlanning is especially crucial for cables such as Thicknet that do not bend around corners easily and fiber optic which is very difficult to splice once cut. Cable strain relief Cable strain relief is a mechanical protection for flexible electrical cables, wires, conduits and pneumatic hoses. It is regulated by the European standard EN 62444 (formerly EN 50262.).\nWith a strain relief component, the connection between a flexible",
"-28.9028506691684"
],
[
"High-technology swimwear fabric High-technology swimwear are scientifically advanced materials used for swimwear in competitive water sports such as swimming and triathlon. Materials of this type are normally spandex and nylon composite fabrics with features to reduce drag against the water. The fabrics include features that increase the swimmer's glide through water and reduce the absorption of water by the suit as opposed to regular swimsuits. Purpose and Design High-technology swimwear is designed to reduce drag and improve swimming performance. Speedo claims that their LZR Racer reduced drag or water resistance by 38% compared to a traditional Lycra practice swim",
"-28.801743840333074"
],
[
"NYC Mesh Technology Like many other free community-driven networks, NYC Mesh uses mesh technology to facilitate robustness and resiliency. Additionally, between larger nodes, the project uses the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Nodes are connected via WiFi links similar to those used by wireless routers in homes, but with more powerful routers that are able to function as a backbone, making connections at distances up to a mile. History NYC Mesh was founded in 2012 and was originally based on the Cjdns protocol. \nIn 2015 the project received a grant from ISOC-NY, the New York chapter of the Internet Society.\nNYC Mesh",
"-28.788702984078554"
],
[
"cable gland or fitting that connects a flexible electrical conduit to an enclosure, machine or bulkhead facilitates assembly and prevents liquid or gas ingress. Boats On a boat having an inboard motor that turns a shaft attached to an external propeller, the shaft passes though a stuffing box, also called a \"packing box\" or \"stern gland\" in this application. The stuffing box prevents sea water from entering the boat's hull. In many small fiberglass boats, for example, the stuffing box is mounted inboard near the point the shaft exits the hull. The \"box\" is a cylindrical assembly, typically of bronze,",
"-28.717060124967247"
],
[
"Plankton net Components Towing line and bridles\nThe towing line and bridle is the upper part of a plankton net and used to hold it. The towing lines connected to the triangle bridles are made of nylon rope and can be adjust to a level suitable for the user.\nNylon mesh net \nThe nylon mesh net is the middle part of the plankton net and is used to filter the plankton in the water sample in accordance with the size of the mesh. In addition, its funnel shape makes it possible to effectively capture plankton of various sizes. There are various mesh",
"-28.706033605747507"
],
[
"Strip-built Strip-built, or \"strip-plank epoxy\", is a method of boat building. Also known as cold moulding, the strip-built method is commonly used for canoes and kayaks, but also suitable for larger boats. The process involves securing narrow, flexible strips of wood edge-to-edge around temporary formers. The strips are glued edge-to-edge with epoxy. It is effectively a modern form of carvel which need no caulking and which is both stiffer and more watertight. In a small boat, there will be just one layer of strip-planking, but larger vessels may have two or three layers which, (being a pre-shaped marine ply), forms",
"-28.679175206911168"
],
[
"of the seams are carefully sealed. It is very difficult to locate and repair leaks in the waterproofing system after the building is completed.\nSeveral layers are used for waterproofing in earth shelter construction. The first layer is meant to seal any cracks or pores in the structural materials, also working as an adhesive for the waterproof membrane. The membrane layer is often a thick flexible polyethylene sheeting called EPDM. EPDM is the material usually used in a water garden, pond and swimming pool construction. This material also prevents roots from burrowing through the waterproofing. EPDM",
"-28.644819862383883"
],
[
"Swim ring Structure A swim ring consists of two identically-sized layers of flat plastic, one of which contains a valve. The shape of each layer is like a large circle with a smaller, concentric circle removed. The two layers are joined at their inner and outer edges, sealing an air chamber inside.\nSwim rings (also called \"swimming rings\", \"swimrings\", \"inner tubes\", \"innertubes\", \"rubber rings\" or \"floaty/floaties\") are inflated with air and worn around the user's torso, usually just under the arms or sat upon, to hold the user above the water. They come in a variety of sizes to fit children",
"-28.62016399257118"
],
[
"Cable compound Cable compounds are materials used to prevent the ingress of moisture into telecommunication and power transmission cables. The exact nature of the compound varies depending upon the type of cable in which they are used, but generally they are either soft waxy compounds (for use in copper-wire telecom cables), soft thixotropic gels with a consistency similar to that of hair gel (for use in optical fibre cables), or resin/polymer thickened oils (for use in paper insulated energy cables).\nCable compounds are formulated and manufactured to have very good electrical resistance properties to ensure good functioning of the filled",
"-28.61905154908891"
],
[
"area, or at least delaying the frogmen while they cut through it.\nIt was made by an Israeli company, RBtec Perimeter Security Systems. It is a netting constructed of copper or fiber optic cable, covered in polyethylene electrical insulation. The strands are a sensor cable sensitive to cutting or shape bending so that any frogman attack on the net will be detected. The grid size best suited to deter divers is 250 x 250 mm = 10 x 10 inches but can be modified to any size needed. Testing showed that a diver using bolt cutters could not cut a hole big",
"-28.61095824977383"
],
[
"\nWhen a hole is ripped in a net, there are fewer holes in it than before the net was ripped. However, the stress concentration at the edges of the hole often causes it to tear further, making timely repairs important. Mending nets by hand is still an important skill for those who work with them. Materials Nets may be made using almost any sort of fiber. Traditional net materials varied with what was locally available; early European fishing nets were often made of linen, for instance. Longer-lasting synthetics are now fairly universal. Nylon monofilament nets are transparent, and are therefore",
"-28.53164189273957"
],
[
"between the wire is stuffed with straw, which acts as a wick to help sop up excess urine, preventing the likelihood of odour problems due to incomplete biological absorption of the nitrogen from the urine. The straw-filled wire also enables the pile to be well-aerated whilst acting as a visual screen for the first year’s use.\nThe structure is surrounded by two closely planted rows of osier or biomass willow cuttings; this living wall of willow can then be woven into a hurdle-like structure and its annual growth can be harvested.",
"-28.399067847552942"
],
[
"at any point along its length.\"\nFrom their outset cable protection systems were designed to be simple, effective, and easy to assemble. The systems consisted of a series of half shells which had a convex flange at one end and a larger socket flange at the other allowing the sections to form a flexible universal joint connection between them. Due to the intended use of heavy cast or forged metals they also had the added advantage of increasing the weight of the cable being installed, thus reducing movement on the seabed.\nOver the years innovations have occurred improving the articulation of the",
"-28.226872794388328"
],
[
"ground. They have rope supports connected at the top and staked into the ground to provide stability.\nThe mesh netting is where the condensation of water droplets appear. It consists of filaments knitted together with small openings, coated with a chemical to increase condensation. Shade Cloth is used for mesh structure because it can be locally sourced in underdeveloped countries. The filaments are coated to be hydrophilic and hydrophobic, which attracts and repels water to increase the condensation. This can retrieve 2% of moisture in the air. Efficiency increases as the size of the filaments and the holes decrease. The most",
"-28.164542195387185"
],
[
"Trench shield Trench shields (also called Trench Boxes or Trench Sheets) are steel or aluminum structures used for protecting utility workers while performing their duties within a trench and avoid cave-ins. They are customarily constructed with sidewalls of varying thicknesses held apart by steel or aluminum spreaders. Spreaders can be interchanged to match the width of the trench. The different materials and building designs lead to a variety of depth ratings, i.e. the depth of a trench that the shield can withstand a collapse without buckling. Depth ratings are determined by registered professional engineers.\nA shield",
"-28.162801841739565"
],
[
"Net (device) Definition A net, in its primary meaning, comprises fibers knotted and twisted into a grid-like structure which blocks the passage of large items, while letting small items and fluids pass. It requires less material than something sheet-like, and provides a degree of transparency, as well as flexibility and lightness. History The oldest nets found are from the Mesolithic era, but nets may have existed in the Upper paleolithic era. Nets are typically made of perishable materials and leave little archeological record. Some nets are preserved in ice or bogs, and there are also clay impressions of nets. Making",
"-28.14060567985871"
],
[
"Optical mesh network An optical mesh network is a type of optical telecommunications network employing wired fiber-optic communication or wireless free-space optical communication in a mesh network architecture.\nMost optical mesh networks use fiber-optic communication and are operated by internet service providers in metropolitan and regional but also national and international scenarios. They are faster and less error prone than other network architectures and support backup and recovery plans for established networks in case of any disaster, damage or failure. Currently planned satellite constellations aim to establish optical mesh networks in space by using wireless laser communication. History of transport networks",
"-28.125766450582887"
],
[
"frames with each other to forward to/from a gateway point.\nSince a mesh requires no costly cable constructions for its backhaul network, it reduces total investment cost. Mesh technology’s capabilities can boost extending coverage of service areas easily and flexibly.\nFor further cost reduction, a large-scale high-capacity mesh is desirable. For instance, Kyushu University's Mimo-Mesh Project, based in Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan, has developed and put into use new technology for building high capacity mesh infrastructure. A key component is called IPT, intermittent periodic transmit, a proprietary packet-forwarding scheme that is designed to reduce radio interference in the forwarding path",
"-28.08864964323584"
],
[
"a base layer. A secondary headbox is normally located at a point where the base sheet is completely drained. This is not considered a separate ply because the water action does a good job of intermixing the fibers of the top and bottom layer. Secondary headboxes are common on linerboard.\nA modification to the basic fourdrinier table by adding a second wire on top of the drainage table is known as a top wire former. The bottom and top wires converge and some drainage is up through the top wire. A top wire improves formation and",
"-27.995288751204498"
],
[
"Filled cable In telecommunication, a filled cable is a cable that has a non-hygroscopic material, usually a gel called icky-pick, inside the jacket or sheath.\nThe nonhygroscopic material fills the spaces between the interior parts of the cable, preventing moisture from entering minor leaks in the sheath and migrating inside the cable.\nA metallic cable, such as a coaxial cable or a metal waveguide, filled with a dielectric material, is not considered as a filled cable.",
"-27.962047163193347"
],
[
"Fishnet In the field of textiles, fishnet is hosiery with an open, diamond-shaped knit; it is most often used as a material for stockings, tights, or bodystockings. Fishnet is available in a multitude of colors, although it is most often sported in traditional matte black. Fishnet is commonly worn on the legs and arms by practitioners of goth and punk fashion, but is also commonly worn by the mainstream as a fashion statement. Generally considered to be a sexy garment, it may serve as a component of sexual fetishism. Fishnets are used mostly as a type of undergarment, and in",
"-27.842811183596496"
],
[
"on the rope have the potential to be torn off the rope during storms as water flow increases significantly, or grow away from the rope and form an unmarketable, low value, characteristic doughnut shaped sponge. Differences in sponge growth and health do occur within species characterised by variations in regenerative ability, susceptibility to infection after cutting, hardiness and growth potential. Mesh bag method Lower levels of damage in some species of sponges cultured via mesh bags can lead to higher levels of survival. Growth rates may be decreased as mesh strands on the bags may decrease water flow, limiting food",
"-27.834201991616283"
],
[
"Inner tube water polo Inner tube water polo (ITWP) is a variation of the sport water polo with the important difference that players, excluding the goalkeeper, are required to float in inflatable inner tubes. By floating in an inner tube, players experience less contact and expend less energy than traditional water polo players, not having to tread water. This allows casual players to enjoy water polo without undertaking the intense conditioning required for conventional water polo.\nThis sport is predominantly played at universities by intramural coed teams, but can also be found in recreational adult leagues. The sport's rules",
"-27.794090108538512"
],
[
"width of more than approximately 2 km, those in charge of construction should consider laying an underwater cable as the more practicable solution.\nAlternatively, it might be possible to erect one or more pylons in the water to be crossed. Such crossings can be seen occasionally in North America. They are, however, only used when it is more economical and practical to do so than to lay a cable underwater, such as when the water is not very deep and no large passage heights are needed for vessels. Also, such construction can be very problematic as far as getting legal permission to",
"-27.770286252489313"
],
[
"Cable grommet A cable grommet is a tube or ring through which an electrical cable passes. They are usually made of rubber or metal.\nThe grommet is usually inserted in holes in certain materials in order to protect, improve friction or seal cables passing through it, from a possible mechanical or chemical attack. Grommets used as wire managers for furniture A grommet can be used in furniture to protect wires, cables or cords for computer equipment or other electronic equipment in homes or offices. At the same time, they are used decoratively to embellish the furniture and can be bought in",
"-27.76081280570361"
],
[
"also braided fishing lines, cofilament and thermally fused lines, also known as 'superlines' for their small diameter, lack of stretch, and great strength relative to standard nylon monofilament lines. Braided, thermally fused, and chemically fused varieties of 'superlines' are now readily available. Specialty lines Fly lines consist of a tough braided or monofilament core, wrapped in a thick waterproof plastic sheath, often of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In the case of floating fly lines, the PVC sheath is usually embedded with many 'microballoons' or air bubbles, and may also be impregnated with silicone or other lubricants to give buoyancy and reduce",
"-27.741565215255832"
],
[
"Trunking is closely related to the concept of grading. Trunking allows a group of inlet switches at the same time. Thus the service provider can provide a lesser number of circuits than might otherwise be required, allowing many users to \"share\" a smaller number of connections and achieve capacity savings. Link aggregation In computer networking, port trunking is the use of multiple concurrent network connections to aggregate the link speed of each participating port and cable, also called link aggregation. Such high-bandwidth link groups may be used to interconnect switches or to connect high-performance servers to a network. VLAN In",
"-27.730585485962365"
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[
"breathing and reduce drag underwater snorkels are often short with a wide bore and may include a drain valve. The published rules mandate that they must not be rigid or have any sharp edges or points.\nThe snorkel may accommodate an external mouthguard which may be worn in conjunction with, or instead of, an internal mouthguard. Fins Fins allow the player to swim faster through the water. A wide variety of fins are used in the sport, but large plastic/rubber composite fins or smaller, stiffer fibreglass or carbon fibre fins are commonplace at competitions. As with any of the equipment, the",
"-27.69401949249732"
],
[
"the cabling between nodes. It is built of peer radio devices that do not have to be cabled to a wired port like traditional WLAN access points (AP) do. Mesh infrastructure carries data over large distances by splitting the distance into a series of short hops. Intermediate nodes not only boost the signal, but cooperatively pass data from point A to point B by making forwarding decisions based on their knowledge of the network, i.e. perform routing by first deriving the topology of the network.\nWireless mesh networks is a relatively \"stable-topology\" network except for the occasional failure of nodes or",
"-27.688676823832793"
],
[
"spaces, and when the objective of the dive includes penetration of enclosed spaces, taking precautions such as the use of lights and guidelines, for which specialised training is provided in the standard procedures. The most common form of physical entrapment is getting snagged on ropes, lines or nets, and use of a cutting implement is the standard method of dealing with the problem. The risk of entanglement can be reduced by careful configuration of equipment to minimise those parts which can easily be snagged, and allow easier disentanglement. Other forms of entrapment such as getting wedged into tight spaces can",
"-27.684916793135926"
],
[
"Media meshing Media meshing is the process of using one of the media, such as a blog or a website, to enhance the experience of another medium, such as a newspaper article or a fictional television program. \"Meshing\" may describe activities and motivations of an information receiver which are completely independent of the intentions of the source of that information. \"Meshing\" may also be used to describe the activities of an information provider, who may intentionally encourage consumer engagement by using multiple media or channels of information exchange related to a product or organization, as in an integrated advertising campaign.",
"-27.681039961287752"
],
[
"and other uses of the seabed in the area considered. This task begins with a fact-finding exercise, which is a standard desk study that includes a survey of geological maps, bathymetry, fishing charts, aerial and satellite photography, as well as information from navigation authorities. Submarine pipeline characteristics Submarine pipelines generally vary in diameter from 3 inches (76 mm) for gas lines, to 72 inches (1,800 mm) for high capacity lines. Wall thicknesses typically range from 10 millimetres (0.39 in) to 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The pipe can be designed for fluids at high temperature and pressure. The walls are made from high-yield strength steel,",
"-27.638166638367693"
],
[
"in a cable form factor, also are used as part of high-security fencing. They can be embedded in walls or other structures that need protection. Indicating loops for detecting submarines One of the first means for detecting submerged submarines, first installed by the Royal Navy in 1914, was the effect of their passage over an anti-submarine indicator loop on the bottom of a body of water. A metal object passing over it, such as a submarine, will, even if degaussed, have enough magnetic properties to induce a current in the loop's cable. . In this case, the motion of the",
"-27.63671948420233"
],
[
"Pantyhose Terminology The term \"pantyhose\" originated in the United States and refers to the combination of panties (an American English term) with sheer nylon hosiery. In British English, these garments are called \"sheer tights\". The term tights alone refers to all such garments regardless of whether they are sheer lingerie or sturdy outerwear.\nIn American English, the term \"tights\" typically refers to pantyhose-like garments made from thicker material, which are generally opaque or slightly translucent. Opaque leg wear made of material such as spandex are often worn by both sexes for athletic activities or as utility clothing, and are usually referred",
"-27.635041157889646"
],
[
"thick, underneath a layer of earth 15 to 30 cm thick, makes for an adequate lining system. Typically, porous soils are removed before compacted clay is applied to the bed and sides of a canal.\nAnother simple method of canal lining with soils entails applying a layer of compacted silt on top of the subgrade of the canal. The use of soils as canal linings is efficient for controlling seepage, but not effective against weed growth. Plastic membrane Plastic linings are often referred to as geomembranes or flexible membrane linings. Plastic linings are often covered with soil, rocks, brick, concrete or other",
"-27.588808108630474"
],
[
"Net (textile) Net or netting is any textile in which the yarns are fused, looped or knotted at their intersections, resulting in a fabric with open spaces between the yarns. Net has many uses, and comes in different varieties. Depending on the type of yarn or filament that is used to make up the textile, its characteristics can vary from durable to not durable. Uses People use net for many different occupations. Netting is one of the key components to fishing in mass quantities. This textile is used because of its sturdy yet flexible origin, which can carry weight yet,",
"-27.582234634028282"
],
[
"core, fiberglass or other composite cloth, and the bottom skin, the cross section of which appears as a sandwich with the different layers. Firewire Surfboards pioneered this technology for the mass-produced surfboard market beginning in 2006. Shortboard Since the late 1960s when Gordon Clark found the optimum formulation of urethane foam, many of the surfboards in common use have been of the shortboard variety between 180 to 210 cm (6 to 7 ft) in length with a pointed nose and a rounded or squarish tail, typically with three \"skegs\" (fins) but sometimes with two or as many as five. Surfers generally find",
"-27.567903341987403"
],
[
"Manila rope Applications and properties Manila rope is very durable, flexible, and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in rope, hawsers, ships' lines, and fishing nets. It can be used to make handcrafts like bags, carpets, clothing, furniture, and hangings.\nManila ropes shrink when they become wet. This effect can be advantageous under certain circumstances, but if it is not a wanted feature, it should be well taken into account. Since shrinkage is more pronounced the first time the rope becomes wet, new rope is usually immersed into water and put to dry before use so that",
"-27.563356471946463"
],
[
"a safety device, the mesh must be protected from damage due to being dropped or struck by another object, and the mesh must be capable of rigidly retaining its shape during the propagation of a flame front. Any shifting of the individual wires that make up the mesh can create an opening large enough to allow the flame to penetrate and spread beyond the barrier.\nOn a fuel storage vent, flame arresters also serve a secondary purpose of allowing air pressure to equalize inside the tank when fuel is added or removed, while also preventing insects from flying or crawling into",
"-27.560583697166294"
],
[
"for tubing, starting in Phoenicia and proceeding eastward. As in all watersports tubers should wear appropriate safety gear such as life vests, protective water shoes and helmets. Whitewater tubing can be fun and exhilarating, the size of the tube allows a tuber to ride the river in an unencumbered manner not found in rafting or kayaking. Tubers can employ the use of such items as dry boxes and mesh bags to carry small personal items and pack out trash, cans and bottles from their trip.\nPopular riverside tube rentals normally warn against glass due to riverside dangers. Some law enforcement",
"-27.512467964319512"
],
[
"Meshblock Mesh blocks or meshblocks are a small geographic unit used in the census of several countries. New Zealand New Zealand's countrywide meshblock framework was first set up in 1976, although the term dates back to at least the 1916 Census. The meshblock pattern is updated each year. It comprised 41,376 meshblocks at the 2006 Census, increasing to 46,637 meshblocks in 2013.\nMeshblocks are defined by Statistics New Zealand as being \"the smallest geographic unit for which statistical data is collected and processed by Statistics New Zealand\". It is a defined area, varying in size from part of a city block",
"-27.479059359873645"
],
[
"the sand column, a layer of gravel prevents sand from entering the drainage layer and clogging the outlet tube. Below the separating layer is the drainage layer consisting of coarser gravel that prevents clogging near the base of the outlet tube. During the run The high water level (hydraulic head) in the inlet reservoir zone pushes the water through the diffuser and filter, then decreases as water flows evenly through the sand. The flow rate slows because there is less pressure to force the water through the filter. The inlet water contains dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and contaminants. It provides the",
"-27.47412918518603"
],
[
"assist their glide through the water thus gaining a speed advantage.\nUnlike regular swimsuits, which are designed mainly for the aesthetic appearances, swimsuits designed to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist the athlete in swim competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the efficiency of the swimmer's forward motion. The tight fits allow for easy movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration, thus reducing drag. This also reduces the possibility that a high forwards dive will remove a divers swimwear. Starting around 2000, in an effort to improve the effectiveness of the swimsuits, engineers have",
"-27.470392623683438"
],
[
"allows the algae to grow faster and absorb more nutrients without dying and losing attachment to the screen. This is fortunate because green hair algae is the exact type of algae that grows automatically in a properly constructed algae scrubber.\nSome models also use up-flowing air bubbles. This version, which is basically the exact opposite of the waterfall, allows the algae scrubber to be placed underwater in the aquarium, sump or pond, instead of above it. This greatly simplifies construction, since the device does not need to be waterproof, and it allows placement of the scrubber into tight areas where there",
"-27.428301394931623"
],
[
"it was found that the shield was easier to steer if some mud was taken in through holes at the front, since the mud had the consistency of toothpaste. After the tubes had been excavated, they were lined with 2.5-foot-wide (0.76 m) segmental cast-iron rings, each weighing 22 tons. The segments were bolted together and lined with 22-inch (56 cm) of concrete. The two ends of the northern tube under the river met in September 1906; at that time it was the longest underwater tunnel in the world.\nMeanwhile, the John Shields Construction Company had begun in 1905 to bore through Bergen Hill,",
"-27.421581961680204"
],
[
"submarine cables under the ocean for power transmission. Construction Like other power cables, high-voltage cables have the structural elements of one or more conductors, insulation, and a protective jacket. High-voltage cables differ from lower-voltage cables in that they have additional internal layers in the insulation jacket to control the electric field around the conductor.\nFor circuits operating at or above 2,000 volts between conductors, a conductive shield may surround each insulated conductor. This equalizes electrical stress on the cable insulation. This technique was patented by Martin Hochstadter in 1916; the shield is sometimes called a Hochstadter shield. The individual conductor shields",
"-27.41692421643529"
],
[
"However tubing is not flexible and requires special tools to bend and shape. \nLitz wire is another method, which employs a stranded wire with individually insulated conductors (forming a bundle). Each thin conductor is less than a skin-depth, so an individual strand does not suffer an appreciable skin effect loss. The strands must be insulated from each other—otherwise all the wires in the bundle would short together, behave like a single large wire, and still have skin effect problems. Furthermore, the strands cannot occupy the same radial position in the bundle over long distances: the electromagnetic effects that cause the",
"-27.383096538484097"
],
[
"under-suit, or greatly reduce the thickness needed for the under-fabric, but the bubbles in the neoprene are compressed and the insulation of the suit decreases with depth in the same way as for a wetsuit. Crushed neoprene provides the flexibility of neoprene with the consistent buoyancy and insulation of membrane suits. A neoprene wet suit can also be worn under a membrane dry suit for extra protection against condensation and leaks, but it will compress with depth as will any closed cell suit.\nUndersuits used for surface watersports are generally thinner than those used for diving, and are commonly made from",
"-27.374098784523085"
],
[
"fathoms in length are themselves tightly woven in a direction counter to the weave, or twist, of the rope and clamped together over intervals to provide one strong length of rope that is effectively waterproof. The three ropes are so tightly wound counter to the weave of the constituent ropes that the fibers are compressed and the individual weaves stressed, sealing out the water and resulting in a length of about 100 fathoms, the UK traditional definition of cable length. Using a cable, the raising of the anchor, or any activity involving submerging the cable, is not more",
"-27.3612909796866"
],
[
"pencil attached to a plastic board by a short tether, and a way to attach these to a convenient point on the diver's equipment. Slates are particularly useful for information that must be written down prior to a dive and referenced during the dive: elements of the dive plan (depths, durations, decompression schedule) or a drawn map of the dive area. Buddy lines A buddy line is a line or strap physically tethering two scuba divers together underwater to avoid separation in low visibility conditions. A buddy line is usually a short length of about two meters with a",
"-27.31807645363733"
],
[
"Barriers can be in the form of different configurations such as, sleeving, glovebags, containment tents, catch containments, bags, covers and protective clothing.\nSleeving provided on rolls is often cut to length and used to cover radioactive material to prevent the spread of contamination during handling. Typically made of PVC or Polyurethane film formed into a flexible tube, sleeving can cover pipes, hoses, and cables to provide a protective layer. To handle odd-sized objects, adequately sized sleeving is opened so an object can be inserted into the tube which is then twisted to enclose the item at both ends. Tape can be",
"-27.31188500591088"
],
[
"to drainage and automatic pool covers, there are a number of ways to remove humidity in the air that is present with any wet indoor environment. Efficient dehumidification in the indoor pool environment prevents structural damage, lowers energy costs in addition to improving the room's climate to make it a comfortable swimming environment. Other uses Swimming pools are also used for events such as synchronized swimming, water polo, canoe polo and underwater sports such as underwater hockey, underwater rugby, finswimming and sport diving as well as for teaching diving, lifesaving and scuba diving techniques. They have also been used for",
"-27.304323271731846"
],
[
"the water.\nMany public swimming pools are rectangles 25 m or 50 m long, but they can be any size and shape. There are also elaborate pools with artificial waterfalls, fountains, splash pads, wave machines, varying depths of water, bridges, and island bars.\nSome swimming facilities have lockers for clothing and other belongings. The lockers can require a coin to be inserted in a slot, either as deposit or payment. There are usually showers - sometimes mandatory - before and/or after swimming. There are often also lifeguards to ensure the safety of users.\nWading or paddling pools are shallow bodies of water intended for use",
"-27.28845997618191"
],
[
"for the fibre cells' evolutionary origin from tracheids exists. During evolution the strength of the tracheid cell walls was enhanced, the ability to conduct water was lost and the size of the pits was reduced. Fibers that do not belong to the xylem are bast (outside the ring of cambium) and such fibers that are arranged in characteristic patterns at different sites of the shoot.\nThe term \"sclerenchyma\" (originally Sclerenchyma) was introduced by Mettenius in 1865.",
"-27.287612093088683"
],
[
"use nylon. The net will be black in color or occasionally green. The mesh size of the net will be 50mm and will commonly have a twine diameter ranging from 1.8mm – 3.0mm. Cricket nets are supplied from a knotless or knotted netting – as a rule of thumb knotted nets are considered to be superior. It is important to understand that twine thickness of knotted and knotless nets are not directly comparable as breaking strengths of knotted nets are higher than knotless. A good standard cricket net will be UV stabilized and rot proof. For people who construct their",
"-27.281665239483118"
],
[
"is pulled out as a string. By measuring the resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness. Cable construction In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resin coating and an additional buffer layer, which may be further surrounded by a jacket layer, usually plastic. These layers add strength to the fiber but do not contribute to its optical wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing (\"dark\") glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between",
"-27.254930621711537"
],
[
"loose-tube construction the fiber is laid helically into semi-rigid tubes, allowing the cable to stretch without stretching the fiber itself. This protects the fiber from tension during laying and due to temperature changes. Loose-tube fiber may be \"dry block\" or gel-filled. Dry block offers less protection to the fibers than gel-filled, but costs considerably less. Instead of a loose tube, the fiber may be embedded in a heavy polymer jacket, commonly called \"tight buffer\" construction. Tight buffer cables are offered for a variety of applications, but the two most common are \"Breakout\" and \"Distribution\". Breakout cables normally contain a ripcord,",
"-27.236274505004985"
],
[
"should not be confused with a shore. While they may serve the same function, trench shoring is a different physical application that holds up the walls of a trench to prevent collapse.\nIn the US, use of a trench shield is governed by OSHA 29 CFR Part 1926.650-.652 Subpart P-Excavations",
"-27.203515749424696"
],
[
"Canal lining Canal lining is the process of reducing seepage loss of irrigation water by adding an impermeable layer to the edges of the trench. Seepage can result in losses of 30 to 50 percent of irrigation water from canals, so adding lining can make irrigation systems more efficient. Canal linings are also used to prevent weed growth, which can spread throughout an irrigation system and reduce water flow. Lining a canal can also prevent waterlogging around low-lying areas of the canal.\nBy making a canal less permeable, the water velocity increases resulting in a greater overall discharge. Increased velocity also",
"-27.19049192382954"
],
[
"light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications.\n\nFor indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a bundle of flexible fibrous polymer strength members like aramid (e.g. Twaron or Kevlar), in a lightweight plastic cover to form a simple cable. Each end of the cable may be terminated with a specialized optical fiber connector to allow it to be easily connected and disconnected from transmitting and receiving equipment. \nFor use in more strenuous environments, a much more robust cable construction is required. In",
"-27.184617184946546"
],
[
"to reach the ground, before travelling at least 20 metres laterally, which provides a substantial practise enclosure. Indoors nets are commonly multi lane, with 2 or 4 bay nets being particularly common. Unlike outdoor cricket nets where the netting is black, indoor nets tend to be white. They have a separate canvas screen which enclose the area immediately surrounding the batsman and rise to a height of 3 metres. The purpose of this is twofold; the netting to the sides and rear of the batsman has by far the highest work rate, canvas is significantly more durable to tradition mesh",
"-27.168982694027363"
],
[
"same range of movement as the suit itself, and together should allow the diver to bend, squat, kneel, climb a ladder, fin and reach all critical parts of the diving equipment. Underwear which is flexible and stretches, particularly at the joints, will allow the diver more freedom of movement, and is less likely to chafe, and materials which resist compaction under light pressure will maintain a more even thickness in use, which will provide better insulation for the same overall volume.\nFor cold-water use, especially diving under ice, the user will usually wear a thick undersuit in a membrane dry suit.",
"-27.158525587175973"
],
[
"aesthetic appearances, swimsuits designed to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist the athlete in swim competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the efficiency of the swimmer's forward motion. The tight fits allow for easy movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration, thus reducing drag. This also reduces the possibility that a high forwards dive will remove a divers swimwear. Starting around 2000, in an effort to improve the effectiveness of the swimsuits, engineers have taken to designing them to replicate the skin of sea-based animals, sharks in particular.\nIn July 2009, FINA voted to",
"-27.125593839096837"
],
[
"Limber hole A limber hole is a drain hole through a frame or other structural member of a boat designed to prevent water from accumulating against one side of the frame, and allowing it to drain toward the bilge. Limber holes are common in the bilges of wooden boats. The term may be extended to cover drain holes in floors. Limber holes are created in between bulkheads so that one compartment does not fill with water. The limber holes allow water to drain into the lowest part of the bilge so that it can be pumped out",
"-27.070780322887003"
],
[
"nets; monofilament is almost invisible underwater. Divers often carry a net cutter. This is a small handheld tool carried by scuba divers to extricate themselves if trapped by a fishing net or fishing line. It has a small sharp blade such as a replaceable scalpel blade inside the small notch. There is a small hole at the other end to for a lanyard to tether the cutter to the diver.",
"-27.063138894038275"
],
[
"integrated into a swimming or diving mask. The integrated version is only suitable for surface snorkeling, while the separate device may also be used for underwater activities such as spearfishing, freediving, finswimming, underwater hockey, underwater rugby and for surface breathing with scuba equipment. A swimmer's snorkel is a tube bent into a shape often resembling the letter \"L\" or \"J\", fitted with a mouthpiece at the lower end and constructed of light metal, rubber or plastic. The snorkel may come with a rubber loop or a plastic clip enabling the snorkel to be attached to the outside of the head",
"-27.05464693621616"
],
[
"by small children, usually in parks. Concrete wading pools come in many shapes, traditionally rectangle, square or circle. Some are filled and drained daily due to lack of a filter system. Staff chlorinate the water to ensure health and safety standards. Exercise pools In the last two decades, a new style of pool has gained popularity. These consist of a small vessel (usually about 2.5 × 5 m) in which the swimmer swims in place, either against the push of an artificially generated water current or against the pull of restraining devices. These pools have several names, such as swim",
"-27.033405017311452"
],
[
"wells linked at the bottom. The technique involves the dry cutting with temporary sheathing pipes, of aligned drainage wells, with a diameter of 1200–1500 mm., positioned at an interaxis of 6–8 m., their bottoms linked together to a bottom tube for the discharge of drained water. In this way the water discharge takes place passively, due to gravity by perforated pipes with mini-tubes, positioned at the bottom of the wells themselves. The linking pipes, generally made of steel, are blind in the linking length and perforated or windowed in the length corresponding to the well. The wells have a concrete bung",
"-27.030643111793324"
],
[
"is used in a wide variety of clothing products, such as footwear, gloves, hats, and coats. It became popular in outerwear jackets as early as 1985. The fibers are thinner in diameter than polyester fibres, so the material is used as a waterproof synthetic alternative to down.\nIn 2015 Thinsulate was named as receipt of a ISPO Award as a Top 10 Insulation.",
"-27.02443801763002"
],
[
"Slurry wall Construction While a trench is excavated to create a form for a wall, it is simultaneously filled with slurry (usually a mixture of bentonite and water). The dense but liquid slurry prevents the trench from collapsing by providing outward pressure, which balances the inward hydraulic forces and also retards water flow into the trench.\nSlurry walls are typically constructed by starting with a set of guide walls, typically 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) deep and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. The guide walls are constructed on the ground surface to outline the desired slurry trench and guide the excavation",
"-27.01676781460992"
],
[
"Fishing net A fishing net is a net used for fishing. Nets are devices made from fibers woven in a grid-like structure. Some fishing nets are also called fish traps, for example fyke nets. Fishing nets are usually meshes formed by knotting a relatively thin thread. Early nets were woven from grasses, flaxes and other fibrous plant material. Later cotton was used. Modern nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon, although nets of organic polyamides such as wool or silk thread were common until recently and are still used. Weights and anchors The Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, c. 5500 BC to",
"-26.951940887374803"
],
[
"consists of \"marbles or other loose independent filling pieces\" sized to allow placement within the cells of a wire mesh. The purpose of the invention is described as providing \"a convenient and economical means of lettering, ornamenting, or filling\" the wire mesh.\nCurrent products on the market include privacy slats that weave through the fence, plastic-shaped cups designed to clip into open cells, and two-part interlocking units which attach together at the crossover of fence wires.",
"-26.93625879054889"
],
[
"construction, lining of walls is provided to prevent collapsing of wall due to loose or soft soil. While an average suranga is 26 metres (85 ft) meters deep, surangas up to 250 metres (820 ft) meters deep have also been recorded. Air shafts are constructed in longer surangas to supply fresh air and to expel poisonous gases.\nThe surangas can be independent or can be connected with each other. The water can then be collected by using a temporary small barrier or dam with mud, which then can flow through a plastic or bamboo pipe into a storage pit or tank. After",
"-26.929363498929888"
],
[
"an overhead environment may not be obvious. Guidelines are also useful in the event of silt out.\nDistance lines are wound on to a spool or a reel. The length of the distance line used is dependent on the plan for the dive. An open water diver using the distance line only for a surface marker buoy may only need 50 metres / 165 feet, whereas a cave diver may use multiple reels of lengths from 50 ft (15 m) to 1000+ ft (300 m).\nReels for distance lines may have a locking mechanism, ratchet or adjustable drag to control deployment of the line and a",
"-26.92677085226751"
],
[
"Porocyte Porocytes are tubular cells which make up the pores of a sponge known as ostia. Description Covering the sponge is a layer of cells known as the pinacoderm, which is composed of pinacocytes. In a sponge, pinacocytes are a thin, elastic layer which keeps water out. Between the pinacocytes, there are the porocytes that allow water into the sponge. Myocytes are small muscular cells that open and close the porocytes. They also form a circular ring around the osculum and help in closing and opening of it. Once through the pores, water travels down canals. The opening to a",
"-26.921247916354332"
],
[
"they help avoid water infiltration into the subfloor, and are most common in wetrooms. Sheet flooring may also be used with conventional skirting board, in imitation of rigid flooring. A concealed bathtub floor may be hidden behind skirting board (if the lower part of the back of the skirting board is cut away) or under a built-in cabinet. This also decreases the precision with which the sheet must be cut.\nThe flooring may be glued down over its entire area, glued down only around the edges, or unglued, depending on the area. Depending on the size of the room and sheet,",
"-26.900769056286663"
],
[
"Swimming pool A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or paddling pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground (in-ground pools) or built above ground (as a freestanding construction or as part of a building or other larger structure), and are also a common feature aboard ocean-liners and cruise ships. In-ground pools are most commonly constructed from materials such as concrete, natural stone, metal, plastic, or fiberglass, and can be of a custom size and shape or built to a standardized size, the largest of which",
"-26.859914743807167"
],
[
"second mesh rubbing against the first causes the droplets to coalesce and run to the bottom of the meshes, where the water may be collected and led away. Parts of Fog Collector The fog collector is made up of three major parts: the frame, the mesh netting, and the trough or basin.\nThe frame supports the mesh netting and can be made from a wide array of materials from stainless steel poles to bamboo. The frame can vary in shape. Proposed geometries include linear, similar to a fence and cylindrical. Linear frames are rectangles with the vertical endpoints embedded into the",
"-26.851013977313414"
],
[
"shallow water. Oxygen cycle devices are much liked by combat divers and underwater photographers, as they make far fewer bubbles than aqualung-type (open circuit) sets, and those bubbles could betray the diver.\nAnother operational area is fire protection, for instance in chemical industry or rescue in the mining industry, where need for a long use duration forbids use of compressed air sets. Advancements in rebreather design include special more-or-less complex gas proportioning and control devices, allowing use even deeper and even longer, for work divers, than emergency breathing sets and the type of sport diving called technical diving. Today's escape sets",
"-26.83952731799218"
],
[
"hydraulic lines through machine, panel or enclosure walls, cable glands, self-sealing grommets or gland plates can be used to seal the cut-outs required for passing the cables through. This protects the inside of an enclosure or machine from dirt, dust or liquids.\nCable glands and self-sealing grommets are usually designed for entering single or just a few cables. By utilising a gland plate, many cables with different diameters can be routed. Depending on the type, very high cable densities or ingress protection classes up to IP66/IP68 (according to IEC 60529) can be achieved. Split cable entry systems for cables with connectors",
"-26.83602330996655"
],
[
"rubber improved the impermeability of cables to water.\nMany early cables suffered from attack by sealife. The insulation could be eaten, for instance, by species of Teredo (shipworm) and Xylophaga. Hemp laid between the steel wire armouring gave pests a route to eat their way in. Damaged armouring, which was not uncommon, also provided an entrance. Cases of sharks biting cables and attacks by sawfish have been recorded. In one case in 1873, a whale damaged the Persian Gulf Cable between Karachi and Gwadar. The whale was apparently attempting to use the cable to clean off",
"-26.809503190612304"
]
] |
5wd0d9 | Why is a slice of pickle usually served on the side with sandwiches at restaurants? | [
"Highly vinegared pickles are traditionally served with meats that have a high fat content. The vinegar cuts through the rich, heavy taste of the fat, balancing the whole thing. These days not all sandwiches use fatty meats, but that is how the tradition started: the pickle as pleasant counter to the fatty meat in the sandwich.",
"It's a palate cleanser - \"a neutral flavored element in food that enables to clear the palate from one flavor to another. Some widely used palate cleansers are sorbet, bread, apple slices, and pickles.\" ( URL_0 ) I'd assume the pickle was chosen based on how the flavor characteristics differ from the entree.",
"In the past (not anymore) pickles were made in a way that they contained probiotics (similar to kim chi or yogurt) So, people would put pickles in sandwiches with fatty meat (like a cuban sandwich) and it would help people to digest the fat from the meat. Edit: link with information about pickle history URL_0 ",
"I used to go to a restaurant in Orlando, FL (think pre-Disney small town, although it was the 80's) named Ronnie's. The waitresses were ALL over 70, dressed in strange 60's uniforms. Beautiful kosher deli food served in a diner style. On the table were: Small dill gherkins, medium dill pickles, mustard, and pickled onions. My stomach still grumbles that they're gone. Pickles on the side seem natural.",
"They are a cheap garnish URL_0 . And also because pickles are delicious.",
"Apparently this is not done everywhere. My friend from Australia recently asked me why she got a pickle with her sandwich, as she was not accustomed to the practice.",
"Because they want the pickle juice to get all over the other food, completely ruining the entire meal"
] | [
[
"Mixed pickle Mixed pickles are pickles made from a variety of vegetables mixed in the same pickling process. Mixed pickles are eaten much like other pickles: in small amounts to add flavor and to accent a meal. \nMixed pickles occur in many different world cuisines.\nIn U.S. cuisine, a mixed pickle consists of vegetables typically including cucumbers, cauliflower, cut large onions, and bell peppers, as well as spices like garlic, dill, allspice, and chili peppers, suspended in vinegar. Mixed pickles may also be categorized as sweet or sour depending on the addition of a sweetening agent like sugar.\nIn British cuisine, mixed",
"-36.60533823084552"
],
[
"horizontal slice. The slices range from 3 mm to 6 mm [1/4 to 1/8 inches] thick. This style of bagel was popularized by the St. Louis Bread Company, now known as Panera Bread. Generally, the bagels are sliced into eight pieces using a bread slicer, which produces characteristically precise cuts (the bagel is not torn or crushed while slicing). This particular method of preparation increases the surface area available for spreads (e.g., cream cheese, butter). However, it decreases the portability of the bagel and prevents formation of sandwiches. Other bagel styles As suggested above, other bagel styles can be found",
"-35.67851693049306"
],
[
"Fish slice (kitchen utensil) In British English, a fish slice is a kitchen tool with a wide flat blade with long holes in it, used for lifting and turning food while cooking. In American English, this is known as spatula. \nIt was originally a serving implement for fish, usually made of silver, antique examples of which commonly appear at auction. Fish slices were made of silver or Sheffield plate rather than steel to avoid the possibility of tainting the taste of the fish due a reaction between the fish and its lemon seasoning and the steel. After 1745, their",
"-35.01495339127723"
],
[
"of them are baguette bread sandwiches with different kinds of fillings such as \"jambon/beurre\" (ham with butter), \"jambon/fromage\" (ham with cheese) or \"poulet/crudités\" (chicken with vegetables).\nCrêpes are another common French street food. A crêpe complète containing ham, shredded cheese, and an egg provides a filling lunch. Sweet crêpes or waffles are sold with Nutella and banana or Grand Marnier and sugar.\nOther street foods include pizza, kebab-type sandwiches and panini, a grilled and pressed sandwich.\nDuring the winter, roasted chestnuts can be bought. Germany Bavarian Fleischkäse (also called Leberkäse), is similar to meatloaf, sliced to the thickness of a finger and generally",
"-34.70585064351326"
],
[
"pickles typically include small whole onions, gherkins, and cauliflower. Some specific kinds of British mixed pickle are Branston pickle (more properly termed a relish), and piccalilli (the latter also found in U.S. cuisine).\nIn Indian cuisine, a mixed Indian pickle is more likely to contain fruits (for example, mangos and limes) as well as vegetables. Indian pickle is prepared using oil, unlike western pickles, and is more likely to use lemon juice or some other acid as a souring agent instead of vinegar. There are regional variations in spicing and in the ingredients.\nRecipes for mixed pickles can also be found in",
"-34.69301210435515"
],
[
"of the Jalapeño and serrano varieties, pickled with onions, carrots and herbs form common condiments. Various pickled vegetables, fish, or eggs may make a side dish to a Canadian lunch or dinner. Popular pickles in the Pacific Northwest include pickled asparagus and green beans. Pickled fruits like blueberries and early green strawberries are paired with meat dishes in restaurants. \nIn some parts of the United States, pickles with Kool-Aid are a popular food for children.\nIn the United States, National Pickle Day is recognized as a food \"holiday\" every year on November 14. Mexico, Central America, and South America In",
"-34.435557626071386"
],
[
"pickles (in Mandarin Chinese: 咸菜 xiáncài / 榨菜 zhàcài) made with bailuobo, for example \"sour-sweet cut bailuobo\" (酸甜白蘿蔔塊), \"Spicy bailuobo\" (麻辣白蘿蔔), \"bailuobo zhacai\" (白蘿蔔榨菜), etc.\nIn Vietnamese cuisine, sweet and sour pickled daikon and carrots (củ cải cà rốt chua or đồ chua) are a common condiment in bánh mì sandwiches.\nIn the Philippines, the sour stew sinigang may include daikon.\nIn Pakistani cuisine, the young leaves of the daikon plant are boiled and flash fried with a mixture of heated oil, garlic, ginger, red chili, and a variety of spices. The radish is eaten as a fresh salad often seasoned with either",
"-34.33126940167858"
],
[
"pizzerias compete, vying to provide \"best\" slice in the city.\nThe dish is common in some areas of the Balkans, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia. In Bulgaria, it is a common street food that is purveyed by street vendors and street pizza booths.\nPizza by the slice is also manufactured as a frozen food, and is sometimes packaged in individual serving portions. One example is the Red Baron \"by the slice\" brand, which is a microwaveable product manufactured by Schwan's Company. Jumbo slice The jumbo slice is a large slice of New York-style pizza that is often",
"-34.328922098648036"
],
[
"a mixture of pickled peppers, celery and olives, is a popular condiment in Chicago and other cities with large Italian-American populations, and is often consumed with Italian beef sandwiches. Pickled eggs are common in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Pickled herring is available in the Upper Midwest. Pennsylvania Dutch Country has a strong tradition of pickled foods, including chow-chow and red beet eggs. In the Southern United States, pickled okra and watermelon rind are popular, as are deep-fried pickles and pickled pig's feet, pickled chicken eggs, pickled quail eggs, pickled garden vegetables and pickled sausage. In Mexico, chili peppers, particularly",
"-34.174165868178534"
],
[
"Braciola Cut of meat Braciola may refer to an Italian dish, consisting of slices of meat that are pan-fried or grilled, often in their own juice or in a small amount of light olive oil. They are different from the finer cut fettine (\"small/thin slices\"), which never have bone and are generally thinner. Involtini In Sicilian cuisine, Italian-American cuisine and Italian Australian cuisine, braciola (plural braciole) are thin slices of meat (typically pork, chicken, beef, or swordfish) that are rolled as a roulade (this category of rolled food is known as involtini in Italian) with cheese and bread crumbs and",
"-34.026984169948264"
],
[
"usually deep-fried from a flour dough, and typically either ring-shaped or without a hole and often filled.\nA sandwich is a food item commonly consisting of two or more slices of bread, with one or more fillings between them. Sandwiches are a widely popular type of lunch food, typically taken to work, school, or picnics to be eaten as part of a packed lunch. The bread can be used as it is, or it can be coated with any condiments to enhance flavor and texture. They are also widely sold in restaurants and cafes, served hot or cold.",
"-34.01557692105416"
],
[
"roll which is cut in half to make sandwiches. They do not usually contain any sort of dried fruit. They can be made with either white, brown, wholemeal, or Granary flour (a brand of flour produced by Hovis, made by malting wheat, crushing the grains, roasting them, and then mixing them with brown flour). A favourite way to eat them is to slice them into fingers, toast and then spread with butter and Bovril or Marmite. Scotland The Tunnock's Teacake, made in Scotland but popular throughout the UK, is a chocolate-coated marshmallow with a round biscuit base. The dome comprises",
"-34.01280638005119"
],
[
"franchisees. The chopped sirloin sandwiches are distinctive for being served on rye buns. Frisch's \"Filet de Sole\" fish sandwich was also widely adopted by other Big Boy franchises. Where Bob Wian called a sandwich with french fries and salad item a \"combination plate\", Frisch's began calling it a \"platter\" such as a Big Boy Platter, followed by several other Big Boy chains. Recent history In 1983, Frisch's introduced drive-thru service at many restaurants, although carhops were retained at a few Cincinnati locations. It added the soup and salad bar, and also remodeled, or demolished and completely rebuild older units. Frisch's",
"-34.00204710122489"
],
[
"Due to its ease of preparation and its minimal costs, the sandwich was also widely served in the mess halls and cafeterias of the mid-1900s.\nThis style of sandwich often makes use of leftovers from a previous meal. Substituting turkey for the chicken would make a hot turkey sandwich and substituting roast beef makes a variety of the roast beef sandwich. Pepito The pepito is a sandwich that is prepared with chicken or beef, beans or refried beans and a roll or bun as primary ingredients. It is a common street food in Mexico and Venezuela. Shredded chicken sandwich Found in",
"-33.888079191034194"
],
[
"Spiral vegetable slicer Spiral vegetable slicers (also known as spiralizers) are kitchen appliances used for cutting vegetables, such as zucchinis (to make zoodles), potatoes, cucumbers, carrots, apples, parsnips, and beetroots, into linguine-like strands which can be used as an alternative to pasta. Popularity According to Good Housekeeping and US News, spiralizers were a hot trending item as of September 2014. The LA Times stated that spiralizers became popular in the spring of 2014. Spiralizers are especially popular among people following the Paleo diet, other low-carb diets, and raw vegans. Functionality Spiralizers usually contain three blades: a round blade for spaghetti,",
"-33.840551592584234"
],
[
"Tomato slicer A tomato slicer is an apparatus designed to slice tomatoes and other soft fruits and vegetables.\nTomato slicers have been sold since the 1950s. A tomato slicer was patented in the United States in 1968, by Clayton Giangiulio.",
"-33.822909988230094"
],
[
"Unlike the round pizza normally found in restaurants, which originated in Naples as a street food itself, it is generally baked on large square trays, and square or rectangular portions are sold. It usually has quite a thick base, again unlike the traditional Italian restaurant pizza.\nToppings include margherita, mushrooms, Italian sausage, ham, and vegetables.\nOther street foods are the Genoese focaccia di recco (a double layer of thin dough filled with quark cheese and baked); farinata (a thin, baked chickpea-flour batter, topped with salt, pepper and olive oil), which is often served with focaccia (a thin bread, also with salt and",
"-33.81312887603417"
],
[
"Chopt Fare No sugar is used in any of their salad dressings. Agave nectar and honey are used as replacements in sweet dressings. Besides salads, \"salad sandwiches\" are also purveyed, which are essentially the salads wrapped in tortillas. Food Prep A long bar is present at every restaurant, with three stations occupying the bar. The first is where customers order their salad or salad-sandwich. The second is where the food is chopped with a mezzaluna knife then dressed, and the third is the cashier, where customers go to pay.",
"-33.78641583964054"
],
[
"and beef\", and \"pier and steer\". Rounding out an American steak dinner is some sort of bread, usually a dinner roll.\nSpecial steak knives are provided, which are usually serrated, though straight blades also work; they also often have wooden handles. Prepared condiments known as steak sauces are generally on the table in steakhouses. Tenderized round or sirloin steaks, breaded, and pan-fried or deep-fried, are called chicken fried or country fried steaks, respectively. An iconic specialty of Philadelphia is the Philly Cheesesteak, composed of thinly sliced ribeye or other tender cuts, cooked on a hot griddle and shredded slightly,",
"-33.74347398278769"
],
[
"It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and mezze are served as side dishes to the main meal. The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with the mezze and salad. The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also popular) to make maraqa, which is served with rice. Most households add bread. Drinks are not necessarily served with",
"-33.732488246110734"
],
[
"meat. Crackers were substituted for bread because they could last longer in grocery coolers. The cheese was provided by Kraft when Oscar Mayer merged with Kraft in 1988. The design of the package was based on the look of an American TV dinner.\nThe term Lunchables emerged from a list of possible names for the prepackaged meal that included, among others: On-Trays, Crackerwiches, Mini Meals, Lunch Kits, Snackables, Square Meals, Walk Meals, Go-Packs, and Fun Mealz. Lunchables combinations Lunchables offers 26 different varieties of meal combinations, which include crackers, pizzas, chicken nuggets, small hot dogs, small burgers, nachos, subs, and wraps.",
"-33.70904786477331"
],
[
"the plate. When served as sandwiches, they are known as emparedado de milanesa or sandwich de milanesa when tomatoes, onions, lettuce, ketchup and/or American cheese (known as queso amarillo i.e. yellow cheese). Sandwich bread and pan flauta (a Panamanian type of baguette that is thicker and softer) are the types used to make these sandwiches. Panado In Portugal, breaded cutlet is called bife panado or just panado (which means \"breaded\" in Portuguese). Different varieties of panado can be made with chicken (panado de frango), turkey (panado de peru), pork (costeleta panada for pork chop, febra panada for pork without bone),",
"-33.69966958242003"
],
[
"meat patties are superficially cooked, the edges browned with a torch and the meat made to look more appetizing with a colorant. The edges of melted cheese slices may be brushed with household cleaner to make them look freshly melted longer. Condiments such as mayonnaise are applied to the edges with an applicator bottle. Steam is normally used to suggest the burger is hot.\nSandwiches are assembled using similar techniques. Wet paper towels are used to prevent the bread from drying out. If a half sandwich is to be depicted, the bread and the components are individually sliced with scissors and",
"-33.68276141278329"
],
[
"of the pan, often including other ingredients such as butter, shallots, and/or Dijon mustard. Common side dishes to steak au poivre are various forms of mashed potatoes and pommes frites (small fried shoestring potatoes). Steak au poivre may be found in traditional French restaurants in most urban areas.",
"-33.68155575846322"
],
[
"a luxury and was only served on holidays.\nSomeone came up with a strategy: cut the whole chicken into thin slices and sell it by slice. This strategy proved to be very effective, and \"chicken slices\" gained a good reputation. However, another problem occurred: a kitchen knife could not cut a whole chicken into slices evenly, and customers are often picky when making purchases. However, it was found that beating the chicken into pieces with a giant stick would solve this problem. At the same time, juice broth infuses into the chicken and adds flavor. When preparing the dish, one holds",
"-33.663641002814984"
],
[
"meats and vegetables. The broad rectangular blade also serves to scoop up chopped food for transport to the wok or bowl. Although it may seem unwieldy, skilled practitioners worldwide may be observed using this style of knife for everything — even carving and fine work normally accomplished with a paring knife. Peeling or tourné knife Also known as a bird's beak knife, a peeling knife has a pointed tip that curves downward (sometimes upward) and from side to side (towards the blade). It can be used to cut decorative garnishes (such as rosettes or fluted mushrooms), slice soft fruits, or",
"-33.627846183720976"
],
[
"Julienning Julienne, allumette, or french cut, is a culinary knife cut in which the food item is cut into long thin strips, similar to matchsticks. Common items to be julienned are carrots for carrots julienne, celery for céléris remoulade, or potatoes for Julienne Fries. \nTrimming the ends of the vegetable and the edges to make four straight sides makes it easier to produce a uniform cut. Trimmings can be used for stocks, soups, purees, etc. The measurement for julienne is 1–2 mm × 1–2 mm × 4–5 cm (0.04–0.08 in × 0.04–0.08 in × 1.6–2 in). Julienne usually",
"-33.61694934198749"
],
[
"Tiep Recipe It is a preparation of fresh or dried fish, and rice (rice Wolof), cooked with vegetables (such as cassava, pumpkin, cabbage, carrot, turnip, or eggplant), parsley, tomato paste, peppers, garlic and onions. Originally made with fish, it is nowadays frequent to see it served with beef or even chicken. By Country Originally from Senegal, the traditional recipe includes fish, rice, tomato and onions. However, tiep is commonly consumed in several countries in West Africa. Depending on the country, the recipe and the ingredients change—even the method of cooking can differ. In Mali, tiep is known as \"tieb,\"",
"-33.609205203305464"
],
[
"including the hero sandwich (also, depending on the region of the United States, called a 'wedge,' a 'hoagie,' a 'sub,' or a 'grinder') made on a Italian loaf of bread with lots of salami, cheese, and peppers.\n— John Mariani, America Eats Out, p. 66\nSubs or their national equivalents were already popular in many European, Asian and Australasian countries when late 20th-century franchisee chain restaurants and fast food made them even more popular and increased the prevalence of the word sub. Many outlets offer non-traditional ingredient combinations.\nIn the United States, there are many chain restaurants that specialize in subs. Major international chains",
"-33.588827186846174"
],
[
"vegetarian alternative. Mustard and sometimes honey mustard are common condiments. Upscale variations include, for example, the oyster club, the salmon club, and Dungeness crab melt. \nThe sandwich is commonly served with an accompaniment of either coleslaw, or potato salad, and often garnished with a pickle. The coleslaw or potato salad is often reduced to a \"garnish\" portion, when the primary accompaniment is an order of french fries or potato chips. Due to high fat and carb content from the bread, bacon and dressing, club sandwiches have sometimes been criticized as unhealthy. In 2000, Burger King came under fire for",
"-33.58722352748737"
],
[
"In a typical package, such as the crackers meal combination, it contains an equal number of crackers and small slices of meat and cheese. The brand also created two versions targeting adults, by increasing the amount of food offered in each package, but these have since been discontinued. The first was called the \"Deluxe\" and contained two types of meats and cheeses as well as mustard and a mint. The second version, called \"Maxed Out\" (originally Mega Packs), was available with 40% more food than a regular Lunchables.\nLunchables also carries an assortment of drinks and desserts. In certain meal combinations,",
"-33.55089504894568"
],
[
"flatbreads (bing 饼) and street foods such as chuan (串, also pronounced chuan) are often eaten with the hands. Service In many western countries there are catering businesses that supply finger foods for events such as weddings, engagements, birthdays and other milestone celebrations. For weddings, in particular, finger foods are becoming more popular because they are less expensive and offer more flexibility with menu choices. Gourmet hors d'oeuvres such as quiches, pâté, caviar, and tea sandwiches are suitable for a formal event, whereas more familiar food such as sliced fruits, deli trays, crackers, and cookies are preferred at more casual",
"-33.548904227791354"
],
[
"concluding, \"A sandwich is not commonly understood to include burritos, tacos and quesadillas, which are typically made with a single tortilla and stuffed with a choice filling of meat, rice, and beans.\" However, the Qdoba in Shrewsbury has since closed, while Moe's Southwest Grill and Chipotle Mexican Grill remain open across the street. But Qdoba revived and opened with Whole Foods in Lakeway Commons which is also in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts.",
"-33.5287927830359"
],
[
"used, depending on the region and personal preference. Common methods include being cooked on a griddle, fried in a pan, or made in a panini grill or sandwich toaster. This last method is more common in the United Kingdom, where the sandwiches are normally called \"toasted sandwiches\" or \"toasties\", and in Australia, where they are called \"jaffles\". Other methods such as baking in an oven or toaster oven, or in a toasting bag in an electric toaster, may be employed.\nThe sandwich is typically served as a snack or lunchtime meal, often with a side of salad, soup, french fries, or",
"-33.485309130192036"
],
[
"can be square.\nIt was then cut into triangular sections similar to a sponge cake section and was a regular addition in a working man's lunch box (the whole meal was known as bagging, snap or packing). The sad cake was a filler for eating either after one's sandwiches or as a separate tea break snack during the working day in the cotton mills and coal mines of Lancashire. A spread of margarine, butter or even jam was placed on top. It may be eaten with sandwiches of jam and crumbly soft Lancashire cheese. Chorley cake Street Fair The October \"Chorley",
"-33.43357276674942"
],
[
"in parts of the United States. Codzitos are small tacos popular in the Yucatán Peninsula, which are fastened with toothpicks and then fried . Flautas, also called taquitos or tacos dorados, are similar to tacos in that they are filled, but they are then rolled and fried. They are served topped with cream, salsa, and vegetables such as lettuce, tomatoes and onions. Tamales Lonely Planet travel guide ranked tamales as among the best street food in the world. Tamales come in sweet and savory versions, some spicy and some bland. Versions with pork or chicken with a salsa or",
"-33.372187671178835"
],
[
"It is also used as a vegetable with Chapatis & Rotis.\nIn the United Kingdom, scallions are normally chopped and added to mashed potatoes, or as an added ingredient to potato salad.\nIn the southern Philippines, it is ground in a mortar along with ginger and chili pepper to make a native condiment called wet palapa, which can be used to spice dishes or as a topping for fried or sun-dried food. It can also be used to make the dry version of palapa, when it is stir fried with fresh coconut shavings and wet palapa.\nDuring the Passover meal (Seder), Persian",
"-33.35009074880509"
],
[
"the pickles.\nIn Greece, pickles, called τουρσί(α), are made out of carrots, celery, eggplants stuffed with diced carrots, cauliflower, tomatoes, and peppers. Northern Europe In Britain, pickled onions and pickled eggs are often sold in pubs and fish and chip shops. Pickled beetroot, walnuts, and gherkins, and condiments such as Branston Pickle and piccalilli are typically eaten as an accompaniment to pork pies and cold meats, sandwiches or a ploughman's lunch. Other popular pickles in the UK are pickled mussels, cockles, red cabbage, mango chutney, sauerkraut, and olives. Rollmops are also quite widely available under a range of names from various",
"-33.32419664086774"
],
[
"Platter (dinner) A platter is a meal or course served on a platter.\nIn restaurant terminology, a platter is often a main dish served on a platter with one or more side dishes, such as a salad or french fries.\nNotable platters includes the Colombian bandeja paisa, Indian thali or Arabic mixed-meat platters.",
"-33.28687958267983"
],
[
"Calzone In Italy Sandwich-sized calzones are often sold at Italian lunch counters or by street vendors, because they are easy to eat while standing up or walking. Fried versions of the calzone are typically filled with tomato and mozzarella: these are made in Apulia and are called panzerotti.\nThe Sicilian cuddiruni or cudduruni pizza is distantly related to the calzone. This is a dish stuffed with onions (or sometimes other vegetables, such as potatoes or broccoli), anchovies, olives, cheese and mortadella; the rolled pizza dough is folded in two over the stuffing and the edges are sealed before the dish",
"-33.2865490600816"
],
[
"Breaded cutlet Chicken fingers Chicken fingers or chicken tenders are an American dish prepared by breading and deep frying the pectoralis minor muscle of the chicken, which is the smaller cut of the chicken breast located along its underside, attached to the ribs. Chicken fried steak Chicken fried steak (also known as country fried steak) is an American breaded cutlet dish that may have originated with German and Austrian immigrants to Texas in the 19th century. It is a piece of beef steak (tenderized cubed steak) coated with seasoned flour and fried. It is associated with Southern U.S. cuisine. Its",
"-33.280556984915165"
],
[
"or veal (escalope de vitela panado). The meat is usually seasoned with black pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. It is commonly served with spaghetti, fried potatoes, or rice (plain or with beans). It is also popular as a sandwich, served in a bun with lettuce (sandes de panado). Parmesan In North America, chicken parmigiana is an Italian-American dish, consisting of a breaded chicken breast topped with tomato sauce and mozzarella, Parmesan or provolone cheese. It is commonly offered as a sit-down entree, with a side of Italian-style pasta. It is also offered as a submarine sandwich.\nIn Australia, chicken",
"-33.24756505759433"
],
[
"or olive oil is poured on the slab, and the meat is cooked over it like in a pan. It is a very common form of fondue in South America. Traditions and etiquette A tradition says that if a man loses his bread in the pot, he buys drinks all around.\nFondue is eaten by spearing a piece of bread on a fork, swirling it in the pot, and putting it into the mouth. Some writers recommend that the dipping fork be used only to transport the food from the pot to one's plate, not to eat from.\nThe choice of beverage",
"-33.2187683514785"
],
[
"that sell food: \"bifes\" and \"milanesas\" are served \"a caballo\" (\"on horseback\", with fried egg on top), \"milanesa completa\" (a milanesa with two fried eggs and French fries), \"revuelto Gramajo\", \"colchón de arvejas\" (an omelette made with peas), \"suprema de pollo\" (chicken supreme, usually breaded as a milanesa), matambres, \"lengua a la vinagreta\" (pickled tongue), and \"sandwiches\" (sandwiches de miga) are made with sliced white bread, rather than, say, rolls.\nThe most common sandwiches are those made of milanesa, baked ham and cheese, 'pan de miga, toast, pebetes, panchos (hot dogs), choripanes, morcipanes, etc.; from Montevideo comes a different species of",
"-33.196097490879765"
],
[
"straight-edged blade tends to compress the cake rather than slice it. Forks, electric serrated knives, special tined cutters, or a strong thread should be used instead.\nAngel food cake is usually baked in a tube pan, a tall, round pan with a tube up the center that leaves a hole in the middle of the cake. A bundt pan may also be used, but the fluted sides can make releasing the cake more difficult. The center tube allows the cake batter to rise higher by 'clinging' to all sides of the pan. The angel food cake pan should not be greased,",
"-33.19020972507133"
],
[
"buffet) and everyone partaking using their bare hands (kamayan). Another traditional method of serving food is by placing it on a banana-leaf liner placed over a woven bilao (a winnowing basket made of bamboo). The bilao is normally a farm implement used for removing chaff from grains, although there are now smaller woven trays or carved wooden plates of the same kind in Filipino restaurants used specifically for serving food. Banana leaves are also commonly used in wrapping food (binalot), and are valued for the aroma they impart to the food. Specific Philippine dishes that use banana leaves include suman",
"-33.14842226098881"
],
[
"the diner will use them. In the West, forks, plate, butter knife, and napkin generally are placed to the left of the dinner plate, and knives, spoons, stemware and tumblers, cups, and saucers to the right. (By contrast, formal settings in Armenia place the fork to the right of the dinner plate and informal settings in Turkey place the fork to the right of the dinner plate if not accompanied by a knife) Sauceboats and serving dishes, when used, either are placed on the table or, more formally, may be kept on a side table. Informal At",
"-33.130236043885816"
],
[
"Paupiette A paupiette is a piece of meat, beaten thin, and rolled with a stuffing of vegetables, fruits or sweetmeats. It is often featured in recipes from Normandy. It is often fried or braised, or baked in wine or stock. They are very popular in France, being sold ready-prepared in supermarkets and butchers. Paupiettes can be made with various items such as chicken, beef, lamb, fish, veal, cabbage, turkey escalopes or slices of calves' sweetbreads.\nA paupiette is a type of roulade and sometimes called a braciole. Paupiette may also refer to a classic French fish dish whereby a thin slice",
"-33.11982733646437"
],
[
"or caramelized peanuts, local sweets and others. Colombia In Colombia, the empanada, a deep-fried meat-filled patty, is sold. It is also a very popular side dish. Various types of arepa are also a common street food. Also popular is the chuzo (meat skewer), consisting of pork or chicken speared shish-kebab style on a thin wooden stake (hence the name chuzo, from chuzar meaning \"to pierce or spear\") and cooked over charcoal on a pushcart. Most chuzos are garnished with a small arepa at the top and a small roasted potato at the bottom. Morcilla, various sausages, chicharrón and chinchurria are",
"-33.104396070266375"
],
[
"communities occur, due to commercially produced varieties. The slow-roasted Piedmontese version is called coppa cotta.\nCapocollo is esteemed for its delicate flavor and tender, fatty texture, and is often more expensive than most other salumi. In many countries, it is often sold as a gourmet food item. It is usually sliced thin for use in antipasto or sandwiches such as muffulettas, Italian grinders and subs, and panini, as well as some traditional Italian pizza.",
"-33.08752192754764"
],
[
"courses are served right off the cooking spit and are sliced or plated right at the table. Sometimes, they are accompanied with fried potatoes, fried bananas, collard greens, black beans, and rice (self-served buffet style).\nIn many restaurants, the diner is provided with a colored card. Green, on one side, indicates to servers to bring more meat. Red, on the other side, indicates that the diners have enough meat for the moment.",
"-33.059283313690685"
],
[
"1970s casseroles took on a less-than sophisticated image. Method In the United States and continental Europe, casseroles usually consist of: pieces of meat (such as chicken or ground meat) or fish (such as tuna), various chopped vegetables, a starchy binder (such as flour, potato or pasta), and often a crunchy or cheesy topping. Liquids are released from the meat and vegetables during cooking, and further liquid in the form of stock, wine, beer (for example lapin à la Gueuze), gin, cider, vegetable juice, or even water may be added when the dish is assembled. Casseroles are usually cooked slowly",
"-33.049578064121306"
],
[
"Canada, mille-feuille is often named gâteaux Napoléon or Napoleon slice (in English Canada). It is sold either with custard, whipped cream, or both, between three layers of puff pastry. Almond paste is the most common flavoured variety. There is a French Canadian way where the mille-feuille is made with graham crackers instead of puff pastry, and where pudding replaces the custard layer.\nIn South Africa and Zimbabwe, it is called a custard slice.\nIn Australia it is called a custard slice or a vanilla slice, colloquially, it is referred to as a snot block or puss pie. It is made",
"-33.04733498918358"
],
[
"Meat slicer A meat slicer, also called a slicing machine, deli slicer or simply a slicer, is a tool used in butcher shops and delicatessens to slice meats, sausages, cheeses and other deli products. Older models of meat slicer may be operated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor. While the slicer is traditionally a commercial apparatus, domestic use versions are also marketed.",
"-32.99446540471399"
],
[
"Bento Bento (弁当 bentō) is a single-portion take-out or home-packed meal common in Japanese cuisine. A traditional bento holds rice or noodles, fish or meat, with pickled and cooked vegetables, in a box. Containers range from mass-produced disposables to hand-crafted lacquerware. Bento are readily available in many places throughout Japan, including convenience stores, bento shops (弁当屋 bentō-ya), railway stations, and department stores. However, Japanese homemakers often spend time and energy on carefully prepared lunch boxes for their spouses, children, or themselves.\nBentos can be elaborately arranged in a style called \"kyaraben\" (\"character bento\"). Kyaraben are typically decorated to look like popular",
"-32.99314530321135"
],
[
"may be prepared using two slices of toasted sourdough bread, mayonnaise, pastrami, lettuce, tomato slices. Preparation involves placing the pastrami on a toasted slice of sourdough bread and topping it with the lettuce and tomato slices. Mayonnaise may be spread on the second slice of sourdough, and placed on top of the sandwich.",
"-32.98706278478494"
],
[
"Twist (cocktail garnish) A twist is a piece of citrus zest used as a cocktail garnish, generally for decoration and to add flavor when added to a mixed drink.\nThere are a variety of ways of making and using twists. Twists are typically cut from a whole fresh fruit with a small kitchen knife immediately prior to serving, although a peeler, citrus zesters, or other utensil may be used. A curled shape may come from cutting the wedge into a spiral, winding it around a straw or other object, or as a byproduct of the cutting.\nThe name may refer to the",
"-32.96437364348094"
],
[
"usage In kitchen utensils, a spatula is any utensil fitting the above description. One variety is used to lift and flip food items during cooking, such as pancakes and fillets (known in British English as a fish slice). The blades on these are usually made of metal or plastic, with a wooden or plastic handle to insulate them from heat. A cookie shovel is a specialty spatula with a larger blade, made for scooping cookies off their pan or cooking sheet.\nA frosting spatula is also known as palette knife and is usually made of metal or plastic.\nBowl and plate scrapers",
"-32.93612819444388"
],
[
"the main ingredient in the Mexican dish carnitas and in the Caribbean dishes lechon asado and pernil.\nIn Mexican Spanish, this cut is also known as the espaldilla (literally \"little back\").\nIn Argentina, this cut is incredibly popular and is known as bondiola.\nIn Korea, the cut is known as moksal (목살; literally \"neck meat\").",
"-32.918255338357994"
],
[
"complementary choice of side salad or steamed vegetables is also commonly offered. Balkan region In the Balkan region, steak is often rubbed with mustard and pepper, and marinated in vinegar and vegetable oil for up to a week. It is then fried in butter, and a slice of toast is then used to soak up the pan drippings. The steak is served on the toast and topped with optional fried egg and a sprig of parsley. France In France, steak, locally called bifteck, is usually served with fried potatoes (pommes frites in French). The combination is known as steak-frites. Vegetables",
"-32.912703547408455"
],
[
"on weck is a sandwich found primarily in Western New York. It is made with roast beef on a kummelweck roll topped with salt and caraway seeds. The meat on the sandwich is traditionally served rare, thin cut, with the top bun getting a dip au jus and topped with horseradish. Chivito sandwich The chivito sandwich is a national dish in Uruguay, and consists primarily of a thin slice of filet mignon (churrasco beef), with mozzarella, tomatoes, mayonnaise, black or green olives, and commonly also bacon, fried or hard-boiled eggs and ham. It is served in a bun, often with",
"-32.89997979195323"
],
[
"Spuccadella The spuccadella is an Italian-American bread roll that has a long, pointed shape. It is used in the preparation of the spuckie sandwich, which is what the Italian sandwich is referred to in East Boston, Massachusetts. The spuckie is still available in some sandwich shops in the Boston area. The Italian American word \"spuccadella\" does not exist in the written Italian of Italy, but it may be derived from the common Italian word \"spaccatella,\" a kind of \"panino\" or bread roll, with rounded ends, that could be used for sandwich making.",
"-32.87198136863299"
],
[
"refers only to an item which uses sliced bread from a loaf. An item with similar fillings, but using an entire bread roll cut horizontally in half, is always referred to as a roll. (In South Australia, there is a regional variant of the roll, superficially similar to a club sandwich, where the bread roll is sliced three times with parallel cuts, and filling is put in the first and third openings, but not the second. This makes the resulting double cut roll easier to handle: the top half and the bottom half are eaten separately.) Any hot item based",
"-32.82386362995021"
],
[
"on a cast-iron plate in Acapulco.\nThe food was popularized by various businesses such as Ninfa's in Houston, the Hyatt Regency in Austin, and numerous restaurants in San Antonio. In southern Arizona, the term was unknown except as a cut of meat until the 1990s, when Mexican fast food restaurants started using the word in their marketing. In recent years, fajitas have become popular at American casual dining restaurants as well as in home cooking.\nIn many restaurants, the fajita meat and vegetables is brought to the table sizzling loudly on a metal platter or skillet, along with warmed tortillas and condiments",
"-32.80748989485437"
],
[
"a large thin pancake made of buckwheat flour, often cooked on one side only.\nCrêpes are popular in many South American countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. They are consumed with sweet fillings (marmalade, dulce de leche) or with salty fillings (ground meat (Brazil), vegetables, tomato sauce, cheese).\nThey have also become popular East Asian countries, including Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, Thailand and China, where they are sold in crêpe stands and kiosks. They are often served with whipped cream and fruits, or non-sweet spreads such as vegetables.\nFarinata are popular in Mediterranean regions, including Nice. Also called socca, these are",
"-32.80005543681909"
],
[
"Menudo (soup) Cultural significance Menudo is traditionally prepared by the entire family, and often serves as an occasion for social interactions such as after wedding receptions where the families of the groom and bride go to either family's house to enjoy a bowl of menudo before and after the ceremony. It is also a pseudoscientific remedy for recovery from alcoholic consumption.\nMenudo is time intensive to prepare, as the tripe takes hours to cook. It includes many ingredients and side dishes (such as salsa), and garnished with chopped onions, chiles, cilantro, and often with lime juice; it is often prepared communally",
"-32.760919193096925"
],
[
"Escalope An escalope is a piece of boneless meat that has been thinned out using a mallet, rolling pin or beaten with the handle of a knife, or merely butterflied. The mallet breaks down the fibers in the meat, making it more tender. But the thinner meat cooks faster with more moisture loss. The meat is then coated and fried. Escalope is often breaded and considered the healthy option for diners. Common sizes The typical sizes of an escalope used in the food industry range from 110 to 225 g (4–8 oz). Paillard or scallop Paillard is an older French culinary",
"-32.75271725737548"
],
[
"Canadian greasy spoon diners focus on fried or grilled food, such as Salisbury steak, fish and chips, deep fried chicken, sausages, bacon, waffles, pancakes, fried or scrambled eggs, and omelettes. Sandwiches are also popular, including hamburgers, steak sandwiches, and deli meats. These are often accompanied by sides of baked beans, hash browns, toast, french fries, coleslaw. Soups and chili con carne are generally available. Regional fare is often served. Since the 1970s, many Greek immigrants have entered the business. As a result, native Greek cuisine such as gyro and souvlaki meats are now a common part of the repertoire, often",
"-32.74558549034555"
],
[
"Tiella Tiella is a dish in Italian cuisine that is prepared with potato, rice, onion and mussels as primary ingredients. Additional ingredients may be used. Variations of the dish exist, and some may be prepared with other types of seafood. The round earthenware dish in which tiella is traditionally cooked is also referred to as a \"tiella\". Tiella is part of the cuisine of Apulia in southern Italy. It may also be found in coastal areas of Calabria.\nIn Gaeta, Lazio, Italy, tiella is a specialty dish of the region prepared in the style of a pocket sandwich, using seafood such",
"-32.70079149544472"
],
[
"aesthetic of nouvelle cuisine emphasizes minimalism, serving fewer courses and utilizing simple plating. Chefs were extremely creative in constructing innovative recipes and plating. Bento Box A bento box is a Japanese meal traditionally consisting of rice, meat/fish, and vegetables served in a portable box. In Japan, as well as in the United States, a large focus is placed on the aesthetic arrangement of the food. There have even been contests to see who can come up with the most inventive way of creating bento boxes, allowing for creativity in amateur chefs and everyday people. Sometimes bento boxes are used to",
"-32.67508581034781"
],
[
"for mincing and chopping. Some mincing knives are supplied with a wooden cutting board with a circular bowl-shaped indentation that matches the curvature of the knife. Some models have two blades that are parallel to each other to increase their mincing power.\nLarge mezzaluna-like knives with shallow curves are sometimes used to cut pizza, though the rolling pizza cutter is more common for this purpose. Cutting board A cutting board is kitchen utensil used in conjunction with a knife. It is a flat surface, generally made of either wood, plastic or glass (glass are less common because they dull the blade;",
"-32.62958298641024"
],
[
"a side of French fries. Other ingredients might be added into the sandwich such as red beets, peas, grilled or pan-fried red peppers, and slices of cucumber. Corned beef sandwich The corned beef sandwich is a sandwich prepared with corned beef. The salt beef style corned beef sandwiches are traditionally served with mustard and a pickle. In the United Kingdom, pickle is a common addition to a corned beef sandwich. French dip The French dip sandwich is a hot sandwich consisting of thinly sliced roast beef (or, sometimes, other meats) on a \"French roll\" or baguette. It is usually served",
"-32.61846877705466"
],
[
"for manipulating food in the plate and as an alternative for a knife. Often dishes require slicing before serving or sliced into small portions before cooking to relinquish the use of a knife. Placement of forks Tables are often set with two or more forks, meant to be used for different courses; for example, a salad fork, a meat fork, and a dessert fork. Some institutions wishing to give an impression of high formality set places with many different forks for meals of several courses, although many etiquette authorities regard this as vulgar and prefer that the appropriate cutlery be",
"-32.60631696834753"
],
[
"- but serving the same function. Butter knife Butter knives have a dull cutting edge and are generally used for spreading. They are typically thought of more as servingware (used more as part of a table setting), to be used by diners to serve and/or spread butter or other soft spreadable foods, i.e. soft cheeses or jams, than as a kitchen or food preparation tool.\nA modern variant that is intended for food prep is the 'sandwich spreader' - a broad, flexible, almost spatula-like tool, with a rounded end and often with one serrated edge, similar to that used by pastry",
"-32.60536529929959"
],
[
"Manchette (cuisine) In cuisine a manchette is a paper frill attached to the exposed end of a bone of a cooked piece of meat.\nManchettes are typically applied to the legs of roasted poultry and the bones of roasted pork or lamb. One particular dish often decorated with manchettes is the crown roast of lamb or pork.\nManchettes were originally of practical use: they allowed a cut of meat to be held with one hand securely and without the hand becoming greasy, leaving the other hand free to carve meat from the bone.",
"-32.59891727089416"
],
[
"the US or Canada might instead refer to these more thickly-cut chips as steak fries or potato wedges, depending on the shape, as the word chips is more often used to refer to potato chips, known in the UK and Ireland as crisps.\nThomas Jefferson had \"potatoes served in the French manner\" at a White House dinner in 1802. The expression \"french fried potatoes\" first occurred in print in English in the 1856 work Cookery for Maids of All Work by E. Warren: \"French Fried Potatoes. – Cut new potatoes in thin slices, put them in boiling fat, and a little",
"-32.57697818626184"
],
[
"the Philippines in Southeast Asia. Philippines In the Philippines, bistek Tagalog, a specialty of the Tagalog provinces, is typically made with strips of sirloin beef and onions slowly cooked in soy sauce and calamansi juice. Unlike usual beefsteak that has different degrees of doneness, Filipino bistek is always served well done. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, steak is often served with medium-thick fried potatoes (chips), fried onions, mushrooms, and tomatoes; however, in more expensive restaurants, it is more likely to be served with potatoes and other vegetables and offered with a selection of cooked sauces such as red wine,",
"-32.573230828595115"
],
[
"Eating utensil etiquette Chopstick etiquette In many East Asian cultures, it is impolite to point with chopsticks. It is also considered impolite to leave chopsticks resting in a bowl when not in use, and instead should be laid beside the meal. Leaving chopsticks in a bowl is believed to resemble offerings to the deceased or spirits. Fork etiquette When used in conjunction with a knife to cut and consume food in Western social settings, two forms of fork etiquette are common. In the European style, the diner keeps the fork in his or her left hand, while in the American",
"-32.570484042866156"
],
[
"to choose from, the fork farthest from the plate should be used, leaving the closer one for the main course. Similarly, if you start with soup, select the spoon that is farthest from the plate.\n\nMany restaurants set the table with a bread plate and water glass at each seat before patrons arrive. The bread plate goes to the left of the plate, and the beverage to the right. To avoid drinking from the wrong glass or taking a bite of your neighbor's bread, use the following trick if you forget which is yours:\nTouch both your index fingers to",
"-32.55771567253396"
],
[
"and beans, cooked together or apart. When cooked together the recipe is called \"congri\" or \"Moros\" or \"Moros y Cristianos\" (black beans and rice). If cooked separately it is called \"arroz con frijoles\" (rice with beans) or \"arroz y frijoles\" (rice and beans). Cuban sandwich A Cuban sandwich (sometimes called a mixto, especially in Cuba) is a popular lunch item that grew out of the once-open flow of cigar workers between Cuba and Florida (specifically Key West and the Ybor City neighborhood of Tampa) in the late 1800s and has since spread to other Cuban American communities.\nThe sandwich is built",
"-32.55754188253195"
],
[
"Sanguchería Butifarra Among the many types of sandwiches one finds the traditional butifarra, made normally from pork loin cooked in a traditional Limeña manner called locally jamón del país, accompanied with fresh lettuce, salsa criolla, and occasionally a touch of mustard.\nThis sandwich arose from the culinary exchange between Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru. Later it was popularized in the fondas and bars of the immigrant Italian community, such as the Bar Cordano and the Bodega Carbone in the historic city center of Lima; Juanito in the Barranco District; La Lucha Sanguchería Criolla in Miraflores; the Antigua Taberna Queirolo in",
"-32.55167517479276"
],
[
"bread or sandwiches, plain or with cheese, often served for breakfast or as a snack, with manchego, mató, or Picón cheese. It is also often used to stuff pastries. Regional variations In Spain, Uruguay, Argentina, Mexico, Chile and Ecuador the quince (Spanish membrillo) is cooked into a reddish gelatin-like block or firm reddish paste known as dulce de membrillo. The Pastafrola, a sweet tart common in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, is usually filled with quince paste. In Argentina and Uruguay, a slice of quince cheese (dulce de membrillo) eaten with a slice of soft cheese is considered the national dessert.",
"-32.53291074885783"
],
[
"in a 1799 edition of The Times. British piccalilli British piccalilli contains various vegetables—invariably cauliflower, onion, and gherkin—and seasonings of mustard and turmeric. A more finely chopped variety \"sandwich piccalilli\" is also available from major British supermarkets. It is used as an accompaniment to foods such as sausages, bacon, eggs, toast, cheese, and tomatoes. It is usually used to accompany a dish on a plate rather than as a bread spread. It is popular as a relish with cold meats such as ham and head cheese, and with a ploughman's lunch. It is produced both commercially and domestically, being a",
"-32.52525536582107"
],
[
"Wiener schnitzel. However, it is a cutlet rather than an escalope, and it is traditionally cooked with its rib. Originally from Milan, it can now be found all over the country.\nIn Spain, breaded cutlet is normally called escalope milanesa in restaurants when served with French fries and a slice of lemon. When eaten in a sandwich, it is simply called filete empanado. It is usually made of veal or beef. Chicken is called pollo empanado, and pork is not usual.\nCotoletta was first documented in 1148 (Saint Ambrose's archive, Milan) in Latin: \"Lumbolos cum panicio\". Kotlet schabowy Polish kotlet schabowy is",
"-32.51510828649043"
],
[
"small amount of hoisin sauce is spread onto the pancake, then some moo shu pork is placed in the center of the pancake. The bottom of the pancake is folded up (to prevent the contents from falling out), then the sides of the pancake are folded or wrapped, in the manner of a soft taco. Unlike the practice in wrapping a burrito, the top is usually not folded over, as the pancake is generally eaten immediately and thus there is no danger of the food falling out of the top, which is the part that is eaten first. Because the",
"-32.511410457547754"
],
[
"oven to the diner's table, and served halved with a large slab of butter in between the halves. This item is sometimes criticised for containing too much fat and cholesterol. Other common variants The pineapple bun may come in miniature sizes (迷你菠蘿包), it may be used as a bread roll for sandwiches with luncheon meat (餐肉菠蘿包), or it may be pre-stuffed with red bean paste (紅豆菠蘿包), custard cream (奶黃菠蘿包), barbecued pork (叉燒菠蘿包), or a sweet filling of shredded coconut (椰絲菠蘿包) like that in a cocktail bun. It is possible to order a \"pineapple pineapple bun\", actually stuffed with pineapple (菠蘿菠蘿包),",
"-32.48706072762798"
],
[
"earlier times, mass-produced graham crackers were typically prepared using yeast-leavened dough, which added flavor to the food via the process of fermentation, whereas contemporary mass-production of the product typically omits this process. The dough is sometimes chilled before being rolled out, which prevents blistering and breakage from occurring when the product is baked. Uses Graham cracker crumbs are used to create graham cracker crusts for pies and moon pie, and as a base, layer or topping for cheesecake. Graham cracker pie crusts are also mass-produced in the United States, and consumer versions of the product typically consist of a graham",
"-32.43978784428327"
],
[
"and fried. In Argentina, a milanesa napolitana is topped with ham, melted mozzarella cheese and tomato slices or tomato sauce.\nDue to the strong influence of Italian culture in Brazil, breaded cutlets are known as filé à milanesa (Milanese steak) or bife à milanesa. It is found easily in street restaurants and often cooked at home. Servings often include white rice, salted brown or black beans, mashed potatoes or French fries, lettuce and tomato salad. Milanesa sandwiches are somewhat less common, and there is also the parmigiana version - filé à milanesa with tomato sauce, ham, and melted mozzarella cheese.\nIn Colombia,",
"-32.41245970269665"
],
[
"Tajada Tajada \"slices\" is a dish of fried plantains that are sliced long. It is a typical food of Caribbean countries as well as Nicaragua, Colombia, Honduras, Panama, and Venezuela. It is sometimes served with grated cheese.",
"-32.404181700708364"
],
[
"apart in supermarkets. Milanesas Milanesa (from Italian cotoletta alla milanese) is a thin breaded cutlet that can be veal, chicken or fish.\nBreading consists of three successive steps that its order defines mostly the character of the milanesa, most of Montevideo's bars and old style restaurants make breading starting with egg so that the latest dip is also egg, this method generated by galician and Spanish barists leaves a coat of egg that turns into a film at frying, it is a curious variation that is often served on those restaurants because the main breading has inverse order and is the",
"-32.39014486222368"
],
[
"sandwich called the chivito, even though it contains no goat meat.\nPicadas, which are consumed at home or in bars, cafés, \"cafetines\" and \"bodegones\" are also popular; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of salame, olives in brine, french fries, maníes (peanuts), etc.; picadas are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (\"fernet\", beer, wine with soda, to give some common examples).\nThe people of Argentina greatly enjoy helado (ice creams of Italian lineage or sorbets Spanish lineage). In Spanish colonial times a type of sorbet was made from",
"-32.37233981047757"
],
[
"In a basket Food served in a basket, a basket platter or a basket with fries is a sandwich or other main dish that is served on top of a basket of an accompanying foodstuff, usually french fries. The \"basket\" is usually either made of plastic and lined with paper, or is simply a disposable paperboard box or tray. Sometimes the basket contains other side dishes as well, such as a container of coleslaw or a pickle. This term is common in the Midwestern U.S.. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom chicken in a basket, fried chicken on",
"-32.35987949198079"
],
[
"by Ray Cardell. Historically, club sandwiches featured slices of chicken, but with time, turkey has become increasingly common. Ingredients As with a BLT, toasted white bread is standard, along with iceberg lettuce, bacon, and tomatoes. The sandwich is traditionally dressed with mayonnaise. However variations on the traditional club sandwich abound. Some vary the protein, for example, a \"breakfast club\" that includes eggs or a \"roast beef club.\" Others include ham (instead of, or in addition to bacon) and/or cheese slices. Vegetarian club sandwiches often include hummus, avocado or spinach, as well as substitute the real bacon with a",
"-32.35643145383801"
],
[
"dough strings called kaka pizon, meaning \"pigeon droppings,\" are also eaten in neighboring Reunion Island, and home-made yogurts, are all commonly sold on the street. In rural areas, steamed cassava or sweet potatoes are eaten, occasionally with fresh or sweetened condensed milk. Morocco Typical street food includes bessara, crumbed liver, spicy sardines, and brochettes, Fricassé de saucisses, Boubouch (Hot spicy snail soup), Salty Chips Cornet, Jaban (Candy), Soffa (coton candy), Kefta Sandwich, Corn, Hommos Kamún, And a wide range of soups according to the region.\nIn the northern side of the country, Ze3za3 (a typical juice) and calenté (Or karane, calentica)",
"-32.323804582432786"
],
[
"thus clumping together like cookie dough. This is important, as it allows the veggie burger to stick together to form the patty. Forming the patties The mixture is now put into an automatic patty-making machine or press. The press then punches out the patties into a disc shape onto a conveyor belt underneath. A constant spray of water may also be used to prevent any of the mixture from sticking to machinery parts. Once on the conveyor tray, the patties move along to be put onto baking trays. Baking the patties Patties are first inspected to make sure they are",
"-32.31615979387425"
],
[
"\"menu\" written on a huge chalkboard behind the counter) was to combine the sandwich and side of fries, held (grilled) together with eggs as a binding unit, straight from the grill into a hoagie bun. The sandwich was then wrapped in a sheet of newspaper and handed to the customer. This was done so the customer could then go back to his (hopefully loaded) truck and drive back to his shop while managing to eat the sandwich while driving without getting it all over his lap.\nIt has also been a tradition for the late night crowd to go",
"-32.30067705758847"
],
[
"them \"Mexi-Fries\", while Taco Bell used to sell them as \"Mexi-Nuggets\" and \"Border Fries\". Taco Mayo in the Southwest offers round disc-shaped tater tots called \"Potato Locos.\" Taco John's also has coin shaped tots called \"Potato Olés\". Oceania In Australia and New Zealand, they are known as \"potato gems\", \"potato royals\" or \"potato pom-poms\". The New Zealand Pizza Hut franchise offers \"Hash Bites\" as a side dish, available alone or with an aioli dipping sauce.",
"-32.29586143227425"
],
[
"chicken fillet roll is a baguette filled with a spicy or plain breaded chicken fillet and a mayonnaise and/or butter spread. \"Hot chicken\" sandwich The hot chicken sandwich or simply \"hot chicken\" (Quebec French: sandwich chaud au poulet) is a type of chicken sandwich consisting of chicken, sliced bread, and gravy (which is generally poutine sauce). The sandwich is usually served with green peas and commonly found in Eastern Canadian cuisine. It's especially popular in Quebec and is often considered one of the province's staple dishes. Since it is so commonly found in eateries of Quebec (Rôtisserie St-Hubert, Valentine, e.g.)",
"-32.29532998667855"
],
[
"bundle of fresh herbs used as an ingredient in stocks, soups, and sauces. Freshly chopped green parsley is used as a topping for soups such as chicken soup, green salads, or salads such as salade Olivier, and on open sandwiches with cold cuts or pâtés.\nPersillade is a mixture of chopped garlic and chopped parsley in French cuisine.\nParsley is the main ingredient in Italian salsa verde, which is a mixed condiment of parsley, capers, anchovies, garlic, and sometimes bread, soaked in vinegar. It is an Italian custom to serve it with bollito misto or fish. Gremolata, a mixture of parsley, garlic,",
"-32.280257771897595"
],
[
"Mezzaluna A mezzaluna (/ˌmɛtsəˈluːnə/; Italian: [ˌmɛddzaˈluːna]) is a knife consisting of one or more curved blades with a handle on each end, which is rocked back and forth chopping the ingredients below with each movement. They most commonly have a single blade, but are sometimes seen with two or three blades.\nIt is typically used for mincing herbs or garlic, but it can be used for chopping other things such as cheese or meat. Very large single blade versions are sometimes used for pizza. Common uses in Italy include preparation of a soffritto or a pesto, etc. Name Mezzaluna means",
"-32.277477479947265"
]
] |
3uviw6 | How exactly does shopping at small independent stores help the local economy? | [
"As a local shop owner, when people buy from me, it means I (your neighbor), get your money, not an investor to Caribou Coffee. I, the only guy who works here, can afford to feed my family. I'm not a corporation that has 1000 stores and paying overhead on 1000 stores. That money you give me goes to the electric company, the restaurant where we celebrate after the Sport Team wins, and the local farmers market. I'm buying my produce from the guy who lives down the street...his tomatoes came in great this year. He's also got a daughter in college. I helped him pay his bills this month, and when she graduates, she's gonna run a B & B, which means more people are gonna drop the town and have a cup of coffee.",
"I own a small children's boutique so this is a topic that is near and dear to my heart. There are many benefits to shopping local. 1. Your money stays in your community. This happens on many levels. First, you are directly supporting the shop owner and their family as opposed to your dollars going to increase the bottom line for a bunch of stock holders that are probably already extremely wealthy. Those dollars are typically spent locally and used for things like their children's sports, piano lessons, etc. Secondly, most local businesses are active members of the community. My business donates thousands of dollars to local non-profit organizations that serve people in our community. If I (and other local businesses) weren't there, they would most likely have to cut programs or go under. Lastly, most small shops support local manufacturing, cottage businesses, and US made products. For example, I carry multiple handcrafted lines in my store that are local home based businesses. These small businesses would not have an avenue to get into a retail location if a small shop like mine was not around. A mom and pop botanical business is not getting on the shelf at Target, let's be real. 2. By supporting local business, you create diversity and choice in your community. You can see this by shopping around, if you want to purchase something unique from a brick and mortar location... you aren't going to find it at Walmart. Big box stores have a very bland selection, and are typically products that can be found anywhere. Want something truly unique? Visit a local boutique. 3. You are most likely going to get a high quality product. The small business owner knows that everything they sell in their shop reflects on them personally. Carrying crap on your shelf will result in nothing but problems. Big box stores and Amazon however, couldn't give two shits if you end up with some p.o.s. from China. There's my rant, now buy some shit from me ;) *edited for formating",
"The argument is that local shop owners pay taxes in the city/county/state where they live and they spend their profits in that city as well. There's also a better chance that local stores source their goods from local producers. Non-local corporations pay some local taxes, but not as many and the profits are distributed to shareholders who will spend the money wherever they live and not necessarily in the city where the store is located.",
"Its about where the money is circulating. A local shop probably buys from local sources while big box stores ship stuff in from all over the world. If you buy a catfish that's was caught in china then at least some of your money is going to china, which is a problem because of unequal trade between china and where you live. The question is where do you want your money to go. Do you want it to feed your next door neighbor, who is probably sleeping with your wife, or do you want it to go to the crack head Walmart heirs. (full disclosure, i don't know who is sleeping with your wife, it might be your neighbor or it might be your pasture. I don't know your life. )",
"If you buy at big name store, the money goes to corporate which is probably out of state. Maybe 10¢ on the dollar is paid to the employees, meaning 90% of that money just left the area. When you buy from local owned, the money goes from the register to the owner, who then pays his employees their cut, still 10% let's say, buys his products (which may or may not be local) and keeps that 50% markup for himself, just like corporate. The difference? Local business owner lives in your town, and spends the money there. If he shops at Walmart or on amazon you still lose the money after one transaction though. But if you trade locally, you keep the money local. If you buy stuff from people who but stuff from out of the area, eventually you don't have any money left. But if that 5$ bill keeps trading hands in your town, your town stays that much richer.",
"If you buy local from somewhere, the money goes to the owner of the company. Usually theyre in the same state community. If you buy from big retailers, buy from people who get paid commission because it goes right back into the community."
] | [
[
"This, along with decreasing rural population, reduces the importance of the rural store. As businesses relocate from other communities, one town will become the trade center for its region, sometimes constructing a shopping mall.\nGenerally, businesses in a trade-center town, except for those in competition with the mall, will benefit from the mall's presence as shoppers spill over. However, business in nearby towns will suffer as shoppers converge on the town with the greatest variety of stores.\nExamples: West Burlington, Iowa; Wickenburg, Arizona. Exurbs See: Commuter town Government Centers Government in rural regions is becoming increasingly consolidated, so that a small number",
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"to live in a small town and work in a park-like campus filled with young people and because there is so much competition for tenure-track positions at more prestigious schools.\nStores often introduce strategies to reduce customers' perceived psychic costs, because these can cause customers to delay or forgo purchases that they are considering. Customers have many areas of perceived psychic costs in regards to making purchases. They may be worried that there will be a sale after they buy the item, in which case they will pay a higher price. For mechanical items such as cars and appliances, customers may",
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"and transportation differences between the rural and urban areas. Rural food deserts are mostly the result of large supermarket stores that move into areas and create competition that is impossible for small businesses to keep up with. The competition causes many small grocers to go out of business. This makes the task of getting nutritious, whole ingredients much more difficult for citizens who live far away from large supermarket stores.\nIn most cases, people who live in rural food deserts are more likely to lack a high school degree or GED, to experience increased poverty rates, and to have lower median",
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"Local purchasing Rationale for local purchasing Advocates often suggest local purchasing as a form of moral purchasing. Local purchasing is often claimed to be better for the environment and better for working conditions. Others contend (with empirical evidence) that local purchasing and contracting enhances local job creation and wealth while strengthening community cohesiveness.\nThe first potential moral benefit is environmental: Bringing goods from afar generally requires using more energy than transporting goods locally, and some environmental advocates see this as a serious environmental threat. Transportation contributes to environmental contamination in addition to the pollution caused by chemical inputs in the",
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"older, urban facilities can accommodate, meaning that urban supermarket development often requires the construction of new facilities. And, while suburban supermarkets are typically 45,000 square feet (4,200 m²), urban supermarkets are only 25,000 square feet (2,300 m²) on average. This means that urban supermarkets can sell significantly fewer products than suburban stores, which contributes to fewer profits. Community issues A grocery store's 24-hour lighting \"does a lot for the sense of safety and community in the neighborhood,\" because supermarkets can be a safe haven. Citizens feel a \"dramatic change in atmosphere,\" after new supermarkets are built.\nIn addition, new supermarkets can be used",
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"and health centers. The increased availability of online food retailers and delivery services, such as AmazonFresh and FreshDirect, can also help in food deserts by delivering food straight to residences. The ability for elderly people, disabled people, and those who live geographically far from supermarkets to use SNAP benefits online to order groceries is a major resource. For those who lack transportation options, Transportation network companies such as Uber and Lyft may be vital resources to increase access to nutritious foods in food deserts. Geisinger Health Services Fresh Food Pharmacy In central Pennsylvania, an innovative solution to food insecurity for",
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"consist overwhelmingly of working households with a substantial share of middle-income people. Security A problem in urban and suburban stores alike, shoplifting is 6% to 8% of supermarket revenues. Fear of crime also acts as a big deterrent for investors, but some cities interested in developing new grocery stores have placed police stations near development sites in order to allay developers' fears. Land The expense and scarcity of land in urban environments pose some of the greatest problems for supermarket developers. Finding sites for urban development also involves fees, complexity, length, and unpredictability.\nToday's suburban supermarket model requires more space than",
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"the United Kingdom, the retail park is a similar concept to the North American power center. They are found on the fringes of most large towns and cities in highly accessible locations and are aimed at households owning a car, though there are often also bus services. They are an alternative to busy city centres. Such developments have been encouraged by cheaper, more affordable land on the outskirts of towns and cities, and with loose planning controls in a number of Enterprise Zones, making planning and development very easy. In recent years, in many areas across the UK, planning",
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"access to affordable food, thus limiting their ability to maintain a healthy diet. For these families living in poverty, many people work multiple jobs with rotating or evening shifts that make it difficult to find time to shop for food. Time constraints affect decision-making and people often choose to go to a closer convenience store rather than travel farther for fresh food. Families in urban food deserts may lack access to a car, which adds to the time needed to shop for groceries. Additionally, convenience stores and corner stores are typically open later hours than a traditional grocery store, making",
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"from the market.\nFor communities, spending at local independent businesses also generates more jobs and wealth in the local economy compared to spending at absentee-owned businesses, including corporate chains.\nThe goal of localisation is to reduce unnecessary transport, support entrepreneurism and to strengthen and diversify community economies. This calls for condensation of agriculture and supports the idea that local farmers are capable of sustaining a community.\nThe term “Buy Local” has become subject to varying interpretations. While leading advocates of local independent business such as the American Independent Business Alliance say the term should apply only to locally owned independent businesses, some campaigns",
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"as location of community programs—health exams, nutritional education, eye exams, voter registration, birthdays for children, Western Union wire transfers so immigrants can wire remittances, selling event tickets, having Driver’s License renewal facilities, and providing phones for discount international calls. Besides contributing to a community’s overall well-being, such services make a grocery store more appealing to urban consumers: developing the services that urban citizens desire is a crucial way to make new supermarket development work.\nBy engaging with local organizations, supermarkets can create a link with a community that will contribute to security, reduction in shrinkage, and provide for better selection and",
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"is their distance from the main distribution centres used by supermarkets which are mostly located near centres of population in England.\nTo increase their incomes, many farmers have diversified; the average income from non-farming business activities on farms in Wales in 2013/2014 was £4,900. Tourism-related activities accounted for much of this; these included bed and breakfast accommodation, self-catering accommodation in redundant outbuildings or purpose-built units, bunkhouses for walkers and provision of food-related services in cafés, restaurants, farm shops, pick-your-own and farmer's markets. Indoor and outdoor leisure and recreational facilities are provided by some farmers including paint-balling, laser-combat games, pony trekking, mountain",
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"in accessing large grocery stores due to have to travel over a mile in urban areas or more than 10 in urban areas may increase reliance on convenience stores and restaurants(fast food), resulting in a poor diet and diet-related health problems. The USDA recognizes that the limited food access in Urban core areas, “are characterized by higher levels of racial segregation and greater income inequality.” In small-town and rural areas with limited the lack of transportation infrastructure.”\nHowever not all chain groceries will go into small neighborhoods due to the risk and upkeep, For places like West Oakland in California, where",
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"from fast-food restaurants. These residents are also forced to purchase highly processed foods because of the lack of fresh food options. In addition, food at independently owned grocery stores are often 10-60% more expensive than food offered at large chain supermarkets. Education Housing segregation has an effect on the quality of education received by community members. Specifically, the spatial separation of specific populations due to housing segregation leads to geographic concentrations of quality education. For example, public schools in suburban areas are usually more equipped with resources, have a higher percentage quality teachers, and produce a larger amount of successful",
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"where services are sold at the same price as in urban areas, the quality is often poorer with, for example, frequent electricity power cuts, potholed roads, longer waits for emergency services and poor quality of internet access. Rural depopulation It is argued by Dick Roche that\n\"The most important ingredient in rural development is population.\" \nThe implication of this argument is that permitting one-off housing sustains rural populations by making it economically feasible for people to live in rural areas.\nThere are two counter-arguments: that one-off housing draws people out of rural towns and villages, stifling the growth of these regions, or",
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"this is related to policies that favour access to retail services by non-motorised modes. The Danish 1997 Planning Act requires that planning shall encourage a diverse mix of retail shops in small and medium-sized towns and in individual districts of large cities and ensure that retail trade uses will be placed in locations to which people have good access by walking, bicycling and public transport. From the mid-1970s the Netherlands has had policies in place to severely restrict the growth of large out-of-town retail developments. Germany has had federal planning regulations in place to restrict retail uses to designated areas",
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"and tax revenues that grocery stores provide. Strategies Where supermarket developers have neglected some urban neighborhoods, city governments and non-profits can work together to market the potential of inner city areas to grocery store executives. Chicago’s planning department provided an information guide with a database of suitable land parcels to executives at a grocers’ expo in 2005.\nMany of Oakland’s existing food retail businesses are located within Redevelopment Areas, allowing them to qualify for redevelopment fund assistance. The Food Systems Assessment Report for Oakland suggested the creation of Food Retail Enterprise Zones, whereby food retailers that provide nutritious foods",
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"controls have been tightened to preserve the countryside. This has made it more difficult for such developments to proceed, resulting in many smaller, more compact retail parks, sometimes consisting of only three or four stores being built on former brownfield sites. There are also environmental disadvantages to large retail parks on the rural fringe, including the increased traffic and pollution that occurs during access.\nTypically retail parks host a range of chain stores, including furniture, clothes or footwear superstores, electrical stores, carpet and others - and the anchor tenant is usually a supermarket. Owing to their out-of-town sites, abundance of",
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"and retailers are by-passed, and revenue received from the sales contributes immediately to a farm’s income.\nIn terms of social goals, farmgate sales helps to build a direct relationship between the farming community and consumers as well as fostering respect for food and awareness of how it is produced by consumers. It can also contribute to budget savings by consumers (see also potato movement).\nIn environmental terms, farmgate sales shorten transport distances and are expected to reduce food waste. Sales methods Farmgate sales are most common in the form of either retail outlets on the farm itself in a farm shop, roadside",
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"large retail outlets set up shop, while pre-existing retailers and many others have rebuilt into larger venues. One of the woes of the village is its heavy concentration of minimum-wage, service industry jobs. Other similarly sized communities nearby have a much wider range of income opportunities: Wolfville is an area supported by higher-education jobs with Acadia University, and Kentville is an area who supports itself with an industrial park, hospital and an orientation toward professional centers. Due to New Minas having no hospital of its own, citizens must travel to Kentville by way of public transit or by use of",
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"town's economy had dramatically shifted from stagnant to a fast-moving basis. Aside from agriculture being the main backbone of the town's economy, commerce and trade also became the second economic-based income of the town and its residents with the opening of numerous business establishments, hotels and financial institutions that generated many opportunities and more employment for its residents. In 2015, SM Prime opened its first branch of Savemore Market in the town along National Highway while Puregold, a large retail chain opened its first Puregold Price Club Store in the same year. Multi-national fast food chain like Jollibee opened their",
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"usage reductions. Without improving public transport connections you can only expect increasing private car usage and increased condition and time delays. Retail Retail is one of the four main components of activity centres, towards the broader social and environmental sustainability plus economic objectives of the increasingly preferred polycentric approach to planning and managing cities.\nIncorporating retail into the activity centre mix of uses provides benefits for the immediate centre and surrounding community including a:\no more equitable access to shops and services,\no source of employment,\no Strengthening and opportunities for marketing local economies and independent small businesses – in turn more able to",
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"examined and have revealed to play a major role in the contribution to health disparities, particularly the presence of fast food restaurants and convenience stores. In neighborhoods that have access barriers to supermarkets because of proximity or prices, consumers are left with only two options; convenience stores and fast food restaurants. Low-income communities that are “lacking healthy food access—can simultaneously be ‘food swamps,’ consisting in a saturation of access to unhealthy food (e.g., fast-food, convenience stores) and nonfood (e.g., gas stations) venues, characterized by calorie-dense and high-sugared food items”, these environments reinforce unhealthy behaviors among residents. Currently, there are few",
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"low-income communities with access to supermarkets but with financial barriers to access those healthy foods. In a study done by researchers at Portland State University, a food mirage was examined in a neighborhood where residents living in poverty were surrounded by new grocery stores. Researchers found that out of the 81% of impoverished residents surveyed, 61% percent lived in moderate or extreme food mirage. Resulting in traveling more than 1.8 miles past their neighborhood grocery store in search of better prices.\nWhile food deserts are often assessed by the distance in miles between individuals' homes and supermarkets, and food mirages assess",
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"of subsidies for the production of these foods will not appreciably change their lower cost in comparison to healthier options such as fruits and vegetables. Supermarket construction Local and state governments can also work to pass legislation that calls for the establishment of healthy food retailers in low-income neighborhoods classified as food deserts. The implementation of such policies can reduce hunger and food insecurity by increasing the availability and variety of healthy food options and providing a convenient means of access. Examples of this are The Pennsylvania Fresh Food Financing Initiative and The New York City FRESH (Food Retail Expansion",
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"is fresher. It may also influence a consumer's decision when it comes to multiple options; with a domestic sourcing strategy, selling local products can help to gain support from consumers who are concerned about the origin of the product that they are buying for political, ethical, or environmental reasons. It is also persuasive to tell consumers that local products are quality assured; buying with confidence is a very important aspect for retailers to gain trust from consumers, subsequently increasing brand awareness and loyalty. Cost benefit Business or retailers who have strong relationships with local suppliers do not have to go",
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"through a long supply chain which will help to reduce the cost of sales, resulting in attracting more consumers with a lower selling price. Less transportation between the supplier and retailer may also reduce the selling price as transportation costs are cut. Job opportunities Increases in domestic sourcing rather than international sourcing will increase the job opportunities for locals. If all local business supports domestic sourcing, and the demand for domestic sourcing will increase, more job opportunities is then created to meet the new demands. Benefits to the local economy According to IGD report, over 54% of consumers buy local",
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"from either local grocery stores or market boxes sent to your door. However, some of these tend to be expensive or require internet accessibility to control your account, depending on the community especially those in rural areas this option may not be possible.\nThere are other innovations from the nonprofit, social enterprise sector that show promise for connecting residents with limited access to fresh food to sources of fresh produce. New Roots Fresh Stop Markets were created in 2009 with the express purpose of \"igniting community power for fresh food access.\" Fresh Stop Markets are fresh food markets that pop up",
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"the concept of decentralization. The creation and maintenance of a regional economy is supported by communities who believe that their community is economically better off sustaining itself rather than being part of and relying upon a larger economy, such as a national economy or the global economy. This is a movement against the increasing globalization of all economies around the world. The main tenets of fiscal localism include buying products that are made locally and using a currency that is unique to that local economy. This allows a community to grow at a controllable and sustainable rate by supporting farmers,",
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"residents of low-income neighborhoods with greater access to healthy food options at more remote supermarkets. This strategy may be limited by the fact that low-income populations often face time constraints in managing employment and caring for children and may not have the time to commute to buy healthy foods. Furthermore, this method does not address the issue of neighborhood deprivation, failing to resolve the disparities in access to goods and services across geographical space. Community gardens Local governments can also mitigate hunger and food insecurity in low-income neighborhoods by establishing community gardens. According to the Encyclopedia of Community, a community",
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"Help to Buy Help to Buy is the name of a government programme in the United Kingdom that aims to help first time buyers, and those looking to move home, purchase residential property. It was announced in Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne's 2013 budget speech, and was described as \"the biggest government intervention in the housing market since the Right to Buy scheme\" of the 1980s. It is an extension of a previous programme called FirstBuy that was aimed solely at first-time buyers. Help to Buy has itself been expanded and extended. Oversight Aware of its upward effect upon",
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"by payroll were manufacturing companies such as T B Wood's Inc., Manitowoc cranes, retail trade, and health care and social assistance. Despite suburban growth, much of the economy of the area is still largely based on agriculture.\nRetail stores such as Wal-Mart and Lowe's serve the population with jobs and basic needs. The Chambersburg Mall with one anchor store and about thirty-three vacant stores is located in the unincorporated village of Scotland, about four miles (6 km) north of town on Interstate 81. Chambersburg's retail sector has grown quickly since 2006 with the opening of Target, Petsmart, Michaels, and Kohls near the",
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"are done by car only. The town's economy is driven mostly by service industries that serve the residents such as a grocery store, convenience stores, doctors offices, hair salons, real-estate offices and restaurants among others.\nWith population growth in the town in recent years the housing market has become a significant part of the local economy. Torbay has become the most expensive housing market in the province with average home prices surpassing $375,000. Between 2009 and 2010 the town also saw the largest appreciation in housing prices in the St. John's CMA, with housing prices rising 32%. Air The town is",
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"an area's likelihood of having a supermarket. Case studies Many cities and states across the US have recognized the urban supermarket gap problem and have developed plans to address the issue of food access. Additionally, the U.S. federal government established the Healthy Food Financing Initiative. The initiative provided more than $400 million in funding from the Treasury Department, USDA and Department of Health and Human Services to promote expanding access to nutritious foods, including developing and equipping grocery stores and other small retailers to sell healthful food in low-income rural and urban communities that currently lack this option. Pennsylvania",
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"a type of cooperative which employs economies of scale on behalf of its retailer members. Retailers' cooperatives use their purchasing power to acquire discounts from manufacturers and often share marketing expenses. They are often recognized as \"local groups\" because they own their own stores within the community. It is common for locally owned grocery stores, hardware stores, and pharmacies to participate in retailers' cooperatives. Ace Hardware, True Value, and NAPA are examples of a retailers' cooperative. Retail cooperatives also allow consumers to supply their own earnings and gain bargaining power outside of the business sector. Retail cooperatives mainly reside within",
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"geared to multiethnic tastes. Compounding the problem, chain stores are generally unfamiliar with ethnic preferences. Chains tend to develop a formula that works for their core market, which consists of middle-class, white suburbanites.\nOne obstacle to supermarket growth is that developers tend to overlook the market potential of urban communities. Underserved, urban neighborhoods tend to be composed of populations with lower incomes on average, but the density of an urban environment also means that city neighborhoods tend to have more income per acre than suburban areas. Studies by the Initiative for a Competitive Inner City in Boston found that \"nearly 8",
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"and wholesalers may also undertake retail distribution of goods to bypass the intermediary retailer, by which they earn higher profits. Importance and Role The importance of domestic trade in a country is that it facilitates exchange of goods within the country. By doing this it also makes sure that factors of production reach to the right places so that the economy of the country can grow. By allowing all different types of goods and services to reach to all parts of the country it improves the standard of living of the residents of the country as well as the employment",
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"Fiscal localism Fiscal localism \"Buy local\" or local purchasing is the most visible face of fiscal localism. There are more complex institutions (both new and well established) that contribute to a community's ability to flourish. Institutions like credit unions, CDFI's (Community Development Financial Institutions), and local currency or complementary currency all can contribute to making communities more resilient and wealthy.\nLocal currency has been in the news most, with journalists citing the Berkshares in Massachusetts, and the Ithaca Hours in Ithaca, New York. Beyond these salient examples, there are thousands of local currencies all over the world.\nFiscal localism is rooted in",
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"produce retailers, familiar High Street brands, major banking chains and professional services such as accountants, dentists and architects.\nThere are also a number of public houses, cafes, small restaurants and take-away food outlets in the area, plus a number of small and medium-sized enterprises. In July 2006, the closure of the 80-year-old British Sugar plant near Boroughbridge Road meant the loss of 100 jobs and problems for many local farmers.\nResidential homes are a mixture of council estates and private freeholds. Provision was made for small shopping areas of four or five stores to be located in the centre of the estates.",
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"the A490. Economy The local economy is primarily based upon agriculture and local industry. The Smithfield Livestock Market is the largest one-day sheep market in Europe, whilst the town's industrial estates are home to numerous different types of small industry.\nDue to the town's small size and population the attraction of high street stores is limited, meaning many of the residents are forced to shop in neighbouring towns like Newtown and Shrewsbury. Education The town is the home of Ardwyn Nursery and Infants School, Oldford Nursery and Infants School, Gungrog Nursery and Infants School, Maes-y-dre Primary School. Welshpool High School is",
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"wants them. Really, Really Free Markets are free social events in which freegans can share goods instead of discarding them, share skills, give presents and eat food. A free store is a temporary market where people exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. In New York City, freegan.info often distributes recovered food items for free in an ad-hoc manner after trash tours.\nFreegans also advocate sharing travel resources. Internet-based ridesharing or hitchhiking reduces but does not eliminate use of cars and all the related resources needed to maintain and operate them. Community bicycle programs and collectives facilitate community sharing",
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"ethnic minorities, children, the elderly, those with disabilities, adults lacking basic skills, and immigrant populations. Criteria for Socially Responsible Procurement can be applied to every stage of a supply-chain e.g. from mining to assembly and distribution. Economic Often differences in the purchase price between a non-sustainable and sustainable alternative are negligible. Yet even where the sustainable option costs more upfront, savings of energy, water and waste over the lifetime of the product or service can provide significant financial savings. On a macroeconomic level, it can be argued that there are economic benefits in the form of efficiency gains from incorporating",
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"to improve levels of self-esteem or of self-efficacy. Households and small communities take advantage of vacant land and contribute not only to their household food needs but also the needs of their resident city. The CFSC states that:\nCommunity and residential gardening, as well as small-scale farming, save household food dollars. They promote nutrition and free cash for non-garden foods and other items. As an example, you can raise your own chickens on an urban farm and have fresh eggs for only $0.44 per dozen.\nThis allows families to generate larger incomes selling to local grocers or to local outdoor markets while",
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"benefits, will contribute to the evaluation of options in deciding what to buy. One way to evaluate more sustainable consumption is to consider the total customer cost which incurs in acquisition, use and post-use phases. Purchase Consumers have to trade off the environmental benefits against other attributes such as higher price, better performance and better design. In addition they may need to change the manner of behavior that they usually do. Use In this stage, maintenance, repair, use frequency and type of use are of interest. Some key products such as homes, cars and domestic appliances, much of the",
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"local industry programs in existence since the 1960s, although some degree of local autonomy is allowed. However, a major departure places output, pricing, and purchases outside central planning. In addition, direct sales stores were established to distribute goods produced under the movement directly to consumers. The movement is characterized as a third sector in the production of consumer goods, alongside centrally controlled light industry and locally controlled traditional light industry. Moreover, there were some reports in the mid-1980s of increasing encouragement of small-scale private handicrafts and farm markets. As of 1992, however, no move was reported to expand the size",
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"have big businesses or various other economic activities. People make money in any way that they can. Some run small family businesses from their homes, such as tailoring, shoemaking and laundry. Others find themselves digging through the ample mounds of trash hoping to find something worth keeping or selling. A large number of the slum’s residents dig through the many mountains of garbage, including children. This has an effect on the health of the residents. The slum does not offer water, electricity, or good roads.\nBesides the home-run businesses in the slum, another trade is arising that is becoming more common",
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"community environments. These include programs that encourage supermarkets to return to low-income communities and that improve nutrition, physical activity, and staff wellness in schools nationwide. The foundation partnered with The Food Trust, a non-profit in Philadelphia that helps make fresh, affordable food accessible to the underprivileged and educates children about healthy eating. The Food Trust's research on childhood obesity led the Philadelphia school system to ban soda vending machines from all of its schools, the strongest measure in the country.\nHealthy Communities: Supporting initiatives that are helping to change conditions in local communities so that residents can reach their greatest",
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"developed retail facilities and innovative products. Hypothesis confirms that high sensory seekers are more sensitive to realize the new alternatives, think over more options, making less rejection decision with cognitive assessment, will attempt and eventually take more innovations. Generally, high-sensitivity seekers incline to have a reasonable expectation for goods and equipment through the evaluation stage entering the practical experiments, but consciousness and the model that is ultimately adopted seem to depend on the essence of innovation. Recreational Shopping Tendency For leisure consumers, whether to buy products or enjoy services, shopping is a comfortable way to spend time. They want to",
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[
"to subsidise multi-national retail chains and draw business from local downtown business. Much of this subsidy was due to competition between Halifax, Bedford and Dartmouth to host these giant retail chains and this controversy helped lead the province to force amalgamation as a way to end wasteful municipal rivalries. In the past few years, urban housing sprawl has even reached these industrial/retail parks as new blasting techniques permitted construction on the granite wilderness around the city. What was once a business park surrounded by forest and a highway on one side has become a large suburb with",
"-26.81092260661535"
],
[
"rural areas to be financially independent and improved livelihood, which in turn helps reduce rural poverty. It hopes that through their aid, villages can become self govern and capable of serving their community’s economics and social needs.,\nSEEDS provides saving and credit services for starting a small enterprise or to improve livelihood as well as non-financial services such as business counselling, training in technical skills and market information. It uses the village banking microfinance model to help the rural communities. Village banking treats the whole community as one unit, and establishes semi-formal or formal institutions through which micro-finance is",
"-26.806261982070282"
],
[
" By the 1990s, many supermarkets in the flatlands also closed their doors to invest in more profitable areas.\nBy 2005, The California Endowment and its then-$26 million initiative California FreshWorks set out to increase availability of healthy food options by investing in grocery stores in low-income and minority communities. As of 2014, about $264 million had been raised from a variety of investors. Illinois The Illinois Fresh Food begun with a $10 million state grant was set up to finance full-service grocery stores in neighborhoods with little access to fresh foods.\nChicago's Retail Chicago Program is outreach program for retailers, brokers,",
"-26.792182392673567"
],
[
"Shopping mall high school Shopping Mall High School is a term used in reference to consumer-oriented secondary educational institutions offering an abundance of student choice within its program. This most often includes choice of schedule, classes, a wide variety of subject matter, subjulty, and extracurricular activities (sports and hobbies). Schools dubbed shopping mall high schools make such numerous and different accommodations for students in an attempt to allow students to achieve the customized, individualized education and training they desire. Shopping mall high schools offer various curricula in order to maximize holding power, graduation percentages, and customer satisfaction. Background",
"-26.776655190624297"
],
[
"small communities where local businesses are often shut down. Advantages Many small businesses can be started at a low cost and on a part-time basis, while a person continues a regular job with an employer or provides care for family members in the home. In developing countries, many small businesses are sole-proprietor operations such as selling produce at a market stall or preparing hot food to sell on the street, that provide a small income. In the 2000s, a small business is also well suited to Internet marketing; because, it can easily serve specialized niches, something that would have been",
"-26.766839804033225"
],
[
"strategy that strengthens the ties between the city and its inhabitants. There is a lack of clients and purchasing power for retailers, which causes problems especially for working-class neighborhoods. There is a public hearing that is held to brainstorm strategies for solving this problem, like focusing exclusively on physical solutions like improvements of housing stock and public space. Long-term monitoring of sustainable urban open space development at the city district level will also be helpful in the long run. Concrete socio-economic evidence of the benefits that green spaces bring to shrinking cities would be a valuable contribution to the rehabilitation",
"-26.727186546777375"
],
[
"Health) program, which promote the construction of supermarkets in low-income neighborhoods by offering a reduction in land or building taxes for a certain period of time and providing grants, loans, and tax exemption for infrastructure costs. Such policies may be limited by the oligopolistic nature of supermarkets, in which a few large supermarket chains maintain the large majority of market share and exercise considerable influence over retail locations and prices. Transportation infrastructure If it is unfeasible to implement policies aimed at grocery store construction in low-income neighborhoods, local and state governments can instead invest in transportation infrastructure. This would provide",
"-26.646473321306985"
],
[
"website states:\n‘It can be difficult—if not impossible—to find fresh, affordable healthy food in many urban and rural low-income communities. One way to make fresh produce more accessible is to encourage alternative retail outlets, such as farmers’ markets, farm stands, and community supported agriculture (CSA) programs, where farmers can sell their produce directly to consumers.’\nTheir report entitled ‘California Certified Farmers’ Markets and Farm Stands: A Closer Look at State Law’ argues for more flexible regulations. Change Lab Solutions has written a fact sheet entitled ‘Creating a Permit Program for Produce Cart Vendors.’ University of California at Davis The University of California",
"-26.529895360872615"
],
[
"contribute to gentrification. The perception of organic foods being for an affluent population, plus the perceived notion of eliteness that comes from organic-based market chains like Whole Foods and Trader Joe's work against the goals of most urban agricultural initiatives by creating exclusive spaces. Community gardens based on crop sharing, knowledge sharing, and community building help to promote access to healthy foods by creating accessible spaces.\nOne issue faced by lower-income citizens is that they don't have the time or energy needed for becoming active in a community garden, and therefore struggle to receive the benefits they offer. Community gardens that",
"-26.499059764377307"
],
[
"In April 2003, Pennsylvania passed the nation's first statewide economic development initiative aimed at improving access to markets that sell healthy food in underserved rural and urban communities. The legislation devoted $100 million to agriculture projects, including the development of grocery stores and farmers' markets, and $40 million to support the development of 10 new stores in underserved communities across Pennsylvania.\nThe resulting Fresh Food Financing Initiative was a public-private partnership in association with The Food Trust started in 2004 with state seed funds. The program encouraged the development of new supermarkets by providing grants of up to $250,000 or loans",
"-26.38616794871632"
],
[
"in poor neighborhoods are exempt from Oakland business taxes. It also suggested programs, like the Green Business certification program could award “Green and Healthy Oakland” certification to retail establishments that stock food or offer menu items conforming to specific criteria (fresh, nutritious, local, etc.) \nMarket leaders close urban stores, even if they are showing a profit, to focus on the most productive stores in the suburbs. But \"operators in second and third place in a metro area may seek to expand their core clientele outside the highly contested, white suburbs to other areas and groups, such as the mixed-income neighborhoods",
"-26.344405854702927"
],
[
"grocery stores a \"competitive advantage\" over competitors Whole Foods, Kroger and Trader Joe's. Walmart contributed around 14.5% of the entire quantity of food purchased in the USA during 2016. This figure was more than double the contribution from their closest competitor Kroger.\nNeighborhood Market stores expanded slowly at first as a way to fill gaps between Walmart Supercenters and Discount Stores in existing markets. In its first 12 years, the company opened about 180 Walmart Neighborhood Markets. By 2010, Walmart said it was ready to accelerate its expansion plans for the grocery stores. As of July 31, 2019, there were 688 Walmart",
"-26.288062224717578"
],
[
"locally owned and operated, with inventory support from SuperValu. To compete with other grocery chains such as Giant Eagle and Shop 'n Save, FoodLand has partnered with Fueland gas stations/convenience stores in the greater Pittsburgh area. Most FueLand sites are located just outside the grocery store.\nTo further meet the needs of its customers, Foodland offers an internet shopping service for hard to find food products through its website. Customers can order these items direct and have them delivered to their door. These are items typically stocked only in specialty food retail stores and are hard to locate in general. Many",
"-26.276102638687007"
],
[
"serves thousands of families through their \"Martha's Market\" choice grocery program set up in eight local elementary schools. These markets serve each school once per month, bringing free groceries and the opportunity for children and parents to fill their shopping bags with a variety of fresh produce and shelf-stable foods—all while enjoying cooking demonstrations, tastings, and information tables. On July 1, Martha's Table and Arcadia Foods launched a new weekly mobile farmer's market that offers a combination of free and for-sale produce and groceries to low-income families across the Metro D.C. area. Through this partnership, a bright, green truck",
"-26.27126111398684"
],
[
"an independent economic activity but within a supportive group context. Purchasing cooperative A \"purchasing cooperative\" is a type of cooperative arrangement, often among businesses, to agree to aggregate demand to get lower prices from selected suppliers. Retailers' cooperatives are a form of purchasing cooperative.\nMajor purchasing cooperatives include Best Western, ACE Hardware and CCA Global Partners.\nAgricultural service cooperatives provide various services to their individual farming members, and to agricultural production cooperatives, where production resources such as land or machinery are pooled and members farm jointly.\nAgricultural supply cooperatives aggregate purchases, storage, and distribution of farm inputs for their members. By taking advantage",
"-26.23770560626872"
],
[
"areas. Instead, they allowed the region to rely on industry—using barges to send natural resources to market, requiring that workers have only minimal education, etc.--and created no infrastructure for business.\nThere is a lot of evidence to show that economic status generally has a positive effect on education. This positive link suggests that people in Appalachia are less educated than in rest areas of the nation. \"Labor economists estimated that the inflation-adjusted rate of return to an additional year of schooling is about 10 percent on average\". (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) This means, each additional school year will contribute a",
"-26.227759315283038"
],
[
"run by governments and Chambers of Commerce consider \"local\" to be merely a geographic consideration. Additionally, many corporations have manipulated the term in ways critics call \"local-washing\". Alternative viewpoints The argument that \"buying local\" is good for the economy is questioned by many economic theorists. They argue that transportation costs actually account for a fraction of overall production prices, and that choosing less efficient local products over more efficient nonlocal products is an economic deadweight loss. Moreover, the community as a whole does not actually save money because consumers have to spend so much more on the more expensive local",
"-26.201814466156065"
],
[
"attempt to strengthen the local economy. The program also seeks to increase public awareness of the importance of local economies and to foster optimism for the prospect of gaining local economic self-sufficiency.\nThe project seeks to assure that a high percentage of each dollar spent will remain circulating in the community. This increase in community capital creates a positive environment for new entrepreneurial ventures. It is hoped that new businesses sprouting from the resulting local generation of wealth will replace imported goods with locally produced items, which are more environmentally sustainable in that they do not need to be shipped over",
"-26.19790138566168"
],
[
"(a Walmart type store), Farmers made a decision to become a far more fashionable shopping destination, ranging an increasing amount of branded product. Where Farmers once would have faced competition from The Warehouse (nationwide) and various small chain stores, they've established themselves well apart from this discount retailer. Farmers still face competition from remaining department stores Smith & Caughey's, Ballantynes, and H & J Smith's, none of which are nationwide.\nFarmers closed its Queen Street, Auckland, store in rented premises in 2014 at the conclusion of a long-term lease. In November 2015, the company opened a new store located on the",
"-26.190014512394555"
],
[
"value. They maximize the potential of their site by building many stories. As one travels farther from the inner core, the amount that commerce is willing to pay declines rapidly.\nIndustry, however, is willing to pay to be in the outer core. There is more land available for factories, but it still has many of the benefits of the inner core, such as a marketplace and good transportation linkages.\nAs one goes farther out, the land becomes less attractive to industry because of the reducing transportation linkages and a decreasing marketplace. Because householders do not rely heavily on these factors and can",
"-26.178743800439406"
],
[
"parks or estates for light industry, the economy is based on agriculture and tourism. A high proportion of the working population is employed in the service sector. The uplands support sheep and beef cattle rearing, while in the Vale of Clwyd dairy farming and wheat and barley crops predominate. Many towns have livestock markets and the farming supports farm machinery merchants, vets, feed merchants, contractors and other ancillary trades. With their incomes on the decline, farmers have found opportunities in tourism, rural crafts, specialist food shops, farmers' markets and value-added food products.\nTourism is nowadays the main source of income. The",
"-26.13260282826377"
],
[
"Communal shopping Communal shopping is a method of shopping where the shopper enlists others to participate in the purchase decision. This added participation empowers the shopper by giving additional points of view. Having multiple opinions and ideas from other people provides the shopper with a more encompassing examination of the product/service.\nAnother factor that comes from communal shopping is boosted confidence in the decision to buy or not to buy. With a group contributing to the purchase decision, the shopper is more likely to feel like they have properly inspected the product or service. This confidence allows the shopper to reach",
"-26.109017502050847"
],
[
"living in places with limited grocery stores find themselves in a situation where they are unable to access the food they need. Food deserts affect a high percentage of minorities due to them being a part of a lower socioeconomic class. The issue with urban food deserts is not always the lack of food in the area, but the lack of nutritional knowledge and the food inequality seen in urban areas.\nAccording to research conducted by Tulane University in 2009 2.3 million Americans lived more than one mile away from a super market, and did not own a car. For those that",
"-26.092043876764365"
],
[
"However, to create a consumer dependency on urban agriculture and to introduce local food production as a sustainable career for farmers, markets would have to be open regularly. For example, the Los Angeles Farmers' Market is open seven days a week and has linked several local grocers together to provide different food products. The market's central location in downtown Los Angeles provides the perfect interaction for a diverse group of sellers to access their consumers. Queensland, Australia In Queensland many people have started a trend of urban farming both utilizing Aquaponics and self-watering containers. Cairo, Egypt In Egypt, development of",
"-26.063732934650034"
],
[
"who otherwise have few marketable skills apart from their labour, become actively involved in the market economy. Benefits are that it does not rely on education or language, it adapts well to providing work for extended family groups, and in large market growing regions even wider community support networks. Sharing of knowledge and experience within communities reduces risks, and supports a network of other trades such as carriers, market agents, and heavy machinery contractors, and contract farm labour. Market-gardening land is typically relatively cheap and allows immigrants to purchase land, often with an accompanying residence, far more readily than in",
"-26.0490272998577"
],
[
"Shop-keepers complain of heightened competition between vendors, a situation made worse by the overall decreasing demand for goods as more villagers are forced to rely on contraband Mexican goods solely to be able to provide for themselves and their families as inflation continues to afflict rural communities throughout our country. Economy The majority of villagers made their wealth during the climax of the sugar cane industry, and villagers are grateful to the past economy for having provided houses and land which, in today’s tight times, would be impossible to acquire. However, the labour force of Xaibe today has forcibly become",
"-26.045984650569153"
],
[
"puzzle by delivering essential products and services at affordable prices to the rural poor in the developing world. MCM entrepreneurs, primarily young women and homemakers who work within defined territories, provide solutions to health problems, save families money, help individuals increase their productivity, and help protect the environment. MCM entrepreneurs offer solutions to help the population at the “base of the pyramid” — in this case, the most vulnerable rural communities — by addressing the “what” (essential products and services), the “who” (rural villagers), and the “where” (rural villages) by creating a highly scalable local distribution network that works to",
"-26.037998658754987"
],
[
"wages welfare. On the other hand, because e-commerce requires sufficient stocks that could be delivered to customers in time, the warehouse becomes an important element. Warehouse needs more staff to manage, supervise and organize, thus the condition of warehouse environment will be concerned by employees. Impact on customers E-commerce brings convenience for customers as they do not have to leave home and only need to browse website online, especially for buying the products which are not sold in nearby shops. It could help customers buy wider range of products and save customers’ time. Consumers also gain power through online shopping.",
"-26.00531611527549"
],
[
"Furthermore, the development of infrastructure and public utilities such as electricity and water supply due to the increasing number of tourists also made the locals’ lives more convenient and comfortable. Economic Economically, floating markets help to improve the standard of living by generating jobs, thus improving income and increasing employment opportunities for local people directly, e.g. as hotel staff or tour guides. Moreover, the plentiful resources within the communities can be used by the locals to produce souvenirs or dishes for sale. As a result, these can benefit communities by providing more funds to further develop them.",
"-25.998739681672305"
],
[
"be more competitive, with their local knowledge of the industry.\nBuilding Broker services include everything from the initial site survey to creation of the home design; then qualifying builders and managing the tender process to ensure client satisfaction. Typically, savings can be achieved in excess of 10% when compared to the traditional method of purchasing a new home by way of display homes. Clear Build, as an example, does not draw its own plans, but utilises the customers plans, forcing builders into a competitive environment to ensure your plans are priced fairly, with significant savings possible.\nPlaceme differs from the standard procedure,",
"-25.96046223602025"
],
[
"and developers to introduce them to the many community retail development opportunities in Chicago and expedite their entry into these new markets by serving as a \"One Stop Shop\" to assist them during their site selection process. Other states Similar programs created after Pennsylvania's initiative include the New Jersey Food Access Initiative and Colorado Fresh Food Financing Fund ad at the city level with New Orleans Fresh Food Retailer Initiative and Cincinnati Fresh Food Financing Fund. Economic effects Besides causing a lack of access to healthy foods, the urban supermarket gap also means that inner city neighborhoods lack the jobs",
"-25.932674426410813"
],
[
"and to help improve local economies through micro and neuro economics.",
"-25.932607397378888"
],
[
"where the population is more spread out. This results in lower expenditures for the same level of service, which saves taxpayer dollars. The efficiencies gained can also result in benefits to the private sector. For example, grocery stores and pizza delivery businesses can serve only a limited area. If more customers are located within their service delivery area, the cost of delivering their services is decreased.\nUndeveloped land at the periphery of urban areas is often the target of growth management efforts since its future use is yet to be determined. That land can be targeted",
"-25.898270604084246"
],
[
"clinic, and improving infrastructure, such as bringing in electricity and bettering roads.\nFarmers' organisations that use their social premium for public goods often finance educational scholarships. For example, Costa Rican coffee co-operative, Coocafé, has supported hundreds of children and youth at school and university through the financing of scholarships from funding from their fair trade social premium. In terms of education, the social premium can be used to build and furnish schools too. History The first attempts to commercialize fair trade goods in Northern markets were initiated in the 1940s and 1950s by religious groups and various politically oriented non-governmental organizations",
"-25.89615344023332"
],
[
"Groupon MyCityDeal Collective buying business model Collective buying allows for direct cost savings, both for the consumer as well as the business. Consumers participating in on-line buying reap the benefits of discounted prices for restaurants, spas, attractions, hotels, etc., while organizations can save money by directly reaching target markets. Participating members further benefit through \"networking opportunities and shared knowledge\" which over time can build a tipping point of group purchasing power based on a growing number of active participants.\n'MyCityDeal uses an assurance contract platform to ensure that retailers are able to offer quantity discounts through a viable sales platform. In",
"-25.887711618444882"
],
[
"raise the resilience of local economies by encouraging re-localisation of buying and food production. The drive for this change has arisen from a range of community-based initiatives and social movements. The Transition Towns movement originating in the UK has utilised local currencies for re-localisation in the face of energy descent from peak oil and climate change. Other drives include movements against Clone town and Big-box trends.\n2. Rewards currency based on the frequent flyer model. Consumer spends cash with participating businesses who issue rewards points in a local currency. These rewards points can be used to offset cash prices in",
"-25.8757547546993"
],
[
"Stores: City Harvest helps neighborhood retailers increase the quantity, quality and variety of produce. In addition, City Harvest hosts healthy cooking demonstrations and budget shopping workshops. The efforts seek to improve communication between shop owners and clientele.\nCommunity Networks: To build public support for healthy food outlets and sustain change over time, City Harvest convenes Community Action Networks (CANS) in each of its Healthy Neighborhoods. These networks engage residents and retailers who are committed to improving access to healthy food. Advocacy City Harvest advocates at the city, state and federal level for programs, policies and actions to change the",
"-25.862734622409334"
],
[
"wholesale markets are organized and managed.\nRetail marketing systems in western countries have broadly evolved from traditional street markets through to the modern hypermarket or out-of-town shopping center. In developing countries, there remains scope to improve agricultural marketing by constructing new retail markets, despite the growth of supermarkets, although municipalities often view markets primarily as sources of revenue rather than infrastructure requiring development. Effective regulation of markets is essential. Inside a market, both hygiene rules and revenue collection activities have to be enforced. Of equal importance, however, is the maintenance of order outside the market. Licensed traders in a market will",
"-25.86013126152102"
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[
"on Friday). Only if one assumes that learning is simply a matter of acquiring information (for how long? a week? a semester? forever?) can one believe that schools can be improved by becoming more like shopping malls. The Mall and High School Experience The 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High also makes a comparison of high schools to shopping malls. Its opening titles appear over scenes of a mall, which continues throughout as the main setting where students live out their adolescence.\nMalls across the United States have seen a decline in business since the heyday",
"-25.85573731700424"
],
[
"not more than $50,000 per loan to corner stores for assistance in providing access to healthy food in food deserts.",
"-25.81788188725477"
],
[
"Court found that this funding system ensured that more educational dollars were allotted to children who lived in property-rich towns than to children in property-poor towns. This enabled the property-rich towns to offer a wider range and higher quality of education programs than other towns. It also provided students in property-rich towns with more course offerings and library resources, expanded special education, better learning disability teachers and facilities, and many other opportunities.\nThe Court held that because many elements of a quality education require high per pupil operating costs, there was a direct relationship between per pupil school expenditures and the",
"-25.804949909448624"
],
[
"way, they are in high demand and parents often have to pay part of the costs. Hobby Activities such as reading, creative writing, sport, computer games, chess, music, dance, foreign languages, and art give an extra intellectual challenge outside of school hours. Homeschooling in the US An umbrella term encompassing myriad educational options for gifted children: part-time schooling; school at home; classes, groups, mentors and tutors; and unschooling. In many US states, the population of gifted students who are being homeschooled is rising quite rapidly, as school districts responding to budgetary issues and standards-based policies are cutting what limited gifted",
"-25.794930483563803"
],
[
"in the city and surrounding areas of [Rajasthan] and [Madhya Pradesh] and supplements the irrigation of these areas. Economy The city is the trade centre for an area in which cotton, millet, wheat, coriander and oilseeds are grown; industries include cotton and oilseed milling, textile weaving, distilling, dairying, and the manufacture of metal handcrafts. Kota also has an extensive industry of stone-polishing of a stone called Kota Stone, used for the floor and walls of residential and business buildings. Since last 15 years Kota has emerged as an Education hub of the country as producing excellent results in IIT-JEE and",
"-25.792233207030222"
],
[
"are becoming more adept at direct importing.\nHypermarkets and supermarkets, including joint ventures between the Portuguese and French, control over 50 percent of retail food sales. The Portuguese government put the brakes on the tremendous growth of hypermarkets in an effort to protect smaller retailers. With their high buying power, the hypermarkets can be more competitive in pricing and could easily squeeze smaller businesses out of the marketplace. Organic farming Organic farming in Portugal has steadily increased in the past years. From only 73 producers in 1993, it rapidly grew to more than 1,500 in 2005. Today, more than 2,000 km² are",
"-25.78890751407016"
],
[
"business (such as with microfinance). In other systems, people for a Rotating Savings and Credit Association or ROSCA to purchase costly material together (such as Tontines and Susu accounts). Organisations, communities, cities or individuals can provide loans to other communities/cities (such as with the approach followed by Kiva, World Vision Microloans MicroPlace and LETS). Finally, in certain communities (usually isolated communities such as small islands or oases) everything of value is shared. This is called gift economy. Determining a sustainable approach Features such as low cost, low usage of fossil fuels and use of locally available resources can give some",
"-25.745633474783972"
],
[
"Community economic development Community economic development (CED) is a field of study that actively elicits community involvement when working with government, and private sectors to build strong communities, industries, and markets.\nCommunity economic development encourages using local resources in a way that enhances economic opportunities while improving social conditions in a sustainable way. Often CED initiatives are implemented to overcome crises, and increase opportunities for communities who are disadvantaged. An aspect of “localizing economics,” CED is a community-centered process that blends social and economic development to foster the economic, social, ecological and cultural well-being of communities. For example, neighborhood business organizations",
"-25.703182014884078"
],
[
"of up to $2.5 million per store to defray the infrastructure costs of developing a new store. Up to 2009, $41.8 million in grants and loans have funded 58 stores. Success of the initiative led to the creation of similar programs in at least seven states and cities, like the New York City Food Retail Expansion to Support Health (FRESH) program. New York City Like many other cities in the US, New York City faces a supermarket shortage that is closely linked to health epidemics. At the request of the Mayor’s office, the Department of City Planning studied supermarket",
"-25.681255174335092"
],
[
"and open areas, rather than to add anchors and new retail space to the existing mall facility. Puente Hills Mall and Del Amo Fashion Center in Southern California are good examples of this. Other examples are Seven Corners Shopping Center in suburban Washington, D.C. and Deerfoot Meadows in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Power centers are almost always located in suburban areas, but occasionally redevelopment has brought power centers to densely populated urban areas.\nSome new power center developments have attempted to re-create the atmosphere of an old-town Main Street, with varying levels of success. Retail parks in the United Kingdom In",
"-25.67821205916698"
],
[
"of traders, farmers and entrepreneurs sell goods and vegetables directly to the retail & wholesale customers in busy market setup.\nService aspects of the economy are mainly centered on banking, education, transportation and health sectors. Thus, increasing numbers of people are involved in these sectors for their jobs.\nButwal is also a connecting city between nearby tourist towns of Tansen, Kapilvastu, and Lumbini. It is the gateway to nearby cities of Sunwal, Pokhara and Bharatpur. It is also a busy land-route to enter Nepal from India for tourists and others. Thus, Butwal is witnessing huge investments in the hospitality sector as well.",
"-25.678169921971858"
],
[
"be better controlled A \"food desert\" is an area with restricted access to healthy foods due to a lack of supermarkets within a reasonable distance. These are often low-income neighborhoods with the majority of residents lacking transportation . There have been several grassroots movements in the past 20 years to encourage urban gardening, such as the GreenThumb organization in New York City. Urban gardening uses vacant lots to grow food for a neighborhood and is cultivated by the local residents. Mobile fresh markets are another resource for residents in a \"food desert\", which are specially outfitted buses",
"-25.667617944884114"
],
[
"lifestyle that is generally localized in the community not based on commuting. The last, especially, raises real state valuations for not only the neighborhood but the entire surrounding region. Consumers living sustainable lifestyles in upgraded housing will generally be unwilling to drive around aimlessly shopping, for instance, to save a few dollars on their purchases. Instead, they'll stay nearer to home and create jobs in grocery delivery and small organic grocers, spending substantially less money on gasoline and car operation costs even if they pay more for food. Progressive or regressive? Some green tax shift proposals have been criticized as",
"-25.66474080318585"
],
[
"towns, 2 cities, and 10 villages. Economy Oswego's economy is most prominent as industry; in 2012, manufactured shipments made up $2.1 billion of the local economy. Retail made up the next most prominent sector, totaling $1.2 billion or more than $10,000 per resident. Wholesale merchants also made $368 million sales the same year. Services made up the final total, equal to over $500 million in food service, healthcare, accommodation, and social services.",
"-25.639344821800478"
]
] |
3pmpi4 | How do cemeteries continue to pay the bills after there are no more plots left to sell? | [
"The cemetery has to put some money for each burial into a perpetual care fund. This money is invested and used to pay for the ongoing maintenance of the cemetery. Some cemeteries are publicly funded by taxes.",
"Eventually, they dig up old plots & resell them. How long they have to wait depends on where you are. The alternative, as you see with some historical cemeteries, is that they just *don't* make money. Some church or the local government ends up eating the maintenance costs.",
"In most jurisdictions, cemeteries are required to set aside money for an endowment that ensures they will be able to provide care indefinitely.",
"Where I live what they do is you pay for the burial site. Body is there for 8 years. After 8 years they unburry the coffin to see if the body has decomposed yet. If not, goes back down. If it has, the family will have to either pay for a [\"drawer\"]( URL_0 ) with a special box where they move the bones to, or they pay to cremate the bones and then you can keep them and do whatever you want. So the same body will bring in money twice (unless you cremate it to begin with which is the best anyway).",
"So what happens when we run out o space for cemeteries? The world is only so big.",
"When we bought my father's plot, we had to pay into an escrow account. The money is held at a financial institution and the interest serves kind of like rent.",
"some cemetery plots are subscription based. If you don't pay dues, your loved ones will be dug up and cremated so they can fit new bodies in the ground. sucks.",
"It really depends where in the world you live. Here in the Netherlands, a grave is usually rented for 30-40 years. After that time is over, the grave is cleared and the remains are put into a mass grave. Exceptions are rare - mostly to very old graves (historic value) or for those of important people."
] | [
[
"authorities face a number of tensions in regard to the management of cemeteries.\nOne issue relates to cost. Traditionally a single payment is made at the time of burial, but the cemetery authority incurs expenses in cemetery maintenance over many decades. Many cemetery authorities find that their accumulated funds are not sufficient for the costs of long-term maintenance. This shortfall in funds for maintenance results in three main options: charge much higher prices for new burials, obtain some other kind of public subsidy, or neglect maintenance. For cemeteries without space for new burials, the options are even more limited. Public attitudes",
"-32.31564297096338"
],
[
"had acquired them. Without maintenance, the cemeteries soon became overgrown, headstones were vandalised, and they were frequented by drug addicts. \nIn 1988, following a public outcry, the Local Government Ombudsman ruled that WCC had to buy back the graves, and in February 1990 the District Auditor ruled that the sale was unlawful. WCC bought back the graves in June 1992 at a loss to ratepayers of £4.25 million. They were unable to repurchase any of the unused land - which had been \"sold on by property developers for housing at an enormous profit\" - or the buildings, including the crematorium.",
"-32.12259619636461"
],
[
"graves. Shelves are usually installed to accommodate their remains.\nDuring relatively recent times, the Père Lachaise has adopted a standard practice of issuing 30-year leases on grave sites, so that if a lease is not renewed by a family, the remains can be removed, space made for a new grave, and the overall deterioration of the cemetery minimized. Abandoned remains are boxed, tagged and moved to Aux Morts ossuary, still in the Père Lachaise cemetery.\nPlots can be bought in perpetuity or for 50, 30 or 10 years, the last being the least expensive option. Even for the case of mausoleums and",
"-32.08289640810108"
],
[
"charitable contributions, even if a portion of the payment is for the perpetual care of the entirety of the cemetery. Bequests or gifts to a 501(c)(13) cemetery is not deductible for federal estate tax purposes or gift tax purposes. History Historically, cemeteries were exempt from local property taxes and excise taxes in most states because states generally considered cemeteries to be performing a recognized civic service.\nThe Tariff Act of 1913 provided an exemption from federal income taxes for mutual cemetery companies that were organized and operated exclusively \"for the benefit of their members\". In 1921, Congress extended the tax-exemption to",
"-31.83104795536201"
],
[
"to secure the eviction of a cemetery keeper - so WCC also paid the purchaser £70,000 compensation. \nThe sale was ordered by Dame Shirley Porter, the Conservative leader of WCC at the time, in order to save the annual maintenance costs of £422,000, with the upkeep of the cemeteries passing to the new owner. However, the deal had been handled with such incompetence by WCC that the maintenance agreement only applied to the immediate purchaser of the cemeteries and not to any subsequent owners; the cemeteries were re-sold by the purchaser for £1.25 million on the same day that he",
"-31.48777313885512"
],
[
"instances could reclaim and reuse a grave after 75 years, under the London Authorities Act 2007. Extending this provision elsewhere in the country was deliberated. The consultation considered the ‘Exclusive Rights for Burial’. When purchasing a grave, a person usually buys the right to exclusively be buried in it for a period, often 100 years, they do not buy the land. Noted was the possibility of reusing graves with the permission of the Church of England. Section 25 of the Burial Act 1857, amended by Section 2 of the Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measures 2014 permitted the disturbance of",
"-31.4439156553708"
],
[
"while in Israel; the cost of the plot and funeral services is paid for by Bituah Leumi, the National Insurance Institute. However, the choice of plot is left to the burial society, and if a spouse wishes to be buried in the adjacent plot, he or she must pay for the second plot. According to the law, the burial society must reserve the plots on both sides of a newly-dug grave for 90 days in order to give the spouse and relatives of the deceased the option to purchase them. According to the Kehillat Yerushalayim burial society, 90 percent of",
"-31.21988850599155"
],
[
"their $2.1 million endowment, which generated roughly $62,000 per year in interest, was not enough to water the property and properly maintain all the graves; their records show that they lost $159,000 in 2003. They still employ two groundskeepers to pick up trash, but have had to refuse offers of maintenance help from volunteers due to liability issues. In 2005, Fairmount approached the city government and requested they take over operation of the cemetery; however, the city was forced to decline due to lack of funds. Local residents, concerned by the dying trees and grass and generally poor state of",
"-31.190080033571576"
],
[
"When the cemeteries were eventually reacquired by WCC, part of the deal required them to award an annual maintenance contract back to a company with connections to the seller.\nPeter Bradley, the deputy Leader of the Labour Group at Westminster Council, said:\n\"Shirley Porter will go down in history as the woman who sold three council cemeteries for five pence each and David Weeks will go down in history as the man who bought them back for £4.25 million.\"",
"-31.179092306178063"
],
[
"that no one knew had been used. On May 24, 2011, a federal judge approved a plan to place the cemetery into a trust that would use about $2.6 million of a $7 million insurance settlement to renovate and run the cemetery. The judge set aside at least $50,000 for a memorial to honor those whose graves were lost or desecrated. Those who can prove they buried relatives in the cemetery will receive $100 per grave. Those whose relatives' graves were destroyed may apply for more money.",
"-31.120866636105347"
],
[
"restitution, calculated the costs of providing safe access to the cemetery at € 400 - 800,000. Apart from the trimming of the older trees, hardly any preservation measures have been taken in recent years. Parts of the cemetery have become inaccessible due to the strong growth of bushes and small trees. In addition, the growth of the roots from the trees has dislocated gravestones, some of which have fallen over. Gravestones continue to be damaged by falling trees or falling rotten branches. Additional severe damage appears on the graves from environmental factors such as acid rain, frost and vegetation. Extreme-rightwing",
"-31.02556890656706"
],
[
"in existing cemeteries.\nA third issue is the maintenance of monuments and headstones, which are generally the responsibility of families, but often become neglected over time. Decay and damage through vandalism or cemetery maintenance practices can render monuments and headstones either unsafe or at least unsightly. On the other hand, some families do not forget the grave but constantly visit, leaving behind flowers, plants, and other decorative items that create their own maintenance problem. Re-use of graves All of these issues tend to put pressure on the re-use of grave sites within cemeteries. The re-use of graves already used for",
"-30.645170686766505"
],
[
"take control of the maintaining graves business (on the cemetery) worth 20 million rubles ($341,000) a month.",
"-30.587956997333094"
],
[
"either failed to place markers on graves or willfully discarded or recycled markers. Advance purchase contracts for plots were inaccurate or incomplete. They also discovered that Howard had removed $40,000 from the perpetual care trust fund as a \"loan\" but never repaid it.\nThe CFB issued an order suspending all operations at Grand View Memorial Park. The cemetery was prohibited from selling new graves or soliciting new business. Burials could continue if already planned, or if planned for plots which had already been purchased. Howard and Goldsman's state licenses to operate a cemetery were suspended, and Howard was no longer permitted",
"-30.518627223209478"
],
[
"to make arrangements with less distant cemeteries, or to buy land on the outskirts of London and open their own suburban cemeteries. Concerns over the financial irregularities and the viability of the scheme had led to only 15,000 of the 25,000 LNC shares being sold, severely limiting the company's working capital and forcing it to take out large loans. Buying the land from Lord Onslow, compensating local residents for the loss of rights over Woking Common, draining and landscaping the portion to be used for the initial cemetery, and building the railway lines and stations were all expensive undertakings. With",
"-30.43490242507687"
],
[
"settle outstanding debts. The business had been established on the basis that the cemetery would handle between 10,000 and 50,000 burials per year, but the number never exceeded 4,100 and over its first 20 years of operations averaged just 3,200. As the five-year extension expired the financial difficulties remained, and under pressure from shareholders the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Amendment Act 1869 was passed. This removed all restrictions on land sales, other than within the existing cemetery and the adjacent reserve site. Despite the releasing of restrictions in the 1869 Act, land sales remained disappointing. By 1887 less than",
"-30.328407526471665"
],
[
"allow a non-Catholic to be buried there. Some families did not want to be separated by this rule and moved their loved ones to the Cementerio Civil. As a result, some graves have been abandoned and cannot be sold by the cemetery administration since they are private property and have a legal, albeit uninterested, owner.",
"-30.22326338972198"
],
[
"the person who initially purchased the burial plot(s) may have subsequently died and locating living family members, if any, many decades later is virtually impossible (or at least prohibitively expensive). Public notice about the proposed re-use of graves may or may not reach family members living further afield who may object to such practices. Therefore, it is possible that re-use could occur without family awareness - an unpleasant scenario to say the least.\nSome cemeteries did foresee the need for re-use and included in their original terms and conditions a limited tenure on a grave site and most new",
"-30.057397368072998"
],
[
"would seem easier to \"re-use\" such grave sites as there can be no claims of desecration, but often this is made complicated by the legal rights to be buried obtained by the pre-purchase, as any limited tenure clause only takes effect after there has been a burial. Again, cemetery authorities suspect that in many cases the holders of these burial rights are probably dead and that nobody will exercise that burial right, but again some families are aware of the burial rights they possess and do intend to exercise them as and when family members die. Again the difficulty of",
"-30.028364449972287"
],
[
"cemeteries follow this practice, having seen the problems faced by older cemeteries. Common practice in Europe is to place bones in an ossuary after the proscribed burial period is over.\nHowever, even when the cemetery has the legal right to re-use a grave, strong public opinion often forces the authorities to back down on that re-use. Also, even when cemeteries have a limited tenure provision in place, funding shortages can force them to contemplate re-use earlier than the original arrangements provided for.\nAnother type of grave site considered for re-use are empty plots purchased years ago but never used. In principle it",
"-30.01686224900186"
],
[
"traditional burial plots are extremely scarce and expensive, and in London, a space crisis led Harriet Harman to propose reopening old graves for \"double-decker\" burials.\nSome cities in Germany do not have plots for sale, only for lease. When the lease expires, the remains are disinterred and a specialist bundles the bones, inscribes the forehead of the skull with the information that was on the headstone, and places the remains in a special crypt. Christianity In Christian countries and cultures, cremation has historically been discouraged, but now in many denominations it is accepted. Catholicism Christians preferred to bury the dead rather",
"-29.998219291272108"
],
[
"cemetery has been set up, and collects money on All Saint's Day for the treasures of the burial ground to be returned to their former glory.",
"-29.958455964922905"
],
[
"By the end of 1896, the cemetery had disinterred 637 bodies at a cost of $5,002.57.\nBy January 1897, the cemetery was close to running out of money to continue the process. The cemetery sought to mortgage its property to raise the necessary funds, but lacked the legal authority to do so. It sought the assistance of Congress, and in January 1897 Senator James McMillan and Representative Joseph W. Babcock (R-Wisconsin) sponsored legislation to permit the cemetery to mortgage its land. The House and Senate quickly passed the legislation, and President Grover Cleveland signed it into law on March 3,",
"-29.906454164301977"
],
[
"above, costing local authorities approximately £500,000. These funerals are usually conducted by an undertaker contracted by the local authority to prepare the body and provide a basic funeral.",
"-29.839743278302194"
],
[
"countries, and many others, visitors to graves commonly leave cut flowers, especially during major holidays and on birthdays or relevant anniversaries. Cemeteries usually dispose of these flowers after a few weeks in order to keep the space maintained. Some companies offer perpetual flower services, to ensure a grave is always decorated with fresh flowers. Flowers may often be planted on the grave as well, usually immediately in front of the gravestone. For this purpose roses are highly common. Stones Visitors to loved ones interred in Jewish cemeteries often leave a small stone on the top of the headstone. There",
"-29.75296508334577"
],
[
"a permanent grave, the property rights of the Church are not transferred but only the right of use of the particular grave is given to the family concerned, subject to the rules and regulations governing the graveyard. As regards temporary graves, permission is given for one particular burial and the family members have no right over the grave.",
"-29.672166456701234"
],
[
"shillings (about £46 in 2019 terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future. Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves (other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased, third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site. (The",
"-29.647732741432264"
],
[
"the individuals, as the cemetery was closed and could not provide staff or services.\nThe City of Glendale voted in June 2007 to spend $187,600 ($226,680 in 2018 dollars) for maintenance and $79,800 ($96,423 in 2018 dollars) for staff to keep Grand View open from July 2007 to June 2008. By this time, the cemetery was in need of extensive maintenance. No irrigation, tree trimming, or weed control had occurred for more than a year. By August 2007, the city was facing a $400,000 ($362,494 in 2018 dollars) maintenance bill to make the cemetery safe for visitors. California's extreme, ongoing drought",
"-29.553062395891175"
],
[
"abandoned or have had their lease run out.\nMaintenance is done by self-employed gravekeepers, who receive funds from the families of those interred. The gravekeepers generally do not attend to the graves of families who do not pay them.\nAlthough the cemetery is often devoid of visitors, during Ramadhan, the cemetery is often filled with pilgrims and families visiting the dead. History In 2009 the government of Jakarta began the plakatisasi program to ensure the graves in Karet Bivak followed the rules for gravestones as outlined by a 2007 bylaw. By September 2009 the government had replaced 2,000 graves with plain gray",
"-29.535958305728855"
],
[
"the person buying the funeral to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery; at the time of opening, first class prices began at £2 10s (about £230 in 2019 terms) for a basic 9-by-4-foot (2.7 m × 1.2 m) plot with no special coffin specifications. It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral. Second class funerals cost £1 (about £92 in 2019 terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10",
"-29.526409106932988"
],
[
"estimated 2,500 to 3,000 claimants harmed by the cemetery's actions. Paul Ayers, one of the lead attorneys for the plaintiffs, agreed to oversee the restoration, which included obtaining, cleaning, organizing, and possibly restoring cemetery records; identifying and properly interring all cremated remains; installing an in-ground irrigation system; and reseeding much of the cemetery's lawns.\nThe restoration work began in July 2010, during which the cemetery was closed for 15 weeks. Using plans drawn up by a landscape architect, between $300,000 and $400,000 ($344,682 to $459,576 in 2018 dollars) was spent installing the permanent in-ground irrigation system and planting new trees,",
"-29.52548891542392"
],
[
"cemetery's finances. For thirty years, the cemetery had used the income generated by the sale of lots to keep the graveyard in good repair. Excess income, however, was not placed in a trust but rather used for other charitable purposes. The cemetery's sexton died about 1887 as well, and the church—with little incentive to appoint a new one—allowed the ground to once more fall into disrepair.\nOn August 1, 1891, trustees of the cemetery agreed to close it. The president of the board of trustees, S. Thomas Brown, said that Georgetown Presbyterian Church had no funds for the upkeep of the",
"-29.501668068871368"
],
[
"graves that had been used previously.\nThe cemetery is listed with National Institute of Anthropology and History as a historical monument due to the persons interred and age of the cemetery. However, this has not kept the cemetery in good repair. There are problems with maintenance and security. In the back part of the cemetery in a gully, workers have discarded old caskets and urns that are considered unusable. Those who work in the cemetery testify to graverobbing here for artistic and archeological pieces. In January 2009, a section of the original retaining wall built in the 19th century on",
"-29.37644305813592"
],
[
"course following the funeral. Second class funerals cost £1 (about £92 in 2019 terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings (about £46 in 2019 terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future. Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves (other than the burial of next of kin in the same",
"-29.346466256887652"
],
[
"cemetery was xeriscaped with a budget of $4.2 million to convert the land. William F. Tuerk, director of the National Cemetery Administration oversaw the change. In 2013, the cemetery won the Texas Environmental Excellence Award because it was saving an average of $400,000 a year because of cutting costs for water and grass upkeep. In 2013, around 100 graves began to sink in the cemetery due to heavy rainfall in the area. Eventually, 1,300 graves were damaged, prompting geologists, Diane Doser and Lixin Jin and Representative Joe Moody to investigate the cause of the problem at the cemetery.",
"-29.251542636520753"
],
[
"the owners, saying that if they did not repair their property (the decrepit tombs) in 60 days, it would be demolished by the Church. In June 1948, under the orders of Mayor Morrison, the church was simply destroyed. He had people start hauling away bricks, disregarding the protests of the Christ Church Cathedral, and alerted citizens that they should retrieve their loved ones. In October 1958 the remaining 96,000 square feet of the cemetery were sold to the government for almost 300,000.\nThe cemetery fell into disrepair in the 20th century and it was deconsecrated on January 4, 1957. According to",
"-29.235684256302193"
],
[
"bury those whose families could not afford to buy a plot. Several persons, entirely unrelated to each other, could be buried in the same grave within the space of a few weeks. Allegedly some graves were dug 40 feet deep and contained up to 30 bodies.\nThe cemetery itself did not remain in a tidy and elegant state for long. Only 55 years after it was opened it was reported to be in a neglected state. During the Second World War the cemetery was bombed five times during raids on the City of London; both cemetery chapels were damaged and",
"-29.18153673809138"
],
[
"being unable to locate the holders of these burial rights complicates the re-use of those graves.\nAs historic cemeteries begin to reach their capacity for full burials, alternative memorialization, such as collective memorials for cremated individuals, is becoming more common. Different cultures have different attitudes to destruction of cemeteries and use of the land for construction. In some countries it is considered normal to destroy the graves, while in others the graves are traditionally respected for a century or more. In many cases, after a suitable period of time has elapsed, the headstones are removed and the now former cemetery is",
"-29.140734695538413"
],
[
"a result, it prospered and paid good dividends to its shareholders. By the 1960s, however, with the cemetery nearly full, it became clear that it was no longer financially viable and that the high returns previously enjoyed by the shareholders could not be sustained. With prospects of very little income to pay wages and cover the maintenance of the site the company, in June 1966, went into voluntary liquidation. When the process was completed in 1979, there was nothing of commercial value left, only the land containing over 28,000 graves, 17,000 monuments and two listed buildings in an advanced state",
"-29.113697580567532"
],
[
"graveyard. Due to non-availability of space, it is not possible to allot fresh permanent graves even to the existing parishioners of St. Andrew's whose numbers have increased tremendously. To meet the shortage, persons who do not have permanent graves are buried in temporary graves.\nVaulting of Graves: Section ‘B’ (area along Chimbai Road) needs to be re-planned as there are a number of overhanging trees which not only cause a cleaning problem but graves cannot be dug in the allotted space because of the spreading roots, resulting in problems of encroachment. Besides the passage in the corner is very narrow and",
"-29.105143227498047"
],
[
"random collection of monuments and headstones they contain. Also, as maintenance of the headstones is the responsibility of family members (in the absence of a proscribed Perpetual Care and Maintenance Fund), over time many headstones are forgotten about and decay and become damaged. For cemetery authorities, monumental cemeteries are difficult to maintain. While cemeteries often have grassed areas between graves, the layout of graves makes it difficult to use modern equipment such as ride-on lawn mowers in the cemetery. Often the maintenance of grass must be done by more labour-intensive (and therefore expensive) methods. In order to reduce the labour",
"-28.94899576762691"
],
[
"required the Graceland Cemetery Association to remove all the bodies from the burial ground and reinter them at some other suitable cemetery or cemeteries in the District of Columbia. The board was authorized to subdivide and sell the land for any purpose. Proceeds from the sale were to be used to pay the debts of the cemetery association. Afterward, five percent of the proceeds went to the board of directors as compensation for their services. The remaining funds were then to be distributed among the lotholders on a pro rate basis. Once disbursement was made, the board was ordered to",
"-28.91658453654236"
],
[
"city to pursue reimbursement from the owners at a later date. Second closure and abatement Winning the nuisance abatement order forced the full closure of Grand View Memorial Park, barring all families and visitors from the graveyard. Abatement work began on December 27, 2007. The entire cemetery was covered by an above-ground irrigation system, the knee-high grass was mowed, and the pruning and removal of trees began at an estimated cost of $105,400 ($122,767 in 2018 dollars). Four abandoned vehicles (including a hearse) were also removed, and repairs were made to all cemetery buildings to secure them against unauthorized entry.",
"-28.89760527704493"
],
[
"Grand View Memorial Park and Crematory. After four years of minimal maintenance, the new owners kept the cemetery open only one day a week while funds were spent restoring the site. On January 1, 2015, the cemetery opened its doors for seven days a week for about six hours a day. Heritage Cemetery Management began locating graves which had become overgrown by grass and uncovering them, renovating the chapel, and repairing the north and west mausoleums. The company also spent $500,000 ($528,499 in 2018 dollars) upgrading the crematory, so that it could begin operating again and generating income for the",
"-28.83783064529416"
],
[
"to dispose of the cemetery. The church agreed to advertise Presbyterian Burying Ground's closure once more, and to demand that all remains be claimed by September 1, 1896. The church agreed that all bodies which went unclaimed would be reinterred at another cemetery at church expense. The church said the property would be subdivided into housing lots and sold.\nThe deterioration of Presbyterian Burying Ground continued into 1896. Local people began using the cemetery as a garbage dump, throwing old wire, pieces of metal, tin cans, carcasses, and household ashes onto the grounds. There were open graves everywhere, and in some",
"-28.81927898939466"
],
[
"because of simple portability. Survivors relocating to another city or country have the option of transporting the remains of their loved ones with the ultimate goal of being interred or scattered together.\nCremated remains can be scattered or buried. Cremation plots or columbarium niches are usually cheaper than a traditional burial plot or mausoleum crypt, and require less space. Some religions, such as Roman Catholicism, require the burial or entombment of cremated remains, but burial of cremated remains may often be accomplished in the burial plot of another person, such as a family member, without any additional cost. This option is",
"-28.807046381247346"
],
[
"there may visit the cemetery.\nMore recent is the practice of families with large estates choosing to create private cemeteries in the form of burial sites, monuments, crypts, or mausoleums on their property; the mausoleum at Fallingwater is an example of this practice. Burial of a body at a site may protect the location from redevelopment, with such estates often being placed in the care of a trust or foundation. Presently, state regulations have made it increasingly difficult, if not impossible, to start private cemeteries; many require a plan to care for the site in perpetuity. Private cemeteries are nearly always",
"-28.754747473751195"
],
[
"families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial, but this practice was rare.) Despite this, Brookwood's pauper graves granted more dignity to the deceased than did other graveyards and cemeteries of the period, all of which other than Brookwood continued the practice of mass graves for the poor. Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays, which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day",
"-28.717256847725366"
],
[
"According to another source, however, there were 75 tombstones in the original cemetery at Mint Street, but when shifted out the second time in 1983, only 28 remained. \nThe last burial in the cemetery was in 1997, of Eileen Joshua – wife of Isaac Joshua, president of the Madras Jewish Association. Since then, the cemetery has been under the care of the Joshua family.\nTwo walls of the cemetery came down during the Cyclone Nilam in 2012. The cost for repair was projected to be $2070. As of 2016, the cemetery had recently undergone renovation, and the walls were re-erected. The",
"-28.71017064084299"
],
[
"entire cemetery. The practice of placing the vault at the surface of the ground has been discontinued since the late 1980s.\nIn other parts of the cemetery, families purchased entire family size plots. Some of the areas of this cemetery is in a non-perpetual care and the families take care of their burial sites. There is now a perpetual care area. The cemetery has been privately held since its opening. As of 2016, people are still being buried in the cemetery.",
"-28.684948361711577"
],
[
"their respect to the dead, bring a small gift for the widow (or whatever the case may be), have their share of food and then leave until the actual burial. The household of the deceased is supposed to provide a meal, or meals if it takes long, to all mourners. In case of a large family this is a huge and expensive operation with big ʻumu, and tons of food.\nCloser family will bring huge ngatu and other traditional gifts, and are supposed to stay for the ʻapō (night vigil). Usually a big tent (some companies are specialised in hiring out",
"-28.61808488954557"
],
[
"not dispute the Army Audit Agency's testimony during the hearing, cemetery officials said the next day that they had accounted for the missing $12 million by reconciling contracts. A cemetery spokesperson said that Army inspectors, federal auditors, and others would again examine the cemetery's books in June 2012 to verify that funds are properly spent and accounted for.\nA Government Accountability Office report released the same day found that Arlington officials had made \"major improvements\" to strategic planning, technology infrastructure, and workforce management. While the report said that there were still problems and that transferring operation of the cemetery to the",
"-28.558141588408034"
],
[
"not occur until June 10, 1873.) Fundraisers to benefit the cemetery were held in June 1865 and May 1866.\nIn 1867, PHC reported that it received income of $1,500 ($26,889 in 2018 dollars) in the past six months, expended $500 in improvements and repairs, and was in excellent financial condition. The board elected that year included August Meiners, president; John Vogt, vice president; Frederick Schweiring, secretary; Michael Langman, treasurer; and Christopher Freiss, F. Haiden, Christopher Just, H. Kaiser, John Killian, and August Lipold. By 1870, however, the cemetery faced a problem: A significant number of individuals had purchased lots but failed",
"-28.532285663884977"
],
[
"the property. However, on September 29, 1908, the City Commissioners recommended the purchase of the Presbyterian Burying Ground for $32,000. Some time in late June or early July 1909, the sale finally was consummated for $30,000. The city paid $20,000, while private donations came up with the remaining $10,000.\nDuring preparation of the area for conversion to a playground, 30 more bodies were uncovered. These were sent to an undertaker for cremation and burial. But more than 2,000 corpses remained buried at the site. Noted D.C. historian John Proctor Clagett claimed in 1942 that most of the bodies near 34th",
"-28.488425255054608"
],
[
"than 18 acres (73,000 m²) and not less than 15 acres (61,000 m²), and affirmed that the core 15 acres (61,000 m²) of the cemetery could never be sold or used for any purpose other than a burial ground. The bill also affirmed the right of all lotholders (not just those associated with Concordia Church or the German Evangelical Church Society) to vote at annual meetings and hold office, provided new rules for managing the annual meeting and casting votes, directed the cemetery to use its income solely for the benefit of the burying ground, and expanded the board of directors to nine",
"-28.44164242298575"
],
[
"stem or a small posy. As the flowers decay, they simply fall to the ground and do not create a significant maintenance problem. Family While uncommon today, family (or private) cemeteries were a matter of practicality during the settlement of America. If a municipal or religious cemetery had not been established, settlers would seek out a small plot of land, often in wooded areas bordering their fields, to begin a family plot. Sometimes, several families would arrange to bury their dead together. While some of these sites later grew into true cemeteries, many were forgotten after a family moved away",
"-28.3727512670157"
],
[
"with compensation being provided by the local authorities. Houzeau de Lehaie refused to accept payment for the land and agreed to part with it only under the condition that it be donated instead of requisitioned, and that in the cemetery the dead of both sides be treated with equal respect. During 1916 and 1917 Landsturm Infantry Battalions exhumed burials from isolated and less maintainable sites and re-interred them in the new cemetery. Most of the bodies that were exhumed were from the north and north east of the Mons battlefield especially near Nimy and Obourg where the British stopped Imperial",
"-28.35837450483814"
],
[
"burials in existing family graves. After that time the cemetery was badly affected by air raids and was closed altogether. Many of the arcade vaults and most of the other cemetery buildings were destroyed.\nAfter the war it was decided not to reopen the cemetery. For one thing, most of the graves were full. For another, there was enough capacity in the large cemeteries opened at the beginning of the 20th century under Hans Grässel to be able to do without this rather small one. Many graves were subsequently cleared: of the total capacity of 7,272 burial places only about 700",
"-28.347600273555145"
],
[
"burials in family plots continued through the 1950s and 1960s, but by 1978 ownership of the cemetery had passed to Sheffield City Council and it was closed to all new burials. In 1980 the council got permission by Act of Parliament to clear 800 gravestones to make a recreation area. Through the 1980s and 1990s most of the rest of the cemetery was left untouched, becoming overgrown and an important sanctuary for local wildlife. Unfortunately, many of the buildings also fell into disrepair. In early 2003 work began to restore the gatehouse and catacombs funded by a £500,000 grant from",
"-28.300049340032274"
],
[
"an additional cost. Local governments own and maintain most crematoria, and thus profit minimally from cremation costs. A particular public crematorium in Yokohama charged ¥12 000 for residents and ¥50 000 for visitors in 2016. A shortage in crematoria as Japan's population ages means that families can wait up to 4 days before the deceased can be cremated. Temporary mortuaries, commonly called 'hotels', are now available for families to store the deceased for around ¥9000 a night. Some temples also offer this service. \nIn the aftermath of the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011, 2000",
"-28.288205975390156"
],
[
"brick structure served as the cemetery chapel.\nAccording to the Washington Federalist newspaper, \"lots at present will be sold low for cash in order to defray present expenses, but when these are discharged they will rise much higher in price.\" Interments began almost immediately, due to the low prices the church offered, and the cemetery was instantly popular. Most of the graves were in the northern half of the cemetery, which sloped gently downward to Q Street. Families erected small headstones and, later, large funerary monuments. Some private brick mausoleums were constructed, and the church itself built a burial vault (for",
"-28.273015239901724"
],
[
"of its expiration because it supposedly \"had no money\". Mayor Rafał Dutkiewicz was also widely criticized for doing nothing. Random people organized a charity and paid for the grave to remain.",
"-28.23928912100382"
],
[
"building extensions began to address this problem, and so started the almost continuous process of rebuilding and improvements that go on in the present day.\nThe friends or relatives of a deceased patient were free to remove the remains for burial. Failing this, the deceased were interred in unmarked paupers' graves in the hospitals burial ground. With the 1832 Anatomy Act, the body was first kept in a building called the 'dead house', on the west side of the burial ground (see diagram above). If unclaimed after 72 hours it could be sold to a licensed anatomy school. The Act also",
"-28.212722441123333"
],
[
"graves were left open rather than filled in, leaving sunken pits all over the area. Some graves had been opened by mistaken and not recovered, while other human remains were scattered over the ground. The entire place reeked of decomposition. On July 8, 1893, the District of Columbia Health Department ordered that no more removals occur for at least three months. It demanded that the cemetery's trustees remove all bodies from open graves and have them interred elsewhere, and that the entire cemetery grounds be disinfected. Twelve months later, the cemetery's wooden outer fence had almost completely fallen to the",
"-28.196656590793282"
],
[
"to completing remedial works and opening the site as soon as possible. Controversy In September 2018, the police opened an investigation following reports that the cemetery had been unearthing remains without permission and refusing the space for new graves. In the United Kingdom, it is against the Burial Act 1857 to remove buried human remains without a licence from the government, or permission from the Church of England if it is consecrated ground.",
"-28.174781028035795"
],
[
"signed in 1951 the U.S. government was granted free use in perpetuity of the land covered by the cemetery, without taxation.",
"-28.16832795762457"
],
[
"from altering or destroying the cemetery or any of its buildings, grounds, or contents. The following December, Judge Mohr placed a preservation of evidence order on the property to specifically protect any evidence relating to the ongoing lawsuit being pursued by aggrieved families. On February 2, 2007, the first cremation interment was made at the cemetery since the suspension of its operating license on November 5, 2005. This was followed by the first full-body in-ground burial (in a two-person plot which already had one burial) in March 2007. The $2,000 ($2,417 in 2018 dollars) cost of burials were born by",
"-28.1382380045834"
],
[
"burial plots have been sold for some years. A memorial garden for the interment of ashes was opened in the time of J. R. Seddon, providing a popular resting place for the Ashfield community.\nSince the late 1970s day-release prisoners have assisted with maintenance of the cemetery grounds. In Australia's bicentennial year, 1988, a $16,000 grant was awarded for restoration work in the cemetery, at which time some broken gravestones were cemented together, and some illegible ones were 'cut back' and the letters repainted. Annex In 2017 an annex was added directly adjacent and connected to the western side of",
"-28.09373122273246"
],
[
"lived and buried two bodies was demolished by its owner, the South Australian Housing Trust. The bank, with a four-bedroom attached house, was placed on auction in February 2012 but only reached half its reserve price of $200,000. After holding an open house which raised $700 for charity through charging an entrance fee, the property sold later that year on 27 September for just over $185,000 with the new owners intending to live in the house while running a business from the bank. A plaque will be installed to commemorate the victims. Films Snowtown, a feature film based upon the",
"-28.07203929591924"
],
[
"appearance of a lawn cemetery, the common practice of placing flowers (sometimes in vases) and increasingly other items (e.g. small toys on children's graves) re-introduces some clutter to the cemetery and makes it difficult to use the larger mowers. While cemetery authorities increasingly impose restrictions on the nature and type of objects that can be placed on lawn graves and actively remove prohibited items, grieving families are often unwilling to comply with these restrictions and become very upset if the items are removed. Another problem with lawn cemeteries involves grass over-growth over time: the grass can grow over and cover",
"-28.056651071470696"
],
[
"by a legal action brought by the remaining holders of burial rights. The cemetery reflects years of disuse and neglect. Many of the tombstones are toppled, damaged or overgrown, and grass grows up through large cracks in the asphalt walkway leading through it. \nIn 2018, Georgetown University and the Holy Trinity Catholic Church announced plans to restore the historic cemetery. The cemetery, which has been closed to new burials since 1985, is constructing a columbarium to hold cremated remains. The columbarium, which will hold the remains of parishioners, University alumni, faculty and staff, those who have ancestors interred",
"-28.050644722243305"
],
[
"on local authorities under the National Assistance Act 1948 where the body of a person who has died or been found dead in their area and no suitable arrangements are being made for disposal of the body. A local authority may also arrange a burial or cremation for any person who was in the care of or receiving assistance (as well as children in local authority care) from the authority immediately prior to their death. In both cases a local authority may seek to recover costs from the estate of the deceased.\n549 funerals were undertaken in 2015 under the provisions",
"-27.993828957143705"
],
[
"on June 13, 2006, after he was unable to pay the $40,000 to $50,000 a month \n($49,713 to $62,141 in 2018 dollars) it took to pay employee salaries and the insurance, mortgage, and utility bills.\nThe City of Glendale reopened Grand View Memorial Park to visitors on August 27, 2006. Thereafter, the city paid the cost for the cemetery to remain open each Sunday from noon to 4 PM. The cost the city $31,000 a month ($38,527 in 2018 dollars).\nIn October 2006, Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Anthony Mohr placed Grand View Memorial Park under a preservation order, which barred anyone",
"-27.98885788966436"
],
[
"the burials at Har HaMenuchot involve couples. Stone monuments must be paid for by the family of the deceased. The burial societies recoup their development costs and make their profit on the sale of plots to Jews living abroad, with the price of the plot, burial costs, and transportation of the body by airline exceeding US$11,000. Burials from abroad constitute an estimated one-fifth to one-third of all burials. Description Like other Jewish cemeteries in Jerusalem, the plots on Har HaMenuchot consist of an underground grave topped by a rectangular platform of poured concrete, faced with stone tiles, that rises 2",
"-27.974006771924905"
],
[
"to families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for remembrance. Carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose. Materials A cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be placed. Others may require stones of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting. Headstones of granite, marble and",
"-27.903175824554637"
],
[
"authority to build a tomb, which was a typical of the period, since the space had no place to bury their dead. The tomb was located the eastern corner of the church and Misericórdia Velha.\nWhile, by 1765, it was able to take in 324$861 réis in receipts, while expending 302$000 réis (a meager profit), by 1804 the situation had turned grave. The brotherhood of the Misericórdia sent a letter to the Crown, informing it of \"grave financial situation\" that existed in the Santa Casa, referring to corruption of the previous board. In their communique, the former brotherhood of not paying",
"-27.902097477242933"
],
[
"perpetual care fund lacks functional interest. Maintenance is currently provided by veterans, volunteer groups like the Friends of Eastern Cemetery, and Dismas Charities. Mismanagement In 1989, a whistleblower working for Louisville Crematories and Cemetery Company made the public aware that graves purchased by families had been reused. Bodies were buried atop other bodies, graves were carelessly excavated for reuse, and medical cadaver body parts from the University of Louisville were buried in-mass rather than intact (as is legally required for donated bodies). Human bones were found in inappropriate areas, including in a tool box, a glove compartment, a fast food",
"-27.900974200339988"
],
[
"ripe and unearth graves in the family and slave cemeteries to search for valuables buried under false headstones. The most expensive blow comes when the troops torch more than $158,331 worth of baled cotton (in 2014 currency ). (The O'Haras had been unable to sell the cotton to English merchants, owing to the blockade, and thus it was still awaiting transport.) Upon the army's withdrawal, the family and their loyal remaining slaves are left with a looted and dilapidated house, a ruined farm with no stock, work animals, or farm equipment, no food and no means to produce food. ",
"-27.883683100226335"
],
[
"death had been buried on the cemetery on 31 May 1904, donated another 100 Napoléons d’or, while the Anglican side was still behind with its payments. In 1907 Bertha von Braun donated another ℳ 5,000 (= 6,250 Francs; = £250) for the purposes of the cemetery.\nEventual deficits were to be halved among the parties, and it turned out that the stipulated burial fees did not cover the running expenses for inspector and maintenance. Because deficits repeated the burial board decided to collect once a year alms in favour of the cemetery in both congregations, starting on Sunday 24 November 1912,",
"-27.881583292279174"
],
[
"purchase an adjoining 5-acre (2.0 ha) tract, to improve and operate the cemetery, sell burial plots, and be exempt from taxation as long as the land was used as a cemetery. The act named the initial seven members of corporation that would manage the cemetery, specified that all future members must be owners of burial plots within the cemetery, and that a new board would be elected annually by vote proportional to the number of plots owned. The act also specified that family gravesites in the old cemetery could continue to be used for burial by the respective families.\nA conservation assessment",
"-27.860374724754365"
],
[
"to ensure unused graves are properly covered, and to avoid legal liability that would result from an injury related to an improperly dug or uncovered grave. Preparation of the grave is usually done before the mourners arrive for the burial. The cemetery caretakers fill the grave after the burial, generally after the mourners have departed. Mechanical equipment, such as backhoes, are used to reduce labour cost of digging and filling, but some hand shovelling may still be required.\nIn the United Kingdom the minimum depth from the surface to the highest lid is 36 inches. There must be 6 inches between",
"-27.848662104574032"
],
[
"cemeteries viable, thus forestalling the need for permanent closure, which would result in a reduction of their work force. Burial registers Usually there is a legal requirement to maintain records regarding the burials (or interment of ashes) within a cemetery. These burial registers usually contain (at a minimum) the name of the person buried, the date of burial and the location of the burial plots within the cemetery, although some contain far more detail. The Arlington National Cemetery, one of the United States' largest military cemeteries, has a registry, The ANC Explorer, which contains details such as photographs of the",
"-27.83683491416741"
],
[
"or died out.\nToday, it is not unheard of to discover groupings of tombstones, ranging from a few to a dozen or more, on undeveloped land. As late 20th century suburban sprawl pressured the pace of development in formerly rural areas, it became increasingly common for larger exurban properties to be encumbered by \"religious easements\", which are legal requirements for the property owner to permit periodic maintenance of small burial plots located on the property but technically not owned with it. Often, cemeteries are relocated to accommodate building. However, if the cemetery is not relocated, descendants of people buried",
"-27.833322856691666"
],
[
"gets waterlogged during the monsoons. It was therefore decided to vault the graves so that the area would be leveled up and easy to clean. Each grave holder is expected to defray part of the expenses by paying ₹2000.\nIn 1964 the graveyard was rearranged and the entire area divided into sections marked ‘A’, to ‘H’. Some of these sections were vaulted. Each permanent grave owner was issued a Registration Card giving the name of the grave-owner, the co-users and the grave number and section and a plan showing the location of the grave. It may be noted that while allotting",
"-27.816292581614107"
],
[
"population was undertaken, further gravestones were destroyed through wind damage (see Kyrill (storm)). In early 2007, the Jewish Kultusgemeinde estimated the cost of repairing the cemetery at 14 million euros and planned to turn the caretaker's house into a meeting house. In January 2007, along with the Educult institute, the Jewish Kultusgemeinde started an initiative that envisaged the publishing of a book and a photo calendar, as well as an exhibition, that would contribute to restoring the property. In addition, the until then irregular guided tours of the cemetery are now offered on a monthly basis. On 2 March 2007,",
"-27.81400008109631"
],
[
"tombstones.\nThe main reason for the attempt to pass such a law with such severe punishments if broken is that the town's 28,000 inhabitants apparently do not look after their health properly, making them more vulnerable to death, which would mean having to bury more corpses in the already full cemetery. Since the cemetery was inaugurated in 1910, over 50,000 people have been buried in 3,500 crypts and tombs. In November 2005, the cemetery was declared to be full and 20 recently deceased residents were forced to share a crypt, and several others were buried under the walkways.\nThe mayor, to support",
"-27.803463940450456"
],
[
"which are unidentifiable through DNA analysis. The remains will be cremated before placement in the memorial. Burial procedures The flags in the cemetery are flown at half-staff from a half-hour before the first funeral until a half hour after the last funeral each day. Funerals are normally conducted five days a week, excluding weekends.\nFunerals, including interments and inurnments, average between 27–30 per day. The Cemetery conducts approximately 6,900 burials each year.\nWith more than 400,000 interments, the cemetery has the second-largest number of burials of any national cemetery in the United States. The largest of the 130 national cemeteries is the",
"-27.76102726906538"
],
[
"historical interests, the mass graves continue to attract history tourists and researchers. The graves are located on private land whose owners are prevented from farming or construction by laws and cultural taboos that prohibit exhumation of bodies and disturbance of grave sites. There have been proposals and promises to compensate and relocated the landowners in exchange for setting up memorial sites.",
"-27.7603593081476"
],
[
"buried at Camp Nelson. A veteran's spouse and dependent children are likewise eligible to be buried. The grave plot, headstone, perpetual maintenance of the grave, and labor involved with burial are provided at no cost to the veteran or the family. Starting in the 1990s, inexpensive plastic burial vaults have been used to enclose the casket within the grave, and are provided at no additional cost to the family. These vaults protect the casket from being crushed, and are effective at preventing collapse of the surface of the grave due to soil compaction.\nAt the funeral service of a veteran, an",
"-27.759184335940517"
],
[
"for example are removed, they can be replaced with new trees to \"frame\" the cemetery.\n\nI was not awarded the maintenance contract but was informed that a temporary contract was being put in place and the situation would be reviewed in the coming year.\n— Gina Plate, email to Stuart Read, 11 December 2011.\nThe Cemetery is largely intact, except for the loss of the Church of England Robing Room/Chapel (burned down 1975), the Sexton's Cottages (first demolished c.1949, second demolished 1984) and damage due to vandalism and natural decay. Heritage listing As at 19 February 2001, Gore Hill Memorial Cemetery was an",
"-27.737630436880863"
],
[
"in the number of cremations. Whereas 36 percent of all deceased were cremated in the United States in 2008, the National Association of Funeral Directors forecast this to rise to 46 percent by 2015 and 59 percent by 2025.\nJewish law does not bar the use of burial vaults or liners, and their use is permitted where law or a cemetery requires them. But Morrison David Bial argues that burial vaults are antithetical to traditional Judaism, in part because they deny the reality of death (e.g., inhibit decomposition of the body) and in part because they are ostentatious and undercut",
"-27.724397061392665"
],
[
"which were initially considered to be large often run out of space for new burials and there is no vacant adjacent land available to extend the cemetery or even land in the same general area to create new cemeteries. New cemeteries are generally established on the periphery of towns and cities, where large tracts of land are still available. However, people often wish to be buried in the same cemetery as other relatives, and are not interested in being buried in new cemeteries with which there is no sense of connection to their family, creating pressure to find more space",
"-27.702761221444234"
],
[
"Grace Church oversaw the re-interment of the body. Currently The gravesites are not arranged in rows or plots and only a few stones remain. They are randomly placed. Many of the graves are unmarked, or the stones have been removed. Very few if any records were kept and several people have since desecrated the graveyard by reducing the graves themselves to a pile of rubble.",
"-27.701283957110718"
],
[
"expenditures required by Congress, $30,000 remained which the City Commissioners agreed to spend in acquiring Presbyterian Burying Ground for a municipal playground. In May 1907, Allen W. Mallery, agent for the church, agreed to sell the cemetery to the city, but the Beatty family objected and the sale cancelled. For reasons which are not clear, the sale was consummated on June 20, 1907, for $27,969.25. The city, however, required the church to provide clear title and title insurance, and to clear the property of all bodies. The city was forced to spend $14,000 of the $30,000, however, leaving just $16,000",
"-27.68841682188213"
],
[
"burial can cause considerable upset to family members. Although the authorities might declare that the grave is sufficiently old that there will be no human remains still present, nonetheless many people regard the re-use of graves (particularly their family's graves) as a desecration. Also re-use of a used grave involves the removal of any monuments and headstones, which may cause further distress to families (although families will typically be allowed to take away the monuments and headstones if they wish).\nOn the other hand, cemetery authorities are well aware that many old graves are forgotten and not visited and that their",
"-27.637567121055326"
],
[
"graves with Church of England permission. Successive Government have considered the problem of lack of space for graves but not taken any action.\nThe 2015 amendments to the Burial Act 1857, allowing the Church of England to reuse graves, was controversial. Such changes have been criticised as offensive and distressing to the living, and disrespectful to the dead.",
"-27.621339222649112"
],
[
"ornate structures. Some cemeteries co-located a chapel (either next to or above) with the receiving vault to make it easier to hold a funeral in conjunction with the vault's use. The cost of constructing and operating the receiving vault was usually borne by the cemetery. Receiving vaults were usually located toward the center or the rear of a cemetery. Small cemeteries usually used a small, subterranean receiving vault, while larger burying grounds with more income built larger underground or above-ground structures.",
"-27.599250856845174"
],
[
"re-use will not cause distress to anyone. However, there may be some older graves in a cemetery for whom there are local and vocal descendants who will mount a public campaign against re-use. One pragmatic strategy is to publicly announce plans to re-use older graves and invite families to respond if they are willing or not. Re-use then only occurs where there are no objections allowing the \"forgotten\" graves to be re-used. Sometimes the cemetery authorities request a further payment to avoid re-use of a grave, but often this backfires politically.\nA practical problem with regard to contacting families is that",
"-27.595304319576826"
],
[
"burials may take place there apart from cremated remains.\nThe northern (i.e. lower level) part of the Churchyard was given to Lambeth Council soon after the Second World War and converted into a memorial garden to remember those who died in that conflict. Lambeth Council has used money from a Section 106 agreement to refurbish these gardens. This section of the churchyard is used on the first Sunday of most months of the year for selling refreshments in connection with the Norwood Feast.\nThe original ornate railings around the churchyard were removed as wartime \"salvage\" and only restored in 2009. The elaborate",
"-27.554401171044447"
],
[
"during reconstruction. They would receive $50,000 in credit to buy furniture and appliances, payable in 60 months with five percent interest. Rosario's real estate firms prepared a list of houses for rent without charging victims their regular fee. Some of the affected buildings may have had cheap insurances which would not cover the risk of an explosion. Some cars trapped in an underground parking lot could not be retrieved.\nWhen the search for survivors ended, authorities closed Salta Street. Engineers began checking the buildings at ground zero, trying to restore the original layout of the street and demolishing unstable structures. Secretary",
"-27.543364544486394"
]
] |
4pd5p3 | Is there any advantage to suburban neighborhoods being twisty labyrinths of cul de sacs? | [
"Some people like living on a street with no through traffic. It's very inconvenient, but they like the quiet.",
"My grandmother lives on what used to be a small, quiet street, thirty years ago. It's also straight and fairly well maintained, so it eventually started being used by the majority of the city. It alternates between heavy, loud traffic, and light traffic with people going 40+ mph. Living in a twisty labyrinth prevents this from happening.",
"It is purposefully built to make it so that there is not through traffic and what traffic is there does not go at high speed. Yes it does slow down emergency responders but those are not needed often enough for the slight slow down to be a big enough negative to make it a grid.",
"Why would it cause delays for emergency responders? They only have go up and down the main roads and then into the one cul de sac that they need... they don't drive in and out of every cul de sac looking for the right address.",
"They allow their inhabitants to pretend they are living a semi-rural level lifestyle while demanding city level services and paying farm level taxes. The usual result is a ponzi scheme of growth followed by municipal bankruptcy. URL_0 These configurations result in a far greater land use consumed per person/household, which has a direct impact on municipal service cost per person/houshold. If these ppl really wanted to live a rural life, with a dirt road, no water or sewage, etc, then it wouldn't matter. But if they want someone else to pave their road, maintain water & sewer, and come put out their fires, then all those services costs scale inversely to density. The less intensely the land is used, the more expensive it is to provide services. This calculus is slowly percolating through cities, so change is happening, but it's slow, and people who are used to their cul de sacs and taxes too low to support them will push back hard against paying their fair share.",
"I always thought it was for aesthetics. Houses all lined up on little grids are hideous and developers (rightly) imagine the people who want to live in the suburbs don't want a city look/feel. Or it could be to imitate the gated communities in cities that are designed that way to be more park like. Or it could be to decrease cut through traffic, making it feel safer and family friendly. There are cities that build barricades on streets to make cul de sacs out of their perfect little grids, presumably to decrease traffic and therefore crime."
] | [
[
"hills to steep mountain slopes. The hilly barrios of the municipality (moving clockwise around the outskirts of the city) are these seven: Quebrada Limón, Marueño, Magueyes, Tibes, Portugués Rural, Machuelo Arriba, and Cerrillos. The barrios of Canas, Coto Laurel, Capitanejo, Sabanetas, Vayas, and Bucaná also surround the outskirts of the city but these are mostly flat. The remaining six (6) other barrios are further away from the city and their topology is rugged mountain terrain. These are (clockwise): Guaraguao, San Patricio, Monte Llano, Maragüez, Anón, and Real. The ruggedness of these barrios is because through these areas of the",
"-32.19670597999357"
],
[
"Ciudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar Urban character Ciudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar is an unusual, colorful, socially mixed and lively neighbourhood of about 6,650 families in an area of 2.4 km² (0.93 sq mi). Inspired by the Garden city movement, its layout is designed on a pedestrian scale with compact residential areas made up of tile roofed row style and free standing chalets in tree-lined streets and boulevards. There are three arcaded three-storey residential-commercial plazas (town squares) with central greenery, children playgrounds, fountains and surrounded by shops, pubs and al fresco dining restaurants.\nThe layout was developed to place cultural facilities, schools, churches, clubs",
"-31.970534420823242"
],
[
"are all two lanes and they are neither on a grid with uniform city blocks nor in the suburban cul-de-sac style found in most American suburbs but are slightly winding and usually separated by the equivalent of two or more city blocks. Fairlington's apartment units are grouped in \"courts,\" usually three or four separate buildings of around 40-50 total units facing a parking lot (carpark). Most units are three levels (upstairs, ground level and basement) with front and back doors. Some units are two or three story walk-ups with units on a single floor. Prior to the condominium conversions, back",
"-31.94574963584455"
],
[
"Flatbush Malls The Flatbush Malls are a series of tree-lined landscaped medians along several roads in the Victorian Flatbush neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City. An architecture critic has written that the malls \"give the streets an uncommon spaciousness, if not grandeur\". The first series was built in the northern part of the neighborhood along Albemarle Road, and extending one block north on Buckingham Road, in the Prospect Park South development of 1899, east of Coney Island Avenue and west of the BMT Brighton Line. This was modeled by the Scottish landscape architect John Aiken on Commonwealth Avenue Mall in",
"-31.712586744863074"
],
[
" The curvilinear streets followed precedents in European towns and England, rather than the American gridiron pattern.\nThe units were designed primarily as row houses since this allowed for the most density. The longer the row, the more economical the construction, but there was an issue with getting behind the homes for garbage and ash disposal. They solved this problem by installing sunken garbage receptacles in front eliminating the need for rear access to the units.\nThe interiors consisted of a few floor plans of three, four, and five rooms. They were designed to suit the needs of",
"-31.516810449305922"
],
[
"the street with private domains separated to the rear. This is different from suburban development where cul-de-sacs often leave houses backing onto the street. The urban grain of a neighbourhood is important to a vibrant public realm. Small-scale development by lots of different developers creates variety in the buildings which create the backdrop to urban life. This is missing or artificially produced if a developer is given a large block to develop, failing to capture the traditional nature of urban areas. A fine urban grain creates a sense of place, not space, generating vibrancy and unity in the neighbourhood. Good",
"-31.422915908537107"
],
[
"roots still remain. First of all, the fact that property lines generally followed irrigation ditches can still be seen in the neighborhood's haphazard street grids today. Second, the neighborhood's working-class character is visible in its primarily single-story homes featuring simple façades.\nA fifth neighborhood, the Barrio de la Estación, is often grouped in with the city's original neighborhoods. However, this neighborhood is considerably more modern, with much of its development dating from the final decades of the 19th century or later. Therefore, despite its important role in the history of Aguascalientes, it's not strictly accurate to consider the Barrio de la",
"-31.27457544085337"
],
[
"to have been the most organised, having the best layout, while Bekir mahala and Karamoutza mahala were the most labyrinthine. However, all quarters shared the same type of streets; firstly, they all had main streets which were wide, busy and public roads meant to allow for communication between neighbourhoods (typical examples are, to a great extent, modern-day Korinthou, Nafpliou and Tripoleos streets). Secondary streets were also common in all four quarters since they lead to the interior of each mahala, having a semi-public character, whereas the third type of streets referred to dead-end private alleys used specifically by families to",
"-31.268328556485358"
],
[
"it dealing with spatial marginalization) –, with a very noticeable example being the rail suburbs of Rio de Janeiro – the North Zone, the Baixada Fluminense, the part of the West Zone associated with SuperVia's Ramal de Santa Cruz. These, in comparison with the inner suburbs, often prove to be remote, violent food deserts with inadequate sewer structure coverage, saturated mass transit, more precarious running water, electricity and communication services, and lack of urban planning and landscaping, while also not necessarily qualifying as actual favelas or slums. They often are former agricultural land or wild areas settled through squatting, and",
"-31.105255019676406"
],
[
"all of the somewhat narrow east/west streets here have been one-way, an oddity for a neighborhood relatively far from downtown.\nFurther contributing to the unusually high density for a neighborhood mostly of single family homes, Deer Park includes two pedestrian courts whose long rows of houses, with no conventional street, are accessible only by alleys and sidewalks running through the short front yards. Ivanhoe Court was built in 1914, and the slightly smaller Maplewood Place a year later in 1915. These types of developments, built during the streetcar suburb era, are apparently unique to Louisville. There are 11 in Old Louisville,",
"-31.000095329178293"
],
[
"small park or square. Other than the diagonal streets, all streets are on a rectangular grid and are numbered consecutively. Thus, La Plata is nicknamed \"la ciudad de las diagonales\" (city of diagonals). It is also called \"la ciudad de los tilos\" (city of linden trees), because of the large number of linden trees lining the many streets and squares. The linden tree is one of a number of deciduous Northern Hemisphere tree species which dominate La Plata's parks and streets; ash, horsechestnut, plane, sweetgum and tulip tree are among the other examples. Palms and subtropical broadleaf evergreen trees thrive,",
"-30.92753545243977"
],
[
"neighbourhoods: I, II, III, Piedras Coloradas, and Barrio Llequén at the outskirts of the vllage. Neighbourhoods I, II and III were chiefly created for power plant workers and police officers and dwellings were given in hierarchical order. Hence, in Neighbourhood I lived those inhabitants with the most important ranks, and so on.\nThese neighbourhoods take advantage of the hills upon which the village is located, with Neighbourhood III being in the highest place and Neighbourhood I in the lowest position.\nHouses are very much alike: they are rectangular with white walls and red tiled rooftops. Their backyards are well outlined and the",
"-30.90309296936175"
],
[
"neighborhoods, that is, neighborhoods and independent nuclei, with schools, churches and complete infrastructure. The neighborhood is divided into 24 nuclei organized in a numeral form.\nLocated in the convergence between the Center and the North Zone, the neighborhood is one of the most valued in the city, growing rapidly and attracting the upper class, coming from already saturated noble neighborhoods and emerging upper middle class, from humbler neighborhoods.",
"-30.483693812857382"
],
[
"in a lack of urban sprawl, or at least of new urban sprawl. As new neighbourhoods need to be built as an outer skin around existing settlements and as other policies prohibited establishing new settlements outside other towns or villages, no new linear villages could be founded without governmental intervention any more. This in order to keep the rural landscape 'clean' and cities dense and compact.\nAs a result, in Dutch towns all neighbourhoods are close to city centers, enabling inhabitants to get around quickly and cheaply by bike. Getting out of town doesn't involve driving through ever-ongoing sprawled suburbs, making",
"-30.402350896794815"
],
[
"Place Appearing as a circle but actually a duodecagon this is the largest and grandest space within the plan. Technically it is symmetrical around its northwest/southeast axis, but the scale of the form and central gardens makes this impossible to interpret on the ground, and this is only visible from above. Although rear mews were standard at the time of building, the layout only permitted mews on the north-east side (now known as Gloucester Lane).\nLord Moray took one of the largest and most prominent houses: 28 Moray Place. Other notable residents included Alexander Kinnear, 1st Baron Kinnear (2), George Deas,",
"-30.178387486485008"
],
[
"Roxbury, Mattapan and Jamaica Plain were popular with the emerging middle class and became \"streetcar suburbs\" as transportation systems expanded from the older, core sections of the city. Typically, the affordable three decker homes attracted live-in landlords who would collect rent from the other two apartments.\nIn Worcester, Massachusetts, sewer connection charges were based on street frontage, so builders favored houses with as little frontage as possible. This is one reason why three-deckers are often situated on narrow lots and are rectangular shape, with the smaller sides at the front and the rear.\nIn the textile mill city of Fall River, Massachusetts,",
"-30.171622251502413"
],
[
"(French: jardins en terrain) and courtyards (French: cours) of some French former palaces have resulted in redevelopments into spaces equivalent to garden squares. The same former single-owner scenario applies to at least one garden square in London (Coleridge Square). Outside of Paris Grandiose instances of garden-use town squares are a part of many French cities, others opt for solid material town squares. Belgium The Square de Meeûs and Square Orban are notable examples in Brussels. Ireland Dublin has several Georgian examples, including Merrion Square, Fitzwilliam Square, Mountjoy Square, St Stephens Green and Parnell Square. United States Perhaps the most",
"-30.120286419165495"
],
[
"comparable to nearby areas but distinguishable compared with the city, which in general slopes south to the lake. One resident described the topography of the neighbourhood as \"Toronto's hidden San Francisco,\" comparing Silverthorn with the famously hilly terrain of San Francisco. The winding and one-way streets make through traffic a non-factor for ball playing. Castlefield Design District The area along Castlefield Road from Kincort Street to just west of Dufferin is home to the interior design district, home to furniture retailers, home decor centres, as well as Roots Canada and Art Shoppe.",
"-30.05354657533462"
],
[
"laid out on a traditional grid system. Today, the streets of the outlying city are contorted as a result of the many marshes and lowlands that run through much of Columbia County. The northern side of the city thus looks different from the central city, with the organized grid street system giving way to a more suburban streetscape with a lower housing density.\nThe city has two commercial areas. One is the downtown historic district, which features several small boutique shops and restaurants; the other is the Northridge commercial area that features big box stores. In the summer of 2007, the",
"-29.995142245403258"
],
[
"as well as streetscapes are dominant in providing the outsider a simple yet strong image of the Forest Hill neighbourhood. In other words, neighbourhoods in Toronto are sometimes characterized by their housing types and/or streetscape. For instance, the Leaside neighbourhood is noted for having lots of trees or the Rosedale neighbourhood being noted for distinct and large lot housing.\nThroughout Forest Hill, the conventional suburbs housing style (without the aspect of homogeneous households), makes up the majority of the area. In simplicity, Forest Hill housing has dominant traits of the conventional suburbs housing type. In further analysis, characteristics of low density,",
"-29.975163833645638"
],
[
"Barrio de La Latina (Madrid) History La Latina occupies much of the oldest section of Madrid, sometimes referred to as El Madrid de los Austrias which maintains a peculiar urban layout similar to the medieval distribution, with spacious squares and narrow streets that follow the former course of creeks. As such, the effect is often that of a traditional pueblo rather than the heart of a major city. Its configuration overlaps almost perfectly with the first walled enclosures of the ninth-century fortress, Almudena - and that of the city - Medina - that surrounded it. Its streets have felt the",
"-29.895070986214364"
],
[
"persons per acre) that were laid out on a grid-type pattern. Also, many early grid-plan towns and suburbs such as Windermere, Florida, Dauphin, Manitoba, and St. Andrews, New Brunswick exhibit grid layouts and very low densities. Conversely, incidental cul-de-sac and crescent streets in central areas show high densities. Examples of unusual, unconventional associations of density and street type demonstrate that street patterns are coincidentally, not causally, related to housing density. Any given street pattern can be built at a predetermined density. Transportation, traffic, and their effects More significant criticisms of the grid and the Radburn patterns were put forward based",
"-29.837144259508932"
],
[
"to the neighbouring suburbs, there is a sense of luxury living associated with the area hence a high level of affluent residents and property investors are found in the area.\nGreenstone Hill seems to portray a fairly decent active lifestyle where a large contingency of joggers and cyclists are noticeable, this is over and above the advent of a number of gyms and crossfit boxes opening up within the area. Neighbouring suburbs Acacia Park, Antwerp, Eastleigh, Edenvale, Illiondale, Longmeadow, Marais Steyn Park, Modderfontein, Rembrandt Park",
"-29.81096817267826"
],
[
"layout.\nAlthough rare, some pizza layouts have also used multi-level spiral layouts, with something of the rabbit warren to them. Scenery Scenery may be realistic, a caricature of geography containing real buildings or deliberately unrealistic. The difficulty is the likelihood that all of the layout can be seen at once, and the problem of finding any sort of visual break between the two sides. Many simply ignore this, placing a realistic building or feature in the centre and ignoring the logical pointlessness of a railway that obviously circles without going anywhere. Some layouts model funfairs, where the short circle can appear",
"-29.76444802719925"
],
[
"at the time, Walden 7 was built in the area to the west of Barcelona. It was originally designed as one of five similar blocks. The building is composed of 18 towers which are displaced from their base, forming a curve and coming into contact with the neighbouring towers, described as a \"vertical labyrinth with seven interconnecting interior courtyards.\" The area originally devoted to communal uses was reduced to allow an increased number of apartments. These apartments are formed on the basis of one or more 28-square-metre (33 sq yd) modules, which creates, on different levels, dwellings that range from single-module studios",
"-29.742513201519614"
],
[
"The southern suburbs are mainly affluent.\nThe town is bordered by Waddon immediately southwest of central Croydon. To the west, inside the London Borough of Sutton lies Beddington. To the north are Broad Green, Thornton Heath and Selhurst. To the south lies South Croydon, and going further south are Purley and Sanderstead. To the east lie Addiscombe and Shirley.\nCroydon High Street runs from South Croydon up to the point where it meets the street called North End. North End is the main shopping street, while Croydon High Street is the main restaurant quarter.\nThe High Street is also home to Wrencote House,",
"-29.730866501718992"
],
[
"mountains. Layout The streets of the city, along with the rest of Davis County north of Layton, are laid out on a unified grid plan. Most major streets run very nearly north-south and east-west. Clearfield City is the farthest east on this grid, while Syracuse, West Point, Sunset, Clinton and Unincorporated Davis County all are located north, west and south on the same street grid. Neighborhoods Clearfield City has many informal neighborhoods, most of which are more business or industrial related than residential. In the southwestern portion of the city is a large industrial business center called The Freeport Center,",
"-29.718150322129077"
],
[
"streets and squares, together with its developed sewerage systems and water pipelines. Subterranean kurabandis (‘sewerage system’), made from river stones, and dating back to almost one thousand years, are thought to be one of the most ancient sewerage systems used in the world.\nThe residents of Lahij are divided into three categories, based on their craftsmanship: Baadvan, Azavarro and Araghird. Each of these categories has its own village square, mosque, hammam and graveyard. One of the most striking features of the urban look of Lahij, is the village square of each category, which, today, still has its specific role in the",
"-29.713882525858935"
],
[
"in Polanco. There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small \"squares\" occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts.\nSeveral other larger parks such as the Bosque de Tlalpan and Viveros de Coyoacán, and in the east Alameda Oriente, offer many recreational activities. Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón. In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market, a World Heritage site. West of Santa Fe district are the pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park.\nAmusement parks include Six Flags México, in Ajusco",
"-29.7075179622625"
],
[
"modeled on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, is the most notable street in the Bronx. The City Beautiful movement inspired similar boulevards in Brooklyn, known as parkways.",
"-29.698374644028036"
],
[
"vineyards, and numerous small orchards and community gardens. Gardens are irrigated by naturally-flowing creeks, which also serve as natural filters that eliminate the need for an expensive storm-water sewer system. Residents enjoy environmental and aesthetic benefits from their shared spaces, and the increased sense of community is evident; Village Homes residents on average know 40 neighbors, compared to an average of 17 acquaintances reported in a nearby traditional suburban development. Jackson Heights - Queens, New York For nearly nine decades, the historic neighborhood of Jackson Heights in Queens has maintained its fourteen block-long shared interior courtyards, and is considered to",
"-29.689539608050836"
],
[
"total. Villages and towns with narrow streets (2 to 3 m wide) consume much less.\nActual layouts of specific districts show variability within that range due to site-specific conditions and network pattern idiosyncrasies. Land taken up by streets becomes unavailable for development; its use is inefficient since it stays empty for most of the time. Were it to be developed, less land would be required for the same number housing units, resulting in lowering the pressure to consume more of it.\nA 2007 study compared alternative layout plans for a 3.4 square kilometre subdivision and found that the traditional grid layout",
"-29.651680027949624"
],
[
"Neighbourhood Preindustrial cities In the words of the urban scholar Lewis Mumford, “Neighbourhoods, in some annoying, inchoate fashion exist wherever human beings congregate, in permanent family dwellings; and many of the functions of the city tend to be distributed naturally—that is, without any theoretical preoccupation or political direction—into neighbourhoods.” Most of the earliest cities around the world as excavated by archaeologists have evidence for the presence of social neighbourhoods. Historical documents shed light on neighbourhood life in numerous historical preindustrial or nonwestern cities.\nNeighbourhoods are typically generated by social interaction among people living near one another. In this sense they are",
"-29.64039361749019"
],
[
"mystified by the fact that their neighborhood is dotted on maps and designated as a CDP, as it is actually a suburban residential neighborhood and not a separate town or settlement of any sort.",
"-29.631403257022612"
],
[
"of Management for Welwyn Garden City. Every road has a wide grass verge. The spine of the town is Parkway, a central mall or scenic parkway, almost a mile long. The view along Parkway to the south was once described as one of the world's finest urban vistas. Older houses are on the west side of Parkway and newer houses on the east side\nThe original planners intended that all the residents of the garden city would shop in one shop and created the Welwyn Stores, a monopoly which caused some local resentment. Commercial pressures have since ensured much more competition",
"-29.620128877519164"
],
[
"opposed to square or rectangular designs. The narrow and irregular street grid is unlike that of other quarters, where streets usually meet at approximately right angles. Similar to the majority of excavated homes of Delos, those in the Theatre Quarter feature an open courtyard without porticoes, instead of the peristyle layout with columns. Some of the houses in the Theatre Quarter lack interior decoration altogether, with neither wall murals nor mosaics, which is unusual for most Delian homes. House of Dionysos The Delos mosaic of Dionysos riding a tiger in the House of Dionysos is one of the finest examples",
"-29.61614059479325"
],
[
"suburban sprawl.\nIn addition to \"from-scratch\" new-built communities (including those physically retrofitting/re-using existing structures), there are also \"retrofit\" (aka \"organic\") communities in which neighbors create \"intentional neighborhoods\" by buying adjacent properties and removing fences. Often, they create common amenities such as Common Houses after the fact, while living there. N Street Cohousing in Davis, CA, is the canonical example of this type; it came together before the term Cohousing was popularized in the United States.\nCohousing differs from some types of intentional communities in that the residents do not have a shared economy or a common set of beliefs or religion, but",
"-29.542619654530426"
],
[
"claimed to be founded on seven hills like Rome. The more prominent hills are: Constitution Hill (near downtown), College Hill (east of the Providence River), and Federal Hill (west of downtown and containing New England's largest Italian district outside of Massachusetts). The other four are: Tockwotten Hill at Fox Point, Smith Hill (where the State House is located), Christian Hill at Hoyle Square (junction of Cranston and Westminster Streets), and Weybosset Hill at the lower end of Weybosset Street, which was leveled in the early 1880s. Cityscape The city of Providence is geographically very compact, characteristic of eastern seaboard cities",
"-29.53669906259165"
],
[
"Barelas Geography The neighborhood occupies a roughly triangular region between the Rio Grande and the BNSF railroad tracks south of Coal Avenue, which forms the boundary with Downtown. The area claimed by the Barelas Neighborhood Association extends all the way south to Woodward Road, though south of Bridge Boulevard the neighborhood becomes primarily industrial rather than residential. Geographically speaking Barelas is somewhat isolated, with the railyard and river separating it from adjacent areas to the east and west. Demographics Barelas has around 3,700 inhabitants, roughly two thirds of whom are Hispanic. It has historically been one of the poorest neighborhoods",
"-29.500626362510957"
],
[
"with good numbers of dwellings that are joined to through streets tend to be safe. As for permeability, it suggests that residential areas should be permeable enough to allow movement in all directions but no more. The overprovision of poorly used permeability is a crime hazard. The open, uniform grid could be seen as an example of undifferentiated permeability.\nA recent study in California examined the amount of child play that occurred on the streets of neighbourhoods with different characteristics; grid pattern and culs-de-sac. The findings indicate that the open grid streets showed substantially lower play activity than the cul-de-sac street",
"-29.489699130208464"
],
[
"of the city are legally organized somewhat similarly to condominiums, co-ops or homeowners associations. In 1982 the St. Louis metropolitan area had more than 427 street associations administering private places. Although often associated with high-end communities, neighborhoods of various socio-economic natures have been structured as private places.",
"-29.481253937468864"
],
[
"Gated community In its modern form, a gated community (or walled community) is a form of residential community or housing estate containing strictly controlled entrances for pedestrians, bicycles, and automobiles, and often characterized by a closed perimeter of walls and fences. Similar walls and gates have separated quarters of some cities for centuries. Gated communities usually consist of small residential streets and include various shared amenities. For smaller communities, these amenities may include only a park or other common area. For larger communities, it may be possible for residents to stay within the community for most daily activities. Gated communities",
"-29.466864604735747"
],
[
"homes which was viewed as the highest echelon of the development.\nThe streets at the outer boundaries of Rochelle Heights contain smaller lots. These streets frame the core of the development and buffer the interior properties. Although these tertiary streets were lesser properties in the context of the Rochelle Heights development, they were still above the mean and intended for a middle-class clientele.\nThese two neighborhoods, combined into one historic district in 1986, reflect the history of suburban design since 1885 when the phenomenon first took hold in the United States.",
"-29.456752662255894"
],
[
"Its-tree lined streets contain many different architectural styles.\nCompared to most other Queens neighborhoods, Glendale is long and narrow since it is essentially sandwiched by cemeteries and Forest Park. As a result, it is considered to have three areas: from east to west, they are Upper Glendale, Middle Glendale, and Lower Glendale. Each area has its own unique attributes.\nThe easternmost portion near the Shops at Atlas Park is known as Upper Glendale and in general has more expensive homes and slightly higher income levels than the rest of Glendale. Upper Glendale has detached and semi-attached single- and two-family houses of above-average",
"-29.41333345788007"
],
[
"lots of stone and classical elements to the town. Natural and physical features The Northbrae neighborhood is known for its hilly terrain. The built environment follows along the natural topography which includes trees and existing outcropping of volcanic rock. The volcanic rock in the area, rhyolite, is primarily composed of quartz and is a significant feature of the area. The streets are arranged predominantly N-S in order to emphasize the views of the San Francisco bay and the hills. Most of the homes are bungalows and are tucked into the hills, connected by stairways that have been carved into the",
"-29.375884522742126"
],
[
"is a mixture of different style and sizes, from single-story 1820s mansions to recently built shopping malls and the 162-meter Swissotel in Red Hills (2005).\nFrom the 1990s till 2010, the city government has proposed conversion of the Garden Ring to a one-way street, completely separated from radial street traffic. The public and professionals equally reject the idea of a one-way, 18-lane street.\nSince 2010, with the arrival of the new city government, these plans were canceled. In 2016 a new reconstruction began. Trolleybus traffic was eliminated, they were replaced by diesel buses. It is planned to narrow down all section of",
"-29.374680513741623"
],
[
"and forked streets that lead to squares of different sizes. One explanation is that this was done by design, to make the city easier to defend from any raiders; by the same version, the reason that there is only one exit from the city was that should pirates ever return and succeed in entering the city, it would be possible for local inhabitants to entrap and kill them. However, locals dispute this reasoning as a myth, asserting that in truth the city developed without planning, and that winding streets developed out of everybody wanting to stay close to their local",
"-29.36325177208346"
],
[
"of South Fayette, not a separate entity), the neighborhood is geographically separate because of its elevated location spread around the Hickory Heights golf course. The autonomous neighborhood has a community swimming pool (Hickory Heights swimming pool), central golf course (Hickory Heights golf course), horse stables (Rolling Hills Ranch), a sportsman's club (The Alpine Club) and a farmers market (Original Farmer's Night Market). The rolling hills and scenic views provide some of the nicest suburban scenery in Pennsylvania. History Around 1770 General George Washington (later to become first President of the United States) acquired a 2,813-acre (11.38 km²) parcel of",
"-29.33547196049767"
],
[
"it can be found on Flamingo Avenue. Geography The district of Fourways encompasses several suburbs and estates. The suburbs include Fourways (on the Western side of William Nicol Drive, with a small portion on the Eastern side colloquially known as Little Fourways), Magalies View, Bryanston Ext. 34, several Magaliessig extensions, Norscot, Norscot Slopes, Lonehill and Beverley, Craigavon, Broadacres. The estates are Cedar Creek, Cedar Lakes, Fourways Gardens, Dainfern, Dainfern Valley, Dainfern Ridge and Fernbrook Estate. The estates have come to be because of the city's high crime rate. Dainfern is centred on a golf course, while Cedar Lakes, Fourways Gardens",
"-29.326564874092583"
],
[
"in the minds of Wellanders. East side and west side are very commonly used as basic directions.\nThe communities of Cooks Mills and Dain City have their own separation stories. Cooks Mills, located on the other side of the By-Pass channel than the rest of Welland, has arguably been protected against the impact of urban sprawl, but the necessity of using one of the two highway tunnels to cross the canal causes some residents to head to nearby Niagara Falls instead. Dain City, located in the south of the city where the two channels meet, is separated by the massive approaches",
"-29.29315772738846"
],
[
"in a neighborhood called \"Eastchester.\" This is perhaps due to confusion with Eastchester Road, a thoroughfare which runs through other parts of the Bronx, or with the Town of Eastchester in Westchester County. It is more common to hear the Eastchester neighborhood described as \"east of White Plains Road\", \"south of Mount Vernon\", \"near Pelham\", \"East 233rd Street\", etc. Land use and terrain Eastchester is dominated by one- and two-family homes of various types, one large public housing project, and an industrial district. The total land area is roughly half a square mile. The area is low-lying and flat. ",
"-29.272574815971893"
],
[
"in La Puente have been ongoing. However, the local government has been relatively unsuccessful in its attempts to attract big-box retailers and restaurant chains. La Puente retains many aging 1950s-era strip malls. Geography La Puente is located at 34°1′57″N 117°57′19″W (34.032410, -117.955195). The city, which is mostly flat, covers about 3.5 square miles (9.1 km²) of land in the San Gabriel Valley. 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that La Puente had a population of 39,816. The population density was 11,443.2 people per square mile (4,418.2/km²). La Puente is 49.4% White (4.6% Non-Hispanic White), 1.4% Black or African American,",
"-29.271736977927503"
],
[
"southeast, directed the early growth of the city. Most early streets ran parallel to the river to maximize the amount of land that could be used. Eventually, growth of Minneapolis turned to north-south and east-west streets. Many unique intersections like Seven Corners on the eastern periphery of downtown were formed to translate between the two layouts. Some streets, especially older and more traditionally important ones like Hennepin Avenue and Nicollet Avenue, have both orientations at different points. Parks and lakes Minneapolis has a large park system consisting of ten square miles (26 km²) of land and water that is interlinked in",
"-29.25262114546058"
],
[
"Raymond Unwin and the Garden city movement. The area is almost unique within the surrounding area with its tree-lined streets and boulevard stretching the length of the area at its most northern point. Entirely residential, the scheme's green and semi-rural setting was intended to provide a healthier alternative to the city's traditional tenement landscape, which had become too much identified with urban corrosion.\nThe 1500 house development was built by the firm Mactaggart and Mickel. Although flats featured in Mosspark's plans, two-thirds of the housing stock was built in the form of cottages, semi-detached and terraced, and surrounded by gardens. The",
"-29.187386076082475"
],
[
"the neighborhood. \nThe master plan for Carthay Circle was designed by leading early 20th century architects Aleck Curlett and his partner Claud Beelman (designer of MGM Studios and Downtown LA's Eastern Columbia Building) in conjunction with landscape architects Cook & Hall (Wilbur D. Cook is also noted for creating the master plan for the neighboring city of Beverly Hills).\nMcCarthy named the streets in honor of prominent figures of the California Gold Rush. He also planned the neighborhood around a shopping center. \nCarthay Circle was one of the first planned communities in Los Angeles, and the first in the city",
"-29.18471093183325"
],
[
"east and parks were built to accommodate the new residents. Parcels that were too small to develop, such as this site, were designated as green spaces maintained by the city's Parks Department.\nThe park contains plots for 24 trees and a bench on its northern side. Continuing north, Murray Lane gradually narrows, taking on the appearance of a countryside lane, having changed little as the surrounding neighborhood transformed over a century from farmland towards residential.",
"-29.150717265016283"
],
[
"but the village has a small shopping strip along Route 14. With a population of 4,209 in 2010, Barrington Hills has kept its rural flavor as industrial and commercial development has sprung up around its borders.\nThe village is bordered on the west by East Dundee, Carpentersville, and Algonquin; on the north by Fox River Grove, and Lake Barrington; on the east by Barrington and Inverness; and to the south and southeast by South Barrington, and Hoffman Estates. Barrington Hills is one of only two municipalities in Illinois with land located among four counties.",
"-29.11584168637637"
],
[
"Far Hills, New Jersey History Far Hills encompasses nearly 5 square miles (13 km²) in Somerset County, encircled by the equally upscale communities of Bedminster Township, Peapack-Gladstone, Bernards Township, and Bernardsville. It shares a community pool, athletic programs, civic organizations, and a school system with Bernardsville. It shares a public library, a fire department and a first aid squad with neighboring Bedminster Township.\nThe borough maintains its character through 10-acre (40,000 m²) minimum zoning laws whereby large private properties and homes surround a small village which was the creation of a wealthy New York businessman in the late 1800s. The beginning of rail",
"-29.111762658722"
],
[
"The neighborhood is partitioned into two separate neighborhood assemblies, divided by Pennsylvania Avenue and Southbridge, due to their distinct characters. Southside East contains working-class residences and some public housing projects, while Southside West is primarily made up of larger middle-class residences. Race and ethnicity Binghamton is home to a large ethnic population. During its industrial heyday, thousands of European immigrants moved to the city as they found an abundance of jobs and working-class prosperity. Many Irish, Italians, and Eastern Europeans settled in the area, and the American Civic Association was created to help their transition to life and assimilation",
"-29.105520869372413"
],
[
"the numbered streets that permitted placing a \"mini-public-square\" of green space for houses to face inward on all four sides and directions. The center large rectangular common parks space was originally designated as a \"Terrace\" that included pathways, grass and trees with an octagon-shaped wading pool at the west end and a raised octagon sand pit platform with a flag pole at the east end. Marconi West: Residential Roman Terraces of Marconi: The Greco-Roman–accented homes west of the plaza from 15th to 19th street, using the same concept but on a smaller scale, include two oval-shaped terrace streets at Smedley",
"-29.093200300922035"
],
[
"flat and includes four large low peninsulas, or 'necks,' of low-lying land which jut into the waters of the East River and were once saltmarsh: Hunts Point, Clason's Point, Screvin's Neck (Castle Hill Point) and Throgs Neck. The East Bronx has older tenement buildings, low income public housing complexes, and multifamily homes, as well as single family homes. It includes New York City's largest park: Pelham Bay Park along the Westchester-Bronx border.\nNeighborhoods include: Clason's Point, Harding Park, Soundview, Castle Hill, Parkchester (Board 9); Throggs Neck, Country Club, City Island, Pelham Bay, Edgewater Park, Co-op City (Board 10); Westchester Square, Van",
"-29.08152608742239"
],
[
"and other Midwestern states moved into the city and settled uptown. Along the division between these two cultures, a canal was planned. The canal was never built but the street which took its place received the name. Furthermore, the median of the street became known as the neutral ground, acknowledging the cultural divide. To this day, all medians of New Orleans streets are called neutral grounds.\nOne end of Canal Street terminates at the Mississippi River. Often called \"the foot of Canal Street\", at the riverfront the Canal Street Ferry offers a connection to the Algiers Point neighborhood, an older,",
"-29.075275350478478"
],
[
"as well as its northern European target population, explains its unusually regular, colonial-style grid layout, with wide avenues, as opposed to the more common winding narrow streets typical of the Moorish-patterned towns in Andalusia.",
"-29.06640138255898"
],
[
"a more suburban lifestyle but were open to remaining within the city limits of New Orleans. Eastern New Orleans grew in a comparatively well-planned and neatly zoned fashion. Some care was taken to avoid placing major thoroughfares along the rights-of-way of unsightly drainage canals, as had frequently occurred in suburban Jefferson Parish. Instead, major roads (e.g., Mayo, Crowder, Bundy, Read, Bullard, etc.) were located equidistant from parallel canals and were outfitted with landscaped medians (neutral grounds in the local vernacular). Numerous subdivisions were developed with large lakes at their centers, providing both an assist to neighborhood drainage and a scenic",
"-29.06216239661444"
],
[
"it well suited for use as a street tree in urban areas. It makes a rather formal statement in the landscape due to the tight, consistently-shaped, narrow crown. It is well suited for areas which have restricted overhead. Corylus colurna is also used in different sized parking lot islands and a variety of wide lawns. It is recommended for a buffer strip around parking lots or highways. Also it is used as a street tree, specimen tree, or in sidewalk cut outs. Other landscape uses for Corylus colurna are for fruit, difficult and dry sites, naturalistic areas, and street trees.",
"-29.061318658525124"
],
[
"in the neighborhood restoring houses and building new homes on vacant lots. Geography Every neighborhood has its own unique and different geography that describes the people that live there along with the culture of the neighborhood itself, and Faubourg Livaudias is no different. Neighborhoods serve as geographical frames of orientation, encompassing the demographic, economic and ecologic physiognomies of a particular place. The definition of a \"neighborhood,\" however, relies heavily on perspective. Neighborhoods have different geographic gauges that assist different purposes. For example, metropolitan governments often define a neighborhood as a very large area for planning, providing services or maintaining infrastructure.",
"-29.049368680425687"
],
[
"Sowcarpet Description Most streets in Sowcarpet are rather narrow, with a few exceptions like Mint Street and nearby area. The buildings in the streets are so close to each other that they look like they share a common wall. The sight is typical of the crowded bazaars of Indian cities - a potpourri of different vendors and artisans, trading and making a variety of articles. The wholesale markets for several goods are in Narayana Mudali street, Govindappa Naicken street and Rattan Bazaar. The area around Kasi Chetty street and Mint street is famous for shopping and one can find varieties",
"-29.032815012309584"
],
[
"such as the uniquely Torontonian bay-and-gable housing style, and post-war high-rises. Many of the neighbourhoods in these areas were built up as streetcar suburbs and contain many dense and mixed-use streets. They share many characteristics with sections of the \"old\" city that are outside of the downtown core. The \"outer ring\" suburbs of Etobicoke, Scarborough, and North York are much more suburban but are developing urban centres of their own, such as North York Centre around Mel Lastman Square. Ravine system The ravine system, a distinctive feature of the geography of Toronto, is a network of deep ravines forming an",
"-29.0171265139943"
],
[
"what had historically been a suburban city. While retaining many characteristics of traditional shopping malls, such as large anchor stores, a food court, and vast parking lots and garages, the smaller stores are arranged as city blocks in a grid of two-lane streets, featuring lush landscaping and metered \"teaser parking\" in front of the stores, which open onto the sidewalk. There are two \"Main Streets\", which run from west to east across the center. Running from north to south between them is a pedestrian axis leading from one of the Macy's anchor stores, through a \"town square\" between a pair",
"-29.012059951484844"
],
[
"success of Chatham Village as an urban community in a park-like setting depended upon the residents' tendencies to trust one another due to the similarities in their professional, economic, and social status. The ideals of city planning expressed in the Garden City Movement, Jacobs argues, are only suitable for upper-middle-class lifestyles and, thus, fail to engage the endemic economic and social diversity of cities. The homes The homes are red-brick-and-slate-roof townhomes. They are situated in clusters toward interior courtyards with their rears facing the loop roads around the property. The homes do have rear-access integral garages in the",
"-29.00054966303287"
],
[
"district, is eight miles (13 km) north of Downtown and the city's third-largest business district. The district is marked by an urbanized core along Peachtree Road, surrounded by suburban single-family neighborhoods situated among woods and rolling hills.\nSurrounding Atlanta's three high-rise districts are the city's low- and medium-density neighborhoods, where the craftsman bungalow single-family home is dominant. The eastside is marked by historic streetcar suburbs, built from the 1890s-1930s as havens for the upper middle class. These neighborhoods, many of which contain their own villages encircled by shaded, architecturally distinct residential streets, include the Victorian Inman Park, Bohemian East Atlanta, and eclectic",
"-28.999345592659665"
],
[
"also used for political and social gatherings. A typical square, (which was probably a model for other bastides), can be found in Montauban.\nGenerally, there is just one square. Saint-Lys and Albias are different because they have two squares, one for the market and one square for the church.\nThe square is also used to divide the city into quarters. Generally, it lies outside the main street (the axis) which carried the traffic. There are three possible layouts:\nCompletely closed: The square does not touch any street. These are very rare; there is one example at Tournay with a size of 70 metres",
"-28.982594416564098"
],
[
"enclosure, there is an area known as the extra-mural district, which coincides with the entrance to the castro. This second collection consists of a great oblong dwelling, two fountains with drains and a circular oven, which, during its time, must have been covered by a dome. The dwellings are circular or rectangular with rounded corners, and stand out in comparison with those of other sites because of their great size.\nDolmen de Dombate is located a few kilometers from the site.",
"-28.96445818279244"
],
[
"divides streets east and west. There are numerous small neighborhoods within South Hill, which usually take their names from the original developments built there. Neighborhoods in South Hill east of Broadway include Anthony Hill, Charlesbois, Warrendale and Woodridge. Neighborhoods in South Hill west of Broadway include Brooklyn, Dakota Square and Southwest Minot. Education Minot High School's Magic City Campus is located in the South Hill neighborhood on Eleventh Avenue SW. The building was constructed in 1973 and is home to the juniors and seniors in the Minot District school system. Edison Elementary School, Jim Hill Middle School and Washington Elementary",
"-28.956921797289397"
],
[
" still pass through.\nThe layout of residential side streets in Lathrup Village makes it nearly impossible for motorists to cut through from crowded thoroughfares during heavy traffic periods on Southfield Road, Twelve Mile Road and the I-696/Reuther Freeway service drive. While a map or GPS would make it easy, drivers or cyclists without those tools would likely get lost. Very few streets proceed in a straight line. This makes many lot sizes and shapes varied and interesting.\nNeighborhoods are typically quiet, well-kept and interesting due to the wide variety of home styles built over a span from the late 1930s to",
"-28.935278713528533"
],
[
"the south, but led to straight north-south streets and random east-west connectors north of Grškovićeva Street. East of Voćarska and Bijenička Street the neighborhood is located on steep slopes and canyons, generating long, steep north-south streets connected by staircases. The most expensive houses are primarily located along the major thoroughfares, which tend not to exhibit much traffic due to the Šalata's proximity of Medveščak Road, the main route to the northernmost parts of Zagreb. In the southern part of the neighborhood is the Voćarsko naselje, a small, but densely built neighborhood that has become a sort of a microdistrict on",
"-28.92843803719734"
],
[
"of alleyways were often only 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) wide, and had poor lighting and drainage. An informal network of staircases and passageways also formed on upper levels, which was so extensive that one could travel north to south through the entire City without ever touching solid ground. Construction in the City went unregulated, and most of the roughly 350 buildings were built with poor foundations and few or no utilities. Because apartments were so small—a typical unit was 23 m² (250 sq ft)—space was maximised with wider upper floors, caged balconies and rooftop additions. Roofs in the City were full of television antennae, clothes",
"-28.924423714498516"
],
[
"and communities. These newly populated places were generally more economically homogeneous than the cities they encircled. Many suburban communities enacted local ordinances, often in zoning codes, to preserve the character of their municipality. One of the most commonly cited exclusionary practices is the stipulation that lots must be of a certain minimum size and houses must be set back from the street a certain minimum distance. In many cases, these housing ordinances prevented affordable housing from being built, because the large plots of land required to build within the code restrictions were cost-prohibitive for modestly priced houses. Communities have remained",
"-28.923224242287688"
],
[
"dwellings to form a larger diversified neighborhood concept. Schools, churches, retirement homes, hospitals, and recreation facilities begin to find their way into residential districts. Residential districts also tend to use the best land in the community and the most favorable sites are protected from commercial and industrial uses.\nGrouping shopping districts by service area is a first step in returning to the neighborhood concept. Land is reserved for regional, community, and local shopping clusters with some specific restrictions based on market experience and on what types of business intend to locate at each development. Local shopping districts with sufficient provisions for",
"-28.920323708560318"
],
[
"However, unlike most such places (for example, Lexington and LeRoy), the plat used at Concord showed with dashed lines how the streets which entered the public square midway along each side could be extended to meet at the center of the square. In effect, this unusual feature of the plan made it possible to subdivide the square into four smaller rectangles. This was soon done. One of these rectangles has always been a park, but the other three have been put to different civic uses, including locations for the library, fire station, water tower, and school gymnasium. Early growth",
"-28.906891648337478"
],
[
"\"Market Square\"; and \"Kentlands Square\". The winding street layout is based on a grid pattern, varied as necessary by the requirements of Kentlands topography. Multiple open green spaces and pocket parks have been developed where land was available between the districts or in odd spaces near buildings and dwellings. \nMarket Square, Kentlands Square, and the Boulevard Shops are commercial districts with grocery stores, banks, boutiques, offices, stores, dozens of restaurants, and a 10-screen cinema cafe. Main Street is a mixed-use area with distinctive \"live-work\" buildings with retail and office uses on the lower floors and residential uses on",
"-28.89473389304476"
],
[
"that the square should be proportionally large enough for the number of neighbors (Spanish: grandeza proporcionada al\nnúmero de vecinos). These Spanish regulations also stated that the streets nearby should be comfortable portals for passersby, protecting them from the elements: sun and rain.",
"-28.889349166733155"
],
[
"These divide the suburb into rectangular grids. Main avenues include J. Tongogara Ave(Northern boundary), J. Chinamano Ave,Chitepo Avenue, Central Ave and the busy Samora Machel Avenue. Neighboring suburbs include Milton Park and Belgravia,Alexandra Park to the north, Belvedere to the west, Eastlea and Newlands to the East and the CBD to the south.\nThe Avenues is mostly occupied by Black-Africans, but there are people of all races living there. The suburb has many facilities: Shopping Centres e.g. Montague, Fife Ave; Schools e.g.Dominican Convent, David Livingstone Primary and Colleges e.g. Speciss College, Trust College, Ilsa College, some of the nations best private",
"-28.883617246960057"
],
[
"however, engaged through their neighborhood association, still actively press to maintain the uniqueness of their distinctive neighborhood. Wynnewood has retained some of its original characteristics: it is still one of the most diverse neighborhoods in Dallas, not only in socio-economic but now also in racial terms. The homes have turned out to be as solid as their creators promised. The tree-lined streets exude a sense of quietness and comfort. The apartments have become subsidized housing, with some of the problems attendant upon this type of dwelling.\nThe most disappointing aspect in the recent history of Wynnewood is the fate of the",
"-28.880967920238618"
],
[
"The Neighborhoods The Neighborhoods are a Boston rock band formed in 1978. The band earned local fame by playing regularly at Boston venues such as The Rat and winning the WBCN Rock 'n' Roll Rumble in 1979 (beating out La Peste, Mission of Burma, among others). Their 1980 debut single, \"Prettiest Girl\" (b/w \"No Place Like Home\") was a local hit. The band broke up for a short time between 1980-1981, but reformed in 1982 with bassist Lee Harrington and went on to release 5 albums between 1984-1991. In 1987 they opened for David Bowie on his Glass Spider tour",
"-28.87443911369337"
],
[
"further south in the current Ten Hills neighborhood, was avoided by the early settlers because of poorly draining clay soils. The highland site on Ten Hills offered better agricultural land and the first Governor of Massachusetts, John Winthrop, chose it for the site of his farmstead. The location of the Ten Hills site on the Mystic River made it a natural choice for the transport of people and goods, and the first seagoing vessel built in this region was launched from there.\nTrade and transport led to an expansion of the area’s economy and population. The construction of the Middlesex Canal",
"-28.86319735541474"
],
[
"rooms only on the south and east sides because of the slope of the land, which led through a colonnade to the exterior of the space. The whole market area extended over two levels with a large columned hall in the centre, which contained small shop spaces and miscellaneous rooms. Streets and bridges The course of the main street, which winds up the hill to the Acropolis with a series of hairpin turns, is typical of the street system of Pergamon. On this street were shops and warehouses. The surface of the street consisted of andesite blocks up to 5",
"-28.853050085745053"
],
[
"southeast is Notting Hill Gate tube station, the nearest underground station.\nThe Ladbroke Square Montessori School is located at 43 Ladbroke Square. Gardens The gardens form the largest of the 16 communal gardens of the historic Ladbroke Estate. In fact, it is one of the largest private garden squares in London and is Grade II listed by English Heritage. Surrounded by railings, there are mature trees in the gardens and a long straight walk along the north side, together with other curving paths. The three-hectare garden is only open to local residents. History The garden square was originally the site of",
"-28.835714693363116"
],
[
"with typical glazed tiles.\nThe neighbourhood of Triana, situated on the west bank of the Guadalquivir River, played an important role in the history of the city and constitutes by itself a folk, monumental and cultural center.\nOn the other hand, La Macarena neighbourhood is located on the northern side of the city centre. It contains some important monuments and religious buildings, such as the Museum and Basilica of La Macarena or the Hospital de las Cinco Llagas.",
"-28.824658012890723"
],
[
"is traditionally thought of as the South Side but is more appropriately the South Side Flats. Sections of the Slopes are so steep that special fire trucks have to be used to navigate the zigzagging maze of narrow streets. Some spots are so steep that public staircases actually serve as the street. These public steps have street signs and houses located along them.\nPublic steps are not rare in the hilly city of Pittsburgh. The city has over 700 sets of steps providing access to otherwise unreachable neighborhoods.",
"-28.818599216479925"
],
[
"separated from its greater metropolitan area by a ring of public parklands on all sides. The so-called \"square mile\" within the park lands is defined by a small area of high rise office and apartment buildings in the centre north, around King William Street, which runs north-to-south through the centre. Surrounding this central business district are a large number of medium to low density apartments, townhouses and detached houses which make up the residential portion of the city centre. Layout The layout of Adelaide, known as Light's Vision, features a cardinal direction grid pattern of wide streets and terraces and",
"-28.79861444278231"
],
[
"allowed him to frame the building in greenery which completely surrounded it, except for a part to the right of the courtyard. The gardens are visible from each room, even the ones on each side. A central corridor, an innovation from the 18th century which was only possible because a lack of central walls, distributed the rooms along both sides, with light coming in part from side windows at each end. Isolated on a platform a few steps up, the building has three levels: a mezzanine broken by windows capped in lowered arcs, a first floor, and a second level",
"-28.79504314615042"
],
[
"of all man-made canals except the natural canal on the North Side of NE 171st Street. Eastern Shores is bounded by Sunny Isles Blvd to the South, Maule Lake to the West, The Intracoastal Waterway to the East, and Dumfoundling Bay to the Northeast. Eastern Shores is located right next to the city of Sunny Isles Beach. There are 2 sides of each street in Eastern Shores, when you are on the main street (Eastern Shores Blvd) you can turn either right or left for each street number. The Left side (West side) of Eastern Shores are all Single",
"-28.790702407015488"
],
[
"centers in any particular country, but later editions were made specific to the US with a separate set for Europe. Neighborhood center Neighborhood centers are small-scale malls serving the local neighborhood. They typically have a supermarket or a drugstore as an anchor, and are commonly arranged in a strip mall format. Neighborhood centers usually have a retail area of 30,000 to 150,000 square feet (2,800 to 13,900 m²), and serve a primary area in a 3-mile (4.8 km) radius. They are sometimes known as convenience centers. Community mall Community malls are larger than neighborhood centers, and offer a wider range of goods.",
"-28.788879137206095"
],
[
"the fabled pathos of wistfulness or existencial angst of the Sur of Buenos Aires, with \"Sur, paredón, y después..:\" (\"South, a [crumbling, old] wall, and beyond.. \") alluding to the desolate open spaces of the flat Pampas that seemed to crouch behind the (long gone at the time of writing) last dividing houses' or vacant lots' brick walls on the barrio's farthest empty cobblestone streets. This ambience can be still partially felt at the southernmost reaches of Boedo and other formerly industrial and working class barrios del Sur such as the mentioned Parque Patricios, Pompeya, Barracas (named so for its",
"-28.762453149145585"
],
[
"contains an abundance of historic neighborhoods and traditional \"corner markets\". This section gets its name from the abundance of Germans who moved into this area when the City was still expanding. Dutch Hill is the area that borders the City Center to the East and is zoned as multiple household residential. The boundaries are generally considered 4th Street to 17th Street north to south, and 6th Avenue to Walton Avenue from west to east. However, as the Altoona Area High School and Junior High are considered City Center, the border is around 4th Ave (or 3rd Ave if the entire",
"-28.759737592095917"
],
[
"and national businesses, stores, restaurants, apartments, and business offices. The streets adjacent to Far West Boulevard are the most densely populated areas of Northwest Hills. Architecture and societal structure Most of the houses in Northwest Hills area feature Colonial, Californian ranch, or Texas Tuscan villa-style architectures. Beyond Mesa Drive, many of the homes have a western Austin style: big family homes with large garages, landscaped yards, and old trees. The common design is brick and limestone. The community is mostly middle and upper-middle class, and is often cited as being \"upscale\".\nResidents are usually quite involved with the community, and they",
"-28.751868770632427"
],
[
"novelty in New England. This street hierarchy was seen as an economic development tool as it lends well to high-rise buildings, and the surrounding canals could be landscaped for recreation. Whereas New York's Commissioner's Plan of 1811 lays out a system of numbered streets and avenues, the names of routes in Holyoke's grid system alternate between tree species for North to South streets (Sycamore, Locust, Linden, Oak, Beech, Pine, Walnut, Elm, Chestnut, Maple), and the names of the Hadley Falls Company founders (Lyman, Dwight, Appleton, Cabot, Sargeant, Jackson), as well as several Massachusetts counties (Hampden, Suffolk, Essex, Hampshire, Franklin) for",
"-28.746991517949937"
],
[
"to mean a suburb with special areas zoned for different uses, e.g.: residential and commercial; an absence of attached terraces with free-standing houses, wide tree-lined streets, \"nature strips\" on footpaths, parks reserves and gardens. Much-derided rear lanes and rights-of-way became redundant with sewerage and the provision of side access between houses. Verandas and bay windows were means of integrating house & garden.\nTree-lined streets such as Burwood Rd., The Appian Way or The Boulevard in Strathfield were in marked contrast to most development in Australian cities of the late 19th century. St. Cloud St. Cloud was built by industrialist George Hoskins,",
"-28.7452990379079"
],
[
"Álvarez, and the Torre Fortabat by Sánchez Elía, as well as around the world, most notably the Norwest Center and the Petronas Towers, both by César Pelli.\nArgentinian neighborhoods are characterized by highly independent designs for each building. Most houses have individual designs.\nTract housing is near to non-existent, generally reserved for subsidized houses made by the state for the poorest.",
"-28.741360710642766"
]
] |
1gn24a | Why is it illegal for news programs and and other major media sources to show people's faces without having consent, but it's perfectly legal for papparazzi and tabloids to print and sell candid photos of celebrities? | [
"Laws differ by country, so my answer applies to the United States... In general, if a person is in a place where they don't have a reasonable expectation of privacy (street, shopping center, etc.) you are allowed to take their picture and publish it (newspaper, tv, Internet, etc.) if it's in the public interest. For example, if you are walking down the street on a hot day and I take a picture of you wiping sweat off your brow I can publish the picture in the newspaper, without your permission, to illustrate an article about the hot weather. However, I can not use that picture in an advertisement for sunscreen (or anything else for that matter) without your permission. There are exceptions to this rule that protect people from libel and invasion of privacy, but there's no law requiring news organizations from blurring out faces.",
"I think [this article in Wikimedia Commons]( URL_0 ) summarizes the differences: > The following examples do not require consent in many countries: An anonymous street performer An anonymous person, in a public place, especially as part of a larger crowd People taking part in a public event at a privately-owned venue, for example, a press conference at an office building A basketball player competing in a match which is open to the public > The following examples typically require consent A man and woman talking, entitled \"A prostitute speaks to her pimp\" (possible defamation) An identifiable child, entitled \"An obese girl\" (potentially derogatory or demeaning) Partygoers at a private party, unless press is specifically invited (unreasonable intrusion without consent) Nudes, underwear or swimsuit shots, unless obviously taken in a public place – even if the subject's face \\ is obscured (unreasonable intrusion without consent) Long-lens images, taken from afar, of an individual in a private place (unreasonable intrusion)",
"As a former newspaper employee in the US, our rule was: If you were legally allowed to stand where you were when the picture was taken and didn't need the photo equipment (telephoto,night vision, etc) to see, then the photo is legal to print. However, only under exceptional circumstances would we choose to print without permission. Why? You want the people in the news to be willing to talk to you. Asking and respecting the answer garners goodwill and cooperation.",
" > but it's perfectly legal for papparazzi and tabloids to print and sell candid photos of celebrities? That's kind of a misconception. In a lot of cases, said celebrities can (and some have) sue the paparazzi for taking the picture or the tabloids for publishing them, but they don't. The reason they don't is because they know that if they sue too much, the paparazzi will actually stop, and they don't *want* them to stop, it's annoying, but for a lot of them, that's pretty much free publicity.",
"There is a legal difference between public figures and non public figures. Public figures have lower privacy rights and higher burdens when suing for libel and slander.",
"It's not illegal for new programmes and other major media sources to show people's faces without having consent (in public). So there's your answer.",
"When it comes to privacy law, your position in life matters. For example, many states have lax privacy laws for public figures. The idea is that since you have decided to become an actor, or essentially a person who performs publicly, then by doing so you waive some of your right to privacy. If you become a politician you voluntarily put yourself out there as a public figure and so waive some of your right to privacy. Most private citizens have a large amount of privacy rights, until they give it up voluntarily. The only time you don't give it up voluntarily exactly is if you become a news report- especially for something violent. If you kill twenty people they don't give a shit about your privacy they will report everything they find out about you.",
"Fun fact: a good number of these supposedly candid pap shots are arranged by the celeb in question, and they're paid for it.",
"Actually in the US you don't need permission to publish images of an adult taken in a public place. That's why street photography is legal. News papers don't need permission either. Blurred faces are most often courtesy or for minors",
"Hey, just a heads up, asking a legal question on reddit will almost always leave you more uninformed than you were to start with.",
"Pretend you and your mom are at a park. You're five years old. You get there, you start playing in the sandbox. You look over and some people are gathering around your mom. They're other parents, discussing the recent PTA meeting. Nobody pays you any mind. They talk for a long time, and a student reporter who happened to be nearby takes a picture to put in the school newspaper (PTA RELAX AT THE PARK!). It's been a couple hours, and your mom finally comes to get you. When you're leaving, you ask your mom who those people were, what you were talking about, why they were taking her picture. She answers, and you listen and, satisfied, fall asleep in the car seat. Edit: Court cases! Tl;Dr: You don't spur public debate, you don't forward public interest, and you don't possess the resources to block or otherwise tame the bad mean things said about you that can cause harm. Therefore, your privacy is more important than a public figure's. Here's one. Curtis Publishing Co. V. Butts. Little legal difference between public figures and public officials -- essentially lumping everybody I just said into one category. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote: \"Many who do not hold public office at the moment are nevertheless intimately involved in the resolution of important public questions or, by reason of their fame, shape events in areas of concern to society at large.\" This was for a libel case, but the idea still holds up. Public officials and public figures alike have a massive hand in shaping public opinion, spurring talk and debate, and forwarding public interest whether we recognize it or not (nobody LIKES those tabloids, but how many are sold a day?). As well as this, and established in another court case (Gertz v. Robert Welch Inc.): \"Public officials and public figures usually enjoy significantly greater access to the channels of effective communication and hence have a more realistic opportunity to counteract false statements than private individuals normally enjoy. Private individuals are therefore more vulnerable to injury, and the state interest in protecting them is correspondingly greater...\" Basically outlining the idea that, not only do public figures spur debate and provide for society's best interests, but they also have a more-than-normal power to deflect or otherwise change the news or debate that disfavors them through the use of money and status, and therefore the state focuses more resources on protecting your rights than theirs.",
"People are right here about the expectation of privacy and the difference between public and private figures but there is also just plain old caution. The benefit of publishing a picture of someone without consent often doesn't outweigh the cost of fighting a lawsuit(even if bullshit) or dealing with people angry that their picture was published. Or, even worse, the person they showed was in hiding say from an abuser or some other person intending them harm and the picture helps locate them.",
"They can and do show people's pictures in group street shots. It's when they run a piece about \"the obesity epidemic\" where they show muffin tops trotting around that they blur the faces. If it's for some sort of advertisement, or where a company gains profit by the shot, then they'll need a release to be signed. It's cheaper to blur the faces on those.",
"The reason for this is because of the difference between public and private people. A public person is someone like the president or famous actor. The Supreme Court ruled that public people have less privacy rights. I believe the reason for this is because public people need to be open to criticism. The actual definition of what a public person is is more complicated, but it basically boils down to a person that has been thrust into the public spotlight. Jimmy down the road is not a public person, but if he runs for Congress or his dad runs for Congress, he would be. Everyone else has more privacy rights. Now, this does not mean that people always have to get consent to film people withot blurred faces, but it does mean that if you are in a situation where you would expect privacy, you'll receive it.",
"Is it actually illegal for new outlets to not blur your face, or do they do it to avoid any potential lawsuit...just a blanket policy because it is cheaper to do it that way than deal with lawsuits?",
"Paparazzi are used so the people can decide which celebrity will be sacrificed for the next corn harvest."
] | [
[
"civil action against organizations that publish photos of nude celebrities without a model release, and this restricts the availability of such photos through the print media. On the Internet, the difficulty of identifying offenders and applying court sanction makes circulation of such photographs much less risky. Such photographs circulate through many online photo distribution channels such as Usenet and Internet forums, and commercial operators, often in countries beyond the reach of courts, also offer such photos for commercial gain. Copyright restrictions are often ignored.\nIn some cases, when the depicted person is young and the photo is an actual photo,",
"-35.546321087284014"
],
[
"on the internet by numerous online mug shot publishing sites.\nSome organizations attempt to respond to this privacy-related concern. For example, the 2005 Wikimania conference required that photographers have the prior permission of the people in their pictures, albeit this made it impossible for photographers to practice candid photography and doing the same in a public place would violate the photographers' free speech rights. Some people wore a \"no photos\" tag to indicate they would prefer not to have their photo taken .\nThe Harvard Law Review published a short piece called \"In The Face of Danger: Facial Recognition and Privacy Law\",",
"-34.434925984242"
],
[
"People have rights to their images (shōzōken, droit de image). The law is especially strict when that which is taken, or the taking, is in any sense shameful. Exception is made for photos of famous people in public places and news photography by registered news media outlets where favour is given to the public right to know. South Africa In South Africa, photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law",
"-33.21576896868646"
],
[
"is scheduled to begin, but the police have no authority to prohibit the event.\nDefamation is a crime only if the target is a private person. Defamation of corporations is never a crime unless it's covered by competition regulations or similar legislation. Sentences have never been given for publishing pro-drug propaganda.\nThere are no restrictions regarding obscenity. It's illegal to display obscene visual material in a public place in a manner that is likely to cause public offense. In practice this means that obscene photos and videos may be shown only in places where they are expected to be seen, while there",
"-32.35774084809236"
],
[
"the photos appear \"nude, bruised, bloodied or in a broken state with open wounds, a state of dismemberment or decapitation.\"\n\"We have to walk the line between open record laws and the constitutional provisions that allow women to be able to be photographed nude or in pornography when they knowingly and willingly offer their bodies for dissemination,\" Chambers stated. \"Meredith isn't in a position to give that kind of permission to have her exploited in that kind of venue...we're not only protecting future victims of crime, we're protecting the integrity of what happened to Meredith.\"\nHustler's response was through an email that",
"-32.048736698459834"
],
[
"much of it explaining how \"privacy law, in its current form, is of no help to those unwillingly tagged.\" Any individual can be unwillingly tagged in a photo and displayed in a manner that might violate them personally in some way, and by the time Facebook gets to taking down the photo, many people will have already had the chance to view, share, or distribute it. Furthermore, traditional tort law does not protect people who are captured by a photograph in public because this is not counted as an invasion of privacy. The extensive Facebook privacy policy covers these",
"-32.01973495911807"
],
[
"educational, cultural, scientific or news publications, and for fine art purposes (e.g. street photography which has been uphold as legal by the courts whether done by professional or amateur photographers). However, photographing people or collecting their personal data for commercial (advertising) purposes requires their consent. The law gives photographers the right to commercially use photos of people who have not consented to the use of the images in which they appear if the depicted people have either been paid for the photo session as models (so there is no separation between editorial and commercial models in Greek law) or they",
"-31.910213850671425"
],
[
"and we never sell tickets to our \"shows.\"\nOur performances are always 'illegal,' staged only in unpredictable locations and public places not designed for traditional entertainment. The distribution of our clips is always through free and unrestricted media channels.\nWe are anonymous, because we act against any personality cult, against hierarchies implied by appearance, age and other visible social attributes. We cover our heads, because we oppose the very idea of using female face as a trademark for promoting any sort of goods or services.\nThe mixing of the rebel feminist punk image with the image of institutionalized defenders of prisoners' rights, is",
"-31.79765251003846"
],
[
"nude media of celebrities may fall under the purvue of child pornography laws, a legal regime with harsh penalties for distribution. When such photos are faked or doctored, the media is classified as simulated child pornography. History There has likely been interest in nude images of celebrities for as long as artistic nude imagery and pornography has existed. One of the more famous examples is Playboy's inaugural December 1953 issue that featured photos of Marilyn Monroe from a 1949 photo session as its first Playmate of the Month. The commercialization, promotion, and organized supply of nude celebrity images can be",
"-31.722944834036753"
],
[
"they can get the photographs easily from the internet. Freedom of speech On 2 February, Commissioner of Police Tang King Shing warned that anyone with the pictures on their computer could be in breach of the law, even if there was no record of distribution. This led to an immediate objection by lawmaker \"Long Hair\" Leung Kwok-hung, who led a protest of about two dozen people outside police headquarters in Wan Chai. They accused the police of sowing confusion and creating an atmosphere of \"White Terror\" among netizens. Leung urged Commissioner Tang to clarify whether merely keeping the pictures violated",
"-31.526831510855118"
],
[
"of publicity With the current lack of legislations to protect individuals against potential malicious use of digital cloning, the right of publicity may be the best way to protect one in a legal setting. The right of publicity, also referred to as personality rights, gives autonomy to the individual when it comes to controlling their own voice, appearance, and other aspects that essentially makes up their personality in a commercial setting. If a deepfake video or digital clone of one arises without their consent, depicting the individual taking actions or making statements that are out of their personality, they can",
"-31.25260099489242"
],
[
"underage photos of Liz Lee which had been circulating prior to this incident, would be permanently banned from the site and could be prosecuted for distributing child pornography. On September 7, citing copyright issues, Reddit banned its \"TheFappening\" subreddit, also saying the workload of dealing with them had become too much. Reddit banned another subreddit named \"Fappening\" on the same day. Content and affected celebrities The original release contained photos and videos of more than 100 individuals that were allegedly obtained from file storage on hacked iCloud accounts, including some the leakers claimed were A-list celebrities. Shortly after the photos",
"-31.18060704221716"
],
[
"Photography and the law General Australia's laws in relation to this matter are similar to that of the United States. In Australia you can generally photograph anything or anyone in a public place without permission assuming that it isn't being used in an otherwise illegal way such as defamation and does contain copyrighted material. Furthermore photographing in a place where people would reasonably expect to be afforded privacy such as in a public restroom may also be illegal. Private property While you can generally photograph private property and the people within it if you are not within the bounds of",
"-30.987479490970145"
],
[
"the court, whether civil or criminal, or to publish such a photograph. This includes photographs taken in a court building or the precincts of the court.\nTaking a photograph in a court can be seen as a serious offence, leading to a prison sentence. The prohibition on taking photographs in the precincts is vague. It was designed to prevent the undermining of the dignity of the court, through the exploitation of images in low brow \"picture papers\".\nPhotography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of",
"-30.946013723267242"
],
[
"the rightholder gives permission. It will not be infringed if the photograph is incidentally included in an artistic work, film, or broadcast. United States Local, state, and national laws govern still and motion photography. Laws vary between jurisdictions, and what is not illegal in one place may be illegal in another. Typical laws in the United States are as follows: Hong Kong In some public property owned by government, such as law courts, government buildings, libraries, civic centres and some of the museums in Hong Kong, photography is not allowed without permission from the government. It is illegal to",
"-30.922689765458927"
],
[
"limited this requirement to exclude persons whose photographs were taken during an event of public interest. That is, a person of public interest or equally an unknown person who is implicated in a public matter cannot claim image rights. Consequently, anyone whose photograph was incidental to a photo of some matter will be treated as part of the background and will not be able to claim their rights were violated. Aftermath Photojournalist and photographers groups took issue with the decision, arguing that it had the potential to create a chilling effect on their profession. Justice Bastarache later referred to the",
"-30.815977226622635"
],
[
"photographs of a person against his/her will without legal justification, even in a public place. Besides, everyone has a right to Personality Rights. People are not to be photographed, photographs of them displayed or reproduced without their prior consent. Criminal penalties include imprisonment. Additionally, photography of police officers in Macau is illegal. South Africa In South Africa photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law requires the consent of any",
"-30.637679057661444"
],
[
"article \"Our Flagging Rights\" in Hong Kong Law Journal.\nThe Edison Chen photo scandal brought people to harbour doubts about the Control of Obscene and Indecent Articles Ordinance, which criminalizes the distribution of obscene articles and the distribution of indecent articles without proper warnings to persons under 18. On 2 February 2008, Commissioner of Police Tang King Shing warned that sharing the photos via email, and even storing them on a personal computer, might be illegal, even if there was no record of distribution. This inaccurate statement of the law led to the objection of Leung Kwok-hung, who accused the police",
"-30.610782667528838"
],
[
"a policy of removing photos which they believe violate the terms and conditions of the website. Images have been removed from user pages on topics such as breastfeeding, nudes in art, apparent breasts, naked mannequins, kisses between persons of the same sex and family photos.\nIn September 2016, Norwegian author Tom Egeland published Nick Ut's iconic napalm girl photo on his Facebook page. He was banned for publishing \"a picture of a nude child\". A few weeks later, the newspaper Aftenposten published an open letter to Zuckerberg after the banning of \"Napalm Girl\", a Pulitzer Prize-winning documentary photograph from the Vietnam",
"-30.57898050075164"
],
[
"photographs and videos.\nGANs can be used to generate unique, realistic profile photos of people who do not exist, in order to automate creation of fake social media profiles.\nIn 2019 the state of California considered and passed on 3rd of October 2019 the bill AB-602 that bans the use of human image synthesis technologies to make fake pornography without the consent of the people depicted and bill AB-730, which prohibits distribution of manipulated videos of a political candidate within 60 days of an election were signed by Governor Gavin Newsom. Both bills were authored by Assembly member Marc Berman. The",
"-30.518193941214122"
],
[
"administrators of the websites which uploaded the photos, and the photographers who reportedly supplied the photos to them. However, it was uncertain whether uploading the photographs, since they were taken in a public place, could be termed as illegal, and sought a legal opinion on how to go about the investigation. Home media The film's television rights were acquired by MAA TV for an undisclosed price. The film registered a TRP rating of 10.14 during its television premiere. The television rights of the dubbed Malayalam version, Bhaiyya My Brother, were sold to Mazhavil Manorama for ₹6.5 million, which was the",
"-30.483745311619714"
],
[
"very important tactic for governments and politicians, and it even made its way to the famous book The 48 Laws of Power by Robert Greene, in the Law #26 titled: \"Keep your hands clean\". Photo manipulation Visual media can be transformed through photo manipulation, commonly called \"photoshopping.\" This can make a product, person, or idea seem more appealing. This is done by highlighting certain features on the product and using certain editing tools to enlarge the photo, to attract and persuade the public. Video manipulation Video manipulation is a new variant of media manipulation that targets digital video using a",
"-30.4440091111901"
],
[
"Secret photography Laws and ethics There are various personal privacy laws in different countries which also impact on the secret photography of individuals, and on the publication of any resulting pictures. France for instance, has very strict laws against publication of such images, while the British tabloid press will publish a variety of secret photography. Examples of the British situation include the publication of photos of Princess Diana secretly taken in a gym, and the publication of secretly taken photos of Naomi Campbell which led to a major court case.\nNews gathering organisations and media trade unions issue ethical guidelines to",
"-30.259988828969654"
],
[
"equip or take photographs and recording in a place of public entertainment, such as cinemas and indoor theaters.\nIn private property, photography may be prohibited or restricted by a property owner on their property.\nPhotography on private property that is generally open to the public (e.g., a shopping mall) is usually permitted unless explicitly prohibited by posted signs. Even if no such signs are posted, the property owner or agent can ask a person to stop photographing, and if the person refuses to do so, the owner or agent can ask the person to leave; in some jurisdictions, a person who refuses",
"-30.22248713695444"
],
[
"and selling street photography (including street portraits) is legal, even without the consent of the person being portrayed, because photography is protected as free speech and art by the First Amendment. However, the Court of Appeals for the State of New York upheld the Nussenzweig decision solely on the basis of the statute of limitations expiring and did not address the free speech and First Amendment arguments.",
"-30.19177985889837"
],
[
"a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel\". The IAC, Film and Video Institute recommends to follow instruction given by police as there may be a reason you are unaware of for not filming. An exception is an area that has prohibitions detailed within anti terrorism legislation. Civil proceeding can be taken if a person is filmed without consent, and privacy laws exist to protect a person where they can expect privacy. Two public locations in the UK, Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square,",
"-30.189026177201413"
],
[
"McKayla Maroney initially denied the images' authenticity on Twitter, then later confirmed that the photos were legitimate while also stating she was underage at the time they were taken. Victoria Justice denied that the photos were authentic but later stated on Twitter that she was pursuing legal actions and found the leak to be a massive invasion of not just her privacy, but of the privacy of all the celebrities affected by the leak. Reports in October indicated that Nick Hogan was the first male star to be directly targeted by hackers; however, Hogan denied the pictures' authenticity.\nAccording to security",
"-30.112731429235282"
],
[
"thus overstated because reporters and their sources do not have a license to violate criminal laws. The court wrote that defendants claimed they were journalists because they sought the protection of the privilege against revealing their sources of information, rather than finding they sought the protection of privilege because they were journalists.\nThe court noted that Apple's legal argument passed the five-part test articulated in the California case Mitchell v. Superior Court which weighed whether a subpoena should be permitted over journalists' privilege rights under the First Amendment. The court reasoned that because there was no pending motion for injunctive relief",
"-30.037642235984094"
],
[
"if ever by the general public. Amateur photography, which includes nude photography, which has previously been produced for personal enjoyment, is increasingly being more widely disseminated through the internet, at times without the knowledge and consent of the subject of the photograph, and to their subsequent embarrassment. Also, the use of secret photography to capture images of an unsuspecting person (undressed or not, and whether for personal use, or intended for posting on the Internet) creates additional personal privacy issues.\nSome people are made anxious by being nude or being in the presence of nude people; if this begins to interfere",
"-30.016518278978765"
],
[
"were leaked, several affected celebrities issued statements to either confirm or deny the photos' authenticity. Celebrities who have confirmed the photos' authenticity include Jennifer Lawrence (confirmed by her publicist), Kate Upton and her husband Justin Verlander (confirmed by Upton's lawyer), Mary Elizabeth Winstead (confirmed on Twitter), Jessica Brown Findlay (confirmed by spokesman), Kaley Cuoco (confirmed via Instagram), and Kirsten Dunst, who also criticized the iCloud service. Jill Scott confirmed on Twitter that one of the leaked photos was of her while stating that another was fake.\nCelebrities who have denied the photos' authenticity include Ariana Grande and Yvonne Strahovski. Olympic gymnast",
"-29.9937647995539"
],
[
"to describe people who request surgery to look like the edited version of themselves as they appear through Snapchat Filters.\nThis could serve as a trigger for more insecurities, with many utilising digital manipulation techniques as well, to modify their photos in order to meet the media-crafted ideals of thinness and perfection. According to research by the Renfrew Center Foundation, 50% of men and 70% of 18 to 35-year-old women edited their images before uploading. Therefore, 35% of respondents were also actively concerned about being tagged in unattractive photos, while 27% fretted about their appearances online. Yet, with the presence of",
"-29.91026768228039"
],
[
"\"fake nude pics\" of celebrities. In July 2013, an OS X-specific ransomware Trojan surfaced, which displays a web page that accuses the user of downloading pornography. Unlike its Windows-based counterparts, it does not block the entire computer, but simply exploits the behaviour of the web browser itself to frustrate attempts to close the page through normal means.\nIn July 2013, a 21-year-old man from Virginia, whose computer coincidentally did contain pornographic photographs of underage girls with whom he had conducted sexualized communications, turned himself in to police after receiving and being deceived by FBI MoneyPak Ransomware accusing him of possessing child",
"-29.8748837064486"
],
[
"of her children and husband, but no one was arrested. Some senior officials have threatened journalists who have been critical of the government. Many journalists practice self-censorship out of fear of government reprisal. Since 2005 there has been no official censorship and no imprisonment for defamation, though libel or slander still carries a fine of up to eight million CFA francs ($16,000). It is illegal to disseminate material deemed to be \"misogynist.\" Internet use is not restricted or monitored, although only a tiny minority of persons in the country have Internet access.\nAlthough the right of assembly is guaranteed in the",
"-29.872364219045267"
],
[
"process can take several months. Recently, bloggers reporting news from internet blogs have been issued press passes, which attracted much attention, but it was also found that a reporters from a conservative news website was also running an illegal pornography website, provoking criticism in that the security checks were not good enough to discover the reporter's illegal transactions.\nIn the United Kingdom, until recently only reporters with press passes for the Houses of Parliament were allowed to attend briefings, but since Tony Blair took power, freelance journalists have been allowed to participate. In addition, before this reform, briefings were treated as",
"-29.850080719974358"
],
[
"due to their regular exposure to the materials. It also meant that prosecutors often had to prove that purchasers were unaware of the obscene nature of material on sale prior to purchase, as those who actively sought out such material were deemed unlikely to be corrupted by it. Secondly, the offer of such materials for sale was not held to be publication, since it was merely an invitation to buy, not an actual purchase. Thirdly, the courts held in Straker v DPP [1963] 1 QB 926 that negatives for photographs could not be forfeited if it was not intended to",
"-29.846347163664177"
],
[
"without the consent of the originator. Some countries have revenge porn laws that prevent the publication of sexual images without consent of parties in the image. While there are many possible legal avenues for prosecution of people who knowingly breach the confidence of those sending sexual messages, in practice, nude images can be widely propagated without the consent of the originator.\nSome young people blackmail their sexual partners and former partners by threatening to release private images of them. In a study conducted by Drouin et al. analyzing sexting behaviours among young adults, it was found that men would show the",
"-29.83967275498435"
],
[
"in public. Only 17% of respondents express themselves freely on the Internet. Journalism Journalists often censor themselves due to threats against them or their interests from another party, editorial instructions from their supervisor[s], perceived conflicts of interest with a media organization's economic sponsors, advertisers or shareholders, etc.). Self-censorship occurs when journalists deliberately manipulate their expression out of fear of, or deference to, the sensibilities or preferences (actual or perceived) of others and without overt pressure from any specific party or institution of authority. Self-censorship of journalists is most pervasive in societies where governments have official media censorship policies and where",
"-29.839479967369698"
],
[
"which a series of court rulings struck down most legal restrictions on pornography. Penthouse has also, over the years, featured a number of authorized and unauthorized photos of celebrities such as Madonna and Vanessa Lynn Williams. In both cases, the photos were taken earlier in their careers and sold to Penthouse only after Madonna and Williams became famous. In Williams's case, this led to her forced resignation as Miss America 1984. The September 1984 issue in which Williams was first featured also included a layout with pornographic actress Traci Lords, who was only 15 when the photo shoot was done",
"-29.831997437635437"
],
[
"journalists' right to access information are violated both by the courts and the Parliament. For instance, in 2013 there were cases of journalists to whom was impeded to cover trials even though all the hearings were open. In 2013, the Parliament impeded journalists to bring their equipment and smartphones to the meeting rooms following the episode of a video recorded by a journalist on a smartphone and published on the Internet showing MPs voting with e-cards on behalf of their colleagues.\nIn January 2014, the Minister of education signed a decree to forbid educational institutions, including universities, to make information public",
"-29.769592888420448"
],
[
"11 attacks.\nAccording to New Jersey newspaper Hudson Reporter, this ban excludes members of the general public who want to take pictures, and the photography and filmography ban only applies for commercial or professional purposes. The general public is allowed to take pictures of PATH stations and all other Port Authority facilities except in secure and off-limits areas. There have been decisions from the United States Supreme Court stating that casual photography is covered by the First Amendment; the case law is mixed. Under the law PATH employees may not force a casual photographer to destroy or surrender their film or",
"-29.762429115828127"
],
[
"to access a blocked site, a message will be displayed stating that the material is illegal and that is why the site has been blocked. However, UPC does not pass on the details of customers who try to access blocked sites to An Garda Síochána. However, not all ISPs have filters in place and filters can easily be bypassed using proxy servers. Italy Production, possession, distribution of child pornography in all its forms is illegal in Italy. Italian law clearly designates child pornography as \"portraying or visually depicting any minor engaged or involved in sexually explicit activities, as well as",
"-29.760492046480067"
],
[
"to remedies like France's Guigou Law which forbid such photos from being published. \"People who have been treated unfairly should have civil remedies, but to be that prescriptive to put a blanket on coverage, this freedom of expression proponent is nervous about a prohibition of photographing and publishing anything.\" Al Tompkins of the Poynter Institute says the remedy for the perp walk's effect is to:\nAllow cameras inside the courtroom. If journalists can capture video of the accused in court, there is no need to chase him down the sidewalk. The courtroom video is likely to show the accused in a",
"-29.76042357995175"
],
[
"because \"the Internet never forgets.\" Multiple archival services store the content of most websites on a periodic basis, and that content can be retrieved at any time in the future. Discrimination Mugshot publication sites are often pulled up during routine searches online for things as innocent as employment or housing. Even if you have had your record sealed, expunged or reduced, and even if the mugshot publishing site has removed the offending photos, they can still be located. One company in Utah was recently outed in a leaked internal document for hiring \"White Hat Hackers\" to dig through internet archives",
"-29.74419564125128"
],
[
"be attained only through the use of editing the photos. The American Medical Associations as a whole adopted a policy to work with advertisers to work on setting up guidelines for advertisements to try to limit how much photoshop is used. The goal of this policy is to limit the amount of unrealistic expectations for body image in advertisement. Government opposition Governments are exerting pressure on advertisers, and are starting to ban photos that are too airbrushed and edited. In the United Kingdom the Advertising Standards Authority has banned an advertisement by Lancôme featuring Julia Roberts for being misleading, stating",
"-29.713500141304394"
],
[
"it. State courts provide varying degrees of such protection. Journalists who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed. On the journalistic side of keeping sources confidential, there is also a risk to the journalist's credibility because there can be no actual confirmation of whether the information is valid. As such it is highly discouraged for journalists to have confidential sources.",
"-29.698037569993176"
],
[
"for the protection of morals and for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\".\nThe Government has conflated the issue with participants being abused in the production of such images, with Martin Salter claiming the existence of snuff films where women are raped and murdered on camera in Guatemala. However, no such examples of images have been shown to exist and the sites referred to by the government are instead those produced in the UK and US with consenting actors (see \"Sites labelled as 'extreme pornography'\", below).\nThe law has been criticised for criminalising images where no crime took place",
"-29.68622353731189"
],
[
"purposes usually means that you are photographing for financial gain or to promote goods or services. Legal restrictions on photography In the United Kingdom there are no laws forbidding photography of private property from a public place. Photography is not restricted on land if the landowner has given permission to be on the land or the photographer has legal right to access, for example Byways Open to All Traffic or a public right of way or an area of open access land. The Metropolitan Police state in their own advice \"Members of the public and the media do not need",
"-29.62487357959617"
],
[
"new photo. Therefore, they will manipulate photos by editing the date or some of the background.\nAt the same time, fauxtography may sway the reliability of the photo. Institutions such as government departments and news media carry responsibility to reveal the truth with no censorship. The public relies on authoritative information to witness world events. Fauxtography brings questions and doubt to the credibility. It may turn out to be misleading and exploiting the public’s trust. Fauxtography distorts how we see our past, affects our current and future behaviour and so it has become a cause for concern. Examples An example of",
"-29.57403918050113"
],
[
"publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police and publishing the photographs is also legal.\nPhotography and video-taking is also permitted across the whole Athens Metro transport network, which is very popular among Greek street photographers. Hungary In Hungary, from 15 March 2014 anyone taking photographs is technically breaking the law if someone wanders into shot, under a new civil code that outlaws taking pictures without the",
"-29.445893172174692"
],
[
"policy, r/Coontown was banned in August 2015. TheFappening In August 2014, Reddit users began sharing a large number of naked pictures of celebrities stolen, using phishing, from their private Apple iCloud accounts. A subreddit, r/TheFappening, was created as a hub to share and discuss these stolen photos; the situation was called CelebGate by the media. The subreddit contained most of the images. Victims of \"The Fappening\" included high-profile names such as Jennifer Lawrence and Kate Upton. Some of the images may have constituted child pornography, as the photos of Liz Lee and McKayla Maroney from the leak were claimed to",
"-29.444773701339727"
],
[
"the private property and can't be asked to stop or delete the images, the owner can restrict recording whilst you are on the private property. Failure to comply with orders to stop recording on the private property is not a criminal offence although it may be against the terms or policy of entrance and you many be asked to leave, if you refuse to leave you may be liable for trespassing. Commercial purposes If you are seeking to photograph for commercial purposes you may be required to gain permission from anyone who was involved in the film or photograph. Commercial",
"-29.433722450747155"
],
[
"targeting the exploitative, abusive and bullying elements of the pornography industry, the law is aimed at sadomasochistic images regardless of the context. So low is the barrier that if taken literally it could lead to a couple who take a photo of their consensual (and legal) sexual activity being arrested for possession of that photo.\"",
"-29.38997843535617"
],
[
"to edit Wikipedia because the country's Internet Watch Foundation had blacklisted a single image on the site, illustrated the pitfalls of mandatory ISP filtering\". The Sydney Morning Herald has commented that \"Ironically, the banning of the image has only made it visible to more people as news sites publicise the issue and the image spreads across sites other than Wikipedia.\" an example of the Streisand effect.\nAt the time of the incident Amazon US were also displaying the image on their site and the IWF stated that it \"might yet add Amazon US to its list of 'blocked' sites for hosting",
"-29.381074977573007"
],
[
"they constituted \"obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children\", under the PROTECT Act of 2003. That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law. Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, saying that Wikipedia did not have \"material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it.\" Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteer to maintain the site",
"-29.344180551590398"
],
[
"have been incidents in which authorities intimidated journalists or other news professionals. Local journalists engage in self-censorship, particularly when coverage could adversely affect the economic or political interests of media owners. The government denies using unauthorized wiretapping or other surreptitious methods to interfere with the private lives of individuals and families, however, human rights groups and opposition politicians allege that such interference does occur.",
"-29.329450561665"
],
[
"the 21st century, it has become difficult to make an artistic statement in nude photography, given the proliferation of non-artistic and pornographic images which taints the subject in the perception of most viewers, limiting the opportunities to exhibit or publish the images. When they appear in mainstream consumer magazines such as Popular Photography, PC Photo, and Shutterbug; the editors receive sufficient negative response that they tend to reject the work of serious nude-image photographers. Children as subjects Several photographers have become controversial because of their nude photographs of underage subjects. David Hamilton often used erotic themes in books such as",
"-29.321201600832865"
],
[
"from allegations made against them. Thompson stated:\n“There are inherent difficulties in requiring journalists, who operate alone, to demonstrate, unequivocally, that filmed footage is genuine and that safeguards must be put in place to protect journalists from claims of fraud which may themselves be false but which are impossible authoritatively to disprove.” Personal life McDougall is married to the former BBC South Asia Correspondent Navdip Dhariwal with whom he has two children. They live in South Africa.",
"-29.30547924710845"
],
[
"have paid the photographer for obtaining the photo (this, for example, gives the right to wedding photographers to advertise their work using their photos of newly-wed couples they photographed in a professional capacity). In Greece the right to take photographs and publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police or children and publishing the photographs in a non-commercial capacity is also legal. Hong Kong In Hong",
"-29.2876198257145"
],
[
"in their creation. In the House of Lords debates Lord Wallace of Tankerness stated, \"Having engaged in it consensually would not be a crime, but to have a photograph of it in one's possession would be a crime. That does not seem to me to make sense\". The law has also been criticised for covering images of consenting adults—for example, including some forms of BDSM or bondage pornography.\nIn 2009 the organisation Comic Shop Voice said that the law may result in the banning of certain comic books, such as Watchmen, Batman: The Killing Joke and several collections of manga. They",
"-29.271301128879713"
],
[
"to penalties, but not prevented from the outset.)\nText and video information containing illegal context, such as pornography involving underage or unwilling individuals are generally censored in order to protect the victim/s of the material, and preserve the legal and ethical standards of the country/state initiating the censorship of the offensive material. Blackstone and early views In William Blackstone's Commentaries \"Freedom of the Press\" is defined as the right to be free from prior restraints. In addition, he held that a person should not be punished for speaking or writing the truth, with good motives and for justifiable ends. Truth",
"-29.22848953201901"
],
[
"pursued as an art form under certain circumstances. While in one prominent case the freedom of artistic expression trumped the individual's right to privacy, the legality will much depend on the individual case. Germany Germany protects the right to take photos in public, but also recognizes a \"right to one's own picture\". That means that even though pictures can often be taken without someones consent, they must not be published without the permission of the person in the picture. The law also protects specifically against defamation”.\nThis right to one's picture, however, does not extend to people who are not the",
"-29.20981951651629"
],
[
"only to assist the court with information which was outside the normal experience and knowledge of the judge or jury. Making photographs (computer files) In an appeal against conviction in R v Bowden (1999), the Court of Appeal held that downloading data representing indecent photographs of children from the Internet amounts to an offence within the meaning of s.1(1)(a) of the Protection of Children Act 1978. Collages In Goodland v DPP (2000), Lord Justice Simon Brown ruled that \"an image made by an exhibit which obviously consists, as this one does, of parts of two different photographs sellotaped together",
"-29.1668371713713"
],
[
"on the websites they operated did not rise to the level of pornography. However, the judge assigned to the case, Chief Judge Campbell, denied the motion to dismiss, noting that the U.S. Supreme Court has determined fully clothed pictures can be considered pornographic.",
"-29.142750950850314"
],
[
"i.e. children or people with few resources.\nIt can be controversial where the limits go for what constitutes social pornography and what is deemed to be newsworthy. For example, a news coverage may transcend to social pornography depending on what details the media choose to make public or focus on. It has been asserted that the media coverage of terror attacks at times are of a social pornographic nature, which can cause an excessive fear of terrorism.\nSome reality TV shows are considered to be social pornography, for example Big Brother and Ex on the Beach.\nPsychologists have stated that some \"help TV\"",
"-29.136773640930187"
],
[
"being manipulated by professionals for the media, but also with the rise of social media everyone has easy access to edit photos they post online. Countless Apps have been created to allow smartphone user tools to modify personal images. These apps allow people to edit virtually every aspect in the photo focusing on the face and body represented. With social media users and the younger generation being exposed to an extreme amount of imagery that has been manipulated the consequences have a negative impact as body ideals are unachievable. Social media has the opportunity to be used",
"-29.12681636074558"
],
[
"had breached her First Amendment rights, but a federal district court ruled that the photograph was not \"protected speech\" under the First Amendment.",
"-29.122869682963938"
],
[
"expert Nik Cubrilovic, in addition to the photographs, other personal information such as text messages, calendars, address books, phone call logs and any other data stored on their phones and backed up to the service were also likely stolen.\nOn September 20, 2014, a second batch of similar private photos of additional celebrities was leaked by hackers. On September 26, 2014, a third batch was also leaked, which was dubbed as \"The Fappening 3\". Reaction Actress Lena Dunham pleaded on Twitter for people not to view the pictures, saying doing so \"violat[es] these women over and over again. It's not okay.\"",
"-29.112331327516586"
],
[
"it's done well.\" Though he went on to express concern over the notion of people posing as documentarians or journalists adding,\nI think there's a larger issue here and that is, if there's one thing we don't need any more of in this particular era it's people posing as documentarians. I think there's enough skepticism to go around about people who actually are reporters, who actually are documentarians. And to undermine whatever tiny little bit of confidence might be left by pulling a stunt like this ... maybe it will make for a good comedy show. I don't know. But I don't",
"-29.066002077655867"
],
[
"sexually-explicit photos of their girlfriends to their friends. This is a new risk associated with new media, as prior to cell phones and email, it would be difficult to quickly distribute photos to acquaintances; with sexting, one can forward a photo in a matter of seconds.\nStudies have shown that sex crimes using digital media against minors reflect the same kind of victimization that happens offline. Family members, acquaintances and intimate partners make up the mass majority of perpetrators for digital media sex crimes. Research by the Internet Watch Foundation in 2012, estimated that 88% of self-made explicit images are \"stolen\"",
"-29.05140290921554"
],
[
"allows them to claim they did not pay for a story. Such indirect methods may include referring to sources as \"consultants,\" covering source's travel costs, arranging accommodations and covering meal costs, paying for local transportation, arranging their entertainment; and doing so for the source, their family and even friends.\nAccording to David Shribman of the Boston Globe, until recently, reporters treated allegations against individuals, including political officials, in much same way: They sought to verify the allegations before putting them into print. Generally, they were made public only after they had been made part of a court record, usually a lawsuit",
"-29.027183646219783"
],
[
"for a presentation titled \"The Internet is for Porn! How High Heels and Fishnet Have Driven Internet Innovation and Information Security\". Unisys demanded all information regarding the presentation be removed from the internet, but the Streisand effect occurred, with the censorship attempt posted on thousands of websites instead. A first for the conference, a ghost speaker @JK47theweapon had to deliver most of the presentation due to legal threats against Kubecka. Prior to beginning, the MC invited \"any hangers on or associates of the law firm of Baker & McKenzie\" to speak to the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF). Baker &",
"-28.99706174513267"
],
[
"threatened application may stifle expression and journalists do engage in self-censorship. The constitution and laws prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions.",
"-28.993972449214198"
],
[
"It is possible that that information could be made available to the authorities.\"\nWhen discussing the MAINWAY program, former U.S. Senate majority leader Trent Lott stated \"What are people worried about? What is the problem? Are you doing something you're not supposed to?\"\nJohann Hari, a British writer, argued that the \"nothing to hide\" argument is irrelevant to the placement of CCTV cameras in public places in the United Kingdom because the cameras are public areas where one is observed by many people he or she would be unfamiliar with and not in \"places where you hide\".\nIn November 2015, British Conservative Party",
"-28.984911164909136"
],
[
"Yayi; and a mass purchase, supposedly by government agents, was made of copies of newspapers that reported on a corruption case. Many journalists engage in self-censorship, and a number of them have been sued for libel, although judges tend to choose not to prosecute them. \"Abuse\" of the freedom of expression is punishable by imprisonment with hard labor. Still, there is an active media that is often critical of the government, although its reach is limited, partly owing to illiteracy. The most influential news media are owned by the government. Some private media receive government aid.\nThere is an unrestricted right",
"-28.970987871769466"
],
[
"in court on 29 October 2008, as part of a larger presentation of over 300 photographs and two videos. The defense objected to the presentation, claiming that the evidence was obtained illegally, and that the subjects shown in the video and the photographs were digitally altered to resemble the suspects. When Sayenko and Suprunyuk were asked if they recognized the people in the photographs, they replied that they did not. Judge Ivan Senchenko responded by stating: \"You are not blind.\" Valery Voronyuk, an expert on film and video editing, testified that the video was not faked or altered. The court",
"-28.947603088221513"
],
[
"often prohibited from criticizing the national government, and in many cases are required to distribute propaganda as if it were news. Various other forms of censorship may restrict reporting on issues the government deems sensitive. In the United States, freedom of the press is protected under the First Amendment in the Bill of Rights. Under the First Amendment, the government is not allowed to censor the press. The government does not have the right to try to control what is published and cannot prevent certain things from being published by the press. Prior constraint is an attempt by the government",
"-28.942212675930932"
],
[
"Family First senator Senator Steve Fielding was reported to support the censorship of hardcore pornography and fetish material under the government's plans to filter access to the web. A Family First spokeswoman confirmed that the party wants X-rated content banned for everyone, including adults.\n\nA spokesman for independent senator Nick Xenophon said: \n \"should the filtering plan go ahead, he would look to use it to block Australians from accessing overseas online casino sites, which are illegal to run in Australia\". \n Senator Xenophon has, however, stated that he has serious concerns about the plan, and in February 2009 withdrew all",
"-28.90322646970162"
],
[
"the laws governing any type of motion picture photography.\nIn the United States, anti-photography laws have been passed following the September 11, 2001 attacks and the increased popularity of camera phones. There might be local laws and policies governing the specific landmark or property in which one seeks to photograph. Laws on private property differ. Owners of private property in most places must authorize recording on their own property. High-profile locations Signs posted around many bridges, including the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, state that filming the structure is prohibited. The legality of such restrictions is problematic; in view of the First Amendment, restrictions",
"-28.878548082826455"
],
[
"have a specific provision against photography for commercial purposes without the written permission of the Mayor or the Squares' Management Team and paying a fee, and permission is needed to photograph or film for commercial purposes in the Royal Parks or on any National Trust land.\nPersistent or aggressive photography of a single individual may come under the legal definition of harassment.\nIt is contempt of court, a criminal offence, to take a photograph in any court of law of any person, being a judge of the court or a juror or a witness in or a party to any proceedings before",
"-28.8688405463472"
],
[
"these very reasons journalists and publishers seldom appeal to the commissioner protesting restrictions of their right of seeking, receiving, transferring, publishing or distributing information. Yet disguised restrictions exist to a considerable degree, they are often put through the economic pressure on mass media by the authorities and loyal business. The so-called \"self-censorship\" which induces journalists to refrain from disseminating information which, in their opinion, may not please the authorities, is also widespread. So in many places the right to praise the authorities is ensured, while the opposite right is just formally declared.\nIn 2008 annual report, Vladimir Lukin wrote that it",
"-28.86860455828719"
],
[
"citizens would stop seeking out illegal, uncensored versions if approved versions of the films were broadcast. Censorship cut out the following: alcoholic beverages, sorcery, men and women sitting too closely together or touching, closeups of women's faces, low necklines on shirts, and many others. People are sometimes edited out or objects are strategically placed to cover what is considered inappropriate. For example, a low neckline on a woman's shirt is edited to be more modest. Dialogue in foreign films is often rewritten. For example, romantic implications are replaced with marriage proposals. Religious The agents of censorship are sometimes not official",
"-28.855725242872722"
],
[
"needed to identify themselves manually, but could pass freely after being authorized by the facial recognition system. Use in schools In the United States, Britain, Australia and New Zealand, CCTV is widely used in schools due to its success in preventing bullying, vandalism, monitoring visitors and maintaining a record of evidence in the event of a crime. There are some restrictions on installation, with cameras not being installed in an area where there is a \"reasonable expectation of privacy\", such as bathrooms, gym locker areas and private offices (unless consent by the office occupant is given). Cameras are generally acceptable",
"-28.854524787864648"
],
[
"displaying her pictures on a personal website of hers.\nIn August 2016, Zuma Press, an independent press agency, filed suit against Getty for alleged copyright violations and unauthorized licensing of more than 47,000 images. Claiming copyright over public domain content Getty Images has continued the practice that Corbis (whose license it acquired in 2016) has been criticized for of claiming copyright, watermarking and selling images that are in public domain, including images related to The Holocaust like the Warsaw Ghetto boy photo or the Polish cavalry in Sochaczew photograph.",
"-28.8497780560283"
],
[
"House reports the government occasionally blocks access to Web sites containing pornography or information deemed offensive to the state; but that such blocked information typically does not extend to political content. In its Freedom of the Press 2012 report, Freedom House described high levels of self-censorship among media practitioners, despite few reports of official intimidation or threats.\nThe constitution provides for freedom of speech including for members of the press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. Citizens can publicly and privately criticize the government without reprisal. The constitution states that persons \"shall not be subjected to arbitrary or",
"-28.838324006501352"
],
[
"the body of an individual with a #MyLastShot pledge. In the article, Al Tompkins writes, \"...the use of such images is situational and should not be covered by a blanket “never publish” or “always publish” policy that allows journalists to escape tough calls.\" This stance goes contrary to Poynter's previous guidelines to stay away from showing graphic images of the crime scene. In the same week, another large media ethics institution, Reynolds Journalism Institute gave journalist Jim MacMillan a one-year grant to create new guidelines for gun violence reporting in the United States.",
"-28.805241573485546"
],
[
"In contrast, a celebrity may take the route of openly releasing the tape and benefit directly from royalties as well as indirectly from the publicity. The current public acceptance of celebrities with sex tapes is speculated by Joe Levy, executive editor of Rolling Stone, to be due to the easy availability of pornography, as well as couples more commonly making their own tapes due to the prevalence of video cameras.\nIn recent years there have also been occasions where celebrities have made a pornographic video for the explicit purpose of being sold as such. Famous celebrity sex tapes The following is",
"-28.80269866486924"
],
[
"national interest. Something bigger than pornography or unlicensed alterations to copyrighted portrayals.\nIn the story, interactive fake video is injected in a video conference call.\nThese days an actual gathering of a team around a table had become very much a rarity. It was so much simpler, and more convenient, to gather by vieway upon an exclusive circuit. Sessions could be as private and enclosed as any. No system was absolutely impenetrable, however. An opponent might easily sneak a doppelganger into a top-level conference. If accepted, such a known person could glean a great deal of information effortlessly and unnoticeably. Not just",
"-28.79345603226102"
],
[
"legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin stated he thought it was not illegal, though legal expert Sunny Hostin was more skeptical, describing jailbait images as \"borderline\" child pornography which may be illegal. While the images may be legal, they are often considered to be in poor taste. Jailbait is amongst the list of banned hashtags at the photo-sharing website Instagram, and the social networking website Tumblr. The term is also blocked on Google Instant. Jailbait images have been defended on the grounds of free speech, and have also been defended on the grounds they are similar to mainstream sexualised images of minors,",
"-28.788633112912066"
],
[
"observed to maintain decorum. Photography is often forbidden, and in some schools, the students (sometimes including non-art students) are not allowed to also be models, as it creates the possibility of conflict for the institution. Admission to and visibility of the area where a nude model is posing is tightly controlled. Disrobing is done discreetly, and the model wears a robe when not posing. It is generally prohibited for anyone (including the instructor) to touch a model. Very close examinations are only made with the permission of the model. Some institutions allow only the instructor to speak directly with a",
"-28.772702034475515"
],
[
"be utilized in a school setting to prevent academic dishonesty, it has been suggested that governments may also use it to suppress their people, for example, by disabling a phone's camera or antenna in the area of a protest.\nThe ability to remotely remove files and applications from a user's device has also come under fire. Apple's apparent ability to blacklist applications, rendering them unusable on any iDevice, has raised concerns about the user's rights when downloading from the App Store. As of July 2014, no applications appear on Apple's blacklist website.",
"-28.70874288774212"
],
[
"who has ‘the right’ to claim ownership of images to in turn edit their content and show them to others (Mannay 2016).Once a visual image is created it becomes very difficult to control its use or remove it from the public arena if participants decide that they no longer want to be represented in a fixed visual trope for time immemorial. Even if images are successfully anodised, acts to disguise images can be seen as tantamount to silencing the voice of research participants. This is particularly problematic where researchers invest in the epistemological aims of participatory approaches predicated on giving",
"-28.68953436164884"
],
[
"credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Although individuals and groups can engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, few residents have access to it.\nThe constitution provides for freedom of opinion, expression, and press, but the government does not always respect these rights. Private individuals are generally free to criticize the government without reprisal, but reporters and publishers risk harassment from authorities when publishing critical articles. The 2010 media law abolished prison sentences for defamation and insult, but prohibits \"inciting racial, ethnic, or religious hatred\", which is punishable by one to two years",
"-28.673101039079484"
],
[
"where the \"predominant impression conveyed\" is of a person under the age of 18. The Act made it illegal to own any picture depicting under-18s participating in sexual activities, or depictions of sexual activity in the presence of someone under 18 years old. The law was condemned by a coalition of graphic artists, publishers, and MPs, who feared it would criminalise graphic novels such as Lost Girls and Watchmen.\nThe government claimed that publication or supply of such material could be illegal under the Obscene Publications Act, if a jury would consider it to have a tendency to \"deprave and corrupt\".",
"-28.65513048322464"
],
[
"the royal family, the General Intelligence Directorate (GID), and other sensitive topics such as religion.\nThe government continues to enforce bans on the publication of selected books for religious, moral, and political reasons, some foreign films are edited prior to release, and the media is directly and indirectly censored. Authorities monitor and censor printing presses and edit articles deemed offensive before they can be printed. Journalists claim the government uses informants in newsrooms and that GID officials monitor reporting. Editors reportedly receive telephone calls from security officials instructing them how to cover events or to refrain from covering certain topics or",
"-28.651366523001343"
],
[
"by law”; however, the government severely restricts these rights. Individuals who criticize the government publicly or privately are subject to reprisal, including arrest. Journalists are subjected to arrest, harassment, intimidation, and violence due to their reporting. The government, including NISS, practices direct prepublication censorship of all forms of media. Journalists also practice self-censorship. NISS resorts to legal action against journalists, bringing libel lawsuits for stories critical of the government and security services. The Supreme Court in December 2011 overturned a lower court decision against several of the accused journalists, but NISS petitioned for a review of the higher court's decision.",
"-28.646893128287047"
],
[
"images (the NCA could not confirm whether the BBC was actually being investigated). Milner later stated to the BBC that the investigation had exposed flaws in its image moderation process that have since been addressed, and that all of the reported content was removed from the service. Objectification of women In July 2017, GMA News reported that \"a number\" of secret Facebook groups that had been engaging in illegal activity of sharing \"obscene\" photos of women had been exposed, with the Philippine National Bureau of Investigation warning group members of the possibility of being liable for violating child pornography and",
"-28.644684910192154"
],
[
"Internet Watch Foundation Background During 1996 the Metropolitan Police told the Internet Service Providers Association (ISPA) that the content carried by some of the newsgroups made available by them was illegal, that they considered the ISPs involved to be publishers of that material, and that they were therefore breaking the law. In August 1996, Chief Inspector Stephen French, of the Metropolitan Police Clubs & Vice Unit, sent an open letter to the ISPA, requesting that they ban access to a list of 132 newsgroups, many of which were deemed to contain pornographic images or explicit text.\nThis list is not exhaustive",
"-28.612298956722952"
],
[
"House copyright because the photograph was \"in the public domain from the moment of inception\". In addition, Dee Voch (The Week), a weekly Hasidic magazine from Brooklyn, also edited out the women.\nThe editing of images of women out of photographs is a common practice of Haredi newspapers. While some interpreted this practice as a result of inequality to women's rights in Hasidic Judaism, Di Tzeitung, in its statement, said it was done only because of modesty reasons, and should in no way be seen as degrading of women. Other uses The photograph was used satirically on the cover of",
"-28.608535810606554"
],
[
"Since a user's profile can be completely open to the public, profile images and information are viewable. Users may post personal information such as their address, telephone number, family members, relationship status and school.\nOnline spam increased such as through \"dummy\" accounts that spam users, linking them to websites containing porn or malicious information. Users who do not follow the rules may get a simple ban from the website or have their account \"frozen\".\nIn March 2012, the website was found to be in violation of federal privacy laws by keeping personal information indefinitely. As of November 2012, Nexopia was working with",
"-28.59182805661112"
],
[
"which can be difficult to obtain when broadcasters and agencies insist on full ownership of the footage. The other difficulty can be trying to find distribution beyond established contacts. Increasingly, online companies are giving VJs the opportunity to keep ownership of their stories and find global distribution.",
"-28.57715841452591"
]
] |
2755hi | Why haven't we found a way to restore enamel on our teeth? | [
"I would say the most accurate answer is we don't know why we can't. If we knew why we can't, we'd probably know why we can. (Imagine asking preflight engineers why we can't fly or preantibiotic doctors why we can't cure infection) Firstly, some incorrect answers in the thread can lead us to an OK answer. That laser business is completely useless in my opinion. But the mechanism will explain why we can't do the same for enamel. Those lasers work by chemically treating and then stimulating odontoblasts (cells which create dentine, the second layer of the tooth, enamels softer little brother) to create dentine. I won't go too far into why the only reason those lasers are gaining traction is because they're lasers, but long story short is you need vital, sterile, exposed pulp tissue, which really is only found in the case of trauma. But we already know how to stimulate dentine in such situations - CaOH or MTA. Anyone interested in why this 'breakthrough' is literally nothing but a waste of money for both clinician and patient, please Google 'Cvek Pulpotomy'. We have been doing this for decades. Now, onto the question - why can't we do that with enamel? Consider how teeth are formed. An ELIcloserto5 version, is teeth are made of 3 layers like a cake. The crisp, hard, protective, water tight icing (enamel), the softer, porous, shock absorbing sponge cake (dentine), and the gelatinous jam (blood) and cream (nerve) inner filling. The critical part here, is how the icing and sponge are formed. The icing creating cells (ameloblasts) and the sponge creating cells (odontoblasts) start touching each other. Then, step by step, nanometer by nanometer, they move away from eachother, laying down icing and sponge cake as they go. The sponge cake cells move towards the jam and cream fillig, and when they are done they live in the filling, laying down sponge when stimulated for the life of the tooth.The icing cells move away from the jam cream filling, to the harsh outside world. Eventually, when the cake leaves the oven, the icing creating cells are lost. Now, the world is harsh. The outside world is full of flies and general trauma, which will wear the icing down and lose sugar (minerals from hydroxapatite - calcium and phosphate, although fluoride can go back in as an even better/harder mineral, though not naturally present). With good diligence shooing the flies away (brushing/flossing) and regular reintroduction of lost sugar (toothpaste/fluoride/that gum someone mentioned) we can replace the lost sugar. However, sugar isn't icing - some specialised cells laid down the sugar in a very particular way. As long as not to much sugar is lost and no big chunks are missing, just dusting it with sugar will work, as the exisitng icing holds enough of the pattern that there's only one way for the dusted sugar to go - the right way. We know what's in the icing - we have the recipe. But we can't lay it down with the same style and pattern the cells did. And the cells are lost. There's no stimulating them like the sponge cells. Once the icing is gone, it's gone. Edit: the comments in this thread are a testament to what I'm saying about lasers. People are almost satirical in their irrational affinity towards the study, simply because \"lasers\".",
"Actually good news! I can't find the article anymore, but i read (on reddit a couple weeks ago) about a recent discovery where dentists will soon be able to \"add\" enamel to our teeth using lasers or something. Basically it was saying it could be the end of fillings, cracked teeth, etc. Don't have much info, but there is hope that fillings/drilling will be a thing of the past",
"Dental student here. The cells that form enamel (ameloblasts) die after secreting the enamel found in teeth. Most other \"regenerative medicine\" techniques work by stimulating certain cells to produce specific substances. This is not possible with enamel because the ameloblasts are gone early after tooth formation. It is possible with dentin, which lies beneath enamel and is produced by odontoblasts. These cells are functioning throughout our lives. Link: URL_0 ",
"Try xposting this to /r/dentistry? Very informative folks over there.",
"The other important factor you have to consider is money. The dental industry is a very large multi billion if not trillion dollar industry. If you suddenly create a solution to the problem that will cause this industry to loose money, it simply won't be allowed into the market. Look at the pharmaceutical industry and the drugs they produce as a reference. Why fix the problem when you can milk it.",
"Well I mean I have this act mouthwash that says it rebuilds enamel. So that's pretty cool I guess. It works really well actually, but I would love for someone to comment telling me this isn't the same thing.",
"Another related question is: Why is there a commercial that claims their product can do exactly this, then another commercial FOR THE SAME PRODUCT says that once the enamel is gone, it's gone?",
"Biomaterials Science Masters student here, The recent Harvard publication on dentine regeneration would not be applied to enamel as the material composition is very different. Enamel is an inorganic composition of Hydroxyapatite (very similar calcium based ceramic found in bone). The ameloblasts as someone mentioned earlier is only found during the development phase of the tooth. There is a very small percentage of proteins found in the enamel and is solely used as a shock absorber so the layer doesn't propagate fracture. [Article]( URL_1 ) [News report]( URL_0 ) At this stage, this is the best approach. Until artificially stimulating ameloblasts to undergo repetition of their phase cycle. Restoration, rather than regeneration.",
"we actually just found a way to use stem cells to regrow teeth URL_0 ",
"Growing teeth is like growing fingers and toes. Very specialised. There are 3 major groups in teeth, the enamel, the dentine and the pulp complex which includes the nerve and blood supply. That's like skin, bone and vessels/nerves in your fingers. Now, the enamel is exclusively hydroxyapatite (mineral content) with some carbon based material scattered (roughly 2%). There is no regenerative function because simply aren't any cells in there to GROW it. The only thing you can do is if it softens up (demineralizes), you can 'remineralize' it but that requires the lattice of structure to be largely intact. So essentially, you can strengthen it before it gets lost, but you can't lose it and get it back. The second layer of tooth is dentine which is about 70% mineral and the rest water with very FEW cells laid out in between. This layer can be 'relayered' at the part closest to the pulp but it too will never be 'regenerated'. By regeneration, what I'm referring to is the ability for the tooth to reform its original shape. The third layer is the vascular and nerve bundle (the pulp) and in children, it may regenerate itself but in adults, it will almost certainly kill itself if irritated too much. Restoration is only in the form of dental fillings, crowns and veneers due to the fact that enamel has NO cells to regenerate itself.",
"Degredation of enamel is caused by acids, which are Hydrogen (H+) ions dissolved in the moisture of the mouth, bonding to hydroxyl (OH-) groups in enamel's chemical structure. Probably resulting in H2O as a by-product if memory serves. The enamel is dissolved into a hydrocarbon and water. The only way to restore enamel would be to re-add the OH- groups to the enamel molecule's framework. Typically, we slow the dissolving action by saturating our mouth with Flouride ions, F-. F- is one of the few ions that is more electronegative than OH-. More electronegative means the H+ ions are more strongly attracted to the Flouride ions than the Hydroxyl groups in enamel. When F- ions are present, the H+ ions are neutralized by them, and the OH- ions are not. This suspends the decay process. Unfortunately, F- ions in strong concentrations are unhealthy. So reversing decay is probably chemically not possible.",
"The reason is very simple. Far to much money to be made. If we where able to rebuild enamel it would mean that dentist wouldn't be needed as much. If it was something as simple as a pill or a paste you put on your teeth and they are white with no cavities think of all the business that would be out over night. All the tooth brush makers and tooth paste makers, and the people who make white strips and then not to mention the dentist. Then add in all the schools all over the country/world that get paid $100k for each students to go to school to become dentist. IMO the reason we haven't figured it out is money. To much money is to be made by not figuring it out.",
"The fact that you're wondering that means you're not old enough that doctors tell you \"yea that's just something you live with now\" when you come in with a problem. How we handle teeth is pretty much par for the course.",
"Because discovering shit is hard. People don't just get baked in a lab and talk about how cool stuff would be. They spend tens of thousands of hours trying out different things and most of those don't work.",
"Because every dentist has at least one mortgage and wants to go on vacation.",
"Dentist here. The whole thread seems like gibberish. I'd say enamel is formed when the tooth buds are unerupted. By specialised cells called ameloblasts. Once erupted there remains some specialised cells in the dentine near the pulp but they only deposit dentine. On the inside meaning narrowing the pulp chamber. I guess the why you're looking for is that the enamel is the outermost bony structure and exposed to the oral environment with another bony structure(dentine) underlying it. For growth to occur rigid structures like these must expand but being bony in nature they are unable to remodel what's more ameloblasts are not present to produce enamel. Sry gtg.",
"I wanna know why there isn't an easier method to clean our teeth, other than brushing. You'd think there would be a gum, or mouthwash, or combo of the two that could clean them as well as little plastic bristles on a stick.",
"After you guys went to the moon, the number 1 goal for people should have been to automate dentistry.",
"Teeth don't grow the way fingers and hair does, they don't come out of our bodies and build up gradually. When we are born they grow inside our faces, like they literally sit up there under other teeth, and slowly surface as we get older, teeth could potentially be jump-started to grow again inside our cheeks, built by the circulatory systems in our gums and pop out again like a shark's, but once they are out they're basically like the armor of a turtle, they cannot be re-padded with the same stuff that they came out with, they can only be polished or patched with other chemicals. Maybe one day, but I think it's more feasible to just get a new tooth installed on an artificial mount. I bet in the near future scientists will be able to trick our bodies to start growing new teeth again, and on that day we will truly have revolutionized the dental world, as well as potentially put a lot of people out of business. [Source]( URL_0 )",
"Late to the party and most likely no one will see this and I hope Im not repeating if posted already but.....XYLITOL! I make a toothpaste and mouth rinse with it (and calcium lactate, to work together synergistically). Remineralizes your teeth and has saved a few of mine that had begun to crack from chewing ice. You can purchase xylitol chewing gum for this reason too!",
"as long as your teeth aren't your largest risk factor for death... who gives a shit if theyre yellow? We are sentient beings. You only care about your tooth color because the opposite gender generally zombies out for the big \"they\"",
"This whole thread is just... so, so depressing. I love my teeth and the fact that they will never be white again makes me want to cry. This is terrible What is this I hear about bleaching, does anyone know?",
"Because dentists would be unemployed largely. You would decimate the dental assistant sector of employment. There is no money in curing diseases but plenty in treating them.",
"Because it is more profitable to see toothpaste and mouthwash and Whitening and dentures than it would be to have a 1 stop fix for enamel repair",
"The cells that form enamel aren't present anymore once the teeth start erupting - it's not like bone where bone cells constantly reabsorb and rebuild damaged bone.",
"Dental sales rep here...I hope to God fillings aren't a thing of the past...or I'm out of a job. Ugh.",
"What about those toothpastes that promise to restore and protect enamel? Are they lies and waste of money?",
"I just bought a tub of enamel and I spread it on my teeth every night before bed.",
"[Because crowns etc are stronger and anyway we CAN fully regrow teeth from stem cells.]( URL_0 )",
"We also can't replace hyaline cartilage in our joints. That's why there are knee replacements.",
"Late to the party but... Actually, its been done recently Source : URL_0 ",
"Ben Affleck seems to have done it. hmmm"
] | [
[
"mineral from enamel produces a cavity, through which bacteria can infect the inner tooth and destroy the latticework.This process requires many months or years. Although a key feature of tooth decay is the increase of bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus in dental plaque, it is not considered an infectious disease. Tooth Remineralisation Treatments & Preventative Strategies Besides professional dental care, there are other ways for promoting tooth remineralisation: Effect of fluoride The presence of fluoride in saliva and plaque fluid interacts with remineralisation process in many ways and thus exerts a topical or surface effect. A person",
"-32.634002202306874"
],
[
"(decay preventative) dentifrice that can be of significant value when used in a conscientiously applied program of oral hygiene and regular professional care.\"\nIn 1980, the Japanese company, Sangi Co., Ltd., launched APADENT, the world's first remineralizing toothpaste to use a nano-form of hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, rather than fluoride, to remineralize areas of mineral loss below the surface of tooth enamel (incipient caries lesions). After many years of laboratory experiments and field trials, its hydroxyapatite ingredient was approved as an active anti-caries agent by the Japanese Ministry of Health in 1993, and given the name Medical Hydroxyapatite",
"-31.355165033775847"
],
[
"walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated by utilizing proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.\nIn some circumstances, less tooth structure can be removed compared to preparation for other dental materials such as amalgam and many of the indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam",
"-31.014523496851325"
],
[
"Remineralisation of teeth Tooth remineralisation is the natural repair process for non-cavitated tooth lesions, in which calcium, phosphate and sometimes fluoride ions are deposited into crystal voids in demineralised enamel. Remineralisation can contribute towards restoring strength and function within tooth structure.\nDemineralization is the removal of minerals (mainly calcium) from any of the hard tissues: enamel, dentine, and cementum. It begins at the surface, and may progress into cavitation unless arrested or reversed by remineralisation. Tooth decay process When food or drinks containing fermentable sugars enter the mouth, the bacteria in dental plaque rapidly feed on the sugars and produce organic",
"-30.913606506364886"
],
[
"may be left more vulnerable to decay because the enamel is not able to protect the tooth.\nIn most people, disorders or diseases affecting teeth are not the primary cause of dental caries. Approximately 96% of tooth enamel is composed of minerals. These minerals, especially hydroxyapatite, will become soluble when exposed to acidic environments. Enamel begins to demineralize at a pH of 5.5. Dentin and cementum are more susceptible to caries than enamel because they have lower mineral content. Thus, when root surfaces of teeth are exposed from gingival recession or periodontal disease, caries can develop",
"-30.830536107867374"
],
[
"decay, where healing is possible by the hardening process of remineralisation. Where a cavity has formed from excessive demineralisation, the decay has reached the point of no return where the tooth structure has been lost and the decay is permanent and non-reversible. In this situation of cavitated decay, the cavity will have to be filled to restore the tooth. Minimal intervention dentistry is focused on filling only cavitated regions, leaving non-cavitated decay to be remineralised, thus restoring the tooth while removing as little of the tooth structure as possible, enhancing the strength and aesthetics of the restoration. Classifications of the",
"-30.466256376705132"
],
[
"decay. Changing the biochemical properties of saliva, potentially through the use of appropriate drugs, can help the buffering capacity of the saliva to resist changes in pH caused by plaque acid, resisting the acid attack caused by the active caries. Restoration Decay is the process or result of demineralisation (softening) of an area of dental tissue, creating a decayed lesion on the tooth. The process of restoring decay begins with an analysis of the decayed lesions together with their location and severity, with particular regard to the state of reversibility. Where decay is reversible, it is referred to as non-cavitated",
"-30.36897229339229"
],
[
"air across the suspect surface, which removes moisture and changes the optical properties of the unmineralized enamel.\nSome dental researchers have cautioned against the use of dental explorers to find caries, in particular sharp ended explorers. In cases where a small area of tooth has begun demineralizing but has not yet cavitated, the pressure from the dental explorer could cause a cavity. Since the carious process is reversible before a cavity is present, it may be possible to arrest caries with fluoride and remineralize the tooth surface. When a cavity is present, a restoration will be needed to replace the",
"-30.20730171719333"
],
[
"the amount of bacteria in the mouth that are responsible for tooth decay. After a wave of empirical studies on the efficacy of Xylitol (a sugar alcohol) a consensus report in the British Dental Journal considered it to give a reduction in the risk of caries. There is also increasing use of newer technologies such as photo-activated disinfection and treating with ozone.\nThere is also an aspect of minimising the effect of the caries to control the symptoms of decay. Constant remineralisation (hardening) with continuous application of fluoride toothpaste is highly common practice that reduces the impact of the caries on",
"-29.799315297743306"
],
[
"removal of dental plaque and food from the teeth, it can aid in the elimination and/or masking of halitosis when tonsil stones are not the cause, and it can deliver active ingredients such as fluoride to prevent tooth and gum (gingiva) disease.\nThere is evidence that the addition of xylitol to fluoride-containing toothpastes reduces incidence of tooth decay by about 13%. Tooth powder Tooth powder (or 'toothpaste powder') is an alternative to toothpaste. It may be recommended for people with sensitive teeth. Tooth powder typically does not contain the chemical sodium lauryl sulphate which can be a skin irritant.",
"-29.71939053683309"
],
[
"be replanted with little signs of resorption. Hank's Balanced Salt Solution is found in a Save-A-Tooth, a storage device for the storage, preservation, and regeneration of tooth root cells.\nHBSS also has been shown to be capable of replacing lost cell metabolites. Since a cell that has been cut off from its blood supply depletes its stored metabolites after fifteen minutes, a tooth that has been extra-oral for one hour has less vital cells to reconnect with the bone ligament cells.\nSome studies in dental research have shown that knocked out teeth that have been dry for up to one hour will",
"-29.068414390960243"
],
[
"selection of dentifrice should also be critically analysed and changed to include a less abrasive and gentler paste such as sensitive toothpaste as evidence suggests that a very abrasive toothpaste would lead to loss of tooth structure. A toothpaste containing increased fluoride will also help combat the increased sensitivity and risk to dental decay. Fluoride varnish is known to alleviate hypersensitivity in teeth and can be used as a preventive measure for high risk patients of dental erosion with abrasion because fluoride varnish is reported to have an effect on the surface and subsurface",
"-29.04026748065371"
],
[
"tooth whitening were shown to have a beneficial effect in reducing extrinsic stains, irrespective of whether or not a chemical discoloration agent was added. However, the whitening process can permanently reduce the strength of the teeth, as the process scrapes away a protective outer layer of enamel. Herbal and natural toothpastes Companies such as Tom's of Maine, among others, manufacture natural and herbal toothpastes and market them to consumers who wish to avoid the artificial ingredients commonly found in regular toothpastes. Many herbal toothpastes do not contain fluoride or sodium lauryl sulfate. The ingredients found in natural toothpastes vary widely",
"-29.010083325905725"
],
[
"Dental restoration Direct restorations This technique involves placing a soft or malleable filling into the prepared tooth and building up the tooth. The material is then set hard and the tooth is restored. The advantage of direct restorations is that they usually set quickly and can be placed in a single procedure. The dentist has a variety of different filling options to choose from. A decision is usually made based on the location and severity of the associated cavity. Since the material is required to set while in contact with the tooth, limited energy (heat) is passed to the tooth",
"-28.721887168620015"
],
[
"cover part of the enamel of the tooth. Full-porcelain restorations are particularly desirable because their color and translucency mimic natural tooth enamel.\nAnother type is known as porcelain-fused-to-metal, which is used to provide strength to a crown or bridge. These restorations are very strong, durable and resistant to wear, because the combination of porcelain and metal creates a stronger restoration than porcelain used alone.\nOne of the advantages of computerized dentistry (CAD/CAM technologies) involves the use of machinable ceramics which are sold in a partially sintered, machinable state that is fired again after machining to form a hard ceramic. Some of the",
"-28.636758191343688"
],
[
"forms. The minerals in the hard tissues of the teeth (enamel, dentin and cementum) are constantly undergoing processes of demineralization and remineralisation. Dental caries results when the demineralization rate is faster than the remineralisation and there is net mineral loss. This happens when there is an ecologic shift within the dental biofilm, from a balanced population of micro-organisms to a population that produce acids and can survive in an acid environment. Enamel Enamel is a highly mineralized acellular tissue, and caries act upon it through a chemical process brought on by the acidic environment produced by bacteria. As the",
"-28.603989195107715"
],
[
"the long-term success of a restoration. Besides working as a retentive aid to prevent the fixed prosthesis from dislodging, it also plays the role of a seal, preventing bacteria from penetrating the tooth-restoration interface.\nThe oldest material available is the zinc phosphate cement, which has been used in dentistry for more than 100 years. Following the introduction of adhesive resin systems to the market, there is now a wide range of dental materials available that can serve as luting agents. As such, they each have their own advantages and disadvantages, and can each be employed in different scenarios. The choice of",
"-28.588324087264482"
],
[
"loss within dental hard tissues (enamel and then dentin), the sign and symptom being a carious lesion. By preventing the dental plaque biofilm from maturing or by returning it back to a non-cariogenic state, dental caries can be prevented and arrested. This can be achieved though the behavioural step of reducing the supply of fermentable carbohydrates (i.e. sugar intake) and frequent removal of the biofilm (i.e. toothbrushing).\nA peptide pheromone quorum sensing signaling system in S. mutans includes the Competence Stimulating Peptide (CSP) that controls genetic competence. Genetic competence is the ability of a cell to take up DNA released by",
"-28.54493410559371"
],
[
"grooves. Preservation of tooth structure Preparing a tooth to accept a full coverage crown is relatively destructive. The procedure can damage the pulp irreversibly, through mechanical, thermal and chemical trauma and making the pulp more susceptible to bacterial invasion. Therefore, preparations must be as conservative as possible, whilst producing a strong retentive restoration. Although it may be seen as contradictory to the previous statement, at times, sound tooth structure may need to be sacrificed in order to prevent further more substantial and uncontrolled loss of tooth structure. Structural durability In order to last, the crown must be made of enough",
"-28.505839083125466"
],
[
"to enamel, were hard and structurally complex. The outer layers contained glass nanoparticles and aluminium oxide plates were aligned perpendicular to the surface. After the outer layers hardened, a second suspension was poured. It contained no glass, and the plates were aligned horizontally to the surface of the tooth. These deeper layers were tougher, resembling dentine. The tooth was then cooked at 1,600 degrees to compact and harden the material — a process known as sintering. The last step involved filling remaining pores with a synthetic monomer used in dentistry, which polymerizes after treatment. Hardness and durability approximated that",
"-28.445656456897268"
],
[
"Sodium monofluorophosphate Tooth decay Tooth decay is caused by bacteria naturally present in one's mouth. These bacteria form a sticky, colorless soft film on the teeth called plaque. When foods containing carbohydrates (starches and sugars) are eaten, the bacteria that form plaque use the sugar as a form of energy. They also turn it into a glue-like substance that helps them stick to the surface of the tooth. The plaque produces acid, which attacks the enamel. Structure The structure of the fluorophosphate anion consists of phosphorus at the center of a tetrahedron defined by three oxygen atoms and one fluorine.",
"-28.34817059535999"
],
[
"the reformation of enamel. Miscellaneous components Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as glycerol, sorbitol, or xylitol, or related derivatives, such as 1,2-propylene glycol and polyethyleneglycol. Strontium chloride or potassium nitrate is included in some toothpastes to reduce sensitivity. Two systemic meta-analysis reviews reported that arginine, and calcium sodium phosphosilicate - CSPS containing toothpastes are also effective in alleviating dentinal hypersensitivity respectively. Another randomized clinical trial found superior effects when both formulas were combined together.\nSodium polyphosphate is added to minimize the formation of tartar. Other",
"-28.24322072500945"
],
[
"tooth after it has undergone endodontic therapy. Its physical and chemical properties, including but not limited to its inertness and biocompatibility, melting point, ductility, and malleability, make it important in endodontics, e.g. as gutta-percha points. Zinc oxide is added to reduce brittleness and improve plasticity. Barium sulfate is added to provide radiopacity so that its presence and location can be verified in dental X-ray images. Substitutes Gutta-percha remained an industrial staple well into the 20th century, when it was gradually replaced with superior synthetic materials such as Bakelite, though a similar and cheaper natural material called balatá was often used",
"-28.220558640314266"
],
[
"within days of a tooth's erupting into the mouth if the diet is sufficiently rich in suitable carbohydrates. Evidence suggests that the introduction of fluoride treatments has slowed the process. Proximal caries take an average of four years to pass through enamel in permanent teeth. Because the cementum enveloping the root surface is not nearly as durable as the enamel encasing the crown, root caries tends to progress much more rapidly than decay on other surfaces. The progression and loss of mineralization on the root surface is 2.5 times faster than caries in enamel. In very",
"-28.172340906225145"
],
[
"Enamel microabrasion Enamel microabrasion is a procedure in cosmetic dentistry used to improve the appearance of the teeth. Like tooth whitening it is used to remove discolorations of the tooth surface but microabrasion is a mechanical, rather than chemical, procedure. History In the past, teeth with stains or other color changes were made to look better through the use of restorative materials, such as dental porcelain. These materials would create a thin veneer over the outer surface of the tooth. Although veneers looked better, these materials did not match the structure or characteristics of the tooth enamel and replacement",
"-28.130210324190557"
],
[
"Tooth regeneration Tooth regeneration is a stem cell based regenerative medicine procedure in the field of tissue engineering and stem cell biology to replace damaged or lost teeth by regrowing them from autologous stem cells.\nAs a source of the new bioengineered teeth somatic stem cells are collected and reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells which can be placed in the dental lamina directly or placed in a reabsorbable biopolymer in the shape of the new tooth History Young et al. first demonstrated in 2002 that teeth could be regenerated from cells.",
"-28.00464922876563"
],
[
"for remineralisation of the non-cavitated areas. Remineralisation of non-cavitated lesions Various techniques exists for remineralisation, varying from simple application of fluoride to using special substances for filling materials that interact with the tooth to aid the process from within. Glass Ionomer Cements (GICs) have been shown to undergo ion exchange with the surrounding tooth structure, and also engage in fluoride feeding. Research by Prof. Hien Ngo and others has shown that these methods can in practice heal some non-cavitated lesions. Prevention The same methods for cure of the disease can be used for prevention, as well as other techniques such",
"-28.0021931834126"
],
[
"cusps or incisal edges. These can be resolved by restoring and polishing sharp cusps. Then, desensitizing agents such as topical fluoride varnishes can be applied, and at home desensitising toothpastes recommended. Many restorative options have been proposed, such as direct composite restorations, bonded cast metal restorations, removable partial dentures, orthodontic treatment, crown lengthening procedures and protective splints. The decision to restore the dentition depends on the wants and needs of the patient, the severity of tooth surface loss and whether tooth surface loss is active. The use of adhesive materials to replace lost tooth structure can be performed as a",
"-27.884751191566465"
],
[
"Dental technician Fixed restorations A fixed dental restoration is an appliance designed to replace a tooth or teeth that may have been lost or damaged by injury, caries or other oral diseases. These restorations are distinguished from other restorations by the fact that once they have been placed by a dentist the patient can not remove them.\nSuch Restorations include; crowns, bridges, veneers, fixed implant restorations, inlays and onlays. Removable restorations Removable restorations are dental appliances to replace one or more teeth that have been completely lost. These restorations ideally remain stable in normal function but can be removed by",
"-27.873385512444656"
],
[
"tooth can be replanted and the halves of the ligament will reattach and the tooth will remain vital. The half that stays on the socket wall, since it remains connected to the bone blood supply, is naturally kept alive. However, the ligament cells that remain on the tooth root lose their blood and nutrition supply and must be artificially maintained. They must be protected from two potentially destructive processes: cell crushing and loss of normal cell metabolism. All treatment between the time of the accident and the ultimate replantation must be focused on preventing these two possibilities. Prevention of cell",
"-27.841797181521542"
],
[
"Dentifrice Toothpaste Toothpaste is a dentifrice used in conjunction with a toothbrush to help maintain oral hygiene. The essential components are an abrasive, binder, surfactant and humectant. Other ingredients are also used. The main purpose of the paste is to help remove debris and plaque with some marketed to serve accessory functions such as breath freshening and teeth whitening. Tooth powder Tooth powder is an alternative to toothpaste. Modern versions may be sold with or without fluoride.\nTooth powder was historically used among the Romans to clean and whiten teeth, to fix them when loose, to strengthen the gums, and to",
"-27.78289853516617"
],
[
" The Dental Papilla → will develop to become the dental pulp and the dentine\n3) The Enamel Organ → will develop to create the enamel solely\nIt is important to note that till this point, no dental tissues have been created yet.\nWhen all of the individual components of the tooth germ have become developed, the entire cell mass would have appeared to have migrated deeper into the underlying connective tissues. This phenomenon, which will continue throughout the whole life of the teeth, is most possibly due to the cell mass moving towards a rich blood supply that can",
"-27.70773334481055"
],
[
"Enamel infraction Enamel infractions are microcracks seen within the dental enamel of a tooth. They are commonly the result of dental trauma to the brittle enamel, which remains adherent to the underlying dentine. They can be seen more clearly when transillumination is used.\nEnamel infractions are found more often in older teeth, as the accumulated trauma is greatest. Enamel infractions can also be found as a result of iatrogenic damage inadvertently caused by instrumentation during dental treatments. Treatment Minor infraction may not require any treatment, however major infraction may require treatment including smoothing, fluoride treatment and crown restoration.",
"-27.699713866692036"
],
[
"Enamel matrix derivative In dentistry, enamel matrix derivative (EMD) is an extract of porcine fetal tooth material used to biomimetically stimulate the soft and hard tissues surrounding teeth to regrow (in a process known as regeneration) following tissue destruction. Discovery of EMP's role in cementogenesis There are three hard tissues that comprise human teeth: enamel, dentin and cementum. The majority of the tooth structure is formed from dentin, and the enamel serves as the superficial layer of the crown while the cementum serves to cover the root. In the mid-1990s, however, it was discovered that a very thin",
"-27.597733789676568"
],
[
"GSK to withdraw its claim that Ribena Toothkind, a lower-sugar variety, did not encourage tooth decay. A company poster showed bottles of Toothkind in place of the bristles on a toothbrush. The ASA's ruling was upheld by the High Court. In 2007 GSK was fined $217,000 in New Zealand over its claim that ready-to-drink Ribena contained high levels of vitamin C, after it was found to contain no detectable vitamin C. In 2013 GSK sold Ribena and another drink, Lucozade, to the Japanese multinational Suntory for £1.35 billion. SB Pharmco Puerto Rico In 2010 the US Department of Justice announced",
"-27.533544029211043"
],
[
"tooth cleaning methods, and reduction of sugar consumption, he called for the cessation of the caries epidemic.\nNumerous research studies emanating from the Caries Research Station demonstrated which foodstuffs were responsible for rapid caries development. Mühlemann was able to demonstrate that topically applied fluoride reduced the acid solubility of tooth enamel and therewith incidence of dental caries. These studies led Mühlemann to the conclusion that fluoride incorporated into a dentifrice could exert a caries prophylactic effect. This conclusion was substantiated by numerous researchers at the University of Zurich Dental Institute. (Marthaler/Mühlemann/König: elmex® research). Over the course of 45 years, Prof. Thomas",
"-27.477483898052014"
],
[
"a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed \"polishing\" action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus.\nThe abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Too high RDA values are deleterious. Some dentists recommend toothpaste with an RDA value no higher than 50 for daily use. Fluorides Fluoride in various forms",
"-27.466640211991034"
],
[
"Dental alveolus Socket preservation Socket preservation or alveolar ridge preservation (ARP) is a procedure to reduce bone loss after tooth extraction to preserve the dental alveolus (tooth socket) in the alveolar bone. A platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) membrane containing bone growth enhancing elements can be stitched over the wound or a graft material or scaffold is placed in the socket of an extracted tooth. The socket is then directly closed with stitches or covered with a non-resorbable or resorbable membrane and sutured. Pathology The swelling of the dental alveoli can result in alveolitis, causing pain and discomfort to the mouth.",
"-27.439440838526934"
],
[
"in dentistry is on the mineral phase of dentin in order to understand its alteration with aging. These alterations lead to “transparent” dentin, which is also called sclerotic. It was shown that a ‘‘dissolution and reprecipitation’’ mechanism reigns the formation of transparent dentin. The causes and cures of these conditions can possibly be found from further studies on the role of the mineralized tissues involved. Bioinspired materials The attractive properties of mineralized tissues like nacre and bone have led to the creation of a large number of biomimetic materials. Although improvements can be made, there are several techniques used to",
"-27.4271482527256"
],
[
"of tooth-to-restoration contact, and should be a smooth, well-defined delineation so that the restoration, no matter how it is fabricated, can be properly adapted and not allow for any openings visible to the naked eye, however slight. An acceptable distance from tooth margin to restoration margin is anywhere from 40-100 nm. However, the R.V. Tucker method of gold inlay and onlay restoration produces tooth-to-restoration adaptation of potentially only 2 nm, confirmed by scanning electron microscopy; this is less than the diameter of a single bacterium.\nNaturally, the tooth-to-restoration margin is an unsightly thing to have exposed on the visible surface",
"-27.423632669553626"
],
[
"formed over the remaining surface of the enamel; this veneer is much more acid-resistant than the original hydroxyapatite, and is formed more quickly than ordinary remineralised enamel would be. The cavity-prevention effect of fluoride is partly due to these surface effects, which occur during and after tooth eruption. Fluoride interferes with the process of tooth decay as fluoride intake during the period of enamel development for up to 7 years of age; the fluoride alters the structure of the developing enamel making it more resistant to acid attack. In children and adults when teeth are subjected to the alternating",
"-27.369907158543356"
],
[
"tooth decay, attributed in advertisements to the supposed ingredient Irium. In a 1994 speech, the chairman of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission, Reed Hundt, claimed that the \"Irium\" mentioned in Pepsodent advertisements \"didn't exist\". \"Irium\" was being used as another name for sodium lauryl sulfate, an ionic surfactant.\nAnother ingredient, \"I.M.P.\", which stood for \"Insoluble Meta-Phosphate\", was purported to whiten teeth. Radio program Pepsodent sponsored a radio program, The Pepsodent Show Starring Bob Hope that began airing in 1938 and ran for approximately 10 years on NBC. The show featured Bob Hope and his cast of regular characters such as Jerry",
"-27.25614174292423"
],
[
"are at higher risk of tooth decay, and are usually placed as soon as the adult molar teeth come through. Background Dental caries is an upset of the balance between loss and gain of minerals from a tooth surface. The loss of minerals from the teeth occurs from the bacteria within the mouth, fermenting foods and producing acids, whereas the tooth gains minerals from our saliva and fluoride that is present within the mouth. When this balance is skewed due to frequent intake of fermentable carbohydrates, poor oral hygiene, and lack of fluoride consumption, there is a continuous loss and",
"-27.25067418187973"
],
[
"removed tissue \"from behind the third molar\" and reattached it near the canine tooth, claiming the surgery to have been a success.\nYounger practiced for some time in San Francisco, California.",
"-27.223462614463642"
],
[
"tooth is removed, material (usually a bone substitute) is placed in the tooth socket, it is covered with a barrier membrane, and sutured closed. Roughly 30 days after socket preservation, the barrier membrane is either removed, or it resorbs, and the callous of bone covers with new gingiva. While there is good evidence that socket preservation prevents bone loss, there is no definitive proof that this leads to higher implants success or long-term health. Medical Uses After tooth extraction, the alveolar ridge has a mean loss of width of 3.8mm, and a height loss of 1.24mm within six",
"-27.222608941840008"
],
[
"a failure can be as small as 1 mm of additional tooth structure that, when encased by a ferrule, provides great protection. When such a long-lasting, functional restoration cannot be predictably created, tooth extraction should be considered.\" Crown-to-root ratio The alveolar bone surrounding one tooth will naturally surround an adjacent tooth, and removing bone for a crown lengthening procedure will effectively damage the bony support of adjacent teeth to some inevitable extent, as well as unfavorably increase the crown-to-root ratio. Additionally, once bone is removed, it is almost impossible to regain it to previous levels, and in",
"-27.161760304647032"
],
[
"If a tooth fragment is still available, it can be bonded to the tooth. For small or minor fractures, it can be smoothed to remove rough margins and edges. For a larger or major fractures, dental composite resin can be used to mask the defective enamel for aesthetic purpose. In archaeological samples enamel fractures can give insight into the diet and behaviour of past populations.",
"-27.143932846724056"
],
[
"cells will die that rejection of the tooth by the body at a later time is the usual outcome. The method by which the body rejects the replanted tooth is a process called “replacement root resorption”. During this process, the tooth root cells become necrotic (dead) and will activate the immunologic mechanism of the body to attempt to remove this necrotic layer and literally eats away the tooth root. This is called “root resorption” It is a slow, but non-painful, process that is sometimes not observed by x-rays for years. Once this process starts, it is irreversible and the tooth",
"-27.07864754498587"
],
[
"maintain the surrounding dental tissues.\nRemovable dental prostheses (mainly dentures) are sometimes considered a form of indirect dental restoration, as they are made to replace missing teeth. There are numerous types of precision attachments (also known as combined restorations) to aid removable prosthetic attachment to teeth, including magnets, clips, hooks, and implants which may themselves be seen as a form of dental restoration.\nThe CEREC method is a chairside CAD/CAM restorative procedure. An optical impression of the prepared tooth is taken using a camera. Next, the specific software takes the digital picture and converts it into a 3D virtual model on the",
"-27.02800622896757"
],
[
"and flossing, if that's not possible, to prevent tooth decay and increase saliva production. Chewing gum can also help with the lack of saliva or xerostomia since it naturally stimulates saliva production. Saliva is made of chemicals, such as organic molecules, inorganic ions and macromolecules. 0.5% of saliva deals with dental health, since tooth enamel is made of calcium phosphate, those inorganic ions in saliva help repair the teeth and keep them in good condition. The pH of saliva is neutral, which having a pH of 7 allows it to remineralize tooth enamel. Falling below a pH of 5.5 (which",
"-27.024043759563938"
],
[
"develop in bone deprived of a budding or growing tooth. Secondly, they provided evidence to prove that the dental follicle is involved in the process. Therefore, it is only when concurrent bone deposition can be confirmed at the base of the crypt and inhibition of such bone deposition can be demonstrated to show interference with tooth eruption, then the conclusion that an eruptive pathway forming within bone means that bony remodelling is the cause for tooth formation.\nIn many studies, with the usage of tetracyclines as indicators of bone deposition have proven that bone resorption is principal activity in the fundus",
"-27.014469594694674"
],
[
"certain lots of Sensodyne Repair & Protect toothpaste as well as Sensodyne Complete toothpaste due to the possible presence of wood fragments in the products. The recall also applied to the company's Biotene brand of toothpaste. The recall was a precautionary measure based on a small number of complaints, and no injuries have been reported. The recall applies to products manufactured between 2013 and September 2014, and shipped from June 2013 to April 2015.",
"-26.92818842304405"
],
[
"extrinsic stain is present on the tooth surface. This suggests that tooth polishing should be based on the clients individual needs. Previously, tooth polishing was a service provided at every hygiene appointment, due to this many patients expect this as part of the routine care. This has placed dental professionals into an ethical dilemma on whether or not this service should be provided. Extrinsic Stain Many factors may lead to discoloration of the external layer of the tooth called the enamel. Foods and beverages such as coffee, tea, and red wine can stain the enamel. Chromogenic bacteria found in plaque",
"-26.8628178005456"
],
[
"This, in turn, can lead to destruction of the gingival tissues, which may progress to destruction of the periodontal attachment apparatus. The plaque accumulates in the small gaps between teeth, in the gingival grooves and in areas known as plaque traps: locations that serve to accumulate and maintain plaque. Examples of plaque traps include bulky and overhanging restorative margins, clasps of removable partial dentures and calculus (tartar) that forms on teeth. Although these accumulations may be tiny, the bacteria in them produce chemicals, such as degradative enzymes, and toxins, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS, otherwise known as endotoxin) or",
"-26.8310733094404"
],
[
"for its remineralizing effects on enamel, often repairing the tooth surface and reducing the risk of caries.\nThe use of fluoridated toothpaste is highly recommended by dental professionals; whereby studies suggest that the correct daily use of fluoride on the dentition of children has a high caries-preventive effect and therefore prevents has potential to prevent ECC. However, it is important to use fluoridated toothpastes correctly; children below the age of two do not usually require toothpaste unless they are already at a high risk of ECC as diagnosed by a dental professional, and therefore it is it is recommended to use",
"-26.814906605053693"
],
[
"professionals. Dental sealants have been shown to be more effective at preventing occlusal decay when compared to fluoride varnish applications.\nCalcium, as found in food such as milk and green vegetables, is often recommended to protect against dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent decay of a tooth by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel. Streptococcus mutans is the leading cause of tooth decay. Low concentration fluoride ions act as bacteriostatic therapeutic agent and high concentration fluoride ions are bactericidal. The incorporated fluorine makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and, thus, resistant to decay. Fluoride can be found in either topical or",
"-26.80573721375913"
],
[
"to correct crooked or excessively long teeth. The removed enamel is irreplaceable, and may sometimes expose dentin. It is also known as enameloplasty, odontoplasty, contouring, recontouring, slenderizing, stripping. This procedure offers fast results and can even be a substitute for braces under certain circumstances. Bonding Bonding is a process in which an enamel-like dental composite material is applied to a tooth's surface, sculpted into shape, hardened and then polished. An example of a bonding substance are inlays and onlays, which are used to repair decayed & cracked teeth. These are helped at those parts of teeth when a filling is",
"-26.726466307765804"
],
[
"of dentures, artificial teeth, impression trays, maxillofacial / orthodontic appliances and temporary (provisional) restorations, however they can not be used as tooth filling materials because they can lead to pulpitis and periodontitis as they may generate heat and acids during (setting) curing, and in addition they shrink. Failure of dental restorations Fillings have a finite lifespan; composites appear to have a higher failure rate than amalgam over five to seven years. How well people keep their teeth clean and avoid cavities is probably a more important factor than the material chosen for the restoration. Evaluation and regulation of",
"-26.709648907766677"
],
[
"introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. He asserted that sugar derivate acids like tartaric acid were responsible for dental decay, and also suggested that tumors surrounding the teeth and in the gums could appear in the later stages of tooth decay.\nFauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he discovered many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would follow the pattern",
"-26.625082368962467"
],
[
"materials to repair tooth decay and damage from osteoporosis.",
"-26.61700273148017"
],
[
"tooth structure, as well as in \"enamel sites beyond the height of contour\". For cosmetic purposes, composite is preferred when a restoration is required on an immediately visible portion of a tooth. Bonded amalgam Dental amalgam does not by itself bond to tooth structure. This was recognized as a shortcoming by early practitioners such as Baldwin. He recommended that the prepared cavity be coated with zinc phosphate cement just prior to filling with amalgam, in order to improve the seal and retention. The practice did not become universally accepted and eventually fell into disuse. Until the 1980s, most amalgam restorations",
"-26.567717358993832"
],
[
"bristled toothbrushes can damage tooth enamel and irritate gums as indicated by the American Dental Association. Toothbrushes are often made from synthetic fibers, although natural toothbrushes are also known in many parts of the world. Those with dentures may also brush their teeth with traditional tooth brushes, specially made denture brushes or denture cleaners. Toothpaste Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used to clean and improve the aesthetic appearance and health of teeth. It is almost always used in conjunction with a toothbrush. Toothpaste use can promote good oral hygiene: it can aid in the",
"-26.556970235949848"
],
[
"acids as by-products. The glucose produced from starch by salivary amylase, is also digested by the bacteria. When enough acid is produced so that the pH goes below 5.5, the acid dissolves carbonated hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel. The plaque can hold the acids in contact with the tooth for up to two hours, before it is neutralised by saliva. Once the plaque acid has been neutralised, the minerals can return from the plaque and saliva to the enamel surface.\nHowever, the capacity for remineralisation is limited, and if sugars enter the mouth too frequently a net loss of",
"-26.507013451016974"
],
[
"Dental pellicle The dental pellicle, or acquired pellicle, is a protein film that forms on the surface enamel by selective binding of glycoproteins from saliva that prevents continuous deposition of salivary calcium phosphate. It forms in seconds after a tooth is cleaned or after chewing. It protects the tooth from the acids produced by oral microorganisms after consuming carbohydrates. Plaque formation Plaque is a biofilm composed of several different kinds of bacteria and their products that develop over the enamel on a layer known as pellicle. The process of plaque formation takes several days to weeks and will cause the",
"-26.47813532067812"
],
[
"a tight seal between the internal structures of the tooth and the surrounding environment. Dental caries is caused by bacterial production of acid during their metabolic actions. The acid produced from this metabolism results in the breakdown of tooth enamel and subsequent inner structures of the tooth, if the disease is not intervened by a dental professional, or if the carious lesion does not arrest and/or the enamel re-mineralises by itself. Glass ionomer cements act as sealants when pits and fissures in the tooth occur and release fluoride to prevent further enamel demineralisation and promote remineralisation. Fluoride can also hinder",
"-26.457417381112464"
],
[
"visit is required to complete crown and bridge work, and the additional time required for the procedure can be a disadvantage; the increased benefits of such a restoration, however, will generally offset these considerations. Dimensions of preparation When preparing a tooth for a crown, the preparation should, ideally, exist entirely in enamel. As elaborated on below, the amount of tooth structure required to be removed will depend on the material(s) being used to restore the tooth. If the tooth is to be restored with a full gold crown, the restoration need only be .5 mm in thickness (as gold",
"-26.417455396040168"
],
[
"forces. Enamel fractures Some sources consider them to be of no clinical significance. However, they have been noted to be an important potential source of enamel fractures that arise after extended use or overloading. It appears that, although enamel easily starts to form the fracture defects of enamel tufts, they then enable enamel to resist the further progress of these fractures, ultimately preventing mechanical failure. This fracture resistance is why tooth enamel is three times stronger than its constituent hydroxyapatite crystallites that make up its enamel rods.\nEnamel tufts do not normally lead to enamel failure, due to these defects stabilizing",
"-26.338472354924306"
],
[
"Speirs, Neil found that the surface of tooth enamel is high in fluoride, a finding which never received the recognition it deserves, as it went unpublished in any dental journal. He also looked at the effects fluoride in water had on teeth, even going so far as to give himself tooth decay to show that it could be cured using fluoride. He lectured on the subject of water fluoridation across the world, becoming a key contributor to a controversial debate. During the Second World War, he served as a nutritional advisor to the government. Jenkins also acted as an associate",
"-26.310082434676588"
],
[
"citrate have been available since at least 2000. It is believed that potassium ions diffuse along the dentinal tubules to inactivate intradental nerves. However, as of 2000, this has not been confirmed in intact human teeth and the desensitizing mechanism of potassium-containing toothpastes remains uncertain. Since 2000, several trials have shown that potassium-containing toothpastes can be effective in reducing dentin hypersensitivity, although rinsing the mouth after brushing may reduce their efficacy.\nStudies have found that mouthwashes containing potassium salts and fluorides can reduce dentine hypersensitivity. A randomized clinical trial published in 2018 found promising results in controlling and reducing hypersensitivity when",
"-26.271844419301488"
],
[
"stains. Whitening toothpaste cannot alter the natural color of teeth or reverse discoloration by penetrating surface stains or decay. To remove surface stains, whitening toothpaste may include abrasives to gently polish the teeth or additives such as sodium tripolyphosphate to break down or dissolve stains. When used twice a day, whitening toothpaste typically takes two to four weeks to make teeth appear whiter. Whitening toothpaste is generally safe for daily use, but excessive use might damage tooth enamel. Teeth whitening gels represent an alternative. A recent systematic review in 2017 concluded that nearly all dentifrices that are specifically formulated for",
"-26.243322156369686"
],
[
"days. If teeth sensitivity is experienced after using a teeth whitening product, taking a break may help. Home treatment At-home treatments include desensitizing toothpastes or dentifrices, potassium salts, mouthwashes and chewing gums.\nA variety of toothpastes are marketed for dentin hypersensitivity, including compounds such as strontium chloride, strontium acetate, arginine, calcium carbonate, hydroxyapatite and calcium sodium phosphosilicate. Desensitizing chewing gums and mouthwashes are also marketed.\nPotassium-containing toothpastes are common; however, the mechanism by which they may reduce hypersensitivity is unclear. Animal research has demonstrated that potassium ions placed in deep dentin cavities cause nerve depolarization and prevent re-polarization. It is not known",
"-26.215623963507824"
],
[
"obtained by burning extracted teeth, destroying the potential infection-causing material within the tooth, resulting in tooth ash Tooth ash has been shown to promote bone repair. Although recent studies have shown that calcine tooth powder- culture media (CTP-CM) does not affect proliferation, they have shown that CTP-CM has significantly increased levels of osteo/odontogenic markers in DPSCs. Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) are similar to DPSCs in the sense that they are both derived from the dental pulp, but SHED are derived from baby teeth, whereas DPSCs are derived from",
"-26.127600614563562"
],
[
"eventually disintegrates into small clusters of epithelium and is reabsorbed. The dental lamina is first evidence of tooth development and begins at the sixth week in utero.\nThis is responsible for the cap like structure of the enamel organ. It is important to note that enamel is an ectodermal product as it is originally derived from ectoderm which is the outermost of the three germ layers of the forming embryo. The other two are: the mesoderm and the endoderm. It gives rise to the nervous system, sense organs, outer layer of the skin, teeth and the membrane lining the oral cavity",
"-26.1126784599619"
],
[
"In plaque, the cariogenic microorganisms are those that produce lactic acid as a by-product from fermentable carbohydrates. Examples of these fermentable carbohydrates include such as fructose, sucrose and glucose. Cariogenic bacteria thrive on these sugars and help them to weaken the adjacent tooth surface. A poor oral care routine and a diet that is high in fermentable carbohydrates favour acidic attack in the oral cavity. This prolonged acidic exposure allows the net loss of minerals from the tooth. This diminishes the strength of the tooth and is called demineralisation. For the outer layer of the tooth (enamel) to reach cavitation,",
"-26.09774888382526"
],
[
"months. This loss of bone volume, can cause a denture to be loose, or an inadequate amount of bone width to place an implant. Historically, alveolar preservation was used to provide a base to retain conventional dentures. Advances in osseointegration have expanded the need of the procedure to maintain ridge width and height for dental implant placement. In some cases, where a tooth requires removal when other teeth still need to erupt, socket preservation may be used to maintain bone for the formative tooth to erupt into. Risks and complications While there are no absolute contraindications to",
"-26.061389111637254"
],
[
"lactate to food. Calcium lactate added to toothpaste has reduced calculus formation. One study has shown that calcium lactate enhances enamel remineralization when added to xylitol-containing gum, but another study showed no additional remineralization benefit from calcium lactate or other calcium compounds in chewing-gum.\nOther studies indicated that the caries preventive effect of chewing sugar-free gum is related to the chewing process itself rather than being an effect of gum sweeteners or additives, such as polyols and carbamide. A study investigated the in situ effect of casein phosphopeptide–amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP–ACP) found that its incorporation into a sugar-free gum increases the",
"-25.98344197263941"
],
[
"Toothpaste Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it is an abrasive that aids in removing dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis, and delivers active ingredients (most commonly fluoride) to help prevent tooth decay (dental caries) and gum disease (gingivitis). Salt and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) are among materials that can be substituted for commercial toothpaste. Large amounts of swallowed toothpaste can be toxic. Ingredients In addition to 20%–42% water, toothpastes are derived from",
"-25.937215212950832"
],
[
"from the setting process. Indirect restorations In this technique the restoration is fabricated outside of the mouth using the dental impressions of the prepared tooth. Common indirect restorations include inlays and onlays, crowns, bridges, and veneers. Usually a dental technician fabricates the indirect restoration from records the dentist has provided. The finished restoration is usually bonded permanently with a dental cement. It is often done in two separate visits to the dentist. Common indirect restorations are done using gold or ceramics.\nWhile the indirect restoration is being prepared, a provisory/temporary restoration is sometimes used to cover the prepared tooth to help",
"-25.937141518224962"
],
[
"but often include baking soda, aloe, eucalyptus oil, myrrh, plant extract (strawberry extract), and essential oils. A systemic review in 2014 found insufficient evidence to determine whether the aloe vera herbal dentifrice can reduce plaque or improve gingival health, as the randomized studies were found to be flawed with high risk of bias.\nAccording to a study by the Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, many of the herbal toothpastes being sold in India were adulterated with nicotine.\nCharcoal has also been incorporated in toothpaste formulas; however, there is no evidence to determine its safety and effectiveness. Early toothpastes Since 5000",
"-25.927621861046646"
],
[
"demineralisation of teeth, and reversely increases opportunities for remineralisation. Diet Demineralization is caused by bacteria excreting acids as a product of their metabolism of carbohydrates. By reducing the intake frequency of carbohydrates in an individual's diet, remineralization is increased and demineralization is decreased. Diet control is an important aspect in promoting remineralization to occur naturally. A loss of the tooth enamel structure and cavitation may occur if the demineralization phase continues for a long period of time. This disturbance of demineralisation caused by the presence of fermentable carbohydrates continues until the saliva has returned to a normal pH and had",
"-25.876652855600696"
],
[
"Gary Kiracofe, a scrimshander in Nantucket, Massachusetts, advises collectors that if a piece looks dry, one should fill the center of the tooth with unscented baby oil and allow it to remain until as much oil as possible is soaked into the microscopic pores of the ivory. Clear paste wax or high-end car wax will seal the surface after oiling. Bone items are even more fragile (more fibrous and porous) and may be treated the same way: with a light clear mineral oil. Organic oils are inadvisable, as they will eventually hasten discoloration, as on old piano keys subjected to",
"-25.86767748813145"
],
[
"Temporary restoration Temporary restoration is a temporary filling of a prepared tooth until permanent restoration is carried out. It is used to cover the prepared part of the tooth, in order to maintain the occlusal space and the contact points, and insulation of the pulpal tissues and maintenance of the periodontal relationship. Sometimes permanent restoration is not done after tooth preparation; this may be to prepare for indirect restoration such as inlays and onlays. Temporary fillings are also used for 'stabilization' techniques where many restorations are needed, and the problem may become worse before it can be fully treated –",
"-25.852359643904492"
],
[
"restore the tooth back to full chewing function, require no periodic removal for cleaning, have a long life-expectancy and are aesthetically pleasing.",
"-25.85132926958613"
],
[
"teeth. Such stimulators help to increase circulation to the gum line and to clear away bacteria which might not be removed by brushing and flossing alone. Food and drink Foods that help muscles and bones also help teeth and gums. Vitamin C is necessary, for example, to prevent scurvy which manifests as serious gum disease.\nEating a balanced diet and limiting sugar intake can help prevent tooth decay and periodontal disease. The Fédération dentaire internationale (FDI World Dental Federation) has promoted foods such as raw vegetables, plain yogurt, cheese, or fruit as dentally beneficial—this has been echoed by the American",
"-25.82559420749749"
],
[
"tissue of which the dentin portion of the tooth is composed. The dental pulp helps complete formation of the secondary teeth (adult teeth) one to two years after eruption into the mouth. The dental pulp also nourishes and hydrates the tooth structure, making the tooth more resilient, less brittle and less prone to fracture from chewing hard foods. Additionally, the dental pulp provides a hot and cold sensory function. Variation Root canals presenting an oval cross-section are found in 50–70% of root canals. In addition, canals with a \"tear-shaped\" cross section are common when a single root contains two canals",
"-25.784997450886294"
],
[
"time of extraction. After removal of the tooth, the gum is elevated away from the bone, the socket is thoroughly cleansed, and antibiotic powder may be used. A barrier membrane is then fastened to the gum, the socket is packed with bone grafting material and the wound closed over the barrier membrane. Where the barrier membrane does not dissolve, it is removed approximately 30 days after placement, and the graft becomes incorporated into the healing bone between 3–9 months later. Material types Bone grafting materials can be divided into several categories. Autografts (bone harvested from",
"-25.718611840624362"
],
[
"scarcely time for the placement of adequate restorations. In the post-war years, children in Switzerland developed four carious teeth per year; frequently, the first permanent molars were extracted in 7 to 9-year olds for “prophylactic” reasons.\nDuring his years in the United States, Mühlemann had learned that caries incidence could be significantly reduced through fluoridation of the communal water supply. The assumption at that time was that fluoride by way of the blood vascular system would be incorporated into tooth substance during tooth development, and positively affect caries resistance. Mühlemann was able to demonstrate that fluoride was also effective when applied",
"-25.698026075027883"
],
[
"teeth, usually to remove sharp points or to balance out the mouth. However, the veterinarian must be careful not to take off too much of the surface, or there will not be enough roughened area on the tooth to allow it to properly tear apart food. Additionally, too much work on a tooth can cause thermal damage (which could lead to having to extract the tooth), or expose the sensitive interior of the tooth (pulp). A person without a veterinary degree who performs this service is called a horse floater or equine dental technician. In popular culture The common",
"-25.69337325892411"
],
[
"mineral fluorapatite. However, more recent studies showed no difference in the frequency of caries (cavities) between teeth that were pre-fluoridated to different degrees. Current thinking is that fluoride prevents cavities primarily by helping teeth that are in the very early stages of tooth decay.\nWhen teeth begin to decay from the acid produced by sugar-consuming bacteria, calcium is lost (demineralization). However, teeth have a limited ability to recover calcium if decay is not too far advanced (remineralization). Fluoride appears to reduce demineralization and increase remineralization. Also, there is some evidence that fluoride interferes with the bacteria that consume sugars in the",
"-25.688811762141995"
],
[
"stages of tooth decay.\nFauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he discovered many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone and those artificially-made dental pieces would be useful as the natural ones. One of this methods stated that the artificial teeth would be held in place by tying them to the remaining solid teeth by pivots, using waxed thread or gold wire. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would",
"-25.668395369088103"
],
[
"the cell fluid tries to move to the outside pressure environment and burst. Water with table salt in it is damaging to the knocked out teeth.\nSaliva, that is placing the tooth under the accident victim’s tongue or in the cheek, has been recommended. Saliva, as a storage media, causes twice damage as water. Its osmolality is very low, causing bursting of the tooth root cells, but additionally, because saliva is filled with its normal flora of microorganisms, it will severely infect the tooth root cells. When the tooth is replanted, not only will the cells be necrotic but they will",
"-25.667638290397008"
],
[
"tooth and the obliteration of the PDL, the protective regulators released by the PDL to protect the root from resorption are no longer present. This results in the tooth tissue being resorbed by osteoclasts and replaced with bone like it was part of the continuous homeostatic process of bone turnover. Transient inflammatory resorption Also known as external surface resorption. It is a self-limiting process and is a often and incidental radiographic finding. Transient inflammatory resorption undergoes healing and should be monitored only.\nIt is caused by localised and limited injury to root surface or surrounding tissues. There is 2–3 weeks",
"-25.65911946131382"
],
[
"teeth, exposed root surfaces and areas of demineralization. If polishing does occur on these surfaces, fluoride therapy can minimize the risk of dental caries. Excessive pressure can lead to frictional heat that may cause pulpal discomfort or necrosis of the dental pulp. Restorations Surfaces of restorations may be damaged by conventional tooth polishing with prophylactic paste. Materials such as gold, amalgam, composite, porcelain and titanium implants can be polished by using specifically designed pastes such as those that contain rouge, tripoli, cuttle, emery, coarse pumice to prevent roughened or scratched surfaces. It is important to refer to manufacturer’s directions before",
"-25.6210754338681"
],
[
"because sometimes decay can be difficult to diagnose without tactile verification. Additionally, radiographs and other products designed to identify decay (such as measuring fluorescence from a laser) help the dental professional make a final diagnosis of tooth decay.\nThere are various types of explorers, though the most common one is the No. 23 explorer, which is also known as a \"shepherd's hook\". Other types include the 3CH (also known as \"cowhorn\" or \"pigtail\") and No. 17 explorers, which are useful for the interproximal areas between teeth.",
"-25.596282792306738"
],
[
"plaque removal effect\nthan toothpastes without it.\nSodium bicarbonate is also used as an ingredient in some mouthwashes. It has anticaries and abrasive properties. It works as a mechanical cleanser on the teeth and gums, neutralizes the production of acid in the mouth, and also acts as an antiseptic to help prevent infections. Sodium bicarbonate in combination with other ingredients can be used to make a dry or wet deodorant. Sodium bicarbonate may be used as a buffering agent, combined with table salt, when creating a solution for nasal irrigation.\nIt is used in eye hygiene to treat blepharitis. This is done by",
"-25.580759285396198"
],
[
"eliminated from the oral cavity. In general, the more effective one's brushing, flossing, and other oral homecare practices, the less plaque will accumulate on the teeth.\nHowever, if, after 24 hours in the oral environment, biofilm remains undisturbed by brushing or flossing, it begins to absorb the mineral content of saliva. Through this absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the saliva, oral biofilm is transformed from the soft, easily removable form into a hard substance known as calculus. Commonly known as 'tartar', calculus provides a base for new layers of plaque biofilm to settle on and builds up over time. Calculus",
"-25.565269614220597"
],
[
"Debridement (dental) Description Dental debridement is a procedure by which plaque and calculus (tartar) that have accumulated on the teeth is removed. Debridement may be performed in the process of personal or professional teeth cleaning. Professional debridement techniques include the use of ultrasonic instruments (which fracture the calculus, thereby facilitating its removal), as well as the use of hand tools, including periodontal scaler and curettes. Debridement may also be performed using saline solution. Procedures Periodontal Pockets\nA periodontal pocket is formed from a disease process; it is defined as the apical extension of the gingiva, resulting in detachment of the",
"-25.55978761962615"
],
[
"especially loss of guanine.\nThe dental plaque biofilm can result in the disease dental caries if it is allowed to develop over time. An ecologic shift away from balanced populations within the dental biofilm is driven by certain (cariogenic) microbiological populations beginning to dominate when the environment favours them. The shift to an acidogenic, aciduric, and cariogenic microbiological population develops and is maintained by frequent consumption of fermentable dietary carbohydrate. The resulting activity shift in the biofilm (and resulting acid production within the biofilm, at the tooth surface) is associated with an imbalance between demineralization and remineralisation leading to net mineral",
"-25.503122575348243"
],
[
"Biotene Regular The main active ingredient in its toothpastes is sodium monofluorophosphate, and prior to the GlaxoSmithKline acquisition it also contained enzymes including glucose oxidase, lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase and lysozyme. PBF The PBF ORAL RINSE (plaque biofilm) product contains the enzymes mutanase, dextranase, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, and glucose oxidase. Benefits People with xerostomia (dry mouth) may use Biotène to reduce the rate of recurrence of dental plaque. However, Biotene by itself does not significantly reduce the count of Streptococcus mutans which is the primary initiator of the formation of dental plaque.\nBiotène relieves symptoms of dry mouth by providing moisture. Dry mouth",
"-25.473944981233217"
],
[
"restored with a regular filling, either composite or amalgam, or a stainless steel crown. Due to the process of a pulpotomy causing the tooth to become slightly brittle, a stainless steel crown is normally indicated as the preferred choice of definitive restoration.\nA pulpotomy can be done to both permanent and primary teeth. Partial Pulpotomy for Carious Exposures In some cases, radicular pulp (pulp within the root of a tooth) may remain healthy despite carious exposure of the pulp chamber. In cases where root formation is incomplete (as during adolescent years), a partial pulpotomy may keep radicular pulp vital long enough",
"-25.472182704659645"
]
] |
8qvyb2 | I would have a difficult time describing my wife's face even though I see it every day. How can someone describe the face of a criminal suspect they only saw for a moment? | [
"Actually [eyewitness testimony]( URL_0 ) isn't all that reliable. > Mistaken or flawed identification has assumed a newfound prominence in recent years: It's been cited as a factor in nearly 78 percent of the nation's first 130 convictions later overturned by DNA testing, according to the New York-based Innocence Project, which works to free the wrongly convicted. As a result, a number of researchers are turning their attention to helping police departments and juries better understand the circumstances under which eyewitnesses observe crimes and later identify a suspect",
"Eyewitness testimony is bullshit. Obligatory psych 101 anecdote: guy came in to class claiming to be from the bursar's office, looking for a student. Prof says he isn't here, then goes in to side room to set up a video. On the way out, guy takes prof's phone off of table. Lots of murmuring by class, did that just happen, was that prof's phone, wtf, who was that, etc. Prof says it was, but will call police after class and starts the video. Video is actually a presentation, first slide is about 8 mugshots, and we have to identify the guy who took her phone. Whole scenario was set up by her to show how unreliable memory is, especially for unexpected situations. Hardly anyone got the face right, or details such as clothing color, physical appearance, what fake student he was looking for, etc. Really eye opening considering how much our justice system relies on witnesses.",
"I think OP was saying he couldn't DESCRIBE his wife's face, not that he couldn't pull it up. I can absolutely remember what my Mom looks like, I can see her face in my \"minds eye\". I'd have absolutely no idea how to describe her.",
"There’s social pressure to describe a criminal to the police, but if I ask you to describe your wife to me I’m no-one and so there’s no pressure. I’m betting if she went missing and you needed to describe her to someone drawing a sketch you’d be able to. On a side note our memories are massively fallible. And it’s very normal not to be able to describe a face you see every day.",
"Sometimes, you just can't. Some people are really good with faces, and some are really bad with them, but a face is the easiest way to describe a person so they can be identified by others. That said, negative stimulus is more effective at creating a memory than positive ones, and sketch artists break down the face into parts to try and get a full picture. They'll ask about whether the jaw was square or round or pointed without worrying about the lips, then ask about the thickness of the lips without worrying about the jaw.",
"I can pull up the picture of some one in my brain, but my question and I think OP's is, how would you describe the face you are seeing in your mind so and artist knows the correct way to draw it on paper. For example what kinds of words would you use?",
"Here's an excerpt from a security guard sample/examination report I wrote: > Subject was a male roughly between 16-30 years of age, of average height and average body type. Had brown hair was short near the ears, perhaps curled or wavy, eye color dark, thin eyebrows, light pale complexion, no facial marks or features, has a sharp chin and profile, and may or may not have ear accessories. Things are broken down top-to-bottom and leaving most of the more distinguishing and unclear features to the end. Everything should be written down in points before submitting the report and then formatted to make some sense but if something is unknown given an approximation. I haven't ever had any of my reports go to court but I have done a settlement outside of court with my report infront of lawyers and my technique and what I was taught works well enough that I don't have to stay more than a hour most times. This is more generic rather than precise and I've never had to deal with any professional sketch artists or anything like that. But I imagine that a lot of examples and sketch lines are used to create multiple profiles that get fitted for more detailed parts.",
"It's more about vocabulary than memory. Try to describe a particular house to someone without knowing the right words to describe the features and you run into the same problem. If you know the difference between a ranch and a dutch colonial and a craftsmen - you're going to be much more accurate than if you're trying to describe the shape of the roof in your own words. If I show you pictures of those houses you can say \"Oh, it was like this one, but with bigger windows. And the door was in the middle instead of off to the edge.\" And... now you have a decent idea what the house looked like. So when an artist of any kind is trying to draw an image based on a description, the first thing they need to do is teach some vocabulary, either verbally or visually. \"Okay, here are 5 kinds of nose. Which one is closest. Now... we call this part the bridge. Was the bridge higher like this... or lower like that?\" etc. So the answer to your question is that you don't have the anatomical knowledge to describe your wife's face, which is why you have trouble. When a witness gives a good and useful description of a subject, it's usually because they were interviewed by someone who DID have the anatomical knowledge required to get a good description out of that witness.",
"Cop here: Generally, police will ask for basic descriptors on-scene. Sex, race, height, weight, clothing, hair, facial hair, etc. In the event that you're asked to help with a composite sketch (which is rare and only done in specific circumstances), you'll be put with a professional who will walk you through it. These days, it'll probably be a computer program. They'll ask you for a face shape, and give you several pre-set options. They'll then ask you what the mouth looks like, and give you different mouths to choose from. At the end, you have a portrait built. It's not intended to be a 100% accurate depiction- it's intended to be a reference."
] | [
[
"looking at her and smiling. The police, informed a few days later, monitored the building entrance. They noticed a man matching the facial composite. They questioned him, and he claimed that he is a marginal resident in a home near Wendy. The authorities printed on one sheet six anthropometric photos: that of the suspect, and those of five men resembling him. They went to Wendy's house and asked her if she could recognize her attacker among the pictures. She referred to Waxin's photo, who was not considered a suspect. Interlocated, the investigators asked her again and said its him. For",
"-30.126057755638612"
],
[
"The Woman With Four Faces Plot A woman who happens to be both a thief and a con artist cannot be arrested because she is faceless.",
"-30.009010946465423"
],
[
"canvasses\".\nAmerican film actress and dancer Louise Brooks: \"Sternberg, with his detachment, could look at a woman and say 'this is beautiful about her and I'll leave it ... and this is ugly about her and I'll eliminate it'. Take away the bad and leave what is beautiful so she's complete ... He was the greatest director of women that ever, ever was\".\nAmerican actor Edward Arnold: \"It may be true that [von Sternberg] is a destroyer of whatever egotism an actor possesses, and that he crushes the individuality of those he directs in pictures ... the first days filming Crime and",
"-29.407977691240376"
],
[
"\"suspicious\" looking individuals. The process for determining who was a potential suspect was the \"Facial Action Coding System\" which is a system to taxonomize human facial movements by their appearance on the face, based on a system originally developed by a Swedish anatomist named Carl-Herman Hjortsjö. It was later adopted by Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, and published in 1978. However, in a situation in which not only law enforcement, but also the general public are anxious, and assiduous, the potential for Othello errors to creep into the real world is high. In a review of these practices by",
"-29.17034024046734"
],
[
"appearance of a person stands out amongst the otherwise indistinctive crowd, then an eyewitness is more likely to select that person regardless of their own recollection of the criminal. According to Schuster (2007), the suspect, if he is in the in person lineup or in a picture lineup, should not stand out from the others in the lineup. People's eyes are drawn to what is different. If you make sure that all the men or women in the pictures have a similar appearance, have the same background in their picture, race, age, and are wearing the same or similar clothing,",
"-29.122985331370728"
],
[
"a very beautiful woman is asking for a ride. The cabbie then looks behind and sees the woman's face was full of blood and bruises, causing him to abandon his taxi in terror.\nIn other instances, it is said that when solitary people drive on that street in the early morning, they briefly see the face of a white-clad woman in the rear-view mirror before she quickly disappears. Some accidents on this road are blamed on apparitions of the White Lady.\nMany sources have said this legend was actually manufactured by a reporter in the 1950s, and also a possible combination of",
"-28.97254412707116"
],
[
"members of his own family. He was a young man of fine attainments, a profound scholar, and a musician of rare ability. His figure was remarkable for its grace, and his face – that is to say, his natural face – was that of an Antinous. But upon the back of his head was another face, that of a beautiful girl, \"lovely as a dream, hideous as a devil.\" The female face was a mere mask, \"occupying only a small portion of the posterior part of the skull, yet exhibiting every sign of intelligence, of a malignant sort, however.\" It would be",
"-28.619505478753126"
],
[
"the man was \"about 5 feet, 9 inches tall, weighing about 170 pounds, about 35 years old, and dressed in a light-colored fedora and a dark overcoat\". Due to the lack of light he could not make out this person's facial features. When the police showed him a photo of 18-year-old Heirens on July 11, he could not identify him as the man he saw. On July 16, during a hearing, he pointed to Heirens and said \"That's the man I saw!\" when he was brought into a courtroom and made the identification in person. The Chicago press stated that",
"-28.600389046572673"
],
[
"saleswoman and antiquities dealer. One witness said that she overheard the woman talking to a man in German in a Bergen hotel. Others who met her mentioned she also spoke Flemish and broken English and smelt of garlic. People who saw or met her also commented that she wore wigs. \nComposite sketches, based on witness descriptions and analysis of her body, were then circulated in many countries via Interpol. Despite the significant police resources deployed, the unknown woman was never identified and the case was quickly closed. While authorities concluded that she had committed suicide by ingestion of sleeping pills,",
"-28.171476038522087"
],
[
"images were publicized so that someone who knew the young woman in life could recognize her. Posters were distributed in Arizona with this image. Her DNA was also processed by the agency to establish a profile.\nIn 2011, further advances in technology enabled a partial DNA profile of a potential perpetrator to be generated from evidence collected from the victim's body at the crime scene. The profile matched that of William \"Bill\" Ross Knight, who had become known in the 1980s for spree robberies. In 1987 he was known to have used a .22 caliber pistol in one robbery, which was",
"-28.16378108804929"
],
[
"been dubbed the \"Badge Man\" as it seems to resemble a uniformed police officer wearing a badge. Others claim to see Gordon Arnold, a man who claimed to have filmed the assassination from that area, a man in a construction hard hat, and a hatted man behind the stockade fence.\nMoorman stated she heard a shot as the limousine passed her, then heard another two shots, \"pow pow,\" when the president's head exploded. She stated that she could not determine where the shots came from, and that she saw no one in the area that appeared to have possibly been the",
"-28.128960820788052"
],
[
"positively identified; no known photograph with her in frame captured her face because in all cases she was either facing away from the camera, or (as in the case of the Zapruder film) had her face obscured by her own camera. Beverly Oliver's claim In 1970, a woman named Beverly Oliver told conspiracy researcher Gary Shaw at a church revival meeting in Joshua, Texas, that she was the Babushka Lady. Oliver stated that she filmed the assassination with a Super 8 film Yashica and that she turned the undeveloped film over to two men who identified themselves to her as",
"-28.110942154566146"
],
[
"look of surprise on her face, and it is then made to look as if she lay in water. The next morning (as the song states), several people assist in arresting the male character in regard to her disappearance.\nWhile in the interrogation room, he is shown a white cloth, which the sheriff identifies as the item used to strangle Mary. He then denies that he and Mary were romantically involved, and the sheriff asks if Marx was jealous. At this point, the video reveals a larger picture of the protagonist's childhood: that after his mother's affair, his father leaves her",
"-28.092831143192598"
],
[
"women a voice for others to hear. He intends these messages to discourage other boys and girls from committing crimes and ending up in prison. Portraiture Yousef Khanfar has also captured the portraits of many influential figures including Sandra Day O'Connor and Emma Nicholson, Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne. Justice O'Connor has also praised Khanfar's portraiture work, stating that she was \"stunned and overcome with the beauty of your photograph\". Other notable portraits include that of David Wynne, Leona Mitchell, and Tariq Ramadan.",
"-28.092292030603858"
],
[
"\"in the face of rape, mutilation and murder\". As Mulvey argues, the female character \"exists only to be looked at.\" When female audiences gaze upon the screen and when the women on the screen are involved in the gaze, they see \"a distorted reflection of\" their own image. \"The monster is thus a particularly insidious form of the many mirrors patriarchal structure of seeing hold up to the woman.\" Linda William believes that the woman's gaze is \"so threatening to male power, it is violently punished.\" The female gaze Mary Ann Doane suggests that a woman can only actively participate",
"-27.987755571346497"
],
[
"man Another \"figure\" that has been the subject of conspiracy is the so-called \"black dog man\" figure who can be seen at the corner of a retaining wall in the Willis and Betzner photo of the assassination. In an interview, Marilyn Sitzman told Josiah Thompson that she saw a young black couple who were eating lunch and drinking Cokes on a bench behind the retaining wall and, therefore, it is possible that the \"black dog man\" figure is actually the black woman and her child. If so, the woman has never come forward to identify herself.\nIn The Killing of A",
"-27.965411332435906"
],
[
"Portrait of an Unknown Woman (film) Synopsis A potential scandal breaks out when an artists adds the head of the wife of a diplomat to a nude painting he is working on.",
"-27.922235484875273"
],
[
"\"You mean you can't fix her up enough so I could just get one picture of her?\" Sternly informed a second time he would not be allowed to view the body, the young man had wordlessly exited the funeral home.\nThe receptionist could not offer any clear description of the man beyond that he was a handsome young white male with dark hair, that he had driven a blue-grey Chevrolet, and that he had not been carrying a camera. Subsequent murders Almost one year later, on July 5, 1968, the partially decomposed, mutilated body of a 20-year-old art student named Joan",
"-27.901959171664203"
],
[
"attempt to defend herself. Her nails were all broken, and this seemed to indicate that her killer's face had been raked. She had been manually strangled, with the killer using one hand to throttle her, and her hands had been tied and lower clothing removed. The murder case quickly became national news, and Derbyshire police allocated 60 officers to try and track down her killer. Detective Superintendent Peter Burgess took a prominent part in the case.\nThe police initially looked without success at the film in Susan's camera to see if it could reveal any clues about her attacker. One of",
"-27.8473289446556"
],
[
"picture is still in its original frame.\nThe sitter has elegance and some delicate, fine, facial features-notable her shaven or plucked eyebrow and cheekbones, but she is not beautiful. Writer Jill Condra described her as \"harsh\" looking with a \"serious\" forehead. The woman has a distinctive nose, and seems to be flat chested, while her lower lip protrudes over the upper. However, she has an elongated, dignified neck, and attractive orange hair which lively spills to her shoulders, though the hair falling on her back may be false, a fashionable adornment. She wears pearls on her head and around her neck",
"-27.80828195059439"
],
[
"central characters. A \"crime scene\" is constructed and pictures of the \"body\" are taken and presented as crime scene photos. Sometimes all or part of an interview with a suspect or witness will be filmed and released along with the transcript of the interview. Actors can also play other roles such as television news anchors that report on the cases.\nThe site also has a web store that sells crime scene supplies, something which has garnered its own share of controversy over the years, with some people complaining that there isn't any reason why members of the public should have access",
"-27.797942662698915"
],
[
"woman, wife of a convict, on the bank of an isolated London reservoir, while also tracing a vanished employee of the Metropolitan Water Board. The politics within the CID interrupt his search, and he and a friend do some night skin diving on their own, with the happiest results. The title is a phrase from Hamlet III, 2,74.",
"-27.688448970744503"
],
[
"that the enemy is “near” and influential. In spite of so many complicated deceptive leads, he grows suspicious of the credibility of the photograph of the killer woman. The fact that the residence of the killer yielded no female fingerprints and there is an unidentified male fingerprint in the same apartment reveals to him that the photograph was a decoy. The killer is a male and the police kept chasing someone who isn't there. They learn the whereabouts of him, by strategic publicizing of a generated photograph of the man. They also apprehend the killer's accomplice. But, close to capturing",
"-27.621323778672377"
],
[
"\"you need some loving.\" She tells the officer that this man was the one who attacked her.\nPolice find a small blue book in Marilyn Miller's apartment, which they trace to a 28-year-old man with a criminal record named James Stone. The book was a notebook used and carried around by Stone. Stone is subsequently arrested; at his residence, police find clothing matching Miller's description of what the attacker wore. The police show Miss Miller a series of photographs, one of which is Stone's, asking if she can identify her attacker. Miller states that she thinks",
"-27.61116027754906"
],
[
"The Man with My Face (film) Plot The film is set in Puerto Rico, where Charles \"Chick\" Graham (Nelson) has settled down after the war to run a small business with his old army buddy (now his brother-in-law) Buster Cox (Harvey). Graham comes home one evening to find his wife, Cora (Ainley), acting as if he is an insane stranger.\nA man who looks exactly like him, Albert \"Bert\" Rand (Nelson), has taken his place and is playing cards and drinking in his living room. Neither Cora nor Buster—not even Graham's dog—recognizes Graham; they think that he, rather than Rand, is",
"-27.585500076049357"
],
[
"Believing her son had committed the murders, she called a police tip line and told police of her suspicion, based on her son's behavior and his resemblance to the composite sketch. She also showed police the labels of cardboard boxes used during her move to Medford with Acremant. Police matched the address labels to those on the boxes used to cover the women's bodies.\nShe later told The Oregonian, \"I called the police because I have to look God in the face. I will do anything in my power to make sure other people aren't hurt. But right now, he's sick.\"\nPolice",
"-27.571725708636222"
],
[
"packing tape. Some of her hair had been cut off. An autopsy revealed that she had been beaten and sexually assaulted before being asphyxiated. According to forensic psychologist Dr. Stephanie Stolinsky, the killer \"tried to dehumanize her completely. ... Whenever you hide someone's face, it means that you don't want to see them as a human being. You want to pretend that they're just an object\".\nThe murder case of Imette St. Guillen was handled by the Special Victims Squad of the NYPD. Arrest Darryl Littlejohn, one of two bouncers at The Falls where St. Guillen was seen the night she",
"-27.52381562287337"
],
[
"unable to remember any details about the woman, other than a large, flashy hat that she was wearing on the evening that they had spent together. In addition to that, no one who saw Henderson and the woman together is willing to admit to the police that they had seen the two together. Eventually, Henderson and his assistant, Carol, decide to begin their own investigation. They tour all throughout New York City to ultimately reveal that the murderer was Henderson's close friend, Marlowe.",
"-27.490533755364595"
],
[
"the photograph of Stone is her attacker, but wants to see him in person to be sure. A police officer then takes her to James Stone's arraignment, where he is escorted before the judge in the courtroom. Upon seeing James Stone, Marilyn Miller confirms that he was the one who attacked her.\nJames Stone admits that he was the one said \"you need some loving\" to Marilyn Miller at Rocco's the previous night, but he denies that he raped her, and insists that he lost his blue book at the bar. James Stone's friends, Thomas Mitchell and Edward",
"-27.461659670370864"
],
[
"found only in February 1998. A witness claimed to have seen the woman go into the car of a man. A good quality facial composite was created, but the police said that did not have evidence of a murder, and needed to investigate further.\nNemeskéri also owed money to his half-brother, Zsolt, who had previously loaned two million forints to his brother and had been asking him for repayment for a long time. Gusztáv was unable to return it, so his half-brother filed a lawsuit against him. The trial was scheduled for April 8, 1999 by the court. On April 7,",
"-27.379861102468567"
],
[
"The Lady in the Morgue Plot summary Throughout the novel the true identity of the young, attractive woman found hanging dripping wet from a rope in her hotel room remains a mystery. Neither her clothes nor the conspicuous lack of any shoes provides the police with any clue as to what has happened, and they assume the woman has committed suicide. At the same time a young woman from a prominent New York family goes missing, but when the stolen body is retrieved by Crane her relatives assert that these are not her human remains. Only in the final pages",
"-27.34537174765137"
],
[
"of the case:—\n\"I am not a woman who kills. Everything in my past life protests against such an accusation. All my works radiate with proof that I am a creatress. Being that, I cannot destroy.\" These were the words from Madame Bessarabo, suspected murderess of her first husband and confessed assassin of the second one.\nWhen a police investigator came upon an abandoned trunk at a railway station, as was the case with the trunk consigned by Hera Mirtel to Nancy; when, moreover, he espies blood trickling through the bottom onto the cement floor of the baggage room; and when on",
"-27.288534454841283"
],
[
"at Sarah's door, asking to use the telephone to call for help. Sarah lies that her husband is sleeping and she does not want to be disturbed, but the woman tells her that she knows that he is dead. When the visitor persists on coming in, Sarah, a professional photographer, attempts to take her photo through a window and telephones the police. When they arrive, the woman has already vanished. The police assure Sarah that she will be fine, but arrange to have a patrol car visit throughout the night.\nUpon developing her photos, Sarah recognizes the woman in the",
"-27.247558366376325"
],
[
"gun from her handbag and shoots him. 'I didn't mean to do that,' Nan remarks a moment later as David Slade falls to the floor with a bullet in his shoulder. 'Why, that's all right, Nan,' responds her husband-to-be. 'It's nothing.'\" [...] \"It is in the prison scenes that the film provides some interesting drama. 'Ladies They Talk About' is effective when it is describing the behavior of the prisoners, the variety of their misdemeanors, their positions in the social whirl outside, their ingenuity in giving an intimate domestic touch to the prison, and their frequently picturesque way of exhibiting",
"-27.223380854140487"
],
[
"Her Husband's Betrayal Synopsis A woman is suspicious of her husband, spies on him, and discovers that he committed a murder and framed her.",
"-27.221010098694023"
],
[
"been sold on 6 October 1979, which was found beneath the body. Police believe the woman was murdered but have never revealed how she died.\nAlthough the location was near to the entrance to Scawton Moor House Farm, a popular family picnic area, the body was so well concealed that it was highly improbable that it could have been discovered by accident. The anonymous caller became a suspect in the murder, but his identity was never established. Description of the victim In life, the woman was 5 feet 4 inches (1.63 m) tall. She had dark brown hair with a length of around 4-6",
"-27.193026745517273"
],
[
"come to a sudden stop.\nThe deputy explained to the man that there had been a report of a fight between the man and the young woman, and asked the man if he had any identification on him. The man protested that he had no reason to provide identification, and became ill-tempered when the deputy continued to press him for his identification. The man then asked the deputy what crime he was being accused of, as the deputy continued his requests for identification, stating that he was \"conducting an investigation\". The man persisted in his refusal to provide identification, asking instead",
"-27.180199119611643"
],
[
"of capturing the likeness and 'realness' of a person especially as seen in the hands. \"Everyone has a best angle, though, and my job is to analyze what these angles are. if posed properly, a person can be made a handsome figure. A person is entitled to this.\" - Wills. \nAdditional portraits include successful individuals such as golfer Ben Hogan, Indianapolis 500 Speedway owner Anton Hulman Jr., Detroit Tigers Baseball Club owner Walter Briggs, Jr., Philip Wrigley of Wrigley Gum Company, Clark Hungerford, railroad executive and Bessie Mae Pederson (wife of Roy Pederson) of Houston, Texas\nHe did not work by",
"-27.027973995922366"
],
[
"Cabrera was standing at her usual corner with a colleague at around 4:30 on the morning of 27 January 2004. She was approached by a client and walked toward him, away from her colleague. The colleague never saw the man's face and didn't recognize him. From behind, he appeared to be tall and thin, in light shorts. Cabrera and the client left together to go to her home.\nShe was found dead from a shot in the back of the neck. The investigation determined that the muzzle of the gun had been pushed against her neck and the gun was partially",
"-27.026499916159082"
],
[
"The Face (Koontz novel) Plot summary The main plot of the story follows Ethan Truman, an ex-cop who now works as the head of security for the most famous actor in Hollywood, Channing Manheim, a.k.a. \"The Face.\" Ethan is trying to track down the sender of several gruesome \"messages\" that were received in black boxes. Ethan now has six black boxes to figure out what the contents of the boxes mean. After chasing down leads and tracking the \"ghost\" of his dead friend Duncan \"Dunny\" Whistler (technically, Dunny is not a ghost, as he came back to life in",
"-27.024929581442848"
],
[
"the real woman had been killed. After going over the clues she had and looking at what evidence she had already uncovered and seeing Grace again, she realized that she had been suspecting the wrong person of murder all along. Who would have thought sweet, believable, weary, frightened Grace would have been a serial killer? Blanche White She is the central character on Blanche on the Lam. She is a black woman, who is a housekeeper and cook, on the run from a jail term for a minor offense. She hides out as a domestic worker for a",
"-27.01987213466782"
],
[
"is caught in the act by an unidentified man. He then bludgeons the man with a claw hammer and flees with the Bald Guy's money and photos. Upon returning to his flat, he finds that the photos are innocuous modeling shots.\nConfronting the Blonde, the Young Man learns that she and Cobb have been working together to manipulate him into mimicking Cobb's burglary methods. She tells him that Cobb had recently discovered a murdered woman's body during one of his burglaries and is attempting to deflect suspicion from himself by making it appear as though multiple burglars share his MO.\nThe Young",
"-26.99794575353735"
],
[
"her name on it and hightails it out of there.\nUnfortunately, she gets the wrong pictures. She has stolen plans for a new highway development that ends up in the hands of her estranged husband Vernon (Jeff Bridges), a handsome, wise-mouthed bum who owns a bar called the Blue Bonnet which no one goes to and that's not the worst of it. He's fooling around with a former Pecan Queen who works for the Lone Star Brewing company (Glenne Headly). He sees a way to make a bundle of money in all this.\nShady real estate kingpin Buford Pope (Rip",
"-26.982660922625655"
],
[
"indicating that she may have been a victim of rape prior to death. Investigation According to residents of the area, there were many \"suspicious people\" in the vicinity of the oil field where the body was discovered and some referred to the location as a \"killing ground.\"\nBecause of the condition of the body, the face was reconstructed three times—with clay, in a sketch by a forensic artist, and in January 2014, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children released a digital composite image produced from a CT scan after the remains were exhumed on October 2, 2013.\nDespite comparison with",
"-26.980694750876864"
],
[
"The Likeness Plot summary The story follows the efforts of detective Cassie Maddox to determine the circumstances surrounding the death of Lexie Madison, a young woman who is her doppelgänger. The dead woman not only resembles Cassie but also was living under an alias the detective used in an earlier undercover assignment. A senior police officer, Frank Mackey, convinces Cassie to impersonate the dead woman to investigate her death and to discover who she really was.\nAs the investigation proceeds, Cassie becomes consumed by her impersonation of the murder victim. She forms deep bonds with the dead girl’s four housemates, who",
"-26.968825244206528"
],
[
"in the whole place know who I am and be crackin' people upside the head with chairs and think nothin' gonna happen? That's crazy! And what kind of a man would I be to hit a girl in the head with a damn chair? I rather have 'em say I hit a man with a chair, not no damn woman.\n They waited eight months to try Iverson as an adult, and the lead detective lied on the stand about telling Iverson \"to take pictures\" when he went down to the courthouse. The count initially said that Iverson maimed three people",
"-26.93179193037213"
],
[
"she was found wearing. Claudina's father pressures investigators to actively pursue the case, but is repeatedly told that the case has been passed from one investigator to another.\nThis case and others in the film, like that of an unidentified woman found naked in a dry riverbed, showcase the pervasiveness of the murder of women in Guatemala, and point to numerous reasons that these murders are almost never solved. Witnesses and the family members of victims interviewed in the film speak on camera reluctantly and only as a last resort, and explain that they fear retaliation from the murderers, who are",
"-26.915072155592497"
],
[
"women that resemble her. On one such occasion he ends up becoming a witness to a woman's kidnapping. The man rescues her and in gratitude, the woman urges him to meet her one night. Unknown to him, the woman and her friends are all vampires who are being hunted by Van Helsing himself. Re-Membered A dirty cop (Christopher Darga) has been asked to serve as a hitman for a man's murder, which he does. He dismembers the body and stows it in his trunk for later disposal, but is shocked when he begins to find evidence that his victim is",
"-26.913854214566527"
],
[
"the three adult males, a car mirror showing blood spatters and a body in the car's back seat, and crosses nailed to trees. Others are more obvious, such as one of the men beginning to light a fire made up of several crucifixes. Eventually the photo reveals two additional people in the background, two priests holding a shotgun that appears to be ready to fire upon the group. As the short concludes it becomes apparent that the woman is not there of her own volition—her expression having become horrified in the most recent examination—and the film ends with the revelation",
"-26.911010025884025"
],
[
"deduces that she looks like she \"jumped off a cliff,\" although there are no cliffs nearby. The woman turns out to be someone Hoover knew very well, Allison Pond (Jennifer Connelly).\nThe detectives receive a film of Allison having sex in a motel room, taken by a secretly hidden camera behind a two-way mirror. Allison's friend Jimmy Fields (Andrew McCarthy) admits to making this film and more, including one with Hoover in it. Fields is murdered while being guarded by Hall and Relyea.\nRadioactive glass is found in Allison's foot, which leads the detectives to the Nevada Test Site, where they illegally",
"-26.90444444428431"
],
[
"leading the masked figure by a rope which binds his wrists, all the while carrying his brief case. The dilapidated doorway to the house is shown to have the number \"1334\" laid out in small bones at the top, otherwise adorned with dominoes, a crucifix, caution tape, a glove, a knife, and various photographs of someone's arms and head being bound.\nAs the camera zooms onto the door frame, the scene cuts to the victimized masked man's arms being tied with gauze tape, and then finally at the bottom of the doorway a box of dominoes opens up to reveal a",
"-26.893330412713112"
],
[
"Watson!\" he says, which amuses Lestrade. But Holmes refuses Lestrade's request: \"my sympathies are with the criminals, and I will not handle the case.\"\nLater, Holmes recognises the face of the woman who killed Milverton. He shows Watson her photograph displayed in a shop-window among those of other celebrities. Watson recognises the name of her famous husband, but Holmes signals silence with a finger to his lips. Watson assures his readers that the killer in question is beyond the reach of the law [i.e deceased] and that certain details have been disguised to hurt no one. Adaptations The story, along with",
"-26.87232007898274"
],
[
"catches sight of the wife, alive and unharmed, in a limo. He learns that his client was killed in an \"accident,\" and discovers the truth: the couple were talking about killing the woman's husband, and the murder Caul witnessed was actually that of his client and not the wife. Caul gets a phone call from his client's assistant, who tells him not to look any further into the matter, and says, \"We'll be listening to you.\" Caul goes on a frantic search for a listening device, tearing up his apartment to no avail. He sits amid the wreckage, playing the",
"-26.85712012439035"
],
[
"neck. Her hair was still tied in a ponytail with the same band and hairclips that she had been wearing when she disappeared. There was no evidence of a sexual assault, but the absence of her jacket and boots and the position of her underwear were among forensic evidence indicating a sexual motive. Police called in former SAS tracker \"Jungle Eddie\" McGee, who had helped track down murderer Barry Prudom in 1982, to identify the killer's most probable route through the woodland.\nThe state of decomposition of Tiernan's body led some forensic experts to believe that after her death she had",
"-26.849355049052974"
],
[
"but mentions \"patches on her face\" and in his picture her face is seen to be pock-marked. She went by a number of aliases: Bird, Howard, Blewitt and Trent are among those ascribed to her, although Mother Bird was also the name of another brothel-keeper who was committed to Newgate Prison with Needham in 1724. Needham was apparently ruthless with the girls and women who worked for her. They were forced to hire their dresses from her, and, if they were unable to pay the exorbitant rentals, she would force them to take more customers or have them committed to",
"-26.791232358843445"
],
[
"to his face. He also engages by telephone with Jesús Franco, Katja Bienert, Peter Martell, and David Hess, playing fictionalized versions of themselves.\nAfter a while he contacts a woman, Franziska (Alexandra Dumas), who read his advertisement in the supermarket, and meets him at his house. When he tells her what he is supposed to do in his film, the woman becomes scared. The man overwhelms the woman and kills her by strangling her with a telephone cord and beating her head. Afterwards he films himself as he is sexually aroused by her corpse. He cuts her nipples off in graphic",
"-26.786325188179035"
],
[
"our persona, and the actress and the woman are identified with that persona. People thought of me as being like her. And that was the unfortunate reality for me about this project.\n— Faye Dunaway Film, television, and theatre, 1982–1999 In 1982, Dunaway appeared in a television adaptation of Clifford Odets's dramatic play The Country Girl as the wife of a washed-up alcoholic singer played by Dick Van Dyke, whom she later described as \"one of the sweetest and funniest men in the world\", but admitted \"Though it was a valiant effort on all our parts, and there were moments I thought",
"-26.778655266040005"
],
[
"police found the naked dead body of a woman lying on a bed with cuts and bruises to her head. She was identified as Sally White, 38, a prostitute who had been living in London.\nForensic pathologist Freddy Patel subsequently concluded that White had died of a heart attack, in spite of the circumstances. Patel later came under scrutiny for this and other findings in his career, including the 2009 death of Ian Tomlinson, resulting in a suspension from the government's register of pathologists pending an inquiry. In 2012, his name was erased from the medical register by the General Medical",
"-26.764987849252066"
],
[
"approximately five feet four inches to five feet six inches (168 cm) tall, with a weight of 130 to 140 pounds (59 to 64 kg). She had a slight overbite and had some fillings in her teeth, showing that she had dental care in life. Her fingernails had pink polish. Because she had light brown to blond hair with red highlights, her case was thought to be possibly related to the Redhead murders. \nAuthorities hoped in late April 1985 that they would identify her body through fingerprints but were unsuccessful. Six missing women were ruled out as possible identities of the victim.\nShe was not",
"-26.70306062756572"
],
[
"men while Trump reported that he was unable to see them clearly. Police recovered unidentified fingerprints on and inside Heitholt's car as well as an unidentified hair in his hand. Police also recovered footprints in the blood at the crime scene. Ornt gave police a description of the men and a composite sketch was made.\nThe crime had been unsolved for two years when, in October 2003, local media again covered the murder. Erickson reportedly had several dreams about the crime after seeing an article in a newspaper and, a few days later, mentioned the murder to Ferguson asking him if",
"-26.662636087072315"
],
[
"see that a therapist facility connects the culprits of your cases.\n\"Discover the shocking truth behind the murder of a familiar face.\"\nYou work with Catherine Willows and Riley Adams.",
"-26.659096031013178"
],
[
"identified by Tina Gabler in a lineup, he denies ever having seen the woman. When he is visited by his girlfriend at the Colorado State Prison, he admits to her that charges are being brought against him for multiple murders but stresses the fact that there is no evidence, however, and that he will never be convicted; at this point she distances herself from him. Due to his wish to defend himself, he is granted access to the courthouse law library, and promptly escapes by jumping from an upper story window. He is jailed again after an auto theft, but",
"-26.647460143938588"
],
[
"separates from the outfit, and heads to the town of San Juan alone to try and locate the woman in the photograph.\nHe returns to the Inn where he previously stayed, to find to his surprise his friend and colleague Michael Crane. Crane has left the London newspaper, and arrived in Spain some months ago. With Crane's help, they track down the woman in the photograph, Eulelia Monti. Chase meets with Eulelia Monti, who he finds is Caveda's mistress, though is not in love with him. Meanwhile, Crane sees a man leave the building who he believes is Caveda and tracks",
"-26.63844180406886"
],
[
"following us and several family members several weeks before I was attacked. My husband also received a number of threats before I was attacked. The whole police had one agenda from Day One, and that was to get my husband.\" During her testimony, Sherrie Rossi wore a shirt with two doll figures labeled \"Rich\" and \"Sherrie\" and flashed the American Sign Language sign for love at her husband Richard. \nOver Rossi's wife's objections, prosecutors charged him with attempted murder and won a court ruling admitting her earlier testimony at trial. The parties argued whether the blood-soaked interior of",
"-26.616150666261092"
],
[
"woman's story has been corroborated by Andrew Thompson, a former Henderson Police officer, who picked up the witness after she was interviewed by detectives investigating the death of Deane Fuller-Sandys and drove her to the airport. Thompson said she told him during the drive that she and the other woman had lied to detectives about being present when the alleged murder took place. Tim McKinnel who has been looking into the case told the NZ Herald he believed Thompson's account because it was consistent with other information he has. Officer convicted of drug dealing Detective senior sergeant Mark Franklin smoked",
"-26.615137945045717"
],
[
"Once Over Nightly Plot A public relations man finds his picture in the newspaper with a curvaceous model wearing only his account's product.",
"-26.60108718011179"
],
[
"recognition from those who may have seen the victim in life, a composite drawing of the woman was created by a forensic artist from the Orange County Police Department. Despite these efforts the woman remained unidentified, and her death gradually became a cold case. Identification In May 2015, the Dana Point Jane Doe was formally identified as Holly Jo Glynn. This formal identification occurred after several high school friends of Holly's from Whittier, having been unable to regain contact with Holly via social media or any other conventional means of contact for several years, reported their suspicions to both the",
"-26.589756700210273"
],
[
"recognizes as being of the dead woman he saw the night before. Richie denies knowledge of her whereabouts. He calls Bill, who tells him to come in at 1:30 AM to discuss the situation.\nAs a favor to Richie, Gideon allows Maggie the use of his lawyer, Bruce Warham (Richard Schiff), who informs Maggie that in the public's eyes, she is a mistress, due to her having sexual relations to a married man, despite having been assaulted.\nRichie tells Sophia about flip books he made growing up about a character called \"Sophia\". He brings Sophia to his former apartment in a downtrodden",
"-26.588578447510372"
],
[
"whose physical features were not clear on the video. Investigators were disheartened to find that the best video capture of this subject, in three separate snapshots, was obscured by the complex fencing, the posts aligning to conceal the face. One journalist called the suspect \"The luckiest person of interest ever\". The FBI was called in to help determine the person's size and gender, but could only say that the person stood between 5'3\" and 5'5\". NASA also enhanced the video to help identify the suspect. Detectives interpreted the valuables left inside the car to imply that robbery was not a",
"-26.582102160231443"
],
[
"important personalities in their films. The list includes G.W. Abbe, Justus D. Barnes, Frank H. Crane, Irene Crane, Marie Eline, Violet Heming, Martin J. Faust, Thomas Fortune, George Middleton, Grace Moore, John W. Noble, Anna Rosemond, Mrs. George Walters. In one scene, the appearance of the wife was described as being facilitated by \"trick printing\", and was possibly created by a double exposure. Bowers notes that the sister was listed as the wife in the official synopsis, but it is unlikely that such a distinction in cast roles was ever made in the inter-titles due to the confusion. Bowers stated",
"-26.50845391167968"
],
[
"and in their thirties. One man had a beard; the other was clean-shaven with light colored (\"fair\") hair. The police had models of the suspects created in clay to assist the investigation. Initial investigations Later that year, a man in a bar in Greenwood bragged that he had been involved in the killings. Police subsequently questioned him, but he passed a polygraph claiming not to have been involved and officers were unable to bring charges on other grounds. The man provided the names of others whom he suggested belonged to a fast-food robbery gang, and whom investigators suspected may have",
"-26.50732016490656"
],
[
"with exactly the same face, who claims to be Nisha's husband.\nNow, Sher Singh can neither confess to being a bigamist nor sit silently, as a stranger stays with his wife Nisha. Meanwhile, he is implicated in a murder as well. Finally, it turns out that Vicky is not actually dead, as presumed, and has undergone facial reconstruction to have the same face as Sher Singh. After a lot of slapstick, all ends well.",
"-26.49009420159564"
],
[
"after she discovers Cross' body in his bathtub. When Jessie asks Incanto about her mother's whereabouts, he denies seeing her. However, Jessie smells her mother's perfume in Incanto's apartment and calls the police. When they arrive, Incanto is gone, but his computer gives a list of women he has been in contact with. After trying to contact each woman in the given list, only two are unreachable, one being Kaminsky.\nAfter Incanto comes to Kaminsky's apartment, she recognizes his facial composite distributed by the FBI. The agents arrive but after Mulder leaves in pursuit of who he believes to be Incanto,",
"-26.483936762356734"
],
[
"is reinforced by examining the details of a number of assaults on women since 1969 which, in some ways, clearly fall into the established pattern of Sutcliffe's overall modus operandi. I hasten to add that I feel sure that the senior police officers in the areas concerned are also mindful of this possibility but, in order to ensure full account is taken of all the information available, I have arranged for an effective liaison to take place.\nPolice identified a number of attacks which matched Sutcliffe's modus operandi and tried to question the killer, but he was never charged with other",
"-26.48065050612786"
],
[
"body A woman's body was found on 27 March 1975. It was quickly confirmed to be that of Sophia Weckert, after a Townsville dentist was able to identify her through dental x-rays.\nSophia Weckert's body was found near Kennedy Creek, approximately 30 kilometers north of where her husband had been shot dead. The person who found her body was a local Sarina man, who had stopped on the highway due to car trouble. At the time of discovery, her body was face down, and was lying at a distance of fifty meters from the highway. Police said they believed that she",
"-26.474612484511454"
],
[
"man suspected of kidnapping and killing several young women, shot himself in a confrontation with the police at a gas station in New Hampshire. Borsos remembers, “it seemed as though there were about 500 reporters in the office, and everybody was going insane.”\nIn order to prepare for the role, Kurt Russell followed around veteran Herald crime reporter Edna Buchanan and photographer Tim Chapman. At first, he couldn’t figure out \"how they justify what they do. But I found out that these are very caring people. They may be callous about how they do their jobs, but they're not callous about",
"-26.457096351892687"
],
[
"Murders. Common characteristics are her hair color, reddish or strawberry-blond, and being found along a highway. She was identified by a couple from Florida, who had allowed her to stay with them for a period of time. Nichols may have been murdered after leaving a truck stop along the highway and may have attempted to hitchhike. Tina Farmer On January 1, 1985, the bound body of a woman was found near Jellico, Tennessee, in Campbell County, down an embankment off the southbound side of Interstate 75. The body was in an advanced state of decomposition. The victim was estimated to",
"-26.449973868046072"
],
[
"up. She had refused to move or change her phone number in hopes that her daughter might return or try to contact her. Lyle Stevik In September 2001, a man was found to have hanged himself in a motel in Amanda Park, Washington, a town on the Olympic Peninsula. The man had checked in as \"Lyle Stevik,\" which appeared to be an alias. This name appeared drawn from \"Lyle Stevick\", a character in a Joyce Carol Oates's novel You Must Remember This (1987). \nThe Grays Harbor County Sheriff's Office spent countless hours in search of the man's true identity, but",
"-26.448009972795262"
],
[
"The Woman Under Cover Plot As described in a film magazine, Yvonne (La Rue), an actress, murders her husband following a quarrel, and upon threat of exposure promises to marry Billy (Spingler), a chorus man who has discovered her guilt. When she refuses to carry out her agreement and accepts the attentions of a wealthy broker, Billy (Spingler) tells his story to The Leader, a newspaper. Mac (McDaniel), the city editor, assigns Alma (Brunette), a woman reporter, the task of securing Yvonne's confession to verify the story that was given to the newspaper. She is a sister of Billy but",
"-26.444509702996584"
],
[
"where the face is dissected. Mohinder bumps a closet door, and what he finds is astonishing: a room lit by a string of light bulbs and a map identical to his father's, but with more pins stuck in and yarn links. However, going further in, he finds a more astounding sight. Painted up in red letters are the words \"Forgive Me.\" In smaller letters, all over the rough cement wall are written, \"I have sinned\", over and over. When they return to the apartment with the police, however, the apartment has been cleaned out, with no evidence to support Mohinder's",
"-26.43114775126014"
],
[
"sleeping in the photographer's bed, he develops the photographs only to find that each one has two faces: Tomie's face and a ghoul's face nearby. Convinced it is not his lens, he tells Tomie this and she tells him to kill her to prove she is not a ghost. If she was a ghost, she could not die. Naturally, she does die, but when the photographer is transporting her body in his car she comes back to life and scares him out of the car. His running takes him to the place where he saw the girl from his past,",
"-26.422768044001714"
],
[
"with many powerful men in Hollywood, making them suspects and the case a media frenzy. One of these men, multi-millionaire Richard Cross, whose mistress Julie Costello is Jessica's older sister, is arrested after the police have a security video of Richard in the building at the time of the murder. Ted is hired and quickly has the charges against Richard dismissed for lack of evidence.\nThe next suspect is Neil Avedon who begs Ted to defend him. The state has a vast amount of evidence against him: Neil's fingerprints were found all over the crime scene; his DNA was found inside",
"-26.41899987362558"
],
[
"her murderer was and approached her husband \"in the loving hope that he would be able to see her, smiling and consciously beautiful\". But the murderer, plagued by guilt, noticed only the strangulation marks he had left on her throat.\nAs Jack Sullivan pointed out, Bierce's story \"achieves an almost mind-numbing complexity by emerging from three fragmented points of view\". The truth can be deduced only from the combination of three accounts, because \"each of the characters is missing some vital element of the picture\".",
"-26.41661555808969"
],
[
"the red-haired woman appears taking pictures of the scenes and interrogates an officer to reveal information. During the use of the ability, Graham discovers one of the bodies is still alive.\nGraham returns to therapy with Lecter, who states that Hobbs may not be a problem for him and claims that maybe the killer wants a \"connection\". Their meeting is recorded by the red-haired woman, who is Lecter's next appointment. Despite using a false identity, Lecter correctly guesses that she is Freddie Lounds, a tabloid blogger. He then finds she recorded Graham's meeting with him and makes her delete the conversation.",
"-26.400447526597418"
],
[
"initially interviewed and had denied any connection with the offence, but later admitted his curiosity about seeing a woman naked.\nIn court, Smith admitted that there had been a family cover-up, with his brother supporting the claim that he had been at home at the time of the murder, and his mother saying that the scratches on his face had been caused by the family cat. The police had, in fact, questioned Smith earlier in the investigation over these scratches. In his summing up, Mr. Justice Caulfield was in little doubt about the enormity of the crime. He said that Susan",
"-26.381404868792742"
],
[
"The Man with My Face The Man with My Face is a 1948 mystery novel by Samuel W. Taylor that was the basis for the 1951 film of the same title. It was first serialized in Liberty magazine. Taylor wrote the screenplay for the film with others, including Edward Montagne.",
"-26.35585034484393"
],
[
"her husband in the night!\" While the police initially believe the young woman to be intoxicated, they eventually visit the boarding house to find that a young, married man has been stabbed in the back with a knife.\nThe police immediately begin an inspection of the scene of the crime. The lodgers of the boarding house are interviewed, all of whom prove to be eccentric, however, during the interviews, the young constable and his fellow officers become increasingly suspicious of Mr. Deluc, a smarmy cigar agent, who had made repeated amorous advances towards Mrs. Zebedee. Unfortunately, this suspicion is",
"-26.343718521049595"
],
[
"he saw a newspaper article on the case and realized the woman looked a lot like Judy. Discovery of body Jeffrey hired two other private investigators to look for his wife, and faxed and mailed copies of his wife's missing person flier to hospitals all over the country, asking them to look for her. Eventually those efforts helped locate her before the end of the year. However, she was not alive.\nOn September 7, 1997, a father and son hunting for deer out of season on a hillside in an area of North Carolina's Pisgah National Forest found what appeared to",
"-26.342297146366036"
],
[
"pretending to be the wife so that no one would know she was murdered, and everyone would believe that she perished in the house fire. The forensic linguists were able to figure this out by studying the husband's texting style, spelling errors, and more, and were able to come to the conclusion that the texts sent after the wife was thought to be deceased, was actually the husband texting off her phone pretending to be her. Without this knowledge, it would have been much more difficult to convict the husband of murder and get justice for the family. Linguistic fingerprinting",
"-26.33536895890211"
],
[
"all, including the media. It is there that they may take still or moving images of the defendant, and often ask questions of him or her. In high-profile cases, with major media interest, such as a crime which has received considerable public attention or in which the defendant is a celebrity, measures such as barricades or extra uniformed officers will be present to ensure there is space to get the defendant and escorting officers into the building. \"You naturally assume you're seeing a barbaric mob wreaking random havoc,\" writes New York Times columnist John Tierney of such scenes. \"But that's",
"-26.308504500651907"
],
[
"that he can tuck it up and give it the appearance of being short; small whiskers on the chin, redish color; small blue eyes, and have rather a glassy appearance; high, broad cheek bones. This man (MASON) lived at Fort Tejon about the year of '59 or '60, and says that he killed 1 man at that place; and says that his name is John J. MONROE. MASON is light complexion; front teeth are black or decayed; wearing new boots; blue overalls; check shirt; hat made of Cayote skin with tail standing in front; 1 6-shooter and butcher knife.\" Criminal",
"-26.307121281646687"
],
[
"decided her manner was too calm for a person who had experienced such a traumatic event. She also made a number of statements that both police and hospital workers considered highly inappropriate.\nSuspicions heightened when Downs, upon arrival at the hospital to visit her children, phoned Robert Knickerbocker, a married man and former coworker in Arizona with whom she had been having an extramarital affair. The forensic evidence did not match her story; there was no blood spatter on the driver's side of the car, nor was there any gunpowder residue on the driver's door or on the interior door panel.",
"-26.307041816675337"
],
[
"she had been killed elsewhere and left on the road after her death. They concluded this because her bare feet were clean, showing no indication of her having walked on dirt, and because Interstate 75 is just five miles (8 km) away, making the site a convenient and discreet nearby drop-off spot. Police and the media later speculated that she may have been a teenage runaway or a possible victim of a serial killer, who murdered multiple sex workers in the region during the 1980s and 1990s. But the scene and her body showed no signs of sexual assault, rape or",
"-26.291434392896917"
],
[
"of photography, thrown in them. The evidence later indicated Ida Place died from asphyxiation. Martha Place was hospitalized and arrested. Trial Place proclaimed her innocence while awaiting trial. One contemporary newspaper report described the defendant in this way:\nShe is rather tall and spare, with a pale, sharp face. Her nose is long and pointed, her chin sharp and prominent, her lips thin and her forehead retreating. There is something about her face that reminds one of a rat's, and the bright but changeless eyes somehow strengthen the impression.\nMartha Place was found guilty of the murder of her stepdaughter Ida and",
"-26.279754059389234"
],
[
"the following two nights, Thursday 3 May and Friday 4 May. The individual, who was believed to be male, was described as being 5ft tall, of medium build with a longish face and high cheekbones. Their face was clean shaven and they had long, dark hair hanging over their forehead. The person was wearing a light-coloured double breasted mackintosh fastened with a belt and grey trousers. The bicycle, which looked fairly new, was a light-blue racing bike with drop handlebars and white mudguards.\nNo arrests were ever made in connection with the murder. Subsequent investigations One weekend in February 1983, an",
"-26.277441645244835"
],
[
"evidence that they were doctored. By closely examining the photos, he finds the face of an old man as well as the shadow of the kidnapper, who appears to be abnormally tall.\nScully, finding a construction company referenced at both crime scenes, investigates the possible lead, meeting Gerry Schnauz (Pruitt Taylor Vince), who worked near both scenes of the kidnapping. Schnauz, who is wearing stilts that make him very tall, attempts to flee, but Scully pursues and arrests him. The agents interrogate Schnauz, who was once institutionalized for beating his father with an axe handle in retaliation for the abuse",
"-26.274453629828713"
],
[
"the picture is responsible for everything, and determines she is a jinniyah, or a female jinn. Mulder goes to the Stokes residence and asks Leslie to hand her over, presuming her to be kept in a box. It turns out, however, that she is not in the box, but is within the rug that Stokes found back in the storage facility, where Mulder also finds pictures of the jinniyah next to Benito Mussolini in the 1930s and next to Richard Nixon in the 1960s, two men that had a lot of power and lost it in a bad way.\nLeslie takes",
"-26.269818569504423"
],
[
"officer in charge of the investigation (Bhagyaraj) flips through the picture files of the deceased, Kannan's (Madhavan — the 2nd) face is shown, and the witness jumps. He tells the police he doesn't need to sketch anything when the face of the main murderer itself is staring them in the eye — he points to the photo of Kannan - it is the face of Shakti, only this one has light eyes. Investigations into the murder lead the police to Chennai. As luck would have it, Shakti is spotted, recognized, and arrested. Kannan, on the other hand, follows the murder investigation and",
"-26.25960384836071"
],
[
"be with him\". \"The man in my face showed me a big star affixed to his wallet that glinted in the sunlight. The lunch-hour crowd milled around us.\" She told them she needed to consult with her lawyer. The two agents on the sidewalk left without arresting her or telling her what was going to happen next. They did tell her that Jack Hock was in federal custody and he had requested that she never try to contact him again.\nShe immediately returned to her apartment and started to destroy all evidence of her crimes, discarding in public trash cans more",
"-26.237404130137293"
],
[
"women under the pretext of possible job opportunities. He obtained their contact details, and would later phone the victim, claiming to have secured them a job interview. Agreeing to meet on a specific date, he would ambush the victim in an isolated place, where he would rape, rob and kill them. In some instances, he used a plastic toy gun to force them into submission. He also confessed to murdering the women so they couldn't identify him later on. Taking into account all the charges against him, Justice John Hlope gave him seven life sentences, as well as an additional",
"-26.222857178076083"
]
] |
4vyy5z | Why does it feel almost required to sleep with our eyes closed? What does closing our eyes do that promotes the act of falling asleep? | [
"There are two things at work that would make it a good idea for your body to close its eyes for sleep. The first being that during the day we are constantly blinking to lubricate and moisten our eyes. At night, keeping your eyes closed protects them from drying out and getting irritation and from building up mucus in the eye ducts. The second has to do with a chemical known as melatonin. Melatonin is dependent upon the light and dark rhythms around your body. When it is nighttime and the light around you begins to disappear, your body begins to produce melatonin which is a signal to your brain that it is time to sleep. The darker it is, the more melatonin your body will produce. Once it lightens again, your body stops producing melatonin and it signals your brain again that it is time to awaken. It is best for your body to close its eyes so that they can sense as little light as possible, produce more melatonin and thereby convince your brain to sleep.",
"Keeping them hydrated, and allowing [R.E.M.]( URL_0 ) sleep. Also, the blank slate helps to draw focus from reality, in order to allow the sandman to sweep the blur across your mind's eye. Some people sleep with their eyes open; my friend Macias bunked next to me in boot camp, and any time I woke up in the night and looked over, he would just stare at the ceiling. After two nights of wondering why he was ignoring me, I finally asked him and he burst out laughing. He forgot he did this, and had no idea I was talking to him. We started having fun with that for the remainder of our time there. TL;DR: Eyes dry out, and need to be in a dormant state to allow the brain to sleep. They shut off when not being used.",
"1) closed eyes block light reducing stimulation to your brain. Reduction of data feeding into the brain facilitates the drop in consciousness 2) keeps eyes from drying out 3) keeps stuff from touching your eyeballs while you sleep. If you scratch your butt and touch your pillow then rub your eyeball on the pillow, you could get pink eye. Just sayin...",
"Ooh! I'll add to this something I have been wondering for 4.5 years now... as an adult, when I lay down in bed to go to sleep, I close my eyes right away. My kids, however, keep their eyes open until the moment they fall asleep and have since infancy. Is that just that they are fighting sleep? Is it that they fall asleep in minutes and I take 30+ minutes? Have they been faking being asleep the second they close their eyes for 4 years and I haven't noticed?",
"The same reason we like quiet and a comfortable temperature when we sleep... reduced sensory stimulation",
"Melatonin build-up is what promotes sleep. It allows the brain to enter into it's sleep cycles. Melatonin is broken up, through a series of reactions, when light hits the back of your eye, therefore darkness = sleepyness, then eventually sleep source: Medical School",
"The pineal gland is stimulated by Darkness so when you close your eyes, and obviously not always, the pineal gland begins to secrete melatonin. That is what induces sleep. Closing your eyes protects them from dehydration and debris.",
"No all of us sleep with our eyes closed. I start out that way, but at some point in my death slumber my eye lids roll back...Major Payne style. My wife threw water on me one night when we first started dating, she thought I was dead (we had been drinking).",
"For people who don't close their eyes when they sleep do their eye's roll back ? How exactly does it work are the pupils dilated? Because if they were wouldn't it damage the fovea ?",
"If closing the eyes is helpful for sleeping for a number of reasons why do some people (my son) sleep with their eyes open and is it in any way detrimental?",
"It further decreases ability of incoming light to get to the back of the eye(retina) and go to the areas of the brain that send message to the pineal gland that amps up melatonin production making you sleepier. Also i read somewhere that light is an acute stressor that literally raises stress hormones especially if close up. Any form of stress is not conducive to sleep. That is why the natural circadian rhythm has stress lowest at night and highest in the morning to wake you up. On the topic of decreased sympathetic nervous system output rate, you wont feel the need to blink and keep dust out of your eyes. Also the lacrminal gland (lubrication) and the many muscles that control the eye get the message to turn down sharply(work mcuh less).",
"I used to sleep with my eyes open as a kid, scared the shit outta my mom a couple of times.",
"Closing our eyes helps reduce sensory input, and protects the eyes. If you think of your eyes as a visual input, and compare it with others... like hearing, feeling, smelling. Then it's easier to understand why it's important to limit these inputs to the brain. Just try sleeping with a loud concert playing in your ears, somebody poking you, or a nasty foul odor in the air. Makes it significantly harder to sleep, but possible. There are people that can still sleep with their eyes open. It's a matter of training, and it's almost a meditative rest more than a full and deep sleep. However, most of us are trained or conditioned into feeling like eyes closed means shutting down or sleeping. How often do we close our eyes for anything else after all.",
"I actually end up sleeping with my eyes open. I close them when I'm trying to sleep but I inevitably open them through the night. My whole family does. One problem that I have run into because of this, is my eye will dry out and I will get a corneal abrasion. These hurt like hell and not the most fun to wake up to.",
"Your eyes require a LOT of energy and consequently, bloodflow. By weight they consume almost 8x more energy than any other tissues in the body! Shutting them down while sleeping allows for tissues to rest, regenerate, and rebuild the wear and tear of the day.",
"Can someone answer why I can only sleep with the light on and with consistent noise in the background? It seems to be a bad way to sleep but I've done it my whole life and its the only way I can sleep.",
"How do we choose to go to sleep? Like, at the end of the day, I may feel relaxed but not necessarily exhausted to the point of passing out. I just lay down, lie still, close my eyes and let my thoughts drift. Next thing I know, the alarm is going off. What about lower animals, like cats or dogs. Do they just consciously lay down their heads and close their eyes waiting for unconsciousness to sweep over them like us?",
"i would presume by having your eyes open you are being presented with visual stimulus , thus your brain has to concentrate on what you're seeing. By the brain having to decipher what your eyes are looking it, it can't rest or go into an unconscious state. So we find it easier to close our eyes and usually sleep in silence as it means our brains aren't working as hard at trying to interpret stimuli, making it easier to rest",
"For the same reason that it's easier to fall asleep in a dark room than a light room, or it being easier to sleep without having had caffeine recently. Less stimulus for the brain.",
"TL;DR It's so your brain can better recuperate due to the sensory receptor being hindered.",
"Why can't we close just one eye and get \"half a sleep\" when needed?"
] | [
[
"spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to",
"-29.34370787977241"
],
[
"inability to fall asleep and experience marked decrease in sleep efficiency. There may also be some changes in circadian rhythms. Studies are ongoing about what causes these changes and how they may be reduced to ensure comfortable sleep of old adults. Brain activity during sleep Understanding the activity of different parts of the brain during sleep can give a clue to the functions of sleep. It has been observed that mental activity is present during all stages of sleep, though from different regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular understanding, the brain never completely shuts down during sleep. Also,",
"-29.163881422718987"
],
[
"person may lay on the floor face up and eyes closed for several seconds to several hours in some cases.\nPeople who have experienced the phenomenon report different degrees of awareness ranging from total consciousness to complete unconsciousness. They also report feelings of peace and relaxation. While lying down, they may speak in tongues, laugh, weep or speak praises to God. According to anthropologist Thomas Csordas:\nIn Charismatic ritual life, resting in the Spirit can serve the purposes of demonstrating divine power; of exhibiting the faith of those who are \"open\" to such power; of allowing a person to be close to,",
"-28.614408202352934"
],
[
"On Dreams Content Aristotle explains that during sleep there is an absence of external sensory stimulation. While sleeping with our eyes closed, the eyes are unable to see, and so in this respect we perceive nothing while asleep. He compares hallucinations to dreams, saying \"...the faculty by which, in waking hours, we are subject to illusion when affected by disease, is identical with that which produces illusory effects in sleep.\" When awake and perceiving, to see or hear something incorrectly only occurs when one actually sees or hears something, thinking it to be something else. But in sleep, if it",
"-28.45664764661342"
],
[
"the start of an activity that requires concentration, establishing a deliberate objective to remain focused, such as \"I am going to let my mind be steady.\"\n• Remaining awake and alert to the environment - the brain cannot pay attention when sleep-deprived. For example, sitting up in a straight posture helps as this sends information to the reticular formation, which is involved in consciousness, telling it to stay vigilant to environmental stimuli. Another technique is taking deep breaths. This increases oxygen in the brain, which keeps it awake.\n• Silencing the mind. When the mind is silenced, there are fewer things to",
"-28.30746019099024"
],
[
"exacerbated by smoky environments, dust and air conditioning and by our natural tendency to reduce our blink rate when concentrating. Purposefully blinking, especially during computer use and resting tired eyes are basic steps that can be taken to minimise discomfort. Rubbing one's eyes can irritate them further, so should be avoided. Conditions such as blepharitis can often co-exist and paying particular attention to cleaning the eyelids morning and night with mild soaps and warm compresses can improve both conditions. Environmental control Dry, drafty environments and those with smoke and dust should be avoided. This includes avoiding hair dryers, heaters, air",
"-27.9860777806025"
],
[
"quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time",
"-27.85310311417561"
],
[
"in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their",
"-27.23828823189251"
],
[
" A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The",
"-26.647933672124054"
],
[
"In fact, the vestibular system is not necessary at all to maintain standing balance unless information from the other two systems becomes inadequate.\nKeeping one foot flat on the ground while trying to sleep is one popular self-treatment for people whose dizziness is exacerbated by lying down with eyes closed. There is no direct scientific evidence to support this treatment, however it is consistent with studies showing that postural balance responses to high and low speed tilts are primarily driven by force and velocity receptors in the muscles with relatively little input from the vestibular system.\nOne way to mask the symptoms",
"-26.523165489546955"
],
[
"also our browsing - also when we are not conscious about it.",
"-26.463092632009648"
],
[
"as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.\nParadoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method",
"-26.28502283443231"
],
[
"is almost completely attenuated, allowing the tongue and soft palate/oropharynx to relax, and in the case of sleep apnea, to impede the flow of air to a degree ranging from light snoring to complete collapse. In the cases where airflow is reduced to a degree where blood oxygen levels fall, or the physical exertion to breathe is too great, neurological mechanisms trigger a sudden interruption of sleep, called a neurological arousal. These arousals rarely result in complete awakening but can have a significant negative effect on the restorative quality of sleep. In significant cases of OSA, one consequence",
"-26.28220311010955"
],
[
"attempting to sleep, it is a good idea to create a comfortable sleeping environment by eliminating daytime noise and light.",
"-26.271593115117867"
],
[
"vents, direct air from a fan). Therapy Asthenopic (eye strain) symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS. Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Observations from persons experiencing chronic eye strain have shown that most people who claim to be getting enough sleep are actually not. This, unaware to them, causes the eye strain to build up over a period of time, when if they had obtained seven to eight hours of uninterrupted sleep, their eye muscles would have recovered during the sleep and the",
"-25.996281926287338"
],
[
"any other safety-critical activity), may not be because natural sleep rarely overcomes an ordinary person without warning.\nIn many countries, it is presumed that someone who is less than fully conscious cannot give consent to anything. This can be relevant in cases of sexual behavior, euthanasia or patients giving informed consent with regard to starting or stopping a treatment.",
"-25.99169727906701"
],
[
"there are no chest movements and no muscular struggling, although when awakening occurs in the middle of a pause, the inability to immediately operate the breathing muscles often results in cognitive struggle accompanied by a feeling of panic exacerbated by the feeling associated with excessive blood CO₂ levels. Even in severe cases of central sleep apnea, however, the effects almost always result in pauses that make breathing irregular rather than cause the total cessation of breathing over the medium term. After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster and/or more intense (hyperpnea) for a period of time,",
"-25.984563630307093"
],
[
"between tasks and default brain states, and also distinguishes between background and foreground processing. Being awake allows the person to not only be aware of themselves and the world, but also to have conscious motor coordination and understand the difference between need and want that comes from secondary consciousness. Difference between sleep and dream There is a difference between being just asleep and in a state of mind called dreaming. Sleeping can be described as the lack of conscious awareness of the outside world, meaning large portions of the brain that receive and interpret signals are deactivated during this time,",
"-25.977950949629303"
],
[
"while sitting with the eyes closed. The technique has been described as both religious and non-religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism, and as a non-religious practice for self-development.\nSri Chinmoy, an athlete and flautist, advocated meditation both for silent sitting and for use when running, performing music or making artworks, as described in his book 222 Meditation Techniques. He also made use of mantric singing. Modern Denominational Yoga Modern Denominational Yoga is a form of yoga centred around Neo-Hindu gurus; each school places emphasis on its own teachings, and provides its own belief system",
"-25.95002762065269"
],
[
"that can produce stress and mental health issues. Relaxation may help reduce insomnia in those who have sleeping disorders. Those with insomnia may even give up sleeping aids just by practicing relaxation techniques. Being off of unnecessary medication or sleep aids will help health as an over all. Even though relaxation cannot get rid of chronic diseases, it may help dull of the symptoms one may have. Many cancer and AIDS patients are taught relaxation techniques. Physical Physical health is also something that needs to be worked on daily, whether it is exercise, healthy eating, or relaxation. states that blood",
"-25.927664904971607"
],
[
"the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions. Sleep function The need and function of sleep are among the least clearly understood areas in sleep research. When asked, after 50 years of research, what he knew about the reason people sleep, William C. Dement, founder of Stanford University's Sleep Research Center, answered, \"As far as I know, the only reason we need to sleep that is really, really solid is because we get sleepy.\" It",
"-25.85446344387674"
],
[
"environment, trying to clear one's mind of any internal distractions and taking short breaks during prolonged periods of focus. Directed attention fatigue can be reduced by getting a sufficient amount of sleep each night because during sleep, inhibitory attention chemicals are replenished.\nAn aesthetic environment may also serve a restorative function in fostering recovery from mental fatigue. Research has shown that restorative experiences, such as clearing one's head and reflecting on one's life and priorities, may help combat Directed Attention Fatigue. As investigated by attention restoration theory, natural environments, such as forests, mountain landscapes or beaches, appear to be particularly effective",
"-25.802892064442858"
],
[
"Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of",
"-25.77071414591046"
],
[
"increased rate and depth of respiration (hyperventilation, yawning). Obstructive sleep apnea Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a form of sleep apnea that occurs more frequently and is most severe when individuals are sleeping in the supine position. Studies and evidence show that OSA related to sleeping in the supine position is related to the airway positioning, reduced lung volume, and the inability of airway muscles to dilate enough to compensate as the airway collapses. With individuals who have OSA, many health care providers encourage their patients to avoid the supine position while asleep and sleep laterally or sleep with the",
"-25.68658209417481"
],
[
"patient had slumped one way while falling asleep they woke up and immediately corrected, if not overcorrected), oral automatisms, and head turns. In most of the patients their eyes remained open. Sixty percent of the patients reported having visual and auditory hallucinations.",
"-25.61407949749264"
],
[
"at the right type of day.\nNightlights are also helpful in reducing falls and injuries and, at the same time, help the elderly to maintain sleep. Falls are a major concern with the elderly; they threaten their independence and risk further health complications. Lighting systems can help seniors maintain balance and stability. Furthermore, sleep deprivation can contribute to decreased postural control. Nightlights that accent horizontal and vertical spaces, such as soft lighting above a doorway or at the foot of a bed, can reduce the risk of falls without disturbing sleep.",
"-25.60894754753099"
],
[
"system enables people to keep their balance by signalling when a physical correction is necessary. Some medical conditions, known as balance disorders, also induce the sensation of falling. In the early stages of sleep, a falling sensation may be perceived in connection with a hypnic jerk, sometimes awaking the sleeper abruptly. Labyrinth The vestibular system works with other sensorimotor systems in the body, such as the visual system (eyes) and skeletal system (bones and joints), to check and maintain the position of our body at rest or in motion. The vestibular apparatus functions by detecting forces that act upon bodies",
"-25.60778459958965"
],
[
"is referred to as Process S. The balance between sleeping and waking is regulated by a process called homeostasis. Induced or perceived lack of sleep is called sleep deprivation.\nProcess S is driven by the depletion of glycogen and accumulation of adenosine in the forebrain that disinhibits the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, allowing for inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system.\nSleep deprivation tends to cause slower brain waves in the frontal cortex, shortened attention span, higher anxiety, impaired memory, and a grouchy mood. Conversely, a well-rested organism tends to have improved memory and mood. Neurophysiological and functional imaging studies have demonstrated that",
"-25.537782919534948"
],
[
"this regulating part of the brain, which in turn disturbs the \"overall level\" of consciousness. This system of a sort of general activation of consciousness is referred to as \"arousal\" or \"wakefulness\".\nIt is not necessarily accompanied by drowsiness, however. Patients may be awake (not sleepy) yet still have a clouded consciousness (disorder of wakefulness). Paradoxically, sufferers declare that they are \"awake but, in another way, not\". Lipowski points out that decreased \"wakefulness\" as used here is not exactly synonymous with drowsiness. One is a stage on the way to coma, the other on the way to sleep which is very",
"-25.526267964130966"
],
[
"when attention is focused upon something other than the act of walking.\nProprioception is occasionally impaired spontaneously, especially when one is tired. Similar effects can be felt during the hypnagogic state of consciousness, during the onset of sleep. One's body may feel too large or too small, or parts of the body may feel distorted in size. Similar effects can sometimes occur during epilepsy or migraine auras. These effects are presumed to arise from abnormal stimulation of the part of the parietal cortex of the brain involved with integrating information from different parts of the body.\nProprioceptive illusions can also be induced,",
"-25.49243477839991"
],
[
"focuses on Japanese culture, writes that sleeping at work is considered a sign of dedication to the job, such that one has stayed up late doing work or worked to the point of complete exhaustion, and may therefore be excusable.",
"-25.460368857951835"
],
[
"to sleep, reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep. For individuals with allergies or asthma, additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment. Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways, so there must be careful management of decongestants, asthma controllers, and antihistamines. Implementation Sleep hygiene strategies include advice about timing of sleep and food intake in relationship to exercise and sleeping environment. Recommendations depend on knowledge of the individual situation; counselling is presented as a form of patient education.\nAs attention to the role",
"-25.430675092880847"
],
[
"mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).\nREM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to",
"-25.36937295534881"
],
[
"of sleep overlap during sleep paralysis, and definitely explains the muscle paralysis experienced on awakening. If the effects of sleep “on” neural populations cannot be counteracted, characteristics of REM sleep are retained upon awakening. Common consequences of sleep paralysis include headaches, muscle pains or weakness and/or paranoia. As the correlation with REM sleep suggests, the paralysis is not complete: use of EOG traces shows that eye movement is still possible during such episodes; however, the individual experiencing sleep paralysis is unable to speak.\nResearch has found a genetic component in sleep paralysis. The characteristic fragmentation of REM sleep, hypnopompic, and hypnagogic",
"-25.34323186572874"
],
[
"limit stimulating activity such as watching television, using a computer or being around bright lights. Relaxation training Relaxation training is a collection of practices that can help people to relax throughout the day and particularly close to bedtime. It is useful for insomnia patients with difficulty falling asleep. However it is unclear whether or not it is useful for those who tend to wake up in the middle of the night or very early in the morning. Techniques include hypnosis, guided imagery and meditation. Paradoxical Intention Paradoxical Intention is a treatment method which involves around telling the patient to",
"-25.319113252684474"
],
[
"as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in",
"-25.280913405382307"
],
[
"while sleeping, he added.\nCo-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also",
"-25.230868267593905"
],
[
"REM sleep, muscular paralysis, occurs at an inappropriate time. This loss of tonus is caused by massive inhibition of motor neurons in the spinal cord. When this happens during waking, the victim of a cataplectic attack loses control of his or her muscles. As in REM sleep, the person continues to breathe and is able to control eye movements. Hypocretin The hypothalamus region of the brain regulates basic functions of hormone release, emotional expression and sleep. A study in 2006 in \"Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine\" concluded that the neurochemical hypocretin, which is regulated by the hypothalamus, was significantly reduced",
"-25.225051410787273"
],
[
"raised, and that this impact becomes observable in the form of complaints such as headaches.[『週刊朝日』2003年4月18日号、p37]\nConversely, it can be considered that if the eye-opening muscles are in a continually relaxed state, the activity of the sympathetic nervous system is reduced and parasympathetic dominance is attained. Matsuo raises the example of meditation, in which loosening the eyelids can result in a relaxation effect.[『文藝春秋』1998年12月17日号、p95] It is known that peristalsis of the digestive tract involves inhibitory action by the sympathetic nervous system and stimulatory action by the parasympathetic nervous system. Matsuo believes that because a person reading a book while standing in a bookstore",
"-25.217632779364067"
],
[
"for sleep could be to restore signal strength in synapses that are activated while awake to a \"baseline\" level, weakening unnecessary connections that to better facilitate learning and memory functions again the next day; this means the brain is forgetting some of the things we learn each day. Endocrine function The secretion of many hormones is affected by sleep-wake cycles. For example, melatonin, a hormonal timekeeper, is considered a strongly circadian hormone, whose secretion increases at dim light and peaks during nocturnal sleep, diminishing with bright light to the eyes. In some organisms melatonin secretion depends on sleep, but in",
"-25.19734965596581"
],
[
"restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time",
"-25.194056911714142"
],
[
"theorizes that the phenomenon may be due to focusing one's attention on books without interference from other people and the resulting mental state of relaxation making one want to go to the toilet.[『マンガでわかる心理学入門』、p9] Posture when browse-reading while standing The posture or gaze of a person while they browse-read a book while standing is often focused on as a contributory cause of the defecation urge. This is based on an interpretive model in which a defecation urge arises due to focusing one's gaze on a single point while adopting an upright or a slightly head-down posture.[『季刊 本とコンピュータ第二期』2004年冬号、p59] It has",
"-25.167615979211405"
],
[
"He asserted that \"all errors of refraction and all functional disturbances of the eye disappear when it sees by central fixation\" and that other conditions were often relieved as well. Palming Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation. He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by \"palming\", or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands, without putting pressure on the eyeballs. If the covered eyes did not strain, he said, they would see \"a field so black that it is impossible to remember, imagine, or",
"-25.143099392036675"
],
[
"which do not occur in any other modes of sleeping or waking. The body abruptly loses muscle tone, a state known as REM atonia.\nProfessor Nathaniel Kleitman and his student Eugene Aserinsky defined rapid eye movement and linked it to dreams in 1953. REM sleep was further described by researchers including William Dement and Michel Jouvet. Many experiments have involved awakening test subjects whenever they begin to enter the REM phase, thereby producing a state known as REM deprivation. Subjects allowed to sleep normally again usually experience a modest REM rebound. Techniques of neurosurgery, chemical injection, electroencephalography, positron emission tomography, and",
"-25.110195628425572"
],
[
"very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \nThere are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep",
"-25.108637547353283"
],
[
"writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically",
"-25.050765573629178"
],
[
"have become so addicted to their phones that they are almost dependent on them. Humans are not meant to be constantly staring at a screen as time is needed to relax their eyes and more importantly their minds. Colier states: \"Without open spaces and downtime, the nervous system never shuts down—it's in constant fight-or-flight mode. We're wired and tired all the time. Even computers reboot, but we’re not doing it.\"\nThe amount of time spent on screens appears to have a correlation with happiness levels. A nationally representative study of American 12th graders funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse",
"-25.03384729281788"
],
[
"relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher",
"-25.017252206336707"
],
[
"awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\nAccording to the article, \"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be",
"-25.013741608563578"
],
[
"is that by not voluntarily making oneself go to sleep, it relieves the performance anxiety that arises from the need or requirement to fall asleep, which is meant to be a passive act. This technique has been shown to reduce sleep effort and performance anxiety and also lower subjective assessment of sleep-onset latency and overestimation of the sleep deficit (a quality found in many insomniacs). Sleep hygiene Sleep hygiene is a common term for all of the behaviors which relate to the promotion of good sleep. These behaviors are used as the basis of sleep interventions and are the primary",
"-24.9569830870023"
],
[
"and more a private, silent one—and as sleeping increasingly moved from communal sleeping areas to individual bedrooms, some raised concern that reading in bed presented various dangers, such as fires caused by bedside candles. Some modern critics, however, speculate that these concerns were based on the fear that readers—especially women—could escape familial and communal obligations and transgress moral boundaries through the private fantasy worlds in books.",
"-24.93913217150839"
],
[
"Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone",
"-24.938200770906406"
],
[
"time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of",
"-24.92148927319795"
],
[
"paradoxical sleep. Heart rate, cardiac pressure, cardiac output, arterial pressure, and breathing rate quickly become irregular when the body moves into REM sleep. In general, respiratory reflexes such as response to hypoxia diminish. Overall, the brain exerts less control over breathing; electrical stimulation of respiration-linked brain areas does not influence the lungs, as it does during non-REM sleep and in waking. The fluctuations of heart rate and arterial pressure tend to coincide with PGO waves and rapid eye movements, twitches, or sudden changes in breathing.\nErections of the penis (nocturnal penile tumescence or NPT) normally accompany REM sleep in rats and",
"-24.836202382924967"
],
[
"a disorder in which a patient has difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep. Behavior modification and a reduction in neurologically active substances such as caffeine and alcohol seem to be among the most promising treatments. Although the mechanism is unknown, brain plasticity and behavior modification are utilized to train patients to only go to bed when tired, associating the bed itself with a sleepy state.\nNarcolepsy is a condition characterized by abnormal transitions between REM and non-REM cycles during sleep and the awake cycle. Cataplexy, on the other hand, is an involuntary loss of muscle tone during wakefulness. The mechanism of narcolepsy",
"-24.774327221697604"
],
[
"perceptual input does not automatically engender conscious experience. In support of the independence of consciousness from perception, Revonsuo cites Stephen LaBerge's case study on a lucid dreamer performing previously agreed upon eye movements to signal to the experimenters that he had become conscious of the fact that he was dreaming. A second study that supports Revonsuo's view of dreams was conducted by Allan Rechtschaffen and Foulkes (1965). In this study, subjects were made to sleep with their eyelids open, thus allowing the visual cortex to receive visual stimuli. Though their eyes were open, and the perceptual input was accessible,",
"-24.755554200266488"
],
[
"hypersomnia or excessive sleepiness should only go to bed to sleep or for sexual activity. All other activities such as eating or watching television should be done elsewhere. For those patients, it is also important to go to bed only when they feel tired, than trying to fall asleep for hours. In that case, they probably should get out of bed and read or watch television until they get sleepy. Epidemiology Hypersomnia affects approximately 5% - 10% of the general population, \"with a higher prevalence for men due to the sleep apnea syndromes\".",
"-24.719056456291582"
],
[
"as the military or police. Hunting is another good example. Sleep Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\nTo determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to",
"-24.709991875104606"
],
[
"partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,",
"-24.70852715172805"
],
[
"influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep",
"-24.676388025924098"
],
[
"immediate attempt to quickly enter REM stages and long-term effects on motor coordination and habitual motor habits, eventually leading to the death of the animal. It has also been shown that homeothermic animals might require sleep to maintain body weight and temperature. Waking The waking consciousness is the awareness of the world, our bodies, and ourselves. This includes humans experiencing the awareness of being aware of ourselves, an intrinsic ability to humans. It's the ability to look in a mirror and know that you are looking at yourself, and not just another human being. Being awake allows the distinction",
"-24.635688343201764"
],
[
"heavy weight is felt on the chest. Yet, people cannot wake up from that state. Some of the causes are sleeping without adequately covering the body (especially women) and eating in bed. Scientific explanations Victims may have been experiencing waking dreams or sleep paralysis. The phenomenon of sleep paralysis is well-established. During the fourth phase of sleep (also known as REM sleep), motor centers in the brain are inhibited, producing paralysis. The reason for this is ultimately unknown but the most common explanation is that this prevents one from acting out one's dreams. Malfunctions of this process can either result",
"-24.61966086202301"
],
[
"experience somnambulism.\nNormal sleep cycles include states varying from drowsiness all the way to deep sleep. Every time an individual sleeps, he or she goes through various sequences of non-REM and REM sleep. Anxiety and fatigue are often connected with sleepwalking. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking. Sleep walking may involve sitting up and looking awake when the individual is actually asleep, and getting up and walking around, moving items or undressing themselves. They will also be confused when waking up or opening their eyes during sleep. Sleep walking can be associated",
"-24.61802223860286"
],
[
"the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after",
"-24.603649152999424"
],
[
"sleeplessness brought upon by stress. The long-term goal of this relaxation technique is to be able to identify when your body's muscles are suffering the effects of stress and to be able to relax the individual and the individuals muscles when directed. Mental technique Meditation has long been practiced in other regions around the world. However, it is a practice that is fairly new to North America and it is gaining attention quickly for the physical and psychological benefits it provides to your body. Studies have shown that in addition to reducing physiological and psychological stresses placed on your body,",
"-24.52982461899228"
],
[
"sleep for creative problem solving by thinking of a problem right before we fall asleep, as well as possible tools needed to solve the issue (not the solution itself). This may improve the chance of dreaming about the problem without the normal restraints. When waking up, participants can take notes of the dreams to see if new solutions towards solving have arisen.\nThe third and last method to boost creativity in adults, is also related to randomness. Onarheim claims that as adults we tend to associate one word with other words and things. When faced with a problem we can make",
"-24.49633304856252"
],
[
"which the child sleeps. Windows should be closed and potentially dangerous items should be removed from the bedroom, and additionally, alarms can be installed and the child placed in a downstairs bedroom.\nHypnosis could be efficient. Sleepers could become less sensitive to their sleep terrors.\nOne technique is to wake up just before the sleep terrors begin. When they appear regularly, this method can prevent their appearance.\nPsychotherapy or counseling can be helpful in many cases. There is some evidence to suggest that night terrors can result from lack of sleep or poor sleeping habits. In these cases, it can be helpful to",
"-24.481134457164444"
],
[
"sleeping on one's back. Primary snoring is also known as \"simple\" or \"benign\" snoring, and is not associated with sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea (including hypopnea) syndrome Obstructive sleep apnea is apnea either as the result of obstruction of the air passages or inadequate respiratory muscle activity. Central sleep apnea syndrome Sleep apnea (or sleep apnoea in British English; /æpˈniːə/) is a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or instances of shallow or infrequent breathing during sleep. Each pause in breathing, called an apnea, can last for several seconds to several minutes, and may occur 5 to 30 times",
"-24.466714396025054"
],
[
"naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions",
"-24.452881092205644"
],
[
"of metabolic activity in the brain with many hours of sleep debt. Some studies have also shown that the attention network in the brain is particularly affected by lack of sleep, and though some of the effects on attention may be masked by alternate activities (like standing or walking) or caffeine consumption, attention deficit cannot be completely avoided.\nSleep deprivation has been shown to have a detrimental effect on cognitive tasks, especially involving divergent functions or multitasking. It also has effects on mood and emotion, and there have been multiple reports of increased tendency for rage, fear or depression with sleep",
"-24.4420250589028"
],
[
"could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.\nSome dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. “Light sleepers” can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas “deep sleepers”, upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report “thinking” but not “dreaming”. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have",
"-24.342683623587618"
],
[
"do the exact opposite of what they have been doing in bed: They shall stay awake and avoid falling asleep. The goal of this method is to decrease performance anxiety which may inhibit sleep onset. Paradoxal Intention has been shown to be an effective treatment for sleep initiation insomnia but might not be effective for sleep maintenance or mixed insomnia. Indication CBT-I is indicated when the following criteria is met:\n1.The patient must complain about difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep. These difficulties must cause a significant distress and/or impact daily functioning. Complaints of non-restorative sleep without troubles of initiating or",
"-24.321979755943175"
],
[
"ISS, the latter is still often a cause of stress, such as when NASA Astronaut Daniel Tani's mother died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child. Sleep The amount and quality of sleep experienced in space is poor due to highly variable light and dark cycles on flight decks and poor illumination during daytime hours in the space craft. Even the habit of looking out of the window before retiring can send the wrong messages to the brain, resulting in poor sleep patterns. These disturbances in circadian rhythm have",
"-24.281856757123023"
],
[
"movement (REM) sleep—the stage in which dreaming occurs—may be quick to arrive and intense in depressed people. REM sleep depends on decreased serotonin levels in the brain stem, and is impaired by compounds, such as antidepressants, that increase serotonergic tone in brain stem structures. Overall, the serotonergic system is least active during sleep and most active during wakefulness. Prolonged wakefulness due to sleep deprivation activates serotonergic neurons, leading to processes similar to the therapeutic effect of antidepressants, such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Depressed individuals can exhibit a significant lift in mood after a night of sleep deprivation.",
"-24.27629173824971"
],
[
"sleep, however, especially when purely behavioral criteria are used to define sleep. For example, zebrafish, tilapia, tench, brown bullhead, and swell shark become motionless and unresponsive at night (or by day, in the case of the swell shark); Spanish hogfish and blue-headed wrasse can even be lifted by hand all the way to the surface without evoking a response. On the other hand, sleep patterns are easily disrupted and may even disappear during periods of migration, spawning, and parental care. Behavioural sleep Instead of examining brain activity for sleep patterns, an alternate approach is to examine any rest/activity cycles that",
"-24.254735532565974"
],
[
"Homicidal sleepwalking Causes Sleepwalking and other forms of disorders of arousal occur from deep non-REM slow wave sleep (SWS). There are parasomnias that occur from rapid eye movement sleep. It is caused by an inappropriate physiological event where the brain tries to exit SWS and go straight to wake. In normal sleep, the brain transitions from sleep either from stages 1 or 2 of NREM or REM sleep, but almost never from SWS. As a result, the brain gets “stuck” between a sleep and wake state. In the case of Kenneth Parks, his EEG showed that his brain tried to",
"-24.15587134915404"
],
[
"but the efforts are still ineffective. Normally, the muscles at the level of the throat relax and dilate while asleep in order to open up airway however, patients with obstructive apnea may have decreased neuromuscular tone of the muscles responsible for dilating the pharynx during sleep. The inability of the vocal cords to move and the presence of a foreign body may also cause obstructive apnea. Cases of obstructive apnea are rarely found in infants that are healthy. Mixed Apnea Mixed apnea is a combination of both central and obstructive factors. The majority of premature infants with sleep apnea have",
"-23.992131500970572"
],
[
"close to their parents and not in a different room, where they can sense another's presence. According to the Natural Child Project, co-sleeping is an unquestioned practice in much of southern Europe, Asia, Africa and Central and South America. However, one of the most common types of co-sleeping is bedsharing, which can be dangerous.\nThe American Academy of Pediatrics encourages room-sharing (sleeping in the same room but on separate surfaces), but it recommends against bed-sharing with infants, due to instances of SIDS. In a study of 321 SIDS cases, the British Medical Journal indicated that the largest percentage of SIDS cases",
"-23.95776220515836"
],
[
"Since one of the main results of chamber REST is a state of relaxation, the effects of chamber REST on arousal are less clear-cut, which can be attributed to the nature of the solution.\nAlso, due to the inherent immobilization that is experienced in flotation REST (by not being able to roll over), which can become uncomfortable after several hours, the subject is unable to experience the session durations of chamber REST. This may not allow the subject to experience the changes in attitudes and thinking that are associated with chamber REST.\nAdditionally, the research questions asked between each technique are different.",
"-23.95409166160971"
],
[
"the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to",
"-23.940960750464"
],
[
"understand language. Hospital noise, at any volume level, is credited with being the primary cause of sleep deprivation, a contributing factor in delirium, and a risk factor for errors. The current pressure to reduce noise at night has been mistakenly understood to mean undue quiet at night when patients most need cues that people are around them and available if they need help. Just s lighting must be designed to serve both day and night, so much the auditory environment be designed to support activity,cognition, rest, and sleep.\nAdding to the above, patients need positive visual and auditory",
"-23.910419313353486"
],
[
"healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking",
"-23.907168428209843"
],
[
"a lack of sleep can impact cognitive performance. For example, it might become difficult to stay focused and concentrate, and reaction times might also be slowed down. All these factors can affect work efficiency and cause accidents. All these consequences are dangerous for the individual but also for others, as many jobs involve taking care of or protecting others. In addition, SWSD might interfere with making decisions quickly, driving, or flying safely.\nTo promote a healthy lifestyle, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommended that an adult have 7 or more hours of sleep per day. Each year there are",
"-23.90385281178169"
],
[
"used to breath during sleep) are associated with daytime symptoms such as concentration and learning difficulties and irritability, neurocognitive development impairment, decreased school performance and behaviour difficulties. For example, SDB such as OSA contribute to hyperactive behaviour that can lead to the diagnosis and treatment of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, once the SDB is treated, the hyperactive behaviour can improve, and the treatment can be stopped. Obesity also has an impact on the consequences of OSA and lead to different manifestations or severity. Studies have shown that, contrary to adults, children with obstructive sleep-disordered breathing are able to",
"-23.893929065437987"
],
[
" It has been argued that one function of sleep is to allow the brain to consolidate into memory the things it has learned during the animal's normal period of activity. The brain might not be able to do this while still assailed by new stimuli and new information to process. Therefore, the role of sleep would be to periodically shut down sensory input to allow the brain to form memories. Pelagic species swim in an environment that is rather boring (kilometers upon kilometers of open water with not much happening in it). In such species, the sensory input is",
"-23.889798941949266"
],
[
"of these children to crawl into their parent's bed in ages past infancy. Safety and health Health care professionals disagree about bed-sharing techniques, effectiveness and ethics. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission and the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly discourage bed-sharing because of the risk of suffocation or strangulation, but some pediatricians and breast-feeding advocates have opposed this position. Advantages One study reported mothers getting more sleep and breast-feeding by co-sleeping than other arrangements. Parents also experience less exhaustion with such ease in feeding and comforting their child by simply reaching over to the child. As a result, co-sleeping also",
"-23.878061003924813"
],
[
"to the cognitive and motor deficits that may be present. Napping When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia",
"-23.86454707151279"
],
[
"they do not experience a defecation urge.[『本心と抵抗 自発性の精神病理』、p24]\nOn the other hand, psychiatrist Yu Yuki holds that the experiential fact that reading books makes people sleepy is proof of the relaxation effect of bookstores. He considers it a likely explanation that smells and movement and other such external stimuli as well as psychological factors bring about a relaxation effect, and that the resulting parasympathetic dominance in the autonomic nervous system induces effects such as intestinal peristalsis or contraction of the bladder.[『レック』3号、p21]\nJapanese social psychologist Shozo Shibuya, describing bookstores as places where our mutual disinterest in each other is naturally on display,",
"-23.850229686591774"
],
[
"is profoundly influenced by changes in light, since these are its main clues about what time it is. Exposure to even small amounts of light during the night can suppress melatonin secretion, and increase body temperature and wakefulness. Short pulses of light, at the right moment in the circadian cycle, can significantly 'reset' the internal clock. Blue light, in particular, exerts the strongest effect, leading to concerns that electronic media use before bed may interfere with sleep.\nModern humans often find themselves desynchronized from their internal circadian clock, due to the requirements of work (especially night shifts), long-distance travel, and the",
"-23.832260939176194"
],
[
"serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times. Second, inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of melatonin. Inflammation causes a great deal of oxidative stress and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time. Nutrition and diet Overnutrition is associated with diseases such as diabetes and obesity, which are known to affect immune function. More moderate malnutrition, as well as certain specific trace mineral and nutrient deficiencies, can also compromise the immune response.\nFoods rich in certain fatty acids may foster a healthy",
"-23.814925049431622"
],
[
"established. There is some evidence that pathology in this area plays a role in restless legs syndrome, a condition in which people have difficulty sleeping due to an overwhelming compulsion to constantly move parts of the body, especially the legs.\nThe arcuate nucleus and the periventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus have dopamine neurons that form an important projection—the tuberoinfundibular pathway which goes to the pituitary gland, where it influences the secretion of the hormone prolactin. Dopamine is the primary neuroendocrine inhibitor of the secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland. Dopamine produced by neurons in the arcuate nucleus is",
"-23.812210262902227"
],
[
"improve patient sleep. Natural daylight in patient rooms help to maintain circadian rhythms and improve sleep.\nAccording to Heerwagen, an environmental psychologist, medical models of health integrate behavioral, social, psychological, and mental processes. Contact with nature and daylight has been found to enhance emotional functioning; drawing on research from studies (EBD) on well-being outcomes and building features. Positive feelings such as calmness increase, while anxiety, anger, or other negative emotions diminish with views of nature. In contrast there is also convincing evidence that stress could be worsened and ineffective in fostering restoration in built environments that lack nature. Few studies",
"-23.80952841193357"
],
[
"Sleep Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns.\nSleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two distinct modes: REM sleep and non-REM sleep. Although REM stands for \"rapid eye movement\", this mode of sleep",
"-23.801139835559297"
],
[
"in those having withdrawn successfully from benzodiazepines, whereas those having remained on benzodiazepines experienced worsening symptoms. People having withdrawn from benzodiazepines also felt their sleep was more refreshing, making statements such as \"I feel sharper when I wake up\" or \"I feel better, more awake\", or \"It used to take me an hour to fully wake up.\" This suggests that benzodiazepines may actually make insomnia worse in the elderly. Cause Tolerance occurs to the muscle-relaxant, anticonvulsant, and sleep-inducing effects of benzodiazepines, and upon cessation a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome occurs. This can lead to benzodiazepines being taken for longer than originally",
"-23.784135684836656"
],
[
"imagery. This is the basis for the suggestion that dreaming involves a reversed sequence of perceptual events. Instead of bottom-up it is top-down (higher levels activating lower levels instead lower to higher). Activation of the motivational mechanisms in the brain would normally be directed toward goal-oriented actions. However, during sleep access to the motor system is blocked (by inactivation of the dorsolateral frontal convexity). As a result, activation moves backwards toward the perceptual areas. This is why the dreamer doesn't engage in motivated behaviours but imagines them. Furthermore, there is inactivation of the reflective system in the limbic brain which",
"-23.76531742690713"
],
[
"from becoming either corrupt or incomplete. It also explains why it is important to forget dreams most of the time. Dreaming and depression It is well known that depressed people spend far more of their sleep time in REM sleep than non-depressed people, entering it earlier – and it has been shown, experimentally, that depressed people show improvement when deprived of REM sleep. This accords with Griffin’s theory, as depressed people spend much of their waking time arousing themselves physiologically through rumination and worry. All this arousal has to be discharged in dreams. Dreaming takes up a large amount of",
"-23.705190988461254"
],
[
"noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\nThere is support",
"-23.7038696136442"
],
[
"quality, or timing of sleep, caused by a physiological activation in which the brain is caught between the stages of falling asleep and waking. The autonomous nervous system, cognitive process, and motor system are activated during sleep or while the person wakes up from sleep.\nSome examples of parasomnias are somnambulism (sleep walking), somniloquy (sleep talking), sleep eating, nightmares or night terrors, sleep paralysis, and sexsomnia (or \"sleep sex\"). Many of these have a genetic component, and can be quite damaging to the person with the behavior or their bed partner. Parasomnias are most common in children, but most children have",
"-23.6922339402372"
],
[
"wakefulness, and sometimes occurs between periods of deeper sleep and periods of REM. The muscles are active, and the eyes roll slowly, opening and closing moderately. The brain transitions from alpha waves having a frequency of 8–13 Hz (common in the awake state) to theta waves having a frequency of 4–7 Hz. Sudden twitches and hypnic jerks, also known as positive myoclonus, may be associated with the onset of sleep during N1. Some people may also experience hypnagogic hallucinations during this stage. During Non-REM1, humans lose some muscle tone and most conscious awareness of the external environment. NREM 2 NREM Stage 2",
"-23.650024668080732"
],
[
"movements follow the ponto-geniculo-occipital waves originating in the brain stem. The eye movements themselves may relate to the sense of vision experienced in the dream, but a direct relationship remains to be clearly established. Congenitally blind people, who do not typically have visual imagery in their dreams, still move their eyes in REM sleep. An alternative explanation suggests that the functional purpose of REM sleep is for procedural memory processing, and the rapid eye movement is only a side effect of the brain processing the eye-related procedural memory. Circulation, respiration, and thermoregulation Generally speaking, the body suspends homeostasis during",
"-23.63836868814542"
]
] |
3b7qwh | Why do we need legal recognition of marriage? What will be the result if state stops recognizing ALL marriages? | [
"Marriage is a legal contract between two people regarding property rights, debts, affairs of the spouse should the spouse become incapacitated and guardianship of children. Marriage laws are necessary to manage how these are played out in a jurisdiction.",
"Marriage is a very special form of contract between people that grants extended rights and privileges between the married couple. If the state stopped recognizing marriages, it would be very difficult to handle issues involving children, medical visitation, power of attorney, probate, etc as the spousal relationship defines a de facto set of rights in these types of disputes.",
"A lot of laws are set up so that marriage is important. Divorce law sets a legal protection so that the stuff married people own is split up fairly. Taxes are set up so married people are taxed differently. A lot of laws would need to be changed if states stopped recognizing marriages.",
"Many people of a libertarian bent propose doing exactly. Let people enter into private contracts that confer property and other rights to each others, and leave the gov't out of it. However, as a matter of public policy, marriage is necessary to protect spouses who forgo their careers to maintain a household and/or raise children."
] | [
[
"recognized, even if that marriage was not recognized by one or more states, as was the case until 1967 with interracial marriage, which some states banned by statute.\nPrior to 2004, same-sex marriage was not performed or recognized in any U.S. jurisdiction, but subsequently began to be performed and recognized by law in different jurisdictions through legislation, court rulings, tribal council rulings, and popular referenda.\nThe Supreme Court's ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges ended all inter-state legal complications surrounding same-sex marriage, as it orders states to both perform the marriages of same-sex couples and to recognize the marriages of same-sex couples performed",
"-34.47791528276866"
],
[
"for the legal systems, it is now very difficult to identify states with no local system for the celebration and registration of marriages, and even more difficult for the courts of one state to justify a decision to support the prejudices of two of its citizens against the laws of the second state. However, other states permit informal marriages to acquire legal status and, where this happens, there is no reason in principle why international recognition should not follow.\nCanada allows married persons to retain multiple spouses in legally recognized family law, but only in one province. Saskatchewan utilizes S.51 of",
"-34.35939479258377"
],
[
"state from defining or recognizing marriage only as the legal union between a man and a woman.\nPlaintiffs' attorneys said they would support the state's request for consideration by the Supreme Court and filed a brief in support of the state's petition for certiorari on August 28, framing the question differently:\nWhether a state violates the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution by prohibiting same-sex couples from marrying and by refusing to recognize their lawful, out-of-state marriages.\nNeal Katyal, a former Justice Department official with extensive experience arguing before the Supreme Court, joined the plaintiffs' legal team in August.\nThe Tenth Circuit's ruling is",
"-34.128900071111275"
],
[
"grounds. State recognition In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. In most American states, a wedding must be officiated by the justice of the peace in order for it to be recognized. However, priests, ministers, rabbis, and many other religious authorities can act as viable agents of the state. In some countries, such as France, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Argentina, Japan and Russia, it is necessary to be married by government authority separately from any religious ceremony, with the state ceremony being the legally binding one. In",
"-34.00688461912796"
],
[
"Federal Marriage Amendment Role of states In the United States, civil marriage is governed by state law. Each state is free to set the conditions for a valid marriage, subject to limits set by the state's own constitution and the U.S. Constitution. Traditionally, a marriage was considered valid if the requirements of the marriage law of the state where the marriage took place were fulfilled. (First Restatement of Conflicts on Marriage and Legitimacy s.121 (1934)). However, a state can refuse to recognize a marriage if the marriage violates a strong public policy of the state, even if the marriage was",
"-33.444085058850305"
],
[
"ceremony—leave the state out of it—and create a business- or domestic-partner contract aligning the couple legally.\nProfessor Gary Becker, a winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, has said that:\nWith marriage contracts that set out the couple's commitments, there is little reason why judges should retain their current involvement in marriage.\nAs of 2015, the only known members of US Congress to support privatization of state marriage are Sen. Rand Paul, Rep. Justin Amash (R–Michigan) and Rep. Gary Palmer (R–Alabama). Religious advocacy Pepperdine University law professor Douglas Kmiec told the Catholic News Agency that churches that do not accept same-sex",
"-33.43071817536838"
],
[
"same-sex relationship even if recognized as marriage by another state. It purports to relieve a state of its reciprocal obligation to honor the laws of other states as required by the Constitution's Full Faith and Credit Clause. Even before DOMA, however, states sometimes refused to recognize a marriage from another jurisdiction if it was counter to its \"strongly held public policies\". Most lawsuits that sought to require a state to recognize a marriage established in another jurisdiction argue on the basis of equal protection and due process, not the Full Faith and Credit Clause.\nDOMA's Section 3 defined marriage for the",
"-33.4172222368652"
],
[
"of any marriage) but it will be difficult for the parties to justify their failure to comply with the local laws that unambiguously would have created a valid marriage. Common law In some states, the legal acceptability of common law marriage is very limited. Some couples, whether because there are no local formalities relevant to them or because they have strongly held prejudices against compliance with the local forms, decide to create a marriage either by a simple public exchange of vows (per verbis inter praesentes), or by habit and repute. Because the need for conformity between states requires respect",
"-33.39583895012038"
],
[
"legal in the state where it was performed. (Restatement (Second) Of Conflict of Laws § 283(2) (1971).) States historically exercised this \"public policy exception\" by refusing to recognize out-of-state polygamous marriages, underage marriages, incestuous marriages, and interracial marriages. Following the Windsor decision in 2013, nearly all courts that have addressed the issue have held that states with laws defining marriage as a one-man, one-woman union cannot refuse to recognize same-sex marriages that were legally performed elsewhere and must permit all people, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, the right to marry.\nSame-sex marriage is currently legal in all US States. ",
"-33.20629925583489"
],
[
"Although some couples have registered relationships because they are prohibited from marrying under the federal Marriage Act 1961 as amended by the Marriage Amendment Act 2004, other couples have registered as an alternative to marriage, thus reducing the marriage rate.",
"-33.110415030198055"
],
[
"that federal courts and administrators would need to determine the validity for federal purposes of a marriage that is recognized in one state and not another, or in a foreign country and not by every U.S. state, it created two tests. If celebrated in a state of the U.S., a marriage is valid for federal purposes if valid in that state. If celebrated elsewhere, a marriage is valid for federal purposes if it is valid in at least one U.S. state.\nLegal scholars disputed whether the language of the Respect for Marriage Act was an appropriate solution to the problem. Lynn",
"-33.08106714650057"
],
[
"marriages performed in brief periods, though it did recognize them once the respective states announced they would do so. It had not taken a position with respect to similar marriages in Arkansas prior to the Obergefell decision legalizing and recognizing same-sex marriages in all fifty states.\nOpponents of same-sex marriage have worked to prevent individual states from recognizing same-sex unions by attempting to amend the United States Constitution to restrict marriage to heterosexual unions. In 2006, the Federal Marriage Amendment, which would have prohibited states from recognizing same-sex marriages, was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee on a party-line vote and",
"-33.059419423691"
],
[
"the U.S. to invalidate a state marriage amendment defining marriage as between a man and a woman on federal constitutional grounds. In July, 2006, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit reversed his decision on all three arguments and held that \"laws limiting the state-recognized institution of marriage to heterosexual couples ... do not violate the Constitution of the United States.\" In 2015, the Eighth Circuit's ruling was invalidated by the United States Supreme Court's decision in Obergefell v. Hodges.",
"-33.011402391653974"
],
[
"Respect for Marriage Act Background Until 1996, the federal government of the United States customarily recognized marriages conducted legally in any state for the purpose of federal legislation. Following an unsuccessful lawsuit aimed at legalizing same-sex marriage in Hawaii, the United States Congress passed the Defense of Marriage Act, one section of which forbids the federal government from recognizing same-sex marriages. Choice of law problem In addition to repealing DOMA, the legislation would have established a method for the federal government to determine whether a marriage is valid for federal purposes, a legal dilemma known as choice of laws. Anticipating",
"-32.95685496990336"
],
[
"license a marriage between two people of the same sex? 2) Does the Fourteenth Amendment require a state to recognize a marriage between two people of the same sex when their marriage was lawfully licensed and performed out-of-state?\" The plaintiff-petitioners told the court that Douglas Hallward-Driemeier of the law firm of Ropes & Gray would represent them at oral argument.\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on the case, which had been consolidated with three other cases from Michigan, Ohio, and Kentucky, in Obergefell v. Hodges. In a 5-4 decision written by Justice Kennedy and joined by Justices",
"-32.598085675621405"
],
[
"not be recognised if, for example, a person was already married (or the overseas divorce is not recognised in Australia), a person was aged under 18 (subject to some exceptions), the persons were direct descendants or siblings, or there was duress or fraud. Marriage education Part IA authorises the government to make grants to approved organisations for marriage counselling. Amendments to the Marriage Act Two amendments of note to the Act have been made with respect to the legal definition of marriage in Australia, both of which relate to same-sex marriage. Marriage Amendment Act 2004 Before 2004, there was no",
"-32.54020040988689"
],
[
"union of one man and one woman, to the exclusion of all others. In their December 2013 ruling striking down the ACT's same-sex marriage law, the High Court effectively determined that all laws with respect to marriage were an exclusive power of the Commonwealth and that no state or territory law legalising same-sex marriage or creating any type of marriage could operate concurrently with the federal Marriage Act; \"the kind of marriage provided for by the [Marriage] Act is the only kind of marriage that may be formed or recognised in Australia\". As a result, the only possible method for",
"-32.53612083941698"
],
[
"Government) immediately challenged the law in the High Court of Australia. The High Court ruled on the matter in December 2013, five days after the first same-sex weddings were celebrated in the ACT, striking down the ACT's same-sex marriage law. The court determined that all laws with respect to marriage were an exclusive power of the Commonwealth and that no state or territory law creating any other type of marriage could operate concurrently with the federal Marriage Act; \"the kind of marriage provided for by the [Marriage] Act is the only kind of marriage that may be formed or recognised",
"-32.363511240284424"
],
[
"two methods of receiving state recognition of a marriage: common-law marriage and obtaining a marriage license. Common-law marriage is no longer permitted in most states. Though federal law does not regulate state marriage law, it does provide for rights and responsibilities of married couples that differ from those of unmarried couples. Reports published by the General Accounting Office in 1997 and 2004 identified over 1000 such laws. Age of marriage The age at which a person can marry varies by state. The marriage age is generally 18 years, with the exception of Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21). In addition, all",
"-32.32609664871052"
],
[
"country of residence and the nationality of the parties. Marriages with less than the normal amount of notice require the permission of the Registrar General. United States In the United States, until the mid-19th century, common-law marriages were recognized as valid, but thereafter some states began to invalidate common-law marriages. Common-law marriages, if recognized, are valid, notwithstanding the absence of a marriage license. North Carolina and Tennessee (which was originally western North Carolina) never recognized marriage at the common law as valid without a license unless entered into in other states. They have always recognized otherwise valid marriages (except bigamous,",
"-32.241969148663884"
],
[
"and a woman is valid or recognized in California\". Prop 8 was later found to be unconstitutional and marriage equality took effect. Thirty states passed state constitutional amendments defining marriage as being between one man and one woman. On June 26, 2015, all amendments banning sex-same marriage were invalidated by the Supreme Court's ruling on Obergefell v. Hodges. Federal statutes regulating marriage Although individual U.S. states have the primary regulatory power with regard to marriage, the United States Congress has occasionally regulated marriage. The 1862 Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, which made bigamy a punishable federal offense in U.S. territories,",
"-32.20040196401533"
],
[
"in the year that the legislative calendar had no room for the issue. 2010 As of January 2010, 29 states had constitutional provisions restricting marriage to one man and one woman, while 12 others had statutes that did so. Nineteen states banned any legal recognition of same-sex unions that would be equivalent to civil marriage. Voters had approved 28 out of 30 popular referenda in which states asked voters to adopt a constitutional amendment or initiative defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman. Arizonans voted down one such amendment in 2006, but approved a different amendment to",
"-32.16076121237711"
],
[
"as for another. For example, a marriage may be recognised civilly, but not by a church, and vice versa. Normally a marriage entered into in one country will be recognised in other countries. Sometimes, however, a religious ceremony or a marriage entered into in one country is not recognized by another, such as a same-sex marriage. International recognition Some countries give legal recognition to marriages performed in another country under the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978). For this to apply, both the country of marriage and the country where recognition is sought need to be members of this convention.\nIf the",
"-32.15082248626277"
],
[
"the right to marry in 2013, and this right extends to a right to get married in the Church of Denmark, although individual priests have the right to refuse to perform such marriages. On June 26, 2015, Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the ban on same-sex marriages were de jure unconstitutional, which de facto legalized the same-sex marriage process in the United States. Europe To avoid the use of the term \"marriage\", some governments provide civil unions, which are open to couples of the same sex, and in some jurisdictions also to those of opposite sexes who",
"-32.14325004781131"
],
[
"rulings allowing same-sex marriages or civil unions. In August 2004, same-sex marriage was officially prohibited when the Marriage Act 1961 and the Family Law Act were amended in order to define marriage as a \"union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life\". Amendments were also made to prevent the recognition in Australia of marriages conducted in other countries between a man and another man or a woman and another woman. \nThe passage of the legislation was made possible because the Australian Labor Party supported the Howard Government's proposed ban on",
"-32.104688051775156"
],
[
"to hear appeals from that circuit's decision.\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down all state bans on same-sex marriage, legalized it in all fifty states, and required states to honor out-of-state same-sex marriage licenses in the case Obergefell v. Hodges. Legal issues The legal issues surrounding same-sex marriage in the United States are determined by the nation's federal system of government, in which the status of a person, including marital status, is determined in large measure by the individual states. Prior to 1996, the Federal Government did not define marriage; any marriage recognized by a state was",
"-32.094232426490635"
],
[
"law marriage or their eventual heirs may have difficulty proving their relationship to be marriage. Some states provide for registration of an informal or common-law marriage based on the declaration of each of the spouses on a state-issued form. Marriage law and race Anti-miscegenation laws which prohibited interracial marriage date back to Colonial America. The earliest were established in Maryland and Virginia in the 1660s. After independence, seven of the original colonies and many new states, particularly those in the West and the South, also implemented anti-miscegenation laws. Despite a number of repeals in the 19th century, in 1948, 30",
"-32.02205127442721"
],
[
"having Church weddings whereas most other nations on that continent insist on civil registrations leaving it up to the couple if they choose to have a religious ceremony as well.\nThe 1984 English Anglican booklet Forward to Marriage showed a tolerance of premarital sex but strongly endorsed marriage as \"a necessary commitment for a long-term relationship\".\nIn 1987, the American Bishop John Shelby Spong's Newark Diocese had commissioned a report that concluded that the \"Episcopal Church should recognize and bless committed non-marital sexual relationships between homosexuals, young adults, the divorced and widowed...\" The report aimed \"to ignite a new debate on sexual",
"-31.990388262303895"
],
[
"the state is required. Some US states have started citing the state specifically as a party in the marriage contract which is seen by some as an infringement.\nMarriage licenses have also been the subject of controversy for affected minority groups. California's Proposition 8 has been the subject of heavy criticism by advocates of same-sex marriage, including the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community whose ability to marry is often limited by the aforementioned state intervention. This changed on June 26, 2015, with the Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges. However, the state and federal intervention still continues to",
"-31.896402142418083"
],
[
"Supreme Court on May 5, 1993, ordered a trial court to consider whether the state could demonstrate that denying marriage licenses to same-sex couples \"furthers compelling state interests and is narrowly drawn to avoid unnecessary abridgments of constitutional rights.\"\nCongressional reaction to that ruling, partly in anticipation of the approaching presidential election, resulted in the enactment of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages. President Bill Clinton signed it into law on September 21, 1996. In November 1998, Hawaii voters approved a state constitutional amendment allowing their legislature to ban same-sex marriage, and Alaska voters",
"-31.792395368513098"
],
[
"lesbian couples could not be denied the right to marry because of the Equal Protection Clause of the state constitution. This decision made Connecticut the third state (along with Massachusetts and California) to legalize same-sex marriage through judicial decree of the state supreme court. The majority opinion was written by Justice Richard N. Palmer, and joined by Justices Norcott, Joette Katz, and Judge Lubbie Harper Jr.; Justices Peter T. Zarella, Christine S. Vertefeuille, and David Borden dissented.\nMost recently, Justice Norcott wrote the Court's opinion in Bysiewicz v. DiNardo, holding that Secretary of State Susan Bysiewicz did not fulfill the statutory",
"-31.772673578583635"
],
[
"annulled, could choose whom she wanted to live with. The Court ruled that \"an adult couple has a right to live together without marriage\", and held that live-in relationships (cohabitation between unmarried couples) are now recognized by the law. Pending court cases In 2019, two women from Hamirpur, Uttar Pradesh, who married symbolically, tried to get their marriage recognised at the registrar's office, who denied citing lack of relevant provisions. The couple's lawyer, Daya Shankar Tiwari, has said they will challenge the registrar's decision to not legally recognise the marriage.\nIn July 2019, the Delhi High Court dismissed a legal challenge",
"-31.759160659159534"
],
[
"relationships\". It also prohibited state recognition of out of state same-sex marriages.\nOn November 2, 2004, Ohio voters approved State Issue 1, a state initiated constitutional amendment that prohibited the recognition of same-sex marriage, as well as any \"legal status for relationships of unmarried individuals that intends to approximate the design, qualities, significance or effect of marriage\" in the state of Ohio. The amendment went into effect on December 2, 2004. Initiative to repeal constitutional ban In 2013, FreedomOhio and Equality Ohio sought state officials' approval of a ballot initiative that would replace the constitutional amendment and allow same-sex marriage. Two",
"-31.663218463028898"
],
[
"under the jurisdiction of the state in which the ceremony is performed; however, the marriage is generally recognized across the country. The state in which they are married holds the record of that marriage. Traditionally, working with law enforcement was the only means of searching and accessing marriage license information across state lines. Controversy in the U.S. Some groups and individuals believe that the requirement to obtain a marriage license is unnecessary or immoral. The Libertarian Party, for instance, believes that marriage should be a matter of personal liberty, not requiring permission from the state. \nIndividuals who align with this",
"-31.65261285076849"
],
[
"legally valid and to be recognised as a marriage, meaning that couples who have entered into such unions since 20 June 2013 need not remarry as a result of the court's April 2016 ruling. The ruling was officially published on 7 July 2016.\nPresiding Judge Maria Victoria Calle told the court; \"all people are free to choose independently to start a family in keeping with their sexual orientation... receiving equal treatment under the constitution and the law.\" The court's ruling informed state judges, notaries and clerks that they \"must ensure that citizens' fundamental rights are observed and that they are all",
"-31.618414415366715"
],
[
"In addition, Article 20 of the Constitution allows a Contracting State to file a reservation stating that that state will not recognize a divorce if at the date of the divorce, “one of the spouses was a national of a state whose laws did not provide for divorce.”\nThere are 19 states that are parties the Convention, all of which are in Europe. Many states, including the United States, which is not a Contracting State to the Convention, recognize divorces obtained abroad through the above-mentioned legal principle of comity. The convention also applies to Hong Kong, to which it was extended",
"-31.539881151664304"
],
[
"2013 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Windsor striking down the law barring federal recognition of same-sex marriage gave significant impetus to the progress of lawsuits that challenged state bans on same-sex marriage in federal court. Since that decision, with only a few exceptions, U.S. District Courts and Courts of Appeals have found state bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional, as have several state courts. The exceptions have been a state court in Tennessee, U.S. district courts in Louisiana and Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. The U.S. Supreme Court agreed",
"-31.511031452333555"
],
[
"celebration\" rule when federal statutes do not specify how to determine the validity of a marriage even though \"[t]hese agencies have no inherent legal authority to define marriage.\" He contended that a state's control of the definition of marriage \"within its borders, for the common good\" was fundamental to its sovereignty, while the \"extent to which any state's marriages travel to other states is a comparatively minor matter.\"",
"-31.483329712878913"
],
[
"prosecution under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.\nAll U.S. jurisdictions recognize common-law marriages that were validly contracted in the originating jurisdiction, because they are valid marriages in the jurisdiction where they were contracted. see: Full Faith and Credit Clause. However, absent legal registration or similar notice of the marriage, the parties to a common law marriage or their eventual heirs may have difficulty proving their relationship to be marriage. Some states provide for registration of an informal or common-law marriage based on the declaration of each of the spouses on a state-issued form. English-speaking Caribbean Due to their colonial past,",
"-31.467043565236963"
],
[
"resulted in a 61.6% \"Yes\" vote in favour of legalisation. Consequently, the Federal Parliament passed a law amending the Marriage Act 1961 (Australia) to allow same-sex couples to marry in December 2017.",
"-31.441220688160683"
],
[
"institution of marriage, an institution which the State not only must allow, but which always and in every age it has fostered and protected. It is one thing when the State exerts its power either to forbid extramarital sexuality altogether, or to say who may marry, but it is quite another when, having acknowledged a marriage and the intimacies inherent in it, it undertakes to regulate by means of the criminal law the details of that intimacy. Impact Justice Harlan's general view has had enormous influence on the modern Supreme Court; Justice David Souter endorsed the general reasoning behind Justice",
"-31.433358560781926"
],
[
"by the ruling of the Supreme Court on June 26, 2015 that same-sex marriages are legal across the entirety of the United States. Privately held religious belief was given as the reason for non-compliance with the Court's ruling and with the state governor's executive order of June 26 instructing all state agencies and clerks to comply with it.",
"-31.43175631869599"
],
[
"Abbott.\nIn February 2015, two state judges in Travis County held the state's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. One ordered the recognition of a common-law marriage between two women and the other order the county clerk to issue a marriage license to two women. They obtained their license and wed before Attorney General Ken Paxton obtained stays from the Texas Supreme Court and asked that court to void the marriage license.\nOn June 26, 2015, the United States legalized same-sex marriage nationwide due to the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Obergefell v. Hodges. Since then, same-sex marriage has been legal in the",
"-31.418401505507063"
],
[
"enjoined the marriage, then the same for the state the couple resides in, and finally they have to determine whether the marriage is valid under the DOMA. Although this resolved the issue of immigration for heterosexual couples from states and countries where they could get married, same-sex couples remained barred from immigration based on marriage just as other same-sex couples.\nThe rules let to the advise from lawyers to postpone transitioning in order to gain permanent residence based on marriage when the couples would be a same-sex couple after transitioning even when they have a valid heterosexual marriage. In 2012, this",
"-31.382474636659026"
],
[
"which made it impossible to challenge the state's ban on same-sex marriage. The state had enacted a statute defining marriage as an institution for \"one man and one woman\" in 1994, following the first state court decision that questioned the state's denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples. Both the statute and the constitutional amendment were passed around the same time as the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA; Hawaiian: Kānāwai Kūpale Male o ka makahiki 1996) was enacted into law by the United States Congress. Civil unions (2009–2011) Bills creating \"civil unions\" (Hawaiian: uniona kīwila) were considered several times, but",
"-31.37234415160492"
],
[
"Constitution.\" State agency response As of November 19, 2014, state executive agencies such as the Division of Vehicles continued to deny recognition to same-sex marriages. The Governor's office said policies would not change as long the state was appealing the ruling in Marie, citing income tax filing as an example. A spokesperson for the Governor said state agencies would \"take the necessary legal actions once this issue is resolved.\" The Department of Health and Environment, on the other hand, under the U.S. district court's order not to enforce the state's ban, has modified its marriage license application forms to accommodate",
"-31.339411918859696"
],
[
"are currently not authorized to solemnize marriage in any province or territory. United States In the United States, the requirements for entering into marriage are determined by state law. In most states, the ULC clearly falls under the statutes setting forth the requirements for ordination of ministers to perform marriages. In a small number of states, this issue has been litigated, with determinations made by courts at various levels. In Mississippi, for example, it ultimately fell to the Mississippi Supreme Court to recognize the power of a minister of the Universal Life Church to solemnize marriages. although some states allow",
"-31.315025527437683"
],
[
"Several states have chosen to ignore or delay the implementation of same-sex marriage.\nA different procedure exists. If officials in a given state repeatedly appeal amparo cases to a federal appeals court and lose five times in a row (note that since 2015 no court in Mexico is allowed to rule against same-sex marriage), and if the appellate court then forwards the results to the Supreme Court (SCJN), the SCJN can force the state legislature to repeal its ban. The Court gives the state a deadline by which it must modify its laws, usually 90 or 180 business days. If the",
"-31.278661918157013"
],
[
"jurisdiction' to prohibit recognition of a marriage that would have been invalid if solemnized in New York.... The Legislature has not enacted legislation to prohibit the recognition of same-sex marriages validly entered into outside of New York, and we thus conclude that the positive law exception to the general rule of foreign marriage recognition is not applicable in this case.\nOn May 14, 2008, Governor David A. Peterson's legal counsel, David Nocenti, instructed New York state agencies that same-sex couples married elsewhere \"should be afforded the same recognition as any other legally performed union,\" and directed all state agencies to begin",
"-31.24674218799919"
],
[
"other states of the United States and other nation-states. \nProposition 22, an initiative passed by voters in 2000, forbade the state from recognizing same-sex marriages. This initiative was struck down in May 2008 by the California Supreme Court in In re Marriage Cases, but a few months later, Proposition 8 reinstated California's ban on marriages for same-sex couples. During the time between the California Supreme Court decision and passage of Proposition 8, the state allowed for tens of thousands of marriage licenses to be issued to same-sex couples. Strauss v. Horton affirmed that those marriages were still valid after the",
"-31.223301138801617"
],
[
"to apply the common law definition. The Marriage Amendment Act 2004 defined, for the first time by statute, marriage as \"the union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life.\" The 2004 Act also expressly declared same-sex marriages entered into abroad were not to be recognised in Australia. This was in response to a lesbian couple getting married in Canada and applying for their marriage to be recognised in Australia. \nSince 2009, same-sex couples were included in Australia's de facto relationship laws, unions which provide couples with most, though not all,",
"-31.213502085767686"
],
[
"Ct 37 (1972), \"is of paramount importance because a state court judgment prohibiting two people of the same sex from marrying each other was appealed to the U. S. Supreme Court on various constitutional grounds, including due process and equal protection. The High Court dismissed the appeal for want of a substantial federal question. Such a dismissal is an important adjudication on the merits.\" The court rejected the counterargument \"that some persons are allowed to marry and their union is given full recognition and constitutional protection even though the above stated justification—procreation—is not possible\" because \"if the classification of the",
"-31.19318944500992"
],
[
"of the same sex to get married. Rather, these citizens now have the ability to organize their lives according to marital and familial norms and demands. There is no threat to the institution of marriage, but precisely the opposite: this law recognizes and values marriage.\nAware that some people and institutions profoundly disagree with this legal change, I wish to say that like other reforms to the marriage code that preceded this one, this law will not generate bad results, that its only consequence will be to avoid senseless suffering of human beings. A society that avoids senseless suffering of its",
"-31.16907202533912"
],
[
"Divorce of same-sex couples United States Before the federal government recognized same-sex marriages in 2013, through the Supreme Court's decision in United States v. Windsor, same-sex couples who legally married in one state could find themselves unable to divorce after relocating to another state that did not recognize their marriage as valid. That could result in the need for a costly civil lawsuit to attempt to resolve issues of property rights, and property settlements that were negotiated outside of court could potentially trigger federal gift tax requirements..\nBefore the Supreme Court's 2015 decision in Obergefell v. Hodges, couples in same-sex marriages",
"-31.165965113788843"
],
[
"entered into for life.\nIt also repealed Section 88EA, which banned the recognition of overseas same-sex marriages. Consequently, when the Act went into effect on 9 December 2017, such couples became automatically recognised as married under the law.\nThe original Act and the amendment also applies to Australia's external territories. Same-sex marriage in the ACT In October 2013, same-sex marriage was legalised in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). The ACT legislation was overturned by the High Court for being inconsistent with the Marriage Act. This was due to the definition of the term \"marriage\" in the Marriage Act, which at that time",
"-31.163034451106796"
],
[
"grounds that it was too vague. This amendment to Ohio's Constitution was later invalidated by the United States Supreme Court in Obergefell v. Hodges. Obergefell v. Hodges On June 26, 2015 the United States Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that Ohio (along with Michigan, Kentucky and Tennessee) could not deny same-sex couples the right to marry, or refuse to recognize their marriages performed elsewhere; protected under the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. This ruling reversed a November 2014 decision by the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, effectively legalizing same-sex marriage in",
"-31.15144689648332"
],
[
"on 14 March 1978 and entered into force on 1 May 1991. Article 9 of the Convention holds that, “A marriage validly entered into under the law of the State of celebration or which subsequently becomes valid under that law shall be considered as such in all Contracting States, subject to the provisions of this Chapter.” In short, one Contracting State must recognize a marriage legally performed in another contracting state. Currently only three states (Australia, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) have ratified the Convention. Another three (Egypt, Finland, and Portugal) have signed it. One of the reasons that the Convention",
"-31.068552496726625"
],
[
"the Obergefell decision has rendered them unenforceable insofar as they prevented same-sex couples from marrying.\nConservative activists who favor such amendments may refer to them as \"defense of marriage amendments\" or \"marriage protection amendments.\" These state amendments are different from the proposed Federal Marriage Amendment, which would ban same-sex marriage in every U.S. state, and Section 2 of the Defense of Marriage Act, more commonly known as DOMA, which allowed the states not to recognize same-sex marriages from other states. History The idea of extending marriage rights to same-sex couples did not become a political issue in the United States until",
"-31.019025876186788"
],
[
"and Mike Lee of Utah. The Act would, for federal purposes, prohibit the term \"marriage\" from referring to any relationship that an individual's state of residence does not recognize, and prohibits the term \"spouse\" from including anyone whose marriage is not recognized by their state of residence.\nSupporters of the proposed legislation take a states' rights approach. One fellow of the Family Research Council offered the example of a same-sex couple married in Massachusetts who live in South Carolina, which does not recognize their marriage: \"When a federal agency such as the Internal Revenue Service begins treating that South",
"-30.966226184391417"
],
[
"(ACT), that the federal Marriage Act, which defined marriage as the union of a man and woman, precluded states and territories from legislating for same-sex marriage. As a result, only the federal parliament can legislate for same-sex marriage, whilst states and territories almost certainly cannot.\nSince the Commonwealth introduced the Marriage Act Cth. 1961, marriage laws in Australia have been regarded as an exclusive Commonwealth power. The precise rights of states and territories with respect to creating state-based same-sex marriage laws have been complicated since the Howard Government amendment to the Marriage Act in 2004 to define marriage as the exclusive",
"-30.95544642151799"
],
[
"13, 2015, two same-sex couples in \"window marriages\", married during May 2014 while a state court's order enjoining enforcement of the state's same-sex marriage ban was in force, brought suit in state court seeking to require the state to recognize their marriages. They named three state officials as defendants. They asked the court to rule on behalf of all same-sex couples married in May. After Obergefell v. Hodges On February 2, 2017, a resolution calling for a ban on same-sex marriage in the United States Constitution was introduced in the Arkansas Legislature. It was sponsored by 21 lawmakers, all of",
"-30.945722480886616"
],
[
"that took effect immediately. The state's appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals was mooted when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on June 26, 2015 that Ohio's ban on same-sex marriage is unconstitutional, striking down every remaining state ban.\nMontana voters had adopted a constitutional amendment in November 2004 that defines marriage as the union of a man and a woman. Similar restrictions appear in the state statutes. Adoption and parenting Montana permits adoption by individuals. There are no explicit prohibitions on adoption by same-sex couples or on second-parent adoption by a person of the same sex as the first",
"-30.94130850257352"
],
[
"state fails to change its laws to allow same-sex marriage by that date, the SCJN will issue a \"General Declaration of Unconstitutionality\" (Spanish: Declaratoria General de Inconstitucionalidad) and struck the law down. In these cases, the amparo is also called a \"resolution\". In November 2016, Sinaloa became the first state to reach five identical resolutions in a row, followed by Chihuahua in February 2017, Nuevo León in October 2018, and Tamaulipas in November 2018. However, state authorities in several of these states have intentionally delayed and blocked attempts to legalize same-sex marriage in their civil codes, stating among others that",
"-30.9392427848652"
],
[
"Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017 Background Same-sex marriage legislation had been presented to the Parliament of Australia on 22 occasions between September 2004 and May 2017, though on each occasion the legislation failed to pass either the House of Representatives or the Senate. These attempts followed the Howard Government's 2004 amendment to the Marriage Act which explicitly defined marriage as a union between only a man and a woman and banned the recognition of same-sex marriages conducted lawfully in foreign jurisdictions. Prior to the legalisation of same-sex marriage, same-sex relationships could only be treated as de facto",
"-30.93165335385129"
],
[
"country of marriage is not a member of the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978), then the marriage documents will need to be certified following the Apostille convention. This certification is usually performed in the country of marriage by the embassy of the country whose recognition is sought. License A marriage license is a document issued, either by a church or state authority, authorizing a couple to marry. The procedure for obtaining a license varies between jurisdictions and has changed over time. Ending a marriage In the United Kingdom, if somebody refuses to recognise someone's marriage, then that marriage will be",
"-30.917369741306175"
],
[
"many times\"). The ruling examined various dubious bases often allowed by States for marriage, and the extent of sanctimonious expressions used in discussing and practicing marriage, and the deference owed to individual states' legislative power to examine such questions at their own pace, and the fact that just one year had passed from the first legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States to the matters leading to this case. It concluded that \"what we are left with, is [that] by creating a status (marriage) and subsidizing it (with privileges) the States created an incentive for two people who procreate",
"-30.89719391230028"
],
[
"a religious rite with a civil ceremony. Marriages performed outside of the United States are legally binding if officially recognized by the government of the country in which they are performed. Countries with mandatory civil marriage In most European countries there is a civil ceremony requirement. Following the civil marriage ceremony, couples are free to marry in a religious ceremony. Such ceremonies, however, only serve to provide a religious recognition of the marriage, since the state's recognition has already been given. In some of these countries (e.g. Belgium, the Netherlands and Turkey) most couples marry\nwithout any religious ceremony",
"-30.895540599245578"
],
[
"not invalidate any state laws, meaning same-sex couples denied the right to wed would still have to seek individual injunctions. The ruling standardized the procedures for judges and courts throughout Mexico to approve all applications for same-sex marriages, and made the approval mandatory. The ruling was published in the country's Judicial Gazette on 19 June 2015 and became binding on 22 June 2015. Some have suggested the ruling \"effectively legalizes\" same-sex marriage in Mexico, though without legislative change, civil registrars are still bound to follow state laws. Indeed, the Supreme Court does not have the legal power to strike down",
"-30.888501207053196"
],
[
"marriage Statutes and Domestic Violence Laws. Separation of church and state Some religious groups argue that having the government decide whether a same-sex marriage should be legally binding on the grounds of the ideology of other religious groups restricts their religious freedom. They argue that marriage is a religious term that should not be defined by the government. Where same-sex marriage is recognized in the United States, no church or other religious institution is forced to perform same-sex marriages, but the FMA would deny the opportunity for religions which approve of same-sex marriage to perform legally binding same-sex marriages. Unnecessary",
"-30.87971419330279"
],
[
"the Interior told registries in the country not to allow such marriages if one of the spouses comes from a country that has not legalised same-sex marriage. In June 2019, the Social Democrats (SPÖ) pledged to repeal this directive. The Austrian LGBT association Legal Committee Lambda (Rechtskomitee Lambda; RKL) had already filed a constitutional complaint against the ban. On 26 June, the Judiciary Committee of the National Council passed a bill presented by Deputy Irmgard Griss from NEOS – The New Austria and Liberal Forum to amend the Private International Law Act (German: Gesetz über das internationale Privatrecht) in order",
"-30.87656396627426"
],
[
"had heard oral arguments on April 28, 2015.\nOn June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court held in a 5–4 decision that the Fourteenth Amendment requires all states to grant same-sex marriages and recognize same-sex marriages granted in other states. The Court overturned its prior decision in Baker v. Nelson, which the Sixth Circuit had invoked as precedent.\nThe Obergefell v. Hodges decision came on the second anniversary of the United States v. Windsor ruling that struck down Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages. It also came on the twelfth anniversary of",
"-30.876226101259817"
],
[
"to eliminate marital status as a factor.\nOn June 26, 2015, in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court ruled that marriage is a fundamental right guaranteed to all citizens, and thus legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. Since at least 1993, it has been explicitly recognised that neither spouse has a right to force the other spouse to engage in sexual activities without the ongoing consent of that other spouse. Such behaviour now constitutes marital rape, which in many cases is regarded and treated in the same manner as non-marital rape. States In addition, community-property states frequently have forms of",
"-30.859954948769882"
],
[
"in a foreign country between: \n(a) a man and another man; or \n(b) a woman and another woman;\nmust not be recognised as a marriage in Australia.\nThe amendment was argued by Ruddock and Liberal MPs to be necessary to protect the institution of marriage, and to ensure that the definition would be beyond legal challenge through the application of common law. Several years later, then-prime minister John Howard admitted that the government was motivated by the prospect of overseas same-sex marriages being recognised under Australian law via the judiciary. Labor Party shadow attorney-general Nicola Roxon said that the Labor Party would",
"-30.851584571326384"
],
[
"became the fifth state to afford legal recognition to same-sex marriages, though only three other states–Connecticut, Iowa and Massachusetts–did so without limitation. California as of that date only recognized same-sex marriages established between June 16 and November 5, 2008, when it was forced to stop issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples by voter approval of Proposition 8. Vermont was the first state to establish the legal recognition of same-sex marriage by legislation rather than as the result of a court ruling. Since September 2009, the definition of marriage in the state of Vermont has been the following:\nMarriage is the legally",
"-30.849520653137006"
],
[
"the church, but such marriages must be legal according to the government where the marriage is performed, and must not be a same-sex marriage, polygamous marriage, common law marriage, or other type of non-ceremonial marriages in non–common law countries. Moreover, such marriages are thought to last only for the mortal life, and not into the next. In countries where the church's celestial marriages are not recognized by the government, the church requires that it be preceded by a civil marriage.\nIn the United States, the LDS Church has expressed support for a constitutional ban on same-sex and polygamous marriage and",
"-30.84812946132297"
],
[
"interpretations, and its drafters acknowledged that it was specifically worded so state legislators could create civil unions and domestic partnerships, because the CWA opposes any legal recognition of same-sex couples. CWA preferred the Institution of Marriage Amendment crafted by Home School Legal Defense Association President Michael Farris. That amendment, which has not been introduced by any member of Congress, states:\nMarriage in the United States shall consist only of the union of a man and a woman. Neither the United States nor any State shall recognize or grant to any unmarried person the legal rights or status of a spouse. Restriction",
"-30.842054133565398"
],
[
"marriage laws, which must adhere to rulings by the Supreme Court of the United States that recognize marriage as a fundamental right that is guaranteed by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, as first established in the 1967 landmark civil rights case of Loving v. Virginia.\nCivil rights campaigning in support of marriage without distinction as to sex or sexual orientation began in the 1970s. In 1972, the now overturned Baker v. Nelson saw the Supreme Court of the United States decline to become involved. The issue became",
"-30.829432035781792"
],
[
"important public policy issue of whether to alter the traditional definition of marriage as between one man and one woman.\" District Court Judge Timothy Burgess heard oral arguments on October 10.\nOn October 12, 2014, less than a week after the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review similar cases from the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Latta v. Otter and Sevcik v. Sandoval, Judge Burgess ruled for the plaintiffs and declared Alaska's statutory and constitutional bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. He issued an injunction effective immediately. The same day, Governor Parnell announced that he would appeal the ruling and \"defend our",
"-30.81734546665666"
],
[
"marry in the state, and the first to do so since the new ruling. Earlier, a lesbian couple had been able to have their civil union converted into a marriage.",
"-30.79813848400954"
],
[
"those cases, the marriage is usually legalized before the ceremony. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions.\nMarriage relationships may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law marriage, sometimes called \"marriage by habit and repute.\" This is a judicial recognition that two people who have been living as domestic partners are subject to the rights and obligations of a legal marriage, even without formally marrying. However, in the UK at least, common-law marriage has been abolished and there are no",
"-30.79633730801288"
],
[
"the law to prevent Australian recognition of same-sex marriages, rendering the cases pointless.\nIn an attempt to prevent any judicial imposition of same-sex unions in Australia, the Howard Government introduced the Marriage Amendment Act in the Parliament on 27 May 2004. The amendment specified that marriage, undefined in the Act, would be defined as a \"union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others\" and that foreign same-sex marriages would not be recognised as such in Australia. Additional reforms to the Family Law Act prevented same-sex couples from being eligible adoptive parents for children in inter-country adoption",
"-30.773566060321173"
],
[
"was changed to include same-sex marriage, so that it differed from the church's own definition, they could no longer perform civil functions at weddings.\nIn the predominantly Catholic countries of Italy and Croatia, the Catholic Church has been the main opponent to either the introduction of civil unions or marriage for same-sex-couples. In July 2013, 750,000 petition signatures were collected by the conservative group \"In the Name of the Family\", strongly supported by Catholic church leaders. This directly led to the 2013 referendum whereby the constitution was amended to state that marriage is only a union between a man and a",
"-30.770066557219252"
],
[
"some couples married under the laws of their State, but not other couples, of both rights and responsibilities. By creating two contradictory marriage regimes within the same State, DOMA forces same-sex couples to live as married for the purpose of state law but unmarried for the purpose of federal law, thus diminishing the stability and predictability of basic personal relations the State has found it proper to acknowledge and protect. By this dynamic DOMA undermines both the public and private significance of state-sanctioned same-sex marriages; for it tells those couples, and all the world, that their otherwise valid marriages are",
"-30.73756610250348"
],
[
"because there is no rational basis for limiting the designation of 'marriage' to opposite-sex couples.\" The court also stayed the ruling; the voter initiative was to remain in effect pending appeal. On August 12, Walker announced his decision to lift the stay (which would have allowed same-sex marriages to be performed) as of August 18, 2010.\nHowever, on August 16, 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit indefinitely extended the District Court's stay, stopping new same-sex marriages in the state of California pending appeal. It also scheduled an accelerated time table for hearing an appeal of Walker's",
"-30.680335449171253"
],
[
"marriages have only been legal since 2014. United States Massachusetts, the first U.S. state to allow same-sex marriage, does not track how many of the divorces in the state are between same-sex couples. A 2011 study for states with available data initially reported that the dissolution rates for same-sex couples were slightly lower on average (on average, 1.1% of all same-sex couples were said to divorce each year, ranging from 0% to 1.8% in various jurisdictions) than divorce rates of different-sex couples (2% of whom divorce annually). The Washington Post retracted a headline about this report because the study had",
"-30.67761183460243"
],
[
"states, including Wisconsin, in October 2014, allowing same-sex marriages to continue, Walker stated: \"I think it's resolved.\" In April 2015, in New Hampshire, Walker stated that marriage is \"defined as between a man and a woman\", and in Iowa said a federal constitutional amendment allowing states to define marriage was reasonable. Walker called the U.S. Supreme Court's Obergefell v. Hodges decision to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide a \"grave mistake\". Unions Walker said public-union collective-bargaining rights frustrate balancing the state budget. Walker signed right-to-work legislation he said would contribute to economic growth. The Atlantic has written that \"anti-union politics\" have defined",
"-30.6716914603021"
],
[
"matter. The Court's decision was that the law shall be put out of effect at a date specified by the Court. The Court also provided Parliament with the necessary number of representatives which must confirm the Act to make it legitimate. 2013 referendum and same-sex unions On November 14, 2013, Constitutional Court in a 13–0 statement sent to the State Election Commission stated that there is no constitutional obstacle to hold a 2013 referendum on defining marriage as a union between men and a woman, in the same time pointing out that the referendum revealed numerous problems in the Referendum",
"-30.669511697167763"
],
[
"legally solemnized in a foreign jurisdiction in any context other than divorce. The question of recognition of such same-sex marriages for any other reason, being not properly before us, is left for another day.\" Courage v. Wyoming On March 5, 2014, four same-sex couples and Wyoming Equality filed a lawsuit, Courage v. Wyoming, in the First Judicial District, challenging Wyoming's statutory ban on same-sex marriage and the recognition of same-sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions. The plaintiffs were couples that married in Canada and Iowa, as well as two couples who were denied marriages licenses by the Laramie County Clerk.",
"-30.66663352586329"
],
[
"20 injunctions were carried out. Several states have simply chosen to ignore or delay the implementation of same-sex marriage, some times even at the cost of fines (in Tamaulipas legislators were fined for about 100 days due to their failure to legalize it).\nOn 14 June 2015, the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation declared it unconstitutional to deny marriage licenses to same-sex couples in all states. This did not legalize same-sex marriages nationwide, but in turn means that whenever a state government has an injunction taken out by a couple looking to get marital recognition, they will have to",
"-30.648120448866393"
],
[
"2005 Texas Proposition 2 Full text Article 1, Section 32 of the Texas Constitution, as amended, states:\n(a) Marriage in this state shall consist only of the union of one man and one woman.\n(b) This state or a political subdivision of this state may not create or recognize any legal status identical or similar to marriage.\nThe joint resolution proposing the amendment included additional language about rights that the ban on same-sex marriage was not meant to restrict:\nThis state recognizes that through the designation of guardians, the appointment of agents, and the use of private contracts, persons may adequately and properly appoint",
"-30.645608220249414"
],
[
"one woman, and Article 294, which stated that marriage existed solely for the purpose of procreation, were unconstitutional. In late January 2018, after multiple attempts from Congress to delay enactment of the ruling, the Civil Registry announced that it would abide by the ruling, bypassing the Congress' authority. The Civil Registry's announcement also followed a ruling of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights which states that countries signatory to the American Convention on Human Rights must legalise same-sex marriage. Mexico has ratified the Convention. The ruling officially took effect on 16 February 2018, after it was published in the Diario",
"-30.64207983436063"
],
[
"June 2015.\nIn many states, it is illegal to cross state lines to obtain a marriage that would be illegal in the home state. The typical wedding involves a couple proclaiming their commitment to one another in front of their close relatives and friends, often presided over by a religious figure such as a minister, priest, or rabbi, depending upon the faith of the couple. In traditional Christian ceremonies, the bride's father will \"give away\" (hand off) the bride to the groom. Secular weddings are also common, often presided over by a judge, Justice of the Peace, or other municipal official.\nDivorce",
"-30.621551089250715"
],
[
"marriage has been performed in a state that legally allows it many states will recognize it fully or will recognize it as a common law marriage. The exception to this is the state of Iowa where it is completely unrecognized. Germany Germany does not allow proxy marriages within its jurisdiction (§ 1311 BGB). It recognizes proxy marriages contracted elsewhere where this is possible, subject to the usual rules of private international law, unless the foreign law should be incompatible with German ordre public (art. 6 EGBGB): this is not the case with the marriage by proxy per se, would be",
"-30.613530765287578"
],
[
"at full marriage equality — when two consenting adults appear for a marriage license and apply for that license, civil society is required to respond. And so persons of the same-sex can be married in the U.S. Virgin Islands.... \nThe Supreme Court has made a decision that affects the entire nation. It is not for me to express what my personal feelings are. It is for me to do the business of governance and the business of governance, given the Supreme Court’s ruling, says that if an individual in the Virgin Islands is married to a person of the same",
"-30.611549750203267"
],
[
"the state to recognize their marriages established in California and New York. On March 14, 2014, U.S. District Judge Aleta Trauger granted a preliminary injunction requiring the state to recognize the marriages of the plaintiff couples. The state defendants appealed Tanco to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, which granted a stay. A three-judge panel heard oral arguments in the case on August 6, 2014, along with same-sex marriage cases originating from Michigan, Ohio, and Kentucky. The Sixth Circuit ultimately ruled in favor of the states and upheld the bans on November 6, 2014.\nTanco was incorporated into",
"-30.6047651123954"
],
[
"by Subdivision A. As a result, ministers of religion are not necessarily subject to the same obligations or code of practice. Recognition of foreign marriages Part VA deals with recognition of foreign marriages.\nThis division reflects the Act's tendency to seek to uphold the validity of marriages. Marriages will be recognised if they were valid in the country where they were performed and if the marriage would be legal under Australian law. The foreign marriage certificate is proof of marriage and such marriages need not be registered in Australia.\nAs a marriage must be legal under Australian law, a foreign marriage will",
"-30.58721942846023"
],
[
"group who may validly marry is overinclusive, it does not affect the validity of the classification\". Appeal On appeal, a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit affirmed the District Court's opinion on alternative grounds on February 25, 1982. They decided that it was unnecessary for them to determine if the Adams-Sullivan union qualified as a marriage under Colorado law. They noted that it was clear that \"Congress did not intend the mere validity of a marriage under state law to be controlling\" and that \"even though two persons contract a marriage valid under state law and are recognized as spouses",
"-30.584777674586803"
],
[
"the Supreme Court ruled against same-sex couples seeking to be legally married. In a 5-2 decision, the court ruled that it was not required by the country's Constitution to recognize same-sex marriage in family law.\nOn March 19, 2015, a bill to legalize same-sex marriage was introduced to the Legislative Assembly by Deputy Ligia Elena Fallas Rodríguez from the Broad Front. On December 10, 2015, the organization Front for Equal Rights (Frente por los Derechos Igualitarios) and a group of deputies from the Citizens' Action Party, the National Liberation Party and the Broad Front presented another bill. The bill was submitted",
"-30.57180545966912"
],
[
"removal of a judge and three more judges having their terms expired.\nIn 2005, a challenge before the Court was presented denouncing the Same-sex Marriage Act of 2005 arguing that the Constitution says that «men and women have the right to marry with full legal equality» and this didn't allow same-sex marriages. In 2012, after seven years of study, the Court rule that the Constitution allows same-sex marriages because the social concept of marriage it has evolved so the Constitution must to be interpreted according to the current cultural values.\nIn 2017, the court ordered those responsible for the referendum on November",
"-30.559132454829523"
],
[
"by state legislatures On April 2, 2014, the Alabama House of Representatives adopted a joint resolution calling for an Article V convention to draft an amendment to the federal Constitution to define marriage as the union of only one man and only one woman in all jurisdictions of the United States. Nationwide polling Polling on the subject has fluctuated widely, with opposition for such an amendment increasing steadily for more than a decade. Beginning in 2010 polls have found majority support for legal recognition of same-sex marriage. A Gallup poll conducted in May 2014 found that 55% of Americans",
"-30.533194502437254"
]
] |
l37v8 | If a star is 5 million light years away, then are we looking into the past? | [
"You are \"looking into the past\" whenever you look at *anything*. Sure, that star is 5 million light years away, so what you're seeing is as it was 5 million years ago. The sun is ~8 light minutes away. You're seeing it as it was 8 minutes ago. The moon? ~2 seconds. Your monitor? A very tiny amount, but more than zero. Edit: As an addendum: the stars you generally see in the sky are not as far as 5M light years. Our galaxy is only about 100 000 light years in diameter.",
"Yes. It would take 5 millions years for the light to reach us, so you are seeing light sent from that star 5 million years ago. Yes, it is possible it no longer exists.",
"Yup. There are, in fact, several big, unstable stars that are far enough away that they might have already exploded. Eta Carinae is an example.",
"I'd give anything to be on a space ship that could do a large fraction of the speed of light, a spaceship that had GIANT windows of course... Imagine what you would see..."
] | [
[
"be one of the last remaining stars when the Universe is much older than it is now, when the gas needed to form new stars will be exhausted, and the remaining ones begin to die off.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 18.8. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.\nThe star is not just very small, and far away, it also emits comparatively little visible light, mainly shining in the invisible infrared. Even, from the close in proximity of TRAPPIST-1d, about 50 times closer than Earth is from the",
"-37.73229346070002"
],
[
"to time into the past. A galaxy measured at ten billion light years in distance appears to us as it was ten billion years ago, because the light has taken that long to travel to the observer. If one were to look at a galaxy ten billion light years away in one direction and another in the opposite direction, the total distance between them is twenty billion light years. This means that the light from the first has not yet reached the second, because the approximately 13.8 billion years that the universe has existed is not a long enough time to",
"-35.36195298025268"
],
[
"proximity at 19.8 parsecs (64.6 light years) away from the Earth, it cannot be seen with the unaided eye. The star is of a similar distance from Earth as planet-bearing 51 Pegasi, which lies at a distance of 14.7 parsecs (47.95 light years).",
"-35.03222802426171"
],
[
"any line of sight from Earth is unlikely to reach a star.\nHowever, the Big Bang theory seems to introduce a new problem: it states that the sky was much brighter in the past, especially at the end of the recombination era, when it first became transparent. All points of the local sky at that era were comparable in brightness to the surface of the Sun, due to the high temperature of the universe in that era; and most light rays will originate not from a star but the relic of the Big Bang.\nThis problem is addressed by the fact that",
"-33.726893894905515"
],
[
"that it was actually 60 light-years away.",
"-33.70293542091531"
],
[
"be about 150 parsecs away and with an age in the range 1.2 – 2.3 billion years, is younger than our own star which has an age of 4.6 billion years. The rotation period of the star, inferred by the lightcurve obtained by COROT, is around 23 days.",
"-33.59305616968777"
],
[
"red stars older than one billion years.\nThe Hubble data suggest that I Zwicky 18 is 59 million light-years from Earth. The galaxy's larger-than-expected distance may explain why astronomers have had difficulty detecting older, fainter stars within the galaxy. The faint, old stars in I Zwicky 18 are almost at the limit of Hubble's resolution and sensitivity. Classification I Zwicky 18 is classified as a dwarf irregular galaxy and also a blue compact galaxy and a starburst galaxy. I Zwicky 18 is much smaller than our Milky Way and a mere 3,000 light-years across. I Zwicky 18 may still be creating",
"-33.33211636276974"
],
[
"relatively close to the Sun. This is indeed the case for Barnard's Star, located at a distance of about 6 light-years. After the Sun and the Alpha Centauri system, it is the nearest known star to Earth. Because it is a red dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 9.54, it is too faint to see without a telescope or powerful binoculars. Of the stars visible to the naked eye (by convention, limiting visual magnitude of 6.0), 61 Cygni A (magnitude V=5.20) has the highest proper motion at 5.281 arcsec/a, although Groombridge 1830 (magnitude V=6.42), proper motion 7.058 arcsec/a, might be",
"-33.27923840355652"
],
[
"the Sun around 11,800 AD, when it will approach to within about 3.75 light-years.\nProxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a position currently 4.24 light-years distant from it. However, despite Barnard's Star's even closer pass to the Sun in 11,800 AD, it will still not then be the nearest star, since by that time Proxima Centauri will have moved to a yet-nearer proximity to the Sun. At the time of the star's closest pass by the Sun, Barnard's Star will still be too dim to be seen with the naked eye, since its apparent magnitude will only have",
"-32.95927240027959"
],
[
"light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images. Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger, due to the finite speed of light, allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars, of galaxies, and of the universe itself.\nAstronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light-years, especially in popular science publications and media. A light-year is the distance light travels in one year, around 9461 billion kilometres,",
"-32.864086003821285"
],
[
"be in a part of the sky different from its present location. The probe will no longer be operational. Also, given the star's inherent low brightness, even at that distance it would be barely visible to the naked eye of a hypothetical human being, with an apparent magnitude of only 5.72. Solar encounter While the Voyager probe moves through space towards a 1.6-light-year minimum distance from Gliese 445, the star is rapidly approaching our Sun. At the time the probe passes Gliese 445, the star will be about 1.059 parsecs (3.45 light-years) from our Sun, but with less than half",
"-32.726449441215664"
],
[
"star that caused it exploded when the universe was only 630 million years old. The burst happened approximately 13 billion years ago, so a distance of about 13 billion light-years was widely quoted in the media (or sometimes a more precise figure of 13.035 billion light-years), though this would be the \"light travel distance\" (see Distance measures (cosmology)) rather than the \"proper distance\" used in both Hubble's law and in defining the size of the observable universe (cosmologist Ned Wright argues against the common use of light travel distance in astronomical press releases on this page, and at the bottom",
"-32.603571036794165"
],
[
"on to the stars. In about 40,000 years, Voyager 1 will be within 1.6 light years (ly) of AC+79 3888, also known as Gliese 445, which is approaching the Sun. In 40,000 years Voyager 2 will be within 1.7 ly of Ross 248 (another star which is approaching the Sun) and in 296,000 years it will pass within 4.6 ly of Sirius which is the brightest star in the night sky. Voyager Golden Record Both spacecraft carry a 12-inch (30 cm) golden phonograph record that contains pictures and sounds of Earth, symbolic directions on the cover for playing the record, and",
"-32.59039577005751"
],
[
"along with two other stars both at 735 30 pc which exhibit spectral features indicating they must lie behind the remnant, leads to new distance of 735 25 pc or around 2400 light-years. (Note: The Gaia estimated distance to the sdOB star KPD 2055+3111 is 793 pc (2600 ly). This new distance, surprisingly close to the value estimated some 60 yrs ago by Minkowski, means the Cygnus Loop is physically some 40 pc (130 ly) in diameter and has an age of around 21,000 years. Astronomical ultraviolet source The brightest far-ultraviolet sources of the Cygnus Loop occur in the",
"-32.56209369968565"
],
[
"every 20.3 years, are too faint to be observed with the unaided eye. T Cephei, also a red giant, is a Mira variable with a minimum magnitude of 11.3 and a maximum magnitude of 5.2, 685 light-years from Earth. It has a period of 13 months and a diameter of between 329 to 500 solar diameters.\nThere are several prominent double stars and binary stars in Cepheus. Omicron Cephei is a binary star with a period of 800 years. The system, 211 light-years from Earth, consists of an orange-hued giant primary of magnitude 4.9 and a secondary of magnitude 7.1. Xi",
"-32.39296378660765"
],
[
"Gliese 445 Location It is currently 17.6 light-years from Earth and has an apparent magnitude of 10.8. It is visible from north of the Tropic of Cancer all night long, but not to the naked eye. Because the star is a red dwarf with a mass only a quarter to a third of that of our Sun, scientists question the ability of this system to support life. Gliese 445 is also a known X-ray source.\nThe Voyager 1 probe and Gliese 445 will pass one another within 1.6 light-years in about 40,000 years. By that time Gliese 445 will",
"-32.2805039762643"
],
[
"which is unusually high for what is considered a young star. It is thought to be a member of the ε Indi moving group of at least sixteen population I stars. This is an association of stars that have similar space velocity vectors, and therefore most likely formed at the same time and location. ε Indi will make its closest approach to the Sun in about 17,500 years when it makes perihelion passage at a distance of around 10.58 light-years (3.245 pc).\nAs seen from ε Indi, the Sun is a 2.6-magnitude star in Ursa Major, near the bowl of the Big",
"-32.13130975238164"
],
[
"could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Group (see Cepheids). However, outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies, neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed. The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located at a distance of one billion light years—ten times further than the most distant star cluster previously observed.\nIn February 2018, astronomers reported, for the first time, a signal of the reionization epoch, an indirect detection of light from the earliest stars formed—about 180 million years after the Big Bang.\nIn April, 2018,",
"-32.13090454050689"
],
[
"parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light-years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light-years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent",
"-32.060597089046496"
],
[
"the relatively large angular distance the components can only be resolved in large telescopes, since the primary is approximately 250 times brighter than its companion.\nA few million years ago, ε Canis Majoris was much closer to the Sun than it is at present, causing it to be a much brighter star in the night sky. About 4.7 million years ago, Adhara was 34 light-years from the Sun, and was the brightest star in the sky with a magnitude of –3.99. No other star has attained this brightness since, nor will any other star attain this brightness for at least five",
"-31.880591020180873"
],
[
"Shing, oppressors of Earth, and returns to fetch help. Presumably he succeeds: Genly Ai in The Left Hand of Darkness comes from Earth and remembers the 'Age of the Enemy' as something terrible, but also now over. Science The long orbit is scientifically correct, since Gamma Draconis is a giant star and a habitable world would have to be much further away from its sun. The name Eltanin given in City of Illusions is one of the star's traditional names. Its distance from Earth is given as 142 light-years, which is close to the current estimate.\nOn the other hand, giant stars",
"-31.79214497978137"
],
[
"million years to get to the inner Solar System. At closest approach the system would have had an apparent magnitude of about 11.4, and would have been best viewed from high latitudes in the northern hemisphere. A star is expected to pass through the Oort Cloud every 100,000 years or so. An approach as close or closer than 52,000 AU is expected to occur about every 9 million years. \nIn a recent estimate, WISE J0720−0846AB passed within 68.7±2.0 kAU of the Sun 80.5±0.7 kyr ago\nIn about 1.4 million years, Gliese 710 will come to a perihelion of between 8,800 and",
"-31.72165077999307"
],
[
"5879 billion miles, or 0.3066 parsecs. In round figures, a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles. Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth after the Sun, is around 4.2 light-years away. Distance measurement Radar systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio-wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target: the distance to the target is half the round-trip transit time multiplied by the speed of light. A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver measures its distance to GPS satellites based on how long it takes for",
"-31.715045639790333"
],
[
"of the star, or how bright it appears from Earth, is around 5. Therefore, it is only just visible to the unaided eye.",
"-31.67305710904475"
],
[
"about 6,500 light-years, reached Earth in the year 1054. A type Ia supernova at a distance of 3,300 light-years would have an apparent magnitude of around -9.3, about as bright as the brightest Iridium (satellite) flares.\nRecent data indicates his distance estimate is five times too close. Astronomers used NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to observe the light emitted during its latest outburst in April 2011. The team also used the light echo to refine estimates of the nova's distance from Earth. The new distance is 15,600 light-years (4780 pc) from Earth. Previous estimates were between 6,500 and 16,000 light-years (2000 and",
"-31.618659104049584"
],
[
"of spectral type K5 and magnitude 8.5, which with a separation of 5.7 arcseconds is only discernible with a telescope. The distance between the two stars is 260 AU and they take 2600 years to rotate around a common centre of gravity. The second brightest star is Beta Circini, a white main sequence star of spectral type A3Va and a magnitude of 4.07, about 100 light-years away. It has around 1.8 times the diameter of the Sun.\nGamma Circini is a binary star 450 light-years away, whose components need a telescope of 150 mm to be seen, as they are only 0.8 arcseconds apart. The brighter component is",
"-31.549669969470415"
],
[
"16 billion light years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event were less than 16 billion light years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event were more than 16 billion light years away.\nAs galaxies approach the point of crossing this cosmological event horizon, the light from them will become more and more redshifted, to the point where the wavelength becomes too large to detect in practice and the galaxies appear to vanish completely (see Future of an expanding universe). Planet",
"-31.4940032686427"
],
[
"There are stars that are millions of years older than the sun. There may be a civilization that is millions of years more advanced than man's. We have gone from Kitty Hawk to the moon in some seventy years, but it's possible that a million-year-old civilization may know something that we don't ... I hypothesize an 'M&M' technology encompassing the mental and material realms. The psychic realms, so mysterious to us today, may be an ordinary part of an advanced technology.\"\nIn Hynek and Vallee's 1975 book The Edge of Reality, Hynek published a stereoscopic photograph of a UFO he took",
"-31.492036949537578"
],
[
"the triggered star formation theory. Scientists analyzing the photo have been able to show that the ages of the stars become progressively and systematically younger with distance from the center of the cavities.",
"-31.43491368062314"
],
[
"of possibly inhabited planets around this and other nearby stars at that time, as this novel preceded his announcement of planets in this system by a decade. Later research Gatewood continued to be active in astronomy up through 2009. In 2009 he published his last papers; one is a refinement of the distances to several dim nearby stars, including the best current value for the distance to Teegarden's star of 12.578 light years.",
"-31.396154893605853"
],
[
"magnitude of +5.05 in V, the star is rather difficult to make out with the naked eye, especially since its close neighbour Atlas is 3.7 times brighter and located less than 5 arcminutes away. Beginning in October of each year, Pleione along with the rest of the cluster can be seen rising in the east in the early morning before dawn. To see it after sunset, one will need to wait until December. By mid-February, the star is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe, with only those south of 66° unable to see it. Even in cities",
"-31.351797538027313"
],
[
"apparent magnitude, the absolute magnitude can be used to estimate the age of the stars. The stars in the moving group appear to have a common age of about 500 million years. Non-members The Big Dipper stars Dubhe (α UMa) and Alkaid (η UMa) are not members of the group, both being somewhat further away and moving in very different directions.\nThe bright, nearby star Sirius was long believed to be a member of the group, but may not be, according to research in 2003 by Jeremy King et al. at Clemson University. This research seems to indicate that it",
"-31.271626121735608"
],
[
"when its parent star became a red giant. About 1.3 million years ago the object may have passed within a distance of 0.16 parsecs (0.52 light-years) to the nearby star TYC 4742-1027-1, but its velocity is too high to have originated from that star system, and it probably just passed through the system's Oort cloud at a relative speed of about 15 km/s (34,000 mph; 54,000 km/h). A more recent study (August 2018) using Gaia Data Release 2 has updated the possible past close encounters and has identified four stars that ʻOumuamua passed relatively close to and at moderately low velocities in the past",
"-31.27020914052264"
],
[
"amateur telescope. At magnitude 14.4, it appears star-like, though it is at a distance of 12.9 billion light-years. The light of Q1634+706 has taken 8.6 billion years to reach Earth, a discrepancy attributable to the expansion of the universe.\nThe Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, possibly the largest known structure in the universe, covers a part of the southern region of Draco. Mythology Dragons in Greek mythology that may have inspired the constellation's name include Ladon, the dragon who guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides. Heracles killed Ladon during his 12 labors; he was tasked with stealing the golden apples. The",
"-31.23662117085405"
],
[
"light years away.",
"-31.2181934627406"
],
[
"telescopes, 470 light-years from Earth. The primary is a silvery giant of magnitude 4.9, and the secondary is an old, reddish giant star of magnitude 5.2. The star HD164669 near the primary may be an optical double. 100 Herculis is a double star easily divisible in small amateur telescopes. Both components are magnitude 5.8 blue-white stars; they are 165 and 230 light-years from Earth.\nMu Herculis is 27.4 light-years from Earth. The solar apex, i.e., the point on the sky which marks the direction that the Sun is moving in its orbit around the center of the Milky Way, is located",
"-31.20849263672426"
],
[
"are correct in the report, the star must have formed soon after the Big Bang and is one of the oldest stars known. The search for such very iron-poor stars has shown they are almost all anomalies in globular clusters and the Galactic Halo. This concords with a narrative that they are rare survivors of their generation. If so, the apparent visual data of the oldest of these enables us to longstop-date the reionization (first star formation) phase of the Universe independently of theories and evidence of the first few million years after the Big Bang. Most stars from Population II",
"-31.17257396207424"
],
[
"0.43 ± 0.13 arcseconds. This would have placed its distance at only 7.50 light-years, making Teegarden's Star only the third star system in order of distance from the Sun, ranking between Barnard's Star and Wolf 359. However, even at that time the anomalously low luminosity (the absolute magnitude would have been 18.5) and high uncertainty in the parallax suggested that it was in fact somewhat farther away, still one of the Sun's nearest neighbors but not nearly as high in the ranking in order of distance. A more accurate parallax measurement of 0.2593 arcseconds was made by George Gatewood in",
"-31.13261398414761"
],
[
"is dimmed by 30% due to interstellar dust, so would have a brighter magnitude of 3.31 if not for this. The second brightest star at magnitude 3.97 is Beta Pyxidis, a yellow bright giant or supergiant of spectral type G7Ib-II that is around 435 times as luminous as the Sun, lying 420 ± 10 light-years distant away from Earth. It has a companion star of magnitude 12.5 separated by 9 arcseconds. Gamma Pyxidis is a star of magnitude 4.02 that lies 207 ± 2 light-years distant. It is an orange giant of spectral type K3III that has cooled and swollen",
"-31.12031232335721"
],
[
"to be missing. However, R.T.A. Innes found an uncatalogued star about 15 arc seconds away from the absent star's position. It became clear that the star had a very high proper motion of more than 8 arc seconds per year and had moved significantly. Later, CPD-44 612 came to be referred to as Kapteyn's Star although equal credit should be accorded to Robert Innes. At the time of its discovery it had the highest proper motion of any star known, dethroning Groombridge 1830. In 1916, Barnard's Star was found to have an even larger proper motion. In 2014, two super-Earth",
"-31.086559557741566"
],
[
"to contain at least one \"dark\" star, we could search for and catalogue as many double-star systems as possible, and identify cases where only a single circling star was visible. This would then provide a statistical baseline for calculating the amount of other unseen stellar matter that might exist in addition to the visible stars. Dark stars and gravitational shifts Michell also suggested that future astronomers might be able to identify the surface gravity of a distant star by seeing how far the star's light was shifted to the weaker end of the spectrum, a precursor of Einstein's 1911 gravity-shift",
"-31.070081149358884"
],
[
"11.95. M13 is about 22,200 light-years away from Earth.\nIt wasn't until 1779 that the single stars in this globular cluster were resolved. Compared to the stars in the neighborhood of the Sun, the stars in M13's stellar population are more than a hundred times denser. They are so densely packed together that they sometimes collide and produce new stars. The newly-formed, young stars, so-called \"blue stragglers,\" are particularly interesting to astronomers.\nThe Arecibo message of 1974, which contained encoded information about the human race, DNA, atomic numbers, Earth's position and other information, was beamed from the Arecibo Observatory radio telescope towards",
"-31.060041871722206"
],
[
"the brightness necessary to be seen with the naked eye. At that time, Gliese 445 will be approximately tied with Ross 248 for being the closest star to our Sun (see List of nearest stars#Future and past).",
"-31.007253813957504"
],
[
"the same patch of sky from Earth's perspective. This group has an estimated age of about (500 ± 100) million years. As the members of this group share a common origin and motion through space, this yields an estimate for the age of Beta Ursae Majoris. Two stars are known to be located in relatively close proximity: 37 Ursae Majoris at 5.2 light-years (1.6 pc) and Gamma Ursae Majoris at 11.0 light-years (3.4 pc); much closer to each other than these stars are to the Earth. Nomenclature β Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Beta Ursae Majoris) is the star's Bayer designation.\nIt bore the traditional",
"-30.94422927231426"
],
[
"star was seen. By night, it was the brightest star in the sky, and it was visible during the day for more than three weeks, before eventually dimming. In 1606, Delle Colombe published his discourse on the phenomenon, dedicated to Alessandro Marzi Medici, the Archbishop of Florence. In his work delle Colombe argued that the star was not new, but permanent, though only occasionally visible. This argument echoed that of Johannes van Heeck in supporting the generally-accepted model of the universe, known as the Aristotelian model or the Ptolemaic system. This held that the stars were fixed in their",
"-30.925707125745248"
],
[
"Rabolu's ideas to bolster her claims.\nBarnard's star has been directly measured to be 5.98 ± 0.003 light years (56.6 Pm) from Earth . While it is approaching Earth, Barnard's Star will not make its closest approach to the Sun until around 11,700 AD, when it will approach to within some 3.8 light-years. This is only slightly closer than the closest star to the Sun (Proxima Centauri) lies today. Nemesis Believers in Planet X/Nibiru have often confused it with Nemesis, a hypothetical star first proposed by physicist Richard A. Muller. In 1984, Muller postulated that mass extinctions were not random, but appeared",
"-30.91035214113799"
],
[
"the very first stars. The discovery of the star in the Milky Way galaxy suggests that the galaxy may be at least 3 billion years older than previously thought.\nSeveral individual stars have been found in the Milky Way's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80-billion-year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523-0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using",
"-30.891924348419707"
],
[
"star generally is the first to evolve into a giant or supergiant. Calculations show that its mass loss then will become so large that in a comparatively very short time (less than half a million years) this star, that was once the heaviest, now becomes the lighter of the two components. Part of its mass is transferred to the companion star, the rest is lost in space. Light curves The light curves of beta Lyrae variables are quite smooth: eclipses start and end so gradually that the exact moments are impossible to tell. This is because the flow of mass",
"-30.811775490388754"
],
[
"billion years old based on its evolution and mass. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 9.63. Therefore, BD+14 4559 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be viewed using good binoculars. Orbit BD+14 4559 b orbits its star with about 25% of the Sun's luminosity every 268 days at a distance of 0.77 AU (close to Venus's orbital distance from the Sun, which is 0.72 AU). It has a mildly eccentric",
"-30.80775275551423"
],
[
"period began to gradually decrease until its light curve only showed one peak per period. This was because the secondary star began orbiting faster than the envelope of the primary star could keep up with. Because the stars are in contact, the velocity difference begins to dissipate as energy at their point of contact. Thus when the secondary star was approaching the line of sight, it appeared brighter and when it was moving away from the line of sight, it appeared fainter. By 2007, the two stars were so close to merging, that its magnitude, as measured on Earth, appeared",
"-30.75715612363274"
],
[
"faster than the galaxy's escape velocity.\nThe star is about 200,000 light years from the galaxy's center. Some doubt has surrounded the previous studies based on the speed and position of HE 0437-5439. The star would have to be at least 100 million years old to have traveled that distance from the galactic core, yet its mass and blue color indicate that it had burned only for 20 million years. These observations led to the explanation that it was part of a triple-star system consisting of two closely bound stars and one outer star. The black hole pulled the outer star",
"-30.753646397286502"
],
[
"time the light was emitted is estimated to have been about 15% of the Milky Way's current mass. The galaxy was making new stars at roughly 80 times the rate of the current Milky Way, or equivalent to 800 M☉ worth of material turning to stars every year. The light reaching Earth was made by stars in EGS-zs8-1 that were 100 million to 300 million years old at the time they emitted the light. The age of EGS-zs8-1 places it in the reionization phase of creation, a time when hydrogen outside the galaxies was switching from a neutral to ionized",
"-30.728321480040904"
],
[
"years have passed, but according to those on Earth, the ship comes back 76 years after launch.\nFrom the viewpoint of the astronaut, onboard clocks seem to be running normally. The star ahead seems to be approaching at a speed of 0.87 light years per ship-year. The universe would appear contracted along the direction of travel to half the size it had when the ship was at rest; the distance between that star and the Sun would seem to be 16 light years as measured by the astronaut.\nAt higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, so the astronaut",
"-30.699277884326875"
],
[
"universe. Presently the earth is only an invisible point among all the stars, because, at this distance, it is lost through its infinite smallness in the vicinity of the sun, which itself is by far only a small star. In the future, when the end of things will arrive on this earth, the event will then pass completely unperceived in the universe. The stars will continue to shine after the extinction of our sun, as they already shone before our existence. When there will no longer be on the earth a sole concern to contemplate, the",
"-30.69328781877266"
],
[
"light-years distant from Earth. At apparent magnitude 11.27, it is much too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. A small star, it has around 23% the mass and radius of the Sun, but only 0.7% its luminosity. VHS 1256-1257 is a brown dwarf of spectral type M7.5 located 41 ± 3 light-years distant from Earth. Around 73 times as massive as Jupiter, it is just under the mass boundary separating brown dwarves from stars. It has a companion that was first identified and documented by the 2MASS survey in 2015. It orbits at a distance of 102 ±",
"-30.62193757806017"
],
[
"5 million years, for example, this star will be separated from the Sun by more than 500 light years. A Type Ia supernova within a thousand parsecs (3300 light-years) is thought to be able to affect the Earth, but it must be closer than about 10 parsecs (around thirty light-years) to cause a major harm to the terrestrial biosphere.\nFollowing a supernova explosion, the remnant of the donor star (IK Pegasus A) would continue with the final velocity it possessed when it was a member of a close orbiting binary system. The resulting relative velocity could be as high as 100–200 km/s, which would place it",
"-30.564533328288235"
],
[
"years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which typically can only see objects with a magnitude around 6 or less. Discovery In 2009, NASA's Kepler spacecraft was completing observing stars on its photometer, the instrument it uses to detect transit events, in which a planet crosses in front of and dims its host star for a brief and roughly regular period of time. In this last test, Kepler observed 50000 stars in the",
"-30.53196457328886"
],
[
"would be more than a thousand times lower than the faintest stars currently existing and their lifetimes would also be sensibly longer.",
"-30.51075150905308"
],
[
"if light came from our eyes at a constant velocity it would take much too long to illuminate the stars for us to see them while we are still looking at them, because they are so far away. Therefore, the illumination must be coming from the stars so we can see them as soon as we open our eyes. Astronomy The Islamic understanding of the astronomical model was based on the Greek Ptolemaic system. However many early astronomers had started to question the model. It was not always accurate in its predictions and was over complicated because astronomers were trying",
"-30.46596992497507"
],
[
"only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years. Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright. Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth. As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible. As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black.\nThe daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in",
"-30.453308142519745"
],
[
"light coming from the star RX J1856.5-3754, the closest discovered neutron star to Earth.\nRoberto Mignani at the National Institute for Astrophysics in Milan who led the team of astronomers has commented that \"“When Einstein came up with the theory of general relativity 100 years ago, he had no idea that it would be used for navigational systems. The consequences of this discovery probably will also have to be realised on a longer timescale.” The team found that visible light from the star had undergone linear polarisation of around 16%. If the birefringence had been caused by light passing through interstellar",
"-30.439425623000716"
],
[
"of that of the solar luminosity, respectively.\nThe apparent magnitude of the star system, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is about 15.4. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which can typically detect objects with a magnitude less than 6.5.",
"-30.429703949452232"
],
[
"including 163 single stars. It is estimated that a further 130 systems within this range have not yet been identified. Out to 81.5 ly, there may be up to 7,500 stars, of which around 2,600 are known. The number of substellar objects in that volume are expected to be comparable to the number of stars. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being the red dwarf Proxima Centauri at approximately 4.2 light-years), the Sun ranks fourth in mass. Coronal heating problem The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona",
"-30.41436559903741"
],
[
"was Frank B. McDonald. The discovery of Teegarden's star The discovery of Teegarden's star came as somewhat of a surprise as no close-by stars had been discovered for many decades. Teegarden's team found this star in data taken years earlier by an unrelated program searching for near-Earth asteroids.\nThe real excitement was from the initial measurements the team made for the parallax of this star. These initial measurements indicated that the star may be very close at a distance of about seven light-years. This would have made it the third-closest star system. This excitement resulted in numerous popular press articles and",
"-30.39179337269161"
],
[
"Over 3600 light-years away, this system would outshine Venus at magnitude −4.8 if it were 32 light-years (10 parsecs) distant. The two main components are separated by 50 arcseconds, resolvable to the naked eye for individuals with good vision and easily discernible with a telescope.\nEta Circini is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III and magnitude 5.17, located around 276 light-years distant, and Zeta Circini is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B3V and magnitude 6.09, located around 1273 light-years away.\n493 variable stars have been recorded in Circinus, but most have a very small range or are quite dim. Three prominent examples are",
"-30.354434766333725"
],
[
"2.6 and 5.1 billion years.\nThe star's surface gravity, logg = 4.15, and its low levels of lithium helped derive the star's age, and revealed that it most likely evolved away from the zero age main sequence.",
"-30.30277802034834"
],
[
"Earth's sky, with an apparent magnitude of −26.74. This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. The mean distance of the Sun's center to Earth's center is approximately 1 astronomical unit (about 150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi), though the distance varies as Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July. At this average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. The energy of",
"-30.275593818339985"
],
[
"of 0.68 R☉. It has a surface temperature of 4640 K and is 7 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 8.96. Therefore, HIP 57274 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be seen with good binoculars. Orbit HIP 57274 d orbits its star every 432 days at a distance of 1.01 AU. This is very similar to that of Earth's orbital period and distance. Habitability HIP 57274 d",
"-30.26944295506837"
],
[
"that their median age is 6.4 ± 0.7 Ga. Moreover, 75% of stars in the galactic habitable zone are older than the Sun. This makes the existence of potential planets with evolved intelligent life more likely than not to be older than that of the Earth (4.54 Ga). This creates an observational dilemma since interstellar travel, (even of the \"slow\" kind that is nearly within the reach of present Earth technology) could in theory, if this had arisen elsewhere, take from only 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the galaxy. This leads to a conundrum first posed in",
"-30.248216025152942"
],
[
"that of the Sun and is 8.6 light-years away. Canopus and the next fixed star Toliman (α Centauri), 4.2 light-years away, are also located in the Southern Sky, having declinations around –60° – too close to the south celestial pole that neither are visible from Central Europe.",
"-30.24122572549095"
],
[
"star that is divisible into two stars 5.4\" apart by small amateur telescopes, 280 light-years from Earth. The pair, both white stars, is visible to the naked eye at magnitude 5.2; the primary is of magnitude 5.9 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0.\nThe raven's breast is marked by Beta Corvi (the proper name is Kraz), a star of magnitude 2.7 located 146 ± 1 light-years from Earth. Roughly 206 million years old and 3.7 ± 1 times as massive as the Sun, it has exhausted its core hydrogen and expanded and cooled to a surface temperature of around 5,100 K",
"-30.228348652908608"
],
[
"extremely difficult to observe. Therefore, secular aberration is usually ignored when considering the positions of stars. In other words, star maps show the observed apparent positions of the stars, not their calculated true positions after accounting for secular aberration.\nFor stars significantly less than 230 million light years away, the Solar System may be approximated as an inertial frame and so the effect of secular aberration is equivalent to a light-time correction. This includes stars in the Milky Way, since the Milky Way is about 100,000 light years in diameter. For these stars the true position of the star is then",
"-30.224954481258465"
],
[
"miles (17.7 million km). Astronomical observations also suggest that there may be additional stars in the Spica system. In the story, Asumi mentions Spica's distance to Earth as 350 light-years. This figure is also cited by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency; however, other sources indicate a distance of approximately 260 light-years.\nKou Yaginuma's initial inspiration for the story came from a statement he once read describing the Hohner Little Lady harmonica as one of the first musical instruments taken into space. However, as an aspiring manga artist, Yaginuma had neither resources to conduct research on nor knowledge pertaining to spaceflight. He",
"-30.220351464384294"
],
[
"the primary and 401 ± 13 light-years (123 ± 4 pc) for the secondary. More recently the Gaia mission has measured distances of about 330–390 light years (100–120 parsecs) for both components, but noise in the astrometric measurements for the stars means that data from Gaia's second data release is not yet sufficient to determine whether the stars are physically associated.\nThere are a further 10 faint companions listed in the Washington Double Star catalogue, all fainter than magnitude 10. Only one is closer to the primary than Albireo B, with the others up to 142\" away. Albireo A The spectrum of Beta Cygni A was",
"-30.196932815611945"
],
[
"to their peak in 2025. The system, 35 light-years from Earth, has a period of 34.5 years. The primary is a yellow-tinged star of magnitude 2.9 and the secondary is an orange star of magnitude 5.7.\nThere are several dimmer variable stars in Hercules. 30 Herculis, also called g Herculis, is a semiregular red giant with a period of 3 months. 361 light-years from Earth, it has a minimum magnitude of 6.3 and a maximum magnitude of 4.3. 68 Herculis, also called u Herculis, is a Beta Lyrae-type eclipsing binary star. 865 light-years from Earth, it has a period of 2",
"-30.193799207525444"
],
[
"HD 155358 Observation With a visual magnitude of 7.5, this star can not be observed with the unaided eye. Hence it was discovered only after the introduction of the telescope. In 1859 it was catalogued in the Bonner Durchmusterung by the Prussian astronomer F. W. Argelander, who listed an estimated visual magnitude of 7.2. In 1958 it was identified as a star with a relatively large proper motion by the Nizamiah Observatory, Hyderabad. It was suggested in 1979 that this star may lie within 25 parsecs of the Sun. (Up to that time it had never been catalogued as a",
"-30.17330491614848"
],
[
"Digital Sky Survey. Both of these stars being cool red giants, they are extremely bright which is one of the key factors in their discovery. Their distance was estimated with a number of different techniques, which all pointed towards 900,000 light years away. Distance ULAS J0015+01 is, at the current time, 900,000 light years away from the Milky Way galaxy. The Milky Way's disk is 180,000 light years in diameter, putting it far beyond the Milky Way stellar disk, or only 3 times closer than the Andromeda galaxy. In comparison, in distance to the Milky Way's satellite galaxy, the Large",
"-30.172145402571914"
],
[
"old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a temperature of 5778 K. The star is metal-rich, with a metallicity ([Fe/H]) of 0.16, or 144% the solar amount. This is particularly odd for a star as old as HD 164922. Its luminosity (L☉) is 70% of the solar luminosity.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 7.01. Therefore, HD 164922 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but can be viewed using good binoculars. Orbit HD 164922 b orbits its star every 1,155 days at a distance",
"-30.168278006414766"
],
[
"data of its planet's atmospheric composition. It would take 4.22 years for the information collected to be sent back to Earth.\nFrom Proxima Centauri, the Sun would appear as a bright 0.4-magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia, similar to that of Achernar from Earth.",
"-30.109470021352536"
],
[
"mass of the Milky Way's stars. According to Lehnert (of the Observatoire de Paris), it was forming the same number of stars per year as our galaxy, but they were much smaller and less massive, making it \"intensely star forming\".\nThe light travel distance of the light that we observe from UDFy-38135539 (HUF.YD3) is more than 4 billion parsecs (13.1 billion light years), and it has a luminosity distance of 86.9 billion parsecs (about 283 billion light years). There are a number of different distance measures in cosmology, and both \"light travel distance\" and \"luminosity distance\" are different from the comoving",
"-30.077176249822514"
],
[
"borders. Appearing to be of magnitude 3.97, a telescope reveals a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F4V of magnitude 4.11 and a star very similar to the Sun of spectral type G5V and magnitude 6.18. The two are 10.6 astronomical units (au) apart and orbit each other every 21.78 years. The system is 52.4 ± 0.6 light-years distant from Earth. Likewise 16 Lyncis was originally known as Psi¹⁰ Aurigae and conversely, 37, 39, 41 and 44 Lyncis became part of Ursa Major.\nY Lyncis is a popular target among amateur astronomers, as it is a semiregular variable ranging in brightness from",
"-30.07630578037788"
],
[
"probe to the nearest star.\nAstrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones. Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and",
"-30.07390244835551"
],
[
"correction of −0.2 mag dex⁻¹ in (O/H), an estimate of 2.57 ± 0.06 million light-years (1.625×10¹¹ ± 3.8×10⁹ astronomical units) was derived. A 2004 Cepheid variable method estimated the distance to be 2.51 ± 0.13 million light-years (770 ± 40 kpc). In 2005, an eclipsing binary star was discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy. The binary is two hot blue stars of types O and B. By studying the eclipses of the stars, astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars, they were able to measure their absolute magnitude. When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance",
"-30.051302718253282"
],
[
"The two stars are 0.05 AU from each other, while a third star is around 600 AU away from the pair, and has an orbital period exceeding 5000 years. The system is around 300 light years distant. In 1976, researchers Clausen, Gyldenkerne, and Grønbech calculated that a nearby 8th magnitude star is a fourth member of the system.\nGamma Phoenicis is a red giant of spectral type M0IIIa and varies between magnitudes 3.39 and 3.49. It lies 235 light years away. Psi Phoenicis is another red giant, this time of spectral type M4III, and has an apparent magnitude that ranges",
"-30.04167118342957"
],
[
"faint, and of the colour of Jupiter, but similar to many others which generally are reckoned of the eighth magnitude. Therefore I had no doubt of its being any other than a fixed star. In the evening of the second I repeated my observations, and having found that it did not correspond either in time or in distance from the zenith with the former observation, I began to entertain some doubts of its accuracy. I conceived afterwards a great suspicion that it might be a new star. The evening of the third, my suspicion was converted into certainty, being assured",
"-30.0312785265196"
],
[
"old star. At 13.53 Gyr, the star is the oldest known thin-disk star, and several billion years older than most estimates for the age of the Milky Way's thin disk. Primary star The primary component of the binary star system, 2MASS J18082002−5104378 A, is a subgiant, cooler than the Sun, but larger and more luminous. Secondary star The secondary unseen companion, 2MASS J18082002−5104378 B, thought to be a red dwarf, has an orbital period P = 34.757+0.010\n−0.010 days and a mass of 0.14 M☉. It is the first low-mass UMP star to be discovered, and one of the oldest stars in the",
"-30.010932917786704"
],
[
"248 will bring it closer to the Solar System. In 1993, Matthews projected that in about 33,000 years it would enter a period of about 9,000 years as the closest star to the Sun, as close as 3.024 light-years (0.927 parsecs) in 36,000 years.\nAny future spacecraft that escaped the Solar System with a velocity of 25.4 km/s would reach this star 37,000 years from now, when the star just passes its nearest approach. By comparison, the Voyager 1 has an escape velocity of 16.6 km/s.",
"-29.960920616809744"
],
[
"stars, are of magnitude 4.8 and 6.2, respectively. The unrelated tertiary component is of magnitude 6.9. Though the tertiary component is divisible in binoculars, the primary and secondary currently require a medium-sized amateur telescope to split, as they will through the year 2020. The two stars will be closest between 2043 and 2050, when they will require a telescope with larger aperture to split. The stars 30 and 31 Cygni form a contrasting double star similar to the brighter Albireo. The two are divisible in binoculars. The primary, 31 Cygni, is an orange-hued star of magnitude 3.8, 1400 light-years from",
"-29.950232242768834"
],
[
"The faint (magnitude 12.23) Gliese 754, a red dwarf of spectral type M4.5V, is one of the nearest 100 stars to Earth at 19.3 light-years distant. Its eccentric orbit around the Galaxy indicates that it may have originated in the Milky Way's thick disk.\nAt least four of the fifteen stars visible to the unaided eye are orange giants of spectral class K. The second brightest star in the constellation—at apparent magnitude 4.1—is Zeta Telescopii, an orange subgiant of spectral type K1III-IV. Around 1.53 times as massive as the Sun, it shines with 512 times its luminosity. Located 127 light years",
"-29.905956798655097"
],
[
"Light-year History The light-year unit appeared a few years after the first successful measurement of the distance to a star other than the Sun, by Friedrich Bessel in 1838. The star was 61 Cygni, and he used a 6.2-inch (160 mm) heliometer designed by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The largest unit for expressing distances across space at that time was the astronomical unit, equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit (1.50×10⁸ km or 9.30×10⁷ mi). In those terms, trigonometric calculations based on 61 Cygni's parallax of 0.314 arcseconds, showed the distance to the star to be 660000 astronomical units (9.9×10¹³ km or 6.1×10¹³ mi). Bessel",
"-29.90135615383042"
],
[
"the first-magnitude star Deneb. This is near the midpoint of the imaginary line between the 3rd-magnitude stars Xi Cygni and Rho Cygni. The star can also be found by continuing north along the line between the stars Zeta Cygni, Upsilon Cygni, Tau Cygni, and Sigma Cygni, as 68 Cygni is the first easily visible naked-eye star one will come to. Properties According to the star's measured parallax of 0.70 milliarcseconds, it is located approximately 1,400 parsecs (4,600 ly) distant, although such low parallax values are subject to low precision. With taking into account the error estimate of 0.23 milliarcseconds, the star's",
"-29.899932155654824"
],
[
"and its kinematics and age show its unlikely it had formed in any of the previous three star-forming regions mentioned.\nAssuming the distance given above and a surface temperature of 3,300 K, IRC-10414 is 160,000 times brighter than the Sun and its diameter in the order of 1,200 times the solar one, which places this star among the largest known. Stellar evolution models suggest in that case an initial mass between 20 and 25 solar masses and an age between 6 and 10 million years. Variability IRC-10414 has been reported as a likely variable with a period of 768 days and",
"-29.879374853584522"
],
[
"or 440 light years. However, when the Hipparcos Catalogue was published in 1997, the new parallax measurement indicated a much closer distance of about 119 ± 1.0 pc (388 ± 3.2 ly), triggering substantial controversy among astronomers. If the Hipparcos estimate were accurate, some astronomers contend, then stars in the cluster would have to be fainter than Sun-like stars—a notion that would challenge some of the fundamental precepts of stellar structure. Interferometric measurements taken in 2004 by the Hubble Telescope's Fine Guidance Sensors and corroborated by studies from Caltech and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory showed the original estimate of 135",
"-29.854712732398184"
],
[
"disclosed the risings and settings of the stars, how the fiery brightness of the sun is darkened, and how the stars retreat at fixed times.\"",
"-29.85148442765785"
],
[
"apparent magnitude of 5.90. Known as 35 Leo, this star is separated from Adhafera by 325.9 arcseconds along a position angle of 340°. The two stars do not form a binary star system as 35 Leo is only 100 light years from Earth, thus separating the two stars by approximately 174 light-years (53 parsecs).",
"-29.834515190319507"
],
[
"HD 12661 Properties The apparent visual magnitude of this star is 7.42, making it too faint to be viewed by the naked eye even under ideal viewing conditions. However, it can be readily observed using a small telescope with an aperture of 6 cm (2 in) or more. Parallax measurements of HD 12661 place it at a distance of about 123.6 light-years (37.9 parsecs) from the Earth, with a margin of error of ±0.2 light years. It has a stellar classification of G6 V, indicating that it is a main sequence star that is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at",
"-29.82156909033074"
],
[
"distant an object, the longer it takes light to reach Earth as a result of the speed of light being finite. In general, this allows astronomers to study objects as they were many millions or even billions of years ago. Spinrad originally selected targets by looking at the position of members of the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources, as the catalogue included many radio galaxies that he thought would be at high redshift. The search was successful, and Spinrad found the galaxy with the highest identified redshift in 1975, and then found several more with greater redshifts, including the",
"-29.805140366515843"
],
[
"no more than a few light years in diameter and may hypothetically contain a small number of other suns. But Lagash is located in the center of a \"giant cluster,\" and during the eclipse, the night sky—the first that people have ever seen—is filled with the dazzling light of more than 30,000 newly visible stars.\nLearning that the universe is far more vast—and Lagash far more insignificant—than they believed causes everyone, including the scientists, to go insane. Outside the observatory, in the direction of the city, the horizon begins glowing with the light of spreading fires as \"the long night\" returns",
"-29.796317519270815"
],
[
"an age of less than two billion years. However, this technique becomes less accurate for ages beyond about 5.6 billion years. Based upon the chromosphere emission of HD 12661, it is older than the Sun with an estimated age of roughly seven billion years. It has a low projected rotational velocity of 1.20 km/s, consistent with it being an older star. The age of a star can also be estimated by the abundance of lithium, as this element is destroyed through thermonuclear fusion at the core. However, this is less accurate technique. For HD 12661, the lithium abundance gives an age",
"-29.795516020159994"
],
[
"lifetimes. Stars were thought therefore to radiate energy by converting gravitational energy into radiation through the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. This mechanism resulted in an age for the Sun of only tens of millions of years, creating a conflict over the age of the Solar System between astronomers, and biologists and geologists who had evidence that the Earth was far older than that. This conflict was only resolved in the 1930s when nuclear fusion was identified as the source of stellar energy.\nFollowing Russell's presentation of the diagram to a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1912, Arthur Eddington was inspired to",
"-29.792198845643725"
]
] |
6mgb35 | Why do some vegetarians sight morals reasons for not eating meat/animals when animals eating other animals has persisted throughout history? | [
"Animals rape each other in the wild, does that justify rape? Basing your morality off of what wild animals do isn't sound logic.",
"Ethics specifically deals with the fact that humanity is sapient, and can reason before making choices. What other animals do really doesn't have an impact on ethics, because as far as we know, none of them can make a conscious decision to act differently.",
"Animals in the wild are not intelligent like humans, not capable of morality like humans, and most of all don't really have a choice... predators are built by evolution to kill and eat, and in an environment where that's their only survival option. Humans, however, are omnivores and capable of eating a wide variety of things to survive. Furthermore, we've constructed a huge society that makes getting access to tons and tons of different food options pretty easy. Tigers don't have a choice, Humans do, and ergo humans **choose** to eat meat.",
"Lots of valid points here, but it's also worth noting that we are the only species that does factory farming. If you're a deer and get eaten by a wolf, you've probably lived your life with a lot of freedom but just died pretty brutally. If you're a chicken and get eaten by a human, your life was very likely spent in a tiny environment with a huge amount of other chickens eating food laden with supplements to force more growth and so on. This is why many vegans will argue that being vegetarian isn't enough, a chicken that lays eggs or a cow that produces milk will have the same poor quality of life up until their death whether or not they get eaten at the end of it. While I'm a meat eater myself, I'm strongly of the belief that the debate needs to move on from \"are we ethically **eating** meat\" to \"are we ethically **farming** meat\".",
"Because what other animals do is irrelevant. We typically don't base the ethics of our behavior and actions on that of other animals, and for good reasons: we would find ourselves in societies where it was perfectly fine for a man to kill another man for hitting on his girlfriend; societies where a mother would be justified in killing and eating her own baby.",
"Because animals aren't considered to have moral agency, so we do ascribe morality to any of their actions. Animals in the wild commit all kinds of acts that humans consider to be morally repugnant, including rape and murder. The is absolutely no reasons we should look to the wild kingdom as our guide on morality.",
"Lots of things commonly occur in nature that are morally reprehensible. Mothers eat their own young as a survival strategy, rape is a common way males can pass on their genes. It's the Naturalistic fallacy to assume something is right or good because it occurs in nature.",
"The way animals are raised, fed and slaughtered is often very barbaric whereas animals in the wild get to roam freely."
] | [
[
"controversy and debate have arisen over the ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo, such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms, or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns",
"-38.74606883950764"
],
[
"justified in extreme circumstances; consuming a living creature just for its taste, for convenience, or out of habit is not justifiable. Some ethicists have added that humans, unlike other animals, are morally conscious of their behavior and have a choice; this is why there are laws governing human behavior, and why it is subject to moral standards.\nEthical vegetarian concerns have become more widespread in developed countries, particularly because of the spread of factory farming, more open and graphic documentation of what human meat-eating entails for the animal, and environmental consciousness. Some proponents of meat-eating argue that the current mass demand",
"-38.377269424003316"
],
[
"word \"vegetarianism\", vegetarians were referred to in English as \"Pythagoreans\".\nThe question of whether there are any ethical duties toward animals was hotly debated, and the arguments in dispute were quite similar to the ones familiar in modern discussions on animal rights. Vegetarianism was usually part and parcel of religious convictions connected with the concept of transmigration of the soul (metempsychosis). There was a widely held belief, popular among both vegetarians and non-vegetarians, that in the Golden Age of the beginning of humanity mankind was strictly non-violent. In that utopian state of the world hunting, livestock breeding, and meat-eating, as well",
"-37.74165047759743"
],
[
"in distributing the spoils afterwards. In a 2003 paper, psychologist Matteo Marneli proposed that these pressures created the basic principles of human moral judgements: put simply, he argued, \"meat made us moral.\"\nSeveral studies have found that both omnivores and vegetarians tend to consider vegetarians slightly more moral and virtuous than omnivores. Ethical principles are often cited among reasons to stop eating meat. Some evidence suggests meat-eaters may consider vegetarianism an implicit moral reproach, and respond defensively to vegetarian ideas.\nA 2015 study found that Belgian omnivores, semi-vegetarians (flexitarians), and vegetarians have fundamentally different moral outlooks on animal welfare concerns. However, the",
"-37.25599647974013"
],
[
"in the Vegetarian Society's magazine in 1851 as evidence of the existence of a group that sought to avoid animal products entirely. There was increasing unease within the Society from the start of the 20th century onwards with regards to egg and milk consumption, and in 1923 its magazine wrote that the \"ideal position for vegetarians is [complete] abstinence from animal products.\"\nMahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) argued in 1931 before a meeting of the Society in London that vegetarianism should be pursued in the interests of animals, and not only as a human health issue. He met both Henry Salt and Anna",
"-37.084604038420366"
],
[
"History of vegetarianism The earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people are from ancient India and the ancient Greek civilizations in southern Italy and Greece. In both instances, the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence toward animals (called ahimsa in India), and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.\nFollowing the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity (4th–6th centuries), vegetarianism nearly disappeared from Europe. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them abstained from the",
"-37.06402262552001"
],
[
"a vegan diet (no animal products).\nAs of March 2016, 11.2% of people living in Australia, 2.1 million people, said \"The food I eat is all, or almost all, vegetarian.\" The report also found that vegetarians were likely to be slimmer; while 60.7% of Australian adults have a Body Mass Index that qualifies as overweight or obese, this figure drops to 45.4% of those whose diet is mostly or totally vegetarian. Humane slaughter Animals Australia and RSPCA Victoria state that all animals should be stunned prior to slaughter because of the suffering they experience during their slaughter. According to the Australian",
"-37.06309086277906"
],
[
"diet of grain, or injected with any artificial hormones. However, since the necessary act of killing a deer to procure the venison is generally much more apparent to anyone who encounters this sort of meat, some people can be even more uncomfortable with eating this than meat from animals raised on factory farms. Many ethical vegetarians and ethical meat-eaters argue that it is behaviour rather than supporting beliefs that should be adjusted. Environmental argument Some people choose to be vegetarian or vegan for environmental reasons.\nAccording to a 2006 report by LEAD Livestock's Long Shadow, \"the livestock sector emerges",
"-36.94333330367226"
],
[
"consumption of fish; these monks were not vegetarians, but some were pescetarians. Vegetarianism was to reemerge somewhat in Europe during the Renaissance and became a more widespread practice during the 19th and 20th centuries. The figures for the percentage of the Western world which is vegetarian varies between 0.5% and 4% per Mintel data in September 2006. Early Jainism and Buddhism Jain and Buddhist sources show that the principle of nonviolence toward animals was an established rule in both religions as early as the 6th-century BCE. The Jain concept, which is particularly strict, may be even older. Parshva, the earliest",
"-36.83320530454512"
],
[
"underpins using animals for food, and particularly killing them for meat. Joy compares carnism to patriarchy, arguing that both are dominant normative ideologies that go unrecognized because of their ubiquity:\nWe don't see meat eating as we do vegetarianism – as a choice, based on a set of assumptions about animals, our world, and ourselves. Rather, we see it as a given, the \"natural\" thing to do, the way things have always been and the way things will always be. We eat animals without thinking about what we are doing and why, because the belief system that underlies this behavior is invisible.",
"-36.73334684345173"
],
[
"animals have immortal souls, and that a diet of mostly grain is the healthiest for humans.\nIn Chinese folk religions, as well as the aforementioned faiths, people often eat vegan on the 1st and 15th of the month, as well as the eve of Chinese New Year. Some nonreligious people do this as well. This is similar to the Christian practice of lent and not eating meat on Friday. The percentage of people permanently being pure vegetarian is about the same as the modern English-speaking world, but this percentage has not really changed for a very long time. Many people eat",
"-36.72963618144058"
],
[
"the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns. Henry Stephens Salt (1851-1939) and George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) were famous vegetarian activists.\nIn 1910, physician J. L. Buttner authored the vegetarian book, A Fleshless Diet which argued that meat is dangerous and unnecessary. \nCranks opened in Carnaby Street, London, in 1961, as the first successful vegetarian restaurant in the UK. Eventually there were five Cranks restaurants in London which closed in 2001.\nThe Indian concept of nonviolence had a growing impact in the Western world. The model of",
"-36.44577224466775"
],
[
"the prevalence of vegetarianism among a segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, and the Hindi-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains. Among these groups, strong discomfort is felt at thoughts of eating meat, and contributes to the low proportional consumption of meat to overall diet in India. Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption accompanying higher economic growth.\nIn the last millennium,",
"-36.04115226252179"
],
[
"vegan for a certain amount of time in order to make up for the belief that they have sinned.\nFoods like seitan, tofu skin, meat alternatives made from seaweeds, root vegetable starch, and tofu originate in China and became popularized because so many people periodically abstain from meat. In China, one can find an eggless vegetarian substitute for items ranging from seafood to ham. Also, the Thai (เจ) and Vietnamese (chay) terms for vegetarianism originate from the Chinese term for a lenten diet. Japan In 675, the use of livestock and the consumption of some wild animals (horse, cattle, dogs, monkeys,",
"-35.88509226121823"
],
[
"not a vegetarian), but they all had critical views of meat-eating.\nIt was of some importance at the time. As Jon Gregerson wrote in Vegetarianism: A History, “Not unimportant in the momentum gathered by the Vegetarian Movement in late Victorian England was a book by one Howard Williams entitled The Ethics of Diet, which was published in 1890”. It was read by Indian spiritual leader Mohandas Gandhi, Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, English social reformer Henry Stephens Salt, and Portuguese philosopher Jaime de Magalhães Lima (as he mentioned in his conference O Vegetarismo e a Moralidade das Raças).\nGandhi, who met Williams in",
"-35.837596648147155"
],
[
"to observe vegetarianism. Most Hindus do not eat beef, and some Hindus apply the concept of ahimsa (non-violence) to their diet and consider vegetarianism as ideal, and practice forms of vegetarianism. In some cases, the process of preparation rather than the food itself comes under scrutiny. For instance, in early medieval Christianity, certain uncooked foods were of dubious status: a penitential ascribed to Bede outlined a (mild) penance for those who ate uncooked foods, and Saint Boniface wrote to Pope Zachary (in a letter preserved in the Boniface correspondence, no. 87) asking him how long bacon would have to be",
"-35.780191009427654"
],
[
"questioned the morality of eating animals when it was not necessary for health. Statements from his notebook and a comment by a contemporary have led to the widely held view that he was vegetarian. Additionally, he categorized humans as being in the same set of species as apes and monkeys, just as he did with other animals in their respective genus. He also dissected dead animals for the purpose of comparative anatomy.\nEdward MacCurdy (one of the two translators and compilers of Leonardo's notebooks into English) wrote:\n...The mere idea of permitting the existence of unnecessary suffering, still more that of taking",
"-35.65879978390876"
],
[
"vegetarian diet, but took that further and decided that raw food was what humans were really meant to eat; he was influenced by Charles Darwin's ideas that humans were just another kind of animal and Bircher-Benner noted that other animals do not cook their food. In 1904 he opened a sanatorium in the mountains outside of Zurich called \"Lebendinge Kraft\" or \"Vital Force,\" a technical term in the Lebensreform movement that referred especially to sunlight; he and others believed that this energy was more \"concentrated\" in plants than in meat, and was diminished by cooking. Patients in the clinic",
"-35.555075813652365"
],
[
"Carnism History Analyzing the history of vegetarianism and opposition to it from ancient Greece to the present day, literary scholar Renan Larue found certain commonalities in what he described as carnist arguments. According to him, carnists typically held that vegetarianism is a ludicrous idea unworthy of attention, that mankind is invested with dominion over animals by divine authority, and that abstaining from violence against animals would pose a threat to humans. He found that the views that farmed animals do not suffer, and that slaughter is preferable to death by disease or predation, gained currency in the nineteenth century, but",
"-35.491851775905616"
],
[
"defenses of vegetarianism like those offered by Peter Singer. Singer acknowledges that, on consequentialist grounds, it might seem as if there is little reason for individuals to be concerned about their dietary choices, since few of those choices will actually have consequences for any actual animals. But Singer maintains that some few dietary choices will, by crossing certain demand thresholds, dramatically increase production of animals for food and that taking this possibility into account provides good reason to avoid purchasing meat, since there is a small chance that a single meat purchase might lead to substantial negative consequences for many",
"-35.48579553505988"
],
[
"2013 reported that male undergraduates in the US denied animal suffering to justify eating meat.\nThe denial of animal pain and suffering is often inconsistent between related species. Such beliefs have led to the publication of books such as Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows written by social psychologist Melanie Joy in which she popularised the term carnism.\nDenial of animal pain and suffering can also lead to denial of broader concepts, such as denial of moral status or the existence of \"mind\" in non-human animals. Among those who eat meat, it can lead to their experiencing the meat",
"-35.337955435419644"
],
[
"is an appropriate ethical value. It states that one's guiding principle should be conscientious atmaupamya (literally, \"to-respect-others-as-oneself\").\nAccording to Ludwig Alsdorf, \"Indian vegetarianism is unequivocally based on ahimsa (non-violence)\" as evidenced by ancient smritis and other ancient texts of Hinduism. He adds that the endearment and respect for cattle in Hinduism is more than a commitment to vegetarianism, it has become integral to its theology. The respect for cattle is widespread but not universal. According to Christopher Fuller, animal sacrifices have been rare among the Hindus outside a few eastern states and Himalayan regions of the Indian subcontinent. To the majority",
"-35.292906899168884"
],
[
"based on the dual bases of refraining from killing and subduing one's own subservience to the senses. Because of this, two types of \"vegetarianism\" came to be—one where one refrained from eating meat, the other being refraining from eating meat as well as garlic, onions, and other such strongly flavored foods. This Buddhism-influenced vegetarianism has been known and practiced by some since at least the 7th century. People who are Buddhist may also avoid eating eggs. \nThe early 20th century saw some intellectuals espousing vegetarianism as part of their program for reforming China culturally, not just politically. The",
"-35.21878326092701"
],
[
"Ethics of eating meat The question of whether it is right to eat animal flesh is among the most prominent topics in food ethics. People choose not to eat meat for various reasons such as concern for animal welfare, the environmental impact of meat production (environmental vegetarianism), and health considerations. Some argue that slaughtering animals solely because people enjoy the taste of meat is morally wrong or unjustifiable. Vegans often abstain from other animal products for similar reasons.\nEthical vegetarians and ethical vegans may also object to the practices underlying the production of meat, or cite concerns about animal welfare, animal",
"-35.19775243184995"
],
[
"rights, environmental ethics, and religious reasons. In response, some proponents of meat-eating have adduced various scientific, nutritional, cultural, and religious arguments in support of the practice. Some meat-eaters only object to rearing animals in certain ways, such as in factory farms, or killing them with cruelty; others avoid only certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Overview of the argument against meat eating Peter Singer—Princeton University and University of Melbourne professor and pioneer of the animal liberation movement—has long argued that, if it is possible to survive and be healthy without eating meat, fish, dairy, or eggs, one ought",
"-35.064491697296035"
],
[
"about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat because meat production is claimed to place a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein. Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat. Dairy and eggs One of the main differences between a vegan and a typical vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter",
"-35.00820176623529"
],
[
"much larger history of vegetarianism. Clubb, who was president of the \"Vegetarian Society of America\" published Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian in 1903, at 1023 Foulkrod Street, Frankford Station, Philadelphia. It was entered in the Library of Congress on September 8, 1903.\nIt was one of several pamphlets published by The Vegetarian society of America which Clubb authored on the subject of vegetarianism, including Unpolished rice among others. Content Among the reasons Clubb gives for a vegetarian lifestyle are that he is \"an optimist\" and that \"eating a lamb does not make a man lamb-like in his character any",
"-34.997234078269685"
],
[
"was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE–50 CE) in the northern Thracian region by the Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese.\nIn Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat and non-killing. Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians, and others, vegetarianism had medical or ritual",
"-34.92587762733456"
],
[
"what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance, vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and antioxidants. Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing heart disease, diabetes, cancer and many other diseases. More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from genetically modified food. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (grains) on",
"-34.88916650263127"
],
[
"purification purposes.\nFollowing the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish. Moreover, the medieval definition of \"fish\" included such animals as seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers. Vegetarianism re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom; Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the",
"-34.861348995997105"
],
[
"a custom to serve the guests any non-vegetarian dish at least once in their term of stay.\nBut after the decline of Vedic Hinduism and uprising of Modern Hinduism along with direct influences from newborn religions like Buddhism and Jainism resulted in decrease of heavy dependence upon meat and ended up with only few kinds of meat yielding animals being edible like goat, sheep and swine, and because Cows got an auspicious position in modern Hinduism, the meat of cows, oxen and bulls became taboo. Later on after the influence of Islam, swine also became a taboo. But still many Hindu",
"-34.810359572351445"
],
[
"remains a controversial issue. Animal farming and consumption A 2007 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations found that Indians had the lowest rate of meat consumption of any country. Roughly one-third of Indians are vegetarian (the largest percentage of vegetarians in the world), but few are vegan. Despite having the highest rate of vegetarianism in the world, Indian consumption of dairy, eggs, and meat - especially chicken - is increasing rapidly.\nDespite restrictions on killing and eating cows throughout most of the country, India became the world's largest exporter of beef in 2012.",
"-34.764058175805985"
],
[
"about 1000 CE vegetarianism, along with a taboo against beef, became a well accepted mainstream Hindu tradition. This practice was inspired by the belief in Hinduism that a soul is present in all living beings, life in all its forms is interconnected, and non-violence towards all creatures is the highest ethical value. Vegetarianism is a part of the Hindu culture. God Krishna, one of the incarnations (Avatar) of Vishnu, is associated with cows, adding to its endearment.\nMany ancient and medieval Hindu texts debate the rationale for a voluntary stop to cow slaughter and the pursuit of vegetarianism as a part",
"-34.6725088992971"
],
[
"Eating live animals Eating live animals is the practice of humans eating animals that are still alive. It is a traditional practice in many Asian food cultures as well as in Western television game shows. Eating live animals, or parts of live animals, may be unlawful in certain jurisdictions under animal cruelty laws. Religious prohibitions on the eating of live animals by humans are also present in various world religions. Animals are also eaten alive for shock value. For shock value Several television game shows such as Fear Factor, Survivor and I'm a Celebrity feature segments where contestants must eat",
"-34.650057954277145"
],
[
"argue that commodifying and slaughtering animals is incompatible with the definition of \"humane\". Animal ethicists such as Gary Francione have argued that reducing animal suffering is not enough; it needs to be made illegal and abolished. Non-chordates Peter Singer has pointed out that the ethical argument for vegetarianism may not apply to all non-vegetarian food. For example, any arguments against causing pain to animals would not apply to animals that do not feel pain. It has also often been noted that, while it takes a lot more grain to feed some animals such as cows for human consumption than",
"-34.57591460700496"
],
[
"crops, most of it for use as animal feed, and a minor percentage for edible oil processing (being direct human consumption for use as food nearly negligible), claims that are widely known to have a basis.\nAs in Canada, vegetarianismo ([veʒiˌtaɾjɐ̃ˈnizmu]) is usually synonymous with lacto-ovo-vegetarianism, and vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pescetarians and/or pollotarians who tolerate the flesh of fish or poultry, respectively. Nevertheless, veganism, and freeganism, have now become mainstream in the country, being present in nearly every family. Brazilian vegetarians reportedly tend to be urban, of middle or upper class and live in the Central-Southern half",
"-34.56909666385036"
],
[
"get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the belief that meat is required persists.\nBuilding on Joy's work, psychologists conducted a series of studies in the United States and Australia, published in 2015, that found the great majority of meat-eaters' stated justifications for consuming meat were based on the \"Four Ns\" – \"natural, normal, necessary, and nice\". The arguments were that humans are omnivores (natural), that most people eat meat (normal), that vegetarian diets are lacking in nutrients (necessary), and that meat tastes good (nice).\nMeat-eaters who endorsed these arguments more strongly reported less guilt about their dietary habits.",
"-34.55708380730357"
],
[
"Hodson observes that vegetarians and vegans frequently face discrimination where eating meat is held as a cultural norm. Gender A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation concluded that \"of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are male\".\nAt least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 \"found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to",
"-34.52757983992342"
],
[
"and food companies are taking advantage of the growing number of vegetarians by producing meat-free alternatives of popular dishes, including sausages and mash and spaghetti Bolognese.\nA 2000 Newspoll survey (commissioned by Sanitarium) shows 44% of Australians report eating at least one meat-free evening meal a week, while 18% said they prefer plant-based meals. New Zealand Similar to Australia, in New Zealand the term \"vegetarian\" refers to individuals who eat no animal meat such as pork, chicken, and fish; they may consume animal products such as milk and eggs. In contrast, the term \"vegan\" is used to describe those who do",
"-34.518560823387816"
],
[
"(5.27-44), a particularly renowned traditional Hindu law book (Dharmaśāstra). These texts strongly condemn the slaughter of animals and meat eating. Early Brahmins of South India Some of the south Indian Brahmins during the sutra period, like those of North India were not meat eaters. Buddhism and Jainism Starting from the last few centuries B.C., Buddhism and Jainism contributed much to the belief that nonviolence is supremely valued which stimulated growing hostility to the slaughter of live animals. The non-influence As opposed to the popular views propagated by non-practicing Western and Indian sociologists and Indologists, the notion of Brahmin vegetarianism is",
"-34.51169585946627"
],
[
"arguments in favor of the morality of eating meat. One such line of argument holds that sentience and individual welfare are less important to morality than the greater ecological good. Following environmentalist Aldo Leopold's principle that the sole criterion for morality is preserving the \"integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community\", this position asserts that sustainable hunting and animal agriculture are environmentally healthy and therefore good. Religious traditions of eating meat Hinduism holds vegetarianism as an ideal for three reasons: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals; the intention to offer only \"pure\" (vegetarian) or sattvic food to",
"-34.49769361680001"
],
[
"is not compliant with Jewish law is called treif. Causing unnecessary pain to animals is prohibited by the principle of tza'ar ba'alei chayim. While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, a number of medieval scholars of Judaism, such as Joseph Albo and Isaac Arama, regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal.\nIn Christianity as practised by members of Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, Greek Catholic Church, and others, it is prohibited to eat meat in times of fasting. Rules of fasting also vary. There are also Christian monastic orders that practice vegetarianism. Morals It has been",
"-34.4648181029479"
],
[
"animals are slaughtered for their meat every year in the U.S., yet most of the animals are never seen—they are kept in confined animal feeding operations, invisible to the public and off limits to the media. Joy maintains that the choice to eat meat is not natural or a given as proponents of meat claim, but influenced by social conditioning. The majority of people, Joy claims, care deeply about animals and do not want them to suffer.\nJoy argues there is a neurological basis for empathy; most people care about nonhuman animals and want to prevent their suffering. ",
"-34.425180011749035"
],
[
"vegetarian. The percentage of vegetarians was higher among those 65–75 years old (10%) than those aged 20–24 (7%). The study did not measure the number of vegans. Animals used for clothing Brazil is one of the biggest producers of chinchilla fur in the world.\nIn 2014 the state of Sao Paulo banned most fur farming, imposing a fine of at least 10,000 reais (approximately 2880 USD) for offenders. Animals used in science A total of 3,497,653 animals were used in research published in 18 journals in the State of Paraná in 2006. From this the authors conclude that",
"-34.37086019846902"
],
[
"more than eating a missionary converts a savage into a Christian,\" which contributors to Unity found \"interesting.\" Though not stated in Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian, Clubb has been quoted as saying meat-eating \"tends to excite anger, to bring out the brutal, and weaken the gentle and kindly traits.\"\nClubb quotes William Axon in the section \"Historical\" citing part of a hymn:\n Bright creatures of the air and earth\n\n We seek not to destroy,\n\n But share with them the gifts of life,\n\n Of duty and of joy.\nAdditionally, he mentions other contemporaries, such as Wesley, Swedenborg, Linneas, Graham, Alcott, Trail, and Kellogg. He also",
"-34.30171783307742"
],
[
"an advocate of vegetarianism, and the Church has recommended a meatless diet ever since. Dr. John Harvey Kellogg (of corn flakes fame), a Seventh-Day Adventist, promoted vegetarianism at his Battle Creek Sanitarium as part of his theory of \"biologic living\".\nAmerican vegetarians such as Isaac Jennings, Susanna W. Dodds, M. L. Holbrook and Russell T. Trall were associated with the natural hygiene movement. Other countries In Russia, Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) was the most outstanding supporter of vegetarianism.\nIn Germany, the well-known politician, publicist and revolutionist Gustav Struve (1805–1870) was a leading figure in the initial stage of the vegetarian movement. He was",
"-34.29492044525978"
],
[
"hold people accountable to awaken their consciences and exercise their free will.\" Kearns also notes that not only are there many empathic people who choose to eat meat, but many vegetarians who base their diet on health, not moral reasons.\nHelena Pedersen of Malmö University questions whether it is accurate for Joy to treat meat eaters as an homogenous group as there may be many different types of meat eaters all of whom have different reasons for eating meat. Proponents of the abolitionist theory of animal rights, such as Gary L. Francione, do not accept the concept of carnism as",
"-34.26800524047576"
],
[
"Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare.\nSome cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source. Adulterated food Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food product fails to meet the legal standards.",
"-34.24721177961328"
],
[
"Animal rights in Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism The respect for animal rights in Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism derives from the doctrine of ahimsa.\nIn Hinduism, animals contain a soul just like humans; when sentient beings die, they can either be reincarnated as a human or as an animal.\nThese beliefs have resulted in many Hindus practicing vegetarianism, while Jain doctrine mandates vegetarianism based on its strict interpretation of the doctrine of ahimsa. Mahayana Buddhists similarly practice vegetarianism and Mahayana Buddhism prohibits the killing of animals. Jainism Almost every Jain community in India has established animal hospitals to care for injured and abandoned",
"-34.23222782549419"
],
[
"be vegetarian. Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that fools argue over this issue. Guru Nanak said that overconsumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, prohibited the Sikhs from the consumption of halal or Kutha (any ritually slaughtered meat) meat because of the Sikh belief that sacrificing an animal in the name of God is mere ritualism (something to be avoided).\nOn the views that eating vegetation would be eating flesh, first Sikh Guru",
"-34.22968000380206"
],
[
"vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns. Health effects Studies on the health effects of vegetarian diets observe mixed effects on mortality. One review found a decreased overall risk of all cause mortality, cancer (except breast) and cardiovascular disease; however, a meta-analysis found lower risk for ischemic heart disease and cancer but no effect",
"-34.225107343139825"
],
[
"Environmental vegetarianism Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism when motivated by the desire to not contribute to the negative environmental impact of meat production. Livestock as a whole is estimated to be responsible for around 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, significant reduction in meat consumption has been advocated by, among others, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their 2019 special report and as part of the 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity.\nOther than climate change, environmental concerns about the production of animal products may also relate to pollution, deforestation, unsustainability and the use",
"-34.21537411445752"
],
[
"of raw foodism and objected to the disuse of flavourings and salt. He commented that \"the number of dogmatic prohibitions against everything that makes food palatable will soon ruin our society if not firmly resisted.\" In 1877, Newman criticized a raw food book of Gustav Schlickeysen. \nHe made an associate membership possible for people who were not completely vegetarian, such as those who ate chicken or fish. Between 1875-1896 membership for the Vegetarian Society was 2,159 and associate membership 1,785. \nNewman did not like the term \"vegetarian\" because it implied someone who ate only vegetables. Instead, he preferred the",
"-34.21365630307264"
],
[
"rabbits into waste containers due to over-production, animals with open wounds or infections left in cages without veterinary treatment, cannibalism among some animals due to over-crowding, farms which had never received health and bio-security inspections, and dead animals rotting in cages next to live animals. Veganism Figures on the number of vegans in Spain are not readily available. However, in 2007 the EU estimated that 4% of the Spanish population was vegetarian, while a 2012 article placed the proportion at 0.5%. Plant-based diets appear to be gaining in popularity; the number of vegan or vegetarian restaurants listed in",
"-34.17867784239934"
],
[
"becomes wealthier, more people are owning pets, which increases opposition to animal cruelty. In April 2012, activists rescued 505 dogs that were headed to slaughter from a truck where they had endured harsh conditions.\nChinese activists prevented introduction of a bullfighting project in 2010 and rodeos in 2011. Activists have pre-empted a foie gras factory, ended live feeding in zoos, and rescued thousands of dogs and cats from being killed for meat. Vegetarian restaurants are increasing, though partly because of fashion rather than ethics.\nA 2011 survey of about 6000 Chinese found that while about 2/3 of respondents had never previously heard",
"-34.171367088325496"
],
[
"1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, from which time the institution began to publish its own pamphlet entitled The Healthian, which provides some of the earliest appearances of the term \"vegetarian\". History The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from the 7th century BCE, inculcating tolerance towards all living beings. Parshwanatha and Mahavira, the 23rd & 24th tirthankaras in Jainism respectively revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism in 8th to 6th century BC; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism. Vegetarianism was also practiced in ancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian",
"-34.03001029868392"
],
[
"vegetarians, starting with the semi-mythical Epimenides. For him, the origin of vegetarianism was Demeter's gift of wheat to Triptolemus so that he could teach agriculture to humanity. His three commandments were: \"Honour your parents\", \"Honour the gods with fruit\", and \"Spare the animals\". Athlete diets Aelian claims that the first athlete to submit to a formal diet was Ikkos of Tarentum, a victor in the Olympic pentathlon (perhaps in 444 BC). However, Olympic wrestling champion (62nd through 66th Olympiads) Milo of Croton was already said to eat twenty pounds of meat and twenty pounds of bread and to drink",
"-33.895339484282886"
],
[
"Vegetarian Society of the modern western world was established in England in 1847. The Society was founded by the 140 participants of a conference at Ramsgate and by 1853 had 889 members. By the end of the century, the group had attracted almost 4,000 members. After its first year, alone, the group grew to 265 members that ranged from ages 14 to 76. English vegetarians were a small but highly motivated and active group. Many of them believed in a simple life and \"pure\" food, humanitarian ideals and strict moral principles. Not all members of the Vegetarian Society were \"Cowherdites\",",
"-33.886101184056315"
],
[
"and strove to improve public health. Great Britain During the Age of Enlightenment and in the early nineteenth century, England was the place where vegetarian ideas were more welcome than anywhere else Europe, and the English vegetarians were particularly enthusiastic about the practical implementation of their principles. In England, vegetarianism was strongest in the northern and middle regions, specifically urbanized areas. As the movement spread across the country, more working-class people began to identify as vegetarians, though still a small number in comparison to the number of meat eaters. Groups were established all across England,",
"-33.861217345664045"
],
[
"consumption of meat, especially beef, is \"caught in cultural, political, and group identity struggles in India\". China In China, consumption of meat is rapidly increasing while a small but growing number of young people in large cities are vegan. An estimated 4 to 5 percent of Chinese are vegetarian. However, in a survey conducted by SJTU researchers, only 0.77 percent of respondents labeled themselves vegetarian.\nChinese folk religion, which is distinct from Taoism, Chinese salvationist religions, and New Religious Movements is similar to Shintoism in Japan insofar as while the killing and eating of animals is not forbidden, it is considered",
"-33.85773856560263"
],
[
"or accident is not allowed. Beef is a sought after meat among Muslims, but they strictly avoid pork and alcohol.\nHinduism, with its emphasis on non-violence against all creatures, tends to be vegetarian, and lacto-vegetarian meals are common. However, food habits are left as a choice for Hindus and alcohol consumption is accepted. There are varied opinions regarding the permissibility of eating meat in Hinduism, depending upon the interpretation of the Hindu scriptures. Vegetarianism is a choice for most Hindus, although some sects emphasize vegetarianism. Some Hindus consider violence against animals, that is used to produce any meat, so unacceptable that",
"-33.849799323797924"
],
[
"consumption. Since deer are inherently wild animals living on grass and wild plants, their meat can be consumed as part of a naturally healthy diet. Venison is higher in moisture and protein, and the protein is more diverse in amino acids and lower in calories, cholesterol, and fat than most cuts of grain-fed beef, pork, or lamb. Health concerns Since it is unknown whether chronic wasting disease (CWD), a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy among deer (similar to mad cow disease), scientifically known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, can pass from deer to humans through the consumption of venison, there have been some",
"-33.80757135881868"
],
[
"people would eat twigs, roots of plants, bark from trees, and each other as a last resort. Food shortages were frequent but didn’t last long enough to generate famine. People of Interest Pythagoras (570 BC – 495 BC) was a Greek philosopher, mathematician, and is also considered to be “the Father of Ethical Vegetarianism”. He believed that in order to obtain the highest level of spiritual and physical health it was necessary to follow a lifestyle that included a vegetarian diet which excluded meats and other flesh foods. Anaxagoras (500 BC – 428 BC) was also a Greek philosopher, he",
"-33.77975505014183"
],
[
"eateries.\nVegetarianism had been regarded as an alternative lifestyle for many years; but became more mainstream during the 1980s even though consistent vegetarians are still rare. Despite exhortations by the Ministry of Health and their allies for people to eat less meat, and more cereals, fruits, and vegetables, a highly meat-based diet remains a part of New Zealand culture, albeit with decrease of red meat consumption and intake of fish and chicken has been on the rise due to their relative affordability compared to red meat.\nGluten free foodstuffs have become part of the dietary trends in New Zealand, with cafes and",
"-33.712334607011144"
],
[
"The Vegan News. He chose the word vegan himself, based on \"the first three and last two letters of 'vegetarian'\" because it marked, in Mr Watson's words, \"the beginning and end of vegetarian\", Current situation Today Indian vegetarians, primarily lacto-vegetarians, are estimated to make up more than 70 percent of the world's vegetarians. They make up 20–42 percent of the population in India, while less than 30 percent are regular meat-eaters.\nSurveys in the U.S. have found that roughly 1–2.8 percent of adults eat no meat, poultry, or fish.\nIn 2013, PS 244 in Queens became the first public school in New",
"-33.68323714946746"
],
[
"question of biology, but of public policy and principle\" and also stating that \"Efforts to extend legal rights to chimpanzees are thus understandable; some day they may even succeed.\" Religions Robert Garner writes that both Hindu and Buddhist societies abandoned animal sacrifice and embraced vegetarianism from the 3rd century BCE. Several kings in India built hospitals for animals, and the emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE) issued orders against hunting and animal slaughter, in line with ahimsa, the doctrine of non-violence. Garner writes that Jainism took this idea further. Jains believe that no living creature should be harmed, and they are known",
"-33.6354800993613"
],
[
"the victim's \"fundamental equality.\" Hinduism and Buddhism Both Hindu and Buddhist societies saw widespread vegetarianism from the 3rd century BCE, in line with ahimsa, the doctrine of non-violence. Ryder writes that animals were thought to possess the same feelings as human beings, and several kings of ancient India built hospitals for sick animals. Human souls could be reborn as animals if they had behaved badly, with all souls regarded as part of the Supreme Being. Failing to observe the duty to care could lead to bad karma, which increased the likelihood of returning as an animal next time round. Islam",
"-33.506679796715616"
],
[
"vegetarians perceived vegetarians as less masculine.\nCultural associations between meat and masculinity are reflected in individuals' attitudes and choices. Across Western societies, women eat significantly less meat than men on average and are more likely to be vegetarian. Women are also more likely than men to avoid meat for ethical reasons. A 2016 review found that male Germans eat more meat than females, linking the discrepancy to the finding that meat in Western culture has symbolic connections to strength and power, which are associated with male gender roles. \nStudies have also examined meat eating in the context of attempts to manage",
"-33.46738516253026"
],
[
"conveys that some animal-based ingredients (meat, egg, etc.) were used. Products like honey, milk, or its direct derivatives are categorized under the green mark.\nAccording to the 2006 Hindu-CNN-IBN State of the Nation Survey, 31% of Indians are vegetarian, while another 9% also consume eggs (ovo-vegetarian). Among the various communities, vegetarianism was most common among the Brahmins, Lingayat, Vaishnav Community, Jain community, and, less frequent among Muslims (3%) and residents of coastal states. Other surveys cited by FAO and USDA estimate 40% of the Indian population as being vegetarian. These surveys indicate that even Indians who do eat meat, do so",
"-33.457512470295114"
],
[
"poorly studied, even though important variations exist from region to region; for example, approximately one third of Indians are vegetarian. Research has indicated that, relative to Western vegetarians, Indian vegetarians are more likely to endorse the moral values of purity, legitimate authority, and respect for ingroup and tradition.",
"-33.44764237973868"
],
[
"vegetarianism is unknown, most meals are eaten without meat due to its high price.\nFish are plentiful along the River Congo, its tributaries, and various lakes; and are baked, boiled or fried for immediate consumption; or smoked or salted when preserved. Markets often sell ready-to-eat peppered fish baked in banana leaves. Goat is the most widely consumed meat. Mwambe is a common way of cooking chicken with peanut sauce. Edible insects such as grasshoppers and caterpillars are eaten; they tend to have a nutty flavour.\nSauces to mix with the ingredients above can be made with tomatoes, onions, and the local aromatic",
"-33.44527399438084"
],
[
"with omnivores holding much more positive views. Vegetarians may express either revulsion or nostalgia at the thought of eating meat.\nConsumer behavior towards meat may be modeled by distinguishing the effects of intrinsic factors (properties of the physical product itself, such as color) and extrinsic factors (everything else, including price and brand). Intrinsic factors Taste and texture are self-reported to be important factors in food choice, although this may not accurately reflect consumer behavior. Consumers describe meat as \"chewy\", \"tender\", and \"rich\". In the United Kingdom, meat is traditionally considered to taste good. People experience the taste and texture of meat",
"-33.41771641449304"
],
[
"overlap, environmental vegetarians and vegans can be contrasted with those who are primarily motivated by concerns about animal welfare (one kind of ethical vegetarianism), health, or who avoid meat to save money or out of necessity (economic vegetarianism). Some also believe vegetarianism will improve global food security, or curb starvation. Health A study in Climate Change concluded \"if ... average diets among UK adults conformed to WHO recommendations, their associated GHG emissions would be reduced by 17%. Further GHG emission reductions of around 40% could be achieved by making realistic modifications to diets so that they contain fewer animal products",
"-33.41372261947254"
],
[
"Vegetarianism Etymology The first written use of the term \"vegetarian\" originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to a vegetable regimen diet. Modern dictionaries explain its origin as a compound of vegetable (adjective) and the suffix -arian (in the sense of agrarian). The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847, although it may have appeared in print before 1847. The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House—a school on the north side of Ham Common, London—which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. From",
"-33.412322584947105"
],
[
"recently in some countries humans started seeing them as a nuisance and became hostile to them. In India, feeding feral animals in cities is considered a noble act. Academicians say that how humans treat animals is related to how humans treat each other and thus raise concerns about the cultural shift from seeing feral city pigeons as harmless in the 1800s to seeing them a undesirable in some countries in the 2000s.\nIn zoos, giving food to the animals is discouraged due to the strict dietary controls in place. More generally, artificial feeding can result in, for example, vitamin deficiencies and",
"-33.40829463461705"
],
[
"century, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women, and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.\nAcross the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus. Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Ahimsa. In",
"-33.401582219037664"
],
[
"Peter Singer argues that it is fallacious to say that eating meat is morally acceptable simply because it is part of the \"natural way”, as the way that humans and other animals do behave naturally has no bearing on how we should behave. Thus, Singer claims, the moral permissibility or impermissibility of eating meat must be assessed on its own merits, not by appealing to what is \"natural\".",
"-33.38465242652455"
],
[
"groups of Christian vegetarians in the 18th century. The best known of them was Ephrata Cloister in Pennsylvania, a religious community founded by Conrad Beissel in 1732. Benjamin Franklin became a vegetarian at the age of 16, but later on he reluctantly returned to meat eating. He later introduced tofu to America in 1770.\n Colonel Thomas Crafts Jr. was a vegetarian. 19th century Vegetarianism was frequently associated with cultural reform movements, such as temperance and anti-vivisection. It was propagated as an essential part of \"the natural way of life.\" Some of its champions sharply criticized the civilization of their age",
"-33.33976878138492"
],
[
"of a general abstention from violence against others and all killing of animals. Some significant debates between pro-non-vegetarianism and pro-vegetarianism, with mention of cattle meat as food, are found in several books of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, particularly its Book III, XII, XIII and XIV. It is also found in the Ramayana. These two epics are not only literary classics, but they have also been popular religious classics.\nThe Mahabharata debate presents one meat-producing hunter who defends his profession as dharmic. The hunter, in this ancient Sanskrit text, states that meat consumption should be okay because animal sacrifice was practiced",
"-33.28184873960345"
],
[
"meat paradox generates a negative interpersonal state, which then motivates an individual to find the means to alleviate it. Recent studies in this area suggest that people can facilitate their practices of meat eating by attributing lower intelligence and capacity for suffering to meat animals, by thinking of these animals as more dissimilar to humans, by caring less about animal welfare and social inequality, and by dissociating meat products from the animals they come from. Perceptions of meat animals Ethical conflicts arise when eating animals if they are considered to have moral status. Perceptions of animals' moral status vary greatly,",
"-33.27693899575388"
],
[
"tended to prevent such concerns from influencing consumer behavior.\nPeople in many cultures do not like to be reminded of the connection between animals and meat, and tend to \"de-animalize\" meat when necessary to reduce feelings of guilt or of disgust. Meat in Western countries is often packaged and served so as to minimize its resemblance to live animals, without eyes, faces, or tails, and the market share of such products has increased in recent decades; however, meat in many other cultures is sold with these body parts.\nSome authors have suggested that the use of non-animal words such as \"sirloin\" and",
"-33.259061786258826"
],
[
"was made easier because he had eaten little meat for aesthetic reasons as a child, and he readily adopted his wife's vegetarianism because she does much of the cooking in their household. Speaking in 1990, he said that with the increasing availability of meat substitutes, \"It might take 20 years. But eventually there will no longer be a reason for most people to eat meat. And animals will breathe a sigh of relief.\" To avoid causing others discomfort, he is willing to occasionally eat chicken or turkey, although he finds eating pork highly unpleasant.",
"-33.2241805251324"
],
[
"Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows Background Joy, a social psychologist and author, was concerned about linguistic bias inherent in terms like carnivore, which were inaccurate and failed to account for the \"beliefs beneath the behavior\". Carnivores require meat in their diet for survival, but carnists choose to eat meat based on their beliefs. There was no label, Joy discovered, for the beliefs of people who produce, consume, and promote meat eating. She created the term carnism (Latin carn, flesh or body) to name and describe this dominant cultural belief system. \"We assume",
"-33.17895798633981"
],
[
"(tsom, Ge'ez: ጾም ṣōm, excluding any kind of animal products, including dairy products and eggs) periods, including Wednesdays, Fridays, and the entire Lenten season, so Ethiopian cuisine contains many dishes that are vegan. Early modern period It was not before the European Renaissance that vegetarianism reemerged in Europe as a philosophical concept based on an ethical motivation. Among the first celebrities who supported it were Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655). In the 17th century the paramount theorist of the meatless or Pythagorean diet was the English writer Thomas Tryon (1634–1703) and subsequently the Romantic poets. On the",
"-33.16400129770045"
],
[
"vegetables, and whole grains which are good sources of protein. The risks associated with vegetarianism, that is to say the problems vegetarians face, can generally be lessened by a careful diet. These problems that many associate with vegetarianism, such as anaemia, are in fact not due to the vegetarian diet alone, but more so to the fact that the subject in question has failed to supplement their body with the nutrition they require. When cutting out meats, some vegetarians fail to intake any other kinds of protein. To intake protein is very important during pregnancy as one of the cause",
"-33.150278374319896"
],
[
"some vegan or even vegetarian diets, if those diets are driven by animal rights rather than health motivations.\nFor those vegetarians and vegans who seek to minimize animal exploitation wherever feasible, wine filtered with animal products such as isinglass or gelatin would not be suitable for a vegetarian diet. Similarly, the use of any animal products or byproducts in the fining process would not be suitable for a vegan diet of similar motivation. For those vegans motivated by perceived health benefits of avoiding consumption of animal protein, the use of these agents would not be problematic. Non-vegetarian/vegan additives Examples of common",
"-33.14646884490503"
],
[
"has more vegetarians than the rest of the world put together. In India, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto vegetarianism. Most restaurants in India clearly distinguish and market themselves as being either \"non-vegetarian\", \"vegetarian\", or \"pure vegetarian\". Vegetarian restaurants abound, and many vegetarian options are usually available. Animal-based ingredients (other than milk and honey) such as lard, gelatin, and meat stock are not used in the traditional cuisine. India has devised a system of marking edible products made from only vegetarian ingredients, with a green dot in a green square. A mark of a brown dot in a brown square",
"-33.094574134156574"
],
[
"the world's strictest, because around 2 million Taiwanese people eat vegetarian food.\nA popular movement of \"one day vegetarian every week\" has been advocated on a national level, and on a local level, even government bodies are involved, such as the Taipei City Board of Education. Thailand There are more than 908 vegetarian eating establishments in Thailand.]. Europe The definition of vegetarianism throughout Europe is not uniform, creating the potential for products to be labelled inaccurately. Throughout Europe the use of non-vegetarian ingredients are in use in products such as beer (isinglass among others), wine (gelatine and crustacean shells among others)",
"-33.07706279026752"
],
[
"elevation. It is also practiced because as strict adherents to natural living, Rastafarians often believe the human being is a natural vegetarian based on human physiology and anatomy. Some adherents to Ital diets are strict vegans, as they do not consider dairy to be natural for human consumption either.\nThe most strict interpretations also avoid the consumption of rock salt (sea salt can be substituted), and food that has been preserved by canning or drying, and even prohibit the use of metal cooking utensils. In this case, only clay and wood cooking pots, crockery, and cutlery are used. Few adherents of",
"-33.06851350811485"
],
[
"tradition, devotees keep to a diet without any animal products during these times. As a result, vegan foods are abundant in stores and restaurants; however, Romanians may not be familiar with a vegan or vegetarian diet as a full-time lifestyle choice. Many recipes below have vegan versions, and the Vegetables section below contains many common fasting foods.",
"-33.06667730972913"
],
[
"reduces suffering to the animal. The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish. Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.\nThere are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid",
"-33.03294176221243"
],
[
"The Vegetarian Myth The Vegetarian Myth: Food, Justice, and Sustainability is a 2009 book by Lierre Keith.\nKeith is an ex-vegan who believes veganism has damaged her health and others'. Keith argues that agriculture is destroying not only human health but entire ecosystems, such as the North American prairie, and destroying topsoil. Keith also considers modern agriculture to be the root cause of slavery, imperialism, militarism, chronic hunger and disease.\nKeith argues humans should accept death as a necessary precursor to food. in that \"everyone will get eaten, sooner or later\". In sum. Her proposition is that herbivores eat grass, humans eat",
"-32.99237057499704"
],
[
"as neutral arbiters (Panchayat).\nRegarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar. People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime. In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of",
"-32.98540676596167"
],
[
"has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks and nuns do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.\nJains fast on different occasions throughout the year, particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa,",
"-32.981862887580064"
],
[
"so long as an animal's death was quick, men would suffer more by not eating meat than animals would suffer by being eaten. Schopenhauer also theorized that the reason people succumbed to the \"unnatural diet\" of meat-eating was because of the unnatural, cold climate they emigrated to and the necessity of meat for survival in such a climate, for fruits and vegetables could not be dependably cultivated at those times. He applauded the animal protection movement in England—\"To the honor, then, of the English, be it said that they are the first people who have, in downright earnest, extended",
"-32.97973671917862"
],
[
"of only clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking, and the use of narcotics.\nIn India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and Hindus abstain from eating meat and fish (basically, all living animals) on the grounds both of health and of reverence for all sentient forms of life. Total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism. In addition, lay and monastic Buddhists refrain from killing any living creature and from consuming intoxicants, and bhikkhus keep vows of chastity. In Theravada Buddhism, bhikkhus also refrain from eating in the afternoon, and",
"-32.94964389584493"
],
[
"Ashoka's animal welfare policies only restricted the species of animals that can be killed for food in addition to banning ritual sacrifices of animals on the premise that it is wasteful. Vegetarianism never was a principle to be strictly adhered to in Buddhism and no social stigma was attached to Buddhists who ate meat even in India, the land of its origin. This is reasonably clear from the fact that the austerities of Jainism which includes the strictest form of vegetarianism long pre-dated Buddha's birth and did not apparently influence Buddha's eating habits after his enlightenment. Buddha and Buddhists continued",
"-32.948737844024436"
],
[
"Ethical omnivorism Rationale This diet tries to increase consumer support for more ethical meat production with the aim that it might be able to give incentive for more restaurants and stores to use ethical sources. Criticism The vegan philosophy criticises and rejects the very concept of ethical omnivorism. Vegans think that breeding animals for the purpose of consumption is inherently unethical, and view the terms \"free range\" or \"organic\" as labels applied by the agriculture industry that lack true animal concern.",
"-32.92993874651438"
],
[
"meat was regarded as a sign of paganism and prohibited. A reluctance to eat horse meat is common in these countries even today. Opposition to production The killing of horses for human consumption is widely opposed in countries such as the U.S., UK and Australia. where horses are generally considered to be companion and sporting animals only. Almost all equine medications and treatments are labeled as being not intended for human consumption. In the European Union, horses intended for slaughter cannot be treated with many medications commonly used for U.S. horses. For horses going to slaughter, no period of withdrawal,",
"-32.91396451817127"
],
[
"school children. However, some communities are vegetarians for religious or cultural reasons. Efforts must be made to develop culturally appropriate interventions to address the micronutrient deficiencies in these populations, such as through food fortification. Animal source food production According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global.\" As such, using plant-derived foods is typically considered better for the interests of the environment. Despite this, the raising of certain animals can be more environmentally",
"-32.912995655293344"
]
] |
49pr8i | why does it take 30 mins for my dogs bloodwork to come back yet mine takes 24 hours? | [
"Thank you all for the answers. Sadly this 30 min test basically told it's time put down my dog. I'll be crying in my room if you need me. EDIT: I'll add on to this so hopefully more see this, took her to the vet and turns out it was really bad case of [DKA]( URL_0 ). All the symptoms she had we assumed she was just getting slower with old age. She pulled through today and has another big day ahead of her tomorrow. If the levels fall she'll make it and we will do insulin the rest of her days, if not.... Basically don't be a cheapo like me and do the blood work at the yearly check ups. It's worth it and I feel like the worst human ever for not doing it.",
"Probably depends upon the workload of the lab techs and/or the urgency of your results. I'm Aircrew in the military (not U.S.) and my blood work comes back within a week for my yearly medical, but if I'm sick and possibly medically grounded, my results have come back as quick as 1 hour. Also, certain tests require more time. Perhaps your dogs tests are simple and yours are not...",
"Many hospitals will send your blood off to a reference laboratory for the actual tests, whereas many vet offices are able to run tests right there in their own facility. In the average community, there aren't so many animals needing blood tests at any given time that it becomes problematic or impractical to do right there in the vet office. On the other hand, if you live in a city of average size, there may be thousands of human blood samples from the community to test on any given day. Ultimately it becomes far more efficient to send the blood samples off in batches to other labs and facilities that specialize in this kind of thing. Also, some of these testing laboratories don't only cover your immediate city; oftentimes they are regional, covering numerous cities and towns in the area, leading to higher workloads and increased turnaround on results. Blood tests can be expedited if there is some urgency, but typically yours will be placed at the end of the line. And there may be hundreds or thousands of tests waiting in line ahead of you.",
"i did research on blood transport for the FDA a decade ago. dog blood is not regulated as much as human blood. people handling it require less training. there is less documentation required, and fewer controls. it's easier to get dog blood through the process because there are fewer barcodes to scan, fewer things to enter in a computer.",
"With few exceptions, your tests can be completed quite quickly, but there are other factors that interfere. 1. Many doctors send blood and other specimen (feces, urine, etc) offsite for analysis rather than doing it in their office, as it can require specialized equipment/facilities. 2. If it's done on-site, your tests may be delayed due to other, higher-priority patients. If you're getting your cholesterol checked, it can wait a day or two, but if someone *might* be having a heart attack, the test results are needed ASAP to determine the appropriate treatment, as the patient's life may be at stake.",
"Simple answer is backlog. There are way more people that need labs done than there are animals. If your hospital or clinic has their own lab, then chances are you'll be able to get your labs done faster than if it has to be sent out. Not to mention the lab might take orders from outside sources. You are probably number 249 on their list by the time your order gets inputted. You dog is probably number 29. Priority as well. Blood work in ER visits take priority over someone who's in for their yearly lipid test. Literally a matter of life or death in some cases.",
"Vet blood work is usually simple and doesn't require high levels of accuracy. Simple finger prick blood tests are almost instantaneous while actual lab tests take a while based on priority and workload. After I broke my leg, they drew blood and had results in less than an hour.",
"Your blood test takes a very short amount of time. It's just the workload of the lab you go to. I've had results back in 20 minutes.",
"It's marked up as explained, but just to add to this topic. The vast majority of blood work has a very short turn around time regardless of species. Time delays really only occur when samples have to be sent to a local laboratory for either confirmation or if the practice doesn't have the equipment to run the required test. As a couple examples a veterinary practice might have a biochemistry and a haematology analyser which will allow a vet or vet nurse to provide results within 5 minutes. These analysers are quite accurate and provide a decent snap shot typically of liver/kidney parameters along with a full blood count. These results will help a clinician to in the least start treatment, continue therapy, confirm health status. They may send the same samples on to a reference laboratory to confirm/get more detailed results. Typically a vet practice lab will have a few other smaller point of care analysers or tests that they can perform (haemoglobin, blood glucose, blood typing or simple snap ELISA). When sending a sample to a reference laboratory the samples will arrive by courier and/or local postal delivery. This obviously takes more time, but the larger laboratories endeavour to provide either same day or within 24 hours for the vast majority of samples/tests. The advantage of sending to a reference lab are specialised analysers with higher accuracy, wider range of available testing and the ability of having specialised areas (for example the company that I work for has recently developed tests for early kidney disease markers, has exclusive tests for pancreatic inflammation etc which are only available by testing at our reference laboratories). As for human testing (and this is more specific to the UK), when you have your bloods taken at your GP, they may have some simpler point of care testing machines (Blood glucose, haemoglobin, cholesterol etc) but they will be far less likely to have their own laboratory. These will be couriered to a laboratory (usually hospital based) and tested within an hour or two. The results are then transmitted (fax, email, or posted results) back to the GP surgery. Obviously if your bloods are taken at the hospital, then turn around of results will be massively reduced, but even they may have to send samples on to a specialised reference laboratory as it is generally not cost effective to provide every service under the sun if the sample numbers are low. If you'd like to know more about reference laboratories ask away. Source: Laboratory Scientist at a veterinary reference lab.",
"It depends on what the \"bloodwork\" is. I can send for certain labs from my emergency department, set the timing to \"stat\" in the computer, and get results back within 30 minutes for certain tests. Electrolytes, cancer markets, blood counts, etc don't take too long. Cultures take longer because you're literally waiting for bacterial colonies to grow, so we like to wait 24 hours. If you're in the hospital due to an infection, we like to make sure you have negative cultures for 48 hours before we send you home. If we send for a biopsy, need sections mounted on slides for a cell morphology study (eg, seeing if your cells are cancerous), or anything that a pathologist would have to set up, it really depends on how many pathologists are in at the time, what their workload is, etc. At our hospital they take sections of every placenta after every birth, lots of biopsies for suspected cancers, etc, so things can get quite backed up. Your \"priority\" also matters a lot. Nobody is going to rush to take a look at your cancer markers because cancer doesn't change hour to hour, day to day, etc, but something like.. idk, an ABG for a hypercapnic patient who's barely breathing is definitely higher on the list. Some of these answers are a little off. Even small community hospitals usually have some sort of lab. If you come into the ER with an acute condition, no hospital is going to be able to send out for labs to some other place, that simply doesn't make sense. There are a lot of factors, but I hope this helps. edit - I just saw you posted about your dog and the circumstances surrounding your question. I'm really sorry :( I have two dogs that I absolutely adore and don't know what I'm gonna do when the time comes.",
"Simple. It takes your dog's bloodwork 30 minutes because there are like 20 tests maximum that you can get, all performed on two little machines your vet has in the back room. (Think like a bigger version of the glucose strip reader that a diabetic would use). Add that to the number of people who pay for pet blood work being relatively small, means that the back log of samples waiting to get into that machine is small to none. Quick, 30 minutes. In fact, 30 minutes is a long time to wait for that -- realistically, the tests could be done in five, and prettied up in ten. It takes YOUR bloodwork 24 hours to a week to get back to you because there are thousands of possible tests your doctor could want, and not all hospitals are able to test them all. What they do is they divide the less common ones up, so to save on machinery and supply cost. That may mean your blood needs to get shipped to four different addresses before all the tests your doctor wants done are resulted. That takes time. I could go into more detail of how things are prioritized within that system causing the difference between 1 hour results back and weeks results back, but above is the basics. (source: I'm certified to run both animal lab and human lab blood work)",
"Sorry for your loss mate. After my buddy passed I spent a lot of time cursing out vet and wondering why after so many tests nothing was ever diagnosed. Took me time to realize I should have focused on the good times we shared and the joy he provided instead of anger and resentment. Cherish the time you guys shared. I'm glad science has made it easy to receive such prompt results. Beats seeing your buddy in pain with no clear answers.",
"If the place where you get your blood tested gets an i-STAT ( URL_0 ) for about $10000, and $20 per blood bottle, then you can have the most common tests done and back in 10 minutes. If they send it to a large lab then it costs about $5 for almost all the tests you could want, except for rare tests which need expensive reagents.",
"I just had a lot of blood work done and I already had the email with the results by the time I got home from the lab."
] | [
[
"determine how dogs can run up to 10 hours without fatigue.\nDogs dropped at the checkpoints during the race were flown to one of the regional hubs at Unalakleet, McGrath, or Anchorage and then to Hiland Mountain-Meadow Creek Correctional Center in Eagle River, where they were cared for by minimum security inmates who volunteered for the responsibility.\nThe race averages 3 dog deaths per year.",
"-29.239982425278868"
],
[
"the blood into the animal's circulation. After several minutes, the heart fibrillates, then restarts a normal rhythm. Respiration likewise resumes and the machine is removed. Over the ensuing ten days, the dog recovers from the procedure and continues living a healthy life. According to the film, several dogs were brought back to life using this method, including one which is an offspring of parents who were both also resuscitated. Reaction Brukhonenko's decapitation experiment was remarked upon by George Bernard Shaw, who stated, \"I am even tempted to have my own head cut off so that I can continue to dictate",
"-29.09483737248229"
],
[
"lasts five hours, during which time the dog is connected to a blood oxygenator and the heart is bypassed. The defective heart valve is removed and the replacement valve, typically from bovine pericardium, is precisely sewn into place. The dog’s heart is then restarted and monitored for at least two hours after the surgery is completed. Due to the expense, this is not a common procedure. Prosthetic limbs While small dogs and cats can survive comfortably with three legs, larger dogs, horses, and farm animals require the limb to support their weight. Surgery has also been",
"-28.863770293770358"
],
[
"2005, scientists at the University of Pittsburgh's Safar Center for Resuscitation Research announced they had managed to place dogs in suspended animation and bring them back to life, most of them without brain damage, by draining the blood out of the dogs' bodies and injecting a low temperature solution into their circulatory systems, which in turn keeps the bodies alive in stasis. After three hours of being clinically dead, the dogs' blood was returned to their circulatory systems, and the animals were revived by delivering an electric shock to their hearts. The heart started pumping the blood around the body,",
"-28.15032437921036"
],
[
"each year, even though about 4000 dogs are in need of one. There are no pacemakers made specifically for use in dogs, but human pacemaker users are often outlasted by their pacemakers, leaving behind a functioning pacemaker with less battery power left than a new pacemaker which could be implanted into a dog. One difficulty in implanting used pacemakers is the removal from the deceased human - the pacemaker leads often experience accumulation of surrounding heart muscle tissue and become difficult to remove after death. If the leads are cut in order to remove the pacemaker donation is not possible.",
"-27.937953356537037"
],
[
"blood to the heart is impeded, causing a drop in blood pressure and the dog will go into shock. Without immediate medical attention, the dog may die. Some symptoms of GDV are: distended abdomen, excessive salivation, retching without throwing up, restlessness, depression, lethargy, and weakness. Precautions against GVD include: refraining from feeding immediately before or after exercise, feeding several smaller meals throughout the day instead of a single large meal, and avoiding the consumption of large amounts of water with dry food.\nAs with any other hunting dog, contact with game can cause the spread of fungi and bacteria that can",
"-27.333370670778095"
],
[
"the mushers to communicate their checkpoint times and ranks to the media. The stop numbers and places were uncontrolled, so stewards were placed at each stop along the journey to resupply teams.\nMushers were required to finish the race with as many dogs as they started with, whether they were alive, injured or dead. This rule encouraged participants to take adequate care of their dogs, since an injured or dead dog would be a great drawback. To help minimize the weight on each sled, a minimum amount of items such as clothes, water and shoes for the dogs was loaded.",
"-26.798365659517003"
],
[
"turned back immediately. Their scanty provisions forced them to eat their remaining sled dogs, unwittingly causing a quick deterioration in the men's physical condition. The liver of one dog contains enough vitamin A to produce the condition called Hypervitaminosis A. Mertz became incapacitated and incoherent; in an attempt to nurse him back to health, Mawson fed him most of the dog livers, which he considered more nourishing than the tough muscle tissue. After Mertz died, Mawson continued alone for 30 days. He cut his sled in half with a pen knife and dragged the sled with geological specimens but minimal",
"-26.57028822330176"
],
[
"26 minutes and has slipped from the top 10, but he is still more than a checkpoint ahead of Louis Nelson, Sr., the next rookie.\nThe teams are getting smaller as fatigued and poorly performing dogs are left behind. The top 10 are running with between 9 and 12 dogs, down from 16, and the majority have either 10 or 11. A fair number of dogs have been dropped with fatigue or sprains caused by the poor conditions of the trail. Teams with less than 9 dogs lack power. There has been a fair amount of rain, which helps keep the dogs",
"-26.493844612617977"
],
[
"days, eclipsing the previously reported survival time.\nThe results were so surprising, in fact, that the researchers asked Penn Vet pathologists to recheck the dogs’ tissue biopsies to make sure that the dogs really had the disease.\n“They reread the samples and said, yes, it’s really hemangiosarcoma,” Cimino Brown said.\nChemotherapy is available for treating hemangiosarcoma, but many owners opt not to pursue that treatment once their dog is diagnosed.\n\n“It doesn’t hugely increase survival, it’s expensive and it means a lot of back and forth to the vet for the dog,” Cimino Brown said. “So you have to figure in quality of life.”\nThis",
"-26.24618614811334"
],
[
"in adult races, whilst those under 1 year of age race in puppy races. Adult races are approximately 10 miles (16 km) long and the hounds in the adult races typically take 30 minutes to finish; times outside 25 and 45 minutes are declared void. Puppy races are approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) long. When racing, the hounds' coats are closely shaved to prevent them from overheating during the race.\nUnlike in other forms of hunting, humans do not follow the hounds, instead the hounds conduct the course unassisted and spectators can observe parts of the race from vantage points through binoculars. The",
"-26.238517440622672"
],
[
"If a pacemaker has not been used by a human but has reached its expiry date it will not be suitable for use in a human but could still be used in a dog. Blood transfusion For a blood transfusion to take place, the donor and recipient must be of compatible blood types. Dogs have eleven blood types but are born without antibodies in their blood. For this reason, first time transfusions will not have a reaction, but further transfusions will cause severe reactions if the dog has a mismatch in the DEA1.1 blood type. Because the immune",
"-26.047436678782105"
],
[
"change between 2,000 and 3,000 booties during the course of the race. Changing booties is necessary when they become wet or fly off a dog's paws.\nSometimes dog booties are worn for hiking, especially on rocky ground.\nLike shoes, booties wear out with use. In long sled dog races or over an extended period of time, booties need to be replaced due to wear.",
"-26.028131458559074"
],
[
"lasting 30 seconds, and would score points based on their performance. Doggy Decathlon The final round was the \"Doggy Decathlon\", an obstacle course. In the first season, the dog would have 60 seconds to complete 8 obstacles; in the second and third seasons, the number of obstacles was reduced to 7. In the last three seasons, the dog would have 100 seconds to complete 10 obstacles. The course varied from week to week, but always (starting late 1992) ended with the dog leaping through the big letter \"O\" in the \"That's My DOG\" sign. Each completed obstacle earned 10 points;",
"-25.84235148964217"
],
[
"the race with fewer than 12 dogs, and cannot finish with fewer than 5. Tired and injured dogs are left with volunteers, to be transported by truck back to the finish line. There are many rules ensuring safe and fair conduct by the mushers.\nSome of the activities of race weekend include a vet check, to make sure all dogs are fit to run a 200-mile race; a musher’s meeting, to inform mushers of rules and hazards on the trail; and a pre-race banquet, where mushers pick their bib numbers and meet members of the public. Children who",
"-25.82296745450003"
],
[
"the entire range of motion. Dogs are almost always able to weight bear on their surgical leg within 24 hours and are expected to begin a comprehensive rehabilitation program, including controlled leash walks the day they go home.\nLameness scores and stifle range of motion improve improve rapidly and significantly. Most dogs are expected to recover within four months of surgery.",
"-25.74508389038965"
],
[
"at least one year old to compete; the hard fast turns are tough on a dog's developing joints, and intense and frequent competitive lure coursing before the age of 12 months may cause joint problems later in life. Dogs at an earlier age do require a moderate but essential introduction to the artificial chase to: stimulate their normal mental and physical development, to prepare and improve their capacity to perform physically with enthusiasm without hurting themselves - as is the case with the mutual, voluntary athletic play of littermates. Qualifying to compete In American Sighthound Field Association (ASFA) competitions, a",
"-25.724114281940274"
],
[
"cell counts due to bone marrow suppression. The second stage, called the subclinical phase, has no outward signs and can last for the remainder of the dog's life, during which the dog remains infected with the organism. Some dogs are able to successfully eliminate the disease during this time. In some dogs the third and most serious stage of infection, the chronic phase, will commence. Very low blood cell counts (pancytopenia), bleeding, bacterial infection, lameness, neurological and ophthalmic disorders, and kidney disease, can result. Chronic ehrlichiosis can be fatal. Signs and symptoms The acute stage of the disease, occurring most",
"-25.68404762580758"
],
[
"of 7 dogs surviving, after their kidneys had been stored for 7 days followed by reimplantation and immediate contralateral nephrectomy. Their best dog had a peak post reimplantation creatinine of 50 mg/l (0.44 mmol/l). Liu used well hydrated dogs undergoing a mannitol diuresis and stored the kidneys at 9 °C – 10 °C using a perfusate derived from human PPF. The PPF was further fractionated by using a highly water-soluble polymer (Pluronic F-38), and sodium acetyl tryptophanate and sodium caprylate were added to the PPF as stabilisers to permit pasteurisation. To this solution were added human albumin, heparin, mannitol, glucose, magnesium sulphate, potassium chloride,",
"-25.349317547515966"
],
[
"found that when dogs lost a large amount of blood, they exhibited symptoms similar to anemia. Once they established this experimental model, they could test experimental therapies. They tested diets based on different organs: spleen, lung, liver, intestines, etc. They found that dogs fed a diet of liver recovered the quickest, suggesting that anemia is associated with malfunctioning livers.\nPreliminary research was conducted in the early 1920s at the George William Hooper Foundation, University of California, where apricots were found to be valuable in treating induced anaemia in dogs. This result was so surprising to the researchers that",
"-25.112047765112948"
],
[
"reported 8 dogs surviving after their kidneys had been stored at 2-4 °C for 28 hours, followed by auto-transplantation and delayed contralateral nephrectomy. Although Lapchinsky gave no details in his paper, Humphries reported that these experiments had involved cooling the kidneys for 1 hour with cold blood, and then storage at 2-4 °C, followed by rewarming of the kidneys over 1 hour with warm blood at the time of reimplantation. The contralateral nephrectomies were delayed for 2 months.\nHumphries developed this storage technique by continuously perfusing the kidney throughout the period of storage. He used diluted plasma or serum as the",
"-24.97483214654494"
],
[
"certification process. A dog must run cleanly against another dog of similar running style in order to earn a QC (Qualified Courser, not a title, but the hound is now qualified to compete in Open competition). Dogs can still earn their JC (junior courser) title by running a minimum of 600 yards (550 m) with four turns twice, in two separate trials, under two different qualified AKC judges. The dogs run alone, and once they complete both runs, they earn a Junior Courser (JC) title. The JC title, however, no longer allows them to compete against other dogs.\nIn Europe, competing dogs",
"-24.706730056437664"
],
[
"consequence of S. Lupi infection in this species.⁷ Life cycle within the dog Once ingested, the L3 excyst in the stomach acid of the dog within hours and break through to the serosal surface within a day or two. The L3 larvae take about a week to 10 days reach the thoracic aorta via the coeliac arteries. Once in the aorta, they reside here for up to 3 months, maturing to the L4 stage, before migrating over the next few months to the caudal thoracic aorta. They migrate in the wall of the aorta, causing it",
"-24.424038578785257"
],
[
"first team departed from Willow Lake. The remaining teams left, staggered by two-minute intervals, until the last departed at 4:36 pm. Each departing team had up to the maximum of 16 dogs, and no more can be added during the race.\nIn 2004, the starting time of the race was pushed back from 10 am. Sled dogs perform better in temperatures close to 0 °F (−18 °C), and this allows mushers to run their teams through the cold of the night until they cross the Alaska Range into the Interior. Among the last three to leave were previous Iditarod winners Martin Buser and Jeff King,",
"-24.311305186129175"
],
[
"and the top 30 are within 21 hours. At this stage, all the pacesetters have taken their mandatory 24- and 8-hour layovers.\nThe temperatures are just above freezing, and a freezing rain advisory has been issued for Kaltag. On March 16, Scdoris scratched after several of her dogs came down with a viral diarrhea, saying \"it was not an eye thing. It was a my-dogs-are-sick thing\". Another concern was weight loss: her dogs were fed canned dog food, with some kibble, salmon and fat, which did not help maintain their weight as well as the heavy meat diet most dogs are fed.",
"-24.249118462379556"
],
[
"Biliary fever Presentation The peracute (very sudden and severe) form causes death within a few hours and treatment is of little avail. More commonly dogs suffer from the acute or subacute form. This is recognised by the dog being listless or lethargic, losing its appetite and running a temperature. If your dog is off its food, take a rectal temperature reading. If this is 39 °C or higher you should have the dog examined – do not wait until its mucous membranes become pale, white or yellow, which commonly suggests a more advanced stage of the disease. Fever is present",
"-24.244920478617132"
],
[
"Tor des Géants Description It provides prizes for all participants who complete the run before the cutoff. The start and the finish are in Courmayeur. The total length of the race is 330 km (205mi) which must be completed in less than 150 hours. There are 43 refreshment points at which the runners can eat, sleep and, if needed, obtain medical care. There are also 7 life bases, which are bigger than refreshment points. They are placed about every 50 km (31mi). Because of its difficulty, many athletes do not complete the trail. The completion rate is about 60%. Around 2000 volunteers",
"-24.209316682710778"
],
[
"drastically shorten the gestation period: to this end, he uses an experimental growth hormone made from human placental lactogen, which speeds up the embryo's growth. The dog grows to adult size in a few days, and Holliston passes it off as the mother to disguise his secret experiments. Thanks to the serum, it learns incredibly fast and soon becomes a well-trained dog. However, Holliston fails to notice that the animal's aggression is increasing commensurately: while he is out on an errand, it kills an annoying small dog and conceals the carcass.\nEager to use his discovery for the good of mankind,",
"-24.151672281699575"
],
[
"conducted to diagnose the condition, in which the bones around the jaw thicken; additionally, the blood may show increased calcium levels and enzyme levels. The condition often stops progressing by the time the dog is a year old, and in some cases can recede. It is normally treated with anti-inflammatory medications, and the feeding of soft foods. In some cases, tube feeding may be necessary. However, if the animal still cannot eat and is in uncontrolled pain, then euthanasia may be the only medical option remaining.\nThe breed is prone to skin disorders. About a quarter of Westies surveyed are affected",
"-24.11331037490163"
],
[
"Canine parvovirus Signs Dogs that develop the disease show signs of the illness within 3 to 7 days. The signs may include lethargy, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea (usually bloody). Generally, the first sign of CPV is lethargy. Secondary signs are loss of weight and appetite or diarrhea followed by vomiting. Diarrhea and vomiting result in dehydration that upsets the electrolyte balance and this may affect the dog critically. Secondary infections occur as a result of the weakened immune system. Because the normal intestinal lining is also compromised, blood and protein leak into the intestines, leading to anemia and loss of",
"-24.051281000487506"
],
[
"6–8 hours, before it is capable of transferring disease. Disease transmission can occur as quickly as 3-6 hours after a bite occurs. Therefore, the earlier the tick is removed from a host, the less likely it is to contract the illness. Treatments and prevention in dogs The American dog tick is a rather colorful tick and is commonly found in highly wooded, shrubby, and long-grass areas. Tick numbers can be reduced by cutting the grass, which creates a low-humidity environment, which is undesirable to ticks. Pesticides can also be used and are most effective when applied to vegetation that has",
"-24.002203394600656"
],
[
"the organization, the dog and handler is directed to the track and find the tracklayer and articles as required. The dog is usually worked on a 10-meter or (30-foot) lead, but the length of lead actually used depends on the terrain.\nIn general, a dog must work continually as if genuinely looking for a lost person without assistance from the handler, and find the required number of lost articles and the tracklayer at the end of the track, for the dog to be awarded a pass. This pass can also be graded on the quality of the work. After the required",
"-23.985560628119856"
],
[
"regular cleaning and plucking of hair within the ear canal. A veterinarian should be consulted if the dog shows signs of an ear infection.\nStandard Poodles in UK, Denmark and USA/Canada surveys had a median lifespan of 11.5 to 12 years. In a UK survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (30%), old age (18%), GDV (6%), and cardiac disease (5%).\nMiniature and Toy Poodles in UK surveys had median lifespans of 14 to 14.5 years. In Miniatures, the leading cause of death was old age (39%). In Toys, the leading causes of death were old age (25%), and kidney",
"-23.930877831124235"
],
[
"dog's owner can greatly enhance quality of life. Prognosis According to Blue Cross, pet owners can expect for their pet to live about 12 months with current treatments. If the owner opts for palliative care instead of treatment, the dog will live about 3 months, although if the tumor is partially removed this can be extended. The survival time may be longer in large dogs, and the cure rate is 20%. If a tumor is completely removed, usually the pet will receive small doses of radiation in hopes of preventing recurrence. The survival rates are: 1 year: 59%, 3 year:",
"-23.825931567465886"
],
[
"of subsequent dogs on the runner will be assessed in the order in which they are tried. Missed game that is picked by the second or subsequent dog constitutes an \"eye wipe.\" All \"eye wipes\" will be treated on their merits but dogs that have had their \"eye wiped\" during the body of the stake will be discarded by the judges. Where a dog shows ability by acknowledging the fall of game and making a workmanlike job of the line to the fall, it should not be barred from the awards by failing to retrieve",
"-23.792477728362428"
],
[
"a plan that would break even at about seven months. DNA samples would be required when pet licenses come up for renewal. Within a year, a database of some 12,500 registration-required canine residents would be available to sanitation workers with sample-test kits. Evidence would be submitted to a forensics laboratory where technicians could readily match the waste to its dog. The prospect of a prompt fine equivalent to $600 US (at 2005 exchange rate) would help assure preventive compliance, as well as cover costs.\nIn adult dogs, the infection by Toxocara canis is usually asymptomatic but can",
"-23.67730999281048"
],
[
"night under clear conditions. The start was delayed due to an incident during practice for the first Road to Le Mans race in which a major crash necessitated barrier repairs to the Porsche Curves and the session was shortened by twenty minutes. Slow zones and yellow flags limited the amount of quick running, and the rapidly cooling track meant the best chance to set the fastest lap times was missed. The first timed laps of the session had Porsche lead early on with a benchmark effort from Jani, followed by Bernhard's 3 minutes and 19.710 seconds lap. Fifteen minutes later,",
"-23.628315675072372"
],
[
"to 24 hours after ingestion. In rare cases, an animal will survive the initial period only to drop dead months later of heart failure - so-called chronic gifblaar poisoning. On post-mortem, leaves may be found in the rumen, cyanosis may be seen, as well as signs of heart failure - congestion, haemorrhage, and myocardial necrosis (on histopathology). Diagnosis is based on these as well as the presence of gifblaar in the camp, particularly if signs of consumption are seen. Tests can be done for monofluoroacetate in rumen fluid, kidneys and liver. Pattern of toxicity Cattle are mostly affected, with sheep,",
"-23.560230026138015"
],
[
"is important because elderly individuals often have multiple chronic disease conditions.\nThe Dog Aging Project commenced in 2016 using a US $200,000 seed grant from the University of Washington, with subsequent funding from small private donors. It is an example of crowdfunding. Initially there was a 10 week trial showing that dogs that received rapamycin had better heart function than the control group. As of 2018, the National Institute on Aging has awarded the Dog Aging Project a five year grant to support its studies.",
"-23.554296462752973"
],
[
"liver disease in June 2000. According to Chosun Ilbo, the dog accompanied his dead owner for three days until other people came to find the body, followed the owner to his funeral, and came back home, not eating anything for four days. The Korean Jindo Dog Research Institute (진돗개 시험연구소) brought him under its care, but a person related to the Institute announced that the dog would not interact with anyone except for his feeder as of 2005.",
"-23.554212201968767"
],
[
"from approximately 300,000 in 2000 to 25,000 in 2004, and thus reducing the number of dog bite injuries from 1,500 a month to under 200 a month. This campaign was controversial, as many opposed large-scale dog euthanasia. On the other hand, there were also numerous cases of people asking the authorities to take the stray dogs away, but after this was done, neighbors, who had been feeding the dogs, would show up at the shelter to take them back to their neighborhoods. The campaign resulted in nearly 48,000 dogs being put down in 2001, with reduced numbers in the following",
"-23.519397389958613"
],
[
"was reduced to just six entries for the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Testing and practice A pre-Le Mans testing day was held at the circuit on 4 June, and mandated all entrants for the race to participate in eight hours of track time divided into two sessions. The morning session, held on a dirty track with lap times improving throughout, was led by pre-race favourites Toyota, with Nakajima's No. 8 car setting a lap time of 3 minutes and 20.778 seconds. The second Toyota of Kobayashi followed almost seven-tenths of a second in arrears, and José María López completed",
"-23.512426971574314"
],
[
"winner by Race Marshal Mark Norman, with a time of 9 days, 18 hours, 39 minutes, and 31 seconds and won US$72,066.67 and a new truck. When asked how it felt to win a second time, Sørlie said \"it feels good, I'm ready for breakfast.\" His team of dogs averaged 4.65 mi/h (7.58 km/h). The Red Lantern in last was Phil Morgan, an Alaska Airlines pilot, and when he crossed the finish line on March 21 at 8:02 pm AKST (March 22, 5:02 UTC), the Widow's Lantern hanging on the burled arch was extinguished, which signaled the end of the race.\nSørlie became the first non-U.S. resident",
"-23.507584375314764"
],
[
"early and treated with lifelong medication, most dogs can live a relatively normal life. Gastric dilatation volvulus There is a high incidence of gastric dilatation volvulus (GDV) in this breed, which occurs when twisting of the stomach (volvulus or torsion) causes or is caused by excess gas. Symptoms include restlessness, inability to get comfortable, pacing, or retching without being able to bring up anything. The dog's abdomen may be visibly swollen, but bloat or torsion can occur without visible swelling. A dog with GDV requires immediate veterinary care. The dog's survival usually depends on whether the owner can get to",
"-23.49583735782653"
],
[
"a pet will need to set aside plenty of time to spend with their dog. Health McNabs are hardy dogs with no breed specific health problems. Their average life span is 13–15 years.\nMcNab dogs may carry the MDR1 mutant gene and can be very sensitive to Ivermectin, which is a common ingredient in heartworm prevention medications. This drug and others can cause serious health problems or even death. A DNA test that demonstrates whether a dog has the mutation is available through the Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine. The test can be completed by sending them a cheek",
"-23.444643379021727"
],
[
"first English-language commentary of the race, however, unlike the Le Mans commentary this did not run for the full 24 hours but stopped for six hours during the night. That year the race itself stopped for a time during the night as thick fog caused a red flag period.\nThe Nürburgring 24 hours was successful enough that it has been repeated in 2008 and 2009, but using the same format of covering the first ten, and final eight hours of the race, rather than the full 24 hours. However, in 2010 the entire race was broadcast live with John Hindhaugh, Paul",
"-23.437685253913514"
],
[
"dogs generally begin to show signs of the disease at two to three months of age, with proteinuria. By three to four months of age, symptoms include for affected male dogs: bodily wasting and loss of weight, proteinuria & hypoalbuminemia. Past nine months of age, hypercholesterolemia may be seen. In the final stages of the disease, at around 15 months of age for affected males, symptoms are reported as being renal failure, hearing loss and death. Since the condition is genetically dominant, diagnosis would also include analysis of the health of the sire and dam of the suspected affected progeny",
"-23.362124065635726"
],
[
"due to anatoxin-a have been reported since its discovery. Domestic dog deaths due to the cyanotoxin, as determined by analysis of stomach contents, have been observed at the lower North Island in New Zealand in 2005, in eastern France in 2003, in California of the United States in 2002 and 2006, in Scotland in 1992, and in Ireland in 1997 and 2005. In each case the dogs began showing muscle convulsions within minutes, and were dead within a matter of hours. Numerous cattle fatalities arising from the consumption of water contaminated with cyanobacteria that produce anatoxin-a have been reported in",
"-23.31355642247945"
],
[
"recessive hereditary disorder, and can cause discomfort to the dog when it attempts to chew. The progression of the condition usually slows down between eleven and thirteen months of age, and is sometimes followed by a slow partial or complete regression.\nThis condition has also been seen in other breeds of dog, such as the West Highland White Terrier, Cairn Terrier, Boston Terrier, as well as some larger breeds such as Bullmastiffs. von Willebrand's disease Von Willebrand's disease is a hereditary bleeding disorder found in both dogs and humans. It is caused by a lack of von Willebrand factor which plays",
"-23.310873619899212"
],
[
"using borrowed sled dogs from Lance Mackey's Comeback Kennel. Marshall had been training with Mackey for this race.\nNewton came in 47th place in 12 days, 4 hours, 27 minutes, and 28 seconds. 2011 Iditarod Marshall returned to compete the next year. His bib number was 6. However, he withdrew from the race on 12 February at 1:01 pm. He had taken both his \"layovers\" and scratched at the checkpoint Anvik. He had 11 dogs when he scratched 2013 Iditarod After a 1-year absence Marshall returned to compete in the 2013 Iditarod independent of any major sponsorship, he ran a team",
"-23.30522325367201"
],
[
"rest for three to four weeks and received extra food to recover the blood loss. In this period the horses were especially weak and prone to disease and infection.\nWithin a few years, with experience and observation of the horses, a rouleaux formation of the blood sample was placed back into the animal's body. This procedure is called plasmapheresis.",
"-23.28701905501657"
],
[
"also take a 42-hour break in Nome to recuperate before they start making their return. Sleds are impounded during the break, ensuring that they rest since they are not able to work on their sleds. As of 2016 the race had never had a fatality, although there had been close calls.",
"-23.27809305023402"
],
[
"or go outside to urinate or defecate. These cases must receive supportive therapy of intravenous fluids and nutrition; a light sedative is sometimes administered, as the dog may be very stressed by the experience. Heart disease Older, small breeds of dogs are prone to congestive heart failure due to degeneration of the mitral valve. This condition is known to be inherited in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels. Degenerative valve disease is the most common form of heart disease in dogs. Mitral regurgitation leads to turbulent blood flow and increased pressure in the left atrium. This causes increased pressure in",
"-23.208946386257594"
],
[
"be 257 laps, or 1000 km (620 mi) long. However, under WEC rules, with the exception of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, races had a time limit of 6 hours. The six-hour mark was reached when the Bellof/Bell Porsche had run only 206 laps (803.4 km), thus the race was declared at the time limit some 51 laps short of the 1000 km distance.",
"-23.20576126378728"
],
[
"not be repaired in time for the race and the Mark Bell Racing Ford BF Falcon XR8 did not start after only one of its three drivers had lapped during Practice or Qualifying within the mandatory 130% of the fastest time set during Qualifying. Race The Phoenix Racing Audi won by 1 minute and 13 seconds over the Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG jointly run by international team Black Falcon and Australian team Erebus Racing. The Mercedes was driven by Dutch driver Jeroen Bleekemolen, American Bret Curtis and Australians Peter Hackett and Tim Slade. The two leading cars finished two laps",
"-23.199118126824033"
],
[
"the Anatolian Shepherd was retracted in Australia. Life span Apparently, only one health survey of Anatolian Shepherds was done in 2004 by the UK Kennel Club. The median lifespan for the 23 deceased dogs (a small sample size) in the survey was 10.75 years. This is 3–4 years longer than other breeds of their size, which have median longevities of 6–8 years. The leading causes of death of the dogs in the survey were cancer (22%), \"combinations\" (17%), cardiac (13%), and old age (13%). Health issues Based on a small sample of 24 still-living dogs, the most common health",
"-23.169228501967154"
],
[
"bypass surgery, performed an experiment in which he grafted a dog's head and upper body including the front legs, onto another dog; the effort was focused on how to provide blood supply to the donor head and upper body and not on grafting the nervous systems. The dogs generally survived a few days; one survived 29 days. The grafted body parts were able to move and react to stimulus. The animals died due to transplant rejection.\nIn the 1950s and '60s, immunosuppressive drugs and organ transplantation techniques were developed that eventually made transplantation of kidneys, livers, and other organs standard medical",
"-23.163488255115226"
],
[
"the 2008 Göteborgsvarvet half marathon, Mikael Ekvall finished the race in 21st place in spite of being stained with his own excrement. A reporter asked him if he had ever considered stopping to clean off. He explained: \"No, I'd lose time. […] If you quit once, it's easy to do it again and again and again. It becomes a habit.\"\nAt the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men's 50 kilometres walk, Yohann Diniz led the race, but due to gastrointestinal issues, he fainted multiple times midrace. Nevertheless, he was able to recover and finished in 8th place, six minutes behind the winner",
"-23.129349762399215"
],
[
"donations through Crowd-funding and Social Media. With a small team of Volunteers and a borrowed mixed team of dogs from the kennels of Kathleen Fredricks & fellow competitor Wade Marrs. Newton Marshall finished the race in the 43rd position out of 69 mushers, on a trail that was called the toughest in the 42-year history of the race, and saw many veterans and past champions not make it to the finish line. He finished the race in 12 days 1 hour 5 min. 52 seconds with 13 dogs in harness and was presented with the \"Herbie Nayokpuk Award\"",
"-23.12805180682335"
],
[
"too young, especially before 8 months, they can damage their bone growth, leading to a painful limp and possibly badly bowed legs. Jumping up and down from objects, climbing over objects, running, even long walks, are all things to be avoided for the first 8 to 10 months to prevent later problems and allow for correct closure of the growth plate.\nDegenerative disc disease is also a common problem in short-legged dogs; as many as 10% of Skyes will suffer from it.\nMammary cancer is the leading cause of Skye Terrier deaths, with hemangiosarcomas (a malignant tumour of the blood vessels), autoimmune",
"-23.07155589017202"
],
[
"Gobi (dog) Gobi is a small, female border terrier mix dog that began following ultra marathon runner Dion Leonard at the beginning of Stage II of the Gobi Desert Run in China in June 2016. Some vets have now told Dion that the dog could be a mix of Shih Tzu, and Chihuahua.\nLeonard noticed the stray dog at the start of the second day of the race. He did not expect the dog to follow him. The dog ran a 23 mile leg of the race with him. At the end of the day, the dog joined Leonard in his",
"-23.062430183475954"
],
[
"cattle require up to two minutes to bleed to death when halal or kosher means of slaughter are used on cattle: \"This is a major incision into the animal and to say that it doesn't suffer is quite ridiculous.\" In response, Majid Katme of the Muslim Council of Britain stated that \"[i]t's a sudden and quick haemorrhage. A quick loss of blood pressure and the brain is instantaneously starved of blood and there is no time to start feeling any pain.\"\nIn permitting dhabiha, the German Constitutional Court cited the 1978 study led by Professor Wilhelm Schulze at the University of",
"-23.041998100699857"
],
[
"dogs passed away within a week of infection while the others were ill but able to recover. One of the bodies underwent laboratory analysis and necroscopy to determine the infectious agent(s). By using RT-PCR techniques and sequencing, the liver and gut samples tested positive for the presence of the CaCV replicase gene. All other pathogens that were screened for came up negative. Prevalence of CaCV in Taiwan was also studied in which dogs with diarrhea were approximately three times more likely to be infected with CaCV than healthy dogs. This contrasted the study run by Li et al. in the",
"-23.02412189875031"
],
[
"or care for sick pets, and half of those admitted taking a whole week off, and according to Direct Line one in four pet owners \"said they have been too upset to go into the workplace when their four legged friend died\" and \"many of those who did go into work after the death of their pet said they were unproductive.\" The latter survey also noted that pet owners in the UK take \"around 8 days off\" due to grief at the death of a pet, and that \"seventy-nine percent of people responding to the survey admitted they did",
"-23.00884010998152"
],
[
"retired with just three hours left with a gearbox problem. The team entered the Spa 24 Hours with just one car with the same line up as car No. 76 at Le Mans. Strangely, the team was forced to retire the car with three hours to go, like at Le Mans although this time it was due to an engine failure. 2010 2010 got off to a great start with the team winning the Dubai 24 Hour in January 2010. The trio of Narac, Pilet and German Marco Holzer won the race overall finishing three laps ahead of the second",
"-22.990203589899465"
],
[
"twenty minutes, only to be surpassed by Lewis Hamilton in the final minute. There was much attention given to Red Bull Racing, following team principal Christian Horner's claims that the team had not done any qualifying simulations. Their plans were thrown into disarray when Sebastian Vettel spun off at Turn 5 shortly after switching to soft tyres, and Mark Webber's fastest lap was ruined when Michael Schumacher spun off at Turn 9. Pedro de la Rosa managed to set his first timed lap of the weekend, but was forced to return to the pits with power steering problems. Projected lap",
"-22.983617298013996"
],
[
"secure. \nAfter 1-2 weeks, a dog's results will be uploaded and published on Avelsdata, a publicly free to access website. This allows owners and breeders to compare related dogs such as litter mates or parents, and dogs within a breed.\nWhen 200 Swedish-born dogs of a breed have completed a BPH assessment, the data is aggregated into an individual breed analysis and sent to the breed club, with tips on how to use the information. At 500 dogs, a more detailed analysis is created, including an examination on the effectiveness of the BPH on measuring everyday behaviours of dogs. As of",
"-22.9538063351647"
],
[
"fallen before the session and only eased off halfway into the sixty minute practice, leading to the cars staying inside the garages until fifteen minutes in. It was not until thirty minutes in that Räikkönen was the first to set a timed lap. Vettel did not head onto the track until there were just 22 minutes remaining. By this stage, the surface had dried out enough for intermediate tyres. Eventually, Vettel set a time of 1:57.351, seven-tenths of a second ahead of Valtteri Bottas and more than a second faster than third placed Sergio Pérez. Only 14 drivers set a",
"-22.90274349394531"
],
[
"veteran indicated he had problems with sled quality, his lead dogs, and personal health ever since the restart in Willow. March 8 Nikolai: Sørlie continues to set the pace by arriving first at Nikolai on March 8 at 11:16 am, followed by Brooks and Jonrowe about an hour later. Sørlie is also the first to depart, at 5:09 pm. The 10 fastest mushers follow quickly, in just over 3 hours, but the top 30 now lag up to 11 hours apart. Sørlie has insomnia, just like he did when he won in 2003, though his dogs are resting well.\nMcGrath:. Sørlie wins the Spirit of",
"-22.881171675398946"
],
[
"it remains legal, it is usually practiced because it is required as part of a breed standard for exhibition at dog shows.\nThe veterinary procedure is known as \"cosmetic otoplasty\". It is usually performed on puppies at 7 to 12 weeks of age. After 16 weeks, the procedure is more painful and the animal has greater pain memory. Up to 2/3 of the ear flap may be removed in a cropping operation, and the wound edges are closed with stitches. The ears are then bandaged and taped until they heal into the proper shape. The procedure is recommended to be",
"-22.83235964324558"
],
[
"expanded the vector from currently or recently infected dogs to half the dog population as carriers. To put the relative levels of shedding bacteria into perspective, a study analyzing the shedding kinetics of B. bronchiseptica presents the highest levels of bacterial shedding one week post-exposure, with an order of magnitude decrease in shedding observed every week. This projection places negligible levels of shedding to be expected six weeks post-exposure (or approximately five weeks post-onset of symptoms). Dogs which had been administered intranasal vaccine four weeks prior to virulent B. bronchiseptica challenge displayed little to no bacterial shedding within",
"-22.79539226605266"
],
[
"1960 24 Hours of Le Mans Practice After the success last year, the ACO was again able to close the public roads on 9 April. Fourteen cars took advantage of the 10 hours of extended testing time.\nOfficial qualifying was held over two sessions for a total of 540 minutes over the two days and there were two major accidents. On Wednesday evening after having just done a fast qualifying lap, Dan Gurney in his Jaguar E2A collided at 150 mph (240 km/h) with Fritz d’Orey's Sc. Serenissima Ferrari GT. D’Orey's car speared off the track and hit a roadside tree with such",
"-22.770934267318808"
],
[
"a very important race, they receive a dog, Cerberus as a reward.\nThey decide to test out Cerberus' ability and enter him in a race. However, instead of racing, Cerberus lies down inside the box and does not move, losing the boys some money. Outside the track after the race, the boys argue over what to do with the dog, when they are kidnapped and put in the back of a van. When they wake up, they find themselves hung up in a dog-food processing plant with the bookie and his henchman, Mooney in front of them. The bookie says that",
"-22.769568478455767"
],
[
"in the first season, a 20-point bonus was awarded if the dog completed all 8 obstacles within the time limit but during the second and third seasons, it was increased to a 30-point bonus if the dog completed all 7 obstacles before time ran out; in any case, a perfectly completed course would yield a total of 100 points. A dog could skip an obstacle, but jumping through the sign would always end the run, regardless of time remaining. Winning The team with the most points won the game. The winning family received prizes, while the winning dog won a",
"-22.767891876923386"
],
[
"be run in order to earn money for his dognappers as the dog had won all of his last six races. This was Britain's first recorded dognapping. The dognapping law By the mid-1960s, calls were being made for laws to prevent dognapping. The United States Congress was already working on legislation to restrict the handling and sale of animals for research when a pet Dalmatian was taken in Pennsylvania during June 1965, and ten days later a Dalmatian was reported to have died during experimental heart surgery in a New York hospital. The dog was thought to be the same",
"-22.71350417920621"
],
[
"does not survive in the environment for more than a few hours at room temperature (20–25 °C), but can survive for a few weeks in shady environments at temperatures slightly above freezing. It, along with other labile viruses, can also persist longer in serum and tissue debris.\nDespite extensive vaccination in many regions, it remains a major disease of dogs.\nTo prevent canine distemper, puppies should begin vaccination at 6-8 weeks of age and then continue getting the “booster shot” every 2-4 weeks until they are 16 weeks of age. Without the full series of shots, the vaccination does not provide protection",
"-22.70654836250469"
],
[
"long, and the rules state that dogs must run the course at a rate of at least 3 yards (or meters) per second, the standard course time would be 50 seconds. Other organizations, though, leave the decision on course time to the judge's discretion Running a course and determining results The judge often holds a briefing for competitors before each class, to review the rules and explain specific requirements for a particular course. For Standard courses for experienced competitors, the judge's briefing is often minimal or dispensed with altogether. For novice handlers in classes with complex rules, the briefings can",
"-22.69375338900136"
],
[
"by monthly treatments for up to six months of age.\nPregnant bitches: to prevent transmission to the puppies, pregnant females can be given macrocyclic lactones on the 40th and 55th day of pregnancy or genbendazole daily from the 40th day of pregnancy continuing until the 14th day postpartum.\nLactating bitches: should be treated concurrently with the first treatment of puppies.\nDogs with increased risk of infection: i.e. those used in sports, competitions, shows, or those kept in kennels can be given two treatments 4 weeks before and 2-4 weeks after the event.\nProfessional dogs: i.e. therapy, rescue, or police dogs: 12 times a year,",
"-22.692900356574683"
],
[
"dogs realize they owe nothing to their owner and everything to Shasta and the Buddies, and so, slow down and refuse to run any further, causing Jean George to lose the race.\nAdam is victorious and the Buddies reunite with Buddy and Molly. Jean George gives out to his dogs and they respond in kind by chasing him around the Arctic. The Buddies sadly say goodbye to their new best friend, Shasta, as well as Adam. All seven Buddies return home via airplane and are greeted by their owners Sam, Bartleby, Billy, Alice, Pete, Henry and Noah; who were waiting for",
"-22.680404164653737"
],
[
"which is operated by bellows that oxygenate the blood.\nFollowing the lung scene, the audience is then shown a heart-lung machine, composed of a pair of diaphragm linear pumps, venous and arterial, exchanging oxygen with a water reservoir. It is then seen supplying a canine head with oxygenated blood. The head is presented with external stimuli, which it responds to. Finally, a dog is brought to clinical death (depicted mostly via a graphical plot of lung and heart activity) by draining all blood from it. It is then left for ten minutes and connected to the heart-lung machine, which gradually returns",
"-22.667562115515466"
],
[
"Surveys of handlers indicates that about 1 in 3 dogs incur injuries from agility related activities. The most common types of injuries were (in order) strains, sprains and contusions. Locations most commonly injured were shoulders, back, phalanges (forelimb/hindlimb) and neck. Injuries were most commonly perceived as being caused by interactions with bar jumps (contact), A-frames and dog walk obstacles (contact and/or fall). There were no relationship between the use of warm-up and cool-down exercises and injuries.",
"-22.651650329469703"
],
[
"59 minutes and 20 seconds.\nIn October 2010, PJ Pat Gallagher,\nEnter the lifestyle-sports-adidas-dublin-marathonas \nAs Patrick Gallagher, \nWho become the fastast runner dressed as a leprechaun to run a marathon, with the time of 3 hours 8 minutes and 55 seconds. \nAnd raising money for the Downs Syndrome Association.",
"-22.619415904773632"
],
[
"criticized DogsBite.org for counting as a death caused by pit bulls the death of a man who died in 2007 from atherosclerosis and problems with alcohol four months after he was severely injured by pit bulls.",
"-22.595145070168655"
],
[
"take the sport seriously until the '90s. His competed in the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race for the first time in 1995, taking 13 days, 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 9 seconds to complete the course and coming in 40th place. To date, his best time is 10 days, 15 hours, 25 minutes, and 15 seconds, a time he achieved in 2006, and his highest position was achieved in 1997, when he placed 27th. According to the Iditarod's official website, he has won a combined total of $14,607.88 in prize money and he is sponsored by St. Elias Specialty Hospital,",
"-22.580612468227628"
],
[
"dogs a year and house 1,400 dogs at any one time. It also operates a sanctuary for dogs that are unadoptable.\nIn 2012 the RSPCA announced plans to end the euthanasia of any rehomeable animals in their care by 2017. However, the charity recognizes that this cannot be done without major changes in the public's behaviour, including spaying and neutering owned animals and making long term commitments to animal companions.\nThe Scottish SPCA operate on a no kill basis unless given veterinary advice that an animal is so ill or in such pain that the kindest decision is to end their suffering",
"-22.56171045723022"
],
[
"completing the race in under four hours are awarded with an engraved whisky glass and those who have completed the race twenty-one times are presented with a George Broderick Plaque.",
"-22.538488303485792"
],
[
"ages of six weeks to seven months old. The signs and symptoms include a 12- to 48-hour onset of loss of appetite, decreased energy level, vomiting, and difficulty breathing. Some pups have no physical signs or symptoms at all, may just collapse and die, or are found dead by the breeder or new owner. At this time, there is no known cure or treatment but there is a way to prevent producing puppies affected by juvenile dilated cardiomyopathy.\nBreeders now have a DNA gene based test, based on a cheek swab or a blood sample, which will determine if a dog",
"-22.535686021408765"
],
[
"three years after the initial puppy series and a booster 1 year later.\nA dog that successfully recovers from CPV2 generally remains contagious for up to three weeks, but it is possible they may remain contagious for up to six. Ongoing infection risk is primarily from fecal contamination of the environment due to the virus's ability to survive many months in the environment. Neighbours and family members with dogs should be notified of infected animals so that they can ensure that their dogs are vaccinated or tested for immunity. A modified live vaccine many confer protection in 3 to 5 days;",
"-22.527058354578912"
],
[
"42 min later at 4:42 pm. The teams were increased to 16 dogs each. No additional dogs could be added, but they could be left behind at any of the checkpoints along the route.\nYentna: Ramy Brooks (bib 5) departed Yentna in first place on March 4 at 5:20 pm. the remainder of the top 5 were Jim Lanier, Zack Steer, Cim Smyth, and Paul Gebhardt\nSkwentna: Aaron Burmeister who started in 47th position departed Skwentna in first place, on March 4 at 9:44 pm. The remainder of the top 5 were Robert Sorlie, Jason Barron, Rick Swenson, and three-time Yukon Quest",
"-22.468778286478482"
],
[
"annually who started the race and 80% to 95% of them finished before the 13-hour cutoff. The overall course record is 6 hours, 8 minutes and 14 seconds, set by Matt Woods (31) in 2011.",
"-22.462805127957836"
],
[
"to FAWC it can take up to two minutes for cattle to bleed to death, thus amounting to animal abuse. Compassion in World Farming also supported the recommendation saying \"We believe that the law must be changed to require all animals to be stunned before slaughter.\" The UK government rejected its recommendations.\nVarious research papers on cattle slaughter collected by Compassion In World Farming mention that \"after the throat is cut, large clots can form at the severed ends of the carotid arteries, leading to occlusion of the wound (or \"ballooning\" as it is known in the slaughtering trade). Nick",
"-22.439727505319752"
],
[
"that T-Dog (IronE Singleton) has contracted a blood infection from the wound he received in the previous episode, and both search for antibiotics, but they fail to find any.\nAt the Greene farm, Hershel reveals that Carl needs major surgery to live, and that he will need a respirator. Otis suggests that they might find supplies at a nearby high school—where the Federal Emergency Management Agency has set up a trailer—although the place is likely overrun with walkers. Otis and Shane decide to get the supplies, while Maggie retrieves Lori from the group and brings her to the Greene home. Rick",
"-22.43613799189916"
],
[
"stop can easily last well more than a minute.\nUnlike most other forms of racing, the practice of \"double-stinting\" or even \"triple-stinting\" tyres is commonplace in longer races; tyres hard enough to withstand the rigours of racing in the heat of the daytime may be so hard that they do not wear significantly during the nighttime hours. In a race where this is an issue, significant time can be gained by choosing to leave worn tyres on the car during the first stop after they were put on the car; if the temperature drops low enough, teams may even be able",
"-22.431836345287593"
],
[
"remain active up until around twelve years old. Health The Swedish breed club for the Smålandsstövare commissioned genetic tests on a number of dogs between 1994 and 2008. The tests showed that there were no specific health issues unique to the breed, nor any major generic issues. They recommended that where rare health issues present themselves, that the dog involved should not be bred from in order to prevent that health issue from spreading through the breed. They have an average life expectancy of twelve to fifteen years.",
"-22.430831853103882"
],
[
"being looked after by a local vet in Cannes. Duncan visited the vet and was informed that the condition could not be cured, and the vet was no longer feeding him. Duncan sought a second opinion, taking back the dog, he drove it to Stuttgart, Germany, where he found a vet who was willing to treat Lump. The treatment took several months, but Lump would go on to live for another ten years, albeit walking as Duncan would describe \"a bit like a drunken sailor\". He died ten days before Picasso, on 29 March 1973. Legacy The painted plate that",
"-22.424859096267028"
],
[
"8. The three dogs died shortly after Shannon returned for them, and a fourth may have perished as well. Arrival in Minto Half-Athabaskan Edgar Kalland arrived in Minto the night before, and was sent back to Tolovana, traveling 70 mi (110 km) the day before the relay. Shannon and his team arrived in bad shape at 11 am, and handed over the serum. After warming the serum in the roadhouse, Kalland headed into the forest. The temperature had risen to −56 °F (−49 °C), and according to at least one report the owner of the roadhouse at Manley Hot Springs had to pour water over",
"-22.411221501068212"
],
[
"was the first to arrive, on March 9 at 9:midnight, followed by Buser, then Brooks. Sørlie departs 13 minutes later. The top 10 follow within 11 hours, and the top 30 within 22 hours.\nAfter leaving Ophir in 8th place, Zack Steer became the fifth musher to scratch when he returned on March 9\nfor undisclosed personal reasons. Steer's wife is pregnant and due later this month. Scott Smith from Wyoming scratched at Ophir on March 12, citing concerns for his team which only had nine dogs left.\nThe trail between Ophir and Iditarod was in poor shape, and efforts to improve it were too late",
"-22.404184061510023"
],
[
"1995 distance runner Scott Turner set a record for running the trail end-to-end in 14 days, 5 hours and 58 minutes. Several runners have tried to beat the record. On July 2, 2010, Charlotte Vasarhelyi surpassed this performance by completing an end to end run finishing with a final time of 13 days, 10 hours 51 min.\nOn September 18, 2014, cancer survivor Jim Willett set a solo record completing the entire Bruce Trail in 10 days, 13 hours, and 57 minutes. His run was to raise funds and awareness for CPAWS (The Canadian Parks And Wilderness Society).",
"-22.39196645433549"
],
[
"1987 record (of 9 minutes 30 seconds, which stood for 21 years) on his March 24, 2008 visit. On May 26, 2014, he was bested by 125-pound competitive eater Molly Schuyler, who polished off the meal in just 4 minutes 58 seconds, and came back for seconds (14 minutes and 57 seconds for two meals). She did not, however, eat a third steak meal in the same hour. Schuyler returned on April 19, 2015 and would finish her first meal in 4 minutes 18 seconds, beating her own record by 40 seconds. She had defeated four other teams of competitors",
"-22.39123097236734"
],
[
"$1,000. From 1916-1931, the dog race took place over a distance of between 140 and 200 miles, with the race usually running from one town to another, and included Carrot River, Cranberry Portage, Flin Flon, and Cumberland House.\nWhen the Trappers Festival was revived in 1948 until 1976, the dog race was run in three daily laps of 50 miles each. Today, the race is run in three 35-mile heats held over a three-day period. Racers begin each day at 10 a.m. on Halcrow Lake for a mass start. Mushers who achieve the lowest combined time score in each category over",
"-22.38637421815656"
]
] |
6doq51 | Why does Afghanistan seem to be a hotbed for Islamic extremism while neighboring countries like Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan have remained relatively unaffected by similar unrest? | [
"Afghanistan was one of the stages the cold war was fought on. The US and the soviet union both toppled their government like 4 times in the last hundred years. Largely by alternating funding rebel groups. Having no stable government and a long history of well funded terrorism ended up not vanishing when the cold war ended (and we once again toppled and replaced their government which I bet in 5 years will end up getting toppled again by russia backed syrians or something just to keep up the tradition)",
"There really are a lot of factors, some of them mentioned already, I'll try to explain a few more. Culturally, there is something in Afghanistan called 'pastunwali' which is a set of rules that are followed by nearly all Afghans. It has many facets, one of them is to welcome and protect visitors. This will come into play later. To really understand the issue in Afghanistan, you have to know the historical connotations to what went on. So, in the mid 80's, the Russian's were pushed out of Afghanistan. Like many other countries (Britian, and eventually the US) they found that it would just cost too much money to stay. For around 8 years or so, there was somewhat of an ad hoc communist government, although it was limited to really the main cities (Kabul, Jalalbad, Herat, Konduz, Kandahar). The rest of Afghanistan (80-90%) was run by warlords. To make a long story short, there ended up being two factions. The pro government forces, and the Taliban, which emerged from one of the warlords (Mullah Mohammad Omar). To fight the government, the Taliban needed money and training, and it called upon al Qaeda to do so. Although they supplied funding and training, Afghanistan became the 'place to jihad', only because at the time, there other place was Chechnya fighting the Russians, and the Russians were using 'scorch earth' policies...which consisted of of carpet bombing whole villages and areas that were deemed enemy terrority. So, while there was money and training involved, these members of al Qaeda were coming in droves to Afghanistan, but really didn't care about the fight going on. Eventually, the fight became a stalemate, and areas were set up for both sides.... and al Qaeda never left, but after 9/11, there was the cultural practice to protect their 'visitors', which did happen. Pakistan While the Afghans do protect their visitors, they are very 'eye for an eye', so after about a month of refusing to turn over Bin Laden, the US just started a bombing campaign, and most Afghans were really ok with it. The majority of al Qaeda was holed up in the Tora Bora mountains, which is in eastern Afghanistan near Jalalabad. (If you're going to be a terrorist, that's a really beautiful place, as well as Nuristan where the rest remain today). The idea was to start bombing, push the al Qaeda forces east to the awaiting Pakistan border, where their army would either capture or kill the renaming forces. Essentially, the Pakistan army opened up, and allowed them safe haven in Pakistan, and the US was kinda stuck. There are a myriad of terrorist organizations that are allowed safe haven in Pakistan. The Haqqani (which sees its self as the Taliban, although the DIA has been trying to make them their own organization for years) is stationed in Miram Shah Pakistan. This was the organization that had Bergdahl. The Lashkar-e-Tabia is based in Pakistan, and they are fighting the dispute between Pakistan and India over the Kashmir Area. There's a whole bunch, and I'm on mobile, but many believe these various forces are the military action army of the Pakistan intelligence service (ISI). Uzbekistan Uzbekistan kinda of took a hard stance against Islam. Captured everyone that was coming and going to a mosque, put them in swimming pools and shot them all. This in turn formed the IMU (Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan) which operated out of Northern Afghanistan. In there end, there are a ton of factions that can operate freely in Afghanistan, and do so, as well as Pakistan. And although some has changed, the Afghan people still operate under Pashtunwali, and both host and protect these various organizations. To note, many of the other responses are also true, its really a hodgepodge of reasons for their situation.",
"those countries have had their problems with extremism, but they are led by authoritarian leaders who crack down on any and all dissent. Afghanistan is a considered a hotbed because the Taliban won the Afghan civil war and allowed Osama Bin Laden to set up camps there. Ever since the US invasion there has not been a strong central government that can control the rural areas where the Taliban have strong support due to ethnic ties, and support from elements in Pakistan.",
"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan were constituent republics of the Soviet Union for some 70 years and, thus, heavily controlled. The Soviets had no patience for religious freedom and stamped it out whenever and wherever they felt it threatening to the absolute authority of the state. When the Soviet Union fell apart in 1991-92, those republics became independent and have largely remained controlled by dictatorial strongmen who feel about as kindly towards Islamist extremism as the Soviets did. Afghanistan, by contrast, has been a factional, semi-lawless psuedo-state off and on for many decades with well-funded** and organized Islamist militants vying for control against the various Afghan nationalist clans and, for a while, the Soviets. So for a long time it's been highly fertile ground for that hotbed of religious extremism to develop. ** By the U.S., mainly, until the Islamists started to bite the hand that was feeding them.",
"Afghanistan has had many wars and no time for stability. The Soviets invaded, civil war and then the American invasions. Also there's geopolitics involved like Pakistan using the Taliban as a proxy and aiding them. So think about being a kid in the 1970s and being in constant war. You will grow up with basically no education other than knowing how to fight wars. Then there's also a booming drug trade, where there's money involved with drugs. Also cultural stuff. So don't assume that because Afhghans are Muslim the violence is because of Islamic extremism and not Pashtun values. The majority of Taliban are Pashtuns. They practice badal which is basically a hardcore version for an eye for an eye.",
"There's a lot of comments talking about the invasions and toppling of governments by various world powers, but I think that's a symptom more than a root cause. IMHO, the root cause is more like that Afghanistan never really developed a firm, centralized power structure. I don't know as much about this as I'd like, and it doesn't seem to be super well documented, but the process of increasing amounts of power being held by central National governments at the expense of tribes, cities, and regions seems to have mostly happened in Europe through the course of the Renaissance times. It took a while, and had a lot of hiccups, conflicts, etc, but eventually, the National-level government got to the point of being able to reliably exercise authority over all of the more regional governments within its territory. This goes hand-in-hand with many facets of modernism, like unifying language and minimizing accents, establishing a national currency, standardizing on weights and measures, building roads and keeping them open, etc. This has happened at various levels over most of the planet, though at different times and in different ways in many places. For some reason, this never seems to have happened in Afghanistan at all. There's a central government, but it basically only exists in the big cities, and not necessarily even all of those. The majority of the country is only dimly aware of the existence of the supposed national government, and it as essentially no meaning to their lives. This goes the same for all of the trappings of having a strong national government of any ideology or structure. All of the stuff I mentioned in the previous paragraph, plus things like being aware of or participating in the global media cycle, being connected to the global economy, being exposed to the sort of cultural mish-mash that is the modern world. It's kind of a natural fit for many sects of radical Islamic ideology. The ancient culture and lack of connection to the global economy kinda fits in with a lot of what many of these extremist ideologies seem to think. The National government is barely aware of the existence of most of these tribes and villages, and has no real power to do much of anything in them. The people who live there only really care about their tribe and maybe the next few over, and talk of things like the Nation of Afghanistan, America, New York, jetliners and skyscrapers, it might as well be on Mars. For that matter, most modern Westerners have probably thought a lot more about Mars than these villagers would think of any of these things. A great place to hide out of you are wanted basically in the entire civilized world - the idea of you being found, or of someone reporting you, would be basically crazy. So all of this was already the case before any of the modern foreign invasions really got started. But they sure didn't help. It's hard enough to get villagers used to bowing to the power of a national government when it's a national government run by your people. It's a whole different matter when the national government is run by what to you seems like a dizzying array of alien cultures from the other side of the planet. Just when a few people start to think that maybe these foreigners have something going and participating in the global economy might not be so bad, they get tired of it and leave you right back where you were, validating the people who wanted to have nothing to do with them. It's easy to send a foreign army into one or a handful of villages, but controlling all of them all the time is impossible. So Afghanistan is basically ungovernable now, and there's not much incentive for that to change anytime in the near future. Meanwhile, most of the surrounding countries seem to have more or less successfully centralized power, so while they may have problems, they don't have the kind of problems that Afghanistan has. And the reason why that is, I don't know, and I'm not so sure anybody knows.",
"Those countries all had time to develop their authoritarian regimes such that extremism could be suppressed. Same reason Syria remained stable for so long -- the gov't would jail anyone and everyone they deemed even slightly a threat. That is, until they couldn't handle it anymore, which is why we have war. Afghanistan's regimes have been toppled by Soviets and Americans alike so many times that no entity could consolidate power. So you have a bunch of different groups and a joke of a gov't fighting for power. edit: i should also mention that, even though authoritarian regimes suck, they can provide more than illegitimate govts like in Afghanistan. less public grievance = less extremism, but idk if this could be considered a major factor cuz foreign powers are definitely to blame in the case of Afghanistan",
"The short of it, the US funded and armed a bunch of a'holes there to become makeshift rebels and help us out against the Russians back in the day. After the Cold War ended, we didn't bother cleaning that shit up so the same a'holes got bored and ... the devil will find work for idle hands. Also, being nomadic desert rats without access to education and information for the past several decades hasn't helped. It's not a \"Islamic\" (not a word) problem as much as it is a vacuum of authority in the region with perfect conditions problem. It's like if you left some deadly bacteria in a moist, warm, dark place for 30 years ...",
"I don't see this in any of the top comments and it may be a misconception, but from my understanding Afghanistan is very very unincorporated. The repeated thing I've read is when the government or U.S. troops show up to bring order and the people in the outlying territories are like \"what the heck is Afghanistan?\". Its pretty big on the map but a lot of its is ungoverned and not incorporated or linked to the rest of the country(the Taliban being the first/biggest governing body for a lot of territorial people). Definitely not the biggest factor if my knowledge is true, but definitely a factor.",
"Because those are former Soviet republics. The USSR was officially an atheist state, and cracked down on any form of religion. After the union dissolved, the strongmen remained/came to power, and continued this policy to a degree, as they didn't want Islamists to emerge and rouse the people with their ideology or challenge the government. IIRC, most of those leaders push for nationalism instead, there were civil wars fought over this in the 90s, but they were for the most part of secular nature.",
"Historical factors - it's a somewhat isolated area, but has been a heated battleground in recent history, particularly during he 1980s when the USSR invaded and drove many in the Mujahideen movement to radicalism. Osama bin Laden was an American informant/ally during the war before he formed al-Qaeda. Cultural factors - Afghanistan has never had a democratic government before US involvement, nor did they really want it. They would prefer one strong leader over a republic-style government system. The proxy Afghan government set up by the US was a failure - partially due to Hamid Karzai, but mainly because it never would've worked in the first place. Most Afghan people still see their own government as being controlled by Washington - fueling distrust, disloyalty, and anti-western sentiment among the people, making them easier to recruit than in most other Islamic countries. Geographical factors - it's a densely wooded and mountainous country, makes it ideal for insurgent/terrorism groups. It's landlocked, which is a major disadvantage to the United States and most other world powers, who tend to rely heavily on naval power to fuel wars and conflicts. Economic factors - heroin. The poppy fields of Afghanistan supply a massive quantity of heroin in the world. When the United States invaded, a number of commanders wanted to rip up the fields and plant cotton instead, which is about the only other thing that would grow in abundance there. The FDA, however, would never allow government funding to be put towards a project that would lead to competition with the American cotton industry, so the US left the fields alone. Stupid, I know. Anyways, the irony is that since America left the poppy fields, the heroin market has remained one of al-Qaeda's main sources of income, in addition to the Taliban and other radical groups. So instead of allowing a very small amount of competition in the cotton industry, the US would rather leave the primary source of funding for a global terror network intact.",
"Probably doesn't help that they produce almost all of the world's heroin. Having a significant portion of your entire economy based on supplying the entire world with illegal drugs tends to attract unsavory people.",
"Not sure about Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, but Tajikistan is currently wrestling with it. They've got a rise in support for fundamentalist Islam that they're trying to keep in control and at the moment it looks like a fight they're slowly losing.",
"Rule of law. It is the defining characteristic of a successful society. That doesn't necessarily mean the government is cruel, but that justice is meted out appropriately. That is why western civilization has been so successful for so long. It isn't perfect, but it's pretty damn good.",
"It's a bit like Poland - it's the part of the world you have to stomp through to get to where you actually want to conquer. Check out for instance the history of the Khyber pass: > Well known invasions of the area have been predominantly through the Khyber Pass, such as the invasions by Darius I, Genghis Khan and later Mongols such as Duwa, Qutlugh Khwaja and Kebek. Prior to the Kushan era, the Khyber Pass was not a widely used trade route.[1] Among the Muslim invasions of ancient India, the famous invaders coming through the Khyber Pass are Mahmud Ghaznavi, and the Afghan Muhammad Ghori and the Turkic-Mongols. (Ancient Canaan also served a similar function with the Egyptian Empire on one side and various Empires such as the Mittani, Hittites, Assyrians and Sumerians on the other side) More recently the British Empire tried to go in and do their thing (which they were copying from the Romans) of \"let's you and him fight\" AKA divide and conquer - but the Afghans were already heavily divided along tribal lines to start with so that went nowhere. Then when the pesky Russians invaded in the 80s 'Murica was in its 'Communism must not win at all costs' phase, so they funnelled massive amounts of cash, guns and sent in CIA agents to train the locals up in how to be terrorists. Yep, at one stage the Taliban and Al Quaeda were 'the good guys, fighting the good fight'. Remember kiddies: it's not being a state sponsor of terror if it's us doing it. *cough* Eventually the Russians ran out of money and willpower to stick their willies into that meat grinder and withdrew. So the region started to recover. And by recover I mean they started growing a lot of poppies. And by poppies I don't mean tulips. Drugs. Lots and lots of drugs (opium). So then, having won the war on Communism, 'Murica decided that they would start a series of wars against other abstractions - hence the war on drugs. (NB: the following is sourced from an article in Time magazine from back when Senator Obama was teasing thinking about running for the big chair) So 'Murica went to Afghanistan and said to the farmers 'drugs is bad, m'kay'. And the farmers said 'okay, we see your point, but what's our alternative?'. So then 'Murica promised them that if they stopped growing poppies 'Murica would give them heaps of aid to transition over to much less valuable crops (peas and corn and beans and shit). And the Afghani farmers were like 'well, we'll make a lot less money but okay, we'll give it a go'. So they didn't plant poppies, and then 'Murica, having got what it wanted from the relationship, reneged on the deal to help the Afghani farmers transition to food crops. No food crops equals no food equals famine. So as you can imagine the 'Muricans were somewhat unpopular. (end bit sourced from Time magazine) Then some of the CIA trained ~~terrorists~~ ~~freedom fighters~~ terrorists got together with the Saudis and decided that a bunch of Saudis should hijack some planes and blow up some buildings in New York. In retaliation for the Saudis committing a terror attack on 'Murican soil the 'Muricans re-invaded Iraq, which had ostensibly been their ally in the region (but probably they weren't flavour of the month after Iraq asked permission to invade Kuwait and 'Murica said 'go ahead we DGAF' and then turned around and bombed Iraq back into the stone age) (NB see also Iran-Contra affair AKA 'selling guns to both sides' AKA 'lets you and him fight'). Then when everyone went 'Bwuh?' the 'Muricans said 'Oh yeah? Well we're going to invade Afghanistan and get those Al Quaeda mofos'. At which point everyone in Russia let out a hearty guffaw and said 'Yeah, good luck with that'. And the war in Iraq and Afghanistan sucked 2 Trillion dollars out of the 'Murican economy, which then went into a meltdown and there was a big housing crisis where the economy came up about 2 Trillion dollars short (funny that) and so the White House punished Wall Street by giving them a 30 billion dollar bailout ... and that year the Wall Street firms that had been bailed out paid out 30 billion dollars in bonuses to their top executives (funny that). TLDR: the short answer is famine, the long answer is that Afghanistan is a meat grinder, and every Empire on Earth has stepped up to jam their dick into it.",
"Without going into more detail than I possess, I think a great deal of the answer to the second part of your question \"while neighboring...remained relatively unaffected by similar unrest.\" Can be attributed to greater cultural homogeneity in the countries you mentioned, which in turn makes it easier for strongmen to consolidate power within the (not really very arbitrary) borders of their countries. Afghanistan has really never been \"ruled\" by anyone, at least, not in the kind of top-down rule that we call \"ruling\" in the West. About the most any given ruler has been able to do is control some (varying number) of the major cities and important geographical regions, but within the fragmented regions being \"ruled\" under any given leader, tribal power has historically been the real governing power in Afghanistan. It is attributed to Alexander the Great that \"Afghanistan is easy to march into, but hard to march out of.\" You'd think Western governments from the British to the Russians to the USA would have paid attention to history, but, no, they largely have not.",
"Okay I don't agree with top response. I am from the region. I know a good amount especially about Pakistan. Many, many neighboring countries of Afghanistan were under Soviet domination. Soviets were against all religions especially Islam because Islam makes the most trouble for governments: demanding sharia, ummah concept, etc. The Soviets deislamized the countries. Even today this influence is heavy. The sermons in mosques are tightly controlled, women don't hear hijabs, governments are secular, governments perceive Islamists as biggest threat, thus are brutal when dealing with them (Uzbeks boil terrorists according to USG secret cables -- wikileaks.) Because of an extremely unfriendly influence to promote \"real\" Islam (which even Anjem Choudary enjoys in UK), these Islamists who are just terrorists not yet ready to fight for whatever excuse, make \"hijra\". Many of them now joined ISIS, before they were joining Taliban in big numbers. Afghanistan was too under Soviet influence. Due to distance it was more difficult to project and control Afghans. (You can see women \"free mixing\" -- with males -- not covering hair, going to universities in pictures prior to Taliban takeover.) Along with lesser Soviet influence, Afghanistan has a very bad neighbor. Pakistan wants to control Afghanistan. Afghanistan doesn't recognize its border with Pakistan called the Durrand line (named after Britisher who negotiated with a weak Afghan king.) The British conquered all the lands and decided to use Afghans as puppets against Russians. British attacked and took Kabul but withdrew. The Durrand line separates the ethnic majority group of Afghanistan: Pashtuns who're 20% of Pakistan too. Historically Pashtun areas of Pakistan is Afghan (see Ahmad Shah Abdali Empire.) Pakistanis are scared of a movement to reunite Pashtuns. Because of this Pakistan always interferes with internal affairs of Afghanistan. When Americans approached them with beating back the Soviets, they gleefully accepted as their allies the Islamists of Afghanistan were under pressure. Taliban agreed to ally with Pakistan because they wrongly believe Pak military was \"real\" Muslim. Pakistanis convinced them they were brothers, however this has now changed big time. Now there exists TTP which is a wing of Taliban that attacks Pakistan. Afghanistan isn't like its neighbors because of lesser Russian influence, Pakistan's alliance with Islamists (Haqanni network -- a branch of Taliban -- formerly they allied with all of Taliban until Taliban turned against them for being not-true-Muslims.) A population that hasn't been secularized because of weaker and less stable governments.",
"Most of these answers are fairly bs. It can be largely explained by geography and recent history. Afghanistan is bordered by three great powers: Iran, Pakistan, and China, and at one point by the USSR as well. This makes it of great strategic importance geopolitically, which is why both the USSR and America have attempted nation building efforts there in the last 40 years in order to bring the country within their respective spheres of influence. In the 80's, the USSR invaded Afghanistan in order to help consolidate power for a new socialist government there. As part of a greater ramp up of the cold war during the 80s after a long period of detente, the CIA helped fund and arm the Mujahideen, rebel militias of both foreign fighters and rural Afghanis to combat the Soviets. The Soviets became mired in a decade long war in Afghanistan as basically their version of Vietnam. In much the same way that Vietnam caused political instability in the US, the Afghan war helped drive the instability that caused the Soviet Union to collapse completely, and they eventually pulled out. After the Soviets left, certain factions within the Mujahideen evolved into the Taliban, a hardline theocratic regime that swept in to fill the power vacuum in Afghanistan. Another Mujahideen fighter, Osama Bin Laden, formed the terrorist group Al Qaeda. Al Qaeda was not really a thing during the Soviet occupation like the top rated post says, it emerged after the occupation ended. Both Al Qaeda and the Taliban built their doctrines on the tenets of Wahhabism, an extremely conservative strain of Sunni Islam that serves as the state religion of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia, a key US ally due entirely to their control of oil prices, has a policy of sending young radicals to other countries as foreign fighters, both to spread wahhabism and in order to keep them from turning on the Saudi royal family and causing trouble at home. The influence of this ideology proved especially prominent in Afghanistan due to the instability there and the fractured nature of its society, which is largely rural and tribal. Outside of a few large cities, many Afghanis have lived the same way in tight knit ethnic communities for hundreds of years. Fast forward to 2001, Osama Bin Laden and Al Qaeda carry out the 9/11 attacks and the US begins their own decade long quagmire, overthrowing the Taliban in an attempt to introduce Democracy and a free market to the country. The US did not need to overthrow the Taliban in order to capture Osama Bin Laden. In fact, they offered to turn him over. But, like the USSR twenty years earlier, elements within the American government saw an opportunity to take control of an important strategic region. The vast amounts of foreign money pouring in from both the USSR and the US over the course of several decades have largely ended up in the hands of extremist warlords who knew how to game the system and suck up to whoever was in power. All of this has contributed to an overwhelming climate of graft and corruption in the new democratically elected government, which is largely impotent compared to regional warlords and dependent on the US military for support and protection. This has made many Afghans miss the Taliban, which still exists as an insurgent military force that carries out attacks on the American occupiers and the Afghan government. It is rumored that many of these elements have varying degrees of backing from the Saudis, Pakistanis, and Iranians, again in order to give those nations a foothold in such an important strategic area. Add to all of this that Afghanistan is the world's foremost producer of Opium, providing yet another source of money for local extremists, and you end up with a country which has been screwed over by decades of geopolitical tug of war and failed attempts to modernize its society. It has such a problem with terrorism because so many powerful actors have a vested interest in funding terrorists there, starting with the US and the Mujahideen. This is a pretty vague overview, but if you want to know more about Afghanistan and how it ended up the way it is, I highly recommend the documentary \"The Bitter Lake\" by Adam Curtis. You can find it online for free.",
"Because all the three former republics of the Soviet Union were much better off infrastructure-wise (thanks to the Soviet colonization) and had governments based on sovietized, centralised, \"enlightened\" islam since forever (1920ies), the promotion of which was the Soviet Union's way to quash various nationalisms worldwide, instead helping install internationalist socially liberal, economically authoritarian soviets or councils of the people, and especially destroy the Panturkism which was a long-hated enemy of the Russian empire and later its inheritor - the Soviet Union. That's one half of the modern problem with Islam, the other half is the Western powers funding Muslim religious fundamentalists who wanted to return to the pure Islam of raping stoning and cutting off parts of bodies, but also of the universal care for every Muslim (which is why it was so easy for all the disempowered to become communist and then Muslim, and for all those second-generation Middle Eastern immigrants disenchanted in the Western crony capitalist system to fall back in the familiar and quite attractive message of \"freedom and equality for all, under Allah\") , so between two internationalist or globalist Islams, if you will, there's no other choice for the poor guys from the Middle East to develop themselves in an organic, independent, profitable way.",
"A less extreme example is how the US seems like a hotbed of gun violence when compared to Canada. We're neighbors and in a lot of ways the same yet we differ a lot on this issue. When a cop shoots a suspect in Canada it's all over the news and people wonder how such a thing can happen here. I think that's something that's not newsworthy in the US.",
"Key word \"seem\". Afghanistan has problem with domestic islamic extremism, yes. However, the country can't compete with the great exporters of terrorism; Uzbekistan, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iraq and Syria. When was any major act of terror against the western world done by an afghan? Never? Bin Laden and his bunch of washed up Mujaheedin friends were Saudis mainly, armed with training from USA and experience from fighting Soviet.",
"Also, Afghanistan has many different ethnic groups (Pashto, Turkmen, Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara to name a few). It's not always just religion fuelling extremism in Afghanistan but also fighting between ethnic groups. The other countries you mentioned probably have a more homogenous ethnic make up.",
"Because of America. My understanding is there were no extremists in Iraq either during Saddam regime, until the US invasion.",
"Alexander the Great settled briefly in Afghanistan andhelped shape their culture. Afghanistan was a stable republic long before the United States was born. It reached all the way to India and the Indian Ocean. Under the British Raj, the mountainous area now referred to as West Pakistan was declared a neutal buffer state by paying an annual tribute to the ruler of Afghanistan. When the Brits left India, they created Pakistan in the neutral Afghan territory, as a revenge. Still, in the 1960s, Kabul was called the Paris of Central Asia. There are many poms, grapes and melon varietals that originated there, ...stolen by the West, of course. Then CIA overthrew Iran, and went head to head with the Soviets in Afghanistan. The Soviets invaded to push the CIA-backed coup leader out. That was 30 years of continuous machine warfare ago. Massive genocide. Historical buildings older than Britain's are pockmarked with tank shells and bullet holes. Their culture has been decimated by the deliberate assassination of their village elders. An American-style Executive Corporate was imposed on Afghans, complete with a fake flag, fake currency, a fake national anthem and new Federal Afghan National Army, which like the Afghan National Police, is wholly, brutally, corrupt. The Karzai mob was forced on the Afghans by Cheney, hoping to steal their strategic mineral wealth. Ironically, Karzai betrayed Cheney, and awarded all the mineral leases to India and China, enraging Cheney and launching The Surge, which Obama, to his great discredit, gave the final go-ahead to. Revenge mass murder for betrayed mineral lease promises (and extortion) is a new low in US foreign policy. Afghanistan is now an empty resource space. Read Peter Torbay's 'Diminution and Development' on Scribd, written with the assistance of Afghan business and political leaders.",
"Afghanistan as a country really shouldn't exist, Afghans as a people is a kind of controversial idea. It's too diverse for an Islamic country, theologically, linguistically and ethnically. There is no loyalty to one another as they're the Tajiks and this other guy is the Pashtun or this or that, and the focus becomes instead on Tribal lines. Where as all those Stan countries are proper nation states for their respective peoples. The USA's most dependable allies have been Tajiks and Hazaras (Afghan Iranians), and a a lot of the Islamic terrorists have been Pashtuns, the main ethnic group of the Taliban and other radical Sunni Insurgent groups, and one of the main ethnic groups of Pakistan. It's a country where a lot of the problems can lie on the failures of multiculturalism.",
"If you look at pictures of Afghanistan pre-Soviet invasion, it definitely had set a pace to be similar in makeup to those countries. However, as stated, Cold War feuding led to Afghanistan becoming a recipient of collateral damage which has only intensified, instead of receded, like in Vietnam due to various elements including the re-emergence of Islamic radicalism",
"Afghanistan and Pakistan have a really bad inbreeding problem. In these areas cousin marriages have been going on for generations. One of the symptoms of inbreeding is a predisposition towards violence.",
"Those 3 peaceful are under great influence of Russia, and Afghanistan is under influence of USA. Afghan government called Soviets to help them fight jihadists in the early 80s (west calls it invasion, but it was not), and USA financed jihadists to fight Soviets. Soviets went out, and we see what happened to Afghanistan afterwards... Secular government was replaced with extremists. The same thing is happening in Syria right now.",
"Afghanistan is controlled by the US, who likes to control terrorists and fund terrorist acts to gain support for things like the Patriot Act. Almost every terrorist act on American interests has either been caused by the American government, or caused massive group orgasms when it happened.",
"Afghanistan was a strategic fighting ground between Russia and the USA. It was destabilized by CIA due to fostered radical Islamism. In this regard, it is similar to Chechnya. Although Ladin was Saudi, he fought in Afghanistan thanks to CIA. The swamp drew all kinds of mujahideen from all around the world. Just like Syria now. Afghanistan has border to Pakistan which was founded because of religious differences with India. They shared various aspects that fostered religious extremism. Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and ~~Tajikistan~~ Kyrgyzstan have different social, ethnic and religious backgrounds. They are considered relatively Turkish, although after centuries of Russian influence they are more Russian than Turkish. Being satellite states of the Soviets, they were deliberately hold back and closely monitored. There was no religious extremism to begin with and was not imported by foreign powers. China and Russia played vital roles for keeping Islam in check albeit for not good intentions. During Bosnian war, some Muslims tried to get there and fight Serbians. Yet there was no political backup for such thing. They didn't get a hold there. Or today, Myanmar is a place of religious feud and killings are significant but there is no active armed fundamentalism as far as I know. But when it comes to countries such as Libya, armed rebels emerge suddenly and doesn't go away easily. You see the pattern?",
"Cause Pakistan one of its neighbors, recognizes the Taliban. They support and fund extremists elements to wage war against Afghani national army, the NATO forces and us forces. The Taliban find safe Haven inside Pakistan after it bombs places inside Afghanistan.",
"Watch or read Charlies War. In a nutshell. Russia invades. US supplys arms through a convoluted method because it's not really legal. Afghans win. US politicians that made money off arms sales refuse to fund rebuilding infrastructure. < End of Charlie's story > In the aftermath Afghan farmers have limited options so turn to poppy farming for opium trade. Becomes the country's biggest crop. Hard core Muslim community doesn't like how this signals a lack of community morals and take over declaring sharia law. Becomes magnet to disaffected Muslims that want to change the world order.",
"Was the US in these 3 countries? Was the US in afghanistan? Theres your answer. The US encouraged radical nationalist Islam during the 70's to resist soviet influence.",
"One of the biggest reason is the Soviet Union. All of those other central asian countries were under Soviet Rule for decades and at that time religion was supressed violently. Today we still have an overwhelming majority being muslim there, but more secular as a result. However, they still do have Islamic extremist groups in those countries, but to a much lesser degree than Afghanistan. The reason Afghanistan has so much extremism is because of the Soviet invasion. There weren't really any extremist groups before the invasion, but many resistance groups sprang up to oppose them. Since the Communist were hardcore atheist who hated religion, the rebels tended to be hardcore muslims who hated atheist. When the communist regime in Afghanistan fell, a lot of the more secular people and atheist either left, went into hiding or were killed, which led to the country being even more religious. However, this still wasn't the biggest reason for the islamic extremism. The biggest is Pakistan's fault. They helped the rebels but tended to give the most help to more extremists rebels. And after the communists fell they created the Taliban to take over the nation with. The taliban were mostly made up of people who had lost everything to the Soviets and taught a very extreme form of Islam in the refugee camps. They took over most of the country and proceded to enact harsh islamic laws and force their view of Islam on people. When the Americans came most saw them the same as the Soviets, and there were no shortage of people who hated invaders and could easily be turned to extremism.",
"Post soviet states tended to have better infrastructure and more organized power structure. Also specifically with Afghanistan is that the soviets invaded and toppled the government giving rise to the mujahideen. Who banned the growing of poppies and enacted some other conservative social policies. Which allowed for the rise of the taliban who where very conservative but at the same time wanted to make the growing of poppies mandatory as a way to raise large amounts of capital. This resulted in a civil war in which the taliban essentially destroyed almost all of Afghanistan's recorded cultural history. Basically the nation was destabilized in the 80s creating a vacuum which wrecked their cultural history.",
"In addition to other factors mentioned, the Soviet Union was actively cracking down religious influence in political and social life to replace it with its own ideology. It was also the first country to institutionalise gender equality and women's rights (voting, running for office, divorce, custody, maternal leave, equal pay, inheritance etc) while the US was propping up the islamists to fight against the Soviets. These legacies carried on after the Cold War.",
"Why do they target civilians on either side though? In fact why are civilians ever targeted? It's not like civilians have much say in any of these countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, etc. They're always blowing themselves up in market places or schools. I don't understand. They're not even strategic or tactical targets. What message are they trying to say and what outcome are they trying to obtain by killing civs?",
"Poverty and lack of stability. That country has been screwed six ways to Sunday ever since the soviet invasion. Look at the pre invasion photos. Women in skirts, rock bands, smoking and drinking was a big part of the afghan youth. Some similarities to Iran pre-revolution. Between Russia and us, we have done more long term damage than any massive bombings could ever do.",
"And don't get it twisted many of Isis and taliban members come from those areas to join them. Chechnya now too I'm sure consider Russia's involvement. Watch the al jeezera \"ISIL and Russia\" or something like that. I watched it this morning so more of this is fresh. Plus I'm reading Ghost Wars about the CIA's involvement in Afghanistan and so on.",
"The latter countries are also dealing with extremists. Afghanistan's issues are much different than the other three, as has been pointed out repeatedly. [This link is good for Uzbekistan,]( URL_1 ) [this for Tajikistan,]( URL_2 ) [and Central Asia at large.]( URL_0 ) The core issue, like a lot of Middle Eastern countries, isn't a power vacuum, but political expression.",
"Something that is not often mentioned is that a lot of the citizens still live in isolated tribal cultures that want no part of whatever war is being fought at the time. There are many reports of American soldiers encountering these groups and are mistaken for Russian because they have no idea about the current conflict.",
"I've been to Turkmenistan. The reason why there is no unrest, is because the government is a brutal and callous dictatorship. Step out of line and you could get killed. Very North Korea-esque. The only major difference is they are oil rich. Having said that. The people were lovely. Imagine the Iranians, only even more attractive.",
"American invasion! Wherever American troops land, they destroy infrastructure, culture, people's lives. And sadly they also take all their hands can reach... they leave destruction, poverty, chaos and failed states.. That is the reason why Afghanistan is fucked up but not Turkmenistan or any other country.. very simple Look at Iraq, Vietnam, Somalia etc..",
"Lol all these answers even the guilded one are incorrect. The reason you don't hear much is because of the media, these countries do suffer from ISIS and affiliate groups. Check out wikipedia for some info they have to categorize all the worldwide suicide bombings by month cause there are so many.",
"Well, the central asian states are more or less all run as total autocracies (Kyrgyzstan is slightly more democratic than the others, but not by a whole lot). Essentially, the leaders assumed total power and killed off any Islamist opposition (Islam Karimov, who just died, comes to mind).",
"Afghanistan produces 90% of the world's opium. This is an open secret which is unfortunately supported by their government. Too lazy to type out how this contributes to terrorism but I encourage reading up on it (if you can find a source outside of an academic journal).",
"Afghanistan has always been a hole. The British Empire had tons of trouble there. Alexander the Great had trouble there. I somehow knew when the Taliban destroyed the historic Buddhas there that shit would hit the fan eventually. This was before 9/11.",
"I'd like to point to Chechnya and their recent entry into the news via concentration camps for gays. Lots of people assume it's Putin being a homophobe but quite frankly Russians and Chechnyans hate one another and Chechnya is most certainly Islamic.",
"The others are under varying degrees (to the degree necessary) of Moscow's whip. Any that feel seduced by the enticements, inducements and temptations offered by a certain former British colony only have to look at Afghanistan to see how that works out.",
"Simple answer: proximity of Pakistan. An even larger toilet than Afghanistan and the real home of the Taliban and a great number of insurgent \"training\" camps. Conveniently, many of which are a short distance from the Afghan/Pakistan border....",
"Because it contains poppy, i.e. opium, which the CIA liies to sell to fund covert wars. We care about Iraq and Syria because of oil, and the Arab Spring incident was about shutting down the gold dinar.",
"Strong dictators are what keep islamic countries from becoming terrorist hellholes. Look what happened when Saddam and Gaddafi fell. Complete Chaos. There hasn't been strong authoritarian leadership in Afghanistan in decades, so muslim extremism has thrived.",
"Oh they really do have their issues, dictators and religious feud, but afghanistan has american troops and was gunned by the US due to 9/11. So much higher interest to report.",
"It is mainly a mix of three things. 1: Epic amounts of inbreeding. (google it.) 2: Virtually no education. (google it.) 3: Extreme religious zealotry. (google it.)",
"Afghanistan has basically been a battleground since the Cold War. The Soviet Union took it over and we fought. They have been very unstable since",
"I think it has to do more with the amount of dead animals and plants that died in the area millions of years ago.",
"In my opinion (probably less than factual) because the western world fucked around less with the other non-afghanistan countries you listed"
] | [
[
"Afghanistan. The Taliban and Al-Qaeda's activities in Afghanistan is seen as a direct symbol of growing Salafism in the country. ISIS has sought to create Khorasan Province, to increase level of religious sectarianism in Afghanistan, which is majority following a more Sufi branch.\nThus, Afghan Sufis have long accused Salafi movements like Taliban attempting to discredit and oppress Sufi population in the country. Algeria Algeria is traditionally a tolerance Maliki Sunni sect which belonged to larger Sufi branch. Thus, Algerians are known for their Islamic faith as tolerance. However, in 1980s, Algerian young people were sent by the Algerian government to",
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"'Islamic Revolution' which would transcend national borders covering Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.\nOn the other hand, Pakistan's relations with Iran have been strained at times due to sectarian tensions. Iran and Saudi Arabia used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war and by the 1990s, Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Tensions between Iran and Pakistan intensified in 1998, when Iran accused Pakistan of war crimes as Pakistani warplanes bombarded Afghanistan's last Shia stronghold in support of the Taliban. Major dissensions Since 1947, Pakistan's",
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"Afghanistan will lead to the creation of an Islamic state with the triumph of the Taliban, God willing.\" In Palestine, \"if it were not for the jihad in Palestine, the Jews would have crept toward the neighboring countries a long time ago,\" and without jihad in Iraq, \"America would have moved into Syria.\" However the strife between Sunnis and Shiites in the jihad in Iraq is troubling because: \"Harming those who are affiliated with Islam but have a different creed is forbidden.\"\nExamples of unlawful slaughter include Al Qaeda's terrorist attacks in America, London, and Madrid, which were wrong because",
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],
[
"to containing Iranian influence in South and Central Asia.\nSaudi Arabia was one of three countries to officially recognize the Sunni Taliban government in 1996, along with its allies Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates. During the Afghan Civil War, Iran and Saudi Arabia supported opposing militant factions. Iran assisted the Shia Hizb-i-Wahdat, while Saudi Arabia provided financial support to the Wahhabist Ittihad-i Islami.\nIn 2001, the invasion of Afghanistan and the removal of the Taliban in the wake of the September 11 attacks benefited Iran, which had previously been on the brink of war with the group. The regime change removed",
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"has written that the jihadis \"did not become anti-Western after 1991 – they had always been so.\"\nAll westerners, like me, who encountered the so-called `Arabs` inside Afghanistan during the war of resistance were struck (sometimes physically) by their hostility. The Arabs constantly asked the Afghan mujahideen commanders to get rid of the `infidels` and to choose only good Muslims as supporters, and called for the expulsion of Western NGOs ... in many areas the mujahideen had to intervene to prevent physical assaults on westerners.\nAuthor Gilles Kepel writes that in Peshwar Pakistan, some Afghan Arabs attacked \"Europe and American humanitarian",
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],
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"IDPs in Afghanistan are as a direct and indirect result of conflict and violence, although there are also reasons of natural disasters. The Soviet invasion caused approximately 2 million Afghans to be internally displaced, mostly from rural areas into urban areas. The Afghan Civil War (1992–96) caused a new wave of internal displacement, with many Afghans moving to northern cities in order to get away from the Taliban ruled areas. Afghanistan continues to suffer from insecurity and conflict, which has led to an increase in internal displacement. Host countries According to the UNHCR, there are approximately 2.6 million registered refugees",
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"saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas.\nConflict between the two militias soon escalated into a full-scale war.\nDue to the sudden initiation of the war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over",
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"increased in Afghanistan after hundreds of suicide bombings and assassinations. In 2017 there were mass protests in several Afghan provinces, trying to highlight that Pakistan was a terrorist-sponsoring state. Middle East In certain Middle Eastern countries, some Middle Easterns have behaved in a somewhat discriminatory and violent manner toward South Asians like Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans. In the case of Pakistanis, these attacks are usually carried on darker-skinned individuals versus their lighter-skinned, Iranic counterparts. Middle Easterns youth have also occasionally engaged in violent attacks on South Asian workers. France After the July 2005 bombings in London, there were waves",
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"Kabul. Iran assisted the Hizb-e Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari. Saudi Arabia supported the Ittihad-i Islami faction. The conflict between these militias also escalated into war.\nDue to this sudden initiation of civil war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals inside different factions. Ceasefires, negotiated by representatives of the Islamic State's newly appointed Defense Minister Ahmad Shah Massoud, President Sibghatullah Mojaddedi and later President Burhanuddin Rabbani (the interim government), or officials from the International",
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"separatist violence. The situation in Xinjiang quieted until mid-2006, although ethnic tensions remained. Terrorist groups The Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) is an Islamic extremist terrorist organisation seeking the expulsion of China from \"East Turkestan\". Since its emergence in 2007 it has claimed responsibility for a number of terrorist attacks, and the Chinese government accuses it of over 200, resulting in 162 deaths and over 440 injuries. Hundreds of Uyghurs are thought to reside in Pakistan and Afghanistan and to have fought alongside extremist groups in conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War. However, the exact size of the Turkistan Islamic",
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"Afghanistan. This resulted in a major breach, with Iran becoming closer to India. Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. The Pakistani backed Taliban fought the Iranian backed Northern Alliance in Afghanistan and gained control of 90 percent of that country. As noted by a Pakistani foreign service officer, it was difficult to maintain good relations with Israel, Saudi Arabia, the United States, and Iran at the same time, given Iran's long history of rivalry with these states. In 1995 Bhutto paid a lengthy state visit to",
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[
"in Central Asia, became much more varied in this short time. Furthermore, Islam was attractive because it offered alternatives and solutions to the myriad political and economic problems facing the republics in the wake of the Soviet Union's collapse.\nHowever, the governments of the Central Asian republics were wary of Islam in the political sphere. Their fears of undue influence were soon justified by the outbreak of the Tajik Civil War in 1992, between the Tajik government and a coalition of opponents led by a radical Islamist group called the Islamic Renaissance Party. The civil war, which lasted until 1997, demonstrated",
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"of American cultures and ideals into other countries.\nGlobalization is especially threatening to Arab nations because Islam is not simply a religious practice, but it dominates laws and social norms such as marriages and spending habits. Since globalization is seen to be a way of secularizing a nation, Muslims also see it as a cultural and religious invasion, requiring the separation of religion and daily life. Radicalists see it as a perversion of pure Islamic doctrine, as globalization is seen to merge the domain of Islam (Dar al-Islam) and the domain of infidelity (Dar-al-Kufr).\nThe Western influence on media is also unwelcome.",
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"Members from the Nasr faction were particularly highlighted in this, and they have been accused of abductions, extortion and other crimes. Taliban presence in Ghazni has become a significant problem as well with some sources referring to the area as Taliban controlled. Aside from this the major sources of conflict are related to land and water, while debt and marriage related conflict does occur Land conflicts increased greatly during the period of drought.\nIn 2007 the general upsurge in violence in Afghanistan has spilled into Jaghori Zeba. Taliban militiamen from neighbouring districts have staged two attacks against district police posts and",
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[
"a traditional burqa.\nThe Taliban repressed minority populations, particularly the Shia, as a retaliation in which approximately 2,500 Taliban soldiers were massacred by Abdul Malik and his Shia followers; attacked the Iranian embassy, killing eight diplomats and a television reporter, claiming them as spies.\nIn 2001, as part of a drive against relics of Afghanistan's pre-Islamic past, the Taliban destroyed two large statues of Buddha outside of the city of Bamiyan and announced destruction of all pre-Islamic statues in Afghanistan, including the remaining holdings of the Kabul Museum.\nIn addition to the continuing civil strife, the country suffered from widespread poverty, drought, a",
"-30.22130246600136"
],
[
"2016–17 Kashmir unrest Background In late 2015 and early 2016, observers of Kashmir reported growth in home-grown Islamic militancy and radicalization of the Kashmiri Muslim population. Several reasons for the growth have been cited such as the absence of a political dialogue, the lack of economic opportunities, frustration due to high unemployment, excessive militarization of the public space and repeated human rights violations by the security forces.\nAccording to scholar-journalist Haris Zargar, the increasing radicalization represented a counter-reaction to the shaping of the nationalist identity in India based on its rising middle class and Hindu nationalism. The rise of forceful Hindu",
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[
"(a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local governor. In 1994, the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan.\nLate 1994, Kabul witnessed some weeks of relative calm, followed by resumed heavy shelling. Islamic State's Secretary of Defense Ahmad Shah Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the process. The Taliban declined. They started shelling Kabul in early 1995",
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"in Algeria caused a civil war, caused a near-civil war in Egypt, and caused the downfall of the Soviet occupation in Afghanistan. In many cases the military wings of these groups were supplied with money and arms by the U.S. and U.K.\nMuslim critics of Islamic fundamentalism often draw a parallel between the modern fundamentalist movement and the 7th century Khawarij sect. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to Takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to",
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],
[
"overwhelmingly Pashtun and were accused of not sharing power with the approximately 60% of Afghans who belonged to other ethnic groups. (see: Taliban#Ideology)\nThe Taliban's hosting of Osama bin Laden led to an American-organized attack which drove them from power following the 9/11 attacks.\nTaliban are still very much alive and fighting a vigorous insurgency with suicide bombings and armed attacks being launched against NATO and Afghan government targets. Algeria An Islamist movement influenced by Salafism and the jihad in Afghanistan, as well as the Muslim Brotherhood, was the FIS or Front Islamique de Salut (the Islamic Salvation Front) in Algeria. Founded",
"-30.08141481463099"
],
[
"in Xinjiang to calm the situation down. Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt helped China kill off a statement on the Xinjiang situation in the OIC. There has been no public reaction by the Arab League, Saudi Arabia and Iran on the situation and China has built stronger relations with Iran and Saudi Arabia due to their influence in the Islamic world.\nAfghanistan, Cambodia, and Vietnam said they believed the Chinese government was \"taking appropriate measures\", their statements backed \"the territorial integrity and sovereignty of China\". Micronesian Vice President Alik Alik condemned the riot as a \"terrorist act\".\nIran said it shared the",
"-30.00880990854057"
],
[
"Persians in Turkish fatwas. During the era of European colonialism, the political decline of Islam impeded organized state action against the pressure from Western nations, and the resulting feeling of impotence contributed to a rise of hatred against unbelievers and its periodic manifestations, such as massacres.\nHowever, there was extensive religious violence in India between Muslims and non-Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire (before the political decline of Islam).\nIn their memoirs on Muslim invasions, enslavement and plunder of this period, many Muslim historians in South Asia used the term Kafir for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains.\nRaziuddin Aquil states that",
"-29.96863524892251"
],
[
"the levels of Islamophobia among Buddhists and Hindus are significantly higher than among followers of other religions.\nIn July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, Germany and France, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China’s mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other Muslim minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps. Criticism of term and use Although by the first decade of the 21st century the term \"Islamophobia\" had become widely recognized and used, its use, its construction and the concept itself have been criticized. Roland Imhoff and",
"-29.935374887980288"
],
[
"unrest. The increase in refugee numbers has been credited primarily to the Taliban presence within Afghanistan. Their retreat in 2001, led to nearly 6 million Afghan refugees returning to their homeland. However, after civil unrest and fighting alongside the Taliban's return, nearly 2.5 million refugees have fled Afghanistan. Most Afghan refugees, however, seek refuge in the neighboring nation of Pakistan. Increasing numbers, though, have committed to the strenuous migration to Turkey and the European Union. Economic Migrants For long, economic migration has been a global issue. Such migration is pursued in order to seek living conditions/standards and job opportunities that",
"-29.918862087062735"
],
[
"the Islamic World travelled to Afghanistan to defend that Muslim nation from conquest, calling it a Jihad, or Holy War. The U.S. supported the Jihadists and Afghan resisters, despite the fact that the Jihadists were vehemently anti-Western. By 1989 Soviet forces were forced to withdraw and Afghanistan fell into civil war, with an Islamic fundamentalist government, the Taliban taking over much of the country.\nThe late 1970s had seen a lessening of tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union, called Détente. However, by the 1980s Détente had ended with the invasion of Afghanistan. In 1981, Ronald Reagan became President of the",
"-29.868001769129478"
],
[
"Islam in Afghanistan History During the 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate Arabs entered the territory that is now Afghanistan after defeating the Sassanian Persians in Nihawand. After this colossal defeat, the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdegerd III, fled eastward deep into Central Asia. In pursuing Yazdegerd, the Arabs entered the area from northeastern Iran via Herat, where they stationed a large portion of their army before advancing toward northern Afghanistan.\nMany of the inhabitants of northern Afghanistan accepted Islam through Umayyad missionary efforts, particularly under the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and Umar ibn AbdulAziz. In south, Abdur Rahman bin Samara",
"-29.845865752577083"
],
[
"why some Afghans liked, and still like, the Taliban, despite its violence and brutality, was that it promised a relief from the graft and injustice practiced by mujahideen warlords. The Asia Foundation added that the perceived root of corruption in the nation had changed during the previous five years. Earlier, most Afghans believed that corruption was due to low salaries of civil servants, whereas currently it is attributed to a lack of sanctions and a lack of competent law enforcement. Attitudes toward corruption On the one hand, Afghans criticize corruption; on the other hand, they increasingly accept patronage and",
"-29.82406892135623"
],
[
"various parts of Afghanistan, particularly Jalalabad and Kabul. Many left Afghanistan after the Taliban came to power in 1996, mainly due to harsh restrictions imposed on them, leaving a population of approximately 1,000, mainly based in Kabul and Jalalabad. India did not have any official representation in Afghanistan while the Taliban were in power. The small Hindu and Sikh communities suffered harsh discrimination during that period. In April 2001, the Taliban issued an edict requiring Hindu males to wear marks of red dots (tilak) on their forehead, were barred from wearing salwar kameez or white turban and forced to wear",
"-29.81661243212875"
],
[
"Pakistan and the West. In the wake of the Iranian revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Iranian consulate in Afghanistan closed, as did the Afghan consulate in Iran. Relations between Afghanistan and Iran quickly deteriorated even more. In 1985, Iran urged Afghan Shia groups to unite and oppose the Government of Afghanistan. Iran supported the mujahideen rebels and provided various types of assistances to them who pledged loyalty to the Iranian Revolution. In the meantime, over a million Afghan refugees were allowed to enter Iran.\nFollowing the emergence of the Taliban government and their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's minorities,",
"-29.77468255616259"
],
[
"Asian energy resources.\nIn Tajikistan, the government took advantage of this shift in international attitude in order to erode the position of Islam in politics, taking steps such as forbidding the hijab (which is not traditional in Tajikistan, due to Soviet rule) in public schools and reducing the legal rights of Islamic groups.\nSince 2001, ethnic and religious tensions in the Central Asian republics combined with endemic poverty and poor economic performance have made them increasingly volatile. However, governments as often use Islamic groups as a justification for repression and crackdowns as those groups are the cause of violence, if not more",
"-29.76642731067477"
],
[
"the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: \"Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp.\"\nThe Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) plus Azerbaijan from Southern Caucasus are Muslim, except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities.",
"-29.724581289628986"
],
[
"\"fear and distrust towards Islam\" and particularly the Islamic Republic and its founder. In the Mideast and Muslim world, particularly in its early years, it triggered enormous enthusiasm and redoubled opposition to western intervention and influence. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia (the 1979 week-long takeover of the Grand Mosque), Egypt (the 1981 machine-gunning of the Egyptian President Sadat), Syria (the Muslim Brotherhood rebellion in Hama), and Lebanon (the 1983 bombing of the American Embassy and French and American peace-keeping troops). Consolidation of the Revolution Instability in Iran did not end with the creation of the Islamic Republic and",
"-29.67668722369126"
],
[
"of their religious beliefs, the religious affiliation of the Hazaras apparently was a significant factor leading to their repression. After the United States invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, the Taliban was forced out of power and began an insurgency against the new government and allied US forces. The Taliban continues to prohibit music, movies, and television on religious grounds in areas that it still holds.\nAccording to the U.S. Military, the Taliban controls 10% of Afghanistan as of December 2017. There are also pockets of territory controlled by Islamic State affiliates. On October 14, 2017, The Guardian reported that there were",
"-29.669514243141748"
],
[
"Eastern Afghanistan, survived the Ghurid invasion in the 12th century and endured until the invasion of the Mongols. Legacy At its height, the Ghaznavid empire grew to cover large parts of present-day Iran, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, all of Afghanistan, Pakistan and large parts of northwest India. The Ghaznavid rulers are generally credited with spreading Islam into the Indian subcontinent. In addition to the wealth accumulated through raiding Indian cities, and exacting tribute from Indian rajas, the Ghaznavids also benefited from their position as an intermediary along the trade routes between China and the Mediterranean. They were, however, unable to hold",
"-29.652076251106337"
],
[
"globalization Some authors claim that the general reaction to globalization among the Arab states has been a negative or a defensive one. The key reason for the rejection may be the lack of previous cultural penetration of the Islamic Middle East by Western culture, institutions and ideas. In this context globalization was seen as a form of surrender to a dominant, non-indigenous standpoint. Islam, a religion governed by its own set of laws, developed an alternate world view with many of the elements of globalization contradicting it. It has a powerful and cohesive community which at times acts",
"-29.597161743877223"
],
[
"countries like Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latvia. Farid Hafez is also editor of the German-English Islamophobia Studies Yearbook. Geographic trends An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of Wahhabism, according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti-Terrorist Committee.\nVarious translations of the Qur'an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy. Anti-Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia. In Greece, Islamophobia accompanies anti-immigrant sentiment, as immigrants are now 15% of the country's population and 90% of the EU's illegal entries are through Greece. In France Islamophobia",
"-29.56944937602384"
],
[
"struggles and oppositional ideas through these media. \nInitially globalization was expected to spread the zone of peace by delivering economic prosperity which people would not want to sacrifice in conflicts. Instead the imposition of structural adjustment, of unpopular and inequitable peace treaties together with the US campaign against terrorism, led to more unrest and instability. This helped to create a chain reaction as the victims of economic liberalization appear to be among the main constituents of Islamic opposition movements. The Jihadists Radical Islamists view globalization as a new dawah(call) for the elimination of the boundaries between Dar al-Islam (domain of",
"-29.53354174940614"
],
[
"reforms and put an end to one-party rule, was \"crushed as a political factor\".\nAt least at first, the \"unspeakable atrocities\" and enormous loss of life on behalf of a military defeat \"drastically weakened Islamism as a whole\" throughout the Muslim world, and led to much time and energy being spent by Islamists distancing themselves from extremism. In Algeria the war left the public \"with a deep fear of instability\" according to Algerian journalist Kamel Daoud. The country was one of the few in the Arab world not to participate in the Arab Spring.",
"-29.5056605162099"
],
[
"Shia Hazara fighters into its ranks. The Taliban have also condemned ISIS linked attacks on the Hazara Shia minority. United States The United States never recognized the Taliban government in Afghanistan. Ahmed Rashid states that the US indirectly supported the Taliban through its ally in Pakistan between 1994 and 1996 because Washington viewed the Taliban as anti-Iranian, anti-Shia and pro-Western. Washington furthermore hoped that the Taliban would support development planned by the US-based oil company Unocal. For example, it made no comment when the Taliban captured Herat in 1995, and expelled thousands of girls from schools. In late 1997,",
"-29.48600998261827"
],
[
"the fact of heavy disputes between their versions of faith in the country.\nSaudi Arabia has been quietly branding and increasing the presence of Salafism in the country, and there has been a number of students from Indonesia to study Saudi Wahhabism to become its clerics.\nFollowing Surabaya bombings in 2018, increasing anti-Salafism was witnessed among Indonesian Muslims of Sufi belief. Iran While Iran is a majority Shia country, it has a significant Sunni minority population, including those of Sufi and Salafi belief.\nWhen the theocratic Shia regime was founded in Iran at 1979, it is met with heavy opposition from the Sunni",
"-29.443529522279277"
],
[
"Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Yemen, Kuwait, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, as well as other Arab states with Chechnya, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Western countries. Against atheists During the Soviet-Afghan war in the 1980s, many Muslims received calls for a jihad against atheists. Mujahideen were recruited from various countries including Egypt, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. The conflict gradually turned from one against occupation to one seen as a jihad.",
"-29.42350063637059"
],
[
"out. In a pamphlet entitled \"Why Are We Waging Jihad?\", the group states that all of India along with many other countries were once ruled by Muslims and were Muslim lands, which is their duty to take it back from the non-Muslims. It declared United States, India, and Israel as \"existential enemies of Islam\". LeT believes that jihad is the duty of all Muslims and must be waged until eight objectives are met: ending persecution against Muslims, establishing Islam as the dominant way of life in the world, forcing disbelievers to pay jizya (a tax on non-Muslims), fighting for the",
"-29.354032450530212"
],
[
"War, when hundreds of foreign fighters (mostly Sunni Arabs) arrived in Pakistan to take part in the Afghan Jihad. Pakistan President Zia-ul-Haq's military administration policy reflected extremist views towards the Shiites and caused religious tensions to rise between Sunni and Shiites in Pakistan, much to the discomfort of Iran. During the Iran–Iraq War, the Arab countries and the United States, who were supporting Iraq, pressured Pakistan to discontinue its covert support and military funding for Iran.\nThe 1980s were a difficult time in military relations for both countries, as Iran was blamed for the rising ethnic tensions between Sunnis and Shiites",
"-29.31783394757076"
],
[
"were launched by jihadist Islamist group such as Jamaah Islamiyah's attacks on Bali. The ultra conservative doctrine of Salafi and Wahhabi adhered and promoted by the state of Saudi Arabia has been dominated the global discourse of Islam for decades. The wary sentiments were aggravated further by the advent of ISIS in 2013 that performed abhorred war crimes in the name of Islam. \nIn recent years, there are the rise of fundamentalism and religious intolerance in Indonesia. Internally, some of foreign and local Islamist organizations, such as Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (HTI), Front Pembela Islam (FPI) also Islamist political party such",
"-29.30260682736116"
],
[
"period. Buddhism therefore continued in the region until the arrival of Islam with the Abbasids. Despite the prominence and duration of Buddhist influence in Afghanistan prior to this period, the religion and any influence it had on architectural structures was entirely eliminated under Islamic rule. Early Islamic architecture The initial spread of Islam to Afghanistan occurred around the 8th century AD, with Abbasid rule succeeded by Saffarids and later Samanids to 961 AD. Following this point in time Afghanistan was established as the centre of Islamic civilisation under the Ghaznavid Empire, succeeded by the Ghorids until 1219. The mausoleum The",
"-29.301185217453167"
],
[
"fragile and hard-won peace. In the summers of 1999 and 2000, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan used Tajikistan as a staging ground for an insurgency campaign against the government of Uzbekistan. At the same time, Taliban advances in northern Afghanistan threatened to inundate Tajikistan with thousands of refugees. A constant flow of illegal narcotics continues to transit Tajikistan from Afghanistan on its way to Russian and European markets, leaving widespread violent crime, corruption, increased HIV incidence, and economic distortions in its wake. During 2002, stability in the country continued to increase, and the year was largely free of the assassinations",
"-29.290041732718237"
],
[
"a known Taliban facilitator. Three of the individuals were killed... Iranians certainly view as making life more difficult for us if Afghanistan is unstable. We don't have that kind of relationship with the Iranians. That's why I am particularly troubled by the interception of weapons coming from Iran. But we know that it's more than weapons; it's money; it's also according to some reports, training at Iranian camps as well.\n— General David Petraeus\nIn March 2012, Najibullah Kabuli, leader of the National Participation Front (NPF) of Afghanistan, accused three senior leaders of Iran's Revolutionary Guards of plotting to assassinate him. Some members",
"-29.25448055855304"
],
[
"Arabia and elsewhere were often radicalized by Islamic militants who were \"much more extreme than their Saudi sponsors\". Islamic Revolution in Iran The February 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran challenged Saudi Wahhabism in a number of ways on a number of fronts. It was a revolution of Shia, not Sunni, Islam and Wahhabism held that Shia were not truly Muslims. Nonetheless, its massive popularity in Iran and its overthrow of a pro-American secular monarchy generated enormous enthusiasm among pious Sunni, not just Shia Muslims around the world. Its leader (Ruhollah Khomeini) preached that monarchy was against Islam and",
"-29.247398622708715"
],
[
"role.\nPoliticized Islam in Afghanistan represents a break from Afghan traditions. The Islamist Movement originated in 1958 among faculties of Kabul University, particularly in the Faculty of Islamic Law, which had been founded in 1952 with the stated purpose of raising the quality of religious teaching to accommodate modern science and technology. The founders were largely professors influenced by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, a party formed in the 1930s that was dedicated to Islamic revivalism and social, economic, and political equity. Their objective is to come to terms with the modern world through the development of a political ideology",
"-29.245219017728232"
],
[
"even a \"conspiracy\", most commentators, even some pro-government ones, have come to conclude that \"the real reason for the loss of faith in Islam is not the West but Turkey itself: It is a reaction to all the corruption, arrogance, narrow-mindedness, bigotry, cruelty and crudeness displayed in the name of Islam.\" Especially when the AKP Islamists are in power to enforce Islam upon society, this is making citizens turn their back on it. United Arab Emirates Apostasy is a crime in the United Arab Emirates. In 1978, UAE began the process of Islamising the nation's law, after its council of",
"-29.226733463874552"
],
[
"saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas.\n According to Human Rights Watch, numerous Iranian agents were assisting the Shia Hezb-i Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari, as Iran was attempting to maximize Wahdat's military power and influence. Saudi Arabia was trying to strengthen the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Again, Human Rights Watch writes:\nRare ceasefires, usually negotiated by representatives",
"-29.179762722109444"
],
[
"in the madrasses in a spirit of conservatism and religious rigor.\" As the Afghan students came of age, they formed \"the mainstay\" of the Taliban in Afghanistan and of the anti-Shia Sipah-e-Sahaba Sunni terror group in Pakistan. But unlike the traditionally non-violent Deobandi, this \"hybrid movement\" embraced the violence of jihad, and unlike the Islamists of Hizb-e-Islami they were uninterested in \"islamizing modernity\" of western knowledge or in western knowledge at all. The culture of religious purification, absolute obedience to leaders, and disinterest in anything else, is thought to explain the willingness of Hizb-e-Islami-trained soldiers to bombard Kabul with artillery",
"-29.147726646449883"
],
[
"deported from NATO countries. This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Pakistani-backed Taliban insurgency. The United States also accuses neighboring Iran of providing small level of support to the Taliban insurgents. According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011.\nIn October 2008 U.S. Defense Secretary Gates had asserted that",
"-29.14493562973803"
],
[
"Afghanistan–United Arab Emirates relations War in Aghanistan UAE has a small humanitarian and peacekeeping military presence in Afghanistan. UAE troops have been welcomed by the country as allied Muslim soldiers and the Emirati soldiers have complimented the Afghan hospitality they encounter. 10 January 2017 Afghanistan bombings On January 10, 2017, five diplomats from the UAE who were present to inaugurate a number of UAE backed projects in the city, were killed in a bombing of Humayun Azizi guest house in Kandahar City. The UAE's Ambassador to Afghanistan, Juma Mohammed Abdullah al-Kaabi, was wounded and later died of his wounds.",
"-29.132514127210015"
],
[
"party in Russia, but was banned by the Central Asian communist governments. Partly as a result of this oppression, political opposition erupted into the violence of the civil war in Tajikistan, in which over 50,000 people were killed out of a population of 6 million and another 250,000 fled the country to Afghanistan, Uzbekistan or elsewhere. Following the civil war, the Tajik government incorporated Islamic groups into the government in order to prevent future tensions. However, the other Central Asian republics did not follow this example, continuing instead to repress and persecute Islamic groups rather than allow them to participate",
"-29.101657128427178"
],
[
"of thousands of Shias were killed in the Ottoman Empire, including the Alevis in Turkey, the Alawis in Syria and the Shi'a of Lebanon. China Most foreign slaves in Xinjiang were Shia Ismaili Mountain Tajiks of China. They were referred to by Sunni Turkic Muslims as Ghalcha, and enslaved because they were different from the Sunni Turkic inhabitants. Shia Muslims were sold as slaves in Khotan. The Muslims of Xinjiang traded Shias as slaves. Afghanistan There is widespread violence and discrimination against Afghan Hazaras, who became an easy target for the Sunni extremists due to their distinct features. Abdur Rahman",
"-29.09391234913346"
],
[
"beliefs in Russia has provoked the anger of the Sunni establishment. The Russian Council of Muftis issued a fatwa against Quranism and those it said were its leaders in Russia. However, one of the purported Quranist leaders mentioned in the fatwa, the Russian philosopher Taufik Ibrahim, pointed out that his beliefs were more in line with the Jadid tradition, although there is some overlap between the two groups in Russia. \nIn Turkey, Quranists have responded on social media to criticism by the Diyanet on their Quranist beliefs.\nIn South Africa, an Oxford educated Islamic scholar, Taj Hargey, established the Open Mosque.",
"-29.0862914242025"
],
[
"Iran's primary threat along its eastern borders, and the removal of Saddam Hussein two years later further bolstered its position, allowing it to refocus its efforts on other areas, especially Syria and Yemen. In the ensuing years, Iran sought to expand its influence over Afghanistan. It provided limited support to the Taliban as a potential means of increasing leverage with the Afghan central government and creating a deterrent to conflict with the United States, although the support waned amid growing backlash in Afghanistan against perceived Iranian interference. Iran has also sought to expand soft influence by building pro-Iranian schools, mosques,",
"-29.075832583388546"
],
[
"Islam is the last and the most complete of the revealed religions, why are the Muslim countries lagging behind the modern world?\" The journalists went into hiding before the sentences were pronounced.\nIn 2003, two editors of the weekly Aftab were jailed for a week on blasphemy charges for publishing a controversial series of articles condemning crimes committed by senior Afghan leaders in the name of Islam. The two editors were later cleared of the charges, but they were forced to leave Afghanistan because of threats against their lives.",
"-29.07559842831688"
],
[
"joined al-Jihad because of their ability to survive. Despite the strong reactions of the government after the assassination of Sadat, al-Jihad reformed into smaller branches and has continued to be the source of terrorist acts and violent community outbreaks ever since. The end of the century After the assassination of Sadat, moving into the last decade of the century, al-Jihad remained the most prominent Islamic extremist group in Egypt, and was now harkening back to the ideals of their previous military commander, Lt. Col. Abbud al-Zumar, to recruit and rely on the masses to stage a successful uprising. Al-Zumar was",
"-29.07150031393394"
],
[
"to the other former Soviet republics the dangers posed by Islamic opposition groups. The takeover in 1996 of Afghanistan by the Taliban further emphasized that threat.\nThe Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP) was one of several similar Islamic opposition groups, including the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), which also fought against the Tajik government in the civil war. The IRP had its origins in underground Islamic groups in the Soviet Union. It was formed in 1990 in Astrakhan by a group consisting mostly of Tatar intellectuals, with separate branches for each Soviet republic. It was in fact registered as an official political",
"-29.05690467322711"
],
[
"Iraqis, Afghans \"coming to avenge what is going on in their country\"; their lack of religiosity before being \"born again\" in a foreign country; the high percentage of converts to Islam among them; their \"de-territorialized backgrounds\"—\"For instance, they may be born in a country, then educated in another country, then go to fight in a third country and take refuge in a fourth country\"; their nontraditional belief that jihad is permanent, global, and \"not linked with a specific territory.\"\nThis profile differs from that found among recent local (as opposed to global) Islamist suicide bombers in Afghanistan, according to a 2007",
"-29.034897204488516"
],
[
"Islamic revivalists in several countries. From that time through the early post-Soviet era, some officials in Moscow and in Tajikistan warned of an extremist Islamic menace, often on the basis of limited or distorted evidence. Despite all these efforts, Islam remained an important part of the identity of the Tajiks and other Muslim peoples of Tajikistan through the end of the Soviet era and the first years of independence. Recent developments In October 2005, Tajikistan's Ministry of Education banned female students from wearing Islamic headscarves in secular schools. Wearing the hijab, or head scarf traditionally worn by Muslim women, and",
"-28.985505102245952"
],
[
"of Peshawar to fight jihad in Afghanistan. As Algeria was a close ally of the jihadists enemy the Soviet Union, these jihadists tended to consider the Afghan jihad a \"prelude\" to jihad against the Algerian FLN state. After the Marxist government in Afghanistan fell, many of the Salafist-Jihadis returned to Algeria and supported the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) and later the GIA insurgents.\nDuring and after the 1988 October Riots Islamists \"set about building bridges to the young urban poor\". Evidence of their effectiveness was that the riots \"petered out\" after meetings between the President Chadli Bendjedid and",
"-28.973220885847695"
],
[
"ISIL as \"terrorist organization\" and \"Takfiri\".\nThe deputy secretary of Supreme National Security Council has also called it \"terrorist group\". ISIL's threats to Iran While Iran is a Shia-dominant country, ISIL is ideologically anti-Shia and regards Shias as infidels, having killed thousands of them. After rapidly expanding in Iraq, ISIL became a threat only kilometers away from Iranian western borders. With the Pakistan-based Sunni Jihadist groups in eastern Iran and an ongoing Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency, some alarmed the possibility of a wider backlash there.\nIran threatened ISIL that managing to attack Baghdad or holy shrines of Shia Imams and getting close",
"-28.95850090132444"
],
[
"aided by Shi'a Iran and fought against the Soviet-backed Afghan government as well as other mujahideen groups.\nDuring the political maneuvering leading up to the establishment of the Islamic State of Afghanistan in 1992, the Shi'a groups unsuccessfully negotiated for more equitable, consequential political and social roles. Ismailism The Ismaili Shiites accepted Ismail ibn Jafar instead of Musa al-Kadhim as the successor to Imam Jafar as-Sadiq. Ismaili communities in Afghanistan are less populous than the Twelver who consider the Ismaili heretical. They are found primarily in and near the eastern Hazarajat, in the Baghlan area north of the Hindu Kush, among",
"-28.952831730712205"
],
[
"leader Mayo. In December 2018, it was reported that Islamist political parties like Al-Islah and jihadi militant groups like Al-Qaeda and Islamic State (Isis) were the main targets of the UAE, with the Houthis no longer being regarded as the greatest enemy of the UAE, with the Saudis being unable to do anything about it.",
"-28.91297328748624"
],
[
"example), and increasing aid to Islamic groups (Islamist madrassas around the world and even aiding some violent Islamist groups) that did not, but its pre-war influence on behalf of moderation was greatly reduced. One result of this was a campaign of attacks on government officials and tourists in Egypt, a bloody civil war in Algeria and Osama bin Laden's terror attacks climaxing in the 9/11 attack. Afghanistan (Taliban) In Afghanistan, the mujahideen's victory against the Soviet Union in the 1980s did not lead to justice and prosperity, due to a vicious and destructive civil war between political and tribal",
"-28.909947298874613"
],
[
"the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over their (sub-)commanders. For civilians there was little security from murder, rape and extortion. An estimated 25,000 people died during the most intense period of bombardment by Hekmatyar's Hezb-i Islami and the Junbish-i Milli forces of Abdul Rashid Dostum, who had created an alliance with Hekmatyar",
"-28.8677325717872"
],
[
"include the many who were born inside Iran during the last 35 years. The number of Afghan refugees is decreasing significantly every year due to voluntary repatriation. For instance, in 2017 alone, over half a million of them returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan and Iran.\nThe 2011 industrialized country asylum data notes a 30% increase in applications from Afghans from 2010 to 2011, primarily towards Germany and Turkey. Pakistan Since the beginning US military intervention against the Taliban in Pakistan over 1.2 million people have been displaced in across the country, joined by a further 555,000 Pakistanis uprooted by fighting since",
"-28.86732226870754"
],
[
"of the Afghan Parliament accuses Iran of setting up Taliban bases in several Iranian cities, and that \"Iran is directly involved in fanning ethnic, linguistic and sectarian tensions in Afghanistan.\" There are reports about Iran's Revolutionary Guards training Afghans inside Iran to carry out terrorist attacks in Afghanistan.\nCurrently, the Revolutionary Guards recruit young people for terrorist activities in Afghanistan and try to revive the Hezb-i-Islami Afghanistan led by Gulbadin Hekmatyar and Taliban groups\n— Syed Kamal, a self-confessed agent for Iran's Revolutionary Guards and member of Sipah-i-Mohmmad India Following an attack on an Israeli diplomat in India in February 2012, Delhi Police",
"-28.85302945796866"
],
[
"Criticism of Islamism Takfir Some Islamists had evolved beyond targeting liberal and secular intellectuals to more mainstream Muslims (What researchers Matteo Sisto and Samir Gurung dub \"Neo-Takfirism\"). In the Algerian Civil War the insurgent/jihadist Islamist group GIA viewed all who failed to actively support its jihad as collaborators with the government, and thus apostates from Islam and eligible military targets. The group slaughtered entire villages, murdered foreigners, and executed Algerians for \"violating Islamic law,\" for \"infractions ranging from infidelity to wearing Western clothing.\"\nIn the Iraq civil war, Takfir was also defined broadly by Sunni Islamist insurgents. By mid-2006,",
"-28.851216333627235"
],
[
"in the Netherlands have a multinational crowd of visitors: from the Middle East and North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Turkey, while Moroccans are the predominant group.\nFrom 2002-2003 onward, a small number of second-generation Moroccan immigrants were drawn to violent radicalization and some of those formed the terrorist Hofstad Network.\nIn 2009, the AIVD reported that Salafist mosques, while spreading an isolationist and intolerant ideology, no longer functioned as incubators for jihadist terrorism and the movement was not growing. This decrease resulted in Dutch governmental organisations to shift their efforts to other problems.\nClose contacts between salafists in the",
"-28.84480494406307"
],
[
"2017 Tehran attacks Background The Iranian government has been battling the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) for over three years with both military advisers and direct troops fighting the group's militants in both Iraq and Syria. ISIL, whose doctrine is based on the stringent Wahhabi segment of Sunni Islam, sees Shia Muslims, the largest Muslim population group in Iran, as apostates and enemies of Islam. Nonetheless, ISIL had yet to carry out any attacks within Iran despite repeatedly threatening the nation's people. In the months before the attack, ISIL increased its propaganda efforts in Persian to influence",
"-28.821917851266335"
],
[
"attacks. The number of incidents from nationalist separatist groups has remained relatively stable in the years since while religious extremism has grown. The prevalence of Islamist groups in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria is the main driver behind these trends.\nFour of the terrorist groups that have been most active since 2001 are Boko Haram, Al Qaeda, the Taliban and ISIL. These groups have been most active in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria. 80 percent of all deaths from terrorism occurred in one of these five countries.\nTerrorism in Pakistan has become a great problem. From the summer of 2007",
"-28.811197478783583"
],
[
"States saw the backing of jihadi Islam as useful. Unforeseen consequences of Zia's policies and promotion of jihad included a growth of sectarianism and the civil war in Afghanistan after Soviet withdrawal, which was mostly controlled by the Taliban by the middle of the 1990s. After 9/11 the United States destroyed Taliban's power in Afghanistan with Pakistan's reluctant support. The country was at the time led by military ruler General Pervez Musharraf who did not share Zia's promotion of Islamic law but support for religious parties grew while he was in power, partially in protest against his pro-US policies. Elections",
"-28.759639923886425"
],
[
"groups criticized the Muslim Brotherhood for not doing enough to stop the spread of Shiism. Another Shiite activist claimed he was arrested and held for 15 months and tortured by the Egyptian State Security Investigations Service during Mubarak's presidency. Indonesia On December 29, 2011 in Nangkrenang, Sampang, Madura Island a Shia Islamic boarding school, a school adviser's house and a school's principal house were burned by local villagers and people from outside. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country in the world which is dominated by Sunnis. A day after the incident, a Jakarta Sunni preacher said: \"It was their",
"-28.72580169518187"
],
[
"of the United States, and later to combat Shia movements supported by Iran. The support had the unintended effect of metastasizing extremism throughout the region. The Saudi government now considers extremist groups like ISIL and the Al-Nusra Front to be one of the two major threats to the kingdom and its monarchy, the other being Iran. In a New York Times op-ed, Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif agreed that terrorism was an international threat and called on the United Nations to block funding of extremist ideologies using Iran's WAVE initiative as a framework. However, he placed the blame on",
"-28.69510961348351"
],
[
"football stadium one Thursday afternoon, curious as to why (the Taliban had banned sports) he \"went inside to discover a convicted murderer being led between the goalposts to be executed by a member of the victim's family.\" \nThe Taliban's brutal treatment of Shia Muslims, and the destruction of Buddhist statues in Bamiyan Valley may also have been influenced by Wahhabism, which had a history of attacking and takfiring Shia, while prior to this attack Afghan Sunnis had never persecuted their Shia minority. (see Abdur Rahman Khan and 1888–1893 Uprisings of Hazaras).\nAnother activity Afghan Muslims had not engaged in before this",
"-28.68183250052971"
],
[
"more foreign Muslim radicals came to study in the hundreds of new madrassas in Pakistan and along the Afghan border, that the Pakistan government funded. Eventually \"more than 100,000 Muslim radicals were to have direct contact with Pakistan and Afghanistan and be influenced by the jihad.\" \nThe Mujahideen of Afghanistan were divided into several factions and the Afghan Arabs helped some factions much more than others. Factions led by Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar are described as having had good relations with Afghan Arabs. The faction led by Ahmad Shah Massoud, did not. Interest in martyrdom Afghan Arabs",
"-28.664346961741103"
],
[
"to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait.\nSaudi Arabia's relations with the West began to cause growing concern among some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped",
"-28.652114429802168"
],
[
"Taliban movement developed and formed from orphans or refugee children who were forced by the Soviets to flee their homes and relocate their lives in Pakistan. The swift rise to power, from the young Taliban in 1996, was the result of the disorder and civil war that had warlords running wild because of the complete breakdown of law and order in Afghanistan after the departure of the Soviets.\nThe CIA World Fact Book reported that as of 2004, Afghanistan still owed $8 billion in bilateral debt, mostly to Russia, however, in 2007 Russia agreed to cancel most of the debt. Refugees",
"-28.645693985221442"
],
[
"as re-establishment of Caliphate and the movements such as pan-Islamism. For these reasons, Dutch colonial administration saw Islam as a potential threat and treated the returning pilgrims and students from the Middle East with particular suspicion. Similar Islamic-nationalist organization Union of Indonesian Muslims (PERMI) faced severe crackdown by the Dutch colonial government, leading to the arrest of its members including Rasuna Said.\nIslam as a vehicle of Indonesian nationalism, however, had gradually waned in the face of the emergence of secular nationalism and more radical political thoughts such as communism. The inner struggle among Sarekat Islam between the reformists and the",
"-28.635878342182878"
],
[
"US, Pakistan, China, Iran and Saudi Arabia. By 1985, half of Afghanistan was estimated to be displaced or to have fled to Iran or Pakistan to avoid the war. Fighting continued until 1988 when Afghanistan, the Soviet Union, the US, and Pakistan sign peace agreements and the Soviet Union began pulling out their troops. The last of the Soviet troops left by 1989, but a civil war continued as the Mujahideen tried to overthrow Najibullah who replaced Karmal in 1986.\nIn 1996, the Taliban took over Kabul and began enforcing their strict Islamic views which meant banning women from work and",
"-28.633308766642585"
],
[
"attempts by an authoritarian regime to combat a radical ideology and anti-constitutional activities. Xinjiang As of 2008, the emergence of Hizb ut-Tahrir was a \"recent phenomenon\" in the Mainland Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang. According to Nicholas Bequelin of Human Rights Watch, the party's influence was \"limited\" to southern Xinjiang, but \"seems to be growing\". \nOne obstacle for the party in Xinjiang is that most Uighur activists seek sovereignty for Xinjiang rather than union in a caliphate.\nAs in other parts of Central Asia the party has been designated \"terrorist\" by the government and is banned. Indonesia Hizb ut-Tahrir used to",
"-28.624478807556443"
],
[
"Shinrikyo. There have been no major reports of religious persecution of the Muslim community; however, because of the situation in Chechnya and neighboring Russia concerns have been expressed by Belarusian Muslims that they may become increasingly vulnerable.\nThese fears were heightened on 16 September 2005 when a bomb was detonated outside a bus stop, injuring two people. On 23 September a bomb was exploded outside a restaurant, wounding nearly 40 people. Muslims are not suspected in the latter attack, which was labeled \"hooliganism\". Capital punishment Belarus is the only European country still using capital punishment. The U.S. and Belarus were the",
"-28.621600238526298"
],
[
"warlords, making Afghanistan one of the poorest countries on earth. In 1992, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan ruled by communist forces collapsed, and democratic Islamist elements of mujahdeen founded the Islamic State of Afghanistan. In 1996, a more conservative and anti-democratic Islamist movement known as the Taliban rose to power, defeated most of the warlords and took over roughly 80% of Afghanistan.\nThe Taliban were spawned by the thousands of madrasahs the Deobandi movement established for impoverished Afghan refugees and supported by governmental and religious groups in neighboring Pakistan. The Taliban differed from other Islamist movements to the point where they",
"-28.618319478118792"
],
[
"terrorism by Xinjiang separatists, saying: \"But China, which prefers to play down the role of its policies in Xinjiang in generating discontent, has long sought to discredit its Uighur critics by linking them to terrorism\". The Economist also mentioned \"Chinese oppression in Xinjiang\" that \"hit at the heart of Uighur identity\" as a factor in the escalating violence, including: \"students are banned from fasting during Ramadan, religious teaching for children is restricted, and Uighur-language education is limited\". Yet according to Dawn, China only discourages fasting for Uighur Muslims and encourages people to eat properly for study and work but authorities",
"-28.601369321346283"
],
[
"and Iran have imposed tighter controls on refugees which have resulted in numerous returnees. In 2012 Pakistan banned extensions of visas to foreigners. Afghan refugees have also settled in India and became Indian citizens over time. Some also made their way into North America, the European Union, Australia, and other parts of the world. The photo of Sharbat Gula placed on National Geographic cover in 1985 became a symbol both of the 1980s Afghan conflict and of the refugee situation. Weakening of the Soviet Union According to scholars Rafael Reuveny and Aseem Prakash, the war contributed to the fall of",
"-28.583312605624087"
],
[
"activities of missionaries from some Islamic countries, coupled with the absence of real opportunities to participate in public affairs, contributed to the popularization of a radical interpretation of Islam. In the February 1999 Tashkent bombings, car bombs hit Tashkent and President Karimov narrowly escaped an assassination attempt. The government blamed the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) for the attacks. Thousands of people suspected of complicity were arrested and imprisoned. In August 2000, militant groups tried to penetrate Uzbek territory from Kyrgyzstan; acts of armed violence were noted in the southern part of the country as well.\nIn March 2004, another wave",
"-28.580592266800522"
],
[
"although in some countries other groups, including Christians, Buddhists, and atheists bear the primary brunt of religious violence. Taliban controlled regions Historically, the Taliban, which controlled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001, prohibited free speech about religious issues or discussions that challenge orthodox Sunni Muslim views. Repression by the Taliban of the Hazara ethnic group, which is predominantly Shia Muslim, was particularly severe. Although the conflict between the Hazaras and the Taliban was political and military as well as religious, and it is not possible to state with certainty that the Taliban engaged in its campaign against the Shi'a solely because",
"-28.570176045825065"
],
[
"spread Islam and the Sharia worldwide. The group's primary aim, however, is to remove the Russian presence in North Caucasus and to establish an Islamic state there, though Abdul Hakim Shishani has acknowledged that these goals are currently unattainable, primarily due to Russia's power. Instead, he believes that sooner or later a world war against Russia will break out, which would allow the North Caucasians to launch a popular, violent uprising to regain their independence. According to Abdul Hakim, peaceful protests and resistance, though admirable, will never be able to end the Russian rule over the Caucasus. Ajnad al-Kavkaz is",
"-28.556931326747872"
],
[
"becoming Islamicized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to Afghanistan, before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent.\nIt is also part of a longer trend predating the spread of Islam. Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the subcontinent, one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia in the pre-Islamic",
"-28.54643540631514"
],
[
"During the reign of Al-Mu'tasim Islam was generally practiced amongst most inhabitants of the region and finally under Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari, Islam was by far, the predominant religion of Kabul along with other major cities of Afghanistan. Later, the Samanids propagated Islam deep into the heart of Central Asia, as the first complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian occurred in the 9th century. Since the 9th century, Islam has dominated the country's religious landscape. Islamic leaders have entered the political sphere at various times of crisis, but rarely exercised secular authority for long. The remnants of a Shahi presence",
"-28.51258655608399"
],
[
"Syrian uprising also deteriorated into a civil war, giving rise to the militant group, ISIS, and partly causing the current refugee crisis. In addition, Yemen, Bahrain, and Algeria have seen major protests.\nHowever, a financial analyst in Dubai suggested that \"the spillover effect of the political turbulence to the large countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council is non-existent as there are no similar drivers.\" Aftermath In mid-May 2013, Tunisia banned the Salafist Ansar al-Sharia from carrying out party congresses. The day after the congress was due to be carried out, clashes between security forces and party supporters in Kairouan resulted in",
"-28.511392198415706"
],
[
"vengeance such Western nationals have against Islam and Muslims.\" Iran's government spokesperson, Gholam-Hossein Elham, said that \"The new wave of the fight against Islam and promoting Islamophobia, which was started by the U.S., has so far opposite effects in the world of Islam as well as other parts of the globe.\" Elham stated that the governments 'of the countries where the anti-Islamic moves have been made' would, in future, prevent any further actions against Islam, saying that 'insults against the holy prophet of Islam and the divine religion were against the principles of freedom of expression'. In Tehran, approximately seventy",
"-28.502167522150557"
],
[
"Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war, and by the 1990s Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Tensions between Iran and Pakistan intensified in 1998 when Iran accused Pakistan of war crimes after Pakistani warplanes had bombarded Afghanistan's last Shia stronghold in support of the Taliban.\nPakistan is an influential and founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with the Arab world and other countries in the Muslim world is a vital factor in Pakistan's foreign",
"-28.498946936888387"
],
[
"many Mujahideen morphed into Taliban and Al Qaeda forces imposing a strict interpretation of Islamic law (Sharia), with Kabul, these mountains, and other parts of Afghanistan as their base. Other Mujahideen joined the Northern Alliance to oppose the Taliban rule.\nAfter the September 11, 2001 terror attacks in New York City and Washington D.C., the American and ISAF campaign against Al Qaeda and their Taliban allies made the Hindu Kush once again a militarized conflict zone. Ethnography Pre-Islamic populations of the Hindu Kush included Shins, Yeshkun, Chiliss, Neemchas Koli, Palus, Gaware, Yeshkuns, and Krammins.",
"-28.441174414212583"
],
[
"Arabia was also partaking in bombings during the Yemeni civil war. In November 2014, eight Shia worshippers were killed by gunmen during Ashura celebrations at a shrine in the city of al-Ahsa. Jafar Al Shayeb, a member of the Qatif municipal council, says that sectarian tensions have already risen sharply as a result of the war Saudi Arabia's new King Salman is waging against the Houthis and that divisive rhetoric from Wahhabi preachers was increasing. He believes that the situation for Saudi Shia was about to get worse.\nCritics point out that the government has done nothing to address rising sectarian",
"-28.439940898824716"
],
[
"carry out attacks on Western troops and that the Afghan military and police are not ready to assume responsibility for the country's security. Other concerns the Monitor noted include: a potential increase in illegal drug trafficking; negative impact on the economy and on social reforms, particularly those for women and destabilization of the country that could affect neighboring countries Pakistan and Iran. Concerns were also raised by Iran; following the announcement, a spokesman for Iran's foreign ministry stated that the agreement will lead to increased instability in Afghanistan due to the continued presence of U.S. forces. Investigative historian and journalist",
"-28.439169023302384"
],
[
"and non-Muslim populations in Multan, which became a center of the Ismaili sect of Islam. The Saffarid Dynasty of Zaranj occupied Kabul and the kingdom of Zunbil permanently in 871 AD. A new chapter of Muslim conquests began when the Samanid Dynasty took over the Saffarid Kingdom and Sabuktigin seized Ghazni. Later Muslim invasions Muslim incursions resumed under later Turkic and Central Asian dynasties like Saffarid Dynasty and Samanid Dynasty with more local capitals, who supplanted the Caliphate and expanded their domains both northwards and eastwards. Continues raids from these empires in north-east of India led to the loss of",
"-28.429197702109377"
]
] |
1q9e9t | How did we learn to translate hieroglyphs? | [
"The [Rosetta Stone]( URL_0 ) was instrumental. Since it had the same text written in three different languages it essentially handed us a partial translation of Egyptian to Greek.",
"In 1799 they found the Rosetta stone, that contained the same passage in ancient Greek and in hieroglyphs. Since we knew the ancient Greek language we were able to translate the passage. From it we got some limited hieroglyph vocabulary which in turn could be used to translate other hieroglyph passages. Obviously the Rosetta stone didn't contain every possible hieroglyph but we were able to guess the remaining hieroglyphs based on the context they were used in",
"By the way, if you want to see the Rosetta Stone, it is on display in the British Museum, London.",
"Short answer: The Rosetta Stone. It was written in Heiroglyphics, Demotic (basically Egyptian that normal people could read), and Ancient Greek. Really oversimplified: some guy who was really fucking good with languages figured out that Coptic, the liturgical language of Coptic Christians, was directly related to ancient Egyptian. He learned Coptic and Greek so he could translate what the Egyptian meant in Greek. Greek and Latin were still widely spoken, so that made translation a lot easier. Translating the Heiroglyphics meant just connecting the Demotic sounds to the Heiroglyphic words.",
"If you have Netflix, Carl Sagan can explain it to you really well."
] | [
[
"the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs\". Kircher thought the Egyptians had believed in an ancient theological tradition that preceded and foreshadowed Christianity, and he hoped to understand this tradition through hieroglyphs. Like his Renaissance predecessors he believed hieroglyphs represented an abstract form of communication rather than a language. To translate such a system of communication in a self-consistent way was impossible. Therefore, in his works on hieroglyphs, such as Obeliscus Pamphilius (1650) and Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1652–1655), Kircher proceeded by guesswork based on his understanding of ancient Egyptian beliefs, derived from the Coptic texts he had read and from various ancient texts",
"-32.76781820209362"
],
[
"translation was suddenly available. In the early 19th century, scholars such as Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Åkerblad, and Thomas Young studied the inscriptions on the stone, and were able to make some headway. Finally, Jean-François Champollion made the complete decipherment by the 1820s. In his Lettre à M. Dacier (1822), he wrote:\nIt is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say in the same word.\nHieroglyphs survive today in two forms: directly, through half a dozen Demotic glyphs added to the Greek alphabet when writing Coptic;",
"-32.02015172615938"
],
[
"a means of recording a spoken language. Some attempts at decipherment by Islamic and European scholars in the Middle Ages and Renaissance acknowledged the script might have a phonetic component, but perception of hieroglyphs as ideographic hampered efforts to understand them up through the 18th century.\nThe Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799 by members of Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, bore a parallel text in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. It was hoped that the Egyptian text could be deciphered through its Greek translation, especially in combination with the evidence from Coptic, the last stage of the Egyptian language. Doing so proved",
"-31.984019684921805"
],
[
"hieroglyphics dates from AD 394, after which all knowledge of hieroglyphics was lost. Until Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion found the key to hieroglyphics in the 19th century, the main authority was the 4th century Greek grammarian Horapollon, whose chief contribution was the misconception that hieroglyphics were \"picture writing\" and that future translators should look for symbolic meaning in the pictures.\nThe first modern study of hieroglyphics came with Piero Valeriano Bolzani's Hieroglyphica (1556), and Kircher was the most famous of the \"decipherers\" between ancient and modern times and the most famous Egyptologist of his day. In his Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta",
"-30.667386362885736"
],
[
"that he thought contained traditions derived from Egypt. His translations turned short texts containing only a few hieroglyphic characters into lengthy sentences of esoteric ideas. Unlike earlier European scholars Kircher did realise that hieroglyphs could function phonetically, though he considered this function a late development. He also recognised one hieroglyph, 𓈗, as representing water and thus standing phonetically for the Coptic word for water, mu, as well as the m sound. He became the first European to correctly identify a phonetic value for a hieroglyph.\nAlthough Kircher's basic assumptions were shared by his contemporaries, most scholars rejected or even ridiculed his",
"-30.383447141161014"
],
[
"Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries During the Renaissance Europeans became interested in hieroglyphs, spurred by the rediscovery of Horapollo's Hieroglyphica by Cristoforo Buondelmonti in 1419. Renaissance antiquarians recognised that there were hieroglyphic texts on obelisks and other Egyptian artefacts imported to Europe in Roman times, but they did not attempt to decipher these texts. Influenced by Horapollo and Plotinus, they saw hieroglyphs as a universal, image-based form of communication, not a means of recording a spoken language. From this belief sprang a Renaissance artistic tradition of using obscure symbolism loosely based on the imagery described in Horapollo, pioneered by Francesco Colonna's",
"-30.216376953783765"
],
[
"the priest Horapollo wrote Hieroglyphica, an explanation of almost 200 glyphs. His work was believed to be authoritative, yet it was misleading in many ways, and this and other works were a lasting impediment to the understanding of Egyptian writing. Later attempts at decipherment were made by Arab historians in medieval Egypt during the 9th and 10th centuries. Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya were the first historians to study hieroglyphs, by comparing them to the contemporary Coptic language used by Coptic priests in their time. The study of hieroglyphs continued with fruitless attempts at decipherment by European scholars, notably Johannes",
"-30.057677142602188"
],
[
"History of the alphabet Predecessors Two scripts are well attested from before the end of the fourth millennium BCE: Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs.\nHieroglyphs were employed in three ways in Ancient Egyptian texts: as logograms (ideograms) that represent a word denoting an object pictorially depicted by the hieroglyph; more commonly as phonograms writing a sound or sequence of sounds; and as determinatives (which provide clues to meaning without directly writing sounds). Since vowels were mostly unwritten, the hieroglyphs which indicated a single consonant could have been used as a consonantal alphabet (or \"abjad\"). This was not done when writing",
"-30.055296511898632"
],
[
"translations. Nevertheless, his argument that Coptic was derived from the ancient Egyptian language was widely accepted. Eighteenth century Hardly anyone attempted to decipher hieroglyphs for decades after Kircher's last works on the subject, although some contributed suggestions about the script that ultimately proved correct. William Warburton's religious treatise The Divine Legation of Moses, published from 1738 to 1741, included a long digression on hieroglyphs and the evolution of writing. It argued that hieroglyphs were not invented to encode religious secrets but for practical purposes, like any other writing system, and that the phonetic Egyptian script mentioned by Clement of Alexandria",
"-29.841147816274315"
],
[
"It wasn't until Athanasius Kircher in the mid 17th century that scholars began to think the hieroglyphs might also represent sounds. Kircher was familiar with Coptic, and thought that it might be the key to deciphering the hieroglyphs, but was held back by a belief in the mystical nature of the symbols.\nThe breakthrough in decipherment came only with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troops in 1799 (during Napoleon's Egyptian invasion). \nAs the stone presented a hieroglyphic and a demotic version of the same text in parallel with a Greek translation, plenty of material for falsifiable studies in",
"-29.786841426115643"
],
[
"difficult, despite some halting progress made by Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy and Johan David Åkerblad. Young, building on their work, observed that demotic characters were derived from hieroglyphs and identified several of the phonetic signs in demotic. He also identified the meaning of many hieroglyphs, including phonetic glyphs in a cartouche containing the name of an Egyptian king of foreign origin, Ptolemy. He was convinced, however, that phonetic hieroglyphs were used only in writing non-Egyptian words. In the early 1820s Champollion compared Ptolemy's cartouche with others and ultimately realised the hieroglyphic script was a mixture of phonetic and ideographic elements.",
"-29.629920588238747"
],
[
"some genuine knowledge about the writing system. It offers an explanation of close to 200 signs.\nSome are identified correctly, such as the \"goose\" hieroglyph (zꜣ) representing the word for \"son\". Decipherment Knowledge of the hieroglyphs had been lost completely by the medieval period. \nEarly attempts at decipherment are due to Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya (9th and 10th century, respectively).\nAll medieval and early modern attempts were hampered by the fundamental assumption that hieroglyphs \nrecorded ideas and not the sounds of the language. \nAs no bilingual texts were available, any such symbolic 'translation' could be proposed without the possibility of verification.",
"-29.618614108330803"
],
[
"been understood since shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire. The usage of the hieroglyphic script had become increasingly specialised even in the later Pharaonic period; by the 4th century AD, few Egyptians were capable of reading them. Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is dated to 24 August 394, found at Philae and known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom.\nHieroglyphs retained their pictorial appearance, and classical authors emphasised this aspect, in sharp contrast to the Greek and Roman alphabets. In the 5th century,",
"-29.54743689100711"
],
[
"Aramaic, and Hebrew (he, waw, yod; sometimes even aleph; Naveh 62). Naveh (ibid.) notes that the earliest Aramaic and Hebrew documents already used matres lectionis. Some scholars argue that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed their alphabet from the Arameans. However, the practice has older roots, as the Semitic cuneiform alphabet of Ugarit (13th century BC) already had matres lectionis (Naveh 138). Hebrew The earliest method of indicating some vowels in Hebrew writing was to use the consonant letters yod י, waw ו, he ה,and aleph א of the Hebrew alphabet to also write long vowels in some cases. Originally,",
"-29.480325685683056"
],
[
"are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000.\nGeoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs \"came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter\", and that it is \"probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\". There are many instances of early Egypt-Mesopotamia relations, but given the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, \"no definitive determination has been made as to",
"-29.392121444631584"
],
[
"number of ancient alphabets, in which he deciphered a number of Egyptian hieroglyphs, was later read by Athanasius Kircher in the 17th century, and then translated and published in English by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall in 1806 as Ancient Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters Explained; with an Account of the Egyptian Priests, their Classes, Initiation, and Sacrifices in the Arabic Language by Ahmad Bin Abubekr Bin Wahishih, 16 years before Jean-François Champollion's complete decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs. This book was known to Silvestre de Sacy, a colleague of Champollion. Dr Okasha El Daly, at University College London's Institute of Archaeology, claims that",
"-29.289195831046527"
],
[
"some hieroglyphs had been decoded by Ibn Wahshiyya, eight centuries before Champollion deciphered the Rosetta stone. A. K. Eyma critiques this idea and think that \"there was no such thing as an Arabic decipherment of hieroglyphs\". Carlo Nallino, in his lectures on the history of Arab Astronomy, is also of the opinion that books attributed to Ibn Wahshiyya are actually works of an unreliable pupil attributed to him, and of no scientific value, including the claim that he deciphered some hieroglyphs. Cryptography He published several cipher alphabets that were used to encrypt magic formulas.",
"-28.981164774926583"
],
[
"was a radical simplification of phonetic writing, since hieroglyphics required the writer to pick a hieroglyph starting with the same sound that the writer wanted to write in order to write phonetically, much as man'yōgana (Chinese characters used solely for phonetic use) was used to represent Japanese phonetically before the invention of kana.\nPhoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the Greek alphabet and Aramaic, a widely used abjad. The Greek alphabet evolved into the modern western alphabets, such as Latin and Cyrillic, while Aramaic became the ancestor of many modern abjads and abugidas of Asia. Impure",
"-28.950461923654075"
],
[
"and published them in Denmark. The deciphering of the texts started immediately, and bilinguals, in particular Old Persian-Akkadian bilinguals, were of great help. Since the texts contained several royal names, isolated signs could be identified, and were presented in 1802 by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. By this time it was already evident that Akkadian was a Semitic language, and the final breakthrough in deciphering the language came from Edward Hincks, Henry Rawlinson and Jules Oppert in the middle of the 19th century. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago recently completed a 21-volume dictionary of the Akkadian language, which",
"-28.76576827401186"
],
[
"fully understood how the scripts worked. Diodorus Siculus, in the 1st century BC, explicitly described hieroglyphs as an ideographic script, and most classical authors shared this assumption. Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, referred to 25 Egyptian letters, suggesting he might have been aware of the phonetic aspect of hieroglyphic or demotic, but his meaning is unclear. Around AD 200 Clement of Alexandria hinted that some signs were phonetic but concentrated on the signs' metaphorical meanings. Plotinus, in the third century AD, claimed hieroglyphs did not represent words but a divinely inspired, fundamental insight into the nature of the objects",
"-28.726481022302323"
],
[
"representation of language developed by Semitic workers in Egypt, but by then alphabetic principles had a slight possibility of being inculcated into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium. These early abjads remained of marginal importance for several centuries, and it is only towards the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script splits into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BC) Byblos syllabary and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BC). The Proto-Canaanite was probably somehow influenced by the undeciphered Byblos syllabary and, in turn, inspired the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BC). Anatolian hieroglyphs Anatolian hieroglyphs are an indigenous",
"-28.71012702243752"
],
[
"a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything. Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.\nIn the Middle Bronze Age, an apparently \"alphabetic\" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appears in Egyptian",
"-28.550779301778675"
],
[
"that of the Roman Empire. Hieroglyphs became increasingly obscure, used mainly by Egyptian priests.\nThese scripts contained a mix of phonetic signs, representing sounds in the spoken language, and ideographic signs, representing ideas. Phonetic signs included uniliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs, standing respectively for one, two or three sounds. Ideographic signs included logograms, representing whole words, and determinatives, which were used to specify the meaning of a word written with phonetic signs.\nMany Greek and Roman authors wrote about these scripts, and many were aware that the Egyptians had two or three writing systems, but none whose works survived into later times",
"-28.42971871932241"
],
[
"eventually evolved into an ideographic system (where a sign represents an idea) and then to a syllabic system (where a sign represents a syllable). Developing around the same time, the Egyptian system of hieroglyphics also began as a pictographic script and evolved into a system of syllabic writing. Two cursive scripts were eventually created, hieratic, shortly after hieroglyphs were invented, and demotic (Egyptian) in the seventh century BC. Scribes wrote these scripts usually on papyrus, with ink on a reed pen.\nThe first known alphabetical system came from the Phoenicians, who developed a vowel-less system of 22 letters around the",
"-28.396671310591046"
],
[
"they depicted. Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th century AD copied another author's translation of a hieroglyphic text on an obelisk, but the translation was too loose to be useful in understanding the principles of the writing system. The only extensive discussion of hieroglyphs to survive into modern times was the Hieroglyphica, a work probably written in the fourth century AD and attributed to a man named Horapollo. It discusses the meanings of individual hieroglyphs, though not how those signs were used to form phrases or sentences. Some of the meanings it describes are correct, but more are wrong, and all",
"-28.38205211757122"
],
[
"Lettre à M. Dacier Lettre à M. Dacier (full title: Lettre à M. Dacier relative à l'alphabet des hiéroglyphes phonétiques: \"Letter to M. Dacier concerning the alphabet of the phonetic hieroglyphs\") is a scientific communication in the form of a letter sent in 1822 by the Egyptologist Jean-François Champollion to Bon-Joseph Dacier, secretary of the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. It is the founding text upon which Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics were first systematically deciphered by Champollion, largely on the basis of the multilingual Rosetta Stone. History On September 14, 1822, while visiting his brother Jacques-Joseph, a great supporter of",
"-28.280474830073217"
],
[
"two varieties of the letter. The Aramaic script began developing special final forms for certain letters in the 5th century BCE, though this was not always a consistent rule (as reflected in the Qumran practice). Matres lectionis The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants, but gradually the letters א ,ה ,ו ,י, also became used to indicate vowels, known as matres lectionis (Latin: \"mothers of reading\") when used in this function. It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development: for instance, *bayt 'house' shifted to בֵּית in construct state but retained its spelling. While no examples of",
"-28.255076938978164"
],
[
"Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.\nCharles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented",
"-28.220703583698196"
],
[
"writers pretended to have found the key to the hieroglyphics, and many more professed, with a shameless impudence which is hard to understand in these days, to translate the contents of the texts into a modern tongue. Foremost among such pretenders must be mentioned Athanasius Kircher, who, in the 17th century, declared that he had found the key to the hieroglyphic inscriptions; the translations which he prints in his Oedipus Aegyptiacus are utter nonsense, but as they were put forth in a learned tongue many people at the time believed they were correct.\nAlthough Kircher's approach to deciphering texts was based",
"-28.201692991720847"
],
[
"on a fundamental misconception, some modern commentators have described Kircher as the pioneer of the serious study of hieroglyphs. The data which he collected were later consulted by Champollion in his successful efforts to decode the script. According to Joseph MacDonnell, it was \"because of Kircher's work that scientists knew what to look for when interpreting the Rosetta stone\". Another scholar of ancient Egypt, Erik Iversen, concluded:\nIt is therefore Kircher's incontestable merit that he was the first to have discovered the phonetic value of an Egyptian hieroglyph. From a humanistic as well as an intellectual point of view Egyptology may",
"-28.18388995139685"
],
[
"and indirectly, as the inspiration for the original alphabet that was ancestral to nearly every other alphabet ever used, including the Latin alphabet. Uniliteral signs The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like letters in English). It would have been possible to write all Egyptian words in the manner of these signs, but the Egyptians never did so and never simplified their complex writing into a true alphabet.\nEach uniliteral glyph once had a unique reading, but several of these fell together as Old Egyptian developed into Middle Egyptian. For example, the folded-cloth glyph",
"-28.167066976206115"
],
[
"Ugaritic, Moabite, South Arabian and Phoenician alphabets. Origins and development Historically, the practice of using matres lectionis seems to have originated when /aj/ and /aw/ diphthongs, written with the yod י and the waw ו consonant letters respectively, monophthongized to simple long vowels /eː/ and /oː/. This epiphenomenal association between consonant letters and vowel sounds was then seized upon and used in words without historic diphthongs.\nIn general terms, it is observable that early Phoenician texts have very few matres lectionis, and that during most of the 1st millennium BCE, Hebrew and Aramaic were quicker to develop matres lectionis than",
"-28.165297214713064"
],
[
"nonsense, but as they were put forth in a learned tongue many people at the time believed they were correct.\nThe accurate meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs were not deciphered until 1824 when Jean-François Champollion finally solved the riddle through his study of the Rosetta stone.\nIn 1999 the University of Geneva exhibited one of the vast tomes of Oedipus Aegyptiacus in an exhibition to celebrate the centenary of Jorge Luis Borges as representative of books associated with the Argentinian author.",
"-28.155546118689927"
],
[
"learning, Kircherus.\nOn the other hand, modern experts on hieroglyphic writing have found Kircher's work to be of little value. According to E. A. Wallis Budge:\nMany writers pretended to have found the key to the hieroglyphics, and many more professed, with a shameless impudence which is hard to understand in these days, to translate the contents of the texts into a modern tongue. Foremost among such pretenders must be mentioned Athanasius Kircher, who, in the 17th century, declared that he had found the key to the hieroglyphic inscriptions; the translations which he prints in his Oedipus Aegyptiacus are utter",
"-28.1397242786511"
],
[
"Miꞌkmaq hieroglyphic writing Classification Scholars have debated whether the earliest known Miꞌkmaq \"hieroglyphs\" from the 17th century qualified fully as a writing system, rather than as a pictographic mnemonic device. In the 17th century, French missionary Chrétien Le Clercq adapted the Míkmaq characters as a logographic system for pedagogical purposes.\nIn 1978, Ives Goddard and William Fitzhugh of the Department of Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution, contended that the pre-missionary system was purely mnemonic, as it could not be used to write new compositions. Schmidt and Marshall argued in 1995 that the missionary system of the 17th century was able to",
"-28.052812757559877"
],
[
"not realised that the cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same language.\nIn the 1970s, as a result of a fundamental revision of the readings of a large number of hieroglyphs by John David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies, and Günter Neumann, it became clear that both cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same Luwian language. This revision resulted from a discovery outside the area of Luwian settlement, namely the annotations on Urartian pots, written in the Urartian language using the hieroglyphic Luwian script. The sign , which had hitherto been read as ī was shown to be being used to indicate",
"-28.04891318414593"
],
[
"was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC in the Persian Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdiana.\nThe widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing Hebrew. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician, the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. Aramaic-derived scripts Since the evolution of the Aramaic alphabet out of the Phoenician one was a gradual process, the division of the world's alphabets into the ones derived from the",
"-28.02976537304494"
],
[
"even remotely fitted the original texts\". In Oedipus Aegyptiacus, Kircher argued under the impression of the Hieroglyphica that ancient Egyptian was the language spoken by Adam and Eve, that Hermes Trismegistus was Moses, and that hieroglyphs were occult symbols which \"cannot be translated by words, but expressed only by marks, characters and figures.\" This led him to translate simple hieroglyphic texts now known to read as ḏd Wsr (\"Osiris says\") as \"The treachery of Typhon ends at the throne of Isis; the moisture of nature is guarded by the vigilance of Anubis\"\nAccording to the Egyptologist Sir E. A. Wallis Budge:\nMany",
"-27.942517519408284"
],
[
"Hieroglyph A hieroglyph (Greek for \"sacred writing\") was a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system. Logographic scripts that are pictographic in form in a way reminiscent of ancient Egyptian are also sometimes called \"hieroglyphs\". In Neoplatonism, especially during the Renaissance, a \"hieroglyph\" was an artistic representation of an esoteric idea, which Neoplatonists believed actual Egyptian hieroglyphs to be. The word hieroglyphics refer to a hieroglyphic script. \nThe Egyptians invented the pictorial script. The appearance of these distinctive figures in 3000 BCE marked the beginning of Egyptian civilization. Though based on images, Egyptian script was more than a sophisticated form",
"-27.915235178408693"
],
[
"William Bullokar William Bullokar was a 16th-century printer who devised a 40-letter phonetic alphabet for the English language. Its characters were in the black-letter or \"gothic\" writing style commonly used at the time. Taking as his model a Latin grammar by William Lily, Bullokar wrote the first published grammar of the English language, in a book titled Brief Grammar for English, which appeared in 1586.",
"-27.89967997835629"
],
[
"by Johan David Åkerblad in 1802 (14 turned out to be incorrect). Åkerblad was correct in stressing the importance of the demotic text in trying to read the inscriptions, but he wrongly believed that demotic was entirely alphabetic.\nBy 1814 Young had completely translated the \"enchorial\" text of the Rosetta Stone (using a list with 86 demotic words), and then studied the hieroglyphic alphabet but initially failed to recognise that the demotic and hieroglyphic texts were paraphrases and not simple translations.\nThere was considerable rivalry between Young and Jean-François Champollion while both were working on hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they briefly cooperated",
"-27.872406271631917"
],
[
"and try to identify phonetic characters in them.\nYoung did so, with two results that together paved the way for the final decipherment. In the hieroglyphic text, he discovered the phonetic characters \"p t o l m e s\" (in today's transliteration \"p t w l m y s\") that were used to write the Greek name \"Ptolemaios\". He also noticed that these characters resembled the equivalent ones in the demotic script, and went on to note as many as 80 similarities between the hieroglyphic and demotic texts on the stone, an important discovery because the two scripts were previously thought",
"-27.860779150978487"
],
[
"but there is some indication from the writings of Juan Pablo Bonet—who never credited him for his method—that Ponce de Leon developed a manual alphabet which would allow a student who mastered it to spell out (letter by letter) any word. This alphabet was based, in whole or in part, on the simple hand gestures used by monks living in silence.\nPonce de Leon's work with the deaf was considered bold by contemporaries, as the prevailing opinion among most Europeans in the 16th century was that the deaf were incapable of being educated. Many laymen even believed that the deaf",
"-27.80730820044846"
],
[
"English and Arabic, that do not have a one-to-one correspondence between sounds (phonemes) and the letters (graphemes) that represent them.\nShallow orthographies, such as Italian and Finnish, have a close relationship between graphemes and phonemes, and the spelling of words is very consistent. With shallow orthographies, new readers have few problems learning to decode words and as a result children learn to read relatively quickly. Most dyslexic readers of shallow orthographic systems learn to decode words with relative ease compared to dyslexics using deep orthographies, though they continue to have difficulty with reading fluency and comprehension. The hallmark system of dyslexia",
"-27.804538276526728"
],
[
"Oedipus Aegyptiacus Hieroglyphs The third volume of Oedipus Aegyptiacus deals exclusively with Kircher's attempts to translate Egyptian hieroglyphs. The primary source for Kircher's study of hieroglyphs was the Bembine Tablet, so named after its acquisition by Cardinal Bembo, shortly after the sack of Rome in 1527. The Bembine Tablet is a bronze and silver tablet depicting various Egyptian gods and goddesses. In its centre sits Isis representing \"the polymorphic all-containing Universal Idea.\"\nKircher's Oedipus Aegyptiacus is an example of syncretic and eclectic scholarship in the late Renaissance and representative of antiquarian scholarship before the modern scientific era. His renditions of",
"-27.80335260366064"
],
[
"some influence on the developments of the Hebrew and Aramaic alphabets based on the fact that these languages evolved during the same time period, share similar features, and are commonly categorized into the same language group.\nWhen the Israelites migrated to Canaan between 1200 and 1001 BCE, they also adopted a variation of the Canaanite alphabet. Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's scribe, used this alphabet to create the later scripts of the Old Testament. The early Hebrew alphabet was prominent in the Mediterranean region until Chaldean Babylonian rulers exiled the Jews to Babylon in the sixth century BCE. It was then that",
"-27.76995523893129"
],
[
"known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad.\nThere are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop",
"-27.769679234770592"
],
[
"and found out the correct sound value from 14 of the 29 signs, but he wrongly believed the demotic hieroglyphs to be entirely alphabetic. One of his strategies of comparing the demotic to Coptic later became a key in Champollion's eventual decipherment of the hieroglyphic script and the Ancient Egyptian language.\nIn 1810, Åkerblad sent to Sacy for publication his work entitled MÉMOIRE: Sur les noms coptes de quelques villes et villages d'Égypte. Yet, unfortunately, its publication was delayed, and it was not published until 1834. Some scholars saw such delay as motivated by political or personal considerations.\nHis last days were",
"-27.759949026110917"
],
[
"(1643), Kircher called hieroglyphics \"this language hitherto unknown in Europe, in which there are as many pictures as letters, as many riddles as sounds, in short as many mazes to be escaped from as mountains to be climbed\". While some of his notions are long discredited, portions of his work have been valuable to later scholars, and Kircher helped pioneer Egyptology as a field of serious study.\nKircher's interest in Egyptology began in 1628 when he became intrigued by a collection of hieroglyphs in the library at Speyer. He learned Coptic in 1633 and published the first grammar of that language",
"-27.71744491611389"
],
[
"idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\". The two writing systems are in fact quite similar in their initial stages, relying heavily on pictographic forms and then evolving a parallel system for the expression of phonetic sounds.\nStandard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hierogplyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.\nThere is however a lack of direct evidence, and \"no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt\". Instead, it",
"-27.69898400537204"
],
[
"the earliest was initiated by a pious Dutch trader, Albert Ruyll in 1611. The book titled Sovrat A B C and written in Latin alphabet not only means in introducing Latin alphabet but also the basic tenets of Calvinism that includes the Ten Commandments, the faith and some prayers. This work later followed by several Bibles translated into Malay; Injil Mateus dan Markus (1638), Lukas dan Johanes (1646), Injil dan Perbuatan (1651), Kitab Kejadian (1662), Perjanjian Baru (1668) and Mazmur (1689).\nThe era of Classical Malay also witnessed the growing interest among foreigners in learning the Malay language for the purpose",
"-27.676814074031427"
],
[
"thus correcting one of the most fundamental faults in Champollion's work. Other scholars, such as Emmanuel de Rougé, refined the understanding of Egyptian enough that by the 1850s it was possible to fully translate ancient Egyptian texts. Combined with the decipherment of cuneiform at approximately the same time, their work opened up the once-inaccessible texts from the earliest stages of human history. Egyptian scripts and their extinction For most of its history ancient Egypt had two major writing systems. Hieroglyphs, a system of pictorial signs used mainly for formal texts, originated sometime around 3200 BC. Hieratic, a cursive system derived",
"-27.674204536459"
],
[
"was devised by someone in Byblos who had seen Egyptian hieroglyphs and used them freely as an example to compose a new syllabary that was better adapted to the native language of Byblos—just as in neighbouring Ugarit a few centuries later a cuneiform alphabet was devised that was easier to use than the complicated Akkadian cuneiform.\nSeveral signs resemble letters of the later Phoenician alphabet: . This suggests that the latter was derived in some way from the syllabary. Thus the inscriptions are potentially an important link between the Egyptian hieroglyphic script and the later Semitic abjads derived from Proto-Sinaitic. Brian",
"-27.65504898774816"
],
[
"Aramaic alphabet Origins The earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet. Over time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below. Aramaic gradually became the lingua franca throughout the Middle East, with the script at first complementing and then displacing Assyrian cuneiform, as the predominant writing system. Achaemenid Empire (The First Persian Empire) Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Old Aramaic was adopted by the Persians as the \"vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast Persian empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a",
"-27.58775092496944"
],
[
"number of demotic characters. This stage of the Egyptian language would later come to be known as Coptic along with its alphabet. The third theologian to head the Catachetical School was a native Egyptian by the name of Origen. Origen was an outstanding theologian and one of the most influential Church Fathers. He traveled extensively to lecture in various churches around the world and has many important texts to his credit including the Hexapla, an exegesis of various translations of the Hebrew Bible.\nAt the threshold of the Byzantine period, the New Testament had been entirely translated into Coptic. But while",
"-27.57459823253157"
],
[
"lexigrams were first used.\nThe first ape trained to communicate in Yerkish was the chimpanzee Lana, beginning in 1973 within the context of the LANA project. Von Glaserfeld created approximately 150 of the first words in the Yerkish language, and went on to use 25 of them in his initial experiment with Lana - a chimpanzee whom researchers were hoping would not only interpret the Yerkish language, but would also participate in communication with others through this newfound language. A keyboard was created for Lana with each key representing various nouns or verbs such as food, eat, apple, drink, etc.",
"-27.562541223640437"
],
[
"Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts The writing systems used in ancient Egypt were deciphered in the early 19th century by the work of several European scholars, especially Jean-François Champollion and Thomas Young. Egyptian writing, which included the hieroglyphic, hieratic and demotic scripts, ceased to be understood in the fourth and fifth centuries AD. Later generations' knowledge of these scripts was based on the work of Greek and Roman authors whose understanding was faulty. It was thus widely believed that Egyptian scripts were exclusively ideographic, representing ideas rather than sounds, and even that hieroglyphs were an esoteric, mystical script rather than",
"-27.524185836840843"
],
[
"Emmanuel de Rougé, who began studying Egyptian in 1839, was the first person to translate a full-length ancient Egyptian text; he published the first translations of Egyptian literary texts in 1856. In the words of one of de Rougé's students, Gaston Maspero, \"de Rougé gave us the method which allowed us to utilise and bring to perfection the method of Champollion\". Other scholars concentrated on the lesser-known scripts. Charles Wycliffe Goodwin and François Chabas focused on the hieratic texts on papyri and were largely responsible for deciphering hieratic. Heinrich Brugsch was the first since Young's death to advance the study",
"-27.49034614762786"
],
[
"the Egyptian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Hittite, Ugaritic and Luwian languages. Beginning with the famous decipherment and translation of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion in 1822, a number of individuals attempted to decipher the writing systems of the Ancient Near East and Aegean. In the case of Old Persian and Mycenaean Greek, decipherment yielded older records of languages already known from slightly more recent traditions (Middle Persian and Alphabetic Greek).\nWork on the ancient languages of the Near East progressed rapidly. In the mid-19th century, Henry Rawlinson and others deciphered the Behistun Inscription, which records the same text in Old Persian, Elamite,",
"-27.415744813902165"
],
[
"the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called matres lectionis. This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times. Addition of vowels In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph, he, heth or ayin,",
"-27.409710436499154"
],
[
"the Egyptian language, but seems to have been a significant influence on the creation of the first alphabet (used to write a Semitic language). All subsequent alphabets around the world have either descended from this first Semitic alphabet, or have been inspired by one of its descendants (i.e. \"stimulus diffusion\"), with the possible exception of the Meroitic alphabet, a 3rd-century BCE adaptation of hieroglyphs in Nubia to the south of Egypt. The Rongorongo script of Easter Island may also be an independently invented alphabet, but too little is known of it to be certain. Latin alphabet A tribe known",
"-27.39254991395137"
],
[
"Manually coded language History It is unknown when the first attempts were made to represent an oral language with gesture. Indeed, some have speculated that oral languages may have evolved from sign languages, and there may be undocumented cases in history when vocal and signed modes of a language existed side by side. It is not uncommon for people to develop gestures to replace words or phrases in contexts where speech is not possible or not permitted, such as in a television studio, but these are usually limited in scope and rarely develop into complete representations of an oral language.",
"-27.378772146006668"
],
[
"this alphabet have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.\nCharles de",
"-27.34860832130653"
],
[
"Greek, and Latin. The Carthaginian dialect is called Punic. Today's Tifinagh is thought by some scholars to be descended from Punic, but this is still under debate. Greek The Greek alphabet was adapted in Egypt to the Coptic alphabet (with the addition of 7 letters derived from ancient Demotic) in order to write the language (which is today only a liturgical language of the Coptic Church). An uncial variant of the Coptic alphabet was used from the 8th to the 15th century for writing Old Nubian, an ancient variety of the Nubian language. Arabic The Arabic script was",
"-27.29473932788096"
],
[
"York. Weimann managed to collaborate with an early childhood coordinator, Rita Friedman, to create an educational program that revolved around 26 anthropomorphic characters-- each who represented the letters of the alphabet-- to teach beginning readers how to \"decode\" or \"sound out\" the consonants and vowels that form words. They embodied the basic rules of phonics into stories about these make-believe characters called Letter People. Each letter of the alphabet had a distinct characteristic to help children learn not only the letter but the sound the letter represents in the written word. For example, Mr. M has a Munching Mouth, Mr.",
"-27.262760967205395"
],
[
"from hieroglyphs that was used mainly for writing on papyrus, was nearly as old. Beginning in the seventh century BC, a third script derived from hieratic, known today as demotic, emerged, which differed so greatly from its hieroglyphic ancestor that the relationship between the signs is difficult to recognise. Demotic became the most common system for writing the Egyptian language, and hieroglyphic and hieratic were thereafter mostly restricted to religious uses. In the fourth century BC, Egypt came to be ruled by the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty, and Greek and demotic were used side-by-side in Egypt under Ptolemaic rule and then",
"-27.259889685672533"
],
[
"the second millennium BC, and were found on a stone tablet accompanying the Hurrian foundation pegs known as the \"Urkish lions.\" Archeologists have discovered the texts of numerous spells, incantations, prophecies and letters at sites including Hattusha, Mari, Tuttul, Babylon, Ugarit and others. Early study of the language, however, was entirely based on the Mitanni letter, found in 1887 at Amarna in Egypt, written by the Hurrian king Tushratta to the pharaoh Amenhotep III. The Hurro-Urartian relation was recognized as early as 1890 by Sayce (ZA 5, 1890, 260-274) and Jensen (ZA 6, 1891, 34-72).\nIn the thirteenth century BC, invasions",
"-27.239892068733752"
],
[
"alphabet, itself a descendant of the Phoenician script.\nThe Aramaic alphabet, used to write Aramaic, is another descendant of Phoenician. Aramaic, being the lingua franca of the Middle East, was widely adopted. It later split off (due to political divisions) into a number of related alphabets, including Hebrew, Syriac, and Nabataean, the latter of which, in its cursive form, became an ancestor of the Arabic alphabet currently used in Arabic-speaking countries from North Africa through the Levant to Iraq and the Persian Gulf region, as well as in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and other countries.\nThe Sogdian alphabet, a descendant of Phoenician via",
"-27.212927136321934"
],
[
"of thousands of symbols is a daunting task; children from cultures that use logograms–word symbols–to represent words take years longer to learn to read and write than children learning an alphabet. The relative ease of memorizing 26 letters contributed to the spread of literacy throughout the world.\nThe first consonantal alphabet found emerged around 1800 BCE to represent the language of the Phoenicians, Semitic workers in Egypt (see Middle Bronze Age alphabets), and was derived from the alphabetic principles of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Our present Roman system derives from this Phoenician alphabet, which had 22 letters. Nineteen of our present letters",
"-27.209389414698308"
],
[
"in the dictionary and books of E. A. W. Budge. This reading is found as a phonetic complement using the signs for z and š, leading to the misunderstanding. However, Old Kingdom Egyptian lacked a distinct sign for the ẖ sound and the Coptic descendant shows that the original second consonant was indeed the palatalized fricative ẖ not the (alveolo-)palatal sibilant š, (š being the pool-lake-basin (hieroglyph) in the Egyptian language).\nWhen used as the verb zẖꜣ, the hieroglyph has a variety of related meanings: to write, to draw, to make a design, to do into writing. As the noun zẖꜣ,",
"-27.188611287077947"
],
[
"Korean alphabet. Linear Korean There was a minor and unsuccessful movement in the early twentieth century to abolish syllabic blocks and write the letters individually and in a row, in the fashion of writing Latin alphabet as in English and other European languages, instead of the standard convention of 모아쓰기 (moa-sseugi 'assembled writing'). For example, ㅎㅏㄴㄱㅡㄹ would be written for 한글 (Hangeul). It is called 풀어쓰기 (pureo-sseugi 'unassembled writing').\nAvant-garde typographer Ahn Sangsu made a font for the \"Hangul Dada\" exposition that exploded the syllable blocks; but while it strings out the letters horizontally, it retains the distinctive vertical position each",
"-27.083004531279585"
],
[
"His claims were initially met with some scepticism and with accusations that he had taken ideas from Young without giving credit, but they gradually gained acceptance. Champollion went on to roughly identify the meanings of most phonetic hieroglyphs and to establish much of the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Egyptian. Young, meanwhile, largely deciphered demotic using the Rosetta Stone in combination with other Greek and demotic parallel texts.\nDecipherment efforts languished after Young's death in 1829 and Champollion's in 1831, but in 1837 Karl Richard Lepsius pointed out that many hieroglyphs represented combinations of two or three sounds rather than one,",
"-27.0731266851908"
],
[
"technically an abugida, has fused consonants and vowels together to the point where it is learned as if it were a syllabary. Alphabets An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.\nAs languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were",
"-27.071499329409562"
],
[
"hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie informatique: Manuel de codage des textes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie sur ordinateur. It is widely used in e-mail discussion lists and internet forums catering to professional Egyptologists and the interested public.\nAlthough the Manuel de codage system allows for simple \"alphabetic\" transliterations, it also specifies a complex method for electronically encoding complete ancient Egyptian texts, indicating features such as the placement, orientation, and even size of individual hieroglyphs. This system is used (though frequently with modifications) by various software packages developed for typesetting hieroglyphic texts (such as SignWriter, WinGlyph, MacScribe, InScribe, Glyphotext, WikiHiero,",
"-27.066251967866265"
],
[
"which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC). Writing Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written",
"-27.04297053654591"
],
[
"first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the Lisan al-`Arab (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and al-Qamus al-Muhit (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The Qamus al-Muhit is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the Lisan and the Oxford English Dictionary.\nIn medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents",
"-27.04192028050602"
],
[
"Yahya Ibn al-Batriq Abu Yahya Ibn al-Batriq (working 796 – 806) was a Syrian scholar who pioneered the translation of ancient Greek texts into Arabic, a major early figure in the transmission of the Classics at the close of Late Antiquity. He translated for Al-Mansur the major medical works of Galen and Hippocrates, and also translated Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos.\nTranslation was not a fully developed skill: al-Batriq worked by a combination of direct word-for-word translation and transliteration of ancient Greek words into Arabic where no equivalent was to be found.\nHe compiled the encyclopedic Kitab sirr al-asrar, or the Book of the science",
"-27.038032515351006"
],
[
"Egyptian Grammar produced one of the few available hieroglyphic printing fonts.\nIn 1915 Gardiner was also able to crack the so-called Proto-Sinaitic writing system by deciphering the \"B'alat inscriptions\".",
"-27.01690538779144"
],
[
"(ܐ), the waw (ܘ), and the yod (ܝ). The mater lectionis was developed as early as the 6th century to represent long vowels, which were earlier denoted by a dot under the line. The most frequent ones are the yod and the waw, while the alap is mostly restricted to some transliterated words. Influence on other languages Later, in some adaptations of the Arabic alphabet (such those sometimes used for Kurdish and Uyghur) and of the Hebrew alphabet (such as those used for the Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish), matres lectionis were generally used for all or most vowels, thus in",
"-27.015320002370572"
],
[
"had ceased to be spoken aloud by at least the 3rd century BCE during Second Temple Judaism and vowel points were not written until the early medieval period. The Masoretic Text uses vowel points of Adonai or Elohim (depending on the context) marking the pronunciation as Yəhōwāh (יְ הֹ וָ ה, [jăhowɔh] (listen)); however, scholarly consensus is that this is not the original pronunciation. (For a discussion of subtle pronunciation changes between what is preserved in the Hebrew Scriptures and what is read, see Qere and Ketiv.)\nThe Tetragrammaton first appears in Genesis and occurs 6828 times in total in the Stuttgart edition",
"-27.007085490091413"
],
[
"has been decoded. To do this, the child must first figure out the Alphabetic principle and master it in only a few years. Most children know that the words on a page in a book mean something, but do not readily understand how the letters code the meaning. They know that these words are made of the sounds of their particular language, and that letters convey these sounds. Novice readers learn to hear and manipulate the smaller sounds into syllables and words. If a child is able to master this skill, called phonological awareness, it is one of",
"-26.997942889967817"
],
[
"the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphs substantially deciphered. Literature Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books),",
"-26.984416282568418"
],
[
"seems to have been originally an /s/ and the door-bolt glyph a /θ/ sound, but these both came to be pronounced /s/, as the /θ/ sound was lost. A few uniliterals first appear in Middle Egyptian texts.\nBesides the uniliteral glyphs, there are also the biliteral and triliteral signs, to represent a specific sequence of two or three consonants, consonants and vowels, and a few as vowel combinations only, in the language. Semantic reading Besides a phonetic interpretation, characters can also be read for their meaning: in this instance, logograms are being spoken (or ideograms) and semagrams (the latter are also",
"-26.975508296280168"
],
[
"Egyptian hieroglyphs Etymology The word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός (hieroglyphikos), a compound of ἱερός (hierós 'sacred') and γλύφω (glýphō 'Ι carve, engrave'; see glyph).\nThe glyphs themselves since the Ptolemaic period were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ [γράμματα] (tà hieroglyphikà [grámmata]) \"the sacred engraved letters\", the Greek counterpart to the Egyptian expression of mdw.w-nṯr \"god's words\". Greek ἱερογλυφός meant \"a carver of hieroglyphs\".\nIn English, hieroglyph as a noun is recorded from 1590, originally short for nominalised hieroglyphic (1580s, with a plural hieroglyphics), from adjectival use (hieroglyphic character). Origin Hieroglyphs may have emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For",
"-26.95029571226405"
],
[
"very basic understanding of Chinese characters but would have a better command of the spoken tongue once assimilated, they started using the Arabic script for Chinese. This was often done by writing notes in Chinese to aid in the memorization of surahs. This method was also used to write Chinese translations of Arabic vocabulary learned in the madrasas. Thus, a system of writing the Chinese language with Arabic script gradually developed and standardized to some extent. Currently, the oldest known artifact showing signs of Xiao'erjing is a stone stele in the courtyard of Daxue Xixiang Mosque in Xi'an in",
"-26.935842938743008"
],
[
"region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example, Protosinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from that of Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone, written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam Inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraca found near Lachish, which",
"-26.932607688300777"
],
[
"Georg Friedrich Grotefend, was able to decipher the Old Persian section of the Behistun inscriptions, using his knowledge of modern Persian. When he recovered the rest of the text in 1843, he and others were gradually able to translate the Elamite and Akkadian sections of it, starting with the 37 signs he had deciphered for the Old Persian. Meanwhile, many more cuneiform texts were coming to light from archaeological excavations, mostly in the Semitic Akkadian language, which were duly deciphered.\nBy 1850, however, Edward Hincks came to suspect a non-Semitic origin for cuneiform. Semitic languages are structured according to consonantal forms,",
"-26.89564983973105"
],
[
"culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally. Having learned that hieroglyphs were sacred writing, Greco-Roman authors imagined the complex but rational system as an allegorical, even magical, system transmitting secret, mystical knowledge.\nBy the 4th century, few Egyptians were capable of reading hieroglyphs, and the \"myth of allegorical hieroglyphs\" was ascendant. Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is from Philae, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, from 394.\nThe Hieroglyphica of Horapollo (c. 5th century) appears to retain",
"-26.85205530231906"
],
[
"can be used to decipher the ancient language. For example, it was discovered that the Mayan language had distinct grammatical patterns, such as a consonant/vowel syllable aspect. Researchers realized that the ancient language was based more on phonetics than previously thought.\nThe name Chortiʼ (with unglottalized <ch>) means 'language of the corn farmers', which references to the traditional agricultural activity of the Chʼortiʼ families. The politicized spelling Chʼortiʼ was introduced later in an attempt to lessen associations between Chʼortiʼ speakers and stereotypical professions.\nChʼortiʼ language is one of the three modern descendants of Chʼolan language which is a sub-group of Mayan",
"-26.849201657663798"
],
[
"more cursive forms.From them descended the standard handwriting of the Persian period (called 'Assyrian writing' in Egyptian) and eventually both the square Hebrew script (also known as 'Assyrian writing' in Hebrew), and through Nabataean, the Arabic alphabet.\nIt is believed that all extant forms of Aramaic stem from Imperial Aramaic, which itself originated in Assyria.\nAdditionally, speaking Aramaic long ago ceased to signify an Aramean ethnic identity, for the language spread among many previously non-Aramean and non-Aramaic speaking peoples in the Near East and Asia Minor from the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire onwards. As Korean Orientalist Chul-hyun Bae of Seoul National",
"-26.84904030711914"
],
[
"Phoenician language History The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make extensive use of the Semitic alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is the oldest verified consonantal alphabet, or abjad. It has become conventional to refer to the script as \"Proto-Canaanite\" until the mid-11th century BC, when it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads, and as \"Phoenician\" only after 1050 BC. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is generally believed to be at least the partial ancestor of almost all modern alphabets.\nFrom a traditional linguistic perspective, Phoenician was composed of a variety of dialects. However, the very slight differences in language and",
"-26.841578850886435"
],
[
"to circa 8000 BCE. Mature writing system Hieroglyphs consist of three kinds of glyphs: phonetic glyphs, including single-consonant characters that function like an alphabet; logographs, representing morphemes; and determinatives, which narrow down the meaning of logographic or phonetic words. Late Period As writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic (priestly) and demotic (popular) scripts. These variants were also more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental and other formal writing. The Rosetta Stone contains",
"-26.839016661226196"
],
[
"material was translated from each character.\"\nThis correlation found in the \"Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar\" between Abraham 1:11–2:9 and the Small Sensen papyrus has thus led many critics to assert that all of the Book of Abraham text most likely came entirely from Smith's interpretation of the Small Sensen papyrus, rather than a hypothetical lost section (as is often asserted by apologists). This means, however, that Smith likely used a single Egyptian character to derive dozens of words. Jerald Tanner, for instance, wrote \"Joseph Smith apparently translated many English words from each Egyptian character. The characters from fewer than four lines",
"-26.83849289594582"
],
[
"be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The Syriac alphabet, precursor to the Arabic alphabet, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The Aleppo Codex, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century, likely in Tiberias, and survives to this day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence.\nDuring the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians",
"-26.826202832045965"
],
[
"appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian. Egyptian hieroglyphs Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train as scribes, in the service of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authorities.\nGeoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs \"came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter\", and that it is \"probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian",
"-26.82377442818688"
],
[
"were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) alleges that not only the old Nabataean writing was influenced by the \"Syrian script\" (i.e. Aramaic), but also the old Chaldean script. \nA cursive Hebrew variant developed from the early centuries AD, but it remained restricted to the status of a variant used alongside the noncursive. By contrast, the cursive developed out of the Nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing Arabic, evolving into the Arabic alphabet as it stood by the time of the early spread of Islam.\nThe development of cursive",
"-26.800560728705022"
],
[
"dialects that are Aramaic. Writing system The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive \"square\" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet today. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by",
"-26.797616398878745"
],
[
"three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Late survival Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule (intermittent in the 6th and 5th centuries BC), and after Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the misleading quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part, as a response to the changed political situation. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish 'true Egyptians' from some of the foreign conquerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign",
"-26.75477801758575"
],
[
"in 1636, the Prodromus coptus sive aegyptiacus. Kircher then broke with Horapollon's interpretation of the language of the hieroglyphs with his Lingua aegyptiaca restituta. Kircher argued that Coptic preserved the last development of ancient Egyptian. For this Kircher has been considered the true \"founder of Egyptology\", because his work was conducted \"before the discovery of the Rosetta Stone rendered Egyptian hieroglyphics comprehensible to scholars\". He also recognized the relationship between hieratic and hieroglyphic scripts.\nBetween 1650 and 1654, Kircher published four volumes of \"translations\" of hieroglyphs in the context of his Coptic studies. However, according to Steven Frimmer, \"none of them",
"-26.745979242477915"
],
[
"written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from Egyptian hieroglyphs. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from",
"-26.736098700632283"
]
] |
1w605g | What do Germans think of Adolf Hitler? | [
"Being a Nazi, displaying Nazi symbols, etc is illegal in Germany. He is not a hero. There are no streets named after Adolf Hitler, no suburbs, etc. However, there is a Stauffenbergstrasse. The criticism in Germany over the film was due to casting, especially Tom Cruise, who they thought played the role as too American.",
"Lets put it this way. In Germany, displaying Nazi symbols, publicly praising Hitler and denying the Holocaust are all illegal and will result in jail time",
"American lady married to a German man and we currently live in Germany. Germans have it beat into them from a very early age that the Holocaust was horrible. That there is no excuse for what Hitler did. That you do not put country above being a human being. If am correct it took up the majority of their history lessons (this does not mean that they at unaware of the world). Secondly, TV here is forever running documentaries on the holocaust and WWII. I am pretty sure I have seen footage at least once a day. Third, I have never been in a place where people are so quick to defend a person being verbally or physically attacked by another person. On the train I have seen many altercations (verbal) that generally ends with the asshole being called out by at least two other people (sometimes the entire train car gets pissed). So they aren't generally ones to stand by and let that shit happen. That being said it has caused some issues. In Germany it is illegal to argue facts of the Holocaust in public. The official story has not changed in a long time even with new data and facts present. Historians can lose their jobs or be arrested for trying to argue on the side of truth. So, there is that. It has also made racism a very difficult thing to talk about. No one wants to talk about the fact that German citizens with Turkish parents are still treated like subcitizens ....but they are. Lastly, this does not mean that Germans don't have a sense of humor about Hitler. I would, however, suggest that if you crack a Hitler or Holocaust related joke that you know the person you are talking to very well and refrain from doing so in public. People are very vigilant when it comes to anything Nazi related. Graffiti is covered quickly after the police are contacted. Edit: to be clear Germans dislike Hitler. There is no type of worship on the part of the German people..some even still feel guilty. Some don't like joking about him. Overall the German people feel a duty to not sit by and allow a new Hitler to do what Hitler did. So, they study history and they talk about it.",
"Think about it this way, we teach our children about the Civil War and slavery. No we don't agree with what those people did, in fact we despise it, but it is still history. So I'd imagine they feel shame in the fact that their ancestors took a part in the fascism, and that that is what their country is known for.",
"A couple of German students of mine said they liked the U.S. because no one here assumed they were Nazis :|",
"German here. Hitler is seen as the worst human being ever by most of the Germans. However, many also think that they have to feel guilty for what someone else did decades ago, which in my opinion is inapropriate - it's not my fault what Hitler did, right? Hence, I don't think I have any kind of responsibilty towards the jewish people. So that's the other side of the coin: You should not say anything against jewish people because you will instantly be called a Nazi. It's complicated.",
"Yeah I think more about the mass ammount of people who supported him. They are just as delusional as him.",
"Almost all of us think of him as one of the worst human beings ever.",
"I know a few Germans, and whenever the Nazis or Hitler are brought up, they get kind of quiet and have a look of shame on their face. One who was more open to talking about it says many Germans would go back in time and undo what Hitler did. As mentioned before, my friend said there are many laws restricting Nazi propaganda and racism in particular. Last main thing he pointed out is \"If you go anywhere in Germany asking where Dachau is [one of the concentration camps and now a historical museum for those who don't know], many will pretend they have never heard of it,\" and he continued by saying it's because there are people in denial, not because they are dicks and refuse to believe any of it happened, but because they feel guilty of the country's past and wish it never happened. Hope this answers your question, sorry it was so long :P"
] | [
[
"and Roosevelt. Seen from the spirit-world, Dowd claimed Hitler was not evil but rather \"a man whose stars threw him into the world with vast disadvantages, with overwhelming ambition sweltering in his soul, and with an infinite capacity for receiving influences and suggestions from our side.\" She maintained that, open to spirit influence, Hitler was a passive recipient of dangerous spirits working on his \"colossal egotism\" so that he became a conduit for evil. Stalin, in contrast, was described by her as \"crafty and careful\" rather than egotistic. Churchill, she claimed, \"can be hot-headed, full of zeal and enthusiasm, and,",
"-34.550296432105824"
],
[
"Leo saying in 1967 that Hitler was \"absolutely innocent\", according to historian Werner Maser. World War II and detention in Moscow Before the war, he became a manager of the Linz Steelworks. In October 1939, he was drafted into the Luftwaffe and was a lieutenant in the engineering corps. He looked similar to Adolf Hitler and sometimes served as Hitler's double during the war.\nHe was injured in January 1943 during the Battle of Stalingrad, and Friedrich Paulus asked Hitler for a plane to evacuate Raubal to Germany. Hitler refused and Raubal was captured by the Soviets on 31 January 1943.\nHitler",
"-34.48316009656992"
],
[
"Raubal, Eva Braun and himself, accompanied his career. All soft, lovable traits were missing from his character. He was also full of himself and unselfcritical. Hitler was an 'empty man' who filled himself with pride and hatred. Achievements Haffner argues that on gaining office in 1933, Hitler achieved many 'miracles' in economic and military policy. 90% of Germans approved. Had he died in 1938, he would have been remembered as 'one of the greatest Germans ever'. Few people noticed that he had dismantled the state and concealed the resultant chaos. In the long run, his achievement came to nothing. Successes",
"-34.42442893923726"
],
[
"Adolf Hitler in popular culture Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party and Chancellor of Nazi Germany from 1933 (Führer from 1934) to 1945. Hitler has been represented in popular culture ever since he became a well-known politician in Germany. His distinctive image was often parodied by his opponents. Parodies became much more prominent outside Germany during his period in power. Since the end of World War II representations of Hitler, both serious and satirical, have continued to be prominent in popular culture, sometimes generating significant controversy. In",
"-34.38677042420022"
],
[
"he bagged thousands of animals, both beast and bird. Much of his time was spent chopping wood and thousands of trees were chopped down during his stay at Doorn. Views on Nazism In the early 1930s, Wilhelm apparently hoped that the successes of the German Nazi Party would stimulate interest in a restoration of the monarchy, with his eldest grandson as the fourth Kaiser. His second wife, Hermine, actively petitioned the Nazi government on her husband's behalf. However, Adolf Hitler, himself a veteran of the First World War, like other leading Nazis, felt nothing but contempt for the man they",
"-33.92961646273034"
],
[
"one thing you have to give him credit for: he is a fanatic for Germany. But he is wrecked by his proletarian primitive ways. He does not know how to give an intellectual basis to his Nazi party. Hitler is all passion but lacks sense or proportion. A heroic tenor, not a hero.\" Hitler, in other words, was not Mussolini. These were the last words he ever wrote before his suicide in 1925.",
"-33.827292747177125"
],
[
"Hitler\" could by this stage already be heard in the university's main auditorium. In 1924 Beer joined the Socialist Students' Society. He became - and would for the rest of his life remain - a committed communist. He read from the literary pantheon works by Marx, Engels, Lenin and Wilhelm Reich. He identified the looming dangers of Fascism and decided that he needed to engage politically. In 1927 he illegally joined the Yugoslavian Communist Party. At around the same time he joined Internationale Arbeiter-Hilfe (IAH / \"Workers International Relief\"",
"-33.75392495613778"
],
[
"himself rather than be captured by the Soviets. Further, Schenck stated that Hewel was emotionally and physically exhausted, which contributed to his actions. Relationship with Hitler Because of his friendship with Hitler, Hewel was given a large amount of leeway in his actions. For example, according to O'Donnell, Hewel played constant practical jokes on his boss, Ribbentrop, in order to amuse Hitler and other members of his entourage.\nAfter the war, Hewel's 1941 diary emerged. Also, after Hitler's suicide, he spoke with others about his friendship with, and opinion of, Hitler. Right before his suicide, he told Dr. Schenck:\nHitler was a",
"-33.59238301329606"
],
[
"is the only American mentioned favorably in Mein Kampf, although he is only mentioned twice: Adolf Hitler wrote, \"only a single great man, Ford, [who], to [the Jews'] fury, still maintains full independence ... [from] the controlling masters of the producers in a nation of one hundred and twenty millions.\" Speaking in 1931 to a Detroit News reporter, Hitler said he regarded Ford as his \"inspiration\", explaining his reason for keeping Ford's life-size portrait next to his desk. Steven Watts wrote that Hitler \"revered\" Ford, proclaiming that \"I shall do my best to put his theories into practice in Germany\",",
"-33.5378930552979"
],
[
"his Nazi-orientated political beliefs in these exchanges; Meyer had dedicated himself to its ideology, saying that a person \"could only give his heart once in life\". One interrogator described him as \"the personification of National Socialism\". Throughout the recordings, Meyer and other SS men confirmed the German armed forces officers' view of them as ideological fanatics with an almost religious belief in Nazism, the Third Reich, and the messianic personality cult of Adolf Hitler.\nIn a taped January 1945 conversation, Meyer praised Hitler for having inspired a \"tremendous awakening in the German people\" and for reviving their self-confidence. In a taped",
"-33.468488699232694"
],
[
"in Munich, and subsequently achieved the rank of lieutenant and served as a soldier in the Wehrmacht on active combat duty in Europe until his return to the Republic of China during the later years of World War II.\nAdolf Hitler had supported the Empire of Japan as early as 1904, when during the Russo-Japanese War it had defeated the Russians, which he considered a defeat for Austrian Slavism. He made a number of other statements expressing his respect and admiration for the Japanese in his book Mein Kampf.\nAlthough of a different evolutionary race, the Han Chinese and Imperial Japanese were",
"-33.433049713261425"
],
[
"I economic effects, that his patriotic feelings had increased. In a 1952 memoir article he admitted that, at that time, he \"fared relatively rather well under totalitarianism\". Yet, he also wrote that \"to us, Hitler was still only a pompous fool with a Charlie Chaplin moustache\" and that he perceived him as \"another Napoleon\" who was \"wholly without scruples, a godless man who thought himself the only god\". Membership in the Allgemeine SS Von Braun joined the SS horseback riding school on 1 November 1933 as an SS-Anwärter. He left the following year. In 1940, he joined the SS and",
"-33.39695520163514"
],
[
"of western Canada. He is accompanied by his aide-de-camp Sergeant Adolf Hitler, whose anti-Semitic views he does not care for. Hitler, Adolf (AE:CCH)\nBecause of the German Empire's victory in this world, Adolf Hitler is a sergeant in the German Army. He holds the Iron Cross, First Class. Morrell met him once as an orderly to Colonel Heinz Guderian, who was on an inspection tour in Kamloops, British Columbia, an occupied territory of the United States. Morrell thought that he was very much like Jake Featherston, but with a hatred for Jews and Slavs rather than Africans. Hitler is never",
"-33.39555487467442"
],
[
"Hitler may have realised himself by mid-1944 that Germany had lost the war. Wahl's autobiography was the first of any Gauleiter to be published.\nHe later worked in the library of the Messerschmitt factory from 1958 to 1968, thanks to his friendship with Willy Messerschmitt, established in the Nazi era.\nHis grave in Augsburg-Göggingen, where he is buried together with his wife, carries the message: \"Do not tire of doing good deeds\" (German: Werdet nicht müde das Gute zu tun). Nazi crimes and the Holocaust In his book, Wahl claimed, like many Germans and even Nazis, not to have known about the",
"-33.18306592380395"
],
[
"Nazi leader who dared to address Hitler by his first name \"Adolf\" or his nickname \"Adi\" rather than \"mein Führer\". Their close association led to rumors that Hitler himself was homosexual. Unlike many in the Nazi hierarchy, Röhm never fell victim to Hitler's \"arresting personality\" nor did he come fully under his spell, which made him unique.\nAs Hitler rose to national power with his appointment as chancellor in January 1933, SA members were appointed auxiliary police and ordered by Göring to sweep aside \"all enemies of the state\". Second revolution Röhm and the SA regarded themselves as the vanguard of",
"-33.15357502765255"
],
[
"his attitude was \"worshipful\", while the historian Charles Messenger describes Rommel's \"growing admiration\" towards Hitler following the invasion of Poland. Speaking at The National WWII Museum's 2012 International Conference on World War II, the author Nigel Hamilton referred to Rommel as \"quite a Nazi\". This sympathy did not extend to the Party though. In this regard, he was similar to many other Wehrmacht soldiers, who, with encouragement from Hitler, erroneously believed the army to be the most important element of the regime. Rommel showed particular resentment towards the SA and later, the SS, for their brutality and absorption of resources",
"-32.74299245048314"
],
[
"on to state that the German people would be better off if they did not integrate themselves with different races. Seeing Hitler's architectural sketches, with their appeal to a romanticized national greatness, Rothman realizes this is where Hitler's talent lies, and that it would be far less dangerous if confined to art galleries. Hitler is thrilled by Rothman's enthusiasm, not understanding it is partly motivated by fear of what he might become. \nRothman and Hitler have arranged to meet that evening to discuss Hitler's future projects, and after making a violently anti-semitic speech to a group of supporters",
"-32.69743193266913"
],
[
"interest in such an offer.\n\nThomas Weber has found the records of Wiedemann's talks with him in 1940 in which Wiedemann openly warned against Hitler and claimed Hitler had a \"split personality and numbered among the most cruel people in the world, saw himself better than Napoleon and that peace with him was impossible.\" He told Wiseman of Hitler's plans to attack and conquer the UK and \"recommended strongly\" that the British themselves strike as quickly and as \"hard as possible\" against him.\nHe told Wiseman that the morale of the German population and the support of Hitler were lower than generally",
"-32.69333438051399"
],
[
"other German politicians such as Gustav Stresemann; fourth, that Hitler was an opportunist, taking advantage of events provided by the French and British governments, rather than working according to a timetable; and, fifth, that in destroying the Treaty of Versailles and invading Poland, Hitler had the support of the German people. Reception The book was published in April 1961, with German and American editions appearing the next year. Translations also appeared in French, Italian, Finnish, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish and Sinhalese. It was a bestseller around the world and provoked a storm of controversy.\nSebastian Haffner wrote in his",
"-32.682285186019726"
],
[
"Hitler in the 1930s, both Dassler brothers joined the Nazi Party, with Rudolf reputed as being the more ardent National Socialist.\nDuring the war, a growing rift between the pair reached a breaking point after an Allied bomb attack in 1943 when Adi and his wife climbed into a bomb shelter that Rudolf and his family were already in: \"The dirty bastards are back again,\" Adi said, apparently referring to the Allied war planes, but Rudolf was convinced his brother meant him and his family. Rudolf, upon his capture by American troops, was suspected of being a member of the SS,",
"-32.56053988006897"
],
[
"desk\". He portrayed Hitler as a rational, intelligent politician, whose only goal was to increase Germany's prosperity and influence on the continent, and who was constantly let down by incompetent and/or treasonous subordinates. Irving's book faulted the Allied leaders, most notably Winston Churchill, for the eventual escalation of war, and claimed that the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 was a \"preventive war\" forced on Hitler to avert an alleged impending Soviet attack (supported by some, notably Soviet GRU defector Victor Suvorov, and others; see Icebreaker). Irving commented that in light of the \"preventive war\" that he felt",
"-32.5523485300364"
],
[
"discarded, giving its place to spiritual exaltation\". In the same article, Adolf Hitler is characterized as a \"great social reformer\" and \"military genius\".\nIn an article published in 1987 in the Golden Dawn magazine titled \"Hitler for 1,000 years\", its editor Michaloliakos showed his support for Nazism and white supremacy. Specifically he wrote, \"We are the faithful soldiers of the National Socialist idea and nothing else\" and \"[...] WE EXIST, and continue the battle, the battle for the final victory of our race\". He ends the article by writing \"1987, 42 years later, with our thought and soul given to the",
"-32.53202180285007"
],
[
"the despair that both people and the Army feel about the brutal, insane and terroristic dictator and his henchmen\". Wheeler-Bennett commented that Goerdeler was vastly exaggerating the extent of anti-Nazi feelings, both in the German Army and among the German public. After Munich, Goerdeler told Young that:\nIt is vitally important to realise that Hitler is deeply and definitely convinced that after his unexpected victory at Munich, anything is possible to him...He says that he [Hitler] is now convinced that England is degenerate, weak, timid and never will have the guts to resist any of his plans. No war will ever",
"-32.53156045805372"
],
[
"\"racial murder\". If, however, he wants to say that the German state, through the mouth of its Führer, unambiguously and publicly announced the decision that even Jewish women, children and infants were to be killed, then he has illustrated with one short phrase all that does not have to be demonstrated in the current intellectual climate, but can be \"imputed\". Hitler was certainly the most powerful man that has ever lived in Germany. But he was not powerful enough to ever publicly equate Bolshevism and Christianity, as he often did in his dinner conversations. He also not powerful enough to",
"-32.520196482524625"
],
[
"the New Germany\" at New York's Madison Square Garden, in which he compared Hitler to Franklin Delano Roosevelt and told his audience to sympathize with National Socialism without being antisemites. His Jewish friends denounced him as \"George Swastika Viereck\", but he continued to promote National Socialism.\nIn 1941, he was indicted in the U.S. for a violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act when he set up his publishing house, Flanders Hall, in Scotch Plains, New Jersey. He was convicted in 1942 for this failure to register with the U. S. Department of State as a National Socialist agent. He was",
"-32.473833217751235"
],
[
"this time Hitler met Joseph Goebbels, with whom he had an instant rapport with his vulgarities and anti-semitism - the first radical departure from actual history.\nThe novel swiftly moves to the First World War, and describes Hitler's exploits as a behind-the-lines scout sniper - who, in his spare time, criticizes the General HQ and tells jokes so disgusting that even hardened soldiers stay silent. Also his foul-smelling flatulence is commented upon.\nWhile following Hitler's rise to power from the Great Depression to the Second World War, the novel makes its most outrageous claim; Hitler and Goebbels jointly conceived the Second World",
"-32.45845706918044"
],
[
"accomplished by his régime. He wrote of Adolf Hitler, the new leader of Germany, \"Whether one admires [him] or not, at least he is a leader who leads.\" Soon enough, he wrote, \"people the world over... will follow courageous leaders.\" 1936 Olympics In 1935, during the preparations for the 1936 Olympic Games, Sherrill met twice with Hitler. A modern historian wrote that Sherrill was \"mesmerized by the\nforce of Hitler's personality and charisma.\" In his one-hour talk with Hitler, Sherrill insisted for at least one token Jew to be included in the German team for the Olympic Winter and another for",
"-32.41185455152299"
],
[
"Hitler personally accused Dickel of being an enemy of National Socialism. Over time, Dickel gradually drifted away from his economic leftism, and by the 1930s he had become a proponent of laissez-faire capitalism.\nOtto Dickel spoke of the need to revive of the German nation as well as German and Western culture, supported the creation of a Greater German nation and wanted to abandon what he saw as a cowardly contemporary culture. he stated:\nMany a time acquaintances have told me that I see the world differently from them. That is true. Who sees it correctly? Men of science with their mechanistic",
"-32.40900183841586"
],
[
"bit artificial.\nAlmost all accounts of Hewel described him as a pleasant and good-natured, if not very intelligent man. He usually ended up dealing with situations and events that Hitler could not handle. Other members of the inner circle recounted that, unlike many other Nazi leaders, Hewel was able to stay awake and attentive during Hitler's long monologues on topics such as anti-Semitism. Heinz Guderian, when recalling Hewel, remarked that he was \"a good raconteur and a good listener\".\nHewel tended to be shy around women, and as a result, Hitler often tried to play matchmaker for him. Hewel survived an airplane",
"-32.40197711822111"
],
[
"his early days in the Nazi Party and general ideas on politics, including the transformation of German society into one based on race, with some passages implying genocide. Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. In 1933, Hitler's first year in office, 1,000,000 copies were sold. The book acts as a reference, giving insight into the world view from which Hitler never wavered throughout his life.\nIt states that during his childhood, Hitler had little interest in politics as he had ambitions to become a painter. Like other boys in his part",
"-32.35859887636343"
],
[
"Adolf Hitler: My Part in His Downfall (film) Basis The film is based on the first volume of Milligan's war memoirs. Although it broadly follows Milligan's book, some scenes were created specifically for the film and all of the character names (apart from the Milligan family) are fictional. Premise Aspiring jazz musician Terence \"Spike\" Milligan reluctantly obeys his call-up and joins the Royal Artillery regiment at Bexhill-on-Sea, where he begins training to take part in World War II. But along the way Spike and his friends get involved in many amusing - and some not-so amusing - scrapes.",
"-32.344483181484975"
],
[
"example but he was unreliable, according to a historian, \"telling them what they wanted to hear\". Hitler also used him to encourage pro-Nazi sentiment among the Duke of Windsor and his wife. Records indicate that Charles Edward received a monthly payment of 4,000 Reichsmark (worth about £16,000 in 2015) from the Führer. Hitler sent Charles Edward to Britain as president of the Anglo-German Friendship Society. His mission was to improve Anglo-German relations and to explore the possibility of a pact between the two countries. He attended the funeral of his first cousin George V as Hitler's representative in the uniform",
"-32.294862858136185"
],
[
"and that such was the force of Hitler's personality that it is correct to speak of National Socialism as \"Hitlerism\". In his essay, Bracher maintained that Hitler himself was in many ways something of an \"unperson\" devoid of any real interest for the biographer, but argued that these pedestrian qualities of Hitler led to him being underestimated first by rivals and allies in the Weimar Republic, and then on the international stage in the 1930s. At the same time, Bracher warned of the apologetic tendencies of the “demonization\" of Hitler which he accused historians like Gerhard Ritter of engaging in,",
"-32.27639146099682"
],
[
"Nazi Germany and included quotations such as \"Racial strength is vital; politics, a luxury\".\nRoosevelt disliked Lindbergh's outspoken opposition to his administration's interventionist policies, telling Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, \"If I should die tomorrow, I want you to know this, I am absolutely convinced Lindbergh is a Nazi.\" In 1941 he wrote to Secretary of War Henry Stimson: \"When I read Lindbergh's speech I felt that it could not have been better put if it had been written by Goebbels himself. What a pity that this youngster has completely abandoned his belief in our form of government and has accepted Nazi",
"-32.187844994827174"
],
[
"with serious health problems and died on August 9, 1942. Before he died, Sfar published in the French feminist journal Leïla of December 1939 an article strongly denouncing Adolf Hitler's regime and explaining the danger that he represented for humanity. This article was titled \"The racist concepts of Hitler\". At the end of this article and after introducing readers to some significant quotations of Mein Kampf, he ended his critical analysis with the following conclusion: \nThese few quotations are sufficient to show to what degree Hitler's hatred for other races other than the German race had reached. How he borrows",
"-32.18488409498241"
],
[
"\"fierce fighter\" and commanded the respect of local Albanians. His comrades gave him the nickname \"Hitler\" due to his uncanny resemblance to Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. Xhinovci told journalist Una Hajdari: \"People have called me Hitler since my army days. They say I look a lot like him—unlike the English guy who plays him in that movie,\" apparently a reference to Charlie Chaplin's role in The Great Dictator.\nSerbian police documents from 1998 indicate that he was suspected of participating in the kidnapping and execution of nine Serb mineworkers at the Belaćevac coal mine, near Obilić. In 1999, Xhinovci was wounded",
"-32.17783508816501"
],
[
"school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900. Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf states that he intentionally did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw \"what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream\".\nLike many Austrian Germans, Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age. He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire. Hitler and his friends used the greeting \"Heil\", and",
"-32.12712790933438"
],
[
"On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat, and—by his own account—on receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.\nHitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort, and his ideological development began to firmly take shape. He described the war as \"the greatest of all experiences\", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. The experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918. Like other German nationalists, he believed",
"-32.11229448589984"
],
[
"Socialist; he is a troop leader with a gift for improvisation, personally courageous and extraordinarily inventive. These are the kinds of soldiers we need.\"\nRommel \"exercised an almost hypnotic influence on Hitler\", according to Albert Kesselring, and another colleague called him \"the Führer's marshal\". American writer Rick Atkinson concludes that Rommel was \"loyal in his own fashion and as beguiled by Hitler as steel filings by a magnet ... Hitler was a bulwark against bolshevism, [Rommel] had told staff officers.\" Despite this intimate relationship though, he was not provided with basic information on Germany's strategic plan: \"Rommel did not know that smashing",
"-32.11054559692275"
],
[
"school. His nickname does not relate to his not smoking (he does, very much so) but to his living in an old railway carriage, which still bears a sign that reads \"Nonsmoker\". Background, the sequel and trivia This was the last Kästner book published before the rise of the Nazis to power. Though Nazis are not explicitly mentioned anywhere in the book, the situation of economic crisis and mass unemployment which made many German voters turn to Hitler is very evident in the book's background.\nShortly after publishing Das fliegende Klassenzimmer he had to witness how the NSDAP turned to power",
"-32.091758082504384"
],
[
"appear in the British media. In the autumn of 1941 and early winter of 1941/1942, he was mentioned in the British press almost daily. The Daily Express and The Cairns Post wrote: \"No 'von' nonsense about Erich, nor the code of conduct—such as it was—that most Prussian officers have honoured in war. He is a gangster general, trained in a harder school than Chicago. He was Hitler's thug organiser before he came to power ... So Erich became leader of the S.S. Black Guard, Hitler's private army, which executes his private revenges and guards his person ... When at last",
"-32.08593056880636"
],
[
"Look Who's Back Plot In 2011, Adolf Hitler wakes up in a vacant lot in Berlin which appears to be the location of the garden outside the bunker where he was burned, with no knowledge of anything that happened following his death in 1945. Homeless and destitute, he interprets everything he sees and experiences in 2011 from a Nazi perspective — for instance, he assumes that Turks in Germany are an indicator of Karl Dönitz having persuaded Turkey to join the Axis, and thinks that Wikipedia is named for Wikinger (“Vikings”). Although everyone recognizes him, nobody believes that he is",
"-32.061582959315274"
],
[
"Kurt Ludecke Kurt Ludecke (Berlin, 5 February 1890 – Prien am Chiemsee, 1960) was an ardent German nationalist and international traveler who joined the Nazi party in the early 1920s and who used his social connections to raise money for the NSDAP. Before attending a rally at which Adolf Hitler was a featured speaker, Ludecke had assumed that Hitler was simply \"one more fanatic\" but after hearing Hitler speak at a mass demonstration at the Konigsplatz in Munich, he had adopted Hitler as his hero: \"His appeal to German manhood was like a call to arms, the gospel he preached",
"-32.05445596226491"
],
[
"his German counterparts\". \nCoulondre described the Nazi leaders as he met them in hostile tones. Coulondre wrote that Hermann Göring was \"at once ridiculous and formidable\", Joachim von Ribbentrop was \"contemptible\", Rudolf Hess was as boring as he was stupid, Alfred Rosenberg was eccentric and weird, and Joseph Goebbels was \"ce petit diable boiteux\" (\"this lame little devil\"), adding that Goebbels's various mistresses were more interesting than he was. Coulondre wrote he had the impression that Baron Ernst von Weizsäcker, the State Secretary of the Auswärtiges Amt, did not want a war with France, but his relations with Weizsäcker were",
"-32.0236486538779"
],
[
"his view that Hitler was a Marxist. He also participated in the conservative documentary The Soviet Story, where he uses the translation of Völkerabfälle as \"racial trash\". The film attracted criticism from a range of people including Latvian MEP Tatjana Ždanoka, Finnish political activist Johan Bäckman and Latvian MP Boris Tsilevitch. Alexander Dyukov has provided evidence that the film relies on falsified images to give an historically inaccurate account of the Soviet Union.",
"-32.00392980547622"
],
[
"they were the only ones with a cultural presence and objects around whom German society's grand narrative was being built, thus Rommel was the only German general who would have been capable of challenging Hitler's rule, had he ever crossed the Rubicon from his \"apolitical-to-the-core\" military world and developed a serious, critical view of Hitler's political dealings. However, Rommel himself had fallen for Hitler's charisma almost until the end. Peter Lieb opines that the relationship between Rommel and Hitler is overrated - they liked each other but the relationship became worse and worse since the end of 1942 when Rommel",
"-31.97272536548553"
],
[
"who also continued to admire Hitler.",
"-31.939849076938117"
],
[
"Craig charged that it was simply wrong on the part of Irving to write that Hitler in October 1941 was in a state of pain over German losses on the Eastern Front with Hitler supposedly thinking \"What would be left of Germany and the flower of her manhood?\" As a way of rebuttal to this picture of Hitler, Craig quoted Hitler's remark later in 1941 when told of heavy German losses, \"But that's what the young people are there for!\". Like many other historians, Craig was critical of Irving using the \"no liquidation\" comment in Himmler's telephone logbook from 30",
"-31.921744824911002"
],
[
"the smaller evil. Relationship with Hitler Before the war, Model had been content to leave politics to the politicians, preferring instead to concentrate on military affairs. Despite this, he became one of the Wehrmacht's field marshals most closely identified with Hitler. Postwar opinions on him have varied. Some historians have called him \"blindly loyal\", a \"convinced Nazi\" or a \"zealous disciple\" of Hitler; others take a more nuanced view, seeing in Model a coldly calculating opportunist who used the Führer to his advantage, whether or not he was committed to him or the ideals of Nazism. The contradictions between his",
"-31.913634827826172"
],
[
"to the finish\".\nHitler, according to Walter Langer had a Messiah complex and saw himself as the \"Saviour of Germany\" who performed \"miracles\" with the economy. He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a \"mother symbol\". His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe) was an unconscious attempt to resolve his Oedipus complex and the injustices of his childhood. He \"dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine\". He was swept along by a tide of events.\nMussolini, according to Denis Mack Smith, \"was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted",
"-31.86197199067101"
],
[
"a one sentence introduction, he tells his faithful Nazis how the German nation has subordinated itself to the Nazi Party because its leaders are mostly of Germans. He promises that the new state that the Nazis have created will endure for thousands of years. Hitler says that the youth will carry on after the old have weakened. They close with a chant, \"Hitler is the Party, Hitler.\" The camera focuses on the large Swastika above Hitler and the film ends with the images of this Swastika imposed on Nazis marching in a few columns. His speech brought attention to the",
"-31.855153236130718"
],
[
"going back to the days of the Germanic tribes. He was an early champion of what has since been called the Sonderweg (Special Way) interpretation of German history, that German culture and society developed over the centuries in such a way as to make Nazi Germany inevitable. Moreover, he argued that there was a symbiotic relationship between Hitler and the German people, with Adolf Hitler needing the Germans to fulfil his dreams of conquest and the German people needing Hitler to fulfil their dreams of subjugation of their neighbours. In particular, he accused the Germans of waging an endless Drang",
"-31.852582391904434"
],
[
"Homburg, and the other was that in Oberursel he met up with a school teacher whom he identified, in the context of the times, as a Nazi. That may have been less than a total explanation, but it does appear that he could see no long term future for himself in the west. On 21 October 1962 he crossed into the German Democratic Republic at the Wartha border crossing near Eisenach. As he had anticipated, the East German officials were unsure of how to deal with him. He was not a typical disillusioned westerner seeking a new life in",
"-31.84897918754723"
],
[
"strongest power. They differed only on the precise strategy and tactics to be employed. Tresnak ended his review by remarking: \"He has tears a plenty for torn and defeated Germany, but not a word of sympathy for the millions of murdered Jews, Poles, Yugoslavs, Czechs, and the rest.... After reading Herr von Dirksen's book, one cannot help feeling that he, and perhaps other Germans as well, condemn Hitler chiefly on the grounds that he did not win the war–though sometimes they act as they are not aware that he lost it\".\nIn a review, American political scientist Joseph Schectman noted that",
"-31.827931823649124"
],
[
"Hitler; instead, they think he is either a comedian or a method actor. He appears on a variety television show called Whoa, dude!, going off-script to broadcast his views. Videos of his angry rants become hugely successful on YouTube, and he achieves modern celebrity status as a performer. The newspaper Bild tries to take him down, but is sued into praising him. He is beaten up by far-right extremists who think he is mocking the memory of Hitler, unaware that he is the genuine article. In the end, he uses his popularity to re-enter politics. Publication The book was priced",
"-31.826408622713643"
],
[
"leader Hitler met other than Mussolini ever received such consistently favorable comments from the German dictator. Hitler even mustered the patience to listen to Antonescu's lengthy disquisitions on the glorious history of Romania and the perfidy of the Hungarians—a curious reversal for a man who was more accustomed to regaling visitors with tirades of his own.\" In later statements, Hitler offered praise to Antonescu's \"breadth of vision\" and \"real personality.\" A remarkable aspect of the Hitler-Antonescu friendship was neither could speak others' language. Hitler only knew German while the only foreign language Antonescu knew was French, in which he was",
"-31.786903382046148"
],
[
"consummate actor.... Toward the end, he was less the leader, Der Führer, than a man flinging from reality as it advanced itself.... As I look back at those long briefing sessions, it strikes me that Hitler was hopelessly engulfed in the grandeur of his mission, a sense that was now disintegrating into self-pity. When the goddess Nemesis began to avenge his hubris, he lost his nerve.\nO'Donnell referred to Hewel as a man who had a front row seat to history, but who lacked the intelligence and perspective to realize it.",
"-31.77665991777758"
],
[
"Hitler Umanath Plot A mild-mannered and timid man causes amusement when he comes to work in a business — because of his resemblance to Adolf Hitler. Soon, however, he finds himself growing into a more forceful and dynamic person, becoming a charismatic leader and a successful businessman as his wife teaches him more and more about Hitler's charismatic personality and leadership abilities. In the end, once he finds out about Hitler's evil deeds, he regrets emulating such an evil person.",
"-31.765819688898773"
],
[
"\"Have you no German sense of honour left at all?\" When asked by a comrade if he had ever loved a girl, Hitler replied \"I've never had time for anything like that, and I'll never get round to it.\" Relationships with women Hitler created a public image of a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation. He considered himself to be attractive to women, partly because of his position of power. Speer recalled him stating a preference for unintelligent women who would not challenge him about his work or prevent him from",
"-31.740529093309306"
],
[
"with a high-pitched voice and frequent hand movements, make his character somewhat reminiscent of Adolf Hitler. Raised in Berlin he is a dedicated fan of Hertha BSC, which makes life somewhat hard in the Ruhr area.\nAlfred is married (afflicted) with Else, a housewife from Elmshorn, whose fatuity constantly drives him mad. She ceaselessly speaks up, confusing Pompidou with Pompadour and Kiesinger with Kissinger, honestly astonished that the Germans had elected a Jewish chancellor. (In this sense, although the German Else was named after the British version of the character, the quiet but sometimes snarky Else Garnett, the character more closely",
"-31.73342735308688"
],
[
"which the prince privately said to his aide-de-camp Masaharu Homma: \"Hitler is an actor, it will be difficult to trust him\". Nevertheless, he remained convinced that the future of Japan was linked to Nazi Germany and in 1938 and 1939, he had many quarrels with the Emperor about the opportunity to join a military alliance with Germany against Great Britain and the United States.\nPrince Chichibu Yasuhito was subsequently appointed battalion commander of Thirty-First Infantry Regiment in August 1937, promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1938 and to colonel in August 1939. During the war, he was involved in combat operations,",
"-31.701239446294494"
],
[
"National Socialist band. Rob Darken has openly glorified Adolf Hitler in interviews, one of several quotes from \"Brangolf magazine\" being: \"Undoubtedly, the most striking personality of Europe was Adolf Hitler. What he tried to build deserves the greatest respect. They [the Nazis] realized the value of pure Aryan Europe. Hitler embodied the idea of an Empire of White People. Hitler discovered and realized the true destiny hidden in the blood of white people. The proud Aryan ancestors always went the way of the gods.\" \nDarken has said he rejects the Nazi label in english language interviews, and told Decibel magazine:",
"-31.690301173167427"
],
[
"Hitler's rise to power firsthand, and fled to exile when he realized that he was a target of the regime. (He managed to escape the Gestapo). In his introduction Heiden wrote \"the 'hero' of this book is neither a superman nor a puppet. He is a very interesting contemporary and, viewed quantitatively, a man who is stirred up the masses more than anyone else in human history.\" Heiden was successful in analyzing Hitler as an orator, how he drew strength from his audience, learning which points to emphasize to maximize his impact. Hitler realized it was emotion, not rationality,",
"-31.68824781019066"
],
[
"particularly from the Left, who were amongst many targets of his criticism in that book. In later essays, although he never presented himself as a conservative or sympathizer with German nationalism, his comments began to scandalize a broad spectrum of writers and critics in Germany and elsewhere. Even Susan Sontag, who had written the introduction to the English translation of the book version of Hitler: A Film from Germany, was reportedly shocked by some of his later statements, though she claimed that her feelings about his films were unaffected.\nIn one notorious example Syberberg wrote in Vom Unglück und Glück der",
"-31.6797363179503"
],
[
"in the Nazi ideals and idolising Hitler; Germany's defeat and Hitler's suicide in 1945 did not temper his enthusiasm for the Nazi cause. He held a series of menial jobs until 1957, when a warrant was issued for his arrest in connection with the theft of a microphone from the Löbau Youth Club. He fled to Stuttgart, West Germany, and soon drifted into temporary work and petty crime. After running a dance bar during the early 1960s with his girlfriend, Edith Lieblang—whom he later married—Kujau began to create a fictional background for himself. He told people that his real name",
"-31.663616742531303"
],
[
"Adolf Hitler moved to Liverpool with her, remaining from November 1912 to April 1913, in order to dodge conscription in Austria. The book is largely considered by Hitler's biographers to be a work of fiction. At the time, Adolf was residing in the Meldemannstraße dormitory.\nIn 1914, Alois left Bridget and their son for a gambling tour of Europe. He later returned to Germany. Unable to reconnect with them due to the outbreak of World War I, Alois abandoned the family, leaving William to be brought up by his mother. He remarried bigamously, but in the mid-1920s he wrote to Bridget",
"-31.6581125301891"
],
[
"of Joachim von Ribbentrop. In 1935 he visited Germany again in his boat “Mayflower”. In May 1935 Adolf Hitler made a well publicised speech in which he proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace. That month Mottistone told the House of Lords that \"we ought to assume that it is genuine and sincere...I have had many interviews with Herr Hitler. I think the noble Lord and all the people who have really met this remarkable man will agree with me on one thing, however much we may disagree about other things—that he is absolutely truthful, sincere, and",
"-31.657329108944396"
],
[
"Germany.\nHegemann saw the rise of Hitler in Germany as emerging from a historical context of Germans celebrating, idealizing, and submitting to strong men. He criticized a century or more of \"craving for submission\" by German professors, bureaucrats and professionals, and observed that if Hitler ever decided to stop enslaving the nation, he would be \"overwhelmed by an irresistible rush into ever deeper submission\" by those with \"collusive attitudes toward war-hungry German nationalism.\" Similarly, in 1934 Hegemann viewed the persecution of Jews in Germany as \"in conformity with Old Prussian tradition\" of antisemitism, and as consistent with the German",
"-31.636211268254556"
],
[
"discovers to his dismay that not all members of Hitler Youth have such high moral values as he had thought. They call him Quex, originally as an insult.\nThe Hitler Youth leader takes care not to send Heini to the district where the communists live, but they find out where he is staying, and Stoppel seeks him out on the street, and tries to convince him to return to the communisits. Heini refuses, and Stoppel warns him not to return to the communist district. One day, one of the Hitler Youth is beated up by the communists while throwing",
"-31.6067287902697"
],
[
"Nazi newspapers named him as the Jewish community's secular leader in Norway. In 1934 he wrote that \"the new Germany lives in a martial psychosis, specializing in child-rearing for war, and military technique...children are taught from the cradle to hate all foreign peoples and to kill them at the order to do so.\" In 1934 he also predicted a devastating world war, was unimpressed by the non-aggression treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union. He sent telegrams to world leaders, including Roosevelt, Hindenburg, and Chamberlain, imploring them to intervene on behalf of German Jews. In 1939 he demanded that Norway",
"-31.598761560278945"
],
[
"Aufbau Vereinigung and met with Adolf Hitler through the agency of Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter. He participated in Hitler's failed Beer Hall Putsch on 9 November 1923, after which their relationship deteriorated increasingly. While Ludendorff despised the former 'corporal', he nevertheless backed the National Socialist Freedom Movement and ran for the Nazi Party in the 1925 Presidential election against his former Oberste Heeresleitung colleague Paul von Hindenburg.\nHitler feared the possibility of Ludendorff as a potential leadership rival and rejoiced in the General's derisory election result, telling Hermann Esser \"now we've finally finished him\". With his credibility severely damaged by the",
"-31.581474628070282"
],
[
"voicing his belief in Hitler and his mission from God to punish all people and countries which have strayed from the path of decency. He denounced the leaders of many of the countries Germany had defeated as cowards, due to the fact that they fled to England and elsewhere rather than stayed or died with their people and soldiers. A short recording of part of this speech has been preserved.\nHe also spent six weeks with a Swabian mountain division (German:Gebirgsjäger) in the Donetsk region.\nHe was promoted to SS-Obergruppenführer on 1 August 1944.\nWith the worsening war situation, Wahl and the Gau",
"-31.574703403399326"
],
[
"Europe until his return to the Republic of China during the later years of World War II.\nAdolf Hitler had supported the Empire of Japan as early as 1904, when during the Russo-Japanese War it had defeated the Russians, which he considered a defeat for Austrian Slavism. He made a number of other statements expressing his respect and admiration for the Japanese in his book Mein Kampf.\nAlthough of a different evolutionary race, the Han Chinese and Imperial Japanese were considered by Nazi ideologists such as Himmler as having sufficiently superior qualities as did German-Nordic blood to warrant an alliance. Himmler, who",
"-31.57267763148411"
],
[
"warned Hitler that Ribbentrop was a \"stupid ass\". Hitler dismissed Göring's concerns: \"[b]ut after all, he knows quite a lot of important people in England.\" This remark led Göring to reply \"Mein Führer, that may be right, but the bad thing is, they know him.\"\nIn February 1937, Ribbentrop committed a notable social gaffe by unexpectedly greeting King George VI with the \"German greeting\", a stiff-armed Nazi salute: the gesture nearly knocked over the king, who was walking forward to shake Ribbentrop's hand at the time. Ribbentrop further compounded the damage to his image and caused a minor crisis in Anglo-German",
"-31.560434603743488"
],
[
"Hitler's humanity. Another event, in which he spoke to Hitler Youth in what was defined as an \"inappropriate way,\" earned him the nickname of \"Hitler Youth Dönitz.\" He refused to help Albert Speer stop the scorched earth policy dictated by Hitler and is also noted to have declared, \"In comparison to Hitler we are all pipsqueaks. Anyone who believes he can do better than the Führer is stupid.\"\nDönitz contributed to the spread of Nazism within the Kriegsmarine. He insisted that officers share his political views and, as head of the Kriegsmarine, formally joined the Nazi Party in 1944. He was",
"-31.520906324323732"
],
[
"in London. The British historian/television producer Laurence Rees noted for his 1997 series The Nazis: A Warning from History that every single person interviewed for the series who knew Ribbentrop expressed a passionate hatred for him. One German diplomat, Herbert Richter, called Ribbentrop \"lazy and worthless\", while another, Manfred von Schröder, was quoted as saying Ribbentrop was \"vain and ambitious\". Rees concluded that \"No other Nazi was so hated by his colleagues\".\nIn November 1937, Ribbentrop was placed in a highly embarrassing situation, when his forceful advocacy of the return of the former German colonies led the British Foreign Secretary Anthony",
"-31.494559806771576"
],
[
"assumption that readers would agree that Hitler deserved mockery as \"surprisingly naive\".\nIn The Sydney Morning Herald, reviewer Jason Steger interviewed the book's author, who believes that the way Hitler is seen today \"is one that hasn't too much to do with the real one\". \"Most people wouldn't think it possible that if they would have lived back then they would have thought he was in some way attractive too,\" he said.",
"-31.476559572154656"
],
[
"had \"seen something that he was not allowed to describe and indeed could not describe.\" Government service Adolf Hitler took an early liking to the outspoken young Hanke, who by April 1932 had become an NSDAP delegate to Prussian State Parliament (Landtag). Later in November 1932, Hanke was elected to the German Parliament (Reichstag) on the slate of the NSDAP, representing Potsdam. He held this seat until the end of the war in Europe.\nHanke again secured a task for Albert Speer in July 1932, having him build a headquarters for the Berlin NSDAP in the centre of the city (at",
"-31.472342380067857"
],
[
"most frequently referred to as ‘Nazis’, ‘Germans’ and ‘fascists’. Individuals commonly named include Hitler, Himmler, Heydrich, Höss and Eichmann. Most striking is the extent to which Hitlercentrism pervades textbook narratives of the Holocaust, with Hitler functioning as a moral repository for the event, as embodied in portraits of Hitler, excerpts from Mein Kampf and the attribution of sole responsibility to Hitler in such phrases, found in Russian textbooks, as ‘Hitlerian aggression’ or the ‘policy of Hitler-Germany’. By contrast, textbooks in France and Germany generally marginalize the role of Hitler in favour of an explanation of the event as a result",
"-31.46537923147389"
],
[
"(Молох) is a 1999 Russian biographical drama film directed by Alexander Sokurov. It portrays Adolf Hitler as a humanized figure, living life in an unassuming manner during an abrupt journey to the Bavarian Alps.",
"-31.425302101764828"
],
[
"the group ideal as embodied in the leader the need for a strong chief.\"\nThe mainstream analyses of the Nazi phenomenon have primarily targeted Adolf Hitler’s person, character and biography and only to a limited degree the character of the masses that followed him and the interaction between Hitler and the masses. In contrast, Lothane studied the mass psychology of Nazism by linking ideas from Freud to Wilhelm Reich's 1933 Mass Psychology of Fascism to illuminate the rise of Nazi tyranny, the persecution of German-Jewish doctors, psychiatrists and psychoanalysts, and the Holocaust. Lothane has also noted implication of his analysis of",
"-31.40045736322645"
],
[
"of Kleindeutschland was the \"highest achievement\" Bismarck could have achieved \"within the limits possible at that time\". In Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler presented himself as a \"second Bismarck\".\nDuring his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically influenced by Austrian Pan-Germanist proponent Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated radical German nationalism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Slavic sentiment and anti-Habsburg views. From von Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the Heil greeting, the Führer title and the model of absolute party leadership. Hitler was also impressed by the populist antisemitism and the anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as",
"-31.394833110505715"
],
[
"incompatible with the picture I always had of him\", but did not quote the next sentence where Ribbentrop wrote: \"On the other hand, judging from his [Hitler's] last will, one must suppose that he at least knew about it, if, in his fanaticism against the Jews, he didn't also order it\". Finally, Sydnor argued that Irving's account of the final days of Hitler appeared to comprise little more than a rehashing of Hugh Trevor-Roper's 1947 book, The Last Days of Hitler, only with Hitler as an object of sympathy, rather than scorn. Lucy Dawidowicz In her 1981 book The Holocaust",
"-31.377156259666663"
],
[
"ruthlessly satirised. Brecht, who was German but left when the Nazis came to power, also expressed his opposition to the National Socialist and Fascist movements in other plays such as Mother Courage and Fear and Misery of the Third Reich.\nOutside Germany, Hitler was made fun of or depicted as a maniac. There are many notable examples in contemporary Hollywood films. Several Three Stooges shorts, the first being You Nazty Spy! (1940), the very first Hollywood work lampooning Hitler and the Nazis in which the boys, with Moe Howard portraying \"Moe Hailstone\", as the Hitler character, are made dictators of the",
"-31.348218208469916"
],
[
"Hero Hitler in Love Synopsis Hero Hitler in Love revolves around the life of a man called Hitler who lives in his village, Ishqpura. Hitler is a man with unique and different thoughts, who loves his fellow villagers and helps soul-mates come together. Hitler falls in love with Sahiban, who lives in Pakistan and decides to bring her to his village. Hitler believes in solving problems by talking about them, but when something crosses the line, he loses it. The film also revolves around car racing. Hitler loves to race, but when he is set up to fail in the",
"-31.329439459892455"
],
[
"He tells several stories about Hitler's anti-Semitic behavior at this time, including a story that he tormented one Polish Jew with stink bugs and by giving children \"Aryan chocolate\" to induce them to torment their Jewish playmate as a \"filthy Jew\". Greiner also claims that at one point Hitler attempted to rape one of his models (although Hitler in fact never painted people during his time in Vienna). He also claims that Hitler contracted syphilis from a Leopoldstadt prostitute. He also claimed that in 1945, Hitler did not commit suicide, but instead fled from Berlin in an airplane.\nGreiner's claims to",
"-31.316485584786278"
],
[
"been anti-semitic, in 1970 Carmichael proclaimed: \"I have never admired a white man, but the greatest of them, to my mind, was Hitler.\" However, Carmichael in the same speech condemned Hitler on moral grounds, Carmichael himself stating:\nAdolph Hitler—I'm not putting a judgment on what he did—if you asked me for my judgment morally, I would say it was bad, what he did was wrong, was evil, etc. But I would say he was a genius, nevertheless . . . . You say he's not a genius because he committed bad acts. That's not the question. The question is, he does",
"-31.31101413158467"
],
[
"in Linz, the same high school Adolf Hitler had attended some 17 years before. He played the violin and participated in sports and clubs, including a Wandervogel woodcraft and scouting group that included some older boys who were members of various right-wing militias. His poor school performance resulted in his father's withdrawing him from the Realschule and enrolling him in the Höhere Bundeslehranstalt für Elektrotechnik, Maschinenbau und Hochbau vocational college. He left without attaining a degree and joined his father's new enterprise, the Untersberg Mining Company, where he worked for several months. From 1925 to 1927 he worked as a",
"-31.305286649730988"
],
[
"office. He later recorded,\nOf course, from these few experiences, I cannot judge Hitler's personality, but having shared with Speer his virtually daily contacts with him, and being familiar with Hitler's ideas, for example, on town planning, I think that commentators are making it easy for themselves now when, as they frequently do, they resort in their descriptions to simplistic epitaphs such as \"buck private\", \"wall painter\", \"petit-bourgeois philistine\", or \"history's greatest criminal\".\nWolters' longtime secretary, Marion Riesser, was half-Jewish, and Wolters protected her throughout the war. In late 1944, word reached them that those with Jewish ancestry who remained",
"-31.304716639035178"
],
[
"many periodicals, books, and movies, Hitler and Nazism fulfill the role of archetypal evil. This treatment is not confined to fiction but is widespread amongst nonfiction writers who have discussed him in this vein. Hitler has retained a fascination from other perspectives; among many comparable examples is an exhibition at the German Historical Museum which was widely attended. Representations of Hitler during his lifetime Numerous works in popular music and literature feature Adolf Hitler prominently.\nIn Germany, before he came to power, Hitler was often portrayed satirically in newspaper cartoons and propaganda by political enemies. The photomontagist John Heartfield regularly depicted",
"-31.29446722078137"
],
[
"reproduce what [Hitler] said. It must be experienced. He is a genius. The natural, creative instrument of a fate determined by God. I am deeply moved.\".\nHitler became Chancellor in January 1933 and appointed Goebbels Propaganda Minister. Goebbels then published an edited version of his diaries for the period of Hitler's rise to power in book form, under the title Vom Kaiserhof zur Reichskanzlei: Eine historische Darstellung in Tagebuchblattern (From the Kaiserhof to the Reich Chancellery: a Historical Diary). The Kaiserhof was a Berlin hotel where Hitler stayed before he came to power. Goebbels's book was later published in English as",
"-31.251494611380622"
],
[
"Richthofen subscribed to the Hitler myth—that the Nazi leader was a genius, who would revitalise Germany. Richthofen's diary—which survived the war—has many examples of conversations with fellow officers in which he expresses his confidence in Hitler. After one briefing, in the summer, 1943, Richthofen praised Hitler's \"brilliant grasp\" of military strategy, and blamed the \"idiotic\" Alfred Jodl and Wilhelm Keitel for the failures of the Wehrmacht. Richthofen's biographer observed that he did not appear to question why a genius surrounded himself with incompetents and \"yes men\".\nRichthofen and Hitler maintained their harmonious relationship largely because they never worked closely together. Hitler,",
"-31.246005163760856"
],
[
"is portrayed as a disorderly gang devoted primarily to alcohol, tobacco and sex. In contrast, the Nazi youth (Hitlerjugend, \"Hitler Youth\") is portrayed as an orderly organisation, superior in morals. Schenzinger lets Heini Völker's father force his son to attend a camping weekend organised by a communist youth group, North Star Moabit. Heini is disgusted and flees the camp, only to encounter a Hitler Youth group in the woods. Deeply impressed, and in an atmosphere of nationalistic pathos, Heini learns of the Nazi movement, Führerprinzip (\"leader principle\"), comradeship and Volksgemeinschaft (\"the people's community\"). On \"the happiest day of his life\",",
"-31.213775927957613"
],
[
"(Brigitte) and Hitler are played by one and the same person. Having thus dealt with his father, Niklas Frank entirely concentrated on his mother, the once 'Queen of Poland', in his book \"My German Mother\" (2005), which reads in part like a brilliant satire of high-ranking Nazi women. He concluded his trilogy with \"Brother Norman!\" (2013), reporting the painful discussions with his eldest and favorite brother, who had died three years before, on their diverging views of a youth spent in occupied Poland and on filial love. Appearances in documentaries Niklas Frank appears as himself in the 1993 television",
"-31.205365175148472"
],
[
"of Norwich.\nBefore the Second World War he was an avowed admirer of Hitler and attended a conference in the summer of 1939 in Berlin organised by the Anglo German Brotherhood.\nHowever, as Julia Boyd observes in her book Travelling in The Third Reich,”his enthusiasm for Nazi Germany did nothing to damage his career.”",
"-31.190510897446075"
],
[
"Kubizek later described the scene:\n\"Never again did I see Adolf as happy as he was at that moment. When the carriage had passed he dragged me aside and with emotion he gazed at the flower, this visible pledge of her love. I can still hear his voice, trembling with excitement, 'She loves me!' \"\nAfter Hitler's mother died of breast cancer in 1907, the funeral procession went through Urfahr to Leonding. Kubizek remarks that Hitler said he had seen Stefanie at the funeral procession, which gave him some consolation. Kubizek claims that \"Stefanie had no idea how deeply Adolf was in",
"-31.184631079202518"
],
[
"considered his father something of a hero, having served under him in World War I. He tried to draw him into the plot to rid Germany of Hitler, but although Rommel gave his backing to the conspiracy he did not agree that he should be killed.\nOn 26 July 1944, Hofacker was arrested in Paris, taken to Berlin Gestapo headquarters where, according to William Shirer in \"The Rise and Fall of the 3rd Reich\", he was horrifically tortured and gave up the name of Erwin Rommel stating that Rommel said to \"Tell the people in Berlin they can count on",
"-31.181639884016477"
],
[
"American psychologist Glenn D. Walters wrote in 2000: \"Much of the debate about Hitler's long-term mental health is probably questionable, because even if he had suffered from significant psychiatric problems, he attained the supreme power in Germany rather in spite of these difficulties than through them.\" Erik H. Erikson (1950) The psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist Erik Erikson gave Adolf Hitler a chapter in his 1950 book, Childhood and Society. Erikson referred to Hitler as an \"histrionic and hysterical adventurer\" and believed there was evidence of an undissolved Oedipus complex in his self-portrayals. Nonetheless, he believed that Hitler was such an",
"-31.176261587330373"
],
[
"morning that he is Adolf Hitler. Texas Groove metal band Pantera wrote and recorded a song called \"By Demons Be Driven\". It tells the story of how Hitler was plagued by paranoia and began to hate the Jewish people and religion. Australian band TISM's debut single was \"Defecate on My Face\", which was about Adolf Hitler's supposed coprophilia. Australian comedy troupe the Doug Anthony Allstars had a song called \"Mexican Hitler\", which told the story of what Hitler would have been like if he was born Mexican. It made an appearance in their television show, DAAS Kapital.\nThe song \"Hitler as",
"-31.169626477800193"
],
[
"said he sees Nazism as a mental restriction and that he had no fascist ideas because he was a supporter of the Kriegsgräberfürsorge, a German organization caring for graves of soldiers similar to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, and the MIA International.",
"-31.1520032081753"
]
] |
5a8vh9 | What is eczema and why is it only in small areas of skin only? Why do only certain people get it? | [
"I have eczema and my husband is a dermatologist. I have made him explain eczema to me multiple times. This is what I have learned. Eczema (atopic dermatitis) is a skin barrier function problem. The skin is supposed to keep stuff out- think of a slice of cheddar cheese. People withe eczema are born with skin like Swiss cheese. Stuff gets in more easily and moisture gets out more easily than normal skin. Because things get into the skin, the immune system responds to them as foreign objects- you get inflammation that makes you itch. You scratch the itchy spot and you get more skin breakdown from the trauma. Often the eczema patches are areas of friction- elbows and knees. Eczema treatments revolve around moisturizing to add a layer of protection from allergens getting in. Or topical steroids that decrease inflammation. I get UVB phototherapy. It kills immune system cells (lymphocytes) in the skin surface. The allergens still get into my skin but I have less lymphocytes to catch the allergens and cause inflammation which decreases the amount of itching that I have. The only way to permanently cure eczema would be to permanently improve skin barrier function. Since it is a genetic problem, some researchers are working on gene therapy trials that would change the skin cells to work correctly. The reason many childhood eczema sufferers improve is that skin naturally thickens as you become an adult and it overwhelms the problem. Some people aren't so lucky. Also, people with eczema are more likely to have asthma (allergens get into the skin first and you develop an immune sensitization to the allergen. When you breathe in the same allergen your body sees it as something to fight so you get inflammation and bronchorestriction in the lungs - this is asthma). If you could fix the skin at birth, you would not get the allergens getting into the skin. There would be no inflammation and no itch. We can't do that yet do we target inflammation with immune suppressing drugs like tacrolimus or topical steroids. Moisturizer helps too by improving skin barrier. Right now I have eczema on my eyelids (thin skin), left wrist (friction from watch), hands (loss of natural oils from washing my hands all of the time), both inner elbows and back of knees (areas of friction) and armpits (from clothes rubbing against my skin).",
"The tendency to have eczema goes along with a tendency to have allergies and asthma as well. If you don't have all three of the triad, you're lucky. Eczema tends run in families and is likely to come and go throughout your lifetime. During early childhood, the rashes show up often on the insides of the elbows and the back of the knees. They can be on the neck as well. They may return later and affect a different part of the body. Hands and feet are another common location for rashes. I was told that it is actually a dry skin condition, so moisturizing with good stuff like Eucerin and Cetafil lotion can help. In my experience, I stopped having eczema symptoms after my mid 20s. They problem was terrible with my fingers during my time in food service age 18-20, but later, it went away and I haven't been bothered by it for many years. I have severe allergies though that have gotten worse over the years including bouts of angioedema (swelling).",
"The short answer is, it's autoimmune in nature but no one knows much about it other than that there's some genetic element that isn't understood. Or in other words, the body is fighting itself and no one knows why. I have \"atypical\" eczema: it's not associated with allergens, not associated with asthma, and doesn't itch. For added confusion, it usually improves on exposure to salt water.",
"I recommend checking out the info available on the National Eczema Association's web page. There are many types of eczema and different treatments. URL_0 ",
"If you're interested in learning more, check out /r/eczema it's a community of people who deal with eczema every day. Also National Eczema Association",
"I have chronic eczema all over my body and have been told the skin is extra dry and sensitive. Since it's hereditary (or so I've been told) my family concluded that I got it from my dad, who has psoriasis. I use prescription meds which include strong cortizon. I also use fragrance free shower products. Anything else result in breakouts. My skin reactions can range from getting rashes on hands and feet during the summer, scratching my face or body till it bleeds, getting big red spots on my arms covered in a liquid fluid in the winter, to just simply scratching any place until it turns red. I scratch all through the day and usually use something like a guitar pic :)",
"Eczema (technically called atopic dermatitis) is basically having skin that's really reactive to all sorts of irritations. Things that most people don't even notice will result in a rash when people with eczema are exposed to them. So I get patchy rashes when the air is dry or if I wear wet clothes for too long. My sister gets rashes when she wears wool or if she's in a house with a cat. Eczema also results in unusually dry skin. I go through 3ish large bottles of Aveeno by myself every winter.",
"Eczema is causes by a skin barrier defect which allows micro-organisms to infect and inflame the skin. But it's a problem that cascades from from initial gut problems and food allergies which promote inflammation and immune reactions. Eczema breakouts tend to occur where the lymph nodes are concentrated. URL_0 ",
"Just as an addendum to what other people are saying, it does not only occur in small areas of skin. That's how most people have it, but some people, like myself, basically have it on every inch of the body. It ain't fun."
] | [
[
"common in people with eczema because their skin is more sensitive to irritants. Other conditions possibly associated include plasma cell gingivitis, Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome, or sideropenic dysphagia (also called Plummer-Vinson syndrome or Paterson-Brown-Kelly syndrome). Drugs Several drugs may cause AC as a side effect, by various mechanisms, such as creating drug-induced xerostomia. Various examples include isotretinoin, indinavir, and sorafenib. Isotretinoin (Accutane), an analog of vitamin A, is a medication which dries the skin. Less commonly, angular cheilitis is associated with primary hypervitaminosis A, which can occur when large amounts of liver (including cod liver oil and other fish oils) are regularly",
"-31.014055597086553"
],
[
"was historically known as chlorosis or green sickness for the distinct skin tinge sometimes present in patients, in addition to more general symptoms such as a lack of energy, shortness of breath, dyspepsia, headaches, a capricious or scanty appetite and amenorrhea. Acquired forms Hypochromic anemia may be caused by vitamin B6 deficiency from a low iron intake, diminished iron absorption, or excessive iron loss. It can also be caused by infections (e.g. hookworms) or other diseases (i.e. anemia of chronic disease), therapeutic drugs, copper toxicity, and lead poisoning. One acquired form of anemia is also known as Faber's syndrome. It",
"-28.354029261157848"
],
[
"contact dermatitis. Classification The term \"eczema\" refers to a set of clinical characteristics. Classification of the underlying diseases has been haphazard with numerous different classification systems, and many synonyms being used to describe the same condition.\nA type of dermatitis may be described by location (e.g., hand eczema), by specific appearance (eczema craquele or discoid) or by possible cause (varicose eczema). Further adding to the confusion, many sources use the term eczema interchangeably for the most common type: atopic dermatitis.\nThe European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) published a position paper in 2001, which simplifies the nomenclature of allergy-related diseases,",
"-27.974406231660396"
],
[
"researchers in e-liquids (chromium, lead, and nickel) and in vapor from e-cigarettes (chromium, nickel, and copper) Some of the other elements that we detected on surfaces are found in human sweat (calcium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorous [sic]). It is unknown if their presence on surfaces was from e-cigarettes, people touching surfaces, or both.\" In-store air quality A 2017 United States Department of Health and Human Services report evaluated concerns about exposure to vaping-related chemicals in a vape shop. Exposure to flavoring chemicals (diacetyl, 2,3-pentanedione, acetaldehyde), formaldehyde, nicotine, and propylene glycol were all below occupational exposure limits (OELs). They found that",
"-27.340981889748946"
],
[
"Related processes are known as sweetening. Safety Low molecular weight simple amines, such as ethylamine, are only weakly toxic with LD₅₀ between 100 and 1000 mg/kg. They are skin irritants, especially as some are easily absorbed through the skin. Amines are a broad class of compounds, and more complex members of the class can be extremely bioactive, for example strychnine and heroin.",
"-27.288493515836308"
],
[
"affected by hand eczema also experience skin inflammation on their feet. Often, a contact allergy to an ingredient in shoe leather treatment may be the catalyst. Contact allergies in certain types of employment are especially problematic, particularly if the work involves the handling of allergenic materials, e.g. masonry work or hairdressing.\nPeople allergic to Balsam of Peru may experience a flare-up of hand eczema if they use or consume products that use it as an ingredient.\nSevere and chronic eczema qualifies as one of the most frequent occupational illnesses. Patients should therefore be referred to an occupational-dermatological specialist as soon as possible.",
"-27.146781095216284"
],
[
"individuals with celiac disease and about two times more frequently in relatives of those with celiac disease, potentially indicating a genetic link between the conditions. Pathophysiology All eczemas are characterized by spongiosis which allows inflammatory mediators to accumulate. Different dendritic cells subtypes, such as Langerhans cells, inflammatory dendritic epidermal cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells have a role to play. Diagnosis Diagnosis of eczema is based mostly on the history and physical examination. In uncertain cases, skin biopsy may be useful. Those with eczema may be especially prone to misdiagnosis of food allergies.\nPatch tests are used in the diagnosis of allergic",
"-27.062178904307075"
],
[
"acne from reducing sugars in the diet, to medications that include antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, retinoids and hormonal treatments. Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands. Should the usual treatments fail, the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause. History The word sebaceous, meaning \"consisting of sebum\", was first termed in 1728 and comes from the Latin for tallow. Sebaceous glands have been documented since at least 1746 by Jean Astruc, who defined them as \"...the glands which separate the fat.\" He describes them in the oral cavity, on the head,",
"-26.894948879722506"
],
[
"Chloracne Cause Chloracne normally results from direct skin contact with chloracnegens, although ingestion and inhalation are also possible causative routes.\nChloracnegens are fat-soluble, meaning they persist in the body fat for a very long period following exposure. Chloracne is a chronic inflammatory condition that results from this persistence, in combination with the toxin's chemical properties. It is believed, at least from rodent models, that the toxin activates a series of receptors promoting macrophage proliferation, inducing neutrophilia and leading to a generalised inflammatory response in the skin. This process may also be augmented by induction of excess tumor necrosis factor in the",
"-26.8764170355862"
],
[
"that EC users are exposed to dangerous levels of aldehydes.\" However, e-cigarette users may \"learn\" to overcome the unpleasant taste due to elevated aldehyde formation, when the nicotine craving is high enough. E-cigarette users who use devices that contain nicotine are exposed to its potentially harmful effects. Nicotine is associated with cardiovascular disease, possible birth defects, and poisoning. In vitro studies of nicotine have associated it with cancer, but carcinogenicity has not been demonstrated in vivo. There is inadequate research to show that nicotine is associated with cancer in humans. The risk is probably low from the inhalation of propylene",
"-26.74311505543301"
],
[
"no traces. In addition, it is naturally antibacterial, especially against the bacterial strains, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and is ideal for people that suffer from textile allergies.\nFabrics made from Qmilk fiber provide high wearing comfort and a silky feel.The organic fiber is tested for harmful substances and dermatologically tested for the wearer’s skin and body compatibility 0% chemical additives. S.Café S.Café technology involves recycling used ground coffee beans into yarns. A piece of S.Café fabric is made with less energy in the process and is able to mask body odour. In addition, S.Café yarn offers 200% faster drying time",
"-26.639422351549"
],
[
"Smoker's melanosis Causes Smoking or the use of nicotine-containing drugs is the cause to Smoker's melanosis,. Also tar-components (benzopyrenes) are known to stimulate melanocytes to melanin production, and other unknown toxic agents in tobacco may also be the cause. These chemical agents have a polycyclic, chain-like structure. Environmental tobacco smoke from parents is causing smoker's melanosis in their children Swedish snuff causes a small elevation of oral melanin pigmented individuals from 3.0% to 4.7%. Nicotine tablets have shown to stimulate to melanin pigmentation of the oral mucosa. Treatment and prognosis Lesions usually disappear between 3",
"-26.554078563844087"
],
[
"occur especially with the help of music. An unusual but unique characteristic of mescaline use is the \"geometricization\" of three-dimensional objects. The object can appear flattened and distorted, similar to the presentation of a Cubist painting.\nMescaline elicits a pattern of sympathetic arousal, with the peripheral nervous system being a major target for this substance. United States In the United States, mescaline was made illegal in 1970 by the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act, categorized as a Schedule I hallucinogen. The drug was prohibited internationally by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Mescaline is legal only for certain religious",
"-26.50434727204265"
],
[
"that exposure to bacteria and other immune system modulators is important during development, and missing out on this exposure increases the risk for asthma and allergy.\nWhile it has been suggested that eczema may sometimes be an allergic reaction to the excrement from house dust mites, with up to 5% of people showing antibodies to the mites, the overall role this plays awaits further corroboration. Genetic A number of genes have been associated with eczema, one of which is filaggrin. Genome-wide studies found three new genetic variants associated with eczema: OVOL1, ACTL9 and IL4-KIF3A.\nEczema occurs about three times more frequently in",
"-26.41072297556093"
],
[
"replaced by mitosis at the base of the duct. Sebum Sebum, secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans, is primarily composed of triglycerides (≈41%), wax esters (≈26%), squalene (≈12%), and free fatty acids (≈16%). The composition of sebum varies across species. Wax esters and squalene are unique to sebum and not produced as final products anywhere else in the body. Sapienic acid is a sebum fatty acid that is unique to humans, and is implicated in the development of acne. Sebum is odorless, but its breakdown by bacteria can produce strong odors.\nSex steroids are known to affect the rate of",
"-26.310679845162667"
],
[
"Ectoine Biosynthesis Ectoine is synthesized in three successive enzymatic reactions starting from aspartic β-semialdehyde. The genes involved in the biosynthesis are called ectA, ectB and ectC and they encode the enzymes L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid acetyltransferase, L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid transaminase, and L-ectoine synthase, respectively. Use Ectoine is used as an active ingredient in skin care and sun protection products. It stabilizes proteins and other cellular structures and protects the skin from stresses like UV irradiation and dryness.",
"-26.29728292132495"
],
[
"and ethers, used in the soap, perfume, and flavor industries. \nE.g. benzyl benzoate, benzyl salicylate, benzyl cinnamate, dibenzyl ether, benzyl butyl phthalate . \nIt is also used in e-liquid for e-cigarettes to enhance the flavors used. When applied to damaged skin or mucous membranes at a 10% concentration, it acts as a local anesthetic and antimicrobial agent. It can be utilized as a degreaser in rug cleaning products. As a dye solvent, it enhances the process of dying wool, nylon, and leather. It also has use as a photographic film developer, and as an insect repellent. Use",
"-26.294906145194545"
],
[
"with the inherited condition known as glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, which over 400 million people suffer from. Humans, in particular children, have developed the condition known as hemolytic anemia, after ingesting mothballs or deodorant blocks containing naphthalene. Symptoms include fatigue, lack of appetite, restlessness, and pale skin. Exposure to large amounts of naphthalene may cause confusion, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, blood in the urine, and jaundice (yellow coloration of the skin due to dysfunction of the liver).\nThe US National Toxicology Program (NTP) held an experiment where male and female rats and mice were exposed to naphthalene vapors on weekdays for two",
"-26.25299680250464"
],
[
"Bismuth subsalicylate Medical uses As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismuth subsalicylate displays anti-inflammatory and bactericidal action. It also acts as an antacid. Adverse effects There are some adverse effects. It can cause a black tongue and black stools in some users of the drug when it combines with trace amounts of sulfur in saliva and the colon to form bismuth sulfide. Bismuth sulfide is a highly insoluble black salt, and the discoloration seen is temporary and harmless.\nLong-term use (greater than 6 weeks) may lead to accumulation and toxicity. Some of the risks of salicylism can apply to the use",
"-26.091193302650936"
],
[
"Basophil activation Allergic symptoms are caused by an initial systemic histamine release by activated basophils and mast cells, that may lead to shock with laryngeal edema, lower-airway obstruction and hypotension. This is why basophils are considered with mast cells to be the key cells in allergic diseases. Activation process Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a class of antibody (or immunoglobulin \"isotype\") that has only been found in mammals. It plays an important role in allergy, and is especially associated with type 1 hypersensitivity. There are receptors (FcεR) for the constant region of IgE, the Fc region, on several types of cells,",
"-26.023236491979333"
],
[
"and mitochondria. This led the authors of the study to conclude that \"inhalational exposures of cinnamaldehyde may increase the risk of respiratory infections in e-cigarette users.\" Some e-liquids containing cinnamaldehyde stimulate TRPA1, which might induce effects on the lung. E-liquids contain possibly toxic aldehydes and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many flavors are known aldehydes, such as anisaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, and isovaleraldehyde. A 2012 study found butterscotch flavor was highly toxic with one liquid and two others had a low toxicity. A 2014 in vitro study demonstrated that e-cigarette use of a \"balsamic\" flavor with no nicotine can activate the release of",
"-25.987374071293743"
],
[
"substances triggers the production of the antibody immunoglobulin E (IgE), which binds to mast cells and basophils. IgE bound to mast cells are stimulated by pollen and dust, causing the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine. In turn, this causes, among other things, inflammation and swelling of the tissue of the nasal cavities as well as increased mucus production. Particulate matter in polluted air and chemicals such as chlorine and detergents, which can normally be tolerated, can make the condition considerably worse. Lacrimation Rhinorrhea is also associated with shedding tears, whether from emotional events or from eye irritation. When",
"-25.949509755067993"
],
[
"include: solvents (alcohol, xylene, turpentine, esters, acetone, ketones, and others); metalworking fluids (neat oils, water-based metalworking fluids with surfactants); latex; kerosene; ethylene oxide; surfactants in topical medications and cosmetics (sodium lauryl sulfate); and alkalis (drain cleaners, strong soap with lye residues).\nPhysical irritant contact dermatitis may most commonly be caused by low humidity from air conditioning. Also, many plants directly irritate the skin. Allergic contact dermatitis Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is accepted to be the most prevalent form of immunotoxicity found in humans, and is a common occupational and environmental health problem. By its allergic nature, this form of contact dermatitis",
"-25.825368466670625"
],
[
"of the alveoli, and may be caused by tuberculosis. Emphysema, commonly a result of smoking, is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli. Urinary system The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body. Anatomy Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the torso. The",
"-25.747112761077005"
],
[
"impurities are not known. A 2016 review found \"Some studies have demonstrated that impurities and nicotine degradation products such as nicotine-cis-N-oxide, nicotine-trans-N-oxide, myosmine, anabasine, and anatabine, which are very carcinogenic, can be found in e-cigarette refill liquids. The molecules can lead to mutations in genes such as Ras (vital function in signal transduction of cell proliferation), p53 and Retinoblastoma (with roles as tumour suppressors) as these molecules can form adducts with cellular DNA.\" The majority of e-cigarettes evaluated included carcinogenic TSNAs; heavy metals such as cadmium, nickel, and lead; and the carcinogen toluene. However, in comparison to traditional cigarette smoke,",
"-25.708908633328974"
],
[
"have been used to create a breakthrough in manufacturing carbon nanotubes at scale that are separated and not twisted, without additional chemicals that change the surface properties of the nanotubes according to sciencedaily.com. Health effects When cresols are inhaled, ingested, or applied to the skin, they can be very harmful. Effects observed in people include irritation and burning of skin, eyes, mouth, and throat; abdominal pain and vomiting; heart damage; anemia; liver and kidney damage; facial paralysis; coma; and death.\nBreathing high levels of cresols for a short time results in irritation of the nose and throat. Aside from these effects,",
"-25.685386108212697"
],
[
"excess of chemicals, e.g., cytokines and histamine. The common characteristic among different causes of eosinophilic pneumonia is eosinophil overreaction or dysfunction in the lungs. Medications and environmental exposures Medications, substance abuse, and environmental exposures may all trigger eosinophil dysfunction. Medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., ibuprofen), nitrofurantoin, phenytoin, L-tryptophan, daptomycin and ampicillin, and drugs of abuse such as inhaled heroin and cocaine may trigger an allergic response which results in eosinophilic pneumonia. Chemicals such as sulfites, aluminum silicate, and cigarette smoke can cause eosinophilic pneumonia when inhaled. A New York City firefighter developed eosinophilic pneumonia after inhalation of dust",
"-25.632932298467495"
],
[
"other diseases including various eosinophlic skin diseases, abnormally high levels of circulating blood eosinophils, the hypereosinophilic syndrome, the Churg‐Strauss syndrome, ulcerative colitis, arthralgias, myalgias, facial nerve paralysis, photosensitivity, polycythemia vera, chronic myeloid leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, Hodgkin lymphoma, nasopharyngeal cancer, and renal cell carcinoma. Episodes of the disorder are sometimes triggered by: drugs (e.g. antimicrobial agents, biologics, antihypertensive agents, diuretics, thyroid hormones, analgesics, cytostatic agents, and anesthetics); vaccines; skin contact with chemicals (e.g. p-phenylenediamine, thiomersal, and cladribine); viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections; and insect bites.\nMosquitos are among the insects known to trigger MBA in individuals with eosinophilic cellulitis,",
"-25.620008826649382"
],
[
"melanocyte toxicity . Melanocytes are melanin-producing cells, primarily responsible for skin colour. Melanocyte toxicity induces apoptosis of the cell, causing the melanocytes to die. This is due to an increased expression of caspase‐3 and caspase‐8 . Caspase proteins are crucial mediators of apoptosis, with caspase-3 and caspase-8 being death proteases . Considering melanocytes are responsible for skin colour, apoptosis of these cells causes the colour of the skin to vanish . This disease caused by rhododendrol is called leukoderma. Leukoderma, also known as vitiligo, is a skin disease characterized by patches of the skin losing their pigment. This rhododendrol-induced",
"-25.61217805580236"
],
[
"cellobiose or glucose in an acidic medium, and eventually form valuable humus. Humans cannot digest cellulose and excrete the fibers in feces, because, unlike ruminant animals, rabbits, rodents, termites, and some bacteria and fungi, they lack cellulolytic enzymes such as cellulase. Litter Cigarette butts are the most common form of anthropogenic (man-made) litter in the world, as approximately 5.6 trillion cigarettes are smoked every year worldwide. Of those it is estimated that 4.5 trillion cigarette butts become litter every year. The cellulose acetate fibers used as the predominant filter material do not readily biodegrade because of the acetyl groups on",
"-25.505923533812165"
],
[
"Barium oxalate Properties Though largely stable, barium oxalate can be reactive with strong acids. A mild skin irritant, the substance is considered toxic when ingested, causing nausea, vomiting, renal failure, and injury to the gastrointestinal tract.\nIt is different from most pyrotechnic colorants in that it is a reducing agent and not an oxidizing agent. It is extremely insoluble in water and converts to the oxide form when heated.",
"-25.45234488346614"
],
[
"metabolism. The direct toxicity to the cells leads to an increase in capillary permeability. Furthermore, when phosgene hydrolyzes it forms hydrochloric acid, which can damage the cell surface and cause cell death in the alveoli and bronchioles. The hydrochloric acid triggers an inflammatory response that attracts neutrophils to the lungs, which causes pulmonary edema. Ammonia Ammonia is generally used in household cleaning products, as well as on farms and in some industrial and commercial locations, and this makes it easy for accidental or deliberate exposure to occur. Ammonia interacts with moist surfaces to form ammonium hydroxide, which causes necrosis of",
"-25.330535396002233"
],
[
"Basophils appear in many specific kinds of inflammatory reactions, particularly those that cause allergic symptoms. Basophils contain anticoagulant heparin, which prevents blood from clotting too quickly. They also contain the vasodilator histamine, which promotes blood flow to tissues. They can be found in unusually high numbers at sites of ectoparasite infection, e.g., ticks. Like eosinophils, basophils play a role in both parasitic infections and allergies. They are found in tissues where allergic reactions are occurring and probably contribute to the severity of these reactions. Basophils have protein receptors on their cell surface that bind IgE, an immunoglobulin involved in macroparasite",
"-25.29086228774395"
],
[
"levels of aldehydes.\" However, e-cigarette users may learn to overcome the unpleasant taste due to elevated aldehyde formation, when the nicotine craving is high enough. Nicotine Pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers, and the elderly are more sensitive to nicotine than other individuals. There are safety issues with the nicotine exposure from e-cigarettes, which may cause addiction and other adverse effects. Nicotine is regarded as a potentially lethal poison. Concerns exist that vaping can be harmful by exposing users to toxic levels of nicotine. At low amounts, it has a mild analgesic effect. At sufficiently high doses, nicotine may result in nausea,",
"-25.269312618111144"
],
[
"the substance that need be give extra care to since it have huge effect on the human body. \nIn the mechanism, Atheronal A are produces from a process called ozonolysis. Next, the Atheronal A go through aldol reaction that occur so smoothly in the biological system to produce Atheronal B. Secosterol-A and -B were produced in an ozone-autonomous way using the Hock-cleavage of 5α-hydroperoxy cholesterol, which can emerge from the singlet oxygen ene reaction with cholesterol. However, Secosterol-B is shaped effectively under acidic conditions in natural solvents, yet secosterol-A is either not framed at all or is a minor part",
"-25.247344513132703"
],
[
"interaction.\n\"Chamomile consists of several ingredients including coumarin, glycoside, herniarin, flavonoid, farnesol, nerolidol and germacranolide. Despite the presence of coumarin, as chamomile’s effect on the coagulation system has not yet been studied, it is unknown if a clinically significant drug-herb interaction exists with antiplatelet/anticoagulant drugs. However, until more information is available, it is not recommended to use these substances concurrently.\"\nPeople who are allergic to ragweed (also in the daisy family) may be allergic to chamomile due to cross-reactivity. Chamomile should not be used by people with past or present cancers of the breast, ovary, uterus, endometriosis or uterine fibroids. Pregnancy and",
"-25.23883876192849"
],
[
"found in the e-cigarette vapor may induce cell damage and initiate inflammatory cytokine such as in human lung fibroblasts. A 2017 review found \"E-cigarette aerosols and copper nanoparticles induced mitochondrial ROS production, mitochondrial stress (reduced stability of OxPhos electron transport chain (ETC) complex IV subunit) and DNA fragmentation in lung fibroblasts.\" A 2013 review found metallic and nanoparticles are associated with respiratory distress and disease. A 2014 review found considerable amounts of tin, metals, and silicate particles that came from various components of the e-cigarette were released into the aerosol, which result in exposure that could be higher than with",
"-25.23321266262792"
],
[
"skin color between lightly and darkly pigmented individuals is due not to the number (quantity) of melanocytes in their skin, but to the melanocytes' level of activity (quantity and relative amounts of eumelanin and pheomelanin). This process is under hormonal control, including the MSH and ACTH peptides that are produced from the precursor proopiomelanocortin.\nPeople with oculocutaneous albinism typically have a very low level of melanin production. Albinism is often but not always related to the TYR gene coding the tyrosinase enzyme. Tyrosinase is required for melanocytes to produce melanin from the amino acid tyrosine. Albinism may be caused by",
"-25.217590295593254"
],
[
"cardiotoxicity, which considerably limits their usefulness. Use of anthracyclines has also been shown to be significantly associated with cycle 1 severe or febrile neutropenia. Other adverse effects include vomiting.\nThe drugs act mainly by intercalating with DNA and interfering with DNA metabolism and RNA production. Cytotoxicity is primarily due to inhibition of topoisomerase II after the enzyme induces a break in DNA, preventing religation of the break and leading to cell death. The basic structure of anthracyclines is that of a tetracyclic molecule with an anthraquinone backbone connected to a sugar moiety by a glycosidic linkage. When taken up by a",
"-25.215628029196523"
],
[
"colleagues in 2008. However, the latter findings have been controversial. If it exists, the phenomenon might be mediated by olfaction, as MHC phenotype appears strongly involved in the strength and pleasantness of perceived odour of compounds from sweat. Fatty acid esters—such as methyl undecanoate, methyl decanoate, methyl nonanoate, methyl octanoate, and methyl hexanoate—show strong connection to MHC.\nIn 1995, Claus Wedekind found that in a group of female college students who smelled T-shirts worn by male students for two nights (without deodorant, cologne, or scented soaps), by far most women chose shirts worn by men of dissimilar MHCs, a preference reversed",
"-25.18851780344994"
],
[
"exposure for humans include emissions, auto exhaust, and cigarette smoke that can expose the human subject directly if they inhale or smoke. Routes of exposure include inhalation, oral, and to a certain extent dermal uptake (tested with volunteer humans and in rat studies). Repeated exposure causes skin sensitization and may cause central nervous system and liver damage.\nThere are two main excretion processes of acrylonitrile. The primary method is excretion in urine when acrylonitrile is metabolized by being directly conjugated to glutathione. The other method is when acrylonitrile is metabolized with 2-cyanoethylene oxide to produce cyanide end products that ultimately forms",
"-25.177014570857864"
],
[
"Acholia Etymology Ancient Greek: a + chole (without bile). Cause A condition in which little or no bile is secreted or the flow of bile into the digestive tract is obstructed. The acholia is a sign of many diseases, such as hepatitis.\nAcholia results of a fading of feces.",
"-25.164183350105304"
],
[
"to the DNA of the end product of the chromium(III) reduction.\nChromium salts (chromates) are also the cause of allergic reactions in some people. Chromates are often used to manufacture, amongst other things, leather products, paints, cement, mortar and anti-corrosives. Contact with products containing chromates can lead to allergic contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis, resulting in ulceration of the skin, sometimes referred to as \"chrome ulcers\". This condition is often found in workers that have been exposed to strong chromate solutions in electroplating, tanning and chrome-producing manufacturers. Environmental issues Because chromium compounds were used in dyes, paints, and leather tanning compounds,",
"-25.148955287702847"
],
[
"inflammation. Fruity, sweet, and traditional tobacco flavorings may result in lung toxicity. Flavorings can harm lung cells by producing free radicals and inflammation. Some e-liquids containing cinnamaldehyde stimulate TRPA1, which might induce effects on the lung. In human lung fibroblasts, cinnamon roll flavoring resulted in a noticeable rise in the amount of inflammatory cytokine IL-8. E-liquids contain possibly toxic aldehydes and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many flavors are known aldehydes, such as anisaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, and isovaleraldehyde. Saccharides in sweet e-liquid flavors break down and generate furans and aldehydes when vaporized. The consequences of aldehyde-containing flavors on pulmonary surfaces are unknown.",
"-25.14699100627331"
],
[
"ozone pollution.\nThe innate (cellular) immune system consists of various chemical signals and cell types that work broadly and against multiple pathogen types, typically bacteria or foreign bodies/substances in the host. The cells of the innate system include phagocytes, neutrophils, both thought to contribute to the mechanism of ozone pathology in the lungs, as the functioning of these cell types have been shown to change after exposure to ozone. Macrophages, cells that serve the purpose of eliminating pathogens or foreign material through the process of \"phagocytosis\", have been shown to change the level of inflammatory signals they release in response",
"-25.12349327345146"
],
[
"body. Ipecac abuse can cause detrimental health effects.\nEmetics can be divided into two classes, those which produce their effect by acting on the vomiting centre in the medulla, and those which act directly on the stomach itself. Some emetics, such as ipecac, come under both heads; they initially act directly on the stomach, while their further and more vigorous effect occurs by stimulation of the medullary centre.\nSalt water and mustard water, which act directly on the stomach, have been used since ancient times as emetics. Care must be taken with salt, as excessive intake can potentially be harmful.Copper sulfate was",
"-25.11753163972753"
],
[
"Sarcosinemia Cause and genetics Sarcosinemia is thought to be caused by a mutation in the sarcosine dehydrogenase (SARDH) gene, which is located at human chromosome 9q34.\nThe disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, which means the defective gene responsible for the disorder is located on an autosome (chromosome 9 is an autosome), and two copies of the defective gene (one inherited from each parent) are required in order to be born with the disorder. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder both carry one copy of the defective gene, but usually do not experience any signs",
"-25.115046985942172"
],
[
"in lung cancer induction ...\" Oxidation and inflammation Free radicals and pro-oxidants in cigarettes damage blood vessels and oxidize LDL cholesterol. Only oxidized LDL cholesterol is taken-up by macrophages, which become foam cells, leading to atherosclerotic plaques. Cigarette smoke increases proinflammatory cytokines in the bloodstream, causing atherosclerosis. The pro-oxidative state also leads to endothelial dysfunction, which is another important cause of atherosclerosis. Nicotine Nicotine, which is contained in cigarettes and other smoked tobacco products, is a stimulant and is one of the main factors leading to continued tobacco smoking. Nicotine is a highly addictive psychoactive chemical. When tobacco is smoked,",
"-25.107685109018348"
],
[
"Acinetobacter venetianus. After a certain period of time, an oily and saline environment containing A. borkumensis and Acinetobacter venetianus would eventually become dominated by A. borkumensis because A. borkumensis can consume a wider variety of alkanes than other known species. Metabolism A. borkumensis primarily uses alkanes as its source of energy/carbon, but it can use a few other organic compounds. Unlike most other cells, it cannot consume more common substances such as sugars or amino acids as a source of energy. This is due to the lack of genes that code for active or passive carbohydrate transporters, hence the",
"-25.097672269679606"
],
[
"such particles causes or worsens respiratory diseases, such as emphysema or bronchitis, and aggravates existing heart disease.\nNO\n x reacts with volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight to form ozone. Ozone can cause adverse effects such as damage to lung tissue and reduction in lung function mostly in susceptible populations (children, elderly, asthmatics). Ozone can be transported by wind currents and cause health impacts far from the original sources. The American Lung Association estimates that nearly 50 percent of United States inhabitants live in counties that are not in ozone compliance. In South East England, ground level ozone",
"-25.093040902982466"
],
[
"antigens are associated with inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, drug-induced vasculitis, autoimmune liver disease, drug induced syndromes and parasitic infections. Atypical ANCA is associated with drug-induced systemic vasculitis, inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis.\nLevamisole, which is a common adulterant of cocaine, can cause an ANCA positive vasculitis.\nThe presence or absence of ANCA cannot indicate presence or absence of disease and results are correlated with clinical features. The association of ANCA and disease activity remains controversial; however, the reappearance of ANCA after treatment can indicate a relapse. Pathogenesis Although the pathogenic role of ANCA is still controversial, in vitro and animal",
"-25.092612345702946"
],
[
"industry. The practice has declined since reports of an allergy-like reaction of some persons to sulfites in foods. Pharmaceuticals Sulfur (specifically octasulfur, S₈) is used in pharmaceutical skin preparations for the treatment of acne and other conditions. It acts as a keratolytic agent and also kills bacteria, fungi, scabies mites, and other parasites. Precipitated sulfur and colloidal sulfur are used, in form of lotions, creams, powders, soaps, and bath additives, for the treatment of acne vulgaris, acne rosacea, and seborrhoeic dermatitis.\nCommon adverse effects include irritation of the skin at the application site, such as dryness, stinging, itching and peeling. Furniture",
"-25.065061923582107"
],
[
"Eosin Eosin is the name of several fluorescent acidic compounds which bind to and form salts with basic, or eosinophilic, compounds like proteins containing amino acid residues such as arginine and lysine, and stains them dark red or pink as a result of the actions of bromine on fluorescein. In addition to staining proteins in the cytoplasm, it can be used to stain collagen and muscle fibers for examination under the microscope. Structures that stain readily with eosin are termed eosinophilic. In the field of histology, Eosin Y is the form of eosin used most often as a histologic stain.",
"-25.053547782008536"
],
[
"because they are nervous. Other factors can play a role, including certain foods and drinks, nicotine, caffeine, and smells. Secondary hyperhidrosis Similarly, secondary (generalized) hyperhidrosis has many causes including certain types of cancer, disturbances of the endocrine system, infections, and medications. Cancer A variety of cancers have been associated with the development of secondary hyperhidrosis including lymphoma, pheochromocytoma, carcinoid tumors (resulting in carcinoid syndrome), and tumors within the thoracic cavity. Endocrine Certain endocrine conditions are also known to cause secondary hyperhidrosis including diabetes mellitus (especially when blood sugars are low), acromegaly, hyperpituitarism, and various forms of thyroid disease. Medications Use",
"-24.99609675523243"
],
[
"skin. Allergens There is currently no regulation over use of the term \"hypoallergenic\", and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. Those with eczema are especially vulnerable to an allergic reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with and activate immune cells.\nThe American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.",
"-24.992002874660102"
],
[
"skin highly lipophilic molecules such as testosterone, cannabinoids and ibuprofen, as well as hydrophilic drugs such as clindamycin phosphate, buspirone hydrochloride. They have been studied for the transdermal and intradermal delivery of peptides, steroids, antibiotics, prostaglandins, antivirals and anti-pyretics. The components used to make ethosomes are already approved for pharmaceutical and cosmetic use and the formulated vesicles are stable when stored. They can be incorporated in various pharmaceutical formulations such as gels, creams, emulsions and sprays. They're consequently being developed for pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical products. Ethosomal systems compare favourably to alternative carriers for quantity and depth of molecule delivery.",
"-24.975743887305725"
],
[
"be a contributing factor of inflammation. The cause-and-effect relationship of how the ozone is created in the body and what it does is still under consideration and still subject to various interpretations, since other body chemical processes can trigger some of the same reactions. A team headed by Paul Wentworth Jr. of the Department of Chemistry at the Scripps Research Institute has shown evidence linking the antibody-catalyzed water-oxidation pathway of the human immune response to the production of ozone. In this system, ozone is produced by antibody-catalyzed production of trioxidane from water and neutrophil-produced singlet oxygen.\nWhen inhaled, ozone reacts with",
"-24.974442348262528"
],
[
"Deuterosome In cell biology, a deuterosome is a protein structure within a multiciliated cell (such as an epithelial cell of respiratory tract) that produces multiple centrioles.\nMost cells in human body possess one primary cilium, a relatively small protrusion of the cell membrane that looks like a stick or a finger under the electron microscope. Primary cilium is typically used by the cell as a sensory organelle, or antenna. Some cells, however, have numerous cilia which they use to generate directed fluid flow. The examples include epithelial cells of the respiratory tract in which multiple cilia are used for mucus clearance,",
"-24.974210461834446"
],
[
"Iminosugar An iminosugar, also known as an iminosaccharide, is any analog of a sugar where a nitrogen atom has replaced the oxygen atom in the ring of the structure.\nIminosugars are common components of plants and may be responsible for some of their medicinal properties. The first iminosugar to be isolated from a natural source, 1-deoxynojirimycin (DNJ), found in Mulberry, was reported in 1976, but few others were discovered until many years later.\nIn terms of biochemical activity for medicinal applications, DNJ and 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-D-arabinitol (DAB, another early example of this class of compounds) are alpha-glucosidase inhibitors and were shown to have anti-diabetic",
"-24.956602338672383"
],
[
"Liquefactive necrosis Liquefactive necrosis (or colliquative necrosis) is a type of necrosis which results in a transformation of the tissue into a liquid viscous mass. Often it is associated with focal bacterial or fungal infections, and can also manifest as one of the symptoms of an internal chemical burn. In liquefactive necrosis, the affected cell is completely digested by hydrolytic enzymes, resulting in a soft, circumscribed lesion consisting of pus and the fluid remains of necrotic tissue. Dead leukocytes will remain as a creamy yellow pus. After the removal of cell debris by white blood cells, a",
"-24.955388808193675"
],
[
"be found on many everyday food items, even the shortest exposure(through breathing or eating) to high amounts of benzene can lead to extreme cases of nausea, dizziness/tiredness, and can cause damage to the central nervous system, leading to things like paralysis, coma or death. Benzene is also a known carcinogen, and can cause things like anemia, leukemia, and if in contact with eyes, can cause blindness. Environmental damage As for environmental damage, benzene is very similar to toluene in that it is a VOC, and can cause poisonous smog if in contact with high amounts of light and moisture, and",
"-24.94502037120401"
],
[
"the clinical manifestations of acanthocephaliasis and similar accounts are found in the few case studies since; many of the patients described were asymptomatic. When they showed symptoms, they normally experienced abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, edema, and anorexia. In some patients, giddiness has also been reported. In rodents, acanthocephaliasis is fatal and manifests itself through hemorrhaging and gastrointestinal disturbance. Diagnosis The proper diagnosis of acanthocephaliasis in humans is made through fecal analysis, which, if the host is infested, should contain adult worms or eggs. To obtain the worms from the host, piperazine citrate, levamisole and bithionol can be administered to the",
"-24.939703221643867"
],
[
"by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Diacetyl is normally found at lower levels in e-cigarettes than in traditional cigarettes. Concerns exist that the flavors and additives in e-cigarettes might lead to diseases, including the popcorn lung. The cardiovascular effects, including a vast range of flavorings and fragrances, is unknown. The irritants butyl acetate, diethyl carbonate, benzoic acid, quinoline, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and 2,6-dimethyl phenol were present as undeclared ingredients in the e-liquid. Hindering safety assessments of e-liquids is the fact that the precise ingredients of e-cigarettes and e-liquids are not known. Heat-not-burn products Heat-not-burn tobacco products are",
"-24.905650621047243"
],
[
"Ceramide Ceramides are a family of waxy lipid molecules. A ceramide is composed of sphingosine and a fatty acid. Ceramides are found in high concentrations within the cell membrane of eukaryotic cells, since they are component lipids that make up sphingomyelin, one of the major lipids in the lipid bilayer. Contrary to previous assumptions that ceramides and other sphingolipids found in cell membrane were purely supporting structural elements, ceramide can participate in a variety of cellular signaling: examples include regulating differentiation, proliferation, and programmed cell death (PCD) of cells.\nThe word ceramide comes from the Latin cera (wax) and",
"-24.893648840865353"
],
[
"Basophilia Causes Basophilia can be attributed to many causes such as inflammatory conditions, allergic diseases, myeloproliferative diseases, infectious diseases such as smallpox and chronic hemolytic anemia. Diagnosis Basophilia can be detected through a complete blood count (CBC). The cause of basophilia can be determined through a bone marrow biopsy, genetic testing to look for genetic mutations, or ultrasound to determine enlargement of the spleen. \nBasophilia is associated with pruritus (itching) due to the release of histamine. Treatment Basophilia is not likely to be treated directly. Instead, treatments will focus on the person’s underlying medical treatment.",
"-24.876148068302427"
],
[
"Hypochlorite Organic hypochlorites Hypochlorite esters are in general formed from the corresponding alcohols, by treatment with any of a number of reagents (e.g. chlorine, hypochlorous acid, dichlorine monoxide and various acidified hypochlorite salts). Immune response In response to infection, the human immune system generates minute quantities of hypochlorite within special white blood cells, called neutrophil granulocytes. These granulocytes engulf viruses and bacteria in an intracellular vacuole called the phagosome, where they are digested.\nPart of the digestion mechanism involves an enzyme-mediated respiratory burst, which produces reactive oxygen-derived compounds, including superoxide (which is produced by NADPH oxidase). Superoxide decays to",
"-24.865081405441742"
],
[
"in lysosomes. Cell secretion In response to low blood cholesterol, different cells of the body, mainly in the liver and intestines, start to synthesize cholesterol from acetyl-CoA by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. This is then released into the blood. Hyperlipidemia Hyperlipidemia is the presence of elevated or abnormal levels of lipids and/or lipoproteins in the blood.\nLipid and lipoprotein abnormalities are extremely common in the general population, and are regarded as a highly modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease. In addition, some forms may predispose to acute pancreatitis. One of the most clinically relevant lipid substances is cholesterol, especially on atherosclerosis",
"-24.86493411817355"
],
[
"greasy hair products (like pomades) can worsen acne. Skin products that claim to not clog pores may be labeled noncomedogenic or non-acnegenic. Make-up and skin products that are oil-free and water-based may be less likely to cause acne. It is not known whether dietary factors or sun exposure make comedones better, worse or have no effect.\nA hair that does not emerge normally, an ingrown hair, can also block the pore and cause a bulge or lead to infection (causing inflammation and pus).\nGenes may play a role in the chances of developing acne. Comedones may be more common in some ethnic",
"-24.860418009746354"
],
[
"eosinophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells. The submucosa can show oedema and thickening, resulting in a subacute inflammation of the caecum and mucoid diarrhoea. Epidemiology Human gastrodiscoidiasis is endemic in Assam, and to a lesser extent in the Philippines. The highest incidence so far recorded is among children in Kamrup district of Assam, where the prevalence was as high as 41%. First described from an Indian patient, it was initially believed to have a distribution restricted to India and the southeast Asia. Later investigations revealed that it is widespread, and is further spread by infected persons to other parts of the",
"-24.84075919695897"
],
[
"about an individual's immune system could be used as a way of \"sexual selection\" so that the female could obtain good genes for her offspring. Claus Wedekind and colleagues found that both men and women prefer the axillary odors of people whose MHC is different from their own.\nSome body spray advertisers claim that their products contain human sexual pheromones that act as an aphrodisiac. Despite these claims, no pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a peer reviewed study. Thus, the role of pheromones in human behavior remains speculative and controversial.",
"-24.835981595679186"
],
[
"dyes, polymers, pharmaceuticals, and printing inks.\nExposure to solvents can occur by inhalation, ingestion, or direct absorption through the skin. Of the three, inhalation is the most common form of exposure, with the solvent able to rapidly pass through lung membranes and then into fatty tissue or cell membranes. Once in the bloodstream, organic solvents, due to their lipophilic properties, easily cross the blood-brain barrier. The mechanism of effect that these solvents have on the brain that cause CSE, however, is not yet fully understood. Some common organic solvents known to cause CSE include formaldehyde, acetates, and alcohols. Diagnosis Due to",
"-24.823981970539535"
],
[
"Ammonium persulfate Preparation Ammonium persulfate is prepared by electrolysis of a cold concentrated solution of either ammonium sulfate or ammonium bisulfate in sulfuric acid at a high current density. The method was first described by Hugh Marshall. Safety Airborne dust containing ammonium persulfate may be irritating to eye, nose, throat, lung and skin upon contact. Exposure to high levels of dust may cause difficulty in breathing.\nIt has been noted that persulfate salts are a major cause of asthmatic effects in women. Furthermore, it has been suggested that exposure to ammonium persulfate can cause asthmatic effects in hair dressers and",
"-24.816236061873497"
],
[
"Antimetabolite An antimetabolite is a chemical that inhibits the use of a metabolite, which is another chemical that is part of normal metabolism. Such substances are often similar in structure to the metabolite that they interfere with, such as the antifolates that interfere with the use of folic acid; thus, competitive inhibition can occur, and the presence of antimetabolites can have toxic effects on cells, such as halting cell growth and cell division, so these compounds are used as chemotherapy for cancer. Other uses Antimetabolites, particularly mitomycin C (MMC), are commonly used in America and Japan as an addition to",
"-24.81392383039929"
],
[
"to diabetes, hormone imbalances, reproductive disorders or cancer; cause liver damage and disease; weaken the immune system which can lead to disease or cancer; affect how the nerves carry information through the bodies peripheral nervous system which weakens the lower half of the body causing a tingling sensation and loss of coordination; cause respiratory damage which can led to cancer; cause hearing loss or other damage of the 5 senses. Chloroform Chloroform is a colorless liquid that is non-flammable. This chemical can be found in floor polishing substances and pesticides. Chloroform is recognized carcinogen, meaning it can cause cancer if",
"-24.80584852071479"
],
[
"suppurativa (HS) and rosacea. Although HS shares certain common features with acne vulgaris, such as a tendency to clog skin follicles with skin cell debris, the condition otherwise lacks the defining features of acne and is therefore considered a distinct skin disorder. Signs and symptoms Typical features of acne include increased secretion of oily sebum by the skin, microcomedones, comedones, papules, nodules (large papules), pustules, and often results in scarring. The appearance of acne varies with skin color. It may result in psychological and social problems. Scars Acne scars are caused by inflammation within the dermal layer of skin and",
"-24.779138465135475"
],
[
"including atopic and allergic contact eczemas. Non-allergic eczemas are not affected by this proposal. Terminology There are several types of dermatitis including atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, stasis dermatitis and seborrheic eczema. Many use the term dermatitis and eczema synonymously.\nOthers use the term eczema to specifically mean atopic dermatitis. Atopic dermatitis is also known as atopic eczema. In some languages, dermatitis and eczema mean the same thing, while in other languages dermatitis implies an acute condition and eczema a chronic one. Common types Diagnosis of types may be indicated by codes defined according to International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related",
"-24.756219367860467"
],
[
"Vaccenic acid Health A 2008 study at the University of Alberta suggests that vaccenic acid feeding in rats over 16 weeks resulted in lowered total cholesterol, lowered LDL cholesterol and lower triglyceride levels. The researchers are preparing to conduct further research, including human clinical trials.\nVaccenic acid is also found in human orbitofrontal cortex of patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.\nAlkaline phosphatase inhibited 25% by vaccenic acid in osteoblasts.\nOxidation of omega-7 unsaturated fatty acids on the skin surface, such as palmitoleic acid and vaccenic acid, may be the cause of the phenomenon commonly known as old person smell.",
"-24.741587116208393"
],
[
"them precipitate and aggregate, producing a rough, \"sandpapery\", or dry sensation in the mouth. The tannins in some teas and red grape wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot produce mild astringency. Uses In medicine, astringents cause constriction or contraction of mucous membranes and exposed tissues and are often used internally to reduce discharge of blood serum and mucous secretions. This can happen with a sore throat, hemorrhages, diarrhea, and peptic ulcers. Externally applied astringents, which cause mild coagulation of skin proteins, dry, harden, and protect the skin. People with acne are often advised to use astringents if they have oily",
"-24.731790286197793"
],
[
"its more stable chemical structure. Furthermore, due to adapalene's more stable chemical structure the concern for photodegeneration of the molecule is less of a concern in comparison to tretinoin and tazarotene. Pharmacokinetics Absorption of adapalene through the skin is low. A study with six acne patients treated once daily for five days with two grams of adapalene cream applied to 1000 cm² of skin found no quantifiable amounts, or less than 0.35 ng/mL of the drug, in the patients' blood plasma. Pharmacodynamics Topical adapalene first penetrates the hair follicle and binds to nuclear retinoic acid receptors. These complexes then bind to DNA",
"-24.72156578123395"
],
[
"anti-oxidants could allow for skin alterations such as acute acne or chronic non-infectious lesions, especially when the Th-1 immune process is persistently compromised by an overload of dietary antioxidant sources, like daily ingesting of vitamin C supplements, for example. Allergenic reactions by invading atopic pathogens, well beyond the scope of microbiota, can become initial factors triggering chronic atopic disease.\nWhen relating to atopic skin conditions caused by chronic antioxidative stress, symptoms similar to Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) may appear, a disease where phagocytes have an impaired ability to destroy pathogens due to a genetic inability to effectively kill pathogens by ROS,",
"-24.72050662591937"
],
[
"certain types of chemicals (e.g., insecticides or solvents), or radiation treatment for head or neck cancer. It can also be a symptom of certain mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, intoxication or withdrawal from drugs and alcohol, or psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The perceived odors are usually unpleasant and commonly described as smelling burned, foul spoiled, or rotten. Tactile Tactile hallucinations are the illusion of tactile sensory input, simulating various types of pressure to the skin or other organs. One subtype of tactile hallucination, formication, is the sensation of insects crawling underneath the skin and is frequently associated",
"-24.717438007181045"
],
[
"of economic botany in medicine. Ephedrine imitates epinephrine in its effect on the human body. While it has medicinal uses, ephedrine can be highly toxic. Because of this fact, medical researchers studied the compound and produced pseudoephedrine, which is used in over-the-counter medications and in the illegal manufacture of methamphetamine. Echinacea One of many herbal remedies out there, Echinacea represents a sizable industry. Many people take echinacea for cold and flu-like symptoms, but studies show that the plant has had mixed success fighting these viruses. However, those same studies show the plant possibly being useful for the",
"-24.70285616462121"
],
[
"to sebaceous sites of the skin. The skin mite Demodex folliculorum produce lipases that allow them to use sebum as a source of food therefore they have a high affinity for sebaceous skin sites. Although it is a part of the commensal skin microbiota, patients affected with rosacea show an increase in D. folliculorum compared to healthy individuals, suggesting pathogenicity.\nBacillus oleronius, a Demodex associated microbe, is not typically found in the commensal skin microbiota but initiates inflammatory pathways whose starting mechanism is similar to rosacea patients. Populations of S. epidermidis have also been isolated from pustules of rosacea patients. However",
"-24.684632838732796"
],
[
"amylose, it does not bind to iodine to form a colored product. Manufactured cellulose fibers Manufactured cellulose fibers come from plants that are processed into a pulp and then extruded in the same ways that synthetic fibers like polyester or nylon are made. Rayon or viscose is one of the most common \"manufactured\" cellulose fibers, and it can be made from wood pulp. Structure and properties Natural fibers are composed by microfibrils of cellulose in a matrix of hemicellulose and lignin. This type of structure and the chemical composition of them is responsible for the mechanical properties that can be",
"-24.676660961820744"
],
[
"Eczema herpeticum Presentation In addition to the skin, this infection affects multiple organs, including the eyes, brain, lung, and liver, and can be fatal. Treatment It can be treated with systemic antiviral drugs, such as aciclovir or valganciclovir. Foscarnet may also be used for immunocompromised host with Herpes simplex and acyclovir-resistant Herpes simplex. History Eczema herpeticum was first described by Hungarian dermatologist Moriz Kaposi in 1887. Fritz Juliusberg coined the term Pustulosis varioliformis acute in 1898. Eczema herpeticum is caused by Herpes simplex virus HV1, the virus that\ncauses cold sores; it can also be caused by other related viruses.",
"-24.66991321972455"
],
[
"Melanizing agents Melanizing agents are drugs that increase sensitivity to solar radiation and promote re-pigmentation of de-pigmented areas of skin. Furocoumarins stimulate melanocytes and induce their proliferation on activation by light. Melanizing agents sensitize the skin to sunlight. As a result, erythema, inflammation and pigmentation occurs. Drugs Psoralen is a natural drug obtained from the fruit of Psoralea corylifolia. Methoxsalen and Trioxsalen are synthetic psoralens. These drugs can be used either topically or orally. Topical therapy The drug solution is painted on the vitiliginous lesion and exposed to sunlight for around one minute. It is then occluded by",
"-24.625711820321158"
],
[
"histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT) and aldehyde oxidases (AOX1). In histamine intolerance, the activity of DAO is limited, and histamine taken up by the diet and formed in the body is only partially metabolized. The consumption of histamine-containing food (e.g. red wine or hard cheese) leads to a pseudoallergic reaction. It is unclear how histamine passes through the intestinal wall during absorption and enters the blood without coming into contact with the aldehyde oxidases expressed in intestinal cells and histamine N-methyltransferases. Active or passive exposure to tobacco smoke is suspected to favor histamine intolerance, but has not been adequately studied. Potentially",
"-24.619008724359446"
],
[
"in a more \"adult\" body odor. This often precedes thelarche and pubarche by one or more years. Another androgen effect is increased secretion of oil (sebum) from the skin. This change increases the susceptibility to acne, a skin condition that is characteristic of puberty. Acne varies greatly in its severity. Visual and other effects of hormonal changes In girls, estradiol (the primary female sex hormone) causes thickening of lips and oral mucosa as well as further development of the vulva. In the vulva and vagina, estradiol causes thickening (stratification) of the skin and the growth of both the myoepithelial layer",
"-24.617953556444263"
],
[
"as being sweet smelling. It was once one of the top 20 used chemicals in the United States, being found in gasoline, rubber, plastics, oils, and even explosives. Benzene is also a carcinogen, meaning it can cause cancer if one is exposed to it for a long period of time. It is ranked in the top 10% of the most hazardous compounds to human health and the environment, based on how toxic it is when ingested or inhaled, how it affects human health, workers exposure to the chemical, cancer and noncancer risk scores through air and water, and how toxic",
"-24.61511443107156"
],
[
"beverages. In a 1994 report released by five top cigarette companies, eucalyptol was listed as one of the 599 additives to cigarettes. It is claimed to be added to improve the flavor.\nEucalyptol is an ingredient in commercial mouthwashes, and has been used in traditional medicine as a cough suppressant. Insecticide and repellent Eucalyptol is used as an insecticide and insect repellent.\nIn contrast, eucalyptol is one of many compounds that are attractive to males of various species of orchid bees, which gather the chemical to synthesize pheromones; it is commonly used as bait to attract and collect these bees for study.",
"-24.61380200003623"
],
[
"eosinophilia. Drug reactions Allergic reactions to drugs are a common cause of eosinophilia, with manifestations ranging from diffuse maculopapular rash, to severe life-threatening drug reactions with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS). Drugs that has, allopurinol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), some antipsychotics such as risperidone, and certain antibiotics. Phenibut, an analogue of the neurotransmitter GABA, has also been implicated in high doses. The reaction which has been shown to be T-cell mediated may also cause eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. Pathophysiology IgE mediated eosinophil production is induced by compounds released by basophils and mast cells, including eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis, leukotriene B4 and",
"-24.59698618412949"
],
[
"amino acids and their harmful derivatives in the body. These accumulations lend a sweet smell to bodily excretions (such as ear wax and urine), leading to a pathology known as maple syrup urine disease.\nThis enzyme is an autoantigen recognized in primary biliary cirrhosis, a form of acute liver failure. These antibodies appear to recognize oxidized protein that has resulted from inflammatory immune responses. Some of these inflammatory responses are explained by gluten sensitivity. Other mitochondrial autoantigens\ninclude pyruvate dehydrogenase and branched-chain oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, which are antigens recognized by anti-mitochondrial antibodies.",
"-24.59004362457199"
],
[
"Anacardic acids Anacardic acids are phenolic lipids, chemical compounds found in the shell of the cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale). An acid form of urushiol, they also cause an allergic skin rash on contact, known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis. Anacardic acid is a yellow liquid. It is partially miscible with ethanol and ether, but nearly immiscible with water. Chemically, anacardic acid is a mixture of several closely related organic compounds. Each consists of a salicylic acid substituted with an alkyl chain that has 15 or 17 carbon atoms. The alkyl group may be saturated or unsaturated; anacardic acid is",
"-24.58526397155947"
],
[
"xylazine is used in conjunction with heroin and cocaine.\nChronic use is reported to be associated with physical deterioration, dependence, abscesses, and skin ulceration, which can be physically debilitating and painful. Hypertension followed by hypotension, bradycardia, and respiratory depression lower tissue oxygenation in the skin. Thus, chronic use of xylazine can progress the skin oxygenation deficit, leading to severe skin ulceration. Lower skin oxygenation is associated with impaired healing of wounds and a higher chance of infection. The ulcers may have a characteristic odor and ooze pus. In severe cases, amputations must be performed on the affected extremities. Overdose The known",
"-24.584817475202726"
],
[
"drinks. It is used as a food and drink sweetener and is an obesogen. Acting on insulin and leptin in the body, HFCS potentially increases appetite and fat production.\nNicotine is the chemical found in tobacco products and certain insecticides. As an obesogen, nicotine mostly acts on prenatal development after maternal smoking occurs. A strong association has been made between maternal smoking and childhood overweight/obesity, with nicotine as the single causal agent.\nArsenic is a metalloid (i.e., an element with some metallic properties) found in and on most naturally occurring substances on Earth. It can be found in the soil, ground water,",
"-24.57022543158382"
],
[
"occasion, serum levels of the drug can be identified from oral, vaginal, or cutaneous administration, and lead to toxicity. Mechanism of action Like amphotericin B and natamycin, nystatin is an ionophore. It binds to ergosterol, a major component of the fungal cell membrane. When present in sufficient concentrations, it forms pores in the membrane that lead to K⁺ leakage, acidification, and death of the fungus. Ergosterol is a sterol unique to fungi, so the drug does not have such catastrophic effects on animals or plants. However, many of the systemic/toxic effects of nystatin in humans are attributable to its",
"-24.55880153120961"
],
[
"Ectopic expression Ectopic is a word used with a prefix, ecto, meaning “out of place.” Ectopic expression is an abnormal gene expression in a cell type, tissue type, or developmental stage in which the gene is not usually expressed. The term ectopic expression is predominately used in studies using metazoans, especially in Drosophila melanogaster for research purposes. How it is useful Although ectopic expression can be caused by a natural condition, it is uncommonly seen in nature because it is a product of defects in gene regulation. In fact, ectopic expression is more commonly used for research purposes. Artificially induced",
"-24.558090263046324"
],
[
"Plasma cell gingivitis may also occur, which may be accompanied by glossitis and cheilitis.\nAllergens that may cause allergic contact stomatitis in some individuals include cinnamaldehyde, Balsam of Peru, peppermint, mercury, gold, pyrophosphates, zinc citrate, free acrylic monomer, nickel, fluoride, and sodium lauryl sulfate. These allergens may originate from many sources, including various foods and drink, chewing gum, toothpaste, mouthwash, dental floss, dental fillings, dentures, orthodontic bands or wires, and many other sources. If the substance containing the allergen comes into contact with the lips, allergic contact cheilitis can occur, together with allergic contact stomatitis.\nThe diagnosis is confirmed by patch test,",
"-24.545737093067146"
],
[
"is dryness and itching on the upper eyelids. This condition is often seeing in young people and can lead to reddish dry eye and scaly eyebrows. To relieve the itching sensation, one may need to apply warm compresses and use topical corticosteroid creams. Skin Eczema is another cause of chronic irritation and affects millions of individuals. Eczema simply means a dry skin which is itchy. The condition usually starts at an early age and continues throughout life. The major complaint of people who suffer from eczema is an itchy dry skin. Sometimes, the itching will be associated with a skin",
"-24.545534150791354"
],
[
"caused by an inflammatory reaction in the skin, causing leakage of capillaries in the dermis, and resulting in an edema which persists until the interstitial fluid is absorbed into the surrounding cells.\nHives are caused by the release of histamine and other mediators of inflammation (cytokines) from cells in the skin. This process can be the result of an allergic or nonallergic reaction, differing in the eliciting mechanism of histamine release. Allergic hives Histamine and other proinflammatory substances are released from mast cells in the skin and tissues in response to the binding of allergen-bound IgE antibodies to high-affinity cell surface",
"-24.544051019416656"
]
] |
2l5rb1 | Why do US '18 Wheelers' and EU 'lorries' look so different? | [
"In most European countries the overall length of a truck is limited to less than 20 meters. So the American way of building a truck would cost around 10% of the maximum length to put the engine in front of the drivers seat. European trucks put the driver on top of the engine and so can have longer lorries. The disadvantage is that service of the engine is more complicated because you have to tilt the driver's cabin in order to get to the engine. There's not so much difference regarding the ability to sleep in the vehicle or the size of the engines. The engines of modern Mercedes Actros are quite similar in displacement (11-15l) and power (400-500 HP) to the Mack MP7 and MP8 engines.",
"Multiple reasons, but mostly, just works better for the task. In the US (also Canada, and Australia, where the \"pointy nose\" trucks are common), roads are wider, city driving is less common or non-existent, and long-hauls ( > 300 miles) are commonplace. In EU/UK, 300 miles can put you a country or two away, here in US, it doesn't even get you half way across a single state. The US trucks have \"sleepers\", that big box behind the cab is a room with a bed and bathroom so you can sleep in the truck on a long drive. They're generally rated for higher towing loads, have bigger motors, and carry more fuel. Overall, there is an economy of scale, and these bigger trucks going further is actually more efficient (in terms of fuel and time per pound of cargo moved per mile). The downside is, they are larger and less maneuverable. An American big-rig with a full trailer honestly couldn't get around a European city center, they're just too big. TL;DR The truck is better suited to the type of driving and roads in the area.",
"I'm fairly sure it's directly due to different laws. Apparently in the US, laws only define maximum length of the cargo, but place no restrictions on overall length. Source: URL_1 Although I didn't find clear indication of EU laws on quick gooling, I imagine EU legislation define maximum overall length of a vehicle. URL_0 ",
"I've noticed this too. I attribute it to the fact that in the US, our highways side streets and loading docks are HUGE. A lot of the roads I've been on in Europe would be real sketchy in my regular full sized pickup. Much less the back roads and alleys where these trucks load and unload.",
"The European Union has some pretty strict laws on the maximum length of lorries: 12m for single unit trucks, 19.75m for semis and 25.75m (by heart) for single unit trucks with a trailer. Hoping to maximise the size of the trailers, the tractors are built to put as much power as possible in as little room as possible, so as not to exceed that 19.75 metre upper size limit for semis. In the USA, these size requirements are less strict. Afaik, it's completely legal to transport massive cargo across US highways, including complete houses. Since the limits are less hard, it's easier to use more conventional engine-before-cabin designs. A second reason to use the EU design is because the flat end means better forward visibility. Since there isn't an engine compartment right in front of you, there isn't a giant wedge that blocks vision to the road some distance ahead of you. *tiny edit* Sure, you still can't see what's within a metre or two ahead of you in either case because you're still high up, but with EU trucks this is easier to circumvent with a conveniently placed mirror. Trying the same on an US truck makes the mirror either uselessly small or so large it's in the way. Lastly, I cannot be so sure about the aerodynamics of the flat end, but I can assume that the flat heads are a bit lighter, so if there's a small aerodynamic difference between the two, there may be a bit of a trade-off, US trucks having a plus on aero, EU trucks having a plus on mass.",
"I don't think anyone mentioned the length of the wheel base. A longer wheel base allows you to control a heavier load. A shorter wheel base gives you more maneuverability.",
"I live in the USA and I've seen big trucks like that with flat noses too."
] | [
[
"to military use from civilian specifications. Specialised commonly available off-road vehicles include ATVs (All Terrain Vehicles), dirt bikes, dune buggies, rock crawlers, and sandrails. All-terrain vehicle An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a quad, quad bike, three-wheeler, or four-wheeler, or RZR is defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, with a seat that is straddled by the operator, along with handlebars for steering control. As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. Although it is a street-legal vehicle in some",
"-26.737380430614394"
],
[
"for commuters and urban motorists. Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report examined hybrid electric vehicle accidents that involved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to accidents involving internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The findings showed that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or bicycle. For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or stopping, backing up, entering or leaving a parking space (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is most pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than ICEVs. For",
"-25.476293459767476"
],
[
"other road users Because of greater height and weight and rigid frames, it is contended by Malcolm Gladwell, writing in The New Yorker magazine, that SUVs can affect traffic safety. This height and weight, while potentially giving an advantage to occupants of the vehicle, may pose a risk to drivers of smaller vehicles in multi-vehicle accidents, particularly side impacts.\nThe initial tests of the Ford Excursion were \"horrifying\" for its ability to vault over the hood of a Ford Taurus. The big SUV was modified to include a type of blocker bar suggested by the French transportation ministry in 1971, a",
"-25.270007789947385"
],
[
"but only affected vehicles with three or more axles. The previous increase for passenger vehicles was in 2003.",
"-25.210230652632163"
],
[
"long-term, more of the road be made dual carriageway to help combat these problems.\nIn the European Road Assessment Programme (EuroRAP) survey, which gives all major roads in Europe a safety rating, the A1079 is categorised as 'Medium-high risk' between Market Weighton and Hull, and 'Low-medium risk' between York and Market Weighton . The Market Weighton-Hull section was also identified in a EuroRAP report in June 2007 as being one of the 10 most dangerous roads in the UK, with 69 fatal or serious collisions between 2003 and 2005 . More recently the A1079 has had a better safety record, now",
"-24.993820414361835"
],
[
"have the right to cross where they choose, and have right of way over vehicular traffic while crossing.\nIn most areas, an intersection is considered to have a crosswalk, even if not painted, as long as the roads meet at approximate right angles. The United Kingdom and Croatia are among the exceptions.\nPedestrian crossings may also be located away from intersections. Level crossings A level crossing is an at-grade intersection of a railway by a road. Because of safety issues, they are often equipped with closable gates, crossing bells and warning signs. Speed limits The higher the speed of a vehicle,",
"-24.91706353868358"
],
[
"Arnas were still registered with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency in United Kingdom.\nAs of August 2018, there are only three Arnas shown as registered in the United Kingdom, a 1.2SL and two 1.5Ti's, although up to four cars are believed to exist in total. Both of the Arnas recorded are listed with SORNs, meaning that they are no longer legally driven on public highways.",
"-24.90542924203328"
],
[
"Motorways.\nThe action of undertaking, where the driver moves to the left of a slower moving vehicle to get past it is, although not illegal, discouraged on motorways under Highway Code 268. This rule allows for undertaking to occur in conditions that cause the left-hand lane to move faster than the right-hand lane and for traffic to keep up with the flow of the lane. Driving licence Driving licences may be obtained by any UK resident over the age of 17, subject to certain conditions. Initially, a provisional licence is issued, which restricts the holder to driving whilst accompanied",
"-24.865845058823197"
],
[
"PKP class EU07 Technical data EU07s have driving cabs at each end of the locomotive. The locomotive is equipped with multiple unit control system, which allows a single driver to drive two coupled engines from one cab. This engine is able to pull passenger trains of up to 650-tonne (640-long-ton; 720-short-ton) weight with speed of 125 km/h (78 mph) and freight trains of up to 2,000 t (2,000 long tons; 2,200 short tons) weight with speed of 70 km/h (43 mph). These figures apply to driving on level track. History The EU07 is strongly connected with the EU06 locomotive. The EU06 was a British derivative",
"-24.78390738649614"
],
[
"any terrain, including passenger transportation on a public road. The reasonable reader, however, would probably not interpret it in this way, and so, in light of established interpretative canons, the court did not favour this interpretation. The word \"driving\" occurred in the context of other adventure activities; it therefore made better sense to understand it to entail driving over unmade roads or slippery, steep or otherwise exciting terrain. Since Drifter's, as a cross-border tour operator, was statutorily obliged to have passenger liability insurance, it would be perverse for it to have contracted out of this liability altogether.\nThe appeal was accordingly",
"-24.761437723082054"
],
[
"the United States from Denmark. However, because most cars in the territory are imported from the mainland United States, the cars in the territory are left-hand drive. However, not all U.S. vehicle regulations are in force, and there are vehicles on the road that cannot be sold in the U.S. Additionlly, headlights use the U.S. pattern which casts light to the right, tending to blind oncoming drivers. Traffic signals are located on the opposite side of the road, and many standard road signs have been altered to fit the left-side driving.\nAs in other U.S. territories, U.S. Virgin Islands mail service",
"-24.655214492202504"
],
[
"vehicles that have a large side area such as vans, SUVs, and tractor-trailers. This can be dangerous for motorists because of the possible lift force created, causing the vehicle to lose traction or change direction of travel. The safest way for motorists to deal with crosswinds is by reducing their speed to reduce the effect of the lift force and to steer into the direction of the crosswind.\nCyclists are also significantly affected by crosswinds. Saving energy by avoiding riding in wind is a major part of the tactics of road bicycle racing, and this particularly applies in crosswinds. In crosswinds,",
"-24.652148185894475"
],
[
"Three-wheeler Overview Many three-wheelers which exist in the form of motorcycle-based machines are often called trikes and often have the front single wheel and mechanics similar to that of a motorcycle and the rear axle similar to that of a car. Often such vehicles are owner-constructed using a portion of a rear-engine, rear-drive Volkswagen Beetle in combination with a motorcycle front end. Other trikes include ATVs that are specially constructed for off-road use.\nThree-wheelers can have either one wheel at the back and two at the front (2F1R), (for example: Morgan Motor Company) or one wheel at the front and two",
"-24.63845119436155"
],
[
"wheels are designated by letters rather than numbers. The suffix 'o' is used to indicate independently powered axles.\nThe number of driving wheels on locomotives varied quite a bit. Some early locomotives had as few as two driving wheels (one axle). The largest number of total driving wheels was 24 (twelve axles) on the 2-8-8-8-2 and 2-8-8-8-4 locomotives. The largest number of coupled driving wheels was 14 (seven axles) on the ill-fated AA20 4-14-4 locomotive. Other uses of the term driving wheel The term driving wheel is sometimes used to denote the drive sprocket which moves the track on tracked vehicles",
"-24.589046467150183"
],
[
"for more maneuverability when backing. Because of the greater room available on the roads in North America, these vehicles are more popular in the United States and Canada than in Europe or other parts of the world. For uneven terrain a gooseneck hitch is an option to fifth-wheel.\nThe downside is that the hitch takes up room in the cargo bed regardless of whether the trailer is hitched or not. The hitch can be unbolted from the bed but this takes a lot more time and effort than the unhitch operation. Off-road trailers Off-road travel trailers, also called 4x4 trailers, tentrax,",
"-24.531828230923566"
],
[
"some consumers that SUVs are safer for their drivers than standard cars, and that they need not take basic precautions as if they were inside a \"defensive capsule\". According to G. C. Rapaille, a psychological consultant to automakers, many consumers feel safer in SUVs simply because their ride height makes \"[their passengers] higher and dominate and look down [sic]. That you can look down [on other people] is psychologically a very powerful notion.\" This and the height and weight of SUVs may lead to consumers' perception of safety.\nGladwell also noted that SUV popularity is also a sign that people began",
"-24.530808767243798"
],
[
"standard. All of this is because road numbering and road standard is separate in Sweden, as in the rest of Scandinavia. Turkey Motorways (Turkish: Otoyol) of Turkey are a network in constant development. Some motorways require toll (using only RFID methods), mostly six lanes wide, illuminated and with a 120 km/h (75 mph) speed limit. In 2013, the motorways were 2,155 kilometres (1,339 mi) long in total. Northern Ireland Legal authority existed in the Special Roads Act (Northern Ireland) 1963 similar to that in the 1949 Act. The first motorway to open was the M1 motorway, though it did so under temporary powers",
"-24.520458791863348"
],
[
"and driveshaft is very important as well because the constant velocity type of driveshafts have a higher chance of breaking and leaving you stuck. The u-joint style that most off-road enthusiasts go towards have more strength and when they do break are much easier and cheaper to replace. Identification When it comes to axles and finding the right one for your application it may sometimes be difficult to find one if you do not know what to look for. The professionals at West Coast Differentials have written an article about the different axles and how to identify them called, “Differential",
"-24.516262827222818"
],
[
"is due to geography and driver training, but more rigorous impaired driving enforcement and severe penalties in Sweden for driving under the influence may also explain the difference. While it might be argued that highways and vehicles in Sweden are different from those in the United States, the U.S. fatality rate is also about double the rate in the Canadian province of Ontario, which experienced 3.6 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km according to preliminary 2014 data. Ontario, which is a vast province of more than 1 million square kilometers, has a similar mix of highway types including congested urban",
"-24.479990972551605"
],
[
"Level crossings in the United Kingdom There are around 6,000 level crossings in the United Kingdom, of which about 1,500 are public highway crossings. This number is gradually being reduced as the risk of accidents at level crossings is considered high. The director of the UK Railway Inspectorate commented in 2004 that \"the use of level crossings contributes the greatest potential for catastrophic risk on the railways.\" The creation of new level crossings on the national network is banned (the exception being reopening unavoidable crossings on new/reopening railway lines, and on heritage railways), with bridges and tunnels being the more",
"-24.438912639623595"
],
[
"Ford (crossing) Description A ford is a much cheaper form of river crossing than a bridge, but it may become impassable after heavy rain or during flood conditions. A ford is therefore normally only suitable for very minor roads (and for paths intended for walkers and horse riders etc.). Most modern fords are usually shallow enough to be crossed by cars and other wheeled or tracked vehicles (a process known as \"fording\").\nIn New Zealand, however, fords are a normal part of major roads, including, until 2010, along State Highway 1 on the South Island's east coast. As most inter-city",
"-24.387838684192047"
],
[
"changed over 20 years ago (1 January 1997), the freight industry and driver recruitment agencies still predominantly use the obsolete class numbers for the entitlement of HGV drivers.\nThe two systems are not exactly compatible, so the descriptions given are only a guideline.\nClass 1: any goods vehicle over 7½ long tons (7,620 kg) with any trailer.\nClass 2: any rigid goods vehicle over 7½ long tons.\nClass 3: any rigid goods vehicle over 7½ long tons with no more than two axles. Points and endorsements The UK uses a cumulative points system for driving offences. Points are added for driving offences by law courts",
"-24.32878530893504"
],
[
"following vehicles pass, and most drivers oblige. The same system is found very occasionally in rural England and Wales, as well as Sai Kung in the New Territories. Sometimes two small vehicles can pass one another at a place other than a designated passing place.\nSome A-class and B-class roads in the Highlands are still single-track, although many sections have been widened for the sake of faster travel. In 2009, the A830 \"Road to the Isles\" and A851 on the Isle of Skye have had their single-track sections replaced with higher-quality single-carriageway road. In mountains In remote backcountry areas around",
"-24.319230004424753"
],
[
"regulations According to the Michigan Hand Book of Off-Road Vehicle Laws \"Michigan law defines an ORV as any motor vehicle that can be operated cross-country (without benefit of a road or trail) over land, snow, and other natural terrain. This includes: multi-track or multi-wheeled vehicles; all-terrain vehicles (ATVs); motorcycles or related multi-wheeled vehicles; amphibious machines (water-to-land and back); hovercraft; and other vehicles that use mechanical power including 2- or 4-wheel-drive vehicles that are highway registered but operated off highways or off roads.\" This trail system is also patrolled to ensure that all ORV operators and all passengers wear",
"-24.265860900522966"
],
[
"Warrington, Liverpool and Manchester. The M6 intersects many of the North West's motorways and A-roads, and carries almost 120,000 vehicles per day (41,975,000 per year).\nBritain's most severe steep road is Hardknott Pass in Cumbria, and the highest road in the UK is the former A6293 at 2,780 ft at Milburn, Cumbria; the highest classified road in England was the A689 east of Nenthead in Cumbria on the Durham boundary. Greater Manchester and Merseyside The Greater Manchester and Merseyside areas are home to almost 4 million people, and over half the region's population. The road networks intertwining these metropolitan areas are extremely",
"-24.22737521279487"
],
[
"other routes are considered to have a gap and are signed in brackets (the equivalent of \"to\" signs in North America). An example is the meeting of the M60 and the M62 northwest of Manchester: the motorways coincide for the seven miles (11 km) between junctions 12 and 18 but the motorway between those points is only designated as the M60. European route numbers as designated by UNECE may have concurrencies (for instance E15 and E30 around Greater London), but since the E-route numbers are unsigned and unused in the UK, the existence of these concurrencies is purely theoretical.\nIn Sweden and",
"-24.15668441866876"
],
[
"that teen drivers must have a decal on their vehicle.\nSome countries, such as Australia, the United States, Canada and New Zealand, have graduated levels of driver's licence, with special rules. By 2010, all US states required a graduated driver's licence for drivers under age 18. In Italy, the maximum speed and power of vehicles driven by new drivers is restricted. In Romania, the maximum speed of vehicles driven by new drivers (less than one year in experience) is 20 km/h lower than the national standard (except villages, towns and cities). Many U.S. states allow 18-year-olds to skip some requirements that younger",
"-24.156048537763127"
],
[
"in England and Wales. It was decided to reserve the numbers 7, 8 & 9 for Scotland. In Scotland, where roads were the responsibility of the Scottish Office (Scottish Government after 1999), the decision was taken to adopt a scheme whereby motorways took the numbers of the all-purpose routes they replaced. As a result, there is no M7 (as no motorway follows the A7), and when the A90 was re-routed to replace the A85 south of Perth, the short M85 became part of the M90. Other A roads These radials are supplemented by two-digit codes which are routes that may",
"-24.125477963563753"
],
[
"a car and a motorcycle. Both have wheels. That is a commonality. However, cars have four wheels, while motorcycles have two wheels. That is a difference. Because this difference required first finding a commonality between the pair, it is called an alignable difference. Alignable differences contrast with nonalignable differences which are aspects of one concept that have no correspondence in the other. For example, cars have seatbelts and motorcycles do not. Research suggests that alignable differences have a larger impact on people's judgments of similarity than do nonalignable differences. Thus, the relationship between the commonalities of a pair and the",
"-24.125218643050175"
],
[
"blurred in practice, since unibody vehicles are also often referred to as SUVs. Also, crossover is a relatively recent term and early unibody SUVs (such as the 1984 Jeep Cherokee) are rarely called crossovers. Due to these inconsistencies, the term SUV is often used as a catch-all for both crossovers and SUVs.\nOutside of the United States, the term crossover tends to be used for C-segment (compact) or smaller vehicles, with large unibody vehicles— such as the Audi Q7, BMW X7 and Volkswagen Touareg— are usually called SUVs rather than crossovers. In the United Kingdom, a crossover is sometimes defined as",
"-24.11366240218922"
],
[
"York Auto Show in April, the M-Class was renamed to GLE-Class as per the revised nomenclature adopted by the brand. Under this scheme, SUVs use the base name \"GL\", followed by the model's placement in Mercedes-Benz hierarchy. The \"G\" is for Geländewagen (German off land wagon for off-road vehicle) and alludes the long-running G-Wagen. This is followed by the letter \"L\" that acts as a linkage with the letter \"E\"—the GLE being the SUV equivalent to the E-Class. Awards The ML 320 was Motor Trend magazine's Truck of the Year for 1998 and was voted the 1998 North American Truck",
"-24.108064105668745"
],
[
"sometimes used, with both 4-wheel and 6-wheel versions being extant. In British English, the term 'truck' most commonly relates to railway vehicles, with the word 'lorry' more commonly applied to road vehicles.",
"-24.07641478555888"
],
[
"built and maintained by the self-financed ASFiNAG stock company in Vienna, which is wholly owned by the Austrian republic and earns revenue from road-user charges and tolls. Each route bears a number as well as an official name with local reference, which however is not displayed on road signs. Unusually for European countries, interchanges (between motorways called Knoten, \"knots\") are numbered by distance in kilometres starting from where the route begins; this arrangement is also used in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Spain, and most provinces of Canada (and in most American states, albeit in miles). The current Austrian Autobahn",
"-24.052938997606816"
],
[
"Road The inn gives its name to the Cat and Fiddle Road: a stretch of the A537 road, linking Macclesfield to the west with Buxton to the east, which features many sharp corners. This road became notorious for the high number of accidents, particularly among motorcyclists for whom the road is often regarded as an exhilarating technical challenge; an AA survey in 2003 named it as the most dangerous stretch of road in the United Kingdom. Other pubs There are several pubs of this name in the United Kingdom. For example, there is a Cat and Fiddle pub in Hinton,",
"-24.004896274225757"
],
[
"2-1 road A 2-1 road (2-minus-1 road) is a type of road with extra wide shoulders, and a smaller two-way lane in the middle for vehicles. The shoulders are to be used by pedestrians and cyclists, and if necessary by meeting vehicles. The purpose of the road is to give more space to pedestrians and cyclists and thereby avoid constructing new dedicated pedestrian and bicycle paths, especially in areas where new constructions are to be avoided or not possible.\nThe road-type is popular in Denmark where a third of all municipalities have at least one stretch of this type of road.",
"-23.996800822955265"
],
[
"America, the term is applied to both heavy vehicles and light passenger vehicles. When referring to heavy vehicles, the term is increasingly applied to mean \"permanent multiple-wheel drive\" on 2×2, 4×4, 6×6, or 8×8 drive-train systems that include a differential between the front and rear drive shafts. This is often coupled with some sort of antislip technology, increasingly hydraulic-based, that allows differentials to spin at different speeds, but still be capable of transferring torque from a wheel with poor traction to one with better. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road",
"-23.977793177138665"
],
[
"Side by Side (UTV) The side-by-side (often written as SxS) is a small 2- to 6-person four-wheel drive off-road vehicle, also called UTV (utility vehicle or utility task vehicle), a ROV (recreational off-highway vehicle), or a MOHUV (multipurpose off-highway utility vehicle). Safety The majority of the side-by-sides come factory-equipped with a ROPS, or roll-over protection system. Many of the vehicles also come equipped with hard tops, windshields, and even cab enclosures. \nThe Outdoor Power Equipment Institute (OPEI) defines multipurpose off-highway utility vehicles (MOHUVs) as vehicles with: \"(a) four or more wheels, (b) a steering wheel, (c) non-straddle seating, and (d)",
"-23.966965210755006"
],
[
"fatal pedestrian crashes involved passenger cars or light commercial vehicles, between 2009 and 2013.\nPedestrians older than 75 have the highest pedestrian fatality rate of any age group. Road naming Each state has independent systems for the naming of roads.\nRoads in New South Wales are named in accordance with section 162 of The Roads Act 1993. Australian Standards AS 1742.5 - 1986 and AS 4212 - 1994 provide a list of road suffixes (such as Alley, Circle, Mall, Street) which are routinely accepted by the Geographical Names Board.",
"-23.887121470525017"
],
[
"roads maintain their new numbers from Denmark and southward, though, as do other European routes within Scandinavia.\nFurther exceptions are E 67, going from Finland to Czech Republic (wrong side of E 75 and E 77), assigned around year 2000, simply because it was best available number for this new route, most of E 63 in Finland (wrong side of E 75) E 8 in Finland (partly on the wrong side of E 12 after a lengthening around 2002) and E 82 (Spain and Portugal, wrong side of E 80). These irregularities exist just because it is hard to maintain good order when extending the network, and the UNECE does",
"-23.856042759376578"
],
[
"highway is a common Czech translation of the term dálnice, which describes a toll highway similar to a freeway or an Autobahn. Denmark With the completion of the extremely long highway bridge-tunnels of Great Belt Fixed Link in 1998 and Øresund Bridge in 2000, continental Europe was finally connected by road and rail with capital city Copenhagen and Sweden. This includes the Swedish highway and railroad system. The bridge-tunnels are all interconnected with major Danish highways and completes a continuous international road connection from northern Sweden to Gibraltar at the southern edge of Spain and Messina, Italy, at the southern",
"-23.847118405319634"
],
[
"Roadster (automobile) A roadster (also spider, spyder) is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character. Initially an American term for a two-seat car with no weather protection, usage has spread internationally and has evolved to include two-seat convertibles.\nThe roadster was also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club (USAC) Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500, in the 1950s and 1960s. This type of racing car was superseded by rear-engine cars. Etymology The term \"roadster\" originates in the United States, where it was used in the nineteenth century to describe a horse suitable",
"-23.845031130476855"
],
[
"Locomotive Acts The Locomotive Acts (or Red Flag Acts) were a series of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom regulating the use of mechanically propelled vehicles on British public highways during the latter part of the 19th century.\nThe first three, The Locomotives on Highways Act 1861, The Locomotive Act 1865 and the Highways and Locomotives (Amendment) Act 1878, contained restrictive measures on the manning and speed of operation of road vehicles; they also formalised many important road concepts such as vehicle registration, registration plates, speed limits, maximum vehicle weight over structures such as bridges, and the organisation of",
"-23.84273755236063"
],
[
"1960s and early 1970s, was at the time alien to most of established highway design practice in the UK. The much evolved and refined Dutch version, the Woonerf, is supported by legislation which gives pedestrians priority over vehicles within these shared streets. This inverts the expectation of UK motorists, who would expect a pedestrian in the carriageway to give way to a vehicle.\nResolving these legislative differences involved the involvement of central Government officers who were already aware of various other Homezone projects around the UK. All of these projects, (whether newbuild or remodelling existing streets), suffered from a mismatch between",
"-23.835244595211407"
],
[
"m back from the main traffic signal. The reasoning is that this puts cyclists clearly into the view of heavy goods vehicle (HGV) drivers, who have a blind spot up to 4 m directly in front of the cab. According to an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) review, ASLs are also advocated as way of improving pedestrian safety at crossings by increasing the separation between crossing pedestrians and waiting motor vehicles.\nAlthough waiting cyclists might be safer out in front of HGVs, concerns have been expressed about nearside cycle lanes approaching such intersections may encourage cyclists to \"creep up\"",
"-23.81727316579054"
],
[
"he would always be held responsible. In many jurisdictions, a two second gap is recommended between any two successive moving vehicles, characterised in Britain by the slogan, \"only a fool breaks the two second rule\". Fighting against tailgating Tailgating causes most rear-end crashes in South Australia. Some motorways in the United Kingdom and Australia feature certain road markings which can help resolve this problem. Consisting of an arrangement of chevrons, these remind the driver not to tailgate, and assist in the two second rule. There is also signage in Britain on smart motorways when they are very congested, to",
"-23.809636656478688"
],
[
"motorways, while some sections remained in the same category. The speed limit for most existing roads for motorcars was reduced to 110 km/h.\nAs of 2016, roads for motorcars are not subject to highway tolls for vehicles with total weight up to 3.5 t. The signs on roads for motorcars consist of white text on a blue background, like on other common roads and unlike on motorways, where the background is green. Exits, like on motorways, are usually numbered.\nIt is in the jurisdiction of individual regions (kraje) to decide whether roads for motorcars should have higher speed limits than regular roads. An",
"-23.789355402464935"
],
[
"a Robin. As it was not the licence entitlement that changed, but rather the categorisation of tricycles into an existing category, the change applies to all holders of category A motorcycle licences, whenever they were obtained. Shortly after this an oversight was that a person with a full car licence could no longer drive a three-wheeled vehicle, this was then altered by the UK government after car companies which produce three-wheeled vehicles (such as Morgan) protested over the licensing changes, this resulted in car licence holders now being able to drive a three-wheeled vehicle, but an age limit of 21",
"-23.762429079422873"
],
[
"Manchester to the M1 motorway in South Yorkshire. The road is single-carriageway through Mottram, Hollingworth and Tintwistle and through the Peak District National Park, it is used by large numbers of heavy goods vehicles. It is one of the most congested A-road routes in the country, with high volumes of traffic (including HGVs) using a road which is totally unsuitable for the volume and nature of traffic it carries The A628 through Mottram carries traffic from the A57 road linking Manchester through Glossop to Sheffield over the Snake Pass, another major Trans-Pennine route. Congestion at peak times backs",
"-23.759332920111774"
],
[
"of Ministers. Operating regulation Vehicles in Australia are right-hand drive, and vehicles travel on the left side of the road. The laws for all levels of government, have been mostly harmonised so that drivers do not need to learn different rules as they cross state borders. The usual speed limits are 100 km/h outside of urban areas (110 km/h on some roads where signposted). Major routes in built up areas are 80 km/h and 60 km/h, with streets generally limited to 50 km/h, often not separately signposted. Until the end of 2006, major highways in the Northern Territory had no speed limit, but now the",
"-23.742827974019747"
],
[
"was known in Swedish as Dagen H (H-Day), the 'H' standing for Högertrafik or right-hand traffic.\nSince Swedish cars were left-hand drive, experts had suggested that changing to driving on the right would reduce accidents, because drivers would have a better view of the road ahead. Indeed, fatal car-to-car and car-to-pedestrian accidents did drop sharply as a result. This was likely due to drivers initially being more careful and because of the initially very low speed limits, since accident rates soon returned to nearly the same as earlier.\nTotal roadways: 572,900 km, as of 2009. Motorways Motorways run through Sweden, Denmark and over",
"-23.723979006541413"
],
[
"for travelling. By the end of the century the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the United States Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as: \"an open car seating two or three. It may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck.\" Due to it having a single row of seats, the main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car. Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard.\nIn the United Kingdom, historically the preferred terms were \"open two-seater\" and \"two-seat",
"-23.711685879679862"
],
[
"than in ordinary passenger cars, as modification for bulky 4-wheel-drive hardware requires increases in height to avoid compromising ground clearance (raising the center of gravity), while a short wheelbase further reduces stability. The previous Bronco II had already been cited by Consumer Reports for rollover tendencies in turns.\nThe Explorer was cleared by the NHTSA as no more dangerous than any other truck when driven unsafely. It used the same tires as the Ford Ranger with a relatively low rating for high temperatures. Lowering tire pressure recommendations softened the ride further and improved emergency stability through increased traction, but increased the",
"-23.69329847282279"
],
[
"These vehicles were checked by the police and got temporary licences for the duration of the event. For vehicles with a regular road licence other specifications applied. Two-wheelers The vehicles mostly had three or four wheels but from the beginning a few bicycles with solar trailers participated. This later led to the development of Swiss production electric bicycles and motorcycles.",
"-23.661442257760427"
],
[
"crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher incident rate for HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a corner. But there was no statistically significant difference between the types of vehicles when they were driving straight.\nSeveral automakers developed electric vehicle warning sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles (EVs) travelling at low speeds. Their purpose is to make pedestrians, cyclists, the blind, and others aware of the vehicle's presence while operating in all-electric mode.\nVehicles in the market with such safety",
"-23.65023917630242"
],
[
"three-wheeler exports. During the FY 2012-13, it sold approx. 4,80,000 three-wheelers which was 57% of the total market share in India. Out of these 4,80,000 three-wheelers, 53% were exported and remaining 47% were sold in India. In Indonesia, Bajaj three-wheelers are \"iconic\" and \"ubiquitous\" to the point that the word bajaj (pronounced bajay) is used to refer to auto rickshaws of any kind. Low cost cars In 2010, Bajaj Auto announced cooperation with Renault and Nissan Motor to develop a US$2,500 car, aiming at a fuel efficiency of 30 kilometres per litre (85 mpg‑imp; 71 mpg‑US) (3.3 L/100 km), or twice an",
"-23.642476520390005"
],
[
"Scandinavia Denmark and Norway allow 25.25 m (83 ft) trucks (Denmark from 2008, and Norway from 2008 on selected routes). In Sweden the allowed length has been 24 m (79 ft) since 1967. Before that, the maximum length was unlimited; the only limitations were on axle load. What stopped Sweden from adopting the same rules as the rest of Europe, when securing road safety, was the national importance of a competitive forestry industry. Finland, with the same road safety issues and equally important forestry industry, followed suit. The change made trucks able to carry three stacks of cut-to-length logs instead of two, as it",
"-23.638923249745858"
],
[
"and better overall view for the driver. The major disadvantage is that for repairs on COE trucks, the entire cab has to hinge forward to allow maintenance access. Conversely, \"conventional\" cab tractors offer the driver a more comfortable driving environment, easier access getting in or out and better protection in a collision.\nIn Europe usually both rear tractor axles have dual wheels, while single or dual wheels are used for the cargo trailer. The most common combination used in Europe is a semi tractor with three axles, one a lift axle, and a cargo trailer with three axles, one also a",
"-23.628275604758528"
],
[
"effect, a 4.6 meter high B-double will have to follow two sets of rules: they may access only those roads that are permitted for B-doubles and for 4.6 meter high vehicles.\nIn Australia, both conventional prime movers and cabovers are common, however, cabovers are most often seen on B-doubles on the eastern seaboard where the reduction in total length allows the vehicle to pull longer trailers and thus more cargo than it would otherwise. Coupling and uncoupling The cargo trailer is, by means of a king pin, hooked to a horseshoe-shaped quick-release coupling device called a fifth wheel or a turntable hitch at",
"-23.62083082758909"
],
[
"High wheeler A high wheeler is a car which uses large diameter wheels that are similar to those used by horse-drawn vehicles. These cars were produced until about 1915, predominantly in the United States. Design High wheelers were derived from horse-drawn wagons, and often were conversions of these. Similarly to these wagons, they often feature wood-spoke wheels, suspensions and boxy wooden bodies.\nThe large-diameter slender wheels were frequently with solid rubber tires, to provide ample ground clearance on the primitive roads of the late 19th century.\nThese cars were produced in many body styles. The most common were the motorized wagon (utility",
"-23.615646638794715"
],
[
"regardless of how many wheels they have. Examples of these with two rear, one front axle are the six-wheeled Pinzgauer, which is popular with defense forces around the globe, and 10-wheeled GMC CCKW made famous by the U.S. Army in World War II.\nFour-wheeler is a related term applying to all-terrain vehicles, and not to be confused with four-wheel drive. The \"four\" in the instance referring to the vehicle having four wheels, not necessarily all driven. Unusual systems Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, French motor manufacturer Citroën developed",
"-23.612036847872332"
],
[
"Crossover (automobile) A crossover SUV— also called crossover or CUV— is a type of sports utility vehicle (SUV) with unibody construction. Crossovers are often based on a platform shared with a passenger car; as a result they typically have better interior comfort, a more compliant ride, and superior fuel economy, but less off-road capability than truck-based SUVs. Poor off-road capability is compounded by many crossovers being sold without all-wheel drive, which challenges their definition as \"sports utility vehicles\".\nFurther, there are various inconsistencies about whether vehicles are considered crossovers or SUVs; therefore the term SUV is often used as a",
"-23.610698854488874"
],
[
"Medium-speed vehicle Medium-speed vehicle (MSV) is a vehicle registration category in some states of the United States where applicable vehicles are allowed to travel on roads at speeds up to 35–45 mph (56–72 km/h). The safety regulations for MSVs are more stringent than those for Low-speed vehicles.\nMontana's SB0185 was the first law to define this class of vehicle. Minnesota has laws that allow for vehicles that travel up to 35 mph (56 km/h), Tennessee's laws allow for vehicles that travel up to 40 mph (64 km/h), and Colorado, Kentucky, Montana, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas and Washington all have laws allowing MSVs that travel up to 45 mph (72 km/h).",
"-23.604105094169427"
],
[
"and accidents The A74 drew regular criticism over its perceived lack of safety. Some motorists had criticised the A74 as being a \"killer road\" due to its perceived high number of accidents. MPs, however, were keen to stress that the rate of accidents was no different from any other road of comparable traffic size. In 1976, Frank McElhone, then the Under-Secretary of State for Scotland, stated that \"the A74 has gained a bad reputation. Whether this is justified in comparison with other roads is to some extent a matter of opinion.\"\nBy the 1970s, following completion of the M6 to north",
"-23.60397216893034"
],
[
"the following number is an odd number the motorway generally follows a north–south direction, even-numbered motorways generally follow an east–west direction. Other controlled-access (dual carriageways) in Germany can be federal highways (Bundesstraßen), state highways (Landesstraßen), district highways (Kreisstraßen) and city highways (Stadtstraßen), each with their own numbering system.\nIn New Zealand, as well as in the Scandinavian countries, in Finland, Brazil and Russia, motorway numbers are also derived from the state highway route that they form a part of, but unlike Hungary and Ireland, they are not distinguished from non motorway sections of the same state highway route. In the cases",
"-23.576519723588717"
],
[
"European route E47 Other road numbers The Danish E-roads have no other national numbers (the national number is the same as the E-number, here 47, but only the E-sign is posted). Between Helsingborg and Eskilstrup on the island of Falster, 160 km, the E 47 shares road with the E 55. Between Køge and Copenhagen (29 km), also the E 20 shares the same road. Danish roads 9 and 19 share roads with the E 47 short parts.\nIn Germany the motorway has the national number BAB 1. The part without motorway has the national number B 207. This part is a kind of expressway without any roads crossing",
"-23.567639574614077"
],
[
"country and in all major cities.\nIn South Australia, B-triples up to 35.0 metres (114.8 ft) and two-trailer road trains to 36.5 metres (120 ft) were only permitted to travel on a small number of approved routes in the north and west of the state, including access to Adelaide's north-western suburban industrial and export areas such as Port Adelaide, Gillman and Outer Harbour via Salisbury Highway, Port Wakefield Road and Augusta Highway before 2017. A project named Improving Road Transport for the Agriculture Industry added 7,200 kilometres (4,500 mi) of key routes permitted to operate vehicles over 30m in 2015–2018.\nTriple (three-trailer) road trains operate",
"-23.55894921410072"
],
[
"only the rear wheels independently of the front wheels. At low speed (e.g. parking) the rear wheels turn opposite to the front wheels, reducing the turning radius, sometimes critical for large trucks, tractors, vehicles with trailers and passenger cars with a large wheelbase, while at higher speeds both front and rear wheels turn alike (electronically controlled), so that the vehicle may change position with less yaw and improved build-up of the lateral acceleration, enhancing straight-line stability. The \"snaking effect\" experienced during motorway drives while towing a travel trailer is thus largely nullified.\nFour-wheel steering found its most widespread use in monster",
"-23.510846314798982"
],
[
"are also known as trailer on flat car or TOFC trains, but they have lost market share to containers (COFC), with longer, 53-foot containers frequently used for domestic shipments. There are also roadrailer vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as the trailer of a road vehicle. Eurasia There are four major interconnecting rail networks on the Eurasian land mass, along with other smaller national networks.\nMost countries in the European Union participate in an auto-gauge network. The United Kingdom is linked to this network via the Channel Tunnel. The Marmaray project connects Europe",
"-23.50408507746033"
],
[
"driving wheels appropriately. Freight locomotives generally had driving wheels between 40 and 60 inches (1,016 and 1,524 mm) in diameter; dual-purpose locomotives generally between 60 and 70 inches (1,524 and 1,778 mm), and passenger locomotives between 70 and 100 inches (1,778 and 2,540 mm) or so. Some long wheelbase locomotives (four or more coupled axles) were equipped with blind drivers. These were driving wheels without the usual flanges, which allowed them to negotiate tighter curves without binding.\nThe driving wheels on express passenger locomotives have come down in diameter over the years, e.g. from 8 ft 1 in (2,464 mm) on the GNR Stirling 4-2-2 of 1870",
"-23.495197516365806"
],
[
"a year. Drivers from the USA, however, must take a British test if they wish to drive in the UK for more than a year after arriving in the country. This is because US driver licensing is carried out by individual states, but the US Constitution does not permit individual states to enter bilateral treaties with other sovereign governments. However driving licences from the European Union, Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Switzerland are valid in the United Kingdom. Enforcement Some of the rules of the road should be enforced by the police, others are enforced by council wardens. Speed",
"-23.488213920541966"
],
[
"A5 also radiate out from London (in clockwise order) to points around the coast. All classified roads starting in the zone between the A1 and the A2 begin with the figure 1 (A137, B1412, etc). Scotland is similarly divided into zones by the A7, A8 and A9 which radiate out from Edinburgh. Motorways Motorways are classified as \"special roads\", and consequently are numbered differently, but in a similar manner. Motorways are either M-class or A(M) class. M-class motorways are labelled in the form Mx, as a higher grade of motorway, and A(M) roads are labelled in the form Ax(M), as",
"-23.48614613992322"
],
[
"number of public roads (public highways), in countries using the term motorway, the term highway fell out of common speech and was supplanted by the legal definition, denoting any public road, as in the Highway Code. Thus the term \"High Street\" assumed a different meaning; that of a street where the most important shops and businesses were located.\nIn Britain, the term, 'High Street', has both a generic and a specific meaning. People refer to shopping on the high street when they mean the main retail precinct, but also refer to shopping on the High Street when they mean a specific",
"-23.482972290872567"
],
[
"1 July 2008 onwards, purchase of a sticker is obligatory for use of a toll road with a vehicle whose permissible maximum weight does not exceed 3,500 kg, regardless of the maximum weight of a trailer.\nThe toll stickers have been criticized by the European Commission and various automobile clubs from Central and Southern Europe, spawning numerous guides on how to avoid highways, and causing heavy traffic damaging the roadway on secondary roads. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the main protesters were Austrian, and yet Austria has had a toll-sticker system in place for many years. On 28 January 2010,",
"-23.471014846938488"
],
[
"the cross-country vehicle overcomes obstacles up to 6 ft in height. The Sherp's maximum speed is over 40 km/h on land and 6 km/h on water and can tow up to 2500 lbs. History The design of the ATV began in 2012 based on the Russian designs of Alexei Garagashyan. The Sherp ATV was presented at the Moscow exhibition of crossovers and off-road vehicles in 2015. Mass production started in St. Petersburg, Russia and Kyiv, Ukraine in 2015. In the media On February 2016: Sherp ATV appeared on the show TopGear.\nIn July 2017 Sherp ATV was demonstrated in the Canadian towns of Whitehorse and",
"-23.459453191389912"
],
[
"are similar to those for cars. New motorcycles must meet Euro III standards,\nwhile cars must meet Euro V standards. Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro IV in 2012 and Euro V in 2015.",
"-23.45579925844504"
],
[
"Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 The Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 removed the strict rules and UK speed limits that were included in the earlier Locomotive Acts which had greatly restricted the adoption of motorised vehicles in the United Kingdom. It came into operation on 14 November 1896. Background The powerful railways lobby and those with interests in transport using horse-drawn vehicles advocated the original Locomotive Acts which imposed very low speed limits and other restrictions on the use of \"locomotives\" and motorcars on the UK public highways.\nMotor car enthusiasts strongly urged the removal of these restrictions on motorcars.",
"-23.401599223172525"
],
[
"potential better streamlining, three-wheeled cars are usually less expensive to operate.\nThree-wheeler transport vehicles known as auto rickshaws are a common means of public transportation in many countries in the world, and are an essential form of urban transport in many developing countries such as India and the Philippines.\nAuto rickshaws are a form of novelty transport in many Eastern countries. History Early automotive pioneer Karl Benz developed a number of three-wheeled models. One of these, the Benz Patent Motorwagen, is regarded as the first purpose-built automobile. It was made in 1885.\nIn 1896, John Henry Knight showed a tri-car at The Great",
"-23.374889257816903"
],
[
"intersections. Pedestrian and bicyclist safety A 1981 US Department of Transportation study determined that the frequency of motor vehicle collisions with bicyclists and pedestrians when the vehicle was turning right increased significantly after the adoption of \"Western RTOR\". According to that study \"Estimates of the magnitude of the increases ranged from 43% to 107% for pedestrian accidents and 72% to 123% for bicyclist accidents.\" A 1984 study found that where RTOR was allowed \"all right-turning crashes increase by about 23%, pedestrian crashes by about 60%, and bicyclist crashes by about 100%.\" A 1993 study also concluded that RTOR increased crashes",
"-23.368288275179566"
],
[
"Two-wheeler insurance Policy and benefits The law binds anyone riding a two-wheeler with an insurance policy covering the owner of the vehicle against any unanticipated situations or accidents or the vehicle against damage. The vehicle is protected against any damage caused due to natural disasters such as storms, floods, landslides, earthquakes, and so on. In addition, it also covers against the damage caused by the theft, fire, accidents, riot, and explosion. Types The motor insurance policy is generally categorized into ‘act only’ and ‘comprehensive’ policies. The former covers the death, physical injuries, or any damage to the property of the",
"-23.36104496588905"
],
[
"the crossing. The lights are similar to the Belgian crossings in that they have two red lights and sometimes a white light, which means the driver can go up to 50 km/h, rather than 30 km/h, with half barriers. On some crossings, the space for a white light is provided but no light is there, because in newer legislation it is taken as dangerous element that should not be used to positively change drivers' speed. Usually a yellow outline surrounds the crossbucks for increased visibility at night. Denmark Read article at https://www.itech.hd/DenLevCrossing for info. Estonia Most protected crossings are equipped with LED-lights.",
"-23.35989794478519"
],
[
"put aside in favour of cars re-equipped with two standard North American four-wheel trucks (bogies). The passenger cars were never used in six-wheel form due to safety concerns.\nMost of the early TG&BR freight and passenger cars were built by Dickey, Neill and Company at the Beverley Street Foundry, Toronto. The Company was a substantial investor in the TG&BR. The first passenger cars were notable in having a compound curved roof with a high centre section, giving extra headroom over the centre gangway; an arrangement often seen on horse-drawn streetcars of the period. Some later freight cars were built by the",
"-23.35792440638761"
],
[
"terrain. Coupé utility or Tray utility vehicle Vehicles featuring a coupe passenger compartment with an attached cargo bed. All-steel-bodied utility vehicles, more commonly called utes, were invented in Australia. Sport utility truck, Utility Truck or Pickup truck Utility trucks, (known as pickup trucks in the US) are similar to Coupé utilities. The main difference being that they are either built specifically for purpose or based upon Sports utility vehicles rather than being produced by modifying existing passenger vehicles. Utility Task Vehicle The Side-by-side (SxS), also known as Utility Task Vehicle (UTV), is small four-wheel off-road vehicle. It has a side-by-side",
"-23.336596519289742"
],
[
"motor scooters are considered by law to be in the same class as mopeds or small motorcycles and therefore they have fewer restrictions than do larger motorcycles.\nAccording to the Motorcycle Industry Council, sales of motor scooters in the United States have more than doubled since 2000. The motorcycle industry as a whole has seen 13 years of consecutive growth. According to council figures, 42,000 scooters were sold in 2000. By 2004, that number increased to 97,000. Scooter sales in 2008 in the United States were up 41% on 2007, and represented 9% of all powered two-wheeler sales. However, there was",
"-23.324354460968607"
],
[
"vehicles need to be registered with the state and whether or not a license is required to operate such a vehicle. A common threshold is 50 cm³.\nIn the Netherlands road tax is based on region, weight and fuel type (petrol / compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, diesel or other (electric/hybrid/hydrogen)), and in Sweden, road tax is based on vehicle weight. However, Swedish cars registered in 2008 or later are taxed based on carbon dioxide emissions.\nDisplacement is also used to distinguish categories of (heavier) and lighter motorbikes with respect to driving licence and insurance requirements. In France and some other EU",
"-23.31238439043227"
],
[
"A7 road (Great Britain) Edinburgh The northern terminus of the A7 is the junction at North Bridge with Princes Street in Edinburgh, also the northern terminus of the A1 and the southern terminus of the A900. The A7 is a major road through the city's south-eastern suburbs. This part of the A7 was the former route of the A68 road (the old A7 used to be what is now the A701/A772 at Gilmerton).\nThe road passes Cameron Toll, before meeting the Edinburgh City Bypass at the major Sheriffhall Roundabout. South of the city bypass the A7 continues through Midlothian past a",
"-23.308672421895608"
],
[
"A8 road (Scotland) Edinburgh The A8 begins at the West End of Edinburgh, in the New Town. The road originally also included Princes Street, but this stretch was declassified, as Princes Street is no longer open to all traffic.\nThe road continues westwards through into the suburbs of the city past affluent areas of Murrayfield and Corstorphine, often with an accompanying bus lane. Only once the road reaches the A720 City Bypass does it become a primary route, leading out past the Royal Highland Showground at Ingliston, and Edinburgh Airport.\nAt Newbridge, the A8 meets the start of the M8 and M9",
"-23.30594259206373"
],
[
"European route E18 United Kingdom The route starts in Northern Ireland and runs from Craigavon (M1) – Belfast (M2, A8) – Larne, then to Scotland: Stranraer, Dumfries and Galloway (A75) – Gretna – then England via the (M6) – Carlisle (A69) to Newcastle. As is normal for European routes in the United Kingdom, it is not signposted as such. North Sea There are no ferries from Newcastle to Norway. Freight-only ferries may operate from other United Kingdom ports to Norway or Denmark, but for car journeys the only practical route is a crossing to France, Belgium or the Netherlands, followed",
"-23.27399223850807"
],
[
"US long distance trucks provide an interior noise level of 60–70 db(A) at highway speed, while European long distance trucks, all built as a COE, provide a level of 60–65 db(A). As highway speeds are a slightly higher in the USA, this performance can be viewed as equivalent.\nBecause of their flat front design, early COE semi-trucks had significantly worse aerodynamics than conventional tractors. Modern cab-over designs, in both semi-trucks and light- and medium-duty models, have improved aerodynamics significantly over early models, but often still have higher drag coefficients than their modern conventional-design counterparts. This works against fuel economy, and offsets",
"-23.273766639700625"
],
[
"of the motorcycle in jurisdictions where traffic keeps to the right side of the road; the sidecar's position is reversed in left-side jurisdictions. This matches the usual configuration of driver and front-seat passenger in cars. In the UK, sidecars fitted to the right side are prohibited on motorcycles registered after August 1981. In Italy, left-mounted sidecars were prohibited in 1924, though the ban was not enforced until 1959.\nIn the Republic of China (Taiwan), Article 39-2 of the Road Traffic Security Rules (zh:道路交通安全規則) prohibits the registration of new motorcycles with sidecars but does not specifically restrict fitting them later. Flexible",
"-23.2715501640796"
],
[
"is the huge disparity between weight, dimensions and body types of different vehicles on the road. When vehicles of different weight and size collide, the vehicle's passive safety features may not work as intended. The differences in vehicle designs may cause of the colliding vehicles to under-ride or over-ride, limiting the vehicle's frames to properly absorb / disperse the impact energy. This is particularly serious in a collision between a small hatchback and a large sedan / SUV. Even on a collision between two same vehicle models, the differences in their ride height due to the number of occupants on",
"-23.26274377260313"
],
[
"lead vehicle necessarily in reverse gear.\nIn Scotland, where most drivers are accustomed to single-track roads, it is customary for drivers to acknowledge each other with a wave, or flash of headlights at night. Generally in Scotland, if the passing place is to the right-hand side of a vehicle, the driver would never pull in to the passing place to let the other driver pass. Instead the driver would stop just short of the passing place on the road, to leave space for the oncoming vehicle to manoeuvre into the passing place which would be on their left. At night, if",
"-23.245162083807372"
],
[
"there are two identical trucks. Each truck has two powered axles, a currently popular configuration used in high-speed, low-weight applications such as intermodal trains and high-speed rail, as well as in switching. Examples include the EMD GP (General Purpose) units. High speed (\"time\") freight trains, with guaranteed schedules often use B-B locomotives of 3,800 HP (950 HP per axle), but this application, too, has largely been replaced by higher-powered, 4,500 HP C-C locomotives (750 HP per axle). An American Colloquialism of \"B-B\" is \"Four axle\". B-2-B \"B-2-B\" means there are three trucks. The center truck has two unpowered axles",
"-23.227599171108977"
],
[
"miles per hour (32 kilometers per hour). Due to their small wheels, motorized scooters are not typically safe for street use as even the smallest bumps can cause an accident.\nCalifornia requires that a person riding a motorized scooter on a street be 16 years of age or older, have a valid driver's license, be wearing a bicycle helmet, have no passengers, and otherwise follow the same rules of the road the same as cars do. The motorized scooter must have brakes, may not have handlebars raised above the operator's shoulders, and if ridden at night must have a headlight, a",
"-23.222999098023138"
],
[
"two leading wheels, eight driving wheels, and two trailing wheels. Some locomotives such as the 4-4-0 American type had no trailing wheels and were designated with a zero in the final place.\nIn the Whyte notation the number designates the number of wheels rather than the number of axles, thus the final 2 in the Mikado's 2-8-2 refers to two wheels (one axle) while the Northern type's 4-8-4 designation refers to four wheels (two axles). \nThe highest number of trailing wheels on a single locomotive is six as seen on 2-6-6-6 Allegheny type and the Pennsylvania Railroad's 6-8-6 steam",
"-23.21653991771018"
],
[
"or intersections where the Swedish E45 does not follow the straight direction. There are 26 level crossings with railways. There are 19 motorway exits and 29 other motorway-like exits.\nThe ferry Gothenburg–Frederikshavn has about 6 daily departures and takes 3½ hours. Denmark In Denmark the E 45 is a motorway (speed limit 110 km/h – 130 km/h) from the south of Frederikshavn to the Denmark–Germany border. The E 45 has no other national number. It connects to the E 39 and E 20 motorways.\nIn 1992 it was renamed from E 3 (which actually before 1985 ended in Lisbon, Portugal) and until 2006, with the extension in Sweden, the",
"-23.196313110336632"
],
[
"the growth in tonne kilometres, the environmental external costs of trucks and lorries in the UK have reportedly decreased. Between 1990 and 2000, there has been a move to heavier goods vehicles due to major changes in the haulage industry including a shift in sales to larger articulated vehicles. A larger than average fleet turnover has ensured a swift introduction of new and cleaner vehicles in the UK.\nAlthough the decline in railway use led to a reduction in the length of the rail network, the length of the road network has not increased in proportion to the increase in road",
"-23.187038665200816"
],
[
"UK with dual numbers. This arose at the time when the M4 turned north near junction 8, where it met the A308, and headed for the original junction 9, where the motorway ended at a roundabout interchange with the A4. When the westward extension was opened, junction 8 was closed and a new junction built a little to the west, taking both numbers. The road to the A4 became A423(M) and later A404(M), and the junction with the A4 became 9B. Junction 9A is the exit for Cox Green and White Waltham. To the west of junction 13 on the",
"-23.162557460479547"
],
[
"L7e categories).\nThe framework for drivers licences of light quadricycles in the EU was released in 2006, with Directive 2006/126 (the third Driving Licence directive). This directive applies the same requirements for light quadricycles as for mopeds. This directive includes a recommendation to specify a minimum driving age of 16 years, although the age limit actually varies between 14 and 18 years between countries. Heavy quadricycles (L7e) Quadricycles (L7e), also referred to as Heavy quadricycles, are defined by Framework Directive 2002/24/EC as motor vehicles with four wheels \"other than those referred to (as light quadricycles), whose unladen mass is not more",
"-23.154222875375126"
],
[
"Gross vehicle weight rating Australia A car driver licence is limited to driving vehicles up to a maximum GVM of 4,500 kg (9,900 lb). Beyond this, a different class of licence is required. A vehicle with a GVM up to 4,500 kg is termed a light vehicle, while those over 4,500 kg are termed heavy vehicles.\nMany models of small truck are manufactured to have a GVM rating of 5,000 to 7,000 kg (11,000 to 15,400 lb) but sold with the option of a GVM of just under 4,500 kg so that they can be driven on a car licence. Often, the only difference between the models is",
"-23.15024245281893"
],
[
"A74(M) at the Scottish border. It existed as an isolated stub from 1992, when the A74 was improved to motorway standard around Gretna, to 2008, when the M6 was extended northwards. Scottish ministers had previously expressed disappointment at slow progress over the border; in 1964, Dumfries MP Hector Monro stated \"there is widespread feeling in the south of Scotland that the advance south over the Border of this important new road is being delayed because England is dragging her feet.\"\nWhen the M6 was complete around Carlisle in 1971, a new 4.5-mile (7.2 km) section of dual carriageway A74 was created to",
"-23.14950039886753"
]
] |
3q54cq | Why do most schools all across the world teach English? Why is it valued so much? | [
"English has become common a language used in commerce transportation and science across the world. When a Spanish pilot tries to land on a French Airport they will talk English with the air-traffic control for example. English is often used as a Lingua Franca, a language used by two people who don't share the same native tongue to communicate with one another. Other languages were used for that purpose in the past usually the ones of the great empires and traders. English is just the last in a long row of languages used for this purpose that thanks to the British colonial efforts followed by the rise of its former north American colony to superpower status in the 20th century was predominant just in time for the development of global communication networks to make it *the* language everyone used to communicate with one another. It probably helps that English is as languages go rather easy to learn for many people. Everyone who has conquered parts of the British isle over the last few millennia has left parts of their own language in the mix that the natives spoke and once they started conquering of their own they imported vocabulary back home from whoever they encountered. They also dropped all the hard and complicated grammar stuff that the original languages had making it a very 'simplified' language.",
"Students in a country can learn their native language and be able to speak to 1% of the world's population, or learn English too and be able to speak to around 30%. English is very widespread in western countries so is generally taught, if that makes sense",
" > I live in England so that's probably why I don't know. Oddly enough, that's quite relevant. British colonialism lead them to have a globe spanning empire that was one of the dominant world powers for much of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century. & nbsp; [This]( URL_0 ) was all under control of Great Britain just 96 years ago. And while the British influence waned due to the impact of two world wars and decolonization of much of that territory, one of their English speaking colonies that got away from them late in the 18th century, came out of WWII relatively unscathed, and sort of ended up taking their place as the biggest meanest bulldog in the junkyard.",
"Once upon a time, the British spread all throughout the world and conquered very many countries. Often, when they did this, people in the countries they conquered would start learning English. Sometimes this was because the British would force them, other times it was because its really useful to be able to talk to the people who just conquered your country. Meanwhile, Britain was a very powerful country, so even people who didn't get conquered found it useful to learn English so they could talk to British people. Later, the United States grew more powerful than Britain, but because Americans also speak English, the language was just as useful. So what did all this lead to? The English language was 1) a good language for talking to powerful people and 2) spoken in many parts of the world. This means that it was in an ideal place to become a global *lingua franca* -- if two people meet, and one speaks Language X but the other speaks Language Y, it's likely they both speak English, so they will often talk in that. This lingua franca status and the fact that a few English-speaking countries are still very powerful means that many important international groups use English: conventions of scientists, air traffic controllers, politicians, etc. TL;DR: English lets you talk to a wider range of people, and more powerful people, than many other languages"
] | [
[
"same time, as in other foreign cultures, the class benefits of English proficiency are acknowledged and to this end schools teach in English and many television channels are in English. The use of Breton and Welsh has historically been discouraged by French and British governments respectively. There are also instances of intolerance to the speaking of Native American languages at some schools, thus forcing those students to create small communities in which they can speak their native language, thereby creating \"language boundaries\" on a very small scale. Examples like these illustrate the impact that language boundaries can have on cultural",
"-33.419372037074936"
],
[
"(homestays), campus residences, shared housing, or hotels. Qualifications Most students will sit an international language exam and receive an internationally recognized qualification. English Globally, English language schools have seen the greatest demand over schools for other languages. Over one billion people are said to be learning English in a second language or foreign language context. In the United States alone, ESL learners make up over one-third of all adult, non-academic learners. English learning has experienced the highest increase in demand over the last three years, with an increase of 67%. The United States and the UK are the biggest players",
"-33.048013566760346"
],
[
"use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world.\nBritish and American English are the two most commonly taught varieties in the education systems where English is taught as a second language. British English tends to predominate in former colonies where English is not the first language of the majority of the population, such as Malaysia, India, Pakistan, and Singapore. British English is also the primary form taught in the European Union and the rest of Europe. American English, in contrast, tends to dominate instruction in Latin America, South Korea, Taiwan, China, and Japan.\nPhilippine",
"-32.78225695725996"
],
[
"work or for personal reasons. At the same time, more children were given the opportunity to learn foreign languages in school, as the number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, and foreign-language study ceased to be confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensive schools, which offered foreign-language study to all children rather than to the select few in the elite grammar schools, greatly increased the demand for language learning.\nThis increased demand included many learners who struggled with traditional methods such as grammar translation, which involves",
"-32.63118676627346"
],
[
"as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria; and others, such as the Philippines, under the sphere of influence of English-speaking countries. Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce, and so on, may all be carried out predominantly in English.\nThe expanding circle refers to those countries where English has no official role, but is nonetheless important for certain functions, e.g., international business and tourism. By the twenty-first century, non-native English speakers have come to outnumber native speakers by a factor of three, according to the British Council. ",
"-32.58309587399708"
],
[
"English language, the role of English as a world lingua franca, and the large number of books and films that are translated from English into other languages. That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in many places that English is an especially suitable language for expressing new ideas or describing new technologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages. Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed from English mostly as calques, while others, such as Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sound-indicating script. Dubbed films and television programmes are",
"-31.734677684187773"
],
[
"English often centres on academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general. Opposition The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by authors such as Alistair Pennycook as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.\nRobert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his Linguistic Imperialism (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English",
"-31.692413624637993"
],
[
"as Australia, it is so common nowadays for a foreign language to be taught in schools that the subject of language education is referred to LOTE or Language Other Than English. In the majority of English-speaking education centers, French, Spanish and German are the most popular languages to study and learn. English As A Second Language is also available for students whose first language is not English and they are unable to speak it to the required standard. Online and self-study courses Hundreds of languages are available for self-study, from scores of publishers, for a range of costs, using a",
"-31.58525800833013"
],
[
"economic needs, and the requirement of a second language in workplaces. With a remarkably diverse country, the United States workplaces have begun requiring education of a second language, and this extra education increases the chance of a person getting a job. A person only able to speak English is unable to serve and communicate with customers that speak another language. Schools are more likely to teach a foreign language if there is a higher concentration of native speakers in the area. This allows these teachings to remain useful to students and help increase your eligibility for future careers.",
"-31.55439182103146"
],
[
"have meant English has developed in ways very different from the evolution of most world languages across history. English is a language with a long written past that has preserved many words that might otherwise have been lost or changed, often in fixed texts such as the King James Version of the Bible which are not updated regularly to modernise their language. English also has many conventions for writing polite and formal prose, which are often very different from how people normally speak. As literacy among native English speakers has become almost universal, it has become increasingly easy for people",
"-31.539744008383423"
],
[
"for students who want to move to English-speaking countries, and other programs for students who do not intend to move but who want to understand English content for the purposes of education, entertainment, or conducting international business. The differences between these two models of English language education have grown larger over time, and teachers focusing on each model have used different terminology, received different training, and formed separate professional associations. English is also taught as a second language for recent immigrants to English-speaking countries, which faces separate challenges because the students in one class may speak many different native languages.",
"-31.339900729668443"
],
[
"some schools offer a choice between the State Language and Hindi, and the third language (grades 5-8, often Hindi (in the non-Hindi states), the regional language of the state (if the student opted for Hindi as the second language, a foreign language or Sanskrit). An exception is Tamil Nadu where only Tamil and English are taught.\nEnglish-medium schools often find favour with parents, especially in urban areas, due to English's international prestige, India's Colonial heritage, its usage in Indian business and it being the medium of instruction in most Indian universities. Pakistan In Pakistan, English is used widely to communicate",
"-31.298588756122626"
],
[
"are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes (including Australian, Scottish and Canadian).\nEdward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become \"dependent on the language skills of others\" by placing their faith in international English. Appropriation theory Some reject both",
"-31.251140125095844"
],
[
"metric for effective education is problematic in many ways, placing universities who do not use English as their primary language at a disadvantage. Because English has been adopted as the international language for most academic societies and journals, citations and publications in a language different from English are harder to come across. Thus, such a methodology is criticized for being inappropriate and not comprehensive enough. A second important disadvantage for universities of non-English tradition is that within the disciplines of social sciences and humanities the main tool for publications are books which are not or only rarely covered by digital",
"-31.090413691708818"
],
[
"or can't go to English-medium schools because, the tuition fees are usually too high and they can't afford such tuition. English-medium schools are growing in popularity among the middle class, upper-middle class and rich families. The English-medium schools not only teach the students about their own countries but also about the European History and Literature.\nThe exams of the O-level and A-level students of Edexcel and Cambridge are conducted through British Council Bangladesh. Language The English-medium schools teach most of the subjects in English. Bengali is also taught. French and Spanish is taught in International School Dhaka. The St Francis",
"-31.07237097423058"
],
[
"students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands.\" (Punjab Text Book Board 1997). Many Englishes Many difficult choices must be made if further standardisation of English is pursued. These include whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties",
"-31.052702489076182"
],
[
"Schools' which often follow one of the three International Baccalaureate programs. These will be populated by expatriates' children and some children of the local upper middle class. They do this in an effort to maintain linguistic stability and to ensure that their children do not fall behind due to linguistic problems. Where their own language is not available, families will often choose English-speaking schools for their children. They do this because of the linguistic and cultural opportunities being immersed in English might provide their children when they are adults, and because their children are more likely to have prior exposure",
"-30.88519365398679"
],
[
"and commerce (a lingua franca), English has also become the most widely used second language. In countries where English is neither a native language nor widely spoken, a non-native variant (typically English English or North American English) might be considered \"standard\" for teaching purposes. Typically, English English is taught as standard across Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia and North American English is taught as standard across Latin America and East Asia. This does, however, vary between regions and individual teachers. In some areas a pidgin or creole language, blends English with one or more native languages. Grammar Although",
"-30.868557996000163"
],
[
"culture, due to the fact that they were using materials originally designed for pupils in the United States.\nThe report also informed that teacher training was inadequate and that 82 per cent of the pupils did not go beyond grade 4. Many of the problems identified were attributed to the attempt to impose an English-based education system in just one generation, concluding that \"Upon leaving school, more than 99% of Filipinos will not speak English in their homes. Possibly, only 10% to 15% of the next generation will be able to use this language in their occupations. In fact, it will",
"-30.566895269439556"
],
[
"Language education by region Practices in language education vary significantly by region. Firstly, the languages being learned differ; in the United States, Spanish is the most popular language to be learned, whereas the most popular languages to be learned in Australia are Italian and Mandarin Chinese. Also, teaching methods tend to differ by region. Language immersion is popular in some European countries, but is not used very much in the United States. Foreign language education 1995 European Commission’s White Paper \"Teaching and learning – Towards the learning society\", stated that \"upon completing initial training, everyone should be proficient in two",
"-30.526513421558775"
],
[
"United States, proponents of the practice argue that it will not only help to keep non-English-speaking children from falling behind their peers in math, science, and social studies while they master English, but such programs teach English better than English-only programs. For many students, the process of learning literacy and a new language simultaneously is simply an overwhelming task, so bilingual programs began as a way to help such students develop native language literacy first - research by Cummins, a central researcher in the field, shows that skills such as literacy developed in a first language will transfer to English.",
"-30.43421052454505"
],
[
"the mandated primacy of English: for example, in many European companies, such as Airbus, Ford, G.M., Philips, Renault, Volvo, etc. have designated English to be the language of communication for their senior management, and many universities are offering education in English. The language is also a required subject in most European countries. Thus, the percentage of English speakers is expected to rise. English as lingua franca English is the most commonly spoken foreign language in 19 out of 25 European Union countries (excluding the UK and Ireland)\nIn the EU25, working knowledge of English as a foreign language is clearly leading",
"-30.423351389123127"
],
[
"in English Language is inevitable. According to The Five Principles of Effective Second Language Vocabulary Instruction by Barcroft, presenting new words frequently and repeatedly during lessons is one of the keys to success in learning a second language. Likewise, in mother-tongue teaching, students are less exposed to English, so they acquire English as a second language less effectively.\nAnother concern is the status of English as an international language. Some have argued that reduced exposure to English as well as learning academic subjects in native language will lessen students’ edge and competence in the global market. Fine-tuning of mother-tongue teaching In",
"-30.354499182052677"
],
[
"school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject between first grade and ninth grade, with all students continuing in secondary school studying English for at least another year. Most students also study one and sometimes two additional languages. These include (but are not limited to) German, French and Spanish. Some Danish and Norwegian is at times also taught as part of Swedish courses for native speakers. Because of the extensive mutual intelligibility between the three continental Scandinavian languages Swedish speakers often use their native language when visiting or living in Norway or Denmark. Health Healthcare in Sweden is similar in",
"-30.33384983718861"
],
[
"their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC",
"-30.305724635371007"
],
[
"clientele which felt it would be more important that their sons learnt to understand the English than that they were taught to appreciate classic poetry.\nBroadly similar issues (‘classical education’ vs ‘liberal education’) had already arisen for education in England with existing grammar schools being unwilling (or legally unable) to give instruction in subjects other than Latin or Greek and were to end in an expansion of their curriculum to include modern subjects. In the Indian situation a complicating factor was that the 'classical education' reflected the attitudes and beliefs of the various traditions in the sub-continent, 'English education' clearly did",
"-30.182085336127784"
],
[
"Language education in the United States Language education in the United States has historically involved teaching American English to immigrants and Spanish, French, Latin, Italian or German to native English speakers. Bilingual education was sponsored in some districts, often contentiously. Japanese language education in the United States increased following the Japanese post-war economic miracle. This was a period between the Cold War and World War II where Japan had the second largest economy in the world. In order to participate, the government increased funding to teaching Japanese in schools. Chinese as a second language began to be taught",
"-30.165271934703924"
],
[
"as well. However, foreign language immersion programs are growing in popularity, making it possible for elementary school children to begin serious development of a second language.\nIn 2008 the Center for Applied Linguistics conducted an extensive survey documenting foreign language study in the United States. The most popular language is Spanish, due to the large number of recent Spanish-speaking immigrants to the United States (see Spanish in the United States). According to this survey, in 2008 88% of language programs in elementary schools taught Spanish, compared to 93% in secondary schools. Other languages taught in U.S. high schools in 2008, in",
"-30.150037714120117"
],
[
"and most of them come from poorer families. Curriculum and student activities As mentioned before, English is the official language of secondary school, both private and public, which leads to challenges for the majority of students that come from Kiswahili focused primary schools. In 2009, only 35.4% of students passed the English portion of the National Standard 7 Exam, but this does not affect their ability to go to secondary schools. English in secondary schools is extremely controversial because while some people believe that students will become prepared to understand the global economy, many others believe that the focus on",
"-30.12772343424149"
],
[
"literally, \"English\" – in North India). The usage of a particular language can reflect positively or negatively on its speaker depending upon the situation. For example, there is perception in the USA that only English speakers are American and only non-Americans are non-English-speakers. It is suspected that this assumption began because states would have \"official\" languages for the purposes of book publishing and therefore for the purposes of education, so intelligence would come to be associated with speaking the language that was written.\nBecause of this idea, there are also often social benefits which result from being able to speak English.",
"-30.110509482445195"
],
[
"communicative method. Parents redirected the focus of English education to align with exam content (Park, 2009). English Language Education programs focus on ensuring competency to perform effectively as a nation in an era of globalization using proficiency-based language programs that allow students to learn according to their own abilities and interests and driving Koreans to focus more on oral proficiency (Chang, 2009 & Park, 2009). With the new focus placed on oral expertise, there has been an “intense desire to speak native-like English” pressuring parents to take measures to ensure the most beneficial English education (Park, 2009).\nBecause of large class",
"-30.058781808969798"
],
[
"values. Through the study of English, the English department expands the students' capabilities in reasoning and problem solving skills, which ultimately instills a sense of self-sufficiency and creativity.\nThe English majors learn French for the second language, whereas other language majors learn English. Throughout the school life, they learn most various languages - English, Korean, French and Chinese in their 3rd year. German The German major has 2 classes. (5,6) French The French major has 2 classes. (7,8) Japanese The Japanese major has only 1 class. (9) Russian The Russian major has 1 class. (10) They have same colleagues throughout the",
"-30.044696638622554"
],
[
"there are occasions where a child is still coming to understand English as their second language. The primary schools heavily reinforce English as their second language so from that point on, there is a commonality among all the students. As a result, primary school teachers are taught the mechanisms used to teach the students English in addition to their regular everyday studies. Those include: math, science, language arts, reading, etc.\nAt this stage, educators are guiding the students to become problem-solvers and make connections from the curriculum to real life. Secondary Education Secondary Education is a total of six years, but",
"-30.03303602800588"
],
[
"Xavier's Green Herald International School also teaches French to its students from grade 6 onwards. These language skills help the students later in life when they go abroad for higher studies. Criticisms Critics of English medium curriculum point out that the students of English-medium are weak in their mother-tongue(Bengali). They say that in English-medium schools, English is the first priority. Also they argue that English-medium students are less patriotic. These criticisms are similar to those that can be found in English-medium education. This is not always true, however. These days, schools try their best to educate their students about their",
"-29.866731225542026"
],
[
"by the number of native first language speakers. However, it is not considered the lingua franca of the world, English is. Many scholars attribute the widespread use of English largely to the internet. There are more Chinese nationals surfing the internet than any other nationality in the world, however English remains the most commonly spoken language on the internet. This can be attributed to multiple factors such as the use of websites primarily designed for the use of Chinese for the Chinese people, and a censored internet. This can be described as a means of creating a form of linguistic",
"-29.849271797022084"
],
[
"taught young men the classical languages as a preparation for university, but by the mid-18th century many had broadened their curricula to include practical subjects. Nevertheless, they declined in popularity owing to competition from the more practical academies.\nThe name \"grammar school\" was adopted by public schools for children from 10 to 14 years of age, following a primary stage from 5 to 9 years of age. These types were gradually combined around 1900 to form elementary schools, which were also known as \"grammar schools\".\nAn analogous concept to the contemporary English grammar school is the magnet school, a state-funded secondary institution",
"-29.839385017898167"
],
[
"in their mother tongue. The Chinese EFL Journal and Iranian EFL Journal are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language. English within English-speaking countries The other broad grouping is the use of English within the English-speaking world. In what Braj Kachru calls \"the inner circle\", i.e., countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by refugees, immigrants, and their children. It also includes the use of English in \"outer circle\" countries, often former British colonies and the Philippines,",
"-29.783719736005878"
],
[
"is no relevant need to learn a second language if all dealings can be done in their native language; that is especially the case for English-speakers in the United States, particularly the Northern United States and most of the Southern United States, where everyday contact with other languages, such as Spanish and French is usually limited. The country's large area and the most populous regions' distance from large non-English-speaking areas, such as Mexico and Quebec, increase the geographic and economic barriers to foreign travel. Nevertheless, the requirement for all school children to learn a foreign language in some English speaking",
"-29.76079783384921"
],
[
"society. English was the taken for granted language of instruction throughout education, while until the late 1960s the only other languages taught in schools were Ancient Greek, Latin, French and German. Furthermore, the study of these was restricted to students in the upper IQ range of secondary schools. The one exception to this was the mother tongue teaching being provided by community-based ethnic schools, without any public recognition or support.\nThe conclusion which Smolicz reached was that the achievement of a dynamic and lasting multicultural Australia hinged on the teaching of languages to all students, as an integral part of the",
"-29.677230765344575"
],
[
"English (which is predominantly spoken as a second language) has been primarily influenced by American English. The rise of the call center industry in the Philippines has encouraged some Filipinos to \"polish\" or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries.\nCountries such as Australia, New Zealand, and Canada have their own well-established varieties of English which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners. The features, especially pronunciation, of the standard dialects of Australia and New Zealand resemble that of British English, while Canadian",
"-29.660565017515637"
],
[
"of education being predictors of English proficiency in the Philippines). As English language became highly embedded in Philippine society, it was only a matter of time before the language was indigenized to the point that it became differentiated from English varieties found in the United States, United Kingdom, or elsewhere. This, along with the formal introduction of the World Englishes (WE) framework to English language scholars in the Philippines opened the floodgates to research on this new emerging English, which has since been branded as such as Philippine English. Philippine English in the services sector The abundant supply of English",
"-29.626049427810358"
],
[
"Voices of the Self Major themes Standard English competence\nStandard English, a term that comes with a long history of debate, is generally understood by linguistic and literacy researchers as the language variety emphasized by the American public school system as the acceptable dialectical version of the English language. However, Gilyard argues that because students bring diverse literacy and language practices with them from their home environment, and specifically, African-American students bring \"Black English\" into schools and thus are forced to change their language and assimilate to the \"Standard English\" of public schools, African-American students have a harder time being successful",
"-29.616220719879493"
],
[
"grammar or vocabulary.\nPublic funding of minority languages continues to produce mixed reactions, and there is sometimes resistance to their teaching in schools. Partly as a result, proficiency in languages other than \"Standard\" English can vary widely. Immigrant languages Communities migrating to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 100 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's school children.\nBritish Asians speak dozens of different languages, and it is difficult to determine how many people speak each language alongside English.",
"-29.61386762210168"
],
[
"whose main language is not English. The goal of the program is to increase students' English proficiency so that they can meet academic standards and do well in classrooms. In California, twenty-five percent of the student population in all public schools are in the ESL program. The Census Bureau claims there was about 31.8 million individuals whose primary language was not English in 1990. In the year 2000, it rose to 47 million, which is 18% of the population. Also, in the United States, there are more than 3.7 million public-school students whose English proficiency is limited, and similar to",
"-29.60645098351597"
],
[
"provided in all these home languages.\nBefore 2009, schools serving non-English speakers had to teach English as a subject only from grade 3 and all subjects were taught in English from grade 4 (except in Afrikaans language schools). Since 2009, all schools teach English as a subject from grade 1 and all subjects are taught in English from grade 4. Afrikaans language schools are an exception, in that all subjects (other than other languages) are taught in Afrikaans. Performance An independent study by Stellenbosch University researchers found that undue union influence and \"critical educational factors\", including weak institutional functionality, uneducated teachers,",
"-29.58728407556191"
],
[
"During the 21st century more and more schools started to offer national programs in English. United Kingdom and dependencies The British Isles have several indigenous languages apart from English. These include Welsh (official in Wales), Irish, Manx Gaelic, Cornish, Scottish Gaelic, and the Scots language (which is sometimes considered as a dialect of English).\nScotland, Northern Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man have each established bilingual programmes which provide education through the medium of their indigenous language. Most often, except for the cases of Manx and Cornish, these programmes exist where the language is spoken communally as a first",
"-29.556109838886186"
],
[
"the U.S. over the last twenty years, more than 70% of non-English-speaking school-age immigrants have arrived in the U.S. before they were 6 years old. At this age, they could have been taught English in school, and achieved a proficiency indistinguishable from a native speaker. In other countries, such as the Soviet Union, France, Spain, and Germany this approach has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities. Dewey John Dewey, a philosopher and educator based in Chicago and New York, helped conceptualize the role of American and international education during the first four decades of the 20th",
"-29.541979246016126"
],
[
"English English is compulsory for all year levels, with the exception of students studying ESL (English as a Second Language). Students undertake many varied activities in developing their skills in this subject area. At the VCE level, mainstream students can choose to study either English, Literature or English Language. LOTE (language Other Than English The Foreign languages studied at Wellington Secondary College are Mandarin and French. It was French and Indonesian that students could study but later on Indonesian was removed making the only foreign language students could learn was French.\nStudents undertake French, Mandarin and ESL (English as a",
"-29.533761118538678"
],
[
"the classroom is more influenced by the United States: Americans greatly outnumber Britons; in addition, as of 1993, the United States originated 75 percent of the world's TV programming. A BBC columnist assessed in 2015 that \"American English is the current dominant force globally, like it or not\".",
"-29.52871221632813"
],
[
"increased in recent years. Total immersion Spanish language schools have become very popular in Latin America and Spain. Total immersion Italian language schools are popular in Italy. Chinese Chinese is one of the largest growing languages among second or foreign language learners, and demand for such classes has typically followed suit. Language schools teaching Mandarin Chinese in the United States and the United Kingdom have increased in number over the last two decades. Arabic Arabic has also grown in popularity in the last decade. Reasons include the continued growth of Islam worldwide (the Koran holy book is in Arabic), as",
"-29.522552760579856"
],
[
"effect in English language assessment With globalization, the world has witnessed an increase in Internationalization of Higher Education, which has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of international students in the last 25 years. The prominence of English alongside this internationalization process has also seen the use of international tests of English such as Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and International English Language Testing System (IELTS) as standard tools in the wider learning community. The increasing weight of these tools in education raises questions about the impact of",
"-29.521921998937614"
],
[
"English schools was an aristocratic status symbol. In the vernacular school, to which I was sent, the son of the Muslim attendant of my father sat on my right side, and the son of a fisherman sat on my left. They were my playmates. I listened spellbound to their stories of birds, animals and aquatic creatures. Perhaps these stories created in my mind a keen interest in investigating the workings of Nature. When I returned home from school accompanied by my school fellows, my mother welcomed and fed all of us without discrimination. Although she was an orthodox old-fashioned lady,",
"-29.51875779362672"
],
[
"Culture in the English Speaking World. The first level classes in Reading, Speaking, Writing, and Listening are required, and the second level classes, along with Grammar and Culture are up to the students' choices. \nThe English department's high standard of lingual proficiency has led it to focus on an efficient curriculum, one that teaches English fluency through experience and activities. Thus, students are expected to distinguish media, informational, and cultural differences in topics or subjects that are introduced and interacted with in English. From the materials presented, students are to objectively extrapolate ideas, and thus form a substantive set of",
"-29.482088202697923"
],
[
"choose optional courses to match with their interest: journalism, psychology, advanced mathematics, physics, chemistry, law, theatre, history, enriched science topics etc. The school offers three levels of English: English as a second language (basic level), Enriched English as a second language (enriched) and English language arts (for native or very advanced speakers).",
"-29.480294005834367"
],
[
"as to provide an English environment which makes it easier to study the language. The English environment is created through teaching the core subjects, such as mathematics, science, computer and English, in English language. While English Program (EP) offer a good learning environment to only a few students, the schools tend to demand a large amount of money for the students’ tuition fees, putting them out of reach for most Thai families especially the ones living in remote areas. Most of Thai households cannot afford to send their children to EP schools to learn the second language. EIS, therefore, provides",
"-29.467846461753652"
],
[
"1500 words with highest use in international business English) in combination with the standard English grammar. Other examples include Simple English.\nThe increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words being assimilated into the vocabularies of other languages. This influence of English has led to concerns about language death, and to claims of linguistic imperialism, and has provoked resistance to the spread of English; however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world think that English provides them with opportunities for better employment and improved",
"-29.421393356315093"
],
[
"shifts in the usage of the English language within different cultures, a new \"literacy\" must also be used and developed. Overview There are two major topics that demonstrate the way multiliteracies can be used. The first is due to the world becoming smaller, communication between other cultures/languages is necessary to anyone. The usage of the English language is also being changed. While it seems that English is the common, global language, there are different dialects and subcultures that all speak different Englishes. The way English is spoken in Australia, South Africa, India or any other country is different from",
"-29.365831023431383"
],
[
"properties. In spite of the non-economic values attached to language, what prevails in matters of language is often that which is profitable and this can lead to the superiority of a dominant language as a means of production, with a high linguistic capital value. In this respect it is evident to see that the will (or necessity) to learn English in the last decades has grown so much and its range of action has been so wide that the economic necessity and other incentives of foreign-language study are generally perceived as unimportant. For similar reasons, former British prime minister",
"-29.35597464068269"
],
[
"second language. However, schools teaching English as a second language saw a rapid decline in enrolment and many closed down or switched to teaching English as the first language. This resulted in the mother tongue being taught only as an academic subject. Thus all other lessons and activities conducted beyond the classroom are conducted in English, with the exception of moral education and mother tongue; this is unlike the typical bilingual education models where academic content is taught in two languages. This applies throughout primary school (six years), secondary school (four or five years) and junior college (two years, 20%",
"-29.340980276101618"
],
[
"States. I go to an English school though, which is comfortable for me because I have some English speaking friends.\"\nResults",
"-29.340804545936408"
],
[
"members assimilated more and more into the culture of the mainstream group.\nThe other side was the importance of all students whose home language was English being able to study a language other than their own throughout their years at school. Learning another language had been shown to encourage the sort of positive attitude to other cultures which was needed for mainstream support of multicultural policies. It was also important to ensure that those whose mother tongue was English were not denied the sorts of cognitive, linguistic, cultural and occupational advantages of bilingualism, advantages which those of minority ethnic background enjoyed",
"-29.340655435808003"
],
[
"English as first and third language and Hindi or Sanskrit as second language (or recently some other foreign languages like French, German and in some schools Arabic). Hindi speaking states have recently started offering other regional languages in India as second language.\nPrimary and middle school mostly only teach two languages, local language of state and English.\nIn medium and large cities, most private schools use English as the medium of instruction.",
"-29.33966313242854"
],
[
"English is valuable, and that its use in the home, church or private place of business should in no way be discouraged. At the same time, they argue that the government should not bear the responsibility of guaranteeing that non-English-speaking individuals can participate in government solely using their mother language. They contend that as more immigrants learn English, the language barriers that divide the country into separate groups will disintegrate and lead to a decrease in racial and ethnic problems. They also believe that by learning English, individuals can become more productive citizens and members of American society. They argue",
"-29.325938793688692"
],
[
"using their version of one of the standard forms of English are almost completely mutually intelligible, but non-standard forms present significant dialectal variations, and are marked by reduced intelligibility. English is usually considered a symmetric case of a pluricentric language, because there is no clear cultural dominance of one variety over others.\nStatistically, however, American English speakers constitute more than 66% of native English speakers, with British English next with about 18% and other varieties such as Australian English and Canadian English having up to 7% each. Due to globalization in recent decades, English is becoming increasingly decentralized, with daily",
"-29.315796009264886"
],
[
"and professionals and by some members of the middle and high social classes. There is an English language newspaper in Caracas: The Daily Journal, founded in 1946. The use of English arose in part due to the presence of oil companies from English speaking countries (especially from the United States) since the beginning of the 20th century.\nEnglish is taught as a compulsory subject in the secondary education and in the bachillerato for five years. Bachillerato is a segment of secondary education similar to the baccalaureat, secondary school or American high school and is divided into two branches: sciences and humanities.",
"-29.315369936142815"
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[
"even the so-called 'standard' forms.\nAccording to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial imperialism of Victorian Britain or the cultural imperialism of the 20th century United States. While British colonialism laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence.\nThe development of International",
"-29.310289810979157"
],
[
"up a \"language\" such as English, Spanish, and French. Language in classrooms in generalized into one category in order to offer and exposes students to the basics and variety. Some classrooms may focus on one area on a \"language\" while others show multiple aspects of each one. Debates on Language Education Language Education in the United States has brought multiple debates on the topic of teaching foreign languages to native English speakers. Cognitive arguments are used to prove that the teaching of foreign language is useful. Studies have shown that over the duration of learning a second language,",
"-29.245806739869295"
],
[
"in the global English travel market accounting for 62% of the total revenue earned in 2013, and account for 65.5% of students worldwide.\nEnglish language schools are also among the most numerous in Asian countries such as China, Japan and South Korea, as Western culture influences the rising demand for English in business and cultural contexts. Other European languages Spanish is the second most popular language in the language travel market, followed with some distance by French, Italian and German. While demand for French, Italian, and German is decreasing, the demand for other languages such as Chinese and Arabic has significantly",
"-29.231947977503296"
],
[
"to take one foreign language class in grades 3-12. Although other foreign languages such as German, French, Spanish and Chinese are offered in most urban schools, English continues to be the most desired language.\nKanoun-e-Zabaan-e-Iran or Iran's Language Institute affiliated to Center for Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults was founded in 1979. Persian, English, French, Spanish, German and Arabic are taught to over 175,000 students during each term.\nEnglish language is studied in rahnamaei (literally meaning, guidance or orientation), an equivalent for middle school in other countries. Middle school is a period of three years and it covers grades 6-8",
"-29.2192019920858"
],
[
"mainly in English than in Spanish. English is introduced to minority children through factors inside and outside of the home, resulting in a child's increase in English vocabulary which demonstrates how English holds a higher status in society. The study also noted how the more exposure a child had to either a parent, relative or sibling read to them the better it impacted the child’s vocabulary. In the home, the more exposure a child has to language the richer their vocabulary. Maternal factors The study that Catherine Snow was apart of included looking to see if the mother’s interaction had",
"-29.18579120254435"
],
[
"open only to affluent residents. Its original curriculum consisted of such courses as English, surveying, navigation, geography, logic, and civics as well as a strong emphasis on mathematics.\nNowadays, English High has opened up its curriculum to include more liberal arts subjects such as foreign languages and writing as well as performing arts and more college preparatory courses. It has received an experimental \"Commonwealth Co-Pilot School\" status, geared toward improving the curriculum of urban schools. For a while, the school had an award-winning mock trial team as well.\nEnglish High School has an English-Language Learners program, which was run for many years",
"-29.172519703628495"
],
[
"well a child will learn to read in the first two years of school. The program takes advantage of the fact that many children, especially ESL students, fail in reading because it is very hard for second language students to understand and pronounce sounds in English. The program is easily duplicated at a relatively low cost because of the straight forward teaching materials, systematic methods and administrative oversight.\nIn September 2013 at the New York State Conference for Mayors and Municipal Officials, successes, ideas and information on best practices were shared among government peers. A best practice that was highlighted",
"-29.17228989105206"
],
[
"Standard English as the model to be used in learning English.\nSowden claims that Standard English, especially British English, has a colonial baggage that still affects the status of English in post-colonial countries and it is this negative value that has led ELF researchers to an attempt to describe and posit a neutralized version of English and to make it a universal one that belongs to every speaker, both native and second language speakers. Sowden argues that introducing ELF in ELT will lead to differences between schools where this is implemented, and schools which have the freedom to use a native",
"-29.137854748798418"
],
[
"World Englishes World Englishes is a term for emerging localized or indigenized varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of English in different regions of the world.\nThe issue of World Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as",
"-29.110987938722246"
],
[
"According to the syllabus approved by the Venezuelan Ministry of Education in 1986 English language is considered as a tool to communicate with people from other countries and to obtain information in the areas of humanities, technology and science. For that reason it is taught using a Notional Functional Approach. In the bachillerato a Structuralistic Approach is used. Despite the lines provided by the syllabus, few people learn to speak the language with only the knowledge acquired at school.\nIn some universities degree programs to train teachers or translators of English language are offered. In the rest of universities",
"-29.107290969463065"
],
[
"English language. English Language Learners (ELL) California has about 1.5 million students enrolled in public schools and roughly one in four students is an English language learner. Many of the English language learners are not meeting the English language proficiency level therefore being considered long-term English learners. A long-term English learner is a student in grades six through twelve who has been stuck at the same level of English proficiency for more than two years. The needs of English language learners are slightly different compared to those students who do not have a language barrier. Bilingual Teachers Teachers play an",
"-29.092325854624505"
],
[
"school in the country, despite most of its pupils being from families for whom English is not a first language. Ms. Hollows reports that one of the keys to her approach was involving parents more, drawing up ‘home-school contracts’ before they became a national requirement.",
"-29.083140555303544"
],
[
"Language education Need Increasing globalization has created a great need for people in the workforce who can communicate in multiple languages. Common languages are used in areas such as trade, tourism, international relations, technology, media, and science. Many countries such as Korea (Kim Yeong-seo, 2009), Japan (Kubota, 1998) and China (Kirkpatrick & Zhichang, 2002) frame education policies to teach at least one foreign language at the primary and secondary school levels. However, some countries such as India, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, and the Philippines use a second official language in their governments. According to GAO (2010), China has recently been putting",
"-29.077340919233393"
],
[
"about 1.3 million people, is the most common native language in the world. At the same time, many Chinese students are sent abroad to English-speaking countries to learn English. Why do these students learn English at all? \nAnswer: The production of global media like radio and television is extremely difficult to accomplish using written Chinese.\nIn preparation of the 17th National Party Congress in 2007, new restrictions were placed on all sectors of the press, Internet-users, bloggers, website managers, foreign journalist, more than 30 of which have been arrested since the start of the year. In addition, a thousand discussion forums",
"-29.037255772040226"
],
[
"it at an upper secondary level.\nDespite the high rate of foreign language teaching in schools, the number of adults claiming to speak a foreign language is generally lower than might be expected. This is particularly true of native English speakers: in 2004 a British survey showed that only one in 10 UK workers could speak a foreign language. Less than 5% could count to 20 in a second language, for example. 80% said they could work abroad anyway, because \"everyone speaks English.\" In 2001, a European Commission survey found that 65.9% of people in the UK spoke only their native",
"-29.03181828983361"
],
[
"speak English is a sign of unwillingness to learn. Some immigrants, from Mexico and other countries, live in the United States for decades without acquiring a basic command of the English language. The primary reason for this being that it is difficult to learn a second language as an adult. Another reason is that finding time to learn a new language, while struggling to financially support and spend time with family, may be impossible. Job-stealing stereotype The \"job-stealing Hispanic\" stereotype is also false. According to Pastora San Juan Cafferty and William C. McCready, \"a preliminary study of labor market competition",
"-29.022975996893365"
],
[
"both English and Chinese exams, or in the case of those who did not learn Chinese at school, due to having studied at an international school, another foreign language. United Kingdom Since 2014 it has been compulsory for primary school children to be taught at least one language. In 2004 it was no longer compulsory for secondary school pupils to have to study a foreign language at GCSE level. India Syllabus taught in schools highly depends on the state.\nMost of the states follow 3 language policy in high schools. Three languages usually include local language of the state and",
"-28.996518314874265"
],
[
"and has been so since the early days of the state. At present the language must be studied throughout secondary school, but students need not sit the examination in the final year. It is taught as a second language (L2) at second level, to native (L1) speakers and learners (L2) alike. English is offered as a first (L1) language only, even to those who speak it as a second language. The curriculum was reorganised in the 1930s by Father Timothy Corcoran SJ of UCD, who could not speak the language himself.\nIn recent years the design and implementation of compulsory Irish",
"-28.981995209062006"
],
[
"Social domain Education and schools Education is an integral social institution which has a major impact on the development and maintenance of language policies around the world. Schools, aside from the family, provide the necessary resources for language socialization of the child which shape the experiences and impact the language competence of the students. The medium of instruction languages are decided based on the goals and needs of the education and governmental systems. So, while children learn different vernacular varieties or dialects at home, schools further influence the development of their linguistic skills and their language ideologies. Specifically, language varieties",
"-28.953240196732622"
],
[
"of the English-speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce koineised forms of English in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers, although English has been given official status by only 30 of the 50 state governments of the US. English as a global language English has ceased to be an \"English language\" in the sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically English. Use of English is",
"-28.924992487183772"
],
[
"method could be used to teach from any language to any language, it is currently used almost exclusively to teach English speaking people other languages. Many different companies offer systems based on this method, but the list of languages offered is almost identical. Learning courses have been developed to teach students Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese (both Brazilian and European), Russian, Spanish (both European and South American) and Welsh.",
"-28.90211857459508"
],
[
"at varying levels of study and proficiency, though this number is difficult to accurately assess. English is also increasingly becoming the dominant language of scientific research and papers worldwide, having even outpaced national languages in Western European countries, including France, where a recent study showed that English has massively displaced French as the language of scientific research in \"hard\" as well as in applied sciences. English is the most common of the languages used on the Internet. As of 2019, according to one survey, English is used by 54.0% of the world's top 10 million websites, and according to another",
"-28.878999771899544"
],
[
"to Norwegian for two years.\n1893 State law was passed requiring all public schools to teach exclusively in English.\nIn 1925 it was made a criminal offense to give instruction in Spanish in Public schools, this law was amended in 1927 to allow Spanish instruction in Elementary schools located in counties bordering Mexico with at least one city of 5,000 population.\nNevertheless, English (specifically, American English) is the language used for legislation, regulations, executive orders, treaties, education, federal court rulings, and all other official pronouncements; Spanish is also heavily spoken in Texas due to the large number of Tejanos, Mexicans and other local",
"-28.845727633306524"
],
[
"growing country-by-country internally and for international communication. Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons. Many speakers of English in Africa have become part of an \"Afro-Saxon\" language community that unites Africans from different countries.\nAs decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies. For example, the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official",
"-28.844698177766986"
],
[
"in fields such as government, law and education. It is difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered. World English vs. World Englishes vs. Global Englishes The notions of World English and World Englishes are far from similar, although the terms are often mistakenly used interchangeably. World English refers to the English language as a lingua franca used in business, trade, diplomacy and other spheres of global activity, while World Englishes refers to the different varieties of English and English-based creoles developed in different regions of",
"-28.834248488827143"
],
[
"various countries with their parents who are educators in the international schools. This creates a unique paradigm of a nuclear family whose family-work-school-social experiences are intertwined. Language and third culture kids Most international TCKs are expected to speak English and some countries require their expatriate families to be proficient with the English language. This is largely because most international schools use the English language as the norm.\nFamilies tend to seek out schools whose principal languages they share, and ideally one which mirrors their own educational system. Many countries have American schools, French schools, British schools, German Schools and 'International",
"-28.792817833713343"
],
[
"Language power Overview Each year in the United States, many students are required to learn a language other than English in their educational careers. Often, after years of study and quite likely earning passing grades on final and college entrance exams such as the ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language) Oral Proficiency Interview, most students cannot speak at a level that will be understood or can they understand basic everyday exchanges at conversational speed in the language's native country, as one would encounter when watching television or listening to the radio.\nLanguage is taught to a level of",
"-28.778794248064514"
],
[
"schools for children, developing new words for modern phrases, teaching the language to non-Cherokee in schools and universities, fostering the language among young adults so their children can use that language at home, developing iPhone and iPad apps for language education, the development of language radio stations including Cherokee Voices, Cherokee Sounds, and promoting the writing system through public signage, products like Apple Inc., internet use through Google including Gmail, and others so the language remains relevant in the 21st century. Italian The Italian language and its various dialects have been widely spoken in the United States for more than",
"-28.774851641515852"
],
[
"a naturalized citizen of the US entails a basic English proficiency test, which may be the most prominent example of the claim of the nation not having an official language being belied by policy realities.\nAlthough falling short of official status, English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates. English as a global language Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a \"world language\", the lingua franca of the modern era, and while it is not",
"-28.764456920383964"
],
[
"they are learning in a way that was encouraged from infancy within their family and community.\nRobinson, further said that traditional Western methods of education generally disregard the importance indigenous cultures and environmental contributions, which results in a lack of relevance for students of aboriginal backgrounds. Modern schools have a tendency to teach skills stripped of context which has a detrimental impact on Indigenous students because they thrive off educational environments in which their cultures and languages are respected and infused in learning. Various aspects of Indigenous culture need to be considered when discussing Indigenous learning, such as: content (how culture",
"-28.76398478313422"
],
[
"most common languages include Spanish, French, German, Latin, Russian, and Italian.\nIn a foreign language classroom, one aspect of the curriculum is the teaching of the culture behind the language. This is input into classrooms in order to give students a deeper meaning of the language. According to Michael Byram, in order to fully be able to communicate to someone with a different background, one must have insight into their lives and communication aspects. It is also used to preserve a long standing set of traditions with indigenous people. A case of this was seen in High schools",
"-28.762924218026455"
],
[
"of the English Room, including Hong Kong, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, Canada, China and the United Kingdom. Language policy The school has been using English as the medium of instruction (EMI) in all subjects except Chinese, Chinese Literature, Chinese History, Liberal Studies and Putonghua. To help students to become biliterate in English and Chinese, and trilingual in English, Mandarin and Cantonese, and to encourage students to learn English and Mandarin their daily life, the school organizes an English Speaking Day every Western Festival and a Super Dinosaur Day per annum. Information technology in education Access to the Internet and Intranet",
"-28.75679684098577"
],
[
"primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language. This is much changed from before World War II; in 1940, only 65 Americans not of Japanese descent were able to read, write and understand the language.\nInternational interest in the Japanese language dates from the 19th century but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of Japanese popular culture (such as anime and video games) since the 1990s. As of 2015, more than 3.6 million people studied the language worldwide, primarily in East and Southeast Asia. Nearly 1 million Chinese, 745,000 Indonesians, 556,000 South",
"-28.756177946350363"
],
[
"education in English and Spanish (half the school day having subject matter taught in each language) from Kindergarten through 5th grade tends to yield little if any deficit in English language performance, while helping to maintain the Spanish language.\nIn 2011, one of Oller's scientific research articles was recognized by Autism Speaks as one of the top ten achievements in autism.",
"-28.734645469638053"
],
[
"schools as elitist because a student had to pass a test at age 11 to get in. Defenders argued that grammar schools allow pupils to obtain a good education through merit rather than through family income. No changes were made. In some areas, notably that of the London County Council, comprehensive schools had been introduced. They had no entrance test and were open to all children living in the school catchment area. However, despite tentative support for 'multilateralism' in secondaries, and a desire to raise the standard of secondary moderns to that of private institutions, from Minister for Education",
"-28.704438054963248"
]
] |